030349 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FROM Mr . an d mr s . V« n . -^^ . E . Gurl ey DATE DUE \Miu^g^^ ,;7 / ' GAYLORD PRINTED IN U,5 A. ^6 V.S ■ m ^^g < i ill ]■ Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924097889988 I 1/"^ !• . -"I r -fr" . JB^i Jj '■1! ' ■'■ '►■" ■"-, COPYRIGHT BY FERGUSON, ALLEN & FERGUSON. 1887. 4' ' '^jS" • PREFACE- ■5i^«» ->H4^=^H^ ^ZT-^ ^ VOLUME treats of the Medieval World -^ in culture, and is the third of the series entitled "The Histoey of Civilization." As ex- plained in the preceding volume, the Medieval and Modern Worlds, as far as tiie history of culture is concerned, are entirely taken up with the consid- eration of Aryan civilization. Strictly speaking there are no broad, well marked divisions of Aryan history and culture. The Aryans were the last r great people to emerge into the light of history. Their growth in political power and culture has been slow but ever onward, until, at present, their ranks include all the most powerful and progressive nations of the world. We will, in this volume, treat of that period of Aryan develop- ment which culminated in the Discovery of America, the Invention of Printing and the Protestant Reformation. In Part I., we treat of the Political Development of the Aryans during the period of (S) 4 PREFACE. time just mentioned. We have tried to present a connected account of this development in the five chapters devoted to this part of the work. Although we must let this ^art speak for itself, yet we can not refrain from speaking of the main assertion sought to be supported in these chapters. It has been very generally asserted that the Ayrans were Asiatic people; but of late years an opposite theory has sprung up, and is supported by some of the best scholars of the day. In brief, this theory teaches that Europe is, and always has been, the home of the Aryans; that in Europe, owing to the co-working of many causes, was first evolved the Aryan people. The literature on this subject, though rapidly growing, is at present mostly confined to foreign writers, and we have, unfortunately, been unable to examine it very extensively ; yet but a very brief examination is required to show that this theory possesses many elements of strength, and we have little doubt that before many years it will be one of the accepted conclusions of science. After having thus outlined the political development of the Aryans, we turn to consider their development in culture. In this part, we strive to make apparent the fact, that Aryan development has flowed on in an ever-widening and deepening stream. We aim to show that the general idea in regard to the so-called " Dark Ages" is not correct. There has been no retrograde movement in Aryan culture. The freshness and vivacity of Grecian culture may have disappeared, but just so does the charm of morning disappear before the pressure of mid-day. The concluding chapter of this part — Aryan Religion — is a continuation of Primitive Religion of Volume II. Regarding religion as ore of the principal factors of civiliza- tion, it is incumbent upon us to trace the development of Aryan religion. It will be seen in the sequel that here, as elsewhere the Aryans played a most important part in the world's history. Regarding Europe as the home of the Aryan people gives us a new insight into the nature of Aryan civilization. There is being PREFACE. 5 evolved in America to-day a new type of people, possessing distinct racial characteristics, and they will probably some day evolve a distinctive civilization. Just so we are to regard the Aryans of Europe. Probably centuries of time elapsed before this race type .was fully developed, and many other centuries passed over before they had assimilated the culture of Asia, and had fairly started forward in their own career. Prolonging our mental vision back some thousand of years before the Christian Era, we can dimly make out the same succession of events in Western Asia, which resulted in the Semitic civilization. Considering Egypt as really part of Asia, the civilization of Asia, Europe, and America will correspond, in a general way, to the Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Worlds in culture. This last division has not yet become distinct ; we still call ourselves Aryans, and our culture is not materially different from that of Europe. Some centuries hence this distinction will probably become fully appar- ent. It is only by thus taking broad, general views that we begin to form adequate ideas as to the march of events in the world's history. Compared with these great movements — the slow rise of races of men to a commanding position in the culture history of the world, their culmination and decline — how utterly insignificant is the life of the individual ! In reference to the preparation of this volume, the same general plan was pursued as in the preceding one. Mr. Allen was assisted by the two gentlemen already named, viz. : Willis Boughton, B. A., University of Michigan, and Emil Reich, D. C. L., University of Vienna. While we have to thank them for many valuable sugges- tions as to the work in general, we wish to make a special acknowl- edgment to Mr. Boughton for his services in Part I, and a similar acknowledgment is due Dr. Reich in reference to Chapters VI, VII and VIII. The author and his assistants have aimed in all cases to present the latest and best sustained views of scholars in the various fields they have touched upon. Where we have differed from the 6 PBEFAOE. conclusions generally given, we have only done so after a full con- sideration of all the facts of the cases ; and in all such instances, we have aimed to give in foot notes the authorities and reasoning followed. We take occasion once more to return our sincere thanks to Mr. A. W. Whelpley, Librarian of the Cincinnati Public Library, and his corps of assistants. The same kind assistance mentioned in the preceding volume was continued in this. It is not too much to say that much of the value of this work is owing to the voluminous material to be found in this library. We trust, that all who read this volume will find much to commend, little to disprove, and that such of our readers as never gave much thought to the origin and development of the Aryan people will be tempted to pursue the subject further. We assure them that they will never regret such a course. Cincinnati, June 1, 1888. 1 TABLE OR I* CONTKNTS^ i 'M'i[i7i 1 1 n'M'i^iM'M'M'TiTi'i'm' PART I. Chapter i."" THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. Introduction — Aryan Linguistic Family — Geographical Loca- tion of the Aryans — The Evidence of Language — Aryan Migration — Celtic — Cimmerian — Dorian — ^-Thracian — The Phrygians — The Slavonians — Aryan Influence in Eastern Asia — Ainos — Coreans — Polynesians — Hindoos — Iranians — Asiatic — Asiatic Origin of the Aryans — Difficulties of this Theory — European Origin — The Evi- dence of Ethnology — Of Language — Advantage of the European Theory — Conclusion. Page 19 Chapter ii. ' THE ASIATIC ARYANS. Introduction — Oriental Peculiarities — Geographical Distribu- tion — The Afghans — The Galchas — The Iranians — Zoroaster — Maz- deism — The Rise of the Persians — Cyrus— Cambyses — Darius — Re- organization of the Empire — Mt. Behistun — Xerxes — Traits of the Persians — Disposal of the Dead — Art Among the Persians — Descrip- tion of Ruins — Conquest of Alexander — The Parthian Empire- — The Neo-Persian Empire — Religious Reform — The Indians — Description of the Country — Early History of the Country — Asoca — The Vedic Literature — The Caste System in India— Science in Ancient India — Philosophy in Ancient India — Buddhism — Ruins in India — Con- clusion 88 Chapter hi." THE HELLENIC ARYANS. Pelasgians — The Hellenes — Aryans of Asia Minor — The Phryg- ians — Explorations at Hissarlik — Ancient Troy — Relics from His- sarlik — Cyclopean Walls — Phoenician Influence — Early German Influence — Ancient Hellas — The Heroic Age — The Argonautic Ex- pedition — The Poems of Homer — Beginning of History in Greece — Political Life in Ancient Greece-^Religion in Ancient Greece — The (7) 8 CONTENTS. Amphictyonic League — Early Settlements — The Dorian Migration — The Rise of the Spartans — The Period of Argolic Supremacy — Spartan Supremacy — Development of Athens — Stories of Solon — Important Cities of Ancient Greece — Greek Colonies — ^^Other Aryan People — The Cimmerians — The Persian Invasion — Age of Pericles — Triumph of Sparta Over Athens — Rise of Thebes — Rise of Philip of Macedon — Alexander the Great — Conclusion. . Page 185 Chapter iv. ' THE ROMAN ARYANS. First Glimpses of Italy — Geographical Description — Phoeni- cians in Italy — First Aryans in Italy — Greek Colonies in Italy — Celtic Influence in Italy — The Latin Tribes — The Confederacy of Alba Longa — Physical Surroundings of Ancient Rome — The Etrus- cans — Legends of Ancient Rome — Gallic Invasion of Rome — Archi- tecture of Ancient Rome— Rise of Roman Power — War with Carth- age — Extension of Roman Territory — Capture of Carthage — Internal Troubles at Rome — Marius and Sulla — War with Mithridates — Gladiatorial Contests — Spartacus — First Triumvirate — Rise of Caesar to Power — Second Triumvirate — Antony and Cleopatra — The For- mation of the Empire — The Beginning of the Decline — The Divis- ion of the Empire — Review of the Growth of Rome in Territory — Conclusion 259 Chapter v. * THE RISE OF MODERN NATIONS. Introduction— The First Appearance of the Huns— The Migra- tion of the Goths— Invasion of the Western Empire by the Teutons —Fall of Gaul— Atilla— Gothic Conquest of the Western Empire- Rise of the Franks— The Saracens— Charles Martel— Charlemagne— The Final Separation of the Two Empires— The Basilian Dynasty in the East— Fall of the Eastern Empire — The Triple Division of Charlemagne's Empire— Italy under the Karlings— Change of the Western Empire to the German Empire— Rise of the Italian Cities —Outline Sketch of Germany— The Hohenstaufen Dynasty— Fred- eric Barbarossa— Rise of Austria— Outline Sketch of France— The Norsemen— Rise of Normandy— The Capets— Appearance of Modern France— Sketch of Spanish History— Castile and Aragon— Charles v.— The Small States of Switzerland, Belgium, and Holland Ex- plained—Sketch of Russian History— The Muscovites— Peter the areat— Hungary, Litnuania, and Poland— Sweden and Norway— CONTENTS. . 9 Denmark — Outline of English History — Aelfred— The Norman Con- quest — The Plantagenets — The Magna Charta —Henry VIII. — Gen- eral Conclusions Page 330 PART II. Chapter vi. ' GREEK CIVILIZATION. Introduction — Importance of Grecian Culture — -Factors of Grecian Culture— Influence of Tribal Society — City Life — Family Life in Ancient Greece — In Classical Greece — Condition of Women at Athens — In Sparta — Explanations of the Same — Daily Life of an Athenian — The Value of Athenian Citizenship — Consequences of the Condition of Women in Athens — Education in Athens — Thea- ters of Athens — Greek Games — Greek Public Meals-=-Music and Dancing — Public Official Life — The Ecclesia — The Court of Areopa- gus — The Senate — Greek Philosophy — Thales — The Pythagoreans— Xenophanes — Parmenides — Heraclitus — Empedocles- — ^ Democritus — The Skeptics — Sophists — Socrates — Plato — Aristotle — The Epicu- reans — The Stoics — Grecian Science — Astronomy — Mathematics — Greek Art — Temple Architecture — Painting — Phidias. . 433 Chapter vii. ' ROMAN CIVILIZATION. Influence of the City of Rome — First History of Rome — Description of Rome — The Houses — The Fora — Slavery in Ancient Rome — Different Classes of Slaves — Treatment of Slaves — Manumis- sion of Slaves — The House Sons-^House Daughters — Marriage in Ancient Rome — The Status of Married Women — Ceremonies of Marriage — Education in Rome — Compared with Greek Education- Public Life in Rome — Public Games— Races — Gladiatorial Games — The Coliseum — The Gladiators — Influence of these Games on the People— The " Ludi Magni "—Public Baths— Meals and Foods of the Romans — Use of Wine in Rome— The Dress of Romans — The Toga — The Tunica — Special Articles of Dress -Female Dress — Roman Literature — -Cicero — Tacitus — Finances in Rome— Taxes — Com- merce — The Government in Ancient Rome — Normal Development of Tribal Government — Roman Civil Law — The Vast Influence on Our Civilization — Conclusion. 620 10 , FREFAOE. GhAPTER VIII.' CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Introduction — Eight Ideas as to the Middle Ages — Feudalism — Its Origin — Feudal Tenure — Ceremonies Attending the Transfer- ence of a Fief — Duties of the Vassal — Military Service — Feudal Incidents — Reliefs — Fines — Forfeitures — Aids — Feudal Nobility — Origin of Classes — Freemen — Villeins — Medieval Slavery — Feudal- ism a Development of Tribal Society — Feudal Jurisdiction — Wager of Battle — Origin of this Custom — Rise of Free Cities — Chivalry — Its Origin — Influence of the Church in this Matter — The Page and His Duties — Squires and their Duties — Modes of Conferring Knighthood — The Ancient Ceremony — The Shortened Ceremony of Later Times — Classes of Knights — The Tournament — Knight Errantry — Estima- tion of Feudalism — Picture of the Middle Ages — The Crusades and their Influence — Powers of the Church — Estimation of Church In- fluence — Church Influence in the Matter of Advancing Knowledge — Trade in the Middle Ages — Social Life, etc. — Conclusion. Page 606 Chapter ix. ' ARYAN RELIGION. Introduction— Mythology — Origin of Myths — Eclipse Myths — Nature Myths— The Myth of the Dawn— Aryan Mythology— The Sky God— Aryans of Asia— The Vedic Age— Brahmanism— Rise of Philosophy— The Sankhya System— TheYoga Branch— TheVedanta School — The Doctrine of Illusion — Iswara — Mazdeism, Origin of— Mazdean Literature— Dualism— Ahura Mazda— The Ameshospands —Development of Mazdeism— Zrvan Akarana- Peculiarity of Greek Development— The Ionic School of Philosophy— Pythagoras— Socra- tes— Plato— The "World of Ideas"— Comparison with Hindoo Thought— World-Soul— Contact between Aryan Thought and Juda- ism—Angels—Satan—Primitive Feast— Greek Mysteries— The Eleu- sinian Myth— Nationality of Buddha— Initiation into Brahmanism —Organization of his Order— The Laymen— Sayings of Buddha- Initiation into the Order— Political Development of Buddhism- Esoteric Buddhism— The "Tathagatha," The " Great Vehicle " Move- ment— Baddhaghosa— The Legendary Buddha— Spread of Buddhism — General Conclusions 707 e LIST OF ^^o^^^o^^^^^^^^o^^^?^^^^^Ti^^ ILLUSTRATIONS. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQOOOOOOOQ PAGE. 1. Antony's Oration over Csesar.. . Frontispiece. 2. Ornamental Title Page 3. Map of Aryan Europe 27 4. Lithuanian Forest 29 5. Celtic Warriors 31 6. Group of Caucasians 39 7: Greek Brigands 40 8. The Ainos 46 9. Coreans 48 10. Dispersion of the Aryans (map). 50 11. Polynesian Chief 51 12. Cambodian 52 13. Aryan Encampment on the Shores of the Caspian 54 14. Slavonian Man 62 15. Slavonian Woman 65 16. Celtiberian 69 17. Germans Crossing the Ehine . . 73 18. Tomb of Scythian Kings 78 19. Steppes of Eussia 83 20. The Tad] Mahal 90 21. Scene on the Upper Oxus 92 22. Ethnic Map of Asia 94 23. A Mountain Pass in Affghan- istan 97 24. Armenian Women — Haik Ary- ans 99 25. Kurdis Hunter — West Iranic Aryan 102 26. Cyrus the Great 106 27. So-called Tombof Cyrus 109 28. Darius Hystaspes Ill 29. Buins of Palace of Dariusat Susa. 113 PAGE. 30. Tomb of Darius at Naksh-i- Eustam 115 31. Various Forms of Fire Altars.. 116 32. Darius Codomanus 118 33. Mount Behistun 119 34. Stairway at Persepolis — Lion Devouring a Bull 120 35. Stairway at Persepolis — Per- sian Guardsman 121 36. Eepresentation of Ahura Mazda. 123 87. The Angel Serosh 124 38. Masonry at Persepolis 126 39. General View of Euins of Per- sepolis 127 40. Palace of Darius CEestored).. . 128 41. Euins of Palace of Xerxes 129 42. Gateway to " Hall of One Hun- dred Columns" 130 43. Column from "Hall of One Hundred Columns" 131 44. Artaxerxes 133 45. Sapor 1 136 46. Architectural Columns, Sassa- nian Period , 137 47. Palace of Chosroes 1 138 48. Flowered Panel from Takht-i- Bostan 140 49. Orn amentation of Mashita Pal- ace 141 50. Jain Temple 143 51. Source of the Ganges 146 52. Scene at Benares 150 53. Eaja and his Court 152 54. An Indian Princess 155 55. Banyan, or Sacred Fig Tree. . . 161 (11) 12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 56, 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. PAGE. Palace of Kailas 175 Great Sanchi Gate 176 Buddhist Priests from Ceylon. 178 Buddhist Temple, Himalaya Mountains 180 Monolith, Island of Java. . . . 182 Mapof Greece and her Colonies. 184 Homer 192 Polished Axes from Hissarlik. 195 Cylinder of Felspar 199 Hissarlik 200 Whorls from Troy 201 Owl-Headed Goddess 202 Acropolis at Athens 207 Lion's Gate at Mycenae 209 Argonautic Expedition 213 Eeturn from Troy 215 Trojan War Heroes 217 The Priestess of Apollo at Delphi 222 The Five Epors 228 Crossiis on the Funeral Pyre. . 230 Hoplites 231 Solon Dictating his Laws 234 Solon and Croesus 236 Ancient Athens 237 The Parthenon at Athens 239 Athens under Pericles 244 Miltiades at Marathon 245 Pericles 247 Athenian Fleet before Syracuse 249 Bli8t of Alexander 250 Alexander and Aristotle 253 Battle of Issus 255 Map of the Roman Empire . . 258 Capitoline Wolf 268 Map of Rome 270 Janus 272 Etruscan Graves 273 Brutus Condemning his Son to Death 275 Cornelia and her Sons 276 The Gauls in Rome 278 German Women Defending their Wagon Castles Against the Romans 281 Entrance to the Capitol 284 Appian Way 286 Facade of Jupiter Stator's Temple 287 Hannibal Swearing Vengeance on Rome 290 Hannibal 291 Proclaiming Liberty to the Greeks 292 Return of Regulus 294 Celtic Warriors Devoting themselves to W ar against the Romans 297 PAGE. 105. In the Arena. ..... w ....... . 299 106. Death of Spartacus 301 107. Conquest of Gaul 302 108. Mohammed II. Crossing the Dardanelles 303 109. Caesar Crossing the Rubicon. . 306 110. Tomb of Csesar 308 111. Suicide of Brutus 309 112. Court of Augustus 311 113. Street in Pompeii 312 114. Trajan's Arch 315 115. Mausoleum of Hadrian 317 116. Imperial Rome ; 319 117. Romans Warring with the Germans 321 118. Landing of Csesar in Britain.. 325 119. Bas-relief of Buddhist Temple, Island of Java 329 120. Arrival of the Huns in Eu- rope 332 121. Incoming of the Barbarians... 335 122. Stilicho and the Goths 337 123. Atilla at the Battle of Cha- lons 340 124. Odoacer Compels Romulus to Abdicate 341 125. Map of Europe 343 126. The Alcazar in Spain 349 127. Defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel 352 128. St. Sophia at Constantinople. . 355 129. Clovis and the Vase of Sois- - sons 359 130. Fall of Constantinople 362 131. The Huns in Germany 363 132. Leaning Tower at Pisa 365 133. The Rialto at Venice 367 134. The Norsemen Menacing Italy 368 135. Mongols Crossing the Volga.. . 369 136. Barbarossa Asking Aid of Henry 373 137. Maurauding Norsemen 377 138. The Vikings 382 139. Hall in the Alhambra 389 140. Charles V 391 141. On the Road to the Field of Gold 395 142. Duke Alva at Brussels 397 143. Entry of Ivan into Kazan ... 399 144. Peter the Great 401 145. Death of Louis IL of Hun- gary 4Q3 146. John Sobieski 404 147. Gustavus 405 148. Aelfred 406 149. Aelfred's Mother teaching him Saxon Songs 407 150. Aelfred the Great in his Study. 409 LIST OF ILLUSTRATION. IS PAGE. 151. Cnute the Great and his Cour- tiers 411 152. Trial of Queen Catherine 414 153. William the Conqueror 415 154. Burial of William the Con- queror 416 155. Deatli of Becket 418 156. John 420 157. John Swearing Vengeance against his Barons 421 158. Erasmus 425 159. Olympic Games 432 160. Grove of Altis 437 161. Siege Machines 439 162. Types of Greek Women 442 163. Home Life of Greek Women . 444 164. Discus Thrower 446 165. Solon 447 166. Graves of Cyrene 449 167. Wedding March 451 168. Greek Festival 453 169. Music and Dance 456 170. Entrance to the Garden of a Rich Greek 459 171. Entrance to a Greek Theater. 462 172. Eural Festivities among the Greeks 463 173. Delphi and Parnassus 464 174. Herodotus Beading History.. 466 175. Helmets, Head Coverings, and Weapons 468 176. Arrangement for a Meal 470 177. Living Eoom in a, Greek House 472 178. Dwelling of a Eich Greek ... 474 179. Ornamental Articles used in Greek Life 476 180. Scythic Festival Scene 480 181. Gathering of the Areopagus.. 482 182. Funeral Customs among the Greeks 484 183. Greek Art -Vases and Ewers.. 486 184. Hesiud 488 185. Euripides * . 490 186. Aeschylus 492 187. Hipparchus at Alexandria. . . 496 188. Sophocles 499 189. Aristophanes 600 190. Death of Socrates 501 191. Aristotle 502 192. Greek Art-Phidias in his Studio 504 193. Hippocrates 505 194. Fifty-oared Greek Boat 506 195. Greek Art — Hector taking Leave of Andromache. . . . 507 196. Doric Column 508 197. Ionic Column 510 198. Temple of Diana at Ephesus. . 511 PAGE. 199. Pallas Athene, after Phidias.. 513 200. Olympian Zeus, after Phidias. 514 201. Greek Art— Fight of Achilles. 516 202. Greek Art— Capture of Helen. 518 203. Bacchus 519 204. Destruction of Pompeii (Double) 520,521 205. Entrance to a Roman House. . 528 206. The Forum 530 207. Household Chapi 1 532 208. Eoman Slave Market 534 209. A Eoman Villa 537 210. The Atrium 540 211. A Eoman Citizen 543 212. Eoman Matron 546 213. Wall Ornament at Pompeii . . 549 214. Furniture, etc., in the Eoom of a Eich Eoman 551 215. Copying Manuscripts in Eome. 553 216. Circus Maximus 555 217. Chariot Eace 558 218. A Eoman Triumph 561 219. Colosseum at Eome 563 220. Dying Gladiator 565 221. The Amphitlieater in Pom- peii 566 222. Fighting Gladiators 569 223. Eoman Lictors 572 224. Eoman Soldiers 574 225. Eoman Dining Hall 576 226. Taking the Toga Virilis 577 227. Household Utensils 580 228. Eoman Lady at her Toilet. . . 582 229. Eoman Books and Eolls 583 230. Sallust 585 231. Ancient Eoman Ship 586 232. Funeral Ceremonies 587 233. Specimens of Eoman Art 590 234. Place of Eating the Funeral Meal 591 235. Offerings to Mars 592 236. Naval Battle 596 237. Audience with a Eoman Em- peror 597 238.- A Bakery in Eome 600 239. Eoman Judgment Hall 602 240. Henrv VIII. Condemning Anne Boleyn ( Double) . 608, 609 241. Feudal Castle in Eouen 614 242. Storming a Fortified Town in the Middle Ages 619 243. Suit of Armor 623 244. Chairs of the Middle Ages. . . 625 245. Medieval Tournament 629 246. Bedstead of the Middle Ages. 632 247. King Going to a Tournament. 635 248. English Medieval Costumes. . 638 249. Punishing Offenders 642 250. Knight Templar 647 14 List OF ILLUSTBATIOM. PAGE. 251. ATournament 649 252. Superstitions of the Dark Ages (Double) 652, 653 253. Knighthood 656 254. Procession in the Fifteenth Century 658 255. Entrance to the Tournament. 661 256. An Apothecary's Shop in Old- en Times 662 257. School in Olden Times 664 258. Execution in Middle Ages. . . 666 259. Hall in House of a Lord 669 260. The First Proof 671 261. The First Printing Press 675 262. The Alchemist 677 263. May Festival in Middle Ages. 679 264. House of a Eich Burgher of the Fifteenth Century .... 681 265. Treatment of Heretics in the Middle Ages 684 266. Book-making in the Middle Ages 686 267. Street Shows in the Middle Ages 688 268. Attack on a Carav;in 690 269. Street Scenes in the Middle Ages 693 270._ Carpenter Shop in Olden Time. 694 271. Feudal Castle at Kouen 697 272. Eleusinian Feast 706 273. Death of Socrates 710 274. Assembly of the Gods on Mt. Olympus 714 PAGE. 275. Diana 719 276. Apollo 720 277. Primitive Worship among the '^ Germans 724 278. Mars 729 279. German Funeral Sacrifice 784 280. Juno 737 281. Minerva 741 282. Temple at Benares 743 283. Druid Sacrifice 746 284. Temple of the Pan-Hellenic Zeus at Aegina 754 285. Pythagoras 758 286. Socrates 760 287. Xenophon 761 288. Diogenes 761 289. Plato 763 290. Epicurus 765 291. Zeno 766 292. Festival of the Pan-Hellenic Zeus at Aegina 769 293. Eape of Persephone 772 294. Temple of Jagannath 773 295. Pluto and Persephone 775 296. Demeter 777 297. Statue of Buddha 780 298. Buddhist Temple— China 785 299. Angcor-Wat— Siam 788 300. Bas-Eelief, Angcor-Wat 790 301. Buddhist Temple— Island of Java 796 -«- ^ ^ li FULL-PA&E ILLUSTRATIONS, i PAGE. 1. Antony's Oration oveb Cjesab, Frontispiece. 2. Oenamental Title Page. 3. Dispersion. OF the Aryans (Map), .... 50 4 The Tadj Mahal, 89 6. Jain Temple, 143 6. Map of Greece and Her Colonies, .... 184 7. The Acropolis at Athens, . . . ' . . . 207 8. Crcesus on the Funeral Pyre, 230 9. Map of the Roman Empire, 258 10. German Women Defending their Wagon Castles, . 281 11. Mohammed II. Crossing the DARDAiiELLEs, . . 303 12. Map of Europe, Twelfth Century, .... 343 13. Clovis and the Vase of Soissons, .... 359 14. Marauding Norsemen, 377 15. On the Road to the Field of Gold, .... 395 16. Trial of Queen Catherine, 414 17. Olympic Games, 432 18. Greek Festival, 453 ri5) 16 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE. 19. ScYTHic Festival Scene, 480 20. HippARCHUs AT Alexandria, 496 21. Destruction op Pompeii (Double Page), . . 512, 513 22. Roman Triumph, 561 23. Henry VIII. Condemning Anne Boleyn (Double Page), 608,609 24. Medieval Tournament, 629 25. Superstition op the Dark Ages (Double Page), 652, 653 26. The Alchemist, 677 27. Eleusinian Feast, 706 28. German Funeral Sacrifice, 734 29. Temple of Jagannath, 7''£ -a*'* _ am a ^~^~^ »tf> Part I. History of th.e Political Development of ttie Aryan People. I. Primitive Aryans. II. Asiatic Aryans. III. Hellenic Aryans. IV. Roman Aryans. V. -Rise of Modern Nations. 17 The hand upon thy dial, Time, now marks The hour of change. The Orient, effete With opulence, is crumbling fast to dust. Lo from its ruins, Phenix like, appears A new born race. A heritage is theirfe. O'er-reaching all the earth. The East gives up Its hoarded wealth. The West invites them come And occupy its boundless fields. The Earth Unbosoms mines of jewels rare, while at The touch of their deft hands fair beauteous forms, Almost divine, spring from the senseless rock. With keen and searching minds, they penetrate The realms of endless thought. In search of truth. They enter quiet Nature's holy walks And study God's most subtle laws. Behold When Iran comes, a Universe bursts forth In welcome strains, and rich profusion crowns The ardent zeal of that aspiring race. Willis Boughton. 1. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. Inteoduction— Aryan Linguistic Family — Geograpliical Location of the Aryans— The Evidence of Language— Aryan Migrations— Celtic- Cimmerian — Dorian — Thracian — The Phrygians — The Slavonians- Aryan Influence in Eastern Asia — Ainos — Coreans— Polynesians — Hindoos — Iranians — Asiatic — Asiatic Origin of the Aryans— DiiH- culties of this Theory— European Origin— The Evi- dence of Ethnology— Of Language— Advantage of the European Theory— Conclusion. MANY ways, Nature teaches us that time is long, and that she can not be hurried to her final results. In the fullness of time, the results of her meth- ods of work are revealed, and the time taken to produce a given result is, in a sense, commensurate with its impor- tance. This is to be seen when we consider some of the theories of modern science. They tell us of countless ages 19 20 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. during which our earth swung in space, a glowing orb of light. They speak of eras, exceeding in time the ability of the human mind to conceive, during which our planet was fitting as an abode for sentient beings. They have to say of the long infancy of the human race, of its slow advance in culture, of its triumph over many obstacles, and of the final appearance of that better day, when ideas of truth and justice and such an advanced stage of justice and enlightenment had been reached that we speak of man as civilized. But all this took many millenniums of years to accomplish. Since then, many centuries have been tolled oflf in rapidly passing years. From a distance, taking a mental survey of the entire field, making reasonable allowance for that which is yet obscured by darkness, we can detect certain great planes of culture with clear traces of ad- vance from one to the other. Closer inspection shows us that, explain it how we will, the people in these successive stages of advance are also separated by racial difi"erences. We have the culture of the Turanian races, followed in time by the strangely tropical growth of the Valley of the Nile, which was in turn succeeded by the Semitic culture of Western Asia. It further appears that different portions of the earth's surface have been at different times the seats of the most advanced culture. In this respect, both Asia and Africa hold an important position in the culture history of the world. There was the early home of Civilization, there first the light of history broke through the clouds of pre- historic times. The time was now at hand when the seat of learning and culture was to depart forever from the countries of its birth, to reappear with added lustre in a country beyond the blue billows of the Mediterranean, the THE PBIMITIVE ARYANS. 21 narrow strait of the Bosporus, the tossing waves of the Euxine. That country was Europe. There, for some thousands of years, a sturdy people had been passing through the, various stages of Barbarism. That long period was now past. The hills and vales of classic Greece had now caught and focussed the light of Oriental culture. And sunny Italy, too, had seen the daylight in the East, and was laying the foundation of its world-wide culture. These countries, however, formed but the most advanced outpost of the Aryan people, The grassy steppes of Russia, the vast forests of Germany the fiord valleys of Norway, were likewise the homes of numerous kindred tribes, though some centuries were to elapse before they were to come to their full inheritance. Let us now take up this country ; study its people in their collective sense; and learn of their condition in that prim- itive long-ago, before they commenced to move out of their common home ; trace some of these migrations to distant portions of Asia; and, in short, study the development and scope of the Aryan, or, as we might call it, European Civilization. We have to inquire first, who were the Aryans, where were they when history dawns upon them, and where did they come from ? It has long been a matter of common understanding that the various languages of Europe are all more or less connected. There are many points of resemblance in the grammar, and even many of the words are the same. Interest in this matter was aroused to a still greater pitch when India passed into the hands of the English. The English ofiicials, scattered in various capacities throughout the country, quickly became aware of the fact, that, not only was this language spoken in India to-day in some respects an European language ; but they make the further 22 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. discovery, that, in the hands of the priestly caste, there were many volumes written in a tongue that but few could understand, though the books themselves were the sacred books of the Hindoos. When a few scholars ventured to study this language, they found to their surprise that it, in many respects, re- sembled the modern languages of Europe. That language was the Sanskrit, and scholars at once set about its study. And, from that study, have come many theories concerning the Hindoos and the Europeans, and their connection with this ancient language. In short, a new science was given to the world, the science of Philology, or the comparative study of language. As a result of that study, we put into one class by themselves, as forming a closely related linguistic group, all the people of Europe, with but few exceptions,^ and some of the people of Asia — such as the Persians, Afghans, and Hindoos and some of the but half- civilized tribes of the Hindoo Koosh mountains. We can say of the language of all these people, that their gram- mars are substantially the same, and that they possess great stores of common words. These words occur with a slightly different dress according to the general pecul- iarities of the individual language, That is to say, the common word appears in a slightly different dress accord- ing as it is used by English speaking people or Grermans or Russians or Indian Brahmins. But, in all these cases, the real part of the word, the root — the nucleus can be quite easily trq,ced from language to language. In another place, we have made the Aryans a princi- pal division of the White Race.** All understand that this classification is one of convenience only. Of course as the various bands separated from their common home 1 See This Series, Vol. II. p. 33, note 2. a Ibid. p. 83, THE PBIMITIVE ABYANS. 23 they must have become intermixed with other people. Keane asserts : " The Aryan stock itself, whatever its original constitution, has everywhere become so intermixed with no n- Aryan people already in possession of the land that the very expression, 'Aryan,' has almost lost its ethnical value.^" This collected group of people has not always been called Aryans. Some scholars have called theni " Inclo-Grermans." Others have used the name "Indo- Europeans." The term, Aryan, is a comparatively late name for the great family of nations. It is derived from the Sanskrit word, arya, which means, literally, nolDle.* It is also ■ the name of a small country near where the Asiatic Aryans (The Indians and Iranians) first made their home upon reaching Central Asia. Darius, the first great Persian king, has rendered the name immortal by announcing to the world in his funeral inscription at Naksh-i-Rustan : " I am Darius, the great king, the king of kings Aryan of Aryan ofispring."^ We shall adopt it throughout, for it is the most convenient term, if not the most appropriate. In wondering at the marvelous works of the past, and the more marvelous legends that cluster around every- thing that is ancient — myths that' have been palmed off upon the world as historical facts — ^we are apt to overlook the fact that we are living in the midst of a far more en- lightened world than the ancients ever dreamed of. We in- credulously wonder at the ancient splendor of Assyria and Babylonia; we marvel at the architectural remains of 1 In Bamsey's "Europe," p. 55. Compare with our remarks, Vol. II,p. S3 etseq. 2 Muller: " Science of Language," Vol. I. p. 237. 3 Dr. Oppert in "Records of the Past," Vol. IX. p. 75. 24 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Egypt. We forget, that the Aryans began where all the rest left off, and that Aryan Civilization ifS far more wor- thy of our admiration. The Aryans have never yet been given full credit for the work which they have accomp- lished. Let us turn for a time from a slavish worship of antiquity, let us consider, that, if we wish to study art we visit Grreece and Rome; if we wish to view the philos- ophy of the past, we must study Aryan classics ; or, if we wish to gain a knowledge of any of the important or vital questions of the present, we turn to the Aryan scholars of to-day. Even in religion, the Aryans have furnished the world with the three most admirable systems of religion that have ever stirred the hearts of men. These are Zo- roasterism. Buddhism and Christianity. As for the last, we shall see that it is and always has been pre-eminently an Aryan religion. Though of Semitic origin, it was dis- carded by the Hebrews. In short, all we can say of an- cient culture is that it was the foundation on which Aryans built the massive superstructure of our present Civiliza- tion. The Aryans to-day include the progressive race of the world. The science and religion of the world to-day are Aryan. Let us then endeavor to come to a full under- standing of the Aryan people and their culture. The various Aryan people have not always been known by the particular names which they now bear. In ancient times, one important branch was the Celts. Though there is now no separate nationality known by that name, it was once applied to a great people who roamed -over a large part of Western Europe. There were two groups of Celts, Gallic (spelled also Gaedhelic) and Cimric. The Irish are the descendants of the former, and the Welsh of the latter.^ Historians have so often applied the name Gauls to the I Keane, Op. cit. p. 559. THE PRIMITIVE ABYANS. 25 Celts that the names may be interchanged freely, remem- bering that Gauls are always Celts but that the reverse need not be the case. Among the first Grerman tribes to come into contact with civilized people, were the Teutons. Teutonic is a word that has ever since been preserved and may be applied to all German people. The name " Ger- mans " had just come into use in the time of Tacitus, as he tells us in his Germania,^ and it has ever since clung to the Teutons who have lived beyond the Rhine. From the third to the fifth century A. D., when the Western Roman Empire was about to fall to pieces, a number of entirely new German tribes came into prominent notice. These were the Saxons, Goths, Franks, Vandals, Burgundians, Suevi, Lombards, Angles, and others less prominent.* The Slavonic Aryans, represented by the modern Russians, are a later people and form a distinct branch of the Aryan family. Along the shores of the Baltic, there exists to-day a peculiar people. They are called Lithu- anians or Letts. Though not a numerous people, they have a language that is nearer the typical Aryan than any other existing form of speech. We know almost nothing about them, historically, and so can only guess alike at the date when they came thither and of the road by which they canle. The most illustrious ofthe early Aryans were, of course, the Greeks and Latins. Thus far, we have mentioned those Aryans who dwelt in Europe. Eu- rope has ever been pre-eminently the Aryan continent, but the Persians and the Indians may be mentioned as the most striking examples of Asiatic Aryans. A con- venient grouping ofthe Aryans would be the Greco-Latins, the. Celts, the Teutons, and the Slaves. 1 Chap. II. 2 Freeman: "Historical Geography," p. 85, 87 and 97. 26 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Now it must not, for an instant, be supposed that the various branches of the Aryan family have grown and de- veloped side by side, each keeping pace with all the rest, and, finally, all together growing into our present Civili- zation. Such an idea would be far from the true one. Each one of the great nations, that have arisen from the primi- tive Aryan stock, has had its own period of growth and its own peculiar form of development. The so-called young- est, or Slave, family is still in its infancy and no one can prophesy what its future may be. The very first of what we may call Aryan civilization that appears to us in his- tory was that of the Trojans, who were nearly related to the Grreeks and Grermans as we shall see later. ^ It was some six centuries after Troy had met her fate be- fore the Persians arose to a commanding position among the nations of the world. Grreece and Rome and the Neo-Persian civilization followed in quick succession, only to be superseded by the Romance and Grermanic (in- cluding English) civilizations of our own time, upon which the sun in its daily course never sets. The light of Aryan civilization first dawned on the East, and there it first attained its meridian height. From that time until this, it has gone steadily forward toward the West, jour- neying backward for one brief period only, when the Per- sians arose to a commanding place among the nations of the world in the time of Darius the Grreat. It crossed the Atlantic, illumined the New World, and the waves of the Pacific, that break on the shores of Asia, will soon, let us hope, glow refulgent with its light. Before endeavoring to locate the historical homes of 1 The reader will find this fully treated in Schliemann's " Illios " and "Troja." We will speak of it in detail when we cWe to speak of the Greeks. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 27 tlie sev.eral families of the Aryan race, we must familiarize ourselves with the geography of Europe, for we shall find that the stage of Aryan life and civilization has been prin- cipally upon European soil. From the accompanying map, we will see that Southern Europe is a series of peninsulas, projecting southward into the Mediterranean. Three of these peninsulas are more prominent than the rest. They are G-reece, Italy, and Spain. The first was known to the Map of Aryan Europe. ancients as Hellas, the second as Italia, and the third as Hispania, or sometimes Iberia. The Black Sea was known as the Euxine. Between Hellas and the coast of Asia Minor, was the Aegaean Sea. The Hadriatic (or Adriatic) was the same as at present, while the western coast of Italy bore the name of Tyrrhenian sea from the Greek name for the Etruscans. I^orth of Hellas were Macedonia and Epiros, Thrace 28 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. and Illyria, ranging in pairs. The latter pair was sepa- rated from the northern land by the Balkan mountains. The Alps formed, then as now, the northern semi-circular boundary of the head of the Italian penisula. North of these two mountain ranges was the home land of the numerous Grerman tribes, and north of Hispania was the country which Caesar called Graul. Roman Britain corres- ponded pretty well to modern England. Wherever we have occasion to mention the great rivers of Europe, such as the Rhine, Rhone, Danube, Elbe, Vistula, Volga, Don, Dneiper, and Ural, we will use .the modern names for them. In a general sense, we may describe- the location of the principal Aryan groups at the dawn of history as fol- lows : The Mediterranean basin, including its great lake, the Black Sea, was the theater of action for the Greco- Latins. The Rhine and Vistula rivers naturally divide Central Europe into three great regions, roughly corres- ponding to the other three great divisions of the Aryans. The Rhine, in ancient times, formed the dividing line be- tween the Celt and the Teuton, while the Vistula, in more modern times, separated the Teuton from his Slavic kins- man. In very ancient times, however, it is supposed that the Grermans were confined to the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe, but they afterwards crowded farther east. Of course there must have been a time once, when there were no well marked divisions among the Aryans. We have also seen that there was once a time when Eu- rope was in the firm posession of Turanian people. If, then, we were permitted to glance down the long vistas of time, we finally come to a period when the Aryans, as such can first be distinguished. That time was long before historic TME PMIMlTlVJE! ARYAJ^S. 29 eras. The glaciers had come and gone ; the Neolithic Age, had come with its unnumbered hosts of Turanian people, who, after populating these fair lands for unknown ages, were now passing away before the superior culture of the advancing Aryans, -The Bronze Age was fast approaching Lithuanian Forest. its culmination. The physical features of the country were much the same as now, but nature was permitted to hold wild and universal dominion over almost the entire land. 30 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Man had not yet learned to hew down the forest trees and to drain the marsh tracts. The steppes of Russia were the pasture lands for innumerable flocks and herds. The forests of the north, and the marshes of the lake regions were the homes of the buffalo, the bear, and the boar, and were still inhabited by fierce Turanian tribes. We know but little about the Aryan population there until long after historic times. As time passed and migrations went forward, the primitive Aryans split up into the great divisions we have roughly outlined. In the forest or marshy region, just described, were located the Slaves or Sarmatian people. Ancient G-ermania, with its great Hercynian forest and Teutoberger wald, so fatal to Varus and his legions, was the home of all Teutonic nations. It was a country gen- erally bristling with forests, or reeking with swamps.-' There were river valleys, however, that yielded rich har- vests of grain, and every tribe had its flocks and herds. The men were hunters and warriors. Their homes were the forests where they concealed their straw-thached huts, or in whose secret depths they waited the approach of their foes. The Rhine formed a natural barrier between the Teu- tons and the Celts, and its shores were their common fighting ground. The latter floated their small crafts down the Rhone, and occupied the valleys and passes of the Pyrenees. They pastured their flocks and gallopped their horses through the valleys of France. They snatched the forests of Britian and the bogs of Ireland from the abor- igines, and they swept down the valley of the Po on their plundering expeditions. Though they had fixed habita- 1 Tacitus: "Germania," Chap. v. TSE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 31 tions, they v^ere the most unsettled and warlike of the ancient Aryans, and would desert their homes on the slightest provocation to wander about in search of new- ones. Celtic Warriors. As we propose in this chapter to learn all we can about the primitive Aryans, it will be well to understand that historians are wont to imagine a time when the ancestors of these varied and widely separated peoples all dwelt together in some peculiarly favored land. Pictures of this primeval Aryan home have been painted in the 1 Caesar: "Gallic War," Book viii. chapter 26. 32 tHE MEDIEVAL WOULD. most glowing colors that language can furnish, and one needs wonder why some of the ruder tribes of antiquity should have so fallen from the state of culture that the primitive Aryans are represented as attaining. Let us remember, therefore, that, when we study of the prim- itive Aryans, we are but passing through the shadowy lands of legend and myth, and that many of the pen pictures that we find are almost.purely imaginary. Linguistic his- tory tells us all that we know of the primitive Aryans in their primeval home. We can rely upon it, and upon it only. It tells us that all these nations had a common origin and, therefore, a common ancestry. This would necessitate their coming from a common country ; but, as to where that country was, language tells us nothing.^ Now, in a word or two, we can explain how we gain our information of the life, habits, and degree of culture that the primitive Aryans had attained before any of their descendants had left their home-land. By comparing the Aryan dialects, wq find that they have identical words (observing the vowel and consonant changes according to Grimm's law) for father, mother, brother, and sister ; and, in fact, they had the same endearing terms to express almost all of our family relations. So we are sure that the Aryan home in all its purity existed in those prehistoric times. So, likewise, we learn that they had their house- hold gods, the spirits of departed ancestors . They must have had all the beliefs accompanying such a worship. They had advanced to the stage of worshiping the great nature fetiches. The clouds, the lightning, the sun, moon and stars, in fact, anything in nature phenomenal, startling, orinexplainable, may have been personified and worshiped. 1 Whitney: Am. Cyclopedia. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 33 A similar system of tribal government was common to all of them. They had their herds of domestic animals, and understood the cultivation of some of the cereals. They dwelt in villages and in thatched huts. These villages are said to have been joined by roads, probably similar to the Indian trails so common among the aboriginal Americans. Over these paths, the primitive peddler may have borne his pack of foreign wares to exchange for native produce. The common word for sea would tend to locate the primitive home near some large body of water on which they rowed their skiffs. Words for the oyster and pearl were common to them all. So, likewise, we know that they dwelt in a land where snow and ice were com- mon, and where the birch and fir trees grew; but we find no indications of Oriental luxury and enervating climate. As the primitive Aryans were but slightly acquainted Avith metals, they could have possessed only the rude weapons common to the closing stages of the Neolithic Age. Thus much does language teach us of a primitive Aryan people, before they commenced their migrations. ^If we try to penetrate further into the past, language re- fuses to be our guide. It will tell us nothing by which we can locate their primeval home on the map. When we try to follow the route of any Aryan people back to the land from which they came, language is silent and will not cast a ray of light upon these long forgotten paths. If we attempt to approximate a date at which the dispersion took place, we find that language furnishes us no reliable data to build upon, after we ascend into the realms of prehistoric times. We can only conclude, then, that all the highly colored pictures of primitive Aryan life owe more to the imagination of the artist than to the infor- mation drawn from language. 3 34 THU MEDIEVAL WORLD. Some of these pictures are falsely drawn by allowing some of the historical Aryan people to sit as models, though they must be clothed in their most primitive his- torical garments. One will describe the primitive Greek, another the Latin, and a third the Hindoo, as a typical primitive Aryan. This is wrong and gives us erroneous ideas of that primeval land and people. We shall, there- fore, not follow this method. We shall take each of the more primitive of the Aryan families and try to form an idea of their mode of life when they first appear in history. In doing so, we shall use only legitimate sources of infor- mation such as language, ethnology, archaeology, and, per- haps here and there, draw some imformation from legends wherever there appears to be a thread of historical light to guide us. But, first of all, let us institute a search for the prim- itive home land of the Aryans of which so much has been written. Xone of the Aryan traditions afibrd us any light. Our scholars are not agreed on this point, and, as a conse- quence, we have several hypotheses to choose from. As an aid in this matter, let us study the historical migrations of the various branches. The general directions, in which the movements have taken j^lace, may give us some useful hints ; if we can trace two or more lines back to an inter- section, we may come upon this much sought for country. We will, therefore, begin Avith the j)urely historical move- ments of these peojile, and journey backward into the lab- yrinth of their past wanderings as far as we can find a thread of light to guide us. For our purpose, it is not necessary to notice all the modern or historical movements of the Aryans. There are two kinds of migrating movements. Ordinarily the migration of races is a very slow process. It may be THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 35 likened to a gradual spread of species from some center of dispersion. It results in a mixture of races. The stronger race will predominate and, almost always, give its language and culture to the weaker people, who become, in fact, serfs or slaves. This will account for the mixed ethnical character of all the people of Europe. In fact, there are no pure races anywhere. Another form of migration was, however, quite common amongpeople in tribal life. When a territory became so densely populated that the land was unable to support its population, it was not uncommon for a vast horde, perhaps several tribes, to start on a long journey in search of new homes. In this case, they took with them their wives and children, their flocks and herds, and all their movables. It took the form of a great military expedition, and sometimes they journeyed a long distance before they reached a land enticing enough to hold them. If they found a desirable locality, before effecting a permanent settlement, they had to conquer the tribes already in possession of the country. Such a result was as sure to lead to a mixture of people as the first one. Shortly after the Christian Era we find the legions of Rome strongly guarding that portion of their empire bordering on Grermania. For some centuries, they thus held back the ever swelling flood of Grermanic people. But the time at length came when Imperial Rome could no longer protect her frontiers, and the great streams of Gothic people forded the rivers and poUred over the moun- tains upon the lands of the Roman, Greek, and Celt.^ This great migration of Teutonic people occurred during the fourth and fifth centuries, and resulted, as we shall see later, in the destruction of the Western Empire of Rome. 1 Freeman, Op. cit. p. 87 et seq. 36 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. It was also the first step toward the origin of modern nations. At present, however, we are concerned only with the general direction of this great movement of Aryan people. The G-ermans crossed the Danube, the Alps, and the Rhine, and, journeying to the south and west, secured there new homes. It required less than two centuries for them to establish their power over all of Western Europe and even to conquer the opposite coast of Africa. Passing rapidly along toward ancient times, we find the Celts at the height of their power during the third and fourth centuries b. c. During those two centuries, we find that they are continually pouring through the passes of the Alps, down into the valley of the Po, and threaten- . ing to deluge Rome herself. Near the beginning of the third century,^ we detect a great movement of Celts to the south and east. Stopping on their journey for a season or two, they gathered the wealth and plundered the in- habitants of Thrace and Macedonia. Then they moved onward, crossed the Hellespont, and, finally, were induced to settle in Asia Minor. There they have dwelt ever since, having founded the province of Galatia. They were preceded by another army of Celts who burned Rome in '390 B. c, and thence turned toward the east, settling in Thrace. This is about as far as we have historic light for the movements of Aryan j^eople in Western Europe. But, as we shall see in a following chapter, the probabilities are, that the ancestors of tlie Aryan population of Central Italy were Celts. Let us notice that all the movements of the ancient population of Italy were toward the south. 1 Some identify these Gauls with the army that burned Rome in 390 B. c. Others claim that it was a later movement, 280 B. c. THE PBIMITIVE ARYANS. 37 As if yielding to an irresistable pressure of Celtic tribes from the north, the Sides entered Sicily ; the lapygians passed down the Adriatic coast, and the Latins also came from the north. Let us now consider Aryan movements in South-eastern Europe and Asia Minor. It is distinctly stated by Herodotus^ that Darius, the great Persian king, planned his expedition into Europe to avenge the Modes and Persians for the wrongs that they had suffered from the invasion of certain Cimmerians during the seventh or eighth century b. c. Some historians claim that these Cimmerians were Celts, and some think that they were Teutons. The latter are, no doubt, right.^ These Teutonic tribes are said to have crossed into Asia through the passes of the Caucasian mountains,^ and, in fact, Cim- merian invasions from Europe into Asia, by way of both the Bosporus and the Caucasus, were not uncommon occurrences. Many of the Scythic tribes of Herodotus are now known to have been Aryans,* though the par- ticular group to which they belong has long since become extinct." Sometimes the Cimmerians alone poured over the mountains ; sometimes they allied themselves with their near kinsmen, the Thracians, and invaded Asia, both by land and by water, all along the line between the Aegsean and Caspian Seas." We have all evidence that these Germanic tribes, the Cimmerians and the Thracians, but especially the former, formed a numerous and warlike 1 Book iv. chap. 1. 2 Am Cyclopsedia articles "'Cimbri," and "Cimmerians." 3 Bee Rawlinson : ''Herodotus," Vol. III. p. 11, note 4, also p. 291. Sayce : "Herodotus," Book i chap. 14, note 1, and chap. 15, note 6 (London, 1883) thinks that Herodotus is wrong in assigning the invasion of the Cimmerians to the reign of the Lydian chief, Ardis, for Assyrian inscriptions fix it in the reign of Gyges, 687-53 b. o. 4 Rawlinson: "Herodotus," Vol. III. p. 203. 5 ibid. p. 203. B Strabo, Book i, Chap. 3, section 21. 38 THU MEDIEVAL WORLD. people. Strabo says that they " were once sovereigns of the Bosporus,"^ and, again,^ that, after Trojan times, their invasions, together with other people mentioned, ''threw everything into confusion." To some of these invasions, a much higher antiquity is given. Eusebius mentions one as occurring as early as the eleventh century b. c.^ Though Herodotus does not mention this particular incursion, he does regard the Cimmerians of sufficient importance to give their name to a portion of the Bosporus. He men- tions, besides, Cimmerian castles and a Cimmerian ferry.* If we can at all depend upon the accounts of these ancient historians, Cimmerian and Thracian Aryans were for several centuries a terror to the most enlightened por- tions of Asia Minor.^ Right here, it may not be inappro- ' priate to remark, that, were we to seek for the origin of those Aryan characteristics and racial qualities, peculiar to the Alarodians of Caucasia,^ we would find that these various incursions of Thracians and Cimmerians could point to the source of this Aryan influence, and explain the origin of this branch of the White Race. Then, if the Hittites were akin to the Alarodians, as some authors be- lieve, we at once detect a possible source of that more than Turanian energy with which they ruled Asia Minor. Here, notice in particular, that for many centuries pre- ceding the fourth century b. c, Germanic tribes were con- stantly threatening Asia Minor from the north by way of Caucasia and the Hellespont. No doubt from time to time, they effected a lodgment in that country. We have had occasion to mention the fact, that^ as early as the 1 Book vii. Chap. 4, section 3. 2 Book xiii. Chap. 8, section 7. 8 Rawlinson: ''Herodotus," Vol.1, p. 290. * Book iv. Chap. 12. 6 See This Series Vol. II. p. 798. 6 Ibid. p. 400 et seq. THE PRIMITIVE ABYANS. 39 middle of the eighth century B. c, they had established themselves at Sinope, on the southern shore of the "Black Sea.i Group of Caucasians. At an earlier date still, there was the Dorian migra- tion into the Peloponnesus, when great tribes of Dorians, a Grecian people, came down from the north (Twelfth Cen- tury B. c.) and drove large numbers of lonians, and Aeo- lians across the Aegaean into the coasts of Asia and the 1 Ibid. p. 788. 40 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Isles of the sea, only to follow them at a later date. As wo shall see in a following chapter, this movement was caused by the pressure of tribes from the north ; the Epi- rots encroaching upon the Thessalians, and these in turn pressing upon the Boeotians, and there is no doubt, but the Teutons were at the same time coming down the Danube and crossing the Balkan mountains to take the place of the people whom they crowded forward. Greels Brigands. If the storied siege of Troy by the allied Greeks bear any meaning to the historian, it is, that there was an ever southward pressure of Grecian tribes that finally jiourcd an enormous migration upon the coasts of Asia jMinc r. The result of this migration was the destruction of Ilios and THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 41 the ravaging of all the towns along the northern coast. The conquerors of Troy probably took imniediate possess- ion of the adjoining territory where the most of them settled. The wanderers that may have turned back toward their fatherland were but few compared with the hosts that first set out upon these adventures. The poet makes Achilles boast of having stormed and conquered a number of cities before force enough had assembled upon the plains of Troy to attack the principal Trojan stronghold. Here, too, we must note the constant tendency of the Aryans to spread toward the south and east. At an extremely early date, the Thracians were a great and widespread people. Herodotus^ says that they were the most numerous of all people except the Indians. In fact, their importance was so noticeable that some ancient writers "divide the world into Asia, Libya (Africa), Europe, and Thrace".^ They were blue-eyed and red- haired — "a most martial and highly musical people, much given to Bacchic habits, but also to philosophical specula- tion."^ All historical evidence points to the fact, that they were the ancestors of the Mysians and the Phrygians, the latter of whom were the acknowledged ancestors of the Trojans.* The Thracians are themselves said to be of Ger- manic origin.' All these people, then, were Aryans. The ancestors of the Phrygians must have migrated from Europe into Asia, for it is an admitted fact that none of the Aryans west of the Halys river could have entered Asia Minor in any other way.* When we come to assign a date to the migrations that 1 Book vii. Chapter 73. 2 Karl Blind in "Troja" p. 358. 3 Ibid. p. 359. * Strabo, vii. chapter 3, sec. 12. 6 Blind, Op. eit. p. 354. 6 Sayce: ''Ancient Empires," p. 211-12. 42 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. brought the ancestors of the Phrygians across the Helles- pont, the "research of the spade" at Troy has enabled us to "penetrate into a past, of which Grerman tradition had forgotten the very existence".' At the beginning of the twelfth century B. c, ^ the g-reat city of Troy was flourish- ing in all the splendor of Oriental grandeur. For ages before this time, the Babylonian caravan had made its way across the country and brought wares to the Mediterranean sea-board. The Hittite merchant was, no doubt, a common sight on the streets of Ilios. In the thirteenth century, the historical inscriptions of Rameses III. tell us of Greek and Trojan allies among the foes of Egypt.^ When the Libyans made war upon ^Menephthah,* in the fourteenth century, the Trojans united their forces with the enemy of their old Egyptian foe. When the Hittites made war upon the great Pharioh, Rameses II. in the fourteenth century, the Dardanian Trojans had already identified themselves with the enemies of Egypt and joined the Hittite expedi- tion.^ This foreign Greek and Trojan element among the enemies of Egypt is mentioned on the monuments even before the epoch of the eighteenth dynasty or about the close of the eighteenth century b. c.® Thus in our search for the first appearance of the Phry- gian Aryans in Asia Minor, we must go back of the siege of Troy. We must pass over the reigns of the nineteenth and eighteenth Egyptian dynasties. Still we find that the Aryans are sought as allies bv Asiatic powers. The sun of the Xeolithic Age had not set on the shores of the Med- iterranean, when the Aryans first erected a citadel on His- 1 Sayee: Preface to "Troja," p. ix. 2 Troy was destroyed about 1180 B. c. 3 Brugsch, "Ilios," Appendix ix. p. 748. 4 See our remarks on this subject "This Series" Vol. II. p. 599 et sea. 8 Ibid. p. 394. 6 Brugsch, Op. cit. p. 746 THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 43 sarlik, the site of Troy.^ Do we try to go back farther, we are lost in the gloom of antiquity. Still the Phrygian, ancestors of the Trojans, must have crossed the Hellespont at a much earlier date. To what a remote age does this point, and yet, how plainly are we told, that even then the German tribes were pressing down upon the Thracians who in turn were forced to cross into Asia and there find homes. Of a truth, these Aryans must have been in Southern Europe at a very early date in the history of mankind. It will be noticed that none of the movements we have been considering are those of the Slavonian Aryans. Where were they during this long period of time? While the Celts, the Grecians, and various Germanic people were making these great migrations, apparently radiating from Central Europe, were the Slaves living in contented quietness? Or were they also sending out great immigra- ting bands, and winning for themselves new homes by foreign conquests? Let us see what the probabilities' are. The first historical appearance of the Slaves was not until the sixth century of our era. They were at that time situated in Central Russia. The increasing pressure uf Turanian tribes, sallying out of the wilds of Siberia, impelled the Slaves toward the west and south. They crossed the Danube river and the Balkan mountains, and settled in Thrace and Macedonia. How long a time, now, before the sixth century, had the Slaves been living in Central Russia ? The probabilities are, from that same primitive long-ago, when the Phrygian Aryans crossed the Hellespont and intrenched themselves on Hissarlik, at Troy. 1 Sayce, Op. cit. p. xii. 44 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD Scholars who have studied this question assure as that, fcom the very earliest times, the Slaves were eon- fronting the Germans on the east, and, in fact, were SI0WI7 pressed east by them. Sayce calls our attention to ta^ significant fact, that both the capitals of modern Germany, Berlin and Vienna, stand on ground that was once Sla- vonic.^ Latham declares there was once a time when Slavic dialects were common everywhere between th3 Elbe and the Dnieper rivers.* Quatrefages tells us tha^j the Germanic race clashed with the Slaves in the basin of the Oder. His conclusion is : " The Slaves settled on the Vistula at a pre-historic period and possessed its entire basin."' In fact, everything seems to point to the conclusion that, at the same early date at which the first great divisions of the Aryans appeared in Europe, the Slaves were located in Russia, and for unknown centuries they v;andered back and forth on its grassy steppes. Unless they differed from the other Aryans, they must have also sent forth from time to time great bands of migrating people. Where could these bands go ?^ To the west and south-west were numerous Germanic people, of all Aryan.3 the most energetic, who as just stated, instead of yielding before the Slaves, gradually forced them east from the Elbe. To the south, were the numerous and vfarlike Thra- cians, Cimmerians, and Scythians, preventing any move^ ments in that direction. One course only was open to them. Passing to the north of the Caspian Sea they could easily invade Asia, and possess themselves of the terri- tory contiguous to the Caspian. Let us, then, turn to Asia and see what traces we can find of Aryan people in ths.* 1 " Science of Language," Vol. II. p. 94. s •' Man and his Migrations," p. 180. 3 " Prus.sian Race," London, 1872, p. 12. THE PRIMITIVE ABYANS. 45 great continent, and the directions of their movments. Asia has always been preeminently the home of the Yellow Races, as Europe has been of the Aryans. We have seen in Western Asia, that the Semites gained pos- session of the country and have seen that supremacy passing into the hands of the Aryans ; yet time has brought around the first conditions again, and once more a Turanian people are rulers in that section. Compar- atively speaking, but a .small part of Asia was ever in the hands of the Aryans. In historical times, we find them in possession of Northern India, Persia, Armenia, the Bactrian country, and the adjacent mountains. It is fur- ther true that we find traces of Aryan blood in South- eastern Asia where we had least expected to find them. Only in very recent times are conditions changing, and Aryan culture and influence are on the increase. Let us refer first of all to traces of Aryan influence in Eastern and Southeastern Asia. In Treating of China, we made mention of the Chows, as an invading and con- quering people, who appeared on the confines of China about the twelfth century b. c. It is stated, on excellent authority, that these Chows were, in part, Aryans.' But at a far earlier time, other invading people had passed east through the Gates of Kashgar and overrun portions of China. It is supposed that these people, the Jungs, were also, in part, of Aryan blood.^ It is further supposed that the so-called aboriginal tribes of China are quite largely* descendants of these partially Aryanized people.^ 1 Kingmill in J. R. A. S., 1878, p. 301. De LaCouperie: "Amongst the Shans," preface, p. xxxix. 2 See De La Couperie, J. R. A. S. 1885, p. 467. Keane in Standford's "Asia," p. 713. 3 See " This Series," Vol. II. p. 439, where this subject is discussed and cuts are given. 46 TBE MEDIEVAL WOULD. We have also learned of the wide extension of white blood in South-eastern Asia. We can not say that the source of this element in the ethnology of this far away people was Aryan, and yet, to our mind, this presents the The Ainos. easiest solution. These Aryan tribes, who thus wandered far to the Orient, became, in time, so hoplessly mixed with the surrounding people that they lost their distinctive race qualities. It is, for instance, only of late years, that we THE PmMlTlVE AUYANS. 47 have recognized in the Ainos of Japan a white people.^ They probably come the nearest to proving an exception to the remark, that there are no "White Savages." We are only acquainted with them in modern times, when they have long been ground under the cruel dominion of the Japanese. They are now rapidly approaching extinc- tion. Once the sole inhabitants of the chain of islands ex- tending south of Kamtchatka and including the Japanese islands, they have been compelled to retire before a more civilized people, coming, some from the mainland, others, perhaps, from the islands of Polynesia. It seems, also, that the aboriginal inhabitants of Corea belonged to the white stock.^ They were gradually outnum- bered and absorbed by the yellow stock, owing to the con- stant migration from the Chinese province of Pechilli. The typical features of the whites — oval features, light com- plexion, blue eyes, etc. — are plainly discernible in some instances. It is said : "But for the speech and costume one might often fancy one self surrounded by Europeans."^ In regard to the further extension of this eastern branch of the White Race, it is well to bear in mind that we are speaking of a subject which is as yet far from being a settled one. However, modern research seems to estab- lish the fact, that, within comparatively recent times, they spread themselves very extensively over the Islands of Polynesia — in fact, that the present inhabitants of Polynesia are, at the base, a White Race. Where the older writers speak of the Malay o- Polynesian people, we have to change 1 See Flowers in "Nature," Vol. 31. p. 364 ; Keane in " Nature," Vol. 27. p. 365, 389: Keane in Standford's "Asia," p. 712. Qualifying the above, see Recluse : " Earth and its Inhabitants," Vol. II. of "Asia," p. 389. 2 Keane in "Nature" Vol. 26. p. 345. 3 Recluse: "Earth audits Inhabitants," "Asia," Vol. II. p. 345. 40 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Isles of the sea, only to follow them at a later date. As wo shall see in a following chapter, this movement was caused by the pressure of tribes from the north ; the Epi- rots encroaching upon the Thessalians, and these in turn pressing upon the Boeotians, and there is no doubt, but the Teutons were at the same time coming down the Danube and crossing the Balkan mountains to take the place of the people whom they crowded forward. Greek Brigands. If the storied siege of Troy by the allied Greeks bear any meaning to the historian, it is, that there was an ever southward pressure of Grecian tribes that finally poured an enormous migration upon the coasts of Asia iMincr. Tlio result cf this migration was the destruction of Ilios and THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 41 the ravaging of all the towns along the northern coast. The conquerors of Troy probably took immediate possess- ion of the adjoining territory wherethe most of them settled. The wanderers that may have turned back toward their fatherland were but few compared with the hosts that first set out upon these adventures. The poet makes Achilles boast of having stormed and conquered a number of cities before force enough had assembled upon the plains of Troy to attack the principal Trojan stronghold. Here, too, we must note the constant tendency of the Aryans to spread toward the south and east. At an extremely early date, the Thracians were a great and widespread people. Herodotus^ says that they were the most numerous of all people except the Indians. In fact, their importance was so noticeable that some ancient writers "divide the world into Asia, Libya (Africa), Europe, and Thrace".^ They were blue-eyed and red- haired — "a most martial and highly musical people, much given to Bacchic habits, but also to philosophical specula- tion."^ All historical evidence points to the fact, that they were the ancestors of the Mysians and the Phrygians, the latter of whom were the acknowledged ancestors of the Trojans.* The Thracians are themselves said to be of Ger= manic origin.^ All these people, then, were Aryans. The ancestors of the Phrygians must have migrated from Europe into Asia, for it is an admitted fact that none of the Aryans west of the Halys river could have 'entered Asia Minor in any other way.^ When we come to assign a date to the migrations that 1 Book vii. Chapter 73. 2 Karl Blind in "Troja" p. 358. 3 Ibid. p. 359. + Strabo, vii. chapter 3, sec. 12. 6 Blind, Op. cit. p. 354. 6 Sayce: ''Ancient Empires," p. 211-12. TBE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 51 languages have been compared, and all points bearing on the ethnology of the people have .been examined. The Island of Boeroe, between Celebes and Coram, is usually considered the starting point. In fact, all recent autho- rities are agreed on this point. It remains only to point out how all explorers have praised the fine personal appear- Polynesian Chief. ance of the true Polynesian Islanders. They are invariably described as being possessedof fine symmetrical proportions, tall in stature, and with handsome, regular features. Their hair is smooth but not lank, often curly and wavy, and the beard is naturally full, though often artifically removed. They are furthermore declared to be of a cheerful and joyous temperament, of a frank and truthful disposition, 52 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. and of a kindly nature. All this forms a type distinct from the typical Yellow Races of Asia. As we have remarked, we have no assurance that the Aryans were the source of this white element. Yet we must notice that, from an extremely early time, we have evidence of Aryan tribes marching east through the Gates Cambodian. of Kashgar to debouch on the plains of China. We have seen these tribes steadily pressed to the south by fresh mi- grations of Mongolian people in China. It is almost im- possible to escape the conclusion that the white element in Cambodia was derived from that source. At a later time, we see the Polynesians starting from the islands near THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 53 the coast of Farther India, setting out on their great mi- grations that finally peopled the Islands of the Pacific. This migration being so recent in time that we can gather the details of it from native songs and traditions. Tm'ning to the movements of the Aryans in Western Asia, we find that they played quite an important role in history. They fall mostly into two great divisions, the Indians and the Iranians, and of the latter the Persians from the greater part. We know that, at an early date, the Persians branched off from the Indians who were then dwelling in and about the Hindoo Koosh mountains some- what to the north and east of historical Persia. The Aryan ancestors of the Indians first journeyed through the passes of the Hindoo Koosh mountains,^ and took possession of the Punjab, or the north-western portion of modern India. Thence, they fallowed the river courses to the south and east. While Aryan blood does not form a marked characteristic of the southern Hindoo, the north- ern part of modern Hindoostan is decidedly Aryan; and Aryan culture, language, and influence have penetrated to the remotest shores of the peninsula. The date at which the first Indian tribes entered India will, perhaps, never be known. This much is true, however, that they were a people separated from their kindred before their literature, known as the Yedic literature, began to crystallize into its historical shape. The Persians had a literature of their own, but it was a later formation. As some of the Vedic hymns relate to about the fifteenth century b. c, we are safe in inferring that the Vedic Age extended back at least as early as that date.^ 1 Thomas in J. R. A. S., 188S, p. 378-86. 2 Muller: "Science of Language," Vol.1, p. 210, 147, New York, 1881. There is also good authority for saying, that the Indians separated 54 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Now the Persians or Iranians were a colony of In- dians that separated from the latter, while they were en- camped at the foot of the Hindoo Koosh.^ This separation must necessarily have taken place at an earlier date. The Persians, turning toward the south and west, must have driven out and occupied the homes of a more primitive '*»' Aryan Encampment on the Shores of the Caspians people. The earliest traditions of the Indians and Ira- nians point to a home on the source of the Oxus and Jax- themselves from the Iranians in. the Bactrian land, the former journey- ing toward the Punjab. The period of the separation is often placed at 2000 B. c, or some time previous to that date. See Whitney : "American Cyclopedia," Vol I. p. 800, also Duncker: "History of Antiquity," Vol- IV, p. 27, (English Edition). J Muller, Op. eit. p. 248. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 55 artes.^ Here they dwelt before they crossed the Hindoo Koosh.* This takes us back to a very remote period, many centuries before our era. For Muller tells us that " along the Caspian, and in the country washed by the Osus and Jaxartes, Aryan and non-Aryan tribes were mingled together for centuries."' It will thus be seen, that, as far as the movements of the Aryans in Asia can be traced back, they seem to converge toward the territory to the east of the Caspian. Can it possibly be, that there is any connection between these Aryans and the Slavonians? To-day we know it to be a fact, that Russiari influence is spreading far and wide in Asia. Can it be, that such has been the course of history ever since the Slaves found themselves cramped for room in Russia? When the Ger- man tribes pressed the Slaves to the east of the Elbe, did they discharge themselves upon Asia? Can it be, that, whereas wc find the Russian and the English (a Slavic and a Grermanic people) confronting each other in almost hostile array in Asia, we are but witnessing the final moves in that great inter-racial game begun ages before the dawn of history, in the valley of the Elbe in Cer- many, from which narrow field the Grermans moved to the West, the Slaves to the East, and are now met for the final test of strength in mid- Asia? This would, indeed, be a reasonable theory if we could find any satisfactory ground for concluding that the Iranians and Indians were more closely related to the Slavonians than to the other members of the Aryan fam- ily. Language certainly seems to aiford some help in this matter. We have already mentioned, that Sanskrit was the original tongue of the Indians and Iranians. Now, 1 Ibid. p. 239. 2 J. E. A. S. 1883. 3 " Science of Language," Vol. I. p. 243. 56 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. almost all scholars unite in establishing the close relation- ship between the Letto-Slavic dialects of the Letts, on the shores of the Baltic, and the Sanskrit. They almost uni- versally claim for the former a nearer relationship than can be ascribed to any other of the Aryan languages.* It is further pointed out, that the Scyths and Sarmatians, who dwelt on the plains of Russia in ancient times, used a dialect that had many points, in common with the Ira- nian dialect.' One curious bit of proof is pointed out by Mr. Morgan. It seems that the Slavonian people in Eu- rope have certain peculiarities in their system of relation- ship not met with in any other of the European Aryans, but they do re-appear in the tribes of India.^ Thus we find considerable to induce us to believe that the Iranians and Indians of Asia are more closely connected with the Slavic Aryans of Europe than with the remaining Aryans. In fact, this is admitted by all scholars of note. JSTow Asia, from the earliest times, was the home ot the Yellow Races. If the Slaves were confined in Russia until they gathered strength to sweep all before them, their invasion of Asia musthave resulted in a great disturbance. Now we have seen, that, about the twenty third century b. c, there was a very great disturbance among the people in Western Asia, and, strange to say, the lines of these move- ments seem to diverge from the Caspian basin. Then it was, that Turanian tribes, marching east through the Grates of Kashgar, followed the course of the Hoangho and laid the foundation of Chinese culture.* It was at this time, 1 Sayce: " Science of Language," Vol. II. p. 94. "Whitney: "Study of Language," p. 215. Latliam: ''Comparative Philology," p. 610- Freeman: "Historical Geography of Europe," p. 15, London, 1881. 2 8ay«e: "Comparative Philology," p. 396. ^ "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity," p. 43. * This Series Vol. II. p. 424 et seq. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 57 also, that the Elamite tribes suddenly invaded Mesopota- mia and conquered Chaldea.^ Then it was, that Asshur went out from Accad and laid the foundation of Assyria, and at that time, also, the Hebrew people took up their line of march from the head of the Persian Grulf to the West. And, as already pointed out, the waves of migration carried the Hyksos kings into Egypt. When we reflect, that the date of these movements corresponds remarkably well with the presumed first appearance of the Aryans in Asia, and when we observe further, that these movements are j ust such as we would expect to follow from the sudden appearance of a great host of Aryans forcing their way among thickly settled Turanian tribes : it seems difficult to avoid the conclusion, that it was at this time (2300 B. c.) that the Slavonian Aryans bore all before them, and marched, a resistless host, from Russia, by way of the northern shore of the Caspian, into Asia. As a result of our examination into the movements of Aryan people, as far as known in history, we conclude that the lines of these movements converge in the territory around the Baltic in Europe. Here seems to have been the point from which they marched, some to the west, others to the south, still others to the east ; and, as we have seen, Europe was not the only field of their activity. . In- deed this seems to have always been their center of dis- persion, not only of prehistoric times, but of historic times, and is true of today. We are therefore prepared to believe that the original home of the Aryan Race was that por- tion of Europe immediately adjacent to the Baltic sea. Yet, when we turn to examine the writings of our ' Ibid. 58 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD scholars on this point, we are surprised to find that this is not the generally accepted view. They speak and write of the Aryans as originating in Asia. They picture forth a series of migrations by which they came into the posses- sion of Europe. Our surprise is somewhat abated when we discover that it is only the older writers who are nearly unanimous in favor of the Asiatic Origin. Of late years, the tide seems to be setting just as strongly the other way. As this question is, for our purpose, a very important one, let us see what our scholars have to say on this point. Many suppose that Philology has fully settled this question. Let us first examine this point. The classical or literary language of the Indians is called Sanskrit. This, together with Latin, Greek, Teutonic, Celtic, and Letto-Slavie, forrfis a great sisterhood of languages that was, at some time in the past, derived from a single more primitive form of speech, that was probably used by our primitive fore- fathers in their primeval home. This lost and forgotten tongue is spoken of as the primitive Aryan language, and many attempts have been made to reconstruct it. Scholars are divided as to which known dialect comes nearest to this primitive tongue. Some regard the Letto- Slavic dialects as the nearest co-geners of the typical lan- guage, while others claim that place of honor for the Sariskritic. On this claim alone, some philologists wish to locate the home of the primeval Aryan tribe as near as they can to the region where the Sanskrit was first found to be in use. But as further study j^roves that all the people who use Sanskrit dialects have moved from some unknown place to their present abodes, they have further to decide on some suitable place for the common starting point. They have, therefore, settled upon an indefinite point in Central Asia, somewhere near the the shores of THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 59 the Caspian Sea. The only ground for this choice being, that such a location is near the Sanskrit speaking people. The claims of the Letto-Slavic dialects to a closer rela- tionship to the primitive tongue than any other^ being utterly ignored. In regard to physical surroundings, the choice is not a very happy one. This region has been, from the very da\yn of history, totally unsuitable for the production and support of such a hardy, energetic, and vigorous race as the Aryans. If the Trans-Caspian territory and the lands along the Oxus and Jaxartes were the primitive home of the Arvans, we must needs transform it from a barren table land and sandy desert waste to fertile fields, and cover it with cereals and meadows, suitable for the main- tenance of men and animals indigenous to temperate lands.'^ But let us inquire more particularly into this argument of language. All must admit that the results of compara- tive philology, if rightly understood and applied, are a great help in tracing the, early history and culture of a people. Yet it is not an infallible guide, and we must take into consideration other sciences, such as Anthropology and Ethnology. Of late years, there is a tendency to question some of the conclusions so confidently urged by philolo- gists.^ But those who appeal to Caesar must stand by Caesar's judgment. We have seen that good grounds ex- ist for claiming that the Letto-Slaves are nearer the origi- nal Aryans in speech than any other, why not, then, seek 1 On this point consult Latham: "Comparative Phjlology," p. 610. Whitney: "Study of Language," p. 215. Freeman: "Historical Geogra- phy," p. 15. Sayee: " Science of Language," Vol. II. p. 94. * Vambery: "Travels in Central Asia." 3 See the whole subject discussed in "Anthropological Review,'' 1868, p. 169. 60 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. for the home in their neighhorhood ? But this is not all. Such an eminent philologist as Professor Whitney shows that "language does not at all prove that the Indo-Per- sian common abode is nearest to the original abode of the family."! Closely examined, the Asiatic theory comes to some startling conclusions. It is universally admitted that the Asiatic Aiyans (we include under this term all the Aryans in Asia east of the Halys river) are only immi- grants in the regions which they have occupied since his- torical times began. It is supposed that the primeval tribe of Aryans, from whose loins the entire race has sprung, dwelt close by the side of the modern homes of these Asiatic Aryans. From this small band, we are told that all the various European families hived off, swarm after swarm, and, as by a bee-line, journeyed toward their European homes. Should we sound the roll-call, and pass in review the innumerable tribes of Aryans who have been known to history — ^the hosts of Celts that covered the mountains and plains of the Southwest; the armies of the Teutons of the central lands ; the hordes of un- trained Scythians and Thracians ; the more cultivated Greeks and Romans ; and the Slaves of later times — the whole of Europe would not be a field of sufficient size for us to muster this enormous army upon. When, therefore, we are asked to believe, that all of these people are the descendants of a small primitive band that resided near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, and that one great army after another of emigrants left this primitive home and journeyed toward the shores of the Atlantic ; when we consider, besides, that each and 1 Am Cyclopedia. THE PRIMITIVE ..< .l.T.1. .1 ^ jk V J.V kj « East Germans South Germans Slavo-Teutonic Celto-Teutonic Slaves Teutons Celts Teutons These are the the purest Aryans Turanian element. East Russians Letto-Teuto-Slavic Letts Teutons Slaves (D O English Celto-Teutonic Celts Teutons *^ "en South Scandina- Teuto-Nord Teutons Norse n Pi a P vians Great Russians Finno-Slavic Slaves Finns p. _ o- Bulgarians Ugro-SIavic Slaves Uigers. aerve as we pass < jnce come on pe with Turanians. Hunga- rians Ugro-Teuto-Slavic Slaves Teutons Uigers North ' Italians Liguro-Celtic-Italic Celts Italics Ligures Spanish South French Celt- Iberian - Ibero-Celtic Celts Celts Iberians Iberians 1 » a 5 i-i North Scandina- vians Norse-Finno-Lapp Norse Finns Lapps IB P THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. m the central part of Europe, they met nothing but Tura- nians. These Turanians were of various types. Those of the South were small, dark, and round-headed; while those of the North seem to have been long-headed, and slightly inclined toward the blonde type.^ The point that we wish particularly to notice is, that the farther the vanguard of Aryan migration spread from the home land, the more Celtiberian. marked becomes the Turanian influence, for intermixture occurred all along the line. We would look, then, on the borders of the Aryan world for a people whose blood was very weakly tinged with the Aryan. Such do we find to have been the case when history dawns upon Europe. We 1 Elton: "Origins of English History," London, 1882, p. 151 et seq. Sir. G. Campbell, B. A. A. S. for 1886, p. 842. Flowers in "Nature," Feb. S, 1885, p. 330. 70 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. observe that many of the far-away tribes of Celts are strongly Turanian; as, for example, the Celtiberians of Spain, the "Welsh, and the Irish ; in fact, the unsettled character of the whole people shows a marked Turanian element. In the South, were the mysterious Pelasgians, who were a peculiar people, that have left many indications of their Aryan descent, though strongly Turanized. When we enter the Slavic territory, we find there, at the dawn of his- tory, Scythians and Sarmatians, who were so strongly Tur- anian that they are almost always regarded as such, but their language has been found to have been of the Aryan type.' We have here probably an explanation of the origin of the various Aryan families. A certain degree of mixture with certain Turanian tribes would change the primitive Aryans into Celts. So a mixture with other Turanian tribes gave rise to the Pelasgians and Sarmatians. But as the purer Aryan tribes continued to advance in all directions, they continually recruited those that had preceded them. So we find that there were all shades of Aryans,- from Celt to Teuton, from Pelasgian to Teuton, from Sarmatian to Teuton. But as the first baptism of Teuto-Aryan tribes over the Turanians was succeeded by another and another — we know not how many — the Celt became Aryanized to the Latin, the Pelasgian to Grreek and Thracian, the Sarmatian to Salvonian. It is now known^ that the Scy- thians and Sarmatians of Herodotus' time used a language closely allied to that of the Asiatic Aryans, thus pointing directly to the route that the latter took to reach the sour- ces of the Oxus and Jaxartes, the Grates of Kashgar, and 1 Saycer "Comparative Philology," 395-6. Keane in Standford's "Europe," p. 572. 2 Ibid. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 71 the Punjab. The Indians, Iranians, and Chinese Aryans are not as pure in blood even as the Galchan tribes of the Hindoo Koosh; but, as their ancestors were all cut off from the fatherland by the same inroad of Turanians from the Siberian plains, they show many marks of likeness. The change in language to form the various dialects is, of course, easily explained. Any tribe that becomes somewhat separated from its parent tribe will soon- devel- op a dialect of its own. The Celts had more than one dia- lect, so did the Latins, the Grreeks, the Teutons, and, in fact, almost every one of the great divisions of the Aryan race. None of them at present speak or use the primitive tongue. It has died out, just as has the Old Prussian, and just as Lettish is now doing. Still we can trace the origin of the various members of the race by a similarity of dia- lects ; and, as we would expect, they all rise from a Teu- tonic base : thus, the Latin is said to be closely related to the Celtic,^ the Celtic to G-erman;^the Phrygian to Thracian, the Thracian toGrerman;^ the Pelasgian to Greek, the Greek to Grerman ;* the Indian and Iranian (or Sans- kritic) to the Slavic, the Slavic to German and Lettish.' The Lettish, Slavic, and Sanskritic dialects rank nearest of all to the typical Aryan. This is j ust as we w ould suppose, as their ancestors took less part in the racial warfare of early times, and' roamed freely across the plains of Russia for many centuries before they became separated, and the Sanskritic family became isolated from its kindred. We are now better able to understand a number of scientific and linguistic points that have puzzled the an- 1 Rhys: "Celtic Britain." 2 Whitney in Am. Cyclopedia. 3 Keane inStandford's"Europe,"p. 565. B]indin"Troja,"p. SbQetseq. * Whitney in Am. Cyclopedia. Keane, Op cit. 5 Whitney, Op. cit. Sayce: " Comparative Philology," p. 95-6, 72 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. thropologist and the ethnologist. We can see why "the primitive Slaves differ from the Grermans and Celts, their brethren by origin, only by very slight shades,"^ for al] were so slightly separated from the fatherland. We can understand why it is that the gulf is widest between the Celtic and Sanskritic dialects,* for they represent the breadth of Aryan migration in either direction. We can see why it was so easy for the Celts to almost universally adopt the language of their children, the Romans, and why the Romance languages, are almost universally built upon an ethnically Celtic foundation.^ We can see how such a mixture of Aryans and Turanians could arise as to pro- duce the Celto-Slavonic-Lithunians.'* If this theory of the rise and spread of the Aryan tribes be correct, we can easily solve one of the ethnologi- cal problems. We are told that the Gralchans of the Hindoo Koosh have typical Aryan skulls, and from this it is argued, that all the Aryans must have come from thence.^ Such a result does not follow. Quatrefages tells us that the ancient Slaves had also a typical Aryan skuU.^ Wherever their descendants have led ah isolated life, we would expect to find this type of skull. The Calchans have lived just, such a life in the passes of the. Hindoo Koosh. Turning to Europe, we learn that the great passes of the Alps in Savoy have been in the possession of a peo- ple probably descended from the Slaves,'' and here, again, we meet with this typical skull. 1 Quatrefages: "The Prussian Race," p. 14. 2 Rhys: "Celtic Britain," p. 1. 3 Keane in Stanford's "Europe," p. 554. i Keane, Op. cit. Petermann's "Mittheilungen,"Band 23, 1887, p. 7. 6 Keane in Stanford's "Asia,", p. 158, 6 "Prussian Race," p. 14 ■^ Jjatbam; "Comparative Philology," p. 695, THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 73 After having thus minutely reviewed all the facts and evidence that we can find, that relate to the primitive home or the early wanderings of the Aryans, we are forced to the conclusion, that it all testifies against the Asiatic theory. While eminent philologists still hold to that theory, we have the authority of others just as emi- nent for claiming, that philology does not even require the home of the Aryans to be located in Asia, much less does it prove that it was there. We find, that, as early as the Neolithic Age, the Celts were wandering over the plains Germans crossing the Rhine. of Southern and Northern Europe, and Aryans of Teu- tonic origin had even reached the plains of Troy by the close of that Age. All the evidence that we have been able to gather in regard to the migrations of Aryan peo- ple, does not go back of a time when they were not moving in southerly and easterly directions from Central Europe. We can find no westerly movements until we pass the im- aginary line drawn from Konigsburg to Crimea, for the movements of the Celts have, as a general thing, been 74 THE MEDIE VAL WOULD. from northeast to southwest over the plains of Europe. The earliest Aryan migrations that were recorded relate to European Aryans who, appearing along the shores of Asia Minor, had begun to interfere with Egyptian affairs. Next, we catch a glimpse of Aryans passing through Kash- gar into China; and soon the Persians and Indians appear upon the scene, spreading their authority, influence, and peculiar characteristics southward from the base of the Hindoo Koosh. We find in all this not one single iota of evidence in favor of the Asiatic theory. Looking at it, then, from every direction and going back beyond the earliest pre-historic times, the picture is the same — great bands of Teutonic people are crowding out- ward from the Grerman and Lettish fatherland.' When we consider that the Teutonic nations are to-day the Aryans par excellence the world over ; when we consider that they furnish not only the bone and sinew and muscle of the civilized world, but the men of thought and learn- ing as well ; then, when we are forced to admit that they are the known ancestors of the great mass of modern Aryan nations, we ought no longer to hesitate to give the Teuton his place in history. The^ Lettish and^Old Prus- sian dialects are pointed out to us as more closely related to the typical primitive Aryan than any others that ex- ist. Keane^ says of it, that, " although betraying more numerous points of contact with Slavonic than with any other Aryan language, it also exhibits some marked affini- ties with the Hellenic, Teutonic, Iranic, and Indie bran- 1 Quatrefages claima that the Xetts are Aryans in language only, but have become so intermixed with Turanian people that they are physi- cally Turanized. ["The Prussian Race," London, 1872, p. 20.] Prof. Keane, speaking of them ethnically, calls them Celto-Slavonic, and we judge that he is nearer right. (Ramsay's "Europe," p. 55ft;, 2 Ramsay's "Europe," p. 575-6. THU FMIMITIVE ARYANS. 75 ches." We must, then, be drawing pretty close to the primeval homeland. If the Lithuanians be Aryans in language only, they must live close to the border line of the fatherland of the race. ^^ " Max Muller says, that, before their separation, the Aryans led "a life such as Tacitus describes that of the ancient Germans ;"^ and Tacitus' description of the Ger- man people will correspond almost exactly with a great proportion of the philologists' imaginary descriptions of the primitive Aryans. Their land was the land of the birch, the fir, and the beech.^ The climate, the soil, and the productions of the land are just what were necessary for the production and maintenance of such a hardy race as the Aryans. Then why should we look to Asia for the primeval home of the Aryans, when all ' evidence points toward the German fatherland and the shores of the Baltic Sea? In fa,ct, look at the matter as we will, we can come to no other conclusion than, that the Aryans commenced their migrations from the vicinity of the Baltic Sea in Europe. The Asiatic theory seems to us to be largely . a " taken-for-granted " theory. It was assumed that Wes- tern Asia was the home of the human family, and espec- ially of the White Races. It was assumed that from that point the Hamites and Semites went west, and the Aryans moved into Europe. At present, we ought to have no hesitation in demanding proof instead of assump- tions. When we reflect that the science of language is utterly silent on this point ; when we reflect, further, that 1 "Science of Language," Vol. I. p. 234. 2 Sayce: " Comparative Philology," p. 395-6. As we shall see later the Asiatic Aryans, being descendants of the Slaves, probably never heard of the Beech 76 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. the probabilities are, that the Semites and Aryans were never co-dwellers in some common home, and that the Semites probably took their rise in Abyssinia;^ when we read, that the ti;aditions of the Aryans point back to a~ time when they were living to the north of 49° 20' n. l., which in Asia would carry them into the, Altai Mountain region, and that this has always been the home of the Yellow E.a,ces ; when we perceive that not one argument can be given for the Asiatic orgin, which can not be at once applied just as strongly in favor of Europe ; when an examination discloses that our later writers, with the results of modern research before them, are rapidly coming in favor of the European origin ; when we recall that all the movements of Aryan people as far as known, appear to diverge from the Baltic section of Europe^ — when we take all the forgoing into consideration, we need have no hesitancy in deciding, for the present at least, and until better informed, that Euroj)e not only is, but always has been, the home of the Aryan people. In coming to this conclusion, it is satisfactory to learn that this has all evidence of being the " coming theory." The belief of the European origin of the Aryans is fast gaining favor. Among the first who dared to champion this theory was Dr. Latham, to whose works we shall make occasional reference. He has never been without followers, and of late years there has arisen a strong be- lief in the truth of his theory. Professor Hommel de- clares, that this theory is fast becoming a dogma,^ although he does not yet feel inclined to support it. Other eminent scholars^ recognize the fact that this "European theory is 1 This Series, Vol. II. p. 644. 2 "Archiv fur Anthropologie," Band xv. supplement, 1885, p. 167-8. 3 "American Antiquarian," July, 1887. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 77 fast gaining popularity, and in regard to it say that "the claims of Europe are becoming as great and appear to be as well defended as Asia."^ Now that we have chosen, at least for the present, the European theory, we are at liberty to turn our atten- tion to the civilization of these primitive Aryans. We are told that philology gives us much information about the degree of culture that they had attained ; but writers have indulged in such fanciful sketches of the life of these early people, that we can accept none of them as based upon a sufficiently sure foundation. The most that we can say- is, that they were a hardy race, inured to rigor- ous winters. They were already far past Savagery, having all the principal domestic aninials that we have, practicing the arts of weaving and agriculture, being acquainted with one or two metals (whether iron is not certain), and possessing some of the cereals ; "it was rather pasto- ral-agricultural than nomadic in its way of life."^ Accept- ing these statements, then, as proved by linguistic history, our most satisfactory way of further studying the life of the primitive Aryans is to pass each great group in review and learn what we- can of their civilization when history dawns upon them. Even here, we will often find ourselves in the shadowy lands of tradition, and myth, but we will try to glean all the knowledge that we can about these early people. As the Latins and Greeks, with their descendants. 1 See an article by TI. P. Evans, in "Atlantic Monthly" for 1886, p. 632, who adopts the European origin. We might remark that, when we commenced to prepare "This Series," we supposed it was settled that the Aryans came from Asia. The first two volumes were written with that in view. Yet when we sit down to investigate this theory, we find ourselves obliged to abandon it, and accept the morn rtjoeii* v,liepi>. 2 Whitney, Op. cit. 78 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. are later and historical members of the great Aryan race, they will be treated in separate chapters. There re- mains, then, three great primitive members of this group, the Celts, the Slaves, and the Teutons. To them we must look for our information of the character and culture of the primitive Aryan people. The Slaves, the youngest member of the Aryan race, according to the Asiatic theory, becomes a very important family when studied from the W^^"^- ^-^ I 111 SV>^'?.^ I Tomb of Scythian Kings. standpoint of the European theory. They then become the ancestors instead of the children of the Asiatic Aryans. They belong to the blonde division of the race, are tall, lithe, and well proportioned. The Western Slavic tribes were undoubtedly among the purest of Aryans, because of a continuous baptism of Teutonic people to which they were subjected. This is proved by the shape of their skulls,' Quatrefages, "Prussian Race," p. 14. THE PRIMITIVE A B YANS. 79 as well as by the almost typical character of their lan- guage. Among the earliest historical Slaves, were some of the tribes whom Hefodotus describes as Scythians. This, however, must have been many centuries after the Asiatic Aryans had become cut off by the hordes of Turanians that came into the Caspian basin from the North, and East, between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries B. c, and whose movements probably forced the Jung tribes eastward to the confines of China.^ We find that those tribes of Scythians furthest removed from the fatherland, by constant intermixture with Turanians, be- came very much corrupted. Not so with a few tribes who had been forced to seek protection in the mountain fast- nesses of the Hindoo Koosh. There they remain to the present day. These were the Gralchan tribes, who, by living in isolation, have retained the blonde features, blue eyes, fair complexion, and light hair,® which they inherited from their Slavic ancestors. They, too, have preserved some of the purest ethnical features peculiar to the Aryan race, as they have an almost typical Aryan skull.^ Their language shows a similarity to the Iranian dialect, and is thus proved to be closely allied to that used by Scyths and Sarmatians. The Indians and Iranians were crowded down- among the darker Turanian people of the South, and show marked indications of intermixture with them. They belong, therefore, to the southern, or dark-featured group of Aryans ;* ethnoiogically they can not be very purely 1 See Vol. II. p. 434. s Keane, in Stanford's "Asia," p. 706. 8 Keane, in Stanford's "Europe," p. 558. * Campbell, B. A. A.- B., 1886, p. 842. 80 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD Aryan, for the Turanian people witli whom they have mingled, have always been in great preponderance over the Aryan. Caste in India may have, however, preserved the Aryan features in the higher grades, but even this argument is open to serious objections, as we shall see in another chapter. The modern dialects of India and Persia are by no means typical Aryan dialects; but each people have developed a distinct religious system, the sacred teaching^ of which have been faithfully treasured up in the language which their ancestors used, when they dwelt together at the southern base of the Hindoo Koosh. This is the Sanskrit, and it alone tells us of the Aryan origin of the Indians and Iranians. It is understood by only a few of the more highly educated priests, who, pre- vious to the entrance of the English into India, jealously guarded this knowledge. The Sanskrit has, thus, been preserved as one of the purest Aryan dialects, but we can not claim so much for the racial peculiarities of the people. We have no historical records of the Iranians before the time of Darius I. of Persia, although Zoroaster must have preached his great religious reform many centuries before that time. Of the Indians, we know only that Darius and "afterward Alexander the Grreat made military expeditions into the Punjab and along the Indus. Their own political history, however, begins with the reign of Asoca about 250 B. c. In the religious world, they were widely known through the spread of Buddhism, the first missionary religion. Previous to the time of Buddha (about 500 B. c), they lived in seclusion ; the Brahmins conversing about "life and death, "^ Kshatriyas fighting their tribal battles, the 1 Miiller: "Early Sanskrit Literature," p. 25. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 81 Vaisyas attending to their commercial and other pursuits, and the Sudras servants to all the others. The Slaves, known as such, did not conie into historical prominence until the seventh century A. D.; and, from that time, we must look to history for a record of their growth intp the modern Russian nation. The Celts and Teutons play quite an important part in the afPairs of early Europe. Rome had not yet become mistress of the Latin colonies when she was burned by invading Celts. It was the pressure of the Thracian and Grerman tribes from the north that started the Dorian migration into the Peloponnesus, and entirely changed the nature of the population of Hellas. The Celts, as we have seen, spread away to the west and south, and had so filled up this territory as to make it appear crowded to their restless natures. They had already begun to push toward the east, and one large band had cut its way into^ Asia Minor, before Rome became a power in the world. At the begiianing of the fourth century b. c, the Celts were in the height of their power as history knows them. They were spread over England, Wales, and Ireland when these lands became first known to the eastern world. When we undertake to describe the Celts and the Teutons separately, as they appeared at the dawn of their history, many difficulties arise. Those Celts that were farthest separated from the German lands were, of course, strongly tainted with Turanian blood. As we approach the border line of the purer Teutonic tribes, ancient 'au- thorities either failed to distinguish as to which were Teuton and which were Celt, or else they did not know. It is also a fact, that some of the Celtic tribes were so nearly like the Germans in physical appearance as to 82" THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. compel even those who believe in the Asiatic origin of the Aryans to admit, that they were "descended from the German stock."^ This all shows how firmly the primitive Aryan features, passing through the Teutonic people, sha- ded into the Celt and thence into the Turanian. On the whole, however, the Celts were physically less powerful than the Teutons, and were strongly mixed with the dark races of the south. But wherever they had reached the north far enough to mingle with the fair Turanians, the resulting people were fair with flaxen hair.*" This happened both in Europe and in the British Isles.^ Then, too, we are apt to gain from ancient authorities many erroneous ideas in regard to both Celts and Teu- tons. We are told that, in Britain, naked, painted savages came out to battle in scythed chariots drawn by four horses. We are also expected to believe that naked sava- ges came out of the forests to successfully contend with the powerful Roman legions. This is far from the truth, and is no more worthy of belief than the statement of Tacitus in regard to a battle between the Romans and Britons : "About ten thousand of the enemy were slain; on our side there fell three hundred and sixty men."* If we will bear in mind that our first knowledge of these people comes through their sworn enemies, the Romans, we can account for many statements that bear upon their faces the marks of falsehood. The Celts, though less powerful, were more restless than the Teutons. They have been called the nervous race. They were ready to move at all times, though they 1 Quatrefages : "Prussian Race," p. 13. 2 Ibid. s Elton: "Origins," p. 152 et seq. 1 "Agricola," chapter 37. Church's translation. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 83 preferred to dwell in towns. They seemed to delight in war and fought mounted on horses. In all this, we see the Turanian influence. The Teuton, on the other hand, often migrated, but nearly always in search of new homes. The Celts were by no means savages, however. They t? >^ J- ^ ^'^r,%M steppes ol Russia. "were tall, pale, and light-haired." "The women were singularly tall and handsome." They wore the same dress as the men, which consisted of "a-blouse with sleeves, confined in some cases by a belt, of trousers fitting close at the ankle, and a tartan plaid fastened up at the shoulder with a brooch. The Gauls were experts at 84 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. making cloth and linen. They wove their stuffs for sum- mer, and rough felts or druggets for winter wear. "^ They had also learned to weave in diverse colors and make the cloth appear "as if it had been sprinkled with flowers." " The favorite color was red or a pretty crimson." They were fond of every kind of ornament and wore necklaces, collars, bracelets, and beads. " The chieftain's clothes Avere a flaming and fantastic hue ; his hair hung down like a horse's mane .... and both hair and moustaches were dyed red."^ They had almost all of our domestic animals. They were very hospitable, entertaining their guests with feasts, at which the bard was always present. Though they sometimes dwelt in rudely thatched houses, they had learned to build cities with walls and streets and market-places." They even fought with iron broad-swords at the battle of Amo, in the fourth century b. c.^ Surely these were not rude and uncultivated savages. The Teutons have always dwelt in the land between the Rhine and the Elbe. But, in ancient times, when Ave crossed the Rhine, Ave passed through a region whose pop- ulation was of a Teuto-Celtic nature, and finally c^ame among a people that might be called pure Celts. When Ave crossed the Elbe, we found a similar mixture of Teuto- Slavonic people before we come upon the purer Slaves.^ But as the Celtic population on the southwest, the Slavic on the east, and the Pelasgic on the south, became bap- tized again and again with a population direct from the German fatherland, we are told that the ancient Germans spread so as to cover the whole of Central Europe with Teutonic people. This plainly indicates that the people who dwelt on the borders of ancient GSrmania became 1 Elton: "Origins," p. 113 et seq. 2 Ibid. 8 Ibid. * Latham: "Comparative Philology," p. 663. THE PRIMITIVE ASYANS. 85 more Aryanized as they became more Teutonized.- Toward the west, however, there seems to have been an earlier and a stronger stream of Teutonic migration, which crowded the Finns toward the north into Scandinavia, and, pressing- onward even into Scotland, may have Teutonized the Picts to some extent.^ The ancient Teutons were distinguished by their " lofty stature, their robust limbs, their Mr complexion, and their flaxen, flowing hair."* They have never yet re- ceived their place in history. Their civilization has been under-estimated. We have contemplated them too much through Roman and monkish spectacles. " We have talked of his (the Teuton's) forests, till we have forgotten his cornfields ; and spoken of his feats as a hunter, till we have overlooked his labors as a herdsman. We have be- lieved that all well equipped and disciplined armies, with all their weapons, clothing, and commissariat, could come out of the wilderness, or what is yet more incredible, that naked barbarism could defeat the legions and storm the cities of a well organized civilization He (the Teuton) is the muscular and material man of Europe.' . . . He is pre-eminently the strong man of the world He is na- ture's resource, when her nervous races, Celtic and Classic, have become eifete, that is wire drawn and overbred, used up. Then she resorts to him -for a fresh supply of strength and stature, bone and muscle. . . But the Teuton is not all bone and muscle. He has also a goodly brain, well arched, and of the largest volume. He far trans- cends the classic man, both in elevation of principles and warmth of affection. He regenerated the South morally as well as physically.^" 1 Keith: "History of Scotland," Edinburg, 1886, Vol. I. p. 34 et seq. 2 Quatrefages, Op. cit. 3 "Anthropological Review," 1868, p. 26-7. 86 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Although the writer, from whom we have just quoted, has done partial justice to the Teuton, he has failed to understand the real origin of this Teutonic pre-eminence. He has failed to jjerceive in the Teuton the Aryan par excellence, by whom the whole civilized world has been regenerated. It is very strange that, in the light of all this evidence, so many of our scholars are even yet trying to make for the Aryans a home land in the scorched and effeminating regions of Central Asia. While in the heart of Europe, in a region almost surisounded by thfe Rhine, the Maine, and the Elbe, have dwelt, since European his- tory began, this hardy German people, whose warriors taught the Roman legions lessons in the arts of war, whose women taught the Roman matrons lessons in virtue and industry. They were not an ignorant and uncultivated people, for they had their -Runic form of writing for six centuries before our era.^ Thus they were keeping pace with the civilizations of the South and East. Let us then forget the pictures that the prejudiced and misinformed classic writers have left us of the ancient Teutons, and gain, if we can, truer impressions of these strong and worthy people — the ancestor of our own English speaking race. In treating of these primitive Aryan people and their primeval home, we -have, perhaps, wandered somewhat from the old, beaten track, which the historian is wont to follow ; and we only hope that we have escaped some of the ruts into which he has invariably fallen. We have studied faithfully the two theories of the origin of the Aryans, and have found all evidence pointing to the European theory. Seeing no other way open to us, we 1 Keane in Stanford's "Europe," p. 572. Taylor: "Greek and Goth," p. 41 et seq. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS. 87 have adopted that theory ; and we have found it suflficient to explain every question that puzzles the writer from the Asiatic standpoint. We must now hasten on to consider some of the more prominent members of the race sepa- rately. It is, indeed, a satisfaction to believe that the por- tion of the world, that to-day sees the Aryan race at the very summit of modern Civilization, watched over the cradle of the Aryan people in their infancy, and gave them nourishment as they grew into perfect manhood. We will turn first to follow the footsteps of those that wandered farthest from this primeval home into the mountains, des- erts, and jungles of the Orient, and then will return to con- sider those people who have always dwelt nearest their fatherland.^ 1 As these pages are passing through the press, our attention has been called to Biddulph's "Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh," Calcutta, 1880, and we are interested in noticing that Russian officers boldly claim a Slavic origin for the Aryan tribes in that section ; thus confirming the conclusions set forth in this chapter. 88 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. THE ASIATIC ARYANS Inteoduction — Oriental Peculiarities — Geographical Distribution — The Afghans — The Galehas — The Iranians — ^Zoroaster — Mazdeism— The Rise of the Persians — Cyrus — Cambyses — Darius — Ee-'organiza- tion of the Empire — Mt. Behistun — Xerxes — Traits of the Persians — Disposal of the Dead — Art among the Persians — Description of Ruins — Conquest of Alexander — The Parthian Empire — The Neo- Persian Empire — Religious Reform — The Indians — Description of the Country — Early History of the Country — Asoea — The Vedic Lit- erature — The Caste System in India — Science in Ancient Indian- Philosophy in Ancient India— Buddhism — Ruins in India^Con- clusion. TRAVELER in Central Asia is struck by the Oriental peculiarity of his surroundings. The people are mostly dark in hue, and treacherous in character, dress- ing in a manner peculiar to the Orient. The beast of burden is the camel, and the cara- van takes the place of our railroad train. The desert is as familiar to the Asiatic as the prairie is to the American, while bitter, brackish pools take the place of the refresh- ing lakes. The rivers start from the mountains on a joy- ous, rapid course, but are soon choked and strangled by the burning, drifting sands of the constantly changing, deserts. Only now and then, is the current strong enough to plow its way in an ever shifting channel to some lake or sea ; the most of them losing themselves in the sands of the desert. The great Oxus river is one of the few H M H > d > > r I— I o > THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 91 that is able to keep an outlet clear, but even it is con- stantly changing its channel; and the pittiless desert approaches to within two miles of its banks, as if by stealth to snatch the vital spark from every living thing. But among the mountains, within sight of the snow line, are some happy valleys, that, drinking the waters from the mountain streams, blossom forth with a luxurious her- bage during the few months of summer that these regions enjoy. Such is the rose covered "Yale of Casmere," the haven for the tourist during the hot and blasting months of the Indian summer. And, as we follow the Oxus down toward its mouth, we find that many districts have been reclaimed from the desert by a system of arti- ficial irrigation by means of canals. Such regions are remarkable for the fertility of soil, and stand out in the surrounding deserts as veritable garden spots where "the white houses are like bowers buried in foliage and flowers ; the nightingale warbles in every rose-bush."^ Such re- gions are, however, but few miles in extent, and are liable at any time to be restored to the desert should the fickle river change its channel. But such oases in the desert continent of Asia are only rare exceptions to the great barren regions of the central table lands. When the rivers loose their courses in the sands of the deserts, they often give rise to brackish malaria breeding marshes. So well known are these characteristics that many proverbs are current descriptive of these features. " If you want to die go to Kunduz;"^ "Salt water, burning sands, venomous flies, and scorpions, such is Andkhoi, and such is hell," are common expres- 1 Recluse: "The Earth and its Inhabitants," New York, 1884, VoJ. I. p. 265. % A river in Northern Afghanistan, 92 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. sions in that country. Nor are the mountain valleys always pleasant. On the contrary, we often come to great stretches of country that are cold and bleak, and can hardly be said to possess even a temperate climate. So marked is this feature that the Afghan language is said to be " hard and gutteral, as if the cold winds blowing from the Hindoo Koosh compelled the people to speak with half- closed lips."^ Still, this is the very region that some think was the cradle of the Aryan race, from Avhence issued the great migrating bands that finally filled all Europe. Scene on the Upper Oxus. However that may be, there is no doubt that in this territory, for some centuries, tribes of Aryans and Turar nians wandered to and fro contending for supremacy, gradually mingling their blood to form one united people. We have suggested that the first appearance of the Aryans 1 Recluse, Op. cit. Vol. IV p. 84. THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 93 in tliat vicinity was the inciting cause of that sudden out^ pouring of Turanian tribes, the troubled movements of which we catch sight of in the uncertain light of the twenty-third century B. c. Probably some centuries elapsed during which the Aryans were largely the mas- ters. All history, however, teaches that, from time to time, great swarms of Mpngolic people issued from the inhospitable regions of Northern Asia, driving all before them. And so the time finally came when the Aryan and Semi- Aryan tribes of the Oxus and Jaxartes basins were forced in turn to give way before advancing hordes of Tu- ranian people, who, pressing westward toward the north- ern shores of the Caspian, cut the Slavic people into two parts ; forcing one back toward the Aryan homeland, and driving the other upon the table land of Pamir, and into the mountain fastnesses of the Hindoo Koosh region, where they have since dwelt in security and independence. As we shall devote this chapter exclusively to the Asiatic Aryans, it may be of advantage to us to first under- stand just what people may be included under that head and indicate the lands which they inhabit. There appear to be five independent branches of the Aryan family in the Asiatic division of'the race. These, taken in the order of their importance, are the West Iranic, Indie, East Iranic, Gralcha, and Haik branches.^ The Indie comprises the many tribes of Aryans who dwell in the peninsula of Hin- doostan and who speak dialects of the ancient Sanskrit language. The West Iranic branch, also called Ache- menian, includes the Parsi and Neo-Persian, Baluch, Kur- dish and Ossetian. To the East Iranic branch, belong the Bactrians and Afghans, or Pushtu, people. Among the 1 Keane in Stanford's "Asia," p. 706, 94 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Gralchas, may be mentioned the Karateghin, Darwazi, Waklii, Siah-Posh, Kafir, and Chignangi. The ancient and modern Armenian are called Haik/ and will need but occasional mention in this work. Ethnic Map of Asia. ^ The Afghans are an extremely interesting people and have become of great political importance of late on account of the region that they occupy. In their Piidst, lies the 1 Ibid. THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 95 disputed border line between Russian and English domin- ion in Central Asia; and thus, these poor people are placed between two great fires, that, in meeting, may finally sweep them, as a separate people, out of existence. In ancient times, the Afghans occupied only the Kabul valley, Hhrough which the Indie tribes may have passed on their way to the Punjab.^ They have been indentified with the Paktyes whom Herodotus^ mentions as dwelling here in 509 B. c.^ Their language is of the Iranic type. Thus, it connects them with the ancient Slaves, and fully identifies them with the Aryan race, though in physical appearance they show many Turanian characteristics. They belong to the dark type, and thus again indicate their mixture with the Tu- ranians. In many ways, however, the Afghans show their Aryan descent. They have "robust frames and muscular energy." They are as bold as they are strong, and have ever gloried in their independence. "Let our blood flow, if needs be, but we will have no master," is their motto. " They are skillful artisans, hospitable, generous, and even truthful The man who shuts his door to the stranger is no Afghan," says the national proverb.^ They still re- tain the tribal form of government, and all the usual tribal divisions exist in full vigor. The joint-family is a still existing institution, and the house-father is a much respected person of considerable power.^ " Their women are much respected, and manage the household with in- 1 Keane in "Nature," Jan. 22, 1880, p. 278. ^ Thomas in J. E. A. S. 1883, p. 378 et seq. 3 Book iii. Chapter 102. 1 Keane, Op. cit. Recluse: "Asia," Vol. IV. p. 84. 5 Eecluse, Op. cit. p. 85. 6 This Series, Vol. II. p. 166, 96 TSE MEDIEVAL WOULD. telligence and firmness." "Go to India for wealth, to Kaslimir for pleasure, but to the Afghans for a wife," is an Oriental proverb that illustrates this point. But there is another side to their character. They regard " every- thing as fair in war," and so show no mercy to their ene- mies. "Grod shield you from the vengeance of the elephant, cobra, and Afghan," is a prayer that the Mussleman has long since learned to repeat. There is another type of people in Afghanistan per- haps more interesting to us, in an ethnic sense, than the dark Aryans of the Southwest. These are known as G-alchas, and dwell in the immediate Hindoo Koosh re- gion and to the northward. They may have dwelt in these wild and mountainous regions since the Turanians first cut them off from their Slavic fatherland. They are the purest physical type of Aryans to be found in Asia. Their skulls are identical with those of the Savoyards.-^ As to their language equally significant remarks are made. Professor Keane^ tells us that the language of the Gralchas " may possibly prove to he pre, rather than iV^o-Sanskritic." In which case we have here an Aryan people who are ethni- cally connected with the Slaves, and who use an Aryan language of a more ancient type than the Sanskritic, though inclined toward the Iranic.-^ They, too, dwell in the very region toward which all the Yedic and Avestic traditions jooint, as the land through which the ancestors of the Indians and Iranians journeyed before they reached their present homes. When we further remember that 1 Keane iu "Nature," Jan . 22, 1880, p. 277. Also same author in Stanford's "Europe," p. 558. We have already referred to this ethnic problem on page 72. 2 "Nature," 1. c. p. 278. S Keane, in Stanford's "Asia," p. 706, note 1. THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 97 the ancient Slaves, or Sar- matians, used an Iranian dialect connected with that of the Persians and Af- ghans/ it seems evident that in the remote past, the territory of the Slavic tribes reached from' the Vistula to the Kindoo Koosh. In the Gralchas, then, we have the ancestors, and not the children, of the Indians and Iranians. We are here building, not upon theory, but the proof lies before us like the pages of an open book. These Gralchas are typi- cal Slavic Aryans in many other respects than lan- guage and shape of the skull. Here we find also the blonde type so pecu- liar to the ancient Slaves.® " The fair or chestnut type is found almost exclusive- ly amid the Kafiristan highlanders."^ Professor Keane* says of the same people that they have "reg- A Mountain Pass In Afglianistaa. 1 Sayce : '' Comparative Philology," p. 396. 2 Quatrefages: "Prussian Race," p. 14-15. 3 Becluse: "Asia," Vol. .IV. p. 34. ■» "Nature," Jan. 22, 1880. 98 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. ular features, blue and black eyes, hair varying from brown to black, broad, open forehead, tall and well made." The Kafir women are beautiful and the men handsome ; and the English report that the Kafirs look like kinsmen and allies.-^ In the liindoo Koosh region itself, we meet with Gal- chan tribes whose complexion is still lighter and fairer. They have blue eyes and light hair. They are considered superior to all the people about them and "have preserved their old customs, recalling those of Zoroastrian times. "^ They are by no means ignorant, for many of the school- masters of Turkestan are from Karateghin. Naturally industrious, they are engaged in salt mining, weaving, metal-working, and gold-washing. , They trade with many of the cities in this region, principally Kokan, Bokhara, and Kashgaria. They have always retained their inde- pendence, preferring, like the race in general, to live in their cold mountain homes rather than submit to the com' mands of any master. Between the English and the Russians, however, it is impossible to say how long they will retain their independence, or even their purity of race and language. The Indians and Western Iranians are usually sup- posed to have wandered away together from the slopes of the liindoo Koosh. Then a separation took place, some of the tribes journeying to the Southeast into Hindostan, and some to the Southwest into Persia. Max Muller be- lieves that it was the reform of Zoroaster that caused the separation of these people into two branches.^ But, so long as the Kabul valley lay open to them, as soon as the 1 Fisher: "Afghanistan," London, 1878, p. 77-8. 2 Eecluse: "Asia," Vol. I. p. 254-5. 3 "Science of Language, Vol. I. p. 212. fUE ASIATIC ARYANS. 99 Aryans took possession of the Hindoo Koosh, there is no reason why some tribes should not have early wandered into the Punjab, and why the migrations of the Indie tribes should not have been ■ slow and continued through Armenian Women— Haik Aryans. many generations. At the same time, some of the primi- tive tribes may have pushed off toward the west and south across Afghanistan and, finally, into Persia and Media. Such movements would be in accordance with what we know of the migration of primitive people. The 100 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. language of the Afghans is also classed as intermediate between the Indie and Iranic dialects,^ while the Iranic are more closely allied to the Galchan dialects than are the Indic.^ Thus is revealed the fact, that the general direction of the tribes of Aryans that reached Irania was down through Afghanistan, and that they separated from the Galchas at a later date than did the Indians. The Iranians and Indians have each an ancient lit- erature, in which have been preserved their legends and religious myths since they left the slopes of the Hindoo Koosh. They are recorded in ancient dialects that are of great importance in the study of philology, though they are now classed with the dead languages. From the East Iranic branch, the Bactrians furnish us with the Zend dialect ; from the West Iranic branch, the Persians fur- nish us with the Parsi and Pehlevi dialects ; while the Sanskrit is the ancient dialect of the Indie branch. The Vedic, or classical literature of the Indie branch, is writ- ten in Sanskrit; while, of the Avestic or Iranian classic literature, the oldest parts are written in Zend, the more recent additions or exjDlanations in Pehlevi, and the latest additions or, explanations in Parsi ;^ but all of these dia- lects have long since become antiquated. We must, from the start, understand that the Yedas form the Bible of the Indians, and the Avesta, that of the ancient Iranians. In tracing the history of the Iranians, it is necessary to speak to some extent of their religion, since their first history is gathered from their religious books. Only an outline of this religion is required at this point, we will analyze and compare it later. In the dim light of a 1 Keane in Stanford's "Asia," p. 706. 2 ibid. note. 3 Whitney: "Oriental and and Linguistic Studies," New York, 1883, p. 171. THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 101 distant past, a personage by the name of Zarathushtra, commonly known as Zoroaster, appears as a great religious reformer. We will, for the present, not question whether he be an historical personage or not, though his origin and life are veiled in mystery, and no historian can fix the date of his birth, or that of his death. In fact, an- cient historians mention as many as six philosophers, by the name of Zoroaster, assigning to each a separate nation- ality.^ The particular Zoroaster, to whom reference is probably made, was designated by the family name of Spitama, and the land of Bactria was the probable scene of his life and teachings. The age in which he flourished is also a mooted point and ranges all the way between 2400 and 600 b. c. While a number of our best linguistic scholars assert that he could not have lived at a later date than 1200 or 1000 b. c.;^ other authorities claim to be very liberal in admitting the composition of the Avesta to have been as early as 700 b. c. Passing by all these questions for the present, we must be content to ascertain, as best we can, the effect of the teachings going by his name upon the later civilization of the Iranians. It must have taken a long period of time for the tribes of Aryans to grow and spread themselves over the ancient countries of Bactria, Parthia, Media, and Persia, until they had completely Aryanized the Turanian popu- lation of those regions. But such seems to have been accomplished by the time of Zoroaster. Probably the ideaswhich Zoroaster formulated and preached had been 1 "History of the Parsis," Vol. II. p. 167. 2 Rawlinson: "Religions of the Ancient World," p. 7g. "History of the Parsis," Vol. II. p. 148. Whitney: "Oriental and Linguistic Stud- ies," p. 165. J. R. A. S. for 1885, p. 349. Introduction to "Sacred Books in the East," Vols IV. and XXXI.. King, in the latest editior of "Gnos- tics and their Remains," plac-es him at 1200 b. c. 7 102 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. slowly developing for ages, and had even entered into the lives and practices of the priestly class. Then, even as now, the principles of a reform seem to have grown until the minds of the people were ready for it. At an op- portune date, Zo- roaster is supposed to have appeared ; and, as the result of his labors, the re- ligion that he preached became the principal r e- ligion of the Ira- nians. It is now known as Mazde- ism. As was but natural, it became much changed and corrupted before it assumed the form of the religion of the present Parsi ^^ community of Bom- bay. As it spread westward from tribe to tribe, it Kurdish Hunter— West Iranic Aryan. seems to have ab- sorbed many foreign elements from the native religions which it supplanted. And so it grew until, in a later day, it became the ruling religion of one of the greatest nations of ancient times. The religion of Zoroaster has been preserved to us in the sacred writings of the Parsis under the title of THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 103 the Zend-Avesta. Sanskrit scholars recognize in it, as in all cases of ancient sacred literature, a growth of litera- ture extending over many generations. The first part only, known as the Grathas, is attributed to Zoroaster; and the language in which it is written appears to be two or three centuries older than the ordinary Avesta language.^ It claims to be a record of the revelations made to that prophet, and the doctrines which he taught.^ The other parts of the Avesta were added, from time to time, by priests and by teachers, claiming to be aided by inspira- tion. When the disciples of Zoroaster arrived in Media, they were confronted by the Magi, the priestly body, formed, by the coalescing of the numerous Shamans of an earlier age. The result was a union of these two relig- ions. When the Sassanian dynasty arose in Persia,^ the Zoroastrian religion, after having been neglected for ages, was for the last time made the state religion, and, under the careful protection of the Persian rulers, continued to flourish until the Mahommedan conquerers forced it from its native soil at the point of the swords The most earnest and loyal Mazdean worshipers either died for freedom of conscience, or fled to the mountains, or to foreign lands, where they could worship their own gods in peace. And in our own day, respected by all nations for their habits of industry and honesty, they constitute one of the most flourishing commercial communities on the coast of India. ^ Very briefly expressed, we may say that, in theology, Mazdeism taught that there was only one god, and that his name was Ahura Mazda. He was the creator, ruler, and preserver of the universe. Thus at its foundation the 1 "History of the Parsis," Vol. II. p. 155. 2 Whitney, Op. cit. p. 167. S A. D. 226. 104 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. religion was monotheistic. But it recognized two all- powerful controlling spirits, one good and one bad, that were forever warring with each other for supremacy. This gave rise to a dualistic form of worship.^ In practi- cal ethics, Mazfleism taught that truthfulness, honesty, and virtue were commendable. It condemned idolatry. It recommended a settled mode of life and the cultivation of the land. It taught immortality, and that the future life of the virtuous was to be much more happy and desirable than that of the vicious. No doubt, this religion was in advance of the time, and the standard of right and wrong was but seldom attained by its followers ; but we find in these writings the words of those inspired with a desire to advance and better the condition of mankind. With such a system of belief, the tribes of Iranians encroached upon the territory of the Turanians. Their most earnest prayers were for the help of their god against the Turanians. It was a continued struggle between Iran and Turan. There were many tribes of each roaming at will over a vast stretch of country. Whenever a tribe of Aryans became powerful through the conquest of its Turanian neighbors, its chieftain did not hesitate to extend his authority over his weaker Aryan brothers also. Thus in early times, in Western Asia, was waged a continued tribal warfare, in which the Aryans, as a whole, seemed to finally gain the ascendency. In another place,^ we have shown that the great Sem- itic power of Assyria had become aware of the growing power of the Aryans to the north and east of it. We have now reached the same period from the Aryan side. The Median empire of Cyaxares, that divided with Nabo- 1 "History of the Parsis," Vol. II. p. 184-5. Darmestet: "Sacred Books of the East," Vol. IV. p. Ivii. THE A SIA TIC AB YANS. 105 polassar the Assyrian power, was, in name, Aryan, though the people were probably not very pure in blood. But the pure Persians were pressing on from the rear. We must not forget that Assurbanipal had conquered and ravaged the old kingdom of Elam, or Anzan.^ When Assyria disappeared as a political power, a tribe of Aryan Persians, under the lead of Achemenian chiefs, entered Anzan and speedily became the ruling power in that sec- tion. During the entire period of the second Babylonian empire, we know but little of Aryan movements; but they seem to have been gradually extending their power and influence over all that section. During all this period of migration and conquest, these Aryan tribes seem to have continued their simple, pastoral lives. It was only the overflowing of the parent hive, that led to these migrations at first, and each migra- ting tribe often stopped on their way to refresh their flocks on some good pasture land or, in its season, to raise a crop of grain before proceeding upon their journey. Thus was passed time enough to conquer and Aryanize all the tribes of people with whom they came in contact. But it must not be forgotten that, wherever the Aryan tribes were weaker than the Turanians, the former were the ones that became absorbed. Thus mixture and inter- mixture continued until the historian finds himself in doubt as to who were Iranians arid who Turanians. But wherever the Aryans prevailed they introduced the prin- ciples of Mazdeism; and, wherever they went, they insti- tuted a more settled mode of life than was common among the Turanians. This, in itself, tended to a more stable growth in social condition and strength ; and, at a time 1 Vol. II. p. 795 et seq. 106 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. when the various empires of Western Asia were decaying, we find in Persia the germ of new empires destined to rule the world. Cyrus ttie Great. We have now, in this hurried review, arrived at the formation of the Persian Empire. " The Persians" is a general name given to a union of ten Aryan tribes, of which the Parsagadae tribe was the ruling one.^ In this tribe 1 This Series, Vol. II. p. 165. TUE ASIA TIC A R YA NS. 107 the Achemenian gens was the principal one. There seems to be historical evidence for the statement, that Teispes was the first ruling chief, who extended Aryan influence westward to the Persian Grulf. Later kings proudly claim the honor of descent from him. But Cyrus appears as the real founder of Persia. It is claimed for him that he was a grandson of Teispes. There was probably consider- able Turanian blood , not only in the veins of Cyrus, but in those of his people as well. But he was now at the head of the old kingdom of Elam, one that vied in an- tiquity with that of Babylon itself, and one of the last to succumb to the power of Assyria. It is not strange, then, that Cyrus should indulge in pleasing thoughts of conquest and glory, of once more raising Anzan to the height of power. But around the first years of Cyrus, myths have so clustered that it is difficult to decide what is history and what is myth.^ It seems to have been his first aim to extend his rule over all the various Aryan people in Western Asia. This involved the overthrow of the Median kingdom founded by Cyaxares, at that time ruled by Astyages. Here again myth has been busy. But it seems that about 549 b. c. Cyrus overthrew this Median power.^ Some years were spent in consolidating his conquests in this section of Asia. But as a final result, we know that not only the Median kingdom of Cyaxares, but the Aryan states in Asia Minor were all brought under tribute to this new Persian power. ^SeeSayce: "Ancient Empires." New material for the history of this formative time is so recent that Justi: "Geschichte des Alten Persiens"in Onken's " Algemeine Geschichte," still gives credence to the old stories, p. 16 et seq. * The defeat of the Medes is referred to in a Babylonian inscription, see "Ancient Empires," 108 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Of course; any power, that aspired to a very extended sway, must sooner or later, come in contact with Babylon. The glorious reign of Nebuchadnezzar had passed into history before Cyrus had commenced to extend the boun- daries of his empire. The successors of Nebuchadnezzar were not by any means his equal ; and it was probably apparent that the star of Babylonia was as rapidly sinking to final extinction, as it had risen to its meridian height. When such a state of affairs exists, there is always a discontented party ; and when Cyrus was planning the downfall of Babylonian power, he seems to have intrigued with the discontented party in Babylon. His intrigues were successful ; and when, after his conquests over the various Aryan powers in Asia Minor, his forces appeared before Babylon, the city gates were open to him, and, almost without opposition, his soldiers entered the city. And thus Persian supremacy supervened in Western Asia. They now wielded the power once held by Assyria. The whole history of the conquest of Babylon is recorded on a terra cotta cylinder only recently discovered, so that we have historical evidence of this period in Persian history.^ From this, we learn that there was no long siege of Babylon. Cyrus appears as the ally of a disaffected ele- ment. His success is claimed as an evidence of favor from the gods of Babylon. Cyrus acknowledges himself, as the servant of Bel and Merodach. He showed a great deal of tact in not antagonizing the religious culture in Babylon. This kindness was even extended to the Jewish captives. With his consent, a portion of them, as an or- ganized church, went back to their ruined city, Jerusa- lem, and there established Judaism.^ Cyrus ruled until 1 Budge: "Babylonian Life and History," p. 78. ? Vol. II. p. 761. Missing Page Missing Page THE ASIATIC ARYANS. Ill The result was, that they determined to rid themselves of the usurper, and to exercise the right of electing one of their number to the office of king.^ Their choice fell upon Darius, son of Hystaspes, who was young and energetic and, above all, a member of the Achemenian gens, in which the office of ruling chieftain seems to have, been hereditary. Darius proudly publishes in one of his in- scriptions : " There are eight of my race who have been kings before mo I am the ninth ; for a very long tini we have been kings. "*' This right t the council, to unseat a ruler and seL 1 1 a chief to his place, is a relic of a purely tribal state of society, and seems to have been recognized and exercised even down to the last days of the Neo-Persian empire. The oldest son generally succeeded the father as chief ; but, in case of doubt or dispute, and sometimes of the unpopularity of the heir, this council of chiefs of the various gentes of a tribe would come forward and assert this ancient right. Sapor II. was thus elected chieftain, even before his birth, to the exclusion of an older brother. Kobad was deposed by this council and Zamasp was given the crown.' Chosroea I. assumed the office of emperor, when this council claimed that it was a "constitutional axiom that no one had the right of taking the Persian crown until it was assigned to him by the assembled Darius Hystaspes. 1 This Series, Vol.11, p. 165. See also Eawlinson: "Herodotus," Vol. II. p. 477, and note. 2 Rawlinson's Translation of the Behistun Inscription in "Records of the Past," Vol. I. p. 111. 3 Bawlinson; "Seven Great Monarchies," Vol. II. p. 430. 112 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. nobles."^ Even the last ruler of the Neo-Persian empire received his crown by right of election after a period of internal disaffection.^ In many other ways, do we find the customs of tribal life clinging to the government of early nations, proving that it was rarely possible for them to establish a purely artificial form of government, without retaining or introducing many of their earlier customs. The Persian Empire, as founded by Cyrus and ex- tended by Cambyses, was simply one of those huge con- glomerations of tribes and people built up on the shaky foundation of tribal society. We have pointed out what plain traces all Aryan people still possess of a former tribal state.^ It has been impossible for any government to entirely break up the system of tribal life among the Asiatic Aryans. The occupation of many tribes as herds- men is entirely opposed to any other system of living, and the mountainous nature of their country has always tended to the same result. At the first appearance of an invading army, the weaker tribes could flee to mountain fastnesses, where they could defend themselves against enormous odds of invaders and could find abundant pasturage for their flocks. So in both Persia and India to-day, we find these still uncultivated tribes of Aryans leading a wandering and adventurous life within a few miles of populous and thrifty cities and villages, neither accepting the adopted religion of their brethren nor submitting to be ruled by them. They still worship the old nature gods or fetiches of their forefathers and live in freedom and independence.* 1 Ibid. 448. 2 Ibid. p. 541. 3 Vol. II. p. 16.5 et seq. * To illustrate this point, we quote from Recluse, who describes the wild Afghan tribes as follows: "Whether swayed by Ameer, Khan, or Jirga, the Afghan still fancies himself free. 'We are all equal,' they are constantly assuring the English traveler, and on his boasting his mon- THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 113 Darius effected a complete reorganization of the Persian Empire. He made Susa the capital city, and divi- ded the empire into about twenty satrapies each ruled by a satrap appointed by the emperor. Sometimes this satrap, was a native prince, but, more often, he was sent out by the emperor to rule the province. Communication between these provinces was maintained by means of roads that all met at Susa. A royal scribe was stationed with >§ss!iiS^^:iii.'^^' Ruins of Palace of Darius at Susa. every satrap whose duty it was to occasionally report the condition of affairs to the emperor, and, to render his au- thority more secure, the emperor, from time to time, sent an inspector with an armed force to visit each satrapy. Thus, was his authority maintained throughout the empire archial Institutions, 'we prefer our dissensions' they reply. 'Let our blood flow, if need be, but we will have no master.' And if local feuds are frequent, the tribes at a distance from the large cities escape, on the one hand, not only from a system of unlimited oppression, but also from the general revolutions which decimate the inhabitants of some other Asiatic lands subject to capricious autocrats." "Earth and its Inhabitants," Vol. IV. p. 35. 114 TB.E MEDIEVAL WOULD. and a heavy tribute exacted from every satrapy. The government thus became "a highly centralized bureaucracy, the members of which owed their offices to an irresponsible despot." The emperor was this despot and the fountain of all law.^ Even that constant element of tribal society, the council — consisting, in the case of the Persians, of the seven chiefs of the seven gentes of the'ParsagadaQ tribe — for the time being, largely disappeared, seemingly tolerated only out of respect for ancient customs.^ With such a government, and a revenue amounting to at least twenty-one millions of dollars in silver and gold, Darius was able to organize and maintain enormous armies, so it is not strange that his reign was one of great military success. It lasted from 521 b. c. to 486 b. c, a period of thirty-five years. During that time, he conquered nearly every tribe of people west of the Indus river, and south of the Hindoo Koosh mountains. He did not stop with the conquest of Asia Minor and Egypt merely, but crossed over into Europe, and added Thrace to the Persian Em- pire. Though twice defeated in his attempt to conquer Greece, he was in the midst of much vaster preparations for a new invasion of that country, when the vital force gave out and he was buried in a magnificent tomb at Naksh-i-Rustam. The Magian revolt being suppressed by Darius, as we would expect, Mazdeism was made the religion of the empire, Darius is said to have ordered a collection of the writings of Zoroaster to be made. But the relig- 1 "Ancient Empires," p. 247-50. 2 Saycesays: "A council consisting of tlie seven leading families and a hereditary sub-nobility sat without the will of the king, but this relic of a period when Persia had not yet become an empire had neither power nor influence against the bureaucracy that managed the govern- ment." "Ancient Empires," p. 248. THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 115 ion that was instituted as the state religion was not the pure Mazdeism as taught by the great Iranian prophet. It was a corrupt religion formed by the amalgamation of Magism (the worship of the elements, such as fire, earth, water, and air) with Mazdeism. Nor did the influence of the old Magian priests disappear. After their unsuccessful attempt to gain governmental authority under Gromates, they seemed to have changed their policy, and led the way Tomb of Darius at Kaksh-i-Eustam. , to a blending of the Mazdean spiritualistic and dualistic worship with their own cult. In this way they succeeded in forming a combination of the two religions under the name of Zoroastrianism, But having secured the office of priest as the peculiar right of their own particular sect, these priests of the new religion then proceeded to erect their fire altars on the tops of the highest mountains ; and, calling down fire from heaven through the lightning, they kept it constantly burning and sacredly guarded, lest it be corrupted even by the human breath. 113 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Perhaps one of the most striking natural objects to be found in the whole length and breadth of the Persian land is the imposing, precipitous face of Mount Behistun, situated in the western part of Persia twenty-seven miles east of Kirrdanshah. Rising above the surrounding plain to a height of fifteen hundred feet, it presents its precipi- tous face to the approaching traveler, and stands out, like a great natural monument, to proclaim to passing genera- tions the life, conquest, and the deeds of prowess ac^ complish by Darius the Great, by the grace of the Zoroas- trian god, Ahura Mazda. The center of the face of this Various Forms ol Firs Altars. rock, at the height of four hundred feet above its base, was polished into a smooth tablet, one hundred feet high by one hundred and fifty feet long. All cracks and crevi-, ces were filled with lead, and the whole covered with a silicious varnish. Upon the face of this rock, was sculp- tured in bas-relief a representaton of Darius attended by the nine conquered chieftains, upon the neck of one of whom he is resting his foot. These are mentioned in the inscription as the Asiatic rulers who revolted against Darius, and were conquered by him.^ 1 There were Gomates, the^Magian: Atrines, the Susian; Keboehod- rossor, the Babylonian; Martes, a Persian; Phraortes, a Median; Sitrat- achmes, the Sagartian ; Phraates, the Margian ; Veisdates, the Persian; and Aracus, the Armenian. "Records of the Past," Vol. I. p. 124. THE ASIATIC ABY AN S. •' 117 On the remainder of this tablet is recorded the his- tory of \he\ reign of Darius, setting forth his conquests and his power, in three languages — the Persian, Median, and Assyrian — in all of which the cuneiform alphabet was used. There are several hundred lines of these inscrip- tions, written under the directions of Darius himself, and calling down imprecations upon the head of him who dared to deface or to add thereto. For twenty-three cen- turies, has this rock stood, like an open book, inviting the inquisitive to come and read. But the historian blundered on from age to age, trying to build up a history from frag- ments of mythological lore, ignorant or regardless of these records. In the middle of our own century, Sir Henry Rawlinson scaled the cliff, and reclaimed to the world this valuable contemporaneous record of the history of Per- sia's great conqueror. From this record, Persian history has been reconstructed, and placed on a sure and safe foundation. Xerxes, son and successor of Darius, reigned twenty- one years, and also vainly endeavor to conquer G-reece. He, however, succeeded in maintaining intact the vast empire organized by his father, and he ruled with considerable energy and ability. His death occurred in 466 b. c. The seven emperors, who in succession followed Xerxes, did very little to enhance the glory, or, to increase the terri- tory of the empire. Their combined reigns covered a period of about one hundred and thirty-five years from 466 to 321 B. c.^ Even in the time of Xerxes I., germs of decay began to take root and grow. The ornamentation of the palace 1 These kings were Artaxerxes I., who reigned 41 years; Xerxes II., 45 days; Sogdianos, six months; Darius II., 19 years; Artaxerxes II., 46 years; Okhos, 21 years; Arses, 2 years; and Darius III., 6 years. 118 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. of Darius represent the king as hunting the lion, and as fighting with and killing fabulous monsters ; while, in the palace of Xerxes, attendants are represented as bringing towels and delicate dishes to satisfy the whims of an effem- inate prince.^ This early sign of effeminacy increased until, when Alexander arrived with his conquering army, he met with little or no resistance. The Macedonian con- queror brought with him scarcely thirty-fiA^e thousand soldiers ; yet, when he met the Persians on the battlefield of Arbela, where Darius Codomanus mustered an army claimed to number one million soldiers, he is said to have slain three hundred thousand men.- Although the Grreek au- thors, who have record- ed the history of Alex- ander's conquests, may have falsely stated the number of soldiers that opposed him in these various engagements ; it is evident, that the em- pire had become disor- ganized, and that the Persians had no such leader as Darius Hystaspes, who dared to carry Persian arms into Greece itself. This con- quest by Alexander put an end to what is known as the first Persian Empire, which had lasted, as we see, about two centuries. As united under Darius and his immediate succes- Darius Codomanus. 1 Rawlinson, Vol. IV. p. 265. S Ibid. p. 66. THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 119 sors, the Persian Empire was still a country of long dis- tances and occupied by tribes of people, who waited only for a favorable opportunity to rise and declare their inde- pendence. This state of affairs was made manifest in a marked degree, by the successful retreat of the ten thou- sand Grreek mercenary troops, who accompanied Cyrus the younger in his unsuccessful expedition against his Mount Behistun. brother, the Emperor Xerxes. On the death of Cyrus at the battle of Cunaxa, they found themselves hundreds of miles away from home, their leaders murdered, and them- selves surrounded by enemies.^ Electing Xenophon as their leader, they began their memorable retreat and suc- ceeded in reaching their native Grreece. Had the country through which they, passed been inhabited by people thor- 1 Xenophon: "Anabasis." 120 TBE MEDIEVAL WORLD. oughly in sympathy with the Persian government, a body of ten thousand hostile men could never have passed through the heart of this country, which seems to have been able to raise army after army of hundreds of thou- sands of men with comparative ease. While living in fear of the power of the Persian monarch, the various tribes inhabiting the empire were in a state of constant uneasiness, and the ruling monarch had to be constantly on the watch to suppress incipient revolts. stairway at Persepolis, Lion Devouring a Bull. In regard to the personal traits of character of the Persians, we have to admit that they were not only cru&l but apparently set very little value on human life. This is at least true of the ruling house. The majority of the emperors reached the^throne and maintained the same, only by a series of bloody deeds. Darius himself gained supremacy by the murder of Gomates, and the massacre of the Magi ; whenever a chieftain displayed uncommon energy in maintaining a revolt, the great " King of many THS ASIATIC ABYANS. i31 Kings" caused to be recorded that he, after mutilating the body of his prisoner, caused the miserable captive to be chained to his palace door and, finally, to be crucified.^ Xerxes was murdered by two courtiers at the instigation of his wife. Artaxerxes, his third son and successor, secured possession of the throne by the murder of two brothers. His successor, Xerxes II., was assassinated by a half-brother, forty- five days after his accession to the throne, who, in turn, ruled six months, and was murdered ' by another brother. Then Cyrus the younger was killed in battle, while at- tempting to sup- plant his brother on the throne.^ This chapter of crime could be extended indnefiitely, but| enough has been stairway at Persepolis, Persian Guardsmen. said to show that the state of society was certainly very crude. The religion of the old empire, formed, as we have 1 Darius says of Phraortes: " I cut off both his nose, and ears, and his tongue and scourged him. He was held chained at my door, all the liingdom beheld him. Afterward at Ecbatana, there I crucified him ; and the men who were his chief followers at Ecbatana within the cita- del, I executed them." "Records of the Past," Vol. I. p. 119. The same punishment awaited another of his captives also. 2 "Ancient Empires," p. 252-3. 122 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. seen, by the union of Magism and Mazdeism, liad many ceremonies calculated to impress the masses of the people. The priestly body was very numerous and influential. Clothed in long white robes and tall felt hats, with lofty air and stately bearing, carrying their divining rods in their hands, processions of these Magi were wont to wind through the streets of the Persian capital and up the mountain side^, there to practice their weird incanta- tions around the never dying fires on the sacred mountain- altars. These altar fires also reminded the Iranian peas- ant of his own sacred vestal fires ; and, under the influ- ence of superstitious dread of the priestly magic, no laws strong enough to prevent the union of these two religions could be made and enforced. Worshiping the elements, fire, earth, air, and water were regarded as sacred. It was a problem to them how to dispose of the human body after death, until they struck upon the plan of erecting lofty "towers of silence" on .the mountain lops. There, between the heavens and the earth, they placed their dead that the flesh might be de- voured by the vultures of the air and thus be prevented from defiling the elements. This custom of disposing of the dead, however, had not become incorporated into the Mazdean religion at the time of Darius,^ or of his ' succes- sor, Xerxes ; for both of these emperors, though champions of that faith, were buried in costly and elaborate rock- tombs, ruins of which can be seen by the modern traveler in Persian lands.^ In another place, we have shown how Petichism gives rise to idolatry. Inasmuch as Petichism was common to all people, it has been almost impossible 1 See Mills: "Zend-Avesta," Part III. in "Sacred Books of the Bast," Vol. XXXI. p. xxxi. 2 "Sacred Books of the East," Vol IV. p. xlv. THE A SI A TIC ABYANS. 123 to supplant idolatry. This has been the experience of all systems of belief. So we are not surprised to find that, although idolatry was forbidden by Zoroaster, still at the time of Darius images had been already made to represent peculiar Mazdean divinities and angels. On the face of his tomb, Darius is represented as worshiping Ormazd, or Ahura Mazda. The only image of this god that we find is the winged circle surmounted by an incomplete human figure like the accompanying cut. This idea seems to have been adopted from Assyria.^ There is, however, also found, on one of the square pillars erected by Cyrus at Pasargadae, Representation of Ahura-Mazda. the figure of a colossal man with four wings issuing from his shoulders, and is supposed to represent the angel, "Serosh," who in the Mazdean religion meets the pious soul and escorts it across the Bridge of Death to the Para- dise beyond.^ This also represents a hybrid style of art, as the figure is clothed in a purely Egyptian style.^ Neither the Iranian nor the Magian at this time had temples for their gods, but believed rather in paying reverence to their 1 See cuts Vol. II. pp. 766, 806. S See Vol. II. pp. 278, 289. 8 "Five Great Monarchies," Vol. IV. Part 333-6. 124 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. deities in the pure open air, where the horizon was their temple walls, the mountains were their altar foundations, and the vault of heaven, the star-bespangled dome of Nat- ure's beautiful and sublime cathedral.^ The Angel Serosh. The ancient Persians never reached any great degree 1 Sayce remarks on the winged figure as follows: "Egyptian in- fluence may perhaps be detected in the propylae through which the royal palaces were approached, as well as in the headdress of the man who has the attributes of the winged Asiatic goddess on one of the pillars of the tomb falsely ascribed to Kyros (Cyrus) at Murghab," ("Ancient Empires," p. 272.) THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 125 of merit in art and architecture. They were, in the main, copyists and thus originated a mixed style of architecture, showing very little skill or originality. Their religion, as stated, forbade idolatry, and, in that way, was removed the greatest source of inspiration to the artist ; for, under the inspired chisel of the ancient sculptor, the rough marble block gave form to the ideal conceptions of divine grace and virtue, and transformed itself into images of surpassing beauty and loveliness. The poetical muse of both the Iranians and the Indians seems to have guarded her do- minion with jealous care, and, while giving them a rich and reasonably pure form of worship, in the same breath, seems to have forbidden the entrance of her sister divinities into the fields of Iranian nature worship. It is true, that the ravages of war and of the elements have left very few re- mains of ancient Persian architecture ; but those remains prove the costliness and magnificence of Persian palaces, and, at the same time, display, to a certain degree, a coarse- ness and a lack of polish in their finish. The richest field of ruins that can be found in Persia is near the site of the ancient city of Persepolis. Here were built in succession the three great palaces of three great Persian emperors, Darius I., Xerxes I., and Arta- xerxes III., the Sassanian. Here also may be found the ruins of the " Hall of One Hundred Columns " and the " Grreat Hall of Audience," all of which buildings are said to have been destroyed by Alexander the Great, in a drunken revelry, in order to please Thais, a beautiful follower of his court. These ruins are grouped on an enormous platform, rising in terraces to a height of forty- five feet above the plain. The surface of the third ter- race is seven hundred and seventy feet long, by four hun- dred broad, and on this were erected the three palaces ^nd 126 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. two large halls just referred to.^ This whole platform is built of solid masses of hewn stone, often of enor- mous size, though irregular in shape, these blocks were closely fitted to each other so as to present the appearance of the accompanying cut. The top of the platform on which the build- ings were erected, was reached by a series of flights of broad stairs, slop- t,.,,rii;_. iiig so gradually Ipj? that they could be ., ■ ascended and de- ^^- 1 1 scended by a trav- eler on horseback. L The parapet walls of the staircase Masonry at Persepoiis. were elaborately covered with ornamentation and sculptures, representing Persian guardsmen, a lion devouring a bull (see cuts pages 120-1), or some mythological event. The palace of Darius seems to have occupied the most exalted position of any of the buildings on the platform. It was built on a separate terrace of its own, about four- teen'feet above the general level of the third main terrace, the western edge of which it occupied, facing the south. It covered a space of one hundred and thirty-five by one hun- dred feet, and seems to have been a one-storied edifice about twenty-five feet high. The kingly guest, passing up a double flight of stairs, would enter the palace through a deep por- tico, adorned with enormous columns surmounted by "dou- 1 For further details of this field of ruins, see Bawlinson: "Five Great Monarchies," Vol. IV. THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 127 blegrifan" and "double bull" capitals of elegant design and execution. On either side, a guard-room opened into the portico, and the Persian soldiers stationed here fur- nished a protection against intruders. Next, he would be ushered into a square hall, the roof of which was supported by sixteen pillars arranged in four rows. On the three re- maing sides of this hall, were suites of compartments, the doors of which bear the only specimens of sculptures that General View-Ruins of Persepolis. adorn the room. This was the great hall of Darius, "the great king, the king of many kings, the king of the nations."^ The ordinary Asiatic monarch was content to live in no such close quarters as these. If, however, the grand central hall, though only fifty feet square, were be- decked in true Oriental style, it would have presented no mean appearance. And it probably was so adorned. Inscription at Nakbsh-i-Rustam, 128 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. The columns were, no doubt, slender and graceful, and plated with gold and silver. The beams and rafters of the ceiling were regularly arranged at right angles, and • likewise coated with precious metals. The cold stone walls, broken here or there by window or door, were similarly decked and further bespangled with jewels, curtains of brilliant hues hung across the entrances. The floors were paved with many colored stones, and in places covered with magnificent carpets. An elevated golden throne, under a canopy of purple, adorned the upper end of the Palace of Darius— Restored. hall. We can thus see how elegance of form and richness of adornment may have more than compensated for the want of that grandeur which results from mere size. The palace of Xerxes stands on the same main platr form, and is built after the plan of that of Darius, though double the size ; but there are a number of gateways guard- ing the various entrances to the platform, or palace, that are remarkable for their size and ornamentation. They were halls of great size and may have been "throne rooms where the monarch held his court on grand occasions. The largest of these was eighty-two feet square, surrounded THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 129 by walls sixteen feet thick, the roof being supported by four massive pillars nearly sixty feet high. The apart, ment was entered through two portals thirty-six feet high, and twelve feet wide, and these were flanked with figures of colossal bulls, some of which were winged and human headed, similar to those of Assyrian workmanship. Ruins of Palace- of Xerxes. The ruins of two structures of enormous dimensions may also be found on this same platform. These were two pillared halls, probably used for public gatherings, where the emperor presided before great assemblies of people. Both were similar in shape and construction to the gateways. One is called, by the archaeologist, the "Hall of One Hundred Columns," because the roof of the main audience room was supported by that number of lofty marble pillars, arranged in ten rows in an enclosure two hundred and twenty-seven feet square. The portico was 130 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. one hundred and eighty-tliree feet deep, and also supported by columns. The " Grreat Hall of Audience," though similar in design, was even grander in proportions. The ruins of this enormous building cover an area three hun- dred and fifty feet long by two hundred and forty-six broad. The central square alone covered over twenty thousand square feet. The roof of this part was sup- ported by thirty-six pillars, arranged in six rows. But the GEateway to "Hall Of One Hundred Columns." most remarkable feature of the building was the height of its columns. These all towered above the platform to the uniform altitude of sixty-four feet and were, besides, of a much more ornamental and complex style of architecture than any that wc have previously examined, as will be seen from the accompanying cut. We have taken a hasty glance at the most remarka- ble relics of ancient Persian grandeur. It is humiliating to record, also, that it was Aryan against Aryan that finally led to the downfall of these proud cities and lofty halls. THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 131 No amount of labor or wealtli can repair tlie ruin of a single night of revelry on the part of the Macedonian conqueror. Much of the grandeur of these proud old emperors has disappeared, but enough remains for us to dimly realize what must have been their power and resources, to enable them to send forth ^ their vast armies to new victories and fur- ther conquests, and, at the same time, to cultivate the arts of peace. They were able to quarry blocks of marble so mas- . sive that it would baffle our own enlight- ened age, with all its arts and mechanical skill, to remove them from their native beds. The first Persian Empire was, as sta- ted, brought to an end by the conquest of Alexander the Grreat. The career of the great Macedonian is one of the most wonderful in the annals of the world, and exerted a very great influence on the cul- ture of Western Asia. We are here not 'Sayce: "Troja," p. xi. BUM "Troja," p. 357-8. 192 THE 3£EDIEVAL WORLD. cient records that we have referring to the ruin of that city are the Homeric poems — the Iliad and the Odyssey — attri- buted to the authorship of an ancient, blind poet who bore the name of Homer. But ours is an extremely skeptical age. The vague and highly improbably myths and stories, that formed the basis of all ancient history, have been ques- tioned and cross questioned and sifted down in order to find facts upon which to base a reliable record of events. Much that was once accepted as history has been discarded as wholly unreliable. In regard to these Homeric poems, Professor Sayce^ says; "Herodotus must have under- stood by Homer all that mass of epic literature which in after times was called Cyclic, and dis- tributed among various authors, together with the Homeric hymns In their present ^ form, the Iliad and Odyssey bear traces of the age of Pericles ; and the mass of epic and didactic literature, which Avent under the names of Homer and Hesiod, must have been of slow growth. Homer is a name rather than a person, and ^homeros,'' 'the fitted together,' is applied by Euripides to the marriage-bond." Thus can we see only darkly through the mist that time has thrown around the name and labors of one whom the later Greeks held as almost sacred. A decade and a half ago, the skeptical had condemned these Homeric poems as utterly unfounded, and some had come to regard the story of the ill-fated city of Ilios as the wild picture of the disordered imagination of the poet. I "Herodotus," London, 1883, Bo6kii. chapter 53, note 5. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 193 But, in later years, there came the archaeologist with his spade and cleared away the rubbish that had gathered around these old and storied cities. Behold the mythical clouds began to clear away, and there was revealed to the astonished world treasures and cities and records of forgot- ten times. Thus have "Blind Homer's" songs been proved to contain rich treasures of traditional lore, descriptive of real events of historical importance.^ The Archaeolo- gist was Dr. Henry Sehliemann, whose name will ever hold a prominent place among those of distinguished inves- tigators. Being a faithful student of the Homeric poems, he located the site of ancient Ilios upon the hill of His- sarlik, in the center of the Troad. He began his excava- tions in 1871. At a depth of fifty-two and one-half feet, native rock was uncovered. As the excavators sank their shafts, and cleared away the rubbish, they penetrated stratum after stratum of ruins, each varying from the pre- vious one in the date and character of the remains found. The acropolis of seven cities, that had successively crowned the sumit of the hill and as often fallen beneath the hand of the destroyer, were there unearthed. Each of these settlements must have preceded the following by quite a pe- riod of time. The five lowest were entirely prehistoric, for we have records of the existence of none of them except Ilios of the Homeric poems, the sixth was a Lydian settle- ment, and the seventh was "Classical Ilium.^ • Of the seven settlements, that have at various times occupied the hill of Hisarlik and spread over the plain of Troy to the west, south, south-east, the second above native rock has the greatest interest for the historian, for it has 1 Contemporary Review, Dec. 1878. 2 The Ilios of Homer is entirely distinct from " Classical Ilium," four cities Intervened. 194 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD, been proved that it was the sacred Ilios of the Homeric poems. The more recent settlements were mere villages when compared to it, and do not interest us. But around Ilios — the stories of whose destruction, as recited by the ancient bards, were wont to stir the assembled Grreeks to the highest pitch of excitement — there will ever linger memories of ancient times most enchanting to the student of history. And now — just as historians were about to cast aside the traditions of these heroic times — "the light has broken over the peaks of Ida, and the long-forgotten ages of prehistoric Hellas and Asia Minor are lying bathed in it before us."^ We are now able to glean some historical truths from what it was feared was only myth. As we have said, it is now known and generally ad- mitted that these Trojans were colonists, or at least de- scendants of the Phrygians f and the Phrygians trace their lineage back, through the Thracians, to the great Teu- tonic family of the Aryan race.^ But when the Phrygians sent their first colonists to settle at Hissarlik, they found it already occupied by a people whom they niust have con- quered. Then who were these first people who dwelt in the Troad and built the first acropolis at Hissarlik? The discoveries of Schliemann have proved that this first set- tlement must have existed for "a great number of centu- ries."* They had erected only two buildings, however, upon the hill, but the settlement must have extended over a large area to the west, south, and south-east of the plain of Troy. By a comparison of the pottery found in this first settlement with what has been found in "the so-called tumulus of Protesilaos" on the European side of the Hel- 1 Sayce: "Troja," ix. 2 Above page 43. 3 Above page 71, * "Troja," p. 39- THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 19-3 lespont, it has been proved that "the first inhabitants of Hissarlik, the builders of its first city, must have come across the Hellespont."* This means a great deal to us, for it tells us that the builders of this first settlement were more or less Aryanized, and we have little hesitancy in classing them with the great, but mysterious, Pelasgic peo- ple that so early spread over Southern Europe. .. / Polished Axes from Hissarlik. But the remains of this first settlement teach us many things. They carry us back to a time when the inhabitants of Asia Minor were battling- with one another with rude stone impliments.^ They were still in the Neolithic Age, but just merging into the Bronze Age, for there were found a few ornaments of copper or bronze, such as brooches, knives, etc., showing that they had a slight knowledge of metals-* Their weapons, however, were of stone, the most interesting of which were two polished stone axes as represented in the accompanying cut. Exactly similar 1 Sayce, "Troja," p. x. 8 Sayce, Op. cit. p. xii. 3 See Lenormant "Lea Antiquities de la Troad," p. 11, quoted in "Ilios," p. 481. 196 THE MEDIEVAL WOELU. axes have been found in Denmark, England, Germany, Livonia, Courland, Hungary, and many other localities in Europe. We are thus introduced to a time prior to the existence of the great empires of Asia Minor, perhaps even before the empire of the Hittites had risen. ■'^ To what remote antiquity this all points! Pelasgians had become Aryanized to Phrygians ; Phrygiams had become Aryanized to Thracians. And this must have been the state of affairs at the close of the Neolithic Age. For we know that the Neolithic Age was just draw- ing to its close when the Phrygian tribes of Trojans de- scended upon the first Aryan (or Pelasgian) settlement of Hissarlik, conquered, and destoyed it, laying the foun- dation of the Homeric Ilios. Now the Thracians and, in their turn, the Phrygians must have developed into quite a powerful people before the first Phrygian colonists ap- peared in the Troad; and that means Jthat the Aryans had already gained the ascendency throughout the greater portion of Southern Europe long before the close of the Neolithic Age. Although at the beginning of the Neolithic Age, we are to suppose that the greater part of Europe was peo- pled by a Non- Aryan race, of which the Basques, Etrus- cans, and Finns are the remnants,^ the ethnologist tells us that, during the Neolithic Age, the Celts spread over much of the territory that they occupied at the dawn of history.^ They probably occupied G-aul and Britain during the ages of Polished Stone, Bronze, and Iron. Those tribes that were compelled to remain nearest the Baltic home- land became, from the beginning, more and more Aryan- ized by the constant encroachment upon their territory 1 Above page 42. Sayce, Op. cit. p. ix. 8 This Series, Vol. I. p. 209 et seq. 3 Ibid. p. 214. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 197 of the G-ermans. Thus, while most of the broad-headed .skulls found in Neolithic caves are undoubtedly Celtic, there is a probability that some are Belgic Germans,^ so that there were, no doubt, also Grermans in Western Eu- rope at the close of the Neolithic Age. It is, of course, impossible to give dates at this period in Aryan history. It was at the close of the Neolithic Age.^ With our present enlightenment on this subject, we can not point to a single region in Central Asia and say that we know that the ancestors of the Asiatic Ary- ans dwelt there in the Neolithic Age. We have no evi- dence whatever, that they were there when the other great Oriental empires arose. But in Europe, on the other hand, we know that Aryan migration toward the west and southwest had developed the great Celtic branch; that the southward course of migration had given rise to the mysterious Pelasgic branch, extending even to the confines of the Oriental world; and, if we had any records whatever of the movements of the Sarmatian tribes during this Age, we would find them pressing forward toward the shores of the Caspian Sea. Thus at the close of the Neolithic Age, the Celts, the Pelasgians, and the Sarmatians, as the vanguard of Aryan iqigration outward from the Baltic center of dispersion, shared among them- selves the border-lands of the extent of Aryan possessions even as they did at the dawn of history. Centuries then rolled away, during which time we have no information of the events that transpired among the various Aryan people. From the close of the Neo- lithic Age to the Heroic Age, they are almost lost to history. During all this time, the Germans must have '• See description of tbie Belgae in Bohn's "Caesar," p. 545. 2 Vide This Series, Vol. I. p. 257 et seq. 198 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. kept pouring down into Thrace, and the Thracians into Grreece and Phrygia. Tribes of Phrygians migrated into the Troad and laid the foundation of the Homeric Ilios. The Ionian Greeks spread over the isles pf the Aegaean and founded many settlements on the coasts of Asia Minor. These foreigners took an active part in the aifairs of the older world. They united their forces with the Hittites against Egypt ;^ and, for several dynasties, a number of Aryan tribes are powerful enough to receive distinct men- tion in Egyptian inscriptions among the powers that allied themselves against the rulers of the Nile region. The Trojan children of the Phrygians played a more brilliant part in the history of that portion of the world than did the parent tribes. They founded their capital city upon the ruins of the Neolithic settlement, and there it stood for we know not how long. As restored by Dr. Schliemann, it has a wonderful tale to tell. It tells us of a former sacking many ages before its final ruin, for the Ilios that the Greeks burned was built on a partially ruined Ilios of an earlier date., Thus are we given an inkling to the foundation of the ancient myth, that the angry Hercules, on account of the deceit of Laomedon, had once captured and partially destroyed the city.® It is acknowledged to be the Homeric Ilios, for all the land- marks are there. The acropolis with its six palaces, sur- rounded by their Poseidonian walls of defense and filled with their treasures of gold, could have been none other than the home of the aged Priam. Thus does it prove true, that the "recent discoveries in the Troad show that Ilium was as real a place as Thebes,"^ 1 This Series, Vol. II. p. 394. 2 Grote: "History of Greece," Vol. I. p. 186. 3 Sayee: "Comparative Philology," p. 319. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 199 Among the souvenirs of ancient Troy so carefully preserved in the ruins of Ilios, as if for the enlightenment of our own favored nineteenth century, are some rare relics that tell us strange stories of past ages, long forgot- ten by historian and bard. When the spade of the archae- ologist threw up from the deep trenches on Hissarlik, cer- tain cylinders and whorls and images, they, falling at the feet of the discoverer, seemed to cast brilliant and penetra- ting rays of light upon the migrations and deeds of the past, rendered dim and even forgotten by the ages of time under which they had been buried. The first of these objects that interests us is ■ a cylinder of blue feldspar, found by Dr. Schliemann at a depth of about thirty feet which, under the search- ing eye and keen mind of Professor Sayce,^ has been made to reveal its story of the past. Some native artist has preserved for us his primitive skill by cutting on its surface "rude representations of a cylinder of Felspar. flower and a cartouche. The flower is of the old Baby- lonian type, but the cartouche reminds us of Egypt, and may possibly contain the name of the owner, symbolized by a flower tied with a string.'"* The tied string may rep- resent a Cypriote character. But the m^in point for us to notice is that we have here "manifest indications of Babylonian influence."^ The next objects that attract our attention are a large number of whorls, seals, and pieces of pottery bearing in- scriptions. Although we know next to nothing about the language of the Trojans,^ still the inscriptions have inter- 1 "Ilios," p. 693. 2 Ibid. 3 Compare this with cut on page 383, Vol. II. i Sayce, Ibid. 374. 200 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. esting stories to tell us, for they carry Us back to a time long prior to that when the Phoenician trader roamed over the seas at will, and visited every known portion of the world. We are thus told that, even at that time, the Aryans of Asia Minor had a written language, though it may have been but a rude forecast of the more perfect 4^ *. it >-. »■- I. ' p - -. Hissarlik. form that the Phoenicians themselves were destined to introduce.^ It was a sort of syllabic form of writing, and goes by the name of Asianic syllabary, given it by Prof. Sayce. This form of writing was widely spread over Asia Minor and the isles of the Aegaean.^ Archaeologists are still trying to interpret these Tro- jan inscriptions, and we can not tell how soon they will 1 Taylor: "The Alphabet," p. 115-6. 2 Vide Inscription given Vol. II. p. 403. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 201 read from them pages of history from the long forgotten past. For their interpretation, we are referred back to the time when the Hittite empire was in the height of its glory, and spread its influence over a vast region in Asia Minor between Babylonia and the smaller tribal dis- tricts along the western coast. They were the great tra- Wliorls from Troy. " ders of the age ; and it is due to them, that the culture of the East was transmitted to the less enlightened people of the West. The Trojans may not, then, have had direct intercourse with Babylonia, but may have received a knowledge of eastern culture as it came to them tinged with Hittite influence. A few rude attempts at art were found in the burnt 13 202 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. city of Hissarlik. The most of the specimens that might be classed under that head consist of a rude draft of a pair of eyes, appearing on the pottery. The general ap- pearance of these objects led Dr. Schliemann to class them all under the head of "Owl-headed" pottery. But there was also found a rude leaden image of some goddess that the Trojans worshiped. The discoverer of Ilios was in- clined to identify it with the Grreek goddess, Athene.' Prof. Sayce, after having pointed out the Babylonian and Hittite influence that had so much to do in molding the civili- Owl-Headed. Goddess. zation of the Trojans, recognized, at once, the resemblance between this Ilian image and the representations of the great goddess of Carchemish, the Hittite capital' The Trojans called her Ate, and the Hittites Athi. We are told that the "Owl-headed" vases also represented this same goddess. Her images occur all over Asia Minor and even appear at Mycense. Such was the modified Babylo- nian art, that spread over Western Asia, and along with it came the worship of the Babylonians as instituted at Carchemish. Thus should we notice the .influence of the Turanian Hittites upon the culture, and especially upon 1 "Ilios," p. 153-6. s ''Troja," p. xvii.andxviUf THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 203 the religion, of these primitive Aryan people. Though the former may have received their ideas from Semitic Babylonia, the entire religious belief of the Trojans was deeply colored by this Turanian religion.^ Such is our knowledge of the ancient Trojans. Though we may feel gratified by the remarkable strides that his- torians have made in the past few years in unraveling the mystery — that mystery that has ever veiled this storied land — yet it is humiliating to contemplate how little we, even now, know of the fleeting past, and the momentous events that have transpired. We begin to see through the veil darkly, and can indulge the hope, that it will not be many generations, before our scholars can read us a con- tinuous history of these early times, from the many cylin- ders and tablets that are being unearthed in this inter- esting region, the cradle of Aryan civilization. Now if we turn again to Europe, we will find that the more thoroughly Aryanized i^eople of that continent were not entirely inactive. During the period of Trojan grandeur, the Aryans of Southern Europe were slowly, but surely, gathering ideas from the more advanced regions of the South and East. About the earliest evidence of an advance in culture that we have, is manifested in the great walls of defense, with which these herdsmen and husbandmen seem to have been forced to surround their tribal headquarters. So immense were the blocks of stone used for this purpose, that the ancients were wont to attribute the building of their walls to a race of giants, ' whom they called Cyclopes, hence we have the term "Cy- cbpean Walls." It is supposed that the oldest of these 1 The above would seem to indicate that the tutelary goddess of Athens was of Turanian origin. Consult Lang: "Myth, Ritual and Re- ligion," c/.Keary: "Primitive Belief." We have sought altogether too high a source for the goda of ancient Greece. 204 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. walls was built around the citadel at Tiryns in Argolis. Mycenae liad one, and Cyclopean walls formed a marked feature of Hellenic architecture of this period. Writers do not as yet agree as to who the builders of the Cyclopean walls were. Many argue that the architects were brought from Asia. Professor Adler^ argues that they were of Phrygian origin. Dr. Schliemann thinks that they were a "great Asiatic people, which about the middle of the second millenium before Christ covered the whole of the mainland of Greece, as well as the islands of the Ionian and Aegaean seas, with settlements, and which had already attained a high level of culture."^ And again he says : "We may therefore assume, with great probability, that the gigantic walls of Tiryns were built by Phoenician colonists, and the same is probably the case with the great prehistoric walls in many other parts of Greece."^ Here we are introduced to a new people who are taking part in European affairs ; namely, the Phoeni- cians."'' In the ruins of Ilios, everything points to j)re-Phoeni- cian times. ^ The Hittites were the traders of its day, and we are to suppose that this later nation of merchants had not yet found their way to the shores of the Troad. But in Europe, there have nowhere been found any ruins that can be classed as pre-Phoenician." The Phoenicians, then, must have appeared in numbers on the Mediterranean about the period of the fall of Troy, although single Phoe- 1 Preface to Schliemann : "Tiryns," p. xlvii. et seq. 2 "Tiryns," New York, 1885. 3 Ibid. p. 28. i The Eight Hon. W. B. Gladstone regards these builders of the Cy- clopean walls of Greece as a Poseidon worshiping race [i.e. Phoenician] related to the builders of the walls of Troy, thus connecting Greece and Troy. See preface to "Mycenae and Tiryns," p. viii. 5 Sayce: "Troja," p. xvi. and xvii. 8 Sayce: "Contemporary Review," December, 1878, p. 69. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 2C5 nician traders had, no doubt, penetrated these regions long before that time. As private traders and daring naviga- tors, their ships could have been no uncommon sight in Grrecian harbors while yet the walls of Troy were stand- ing. The pottery unearthed at Mycenae, though plainly of Babylonian origin, shows also a Phoenician influence. Yet Hittite traders may have early found their way across the Hellespont and down into Grecian lands,'^ and borne thence a knowledge of Oriental arts and manufacturers. We thus catch a glimpse of the wide spread trafl&c and the long and dangerous journeys of these harbingei's of civilization in the very childhood of European nations. The dates of this period are indefinite, but they have been limited by the best authorities to between the eighteenth and fourteenth centuries b. c.,^ and that is just the period when Assyria and Babylonia were at the head of the civi- lized world. Prof. Sayce^ recognizes two distinct periods in the development of Grrecian art and culture. The first of these he calls Phrygian, and defines it as the period when Phoenician and Oriental influence was felt only in- directly, by intercourse with a few traders who periodically visited the cities of Grreece. The second was a period when teachers and artisans were invited across the Ae- gaean to manage the construction of buildings and works of art. As early as the sixteenth century B. c, the Phoe- nicians had distinguished themselves as a great commer- cial people, trading between Assyria and Babylonia ; and we can not believe that they were ignorant of tne very localities where the purple-giving murex, cuttle-fish, and 1 Ibid p. 67, 74. 2 Sayce, Ibid.; also Dr. Schlieman's "Mycenae andTiryns," p. 9-18. 3 Op. cit. 206 THE MEBIEVAL WOULD. slaves were most easily attainable.^ But the wide extent and wonderful influence of the Phoenicians on the culture of early Europe has already been sufficiently discussed.^ The Phoenicians, accepting the Assyrians and Baby- lonians as their masters, brought to the people of Europe new ideas, and opened their eyes to a better mode of life. The Aryan mind grasped the new ideas at once. " They entered into other men's labors, and made the most of them." Their small village communities assumed the airs of cities; walls of defense were erected; elegant vases, fine linen, Oriental fabrics, and, indeed, all manner of for- eign articles were eagerly purchased, with the produce of the land, or with captives procured in their tribal warfare. Finally, they began to import workmen, who, under the guidance of the Aryan master mind, soon improved upon their models. They built ships, and sought to compete with the Phoenicians upon the sea. Their own works of art came into demand in foreign markets, and G-reece soon entered upon a career that was destined to place her at the head of the culture of the Medieval world. In our haste to give Oriental civilizations credit for all they may have done to advance Aryan culture, we must not overlook the influence that was constantly exer- ted over these regions from the Baltic homeland. In their love for classical literature and art, scholars are wont to overlook the barbarous and inhuman practices of their particular favorites, the Greeks and Romans. As touched by the poet's art, the act of the great Agamemnon, in slaying his beautiful daughter, Iphigenia, to appease the anger of some goddess, has received plaudits from the literary world from that day to this ; but the Druid priest, who, in the midst of the solitary forest, offered up his sac- ,1 Sayee, Ibid. p. 94. 2 See Tbis Series, Vol. II. p. 733, THE HELLENIC ABYANS. 209 rifices to gain the favor of some angry deity for his suffer- ing people, has been ranked as a murderer from the begin- ning. Let us not forget that, until their contact with Oriental civilizations had wrought wonderful changes in Lions Gate at Mycenae. classical people, they were as inhuman and barbarous as any other Aryan people. The Spartans can boast of neither humanity nor refinement.' 1 Consult Lang: " Myth, Ritual and Religion," Vol. I. p. 265, et seq. where it will be seen that human sacrifice in Greece existed in reality to a late dat3, perhaps, even, to the time of the Roman conquest. 210 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. In the royal tombs at My cense were found a number of amber beads.^ A quantity of these were placed in the hands of a distinguished chemist, and were thus proved to be from the Baltic.^ Among the specimens of pottery discoverd in the ruins of the first settlement at Tiryns' were found vases with "vertically bored excrescences on both sides," which are regarded as very rare and ancient specimens. Still similarly marked vases are found along the Tipper Danube, and in many parts of the Baltic re- gion. Now, the German graves which contain pottery of this class are referred to the Neolithic Age.* We must ad- mit, then, that these ancient Germans either manufactured this pottery or else had communication with parts of Greece during the period between the Neolithic Age and the second millennium B. c, back of which time Dr. Schliemann does not carry the date of the founding of Tiryns or My cense. We can not, therefore, believe that these Germans had completely buried themselves in the forests of the north. They were, no doubt, as steadily, though perhaps not as rapidly, advancing in culture as their more favored kindred to the south. As regards Europe proper, the first gleams of historic light seem to dawn on the shores of ancient Hellas, which has been called "a mountain region in the midst of the 1 "Tiryns," p. 368. 8 This Series, Vol. I. p. 237; Vol II. p. 730. 3 There is a dispute about the date of this first settlement, but thosfi who maintain that it is of recent date are in the minority. See Goodwin : "Nineteenth Century," 1886, p. 914 e< seq. Also StiJlman: "Nature," May 20, 1886. i Given as Prof. Virchow's opinion in "Tiryns," p. 63. See also same work p. 57 et seq. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 211 sea."^ Hellas proper is the southern portion of a great peninsula, the northern and eastern parts of which were possessed by the Thracians, Macedonians, and kindred tribes. Hellas was cut almost in two parts by an arm of the sea running in from the west. The southern, almost insular portion, was known as the Peloponnesus, and the narrow neck joining it to the mainland was the isth- mus of Corinth. To the south of this isthmus, the penin- sula of Argolis pushed off to the southeast into the Aegaean sea ; to the north was the peninsula of Attica taking a like trend into the sea. In ancient Hellas, were "Alpine landscapes in the neighborhood of the sea .... in Olympus, Parnassus and Taygetus .... Here steep rocky summits towered in peace- ful splendor above groves of olive and laurel, there stately forests inclosed green land spaces,"^ So varied is the climate that the land produces both temperate and tropical vegetation. "The beautiful pastures on the up- land slopes sufficed for the breeding of cattle, the numer- ous, well-situated mountain terraces were favorable to the culture of the vine."^ The streams varied from trickling rivulets in the summer to mountain torrents in the spring. Such was Hellas, and the hardy race she produced was not daunted by all the hosts of the Persian Emperor, but returned only defiance to threats of invasion. The coun- try gave them fortifications, and an industrious and rigor- ous life gave the people the hardihood for which they were famous. We are now approaching the borderland of history, though we have to deal with myths and legends. We 1 Duncker: "History of Greece," Eng. ed. 1883, p. % 2 Duncker, Op. cit. " Ibid. p. 95. 212 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLIX must remember that thus far we have depended upon lan- guage, researches of the archaeologist, and Oriental in- scriptions for our information. Though some of our best Egyptologists believe that the names of many Greek tribes are mentioned in the inscriptions of the Pharaohs, others doubt the accuracy of their interpretation.' We have now to deal with records even more uncertain. We have reached the period of myths and traditions which center around certain legendary heroes who, if they lived at all, lived so long ago that the ancients supposed that they were the children of the gods. This has been called, the '• Heroic Age." Strange and ridiculous as it may appear to us, the heroic age was a time honored reality to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Even down to a very I'ecent time, the mass of the people were firm believers in the genuine- ness of the mythical history that clusters around their ancestral gods and forms a part of their vestal worship). We must constantly bear in mind that every illustrious hero of this strangely unreal age thought it no sacrilege to claim relationship to some god or goddess of the Gre- cian pantheon. It was not considered as at all opposed to the ideal character of divinity for their revered gods to visit the earth and deflower the daughters of men. Neither did their goddesses, whose beauty, purity, and divinity in- spired the sculptor's chisel, lose anything in the reverence, of the people by meeting earth-born heroes and bearing them children destined to accomplish deeds of renown. Thus the fertile minds of the ancients peopled the earth with a race of demi-gods, in whom they firmly believed and whom they devoutly worshiped. 1 See Sayce: "Contemporary Review," Dec. 1878, p. 74-5. TIiE HELLENIC ABYANS. 213 We must look to the bards of Hellas for the le- gends of this remote age. Since blind Homer has be- come such a visionary per- ■ sonage, we can not mention him as an historical char- acter; but the great mass of poetry known as the Homeric poems is as inter- esting and valuable as ever as a treasure-house of this ancient folk-lore. One of the most ancient legends > that interest us is that of g ^ the voyage of the ship Ar- a_ \f go in search of the "golden " fleece." Their vessel was ^ constructed under the su- S pervision of the goddess, g Athene, tutelary goddess of Athens. It was manned by fifty heroes and demi-gods, among whom were Her- cules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux, with Jason, heir to the chieftainship of Thes- saly, in command. Perhaps we can conclude from this legend, that long voyages of discovery were of early oc- currence among the Greeks, 214 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. and that they journeyed toward the east in quest of gold and precious metals.^ So in regard to the sacking of Troy or Ilios, we have no satisfactory records, for this event has ever been a most fruitful source of legends and myths. The spade of the archaeologist has proved that Ilios once was. That she had been twice conquered, once she was but partially destroyed, but at last she met the same sad fate of so inany ancient cities. Thus far, we are in no doubt and so we admit that there is an historical foundation for the Homeric poems. "We need not dwell upon the myths that cluster around the history of the rise and fall of this ill-fated city. The walls built by Poseidon ; the sacking by the angry Hercules ; Paris, the unfortunate castaway; the envious contest of the beautiful goddesses, Aphrodite, Here, and Athene; the rape of Helen, the "fairest of living women;" the vengeful Greeks, bent on rescuing the fair Helen and punishing her seducer ; the Olympian gods in angry council over the affair ; the returning heroes doomed to endless wanderings ■} all savor too much of the unreal to claim space for detailed mention here; and these legends are, no doubt, familiar to all readers of the older school of historians. We must conclude with Dr. Webb,^ that "the tale of Troy, as we have it in Homer, is essentially a poetic creation." 1 This legend is given in full in Qrote: "History of Greece," Vol. I. p. 231e«seg. ; also "History of Ancient Geography," Vol. I. p. 19. See Richard Payne Knight: "Symbolical Language of Ancient Art," p. 168. Possibly in the legend of the Argonautio Expedition we have a myth to account for a survival from ancient Phallic worship. The ark play.» an important part in all religions of the Orient, it probably represents the womb from whence all living things proceed. See Inman : "Ancient Faiths," Vol. I. p. 383 ei see. ; Knight, Op. cit. p. 133; Higgins: "Ana- calypsis," p. 128; Blavatsky: "Isis Unveiled," Vol. II. p. 444. 2 See Homer's "Odyssey" and Virgil's "Aenaeid." 3 "An Introduction to Homer," Boston, 1877, p. 147, THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 215 It may be of interest to us, however, to note how faithfully the poet portrays the life and culture of the Eeturn from Troy, the times. His characters are all heroes and demi-gods. There were Menelaus, husband of the fair Helen, the great Agamemnon, the wise Nestor, the wily Odysseus, 216 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. and the powerful warriors, Ajax and Achilles. Agamem- non was the chosen leader, yet he dared not act before he had called a council of the chieftains. In this coun- cil, all the chieftains spoke with as much freedom as the commander, and they did not hesitate to denounce him in the boldest manner. His authority was only nomi- nal, for he seems to have had no power to compel obedience. Pouting Achilles could lie unmolested in his ships, re- gardless of his superior's commands, as well as the peril of the Grrecian cause, just on account of a quarrel between himself and Agamemnon.^ This all points to a loosely organized tribal state of government, where every chief- tain ruled his own tribe independent of any superior authority.^ Herodotus but echoed the sentiments of his day, when he makes the Persians say : "To steal women is the deed of knaves, but to hastily seek vengeance for those who have been carried off is foolish."^ So that it is im- probable that the earlier Greeks should raise such a stir about a single woman, even were she the fairest of the sex. The poet's story is, probably, but the solar myth of the strife between light and darkness retold, with per- haps a slight historical foundation. " Some memorable capture of a town in the Troad had probably been made by Greek warriors."* We would go even further, and sur- mise, that it was one of those great periodical migratiCns of the Hellenes into Asia Minor, when the pent up forces of Aryan migration burst forth with renewed vigor, and the waA^es flooded the entire eastern shores of the Medi- terranean and even laved the feet of the Pyramids oi 1 "Iliad," Book i. 2 This Series, Vol. II. p. 179 et seq. 8 Book i. chapter 4. 4 Webb, Op. cit. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 217 Egypt, retreating before the armies of Rameses III. Some of the chieftains, after years of wandering, may have found their way back to their homelands only to find that they had sold their birthright for a mess of pottage, and to sink beneath the hands of the assassin. Historians allow us only four centuries of time be- tween the destruction of the second city of Hissarlik, the fated Ilios,' and the first date that appears in G-recian Trojan War Heroes. history.^ In that comparatively brief period of time, are crowded events momentous indeed to the population of Greece. There occurred the building of temples and the establishment of councils. There occurred wars and vast migrations. The populations of Epirus and Thessaly were displaced by invading tribes from the north. The early Dorian territory was also depopulated, and all of Upper Hel- las was given a new population that flocked downward 1 1200 B. c. ; above p. 42., note 2. 2 The first Olympiad, 776 b. c, 218 TUB MEDIEVAL WOULD. from that ever swarming Aryan hive in northern Central Europe. The Dorians entered the Peloponnesus, and the earlier dwellers there were either Dorianized, enslaved, or driven out upon the islands of the sea. The western coast of Asia Minor was finally repopulated by tribes of Aeo- lians, lonians, and Dorians from the opposite coast of Hel- las. The Phoenicians planted their colonies along the Mediterranean shores, and even built commercial towns in Grreece itself. But, as far as Grreece was concerned, they came, performed their mission as harbingers and messen- gers of a greater civilization, and passed away^ — all within this period. The Homeric poems grew during this era. The great epics — the Iliad and Odyssey — have ever since furnished models for the poets of all nationalities. This period also witnessed the introduction of the Greek alphabet, and thus the foundation of a literature, in the scope and per- fection of which Greece for many centuries led the world. We seek in vain for more than traces of all these changes. History is all but silent regarding them. A few legends and their stories are told ; the growth of language adds its mite; and the spade of the archaeologist brings its tribute. Thus do we glean the seeming facts and shape the records of a great nation through four centuries of its childhood. The rest is buried in a long forgotten past, which may, per- haps, never be recalled. "Our clock strikes when there is a change from hour to hour ; but no hammer in the horologue of Time peals through the universe, when there is a change from Era to Era. Men understand not what is in their hands ; as a calmness is a characteristic' of strength, so the weightiest causes may be most silent."^ Should we attempt to compare ancient Hellas with 1 Grote, Vol. III. p. 270. 2 Carlyle. THE HELLENIC ABYAN§. 219 modern nations, we would be surprised at its almost insig- nificant territory. Being about two hundred and fifty miles long and with the average breadth of less than one hundred and eighty miles, it covered an area about the size of Portugal. Still how great an influence it has ex- erted in the world's history ! Many volumes have been written, relating in the minutest detail the myths and legends and songs of the childhood of this great people. But all this is worthless when we seek facts upon which to build history. The Greeks were the first European Aryans (if we exclude the Phrygians and Trojans) who came into promi- nence. They were the first to mingle with the civilized nations of the East ; and, being' ready imitators and re- markably ingenious, they not only adopted the civilization of the East, but finally carried it to a remarkable degree of perfection. Much of the art and culture that has been called Hellenic is, as we have seen, only modeled after foreign masters. This is true also in religion. Some of the gods and many of the practices that the Phoenicians had adopted in their intercourse with Egypt and Persia, were transmitted by them to the ever receptive Greeks. We must not set too high a value on Aryan religion. Human sacrifices, polygamy, and mutilation of the bodies of captives and criminals were practiced by the Greeks as well as other people. Only by slow degrees and after a long time were such practices discarded.^ Through all ages it seems to have been characteristic of the Aryan mind to glean new ideas from all sources. Of knowledge, habits, and culture, they rejected what was ofiFensive or 1 See Lang: "Myth, Eitual, and Religion," London, 1887, Vol. I. chapter vi. 14 220 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. corrupting, and carried forward to perfection what was enlightening, ennobling or refining. When history finally dawns upon Greece, we find that land peopled by tribes who claimed descent from one common ancestor,^ and recognized "fellowship of blood; fellowship of language ; fixed domiciles of gods and sac- rifices, common to all ; and like manners and customs."^ The majority of ancient historians, including Herodotus' and Thucydides,* believed that there was a time when different languages were spoken in the various parts of Greece; but, during historical times, the Greek language has been universally used throughout Hellas. As we would suppose, however, in a tribal state of society, there were many dialects, principal among which were the Doric, Aeolic, and Ionic. Each tribe had its peculiar dia- lect, though the divergences were not such as to prevent every Greek from understanding every other Greek. This points to a time when a common mother language was spoken by the Hellenic tribes. This language was differ- ent, though cognate with the primitive Latin tongue. Politically the Hellenic tribes were universally inde- pendent of one another. Athens was only one of a number of Ionic cities, each of which regarded itself as free from all manner of political servility. As regards dialect,^ the various political communities of Attica were closely allied. So likewise all Greece was united in the Worship of cer- tain deities. But politically there was no unity in ancient 1 Hellen. 2 Grote, Op. cit. p. 237. 3 Herodotus, i. 57-8. 4 Thucydides, i. 3. 5 Grote Bays : "There was no such thing as one Ionic dialect . . . Tne Ionic dialect of grammarians was an extract from Homer, Hekataeus, Herodotus, Hippocrates, etc. ; to what living speech it made the nearest approach amidst these divergencies, which the historian has made known to us, we can not tell." THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 221 Grreece. More recent research in the field of ancient society", enables us to clearly understand society in ancient Greece. It was simply tribal society. A brief study of it has already been made.^ We need simply recall, that each tribe was independent, and that the several divisions of a tribe allowed no interference in their internal affairs. As each important city in ancient Grreece was the headquar- ters of a tribe, we understand why there was no connect- ing bond between them, and why it was so difficult for a resident of one city to acquire rights in another ; it could only be done by tribal adoption. Only at a later date were confederacies formed. At an extremely early date, however, both at Athens and at Sparta, some tribes, prob- ably Pelasgic, had been reduced to tribute. The Greeks were further, to a great extent, religiously united. Were we to seek a date commemorated by the founding of the Delphian temple to Apollo, we would loose ourselves amidst the shadows of antiquity. It stood on the slopes of Parnassus before Homer sang of the wrath of Achilles.^ Even before the return of the Hera- cleids, the Amphictyonic council was wont to assemble and deliberate for the protection of this sacred temple and the rich gifts, that had at that time, even, been brought from the ends of the world^ and dedicated to that all-wise god. Long before the first date appears in Grecian history, the priestess of Apollo was wont to enter the caves of Parnassus and listen to the will of the gods in regard to the affairs of men. Even at the dawn of legendary his- tory, no great enterprise was undertaken without first 1 This Series, Vol. II. p. 182 et seq. 2 "Iliad," ix. 1. 504. 3 Smith: "Dictionary of Greet and Roman Antiquities." 222 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. consulting the Delphian oracle in regard to the success of the undertaking. In later times, the Greeks founded colonies only under the approval of Apollo, as manifested through the priestess at Delphi. Lycurgus sought the aid of the Delphian oracle before he prepared his laws for Sparta.^ In still later times, rulers and statesmen from Rome, Egypt, and Asia, sought advice from Delphi, The Priestess of Apollo at Delphi. {Vide Vol II. p. 328.] and acted accordingly. Here was the spot in all the world most favored by the gods. This, according to the ancient legend, was the spot chosen by Apollo himself, as his favorite resort. Here, the ancients thought the ear of that god could be reached with least effort and their petitions 1 Grote, Vol. II. p. 253. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 223 meet with greatest favor, and so, from the earliest, times, they flocked hither to listen. to the will of the gods. Now, there was, no doubt, a time when this place of worship was a simple, local shrine,^ and it must have taken a long, time to bring it into national prominence. But finally it came to be known all over Hellas. The rich gifts, that were brought as propitiatory offerings to the gods, accumulated to such an extent, that fears were enter- tained for the safety of these treasures. So we find, even at the very beginning of Grrecian history, that certain twelve of the numerous Hellenic tribes had formed a league for the protection of the temple and treasures of the Del- phian Apollo.' This league was called the Amphidyonic Council. Its origin extends so far back in time, that the legend making Grecians were wont to attribute its organi- zation to * mythical personage, Amphictyon, whom they made a brother of Hellen, the so-called ancestor of the Hellenes. The word " Amphictyon " means a gathering of friends, or neighbors.^ It is a noteworthy fact, that only such Hel- lenic tribes as dwelt in the neighborhood of Delphi and Thermopylae before the Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus, were represented in this league. Representation was also according to tribes, -and not according to cities. Athens was placed on an equality with all other Ionian towns. So, likewise, Thebes was one of several Boeotian towns. Each tribe had two votes in the deliberations of the coun- cil, and the small towns were entitled to an equal voice with those that were known in historic times only as large cities. Some of the tribes that were co-powerful with the 1 Strabo, book ix. chapter iii. 7. 2 Strabo, ix. iii. 7-8. ■i For a deeper meaning of the first syllable, Am, see Higgins : " Ana- calypsis. 224 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. Ionian^ and Boeotians are only known to us as subordinate to the rule of others that were also members of this league.^ In the council, however, the subordinate Perrhaebians had two votes that proved as weighty as the two votes cast by the ruling Thessalians. Thus we see that all this evi- dence points to a very early period in the history of Greece. It leads us back to a time prior to the return of the Hera- cleids ; to a time, in fact, when Athens, Sparta, and Thebes were not so much more powerful than their neighboring toAvns as to be deemed worthy of special notice; also to a time when the five dependent tribes represented in the league were equal in strength and liberty to their later masters, the Thessalians. This much, then, does the Delphian oracle reveal to us in regard to the history of Hellas in the paste We are taught that even before the dawn of history, neighboring tribes were accustomed to hold councils to deliberate upon their common interests. These associations were not con- fined to this particular league, but there were a number of less prominent Amphictyons, that had their special places of assemblage throughout Greece and her colonies. The Dorian, Ionian, and Aeolian settlements of Asia Minor, each had their league that assembled at stated in- tervals, at a certain place, in honor of some god. There were others in Hellas itself.^ The great Amphictyonic council, however, met twice a year; in the spring, at Del- phi, in honor of Apollo, and, in the autumn, near Ther- 1 The twelve mentioned as members of the Amphictyonic council are "Thessalians, Boeotians, Dorians, lonians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes, Loorians, Oetaeans, Achaeans, Phocians, Dolopes, and Malians. Perr- haebians, Magnetes, Achaeans of Phthiotes, Malians and Dolopes were in the state of irregular dependence upon the Thessalians. ■'- Grote, Vol. II. TSE HELLENIC ARYANS. 225 mopylse, in the "second precinct of Demeter Amphicty- onis." At first, the assembly consisted of little more than delegates from the separate tribes ; but later, these repre- sentatives were followed to the place of assemblage by large concourses of people who came together for purposes of trade and sacrifice, or to witness the games that were made a part of each festival from very early times. When, in historic times, the Pythian games came to be celebrated at Delphi, the roads and by-ways leading from the remotest corners of Greece were crowded with pil- grims, both on foot and in their magnificent chariots drawn by their finely caparisoned steeds, destined to contend in the races for the honor-bearing prize, a wreath of wild olive.^ We must remember that the G-reeks, in common with all early people, were still in a tribal state of society when their really historical period begins. While we can speak of them, as we have above, as Dorians, lonians, and Aeolians, we must not forget that these were only the ruling confederacies. There Avere many, and different, tribes still dwelling in the Peloponnesus, but so much weaker and inferior to their Dorian masters as to have remained buried in oblivion. The tribes that occupied Hellas had, like all European Aryans, already reached a social development, in which the family was recognized, and the village pommunity was the center of governmen- tal life. They already had their walled towns, but Athens and Sparta had not yet attained the power and grandeur that characterized them laterl The majority of their towns were without walls and i These games will be more fully described later. 8 Grote, Op. cit. p. 247. 226 TSE MEDIEVAL WOULD. scatteringly inhabited; and, according to Thucydides, they regarded it as contributing to their glory to plunder their weaker neighbors.^ Through fear of being assaulted by pirates, who swarmed the seas, the most of the early villages were located at a distance from the coast.** But when the people became more wealthy, through their com- mercial relations with other countries, they built walled towns on the sea-coast and easily defended isthmuses. In the summer, the mountain slopes were covered with flocks and herds, and all tillable lands were cultivated like gar- dens. Their products were wheat, barley, flax, wine, and oil.* Although the year 776 B. c. furnishes us a starting point in Grecian chronology, for two centuries more we are left to grope about in the darkness of Grecian history, with only here and there a stray ray of light to guide our uncertain steps. Some events, that ripened into historical facts of greatest moment, sprang into life during the un- certain century preceding the first Olympiad. During three centuries,* we are constantly introduced to past scenes, where the historical and legendary meet on nearly equal grounds. It was during the early part of this period, that the semi-mythical character, Lycurgus, existed and gave to Sparta laws remarkable for their originality and severeness.^ It was during this period, that the Dorian invasion 1 Book i. 5. 2 Ibid, chapter vii. 3 Grote, Op. cit. 230. ■* One preceding and two following the first Olympiad. 6 Plutarch saya concerning Lycurgus [ch. 1] that there is so much uncertainty about him that scarcely anything is said by one historian which is not contradicted by the rest. The conflicting authorities are Aristotle, Eratosthenes, Apollodorus, Timaeus, Herodotus, and Xeno- phon. O. Miiller sums the whole account we have of him in the state- ment that "we have absolutely no account of him as an individual per- son." "Dorians," Vol. I. p. 152. This Series, Vol. II. p. 220. THE HELLENIC ABYANS. 227 of Peloponnesus was brought to a close by the conquest of Messena by" Sparta, It was during this period, that the tribal villages of ancient Grreece first grew into importance as cities. It was a period of tyrannies, when ambitious men usurped the ruling power in nearly all the tribes of Hellas. Thus tribal life was largely broken up, and sub- ject tribes came forward to demand some share in the gov- ernment. This period was also distinguished by the ex- tension of the circumference of Grrecian territory to its greatest limit under Hellenic rule, by extensive coloniza- tion along the shores and upon the islands of the Mediter- ranean.^ The onward march of Aryan migrations had not yet ceased, and the crowded cities of Hellas planted colo- nies on foreign shores ; and, they, in turn, became indepen- dent Hellenic cities These three centuries witnessed the gradual rise of the Spartans. Sparta was situated among the mountains, in the heart of Peloponnesus. This was one of the points early occupied by the Dorians when they made their ap- pearance in Peloponnesus. It is now generally supposed, that the Dorians united with the Aetolians crossed the Cor- inthian Gulf. The Artolians took possession of the fertile plains of Elis, but the Spartans passed on to the plains of Peloponnesus proper. They could not have been very num- erous or powerful, and seem to have consisted of two bands, the Spartans proper and the Messenians. "We have seen reasons in a former chapter to conclude that the Spartans consisted of five tribes.^ When they reached the location of ancient Sparta, they built each their tribal city, five in all, unwalled and unadorned, at a distance from the sea ^It must be remembered that Philip of Macedon and his son, A!es- ander the Great, were not HeUenic Greeks. « Vol. II. p. 184. 228 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. coast, shut off from all risk of invasion by almost impracti- cable mountain roads. The band of Messenians pushed on further southwest, and established themselves not far from the border line of Arcadia, with whom they lived in peace. On the eastern side of the Peloponnesus,another, though independent, invasion was in progress. Certain tribes of Dorians were advancing upon the native villages of Corinth The Five Ephors and Argos. There is every reason to believe, that these attacks were made from the sea. But we know that the Dorians finally gained possession of both towns and formed settlements there. Corinth was located on the narrow isthmus that joined Upper Hellas to the Peloponnesus. Argos was situated at the head of the gulf that separated the peninsula of Argolis from the mainland. This all hap- pened during the first century after the fall of Troy. The 230 CROESUS ON THE FUNERAL PYRE. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 231 Spartans and Messenians were for several centuries close friends and allies. They were alike powerful at the Olym- pic festival, and had even erected a common shrine to Art- emis Limnatis. Though the Spartans entered their land as conquerors, and the Messenians forced the natives to an alliance, they found life among a strange people full of risk and conten- tion. They, therefore, grew into power very slowly. Mes- sena never attained the strength of her neighbor and after Hopllles. rival and conqueror. Though they reached their homes very early in the twelfth century b. c, it was not until the close of the ninth century, that Sparta hecame powerful enough to extend its conquests beyond a very limited area. About fifty years before the first Olympiad, there was said to rule at Sparta a chieftain by the name of Teleclus who claimed to trace his descent from Hercules. This was about the time that Sparta was given the laws of Lycurgus, and, no doubt, had begun to feel the benefits of these strin- gent enactments. 232 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. The result of Sparta's laws was the formation of a powerful army. Every man was physically perfect and trained to endure all manner of hardships. A military train- ing began at the age of seven, and no man was exempt until he had reached his three score years. Now, as an indication of Sparta's weakness up to this time, we are told^ that during the three and one-half centuries that the Dor- ians had occupied the five villages at Sparta, there had existed a number of independent native tribes to the south, one of which, Amyclae, was only two and one-half miles from the Spartan headquarters. It was not until the time of Teleclus that these towns were conquered and made a part of Spartan territory ! Not until this occurrence did*^Mes- sena and the balance of the Peloponnesus begin to be fearful of Spartan supremacy. For the ruling power in the Peloponnesus during the entire period- of three centuries,^ we are to look to Dorian Argos. This was her period of conquest and glory. As soon as her city became filled with inhabitants, an ex- pedition was sent out to conquer and possess some neigh- boring villages. Thus did Argos establish colonies at Kloenae, Phlius, Sicyon, Epidaurus, Troezen, and Aegina, and make herself mistress of all the neighboring towns. Herodotus claims for her the sovereignty of the whole of the eastern Peloponnesus, Cythera, and other islands. Argos was the metropolis of Greece, and so continued until the Spartan armies, by mere physical superiority, gained supremacy in Hellas. Argos seems to have reached the height of glory and power under the reign of the tyrant, Pheidon, who seized the government soon after the first Olympiad.* He i Grote: "Greece," Vol. II. p. 329. 2 Herodotus, i. 82. 3 770-730 B. c. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 233 even had the effrontery to claim, as right of descent from Hercules, the privilege of presiding at the Olympian games ; so at their eighth celebration, he appeared with an army, and took "charge of the festival.^ The insult was afterward punished by the combined armies of Elis and Sparta.^ This may have been the prime cause of the enmity between Sparta and Argos. The most memora- ble act of Pheidon is yet to be mentioned. He caused the first coins to be struck at Aegina, and established a system of weights and measures, called the Aeginaean scale/ that came into general use throughout the greater part of Hellas. The Ionian Greeks modified this system and introduced the Euboeic scale which finally came into more universal use.. Pheidori.was the last ruler of prom- inence at Argos. While Argos was enjoying her supremacy, the Spar- tans and the Messenians had become open enemies. About 743 B. c, they came to open hostilities; and, for the follow- ing three-fourths of a century, an almost continual warfare existed between them. The cause of this hostile state of affairs is attributed to a dispute in the neighborhood of the common shrine that stood on the borders of the two countries. The Peloponnesus, in the latitude of these two cities, is about eighty miles across from sea to sea. The border line between the two could not have been more than twenty miles from either.^ During the seventy- five years of contention, Sparta was on the whole the stronger, and, finally, about 668 B. c, she succeeded in re- ) Strabo, viii. 358. 8 The Elians had for a long period been given the honor of presi- ding at this festival, as it was celebrated on their territory. 3 Grote, Op. eit. p. 318. 4 It is evident, then, that this famous war, seventy-five years in duration, must have been a sort" of tempest in a tea-pot. 234 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. ducing the Messenians to complete subjection. Her way- was now clear for the conquest of the balance of the Pel- oponnesus, and her armies did not rest until this object was accomplished. It was not until after the conquest of the Messenians by Sparta that Athens came into prominence. About 624 Solon Dictating his Laws. B. c, there was introduced the Draconian code of laws, which were so severe that they were said to have been written in blood.^ Almost every crime was made pun- ishable by death. Thirty years later, Solon was elected Archon^ and distinguished himself by the capture of Sal- 1 But as to the meaning of this tradition, see Vol. II. p. 219. 2 Ibid. p. 192. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 235 amis, wliicli was at that time under the control of Meg- ara. That placed him in a position to have made him- self tyrant of Athens. He was urged by his friends to do so, but chose rather to uphold the existing form of government. During the season of his popularity, he was urged to draft a code of laws for Athens. The government promised to adopt and uphold for ten years his laws should he do so. The result of his efforts was the great Solonian code,^ written on tablets,** which were ordered to be placed in the market place where all could read them. Then, so runs the tradition, in order to avoid being annoyed by clamors for changes and requests to repeal these laws, Solon absented himself from his country for ten years. It was during this time, that, traveling from country to country, he was invited to visit Croesus, then ruling Sar- dis. Tradition asserts that he viewed the treasures of this richest of living men, but gave great offense by claim- ing that no one could be sure of happiness before the end of life. An apochryphal story is told by G-reek writers of a happy use afterward made by Croesus of this remark by Solon, The story runs, that when Cyrus the Great was consolidating, into one harmonious whole, the petty Aryan states of Western Asia, he conquered Croesus and con- demned him to death. He was already placed on a funeral pyre, and the cruel flames were already lit, when Croesus thinking on Solon's words exclaimed, "0 Solon, Solon!" An opportune storm extinguished the flames, and the whole story coming to the ears of Cyrus, made so great an impression on him that he gave Croesus his life and 1 For a full discussion of this code, see Vol. II. p. 192 et seq. 2 Grote, Vol. III. p. 133-4. 23G THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. restored him, in a measure, to influence and power. This illustrates how fact, tradition, and myth intertwine in Greek history. We must not forget that Athens and Sparta were not "the only powerful cities in Grreece. There seems to have Solon and Croesus. been about one prominent city in each of the small states into which Hellas was divided. Now in early times, these settlements seem to have been merely tribal head- quarters, or the headquarters of a confederacy of tribes, where dwelt the supreme chieftain, and, as in the case of Sparta, the chieftains and house-fathers of several tribes. Thus was often planted the germ of a powerful city. Argos THE HELLENIC AHYANS. 237 was tribal headquarters for Argolis ; Sparta, for Lacorila ; Athens, for Attica; Corinth for the state of that name; Thebes, for Boeotia; and Chalcis, for Euboea. On tho coast of Asia Minor, the proniinent cities were Myletus and Ephesus in Ionia. Smyrna was first Aeolic but after- ward captured by lonians. The Island of Rhodes was occupied by Dorians. The remaining states and settle- ments of Grreece play a very insignificant part in the world's history, except it be Thessaly and certain colonies founded by the cities already mentioned. Ancient Athens. The Greeks at an early date sent out numerous colo- nies, and thus extended Grreek influence and culture, and helped forward the nascent civilization in Europe. Near home Corinth planted a colony at Megara and an- other on the island of Corcyra.^ The same year, she sent a colony into Sicily that founded the city of Syracuse. She was preceded in occupying Sicily by one year by an Ionic colony at Naxos sent out by Chalcis in Euboea.^ Megara was behind Corinth only six years^ in establishing 1 734 B. c. a 735 B. c. 15 3 728 B. C. 238 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. a colony in Sicily, which was called by the name of its mother colony. Then colonization passed northward into Italy, and Sybaris,^ Cratona,^ and Messenia were founded. Cumae, on the western coast' of Italy, and An- ' con a on the eastern coast are said to be Greek colonies, though the dates of their foundation are lost in the gloom of antiquity. The Phocean Grreeks from Asia Minor established a colony at Massilia on the southern coast of Graul in 600. b c. which became a very important trading post. But Phoe- nician power was so great along the coast of Spain, that the Grreeks found little encouragement to settle there. Encouraged by King Psammetichus, some Ionian Greeks founded a colony on the west branch of the Nile in the seventh century b. c. and called it Naucratis.^ Miletus, and Megara vied with each other in exploring the shores of the Exuine Sea. The latter, in the seventh century, planted colonies at Chalcedon and Byzantium, while the former had sought to command the entrance to the Eux- uine by establishing settlements at Abydus and Cyzicus.* There were many other smaller colonies planted by the Greeks during this period, but we have mentioned the most imjDortant. We have seen that this was a period of growth and spread of Aryan people. Wherever these colonies were planted, there is a hidden story of conquest, where an earlier people were either forced out of their homes to go and prey upon a weaker race, or else the men were reduced to slavery, and the women were made the 1 720 B. C. S 710 B. 0. 3 For recent researches as to location of Naucratis, see "Contempo- rary Review," July 1885. ■* For fuller information regarding this colonization scheme, See Bunbury: "History of Ancient Geography," Vol. I. p. 91-119; also Free- man: "Historical Geography of Europe," Vol. I. p. 47 et seq. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 239 wives of the conquerors. Such was the history of con- quest and colonization in ancient times. While the population of Hellas was outstripping the surrounding Aryan people in growth and culture, we must not forget that these other tribes did not remain station- ary. The power and importance of the early Thracians have already been dwelt upon.^ During this entire period and for many centuries previously, they must have been The Parthenon at Athens. also advancing in culture, and had doubtless attained no inconsiderable stage of enlightenment. The historical and literary world has been for so long a time blinded by the glitter of Grrecian later culture, that scholars have had little time and less inclination to study Thracian antiqui- ties. But we doubt not that discoveries will in the future he made that will result in a revolution in the history of Southern Europe. In the time of Strabo, the military force of Thrace was established at two hundred and fifteen thousand men. And so, in earlier times, it must have 1 Above page 41. 240 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. been a rival in power to any European, nation or confed- eracy.^ They had already, in the sixth century b. c, adopted an alphabet and introduced coined money.* Their alphabet was akin to the Runic alphabet of the north- ern regions, and inscriptions are being found, that, when interpreted, may place the northern Aryans in a more enviable light as compared to those of the southern pen- insula. The Danube and the Dnieper, two great highways of travel and commerce, were used from very early times. The Greek colonists about their mouths seem, to have been attracted there by the profits of this trade ; and, in the days of Herodotus, merchantmen were accustomed to run up these rivers for a distance of five or six hundred miles,^ while the distance in a straight line between the Baltic and the Black Seas is only about seven hundred miles. A spearhead, bearing an inscription of very an- cient type, has been found at Yolhynia, showing that the alphabet had been transmitted into the Baltic region at a very early date. Now the Thracians and Germans could not have been rude and painted savages with their alphabet, their coins, and their traffic with southern coun- tries. Along the northern shores of the Black Sea to the east of the Thracians, dwelt the Cimmerians, who were almost as mysterious a people as the Pelasgians. Keason- ing from the similarity of names they have been connec- ted with the Cymric Gauls of Western Europe. Indeed Canon Rawlinson* speaks of them fleeing westward in the 1 Eawlinson: "Herodotus," Vol. III. p. 216. 2 Taylor: "Greeks and Goths," London, 1879, p. 51 et seg- 3 Eawlinson, Op. cit. p. 50. * "Herodotus," Vol. III. p. 186. THE HELLENIC ABYANS. 241 seventh century b. c, through land that we know was occu- pied by powerful Thracians. He also states that the Belgse were exclusively Cimbrians.^ But we know now that the Belgse were Grermans. Then, too, Jutland, a Grer- man country, was called Cimbric Chersonese.^ We there- fore feel justified in classing the Cimmerians as tribes of pretty thoroughly Grermanized Thracians. We do not run counter to any philological question here, for there is nothing known of their language, beyond the word "Cim- meric,"^ Grrote* speaks of the Cimmerians as "perhaps the northernmost portion of the great Thracian name." Both Strabo^ and Tacitus,** speak of the Cimbrians as Grerman tribes. Until we receive some further light on the origin of the Cimmerians, we can not be judged very much in the wrong if we call them Thracianized Germans.' Their early home was the northern shore of the Black Sea, in the neighborhood of the Tauric Chersonese; and as a souvenir of there presence there, the name Cri- mea, still clings to that region. As we have stated, they gave their name to a portion of the Bosporus.^ They are mentioned in the Homeric poems,^ and they must have been quite an ancient people in the Black sea region. They are mentioned by Eusebius as having made a raid into Asia Minor early in the eleventh century b. c. As no other authority mentions this event, it is not given much credit.^" But as the people of Southern Europe were on the move about this time, as is indicated in the Aeo- lian and Dorian migrations, we should not be surprised if 1 Ibid. 187, note 6. 2 "Encyclopedia Britannica," article "Cimbri.'' 3 Eawlinson: "Herodotus," Vol. III. p. 188. < "History of Greece," Vol. III. p. 248. 5 Strabo, viii. p. 426. ^ "Germania,'' chapter 37. r Above p. 3T. 8 Above p. 38. 9 "Odyssey," book xi. line 13-22. 10 Eawlinson: "Herodotus," Vol. I. p. 290. 242 , THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. this ofPshoot of the Thracians was also touched by the spirit of migration even at this early date. To the north and east of the Cimmerians and contem- poraneous with them, dwelt the so-called Scyths. They were also a sort of anomalous people, something like the Pelasgians. The philologist has finally admitted them into the great Aryan family.^ Sayce^ calls them. Sarma- tians or Aryan Slaves, and represents them as mingling with Tartars, in the entire region between Thrace and the steppes of Tartary. They had probably been wander- ing across these fertile plains ever since the ancestors of the Asiatic Aryans had found their way around the north- ern shores of the Caspian sea into the Plindoo Koosh mountains.^ And it is interesting to note that the name of one of their prominent tribes, the Melanchlaeric, is iden- tical in meaning with Siah-Poosh,* the name of one of the purest Aryan tribes of the Hindoo Koosh region. Both are translated "black cloaks."^ We are also interested in noting the characteristics of the Budivi, another tribe of these ancient Scyths, as they are described by Herodotus. They had deep blue eyes and bright red hair. They dwelt in a city which was surrounded with a wall thirty furlongs each way. They had temples built in honor of Grrecian gods and adorned with images after Greek fashion." "Were these indeed the half-savage people who were wont to plunder the civilized world ? Do they not plainly show their German ancestry? i Ibid. Vol. III. p. 203. 3 See his "Herodotus,'' book i. chapter 216, note 8. 3 Above page 57. 4:Biddulph: "Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh," tells us that Bussian explorers claim that the present Siah-Pooh tribes are Slaves. 6 Baw]inson:"Herodotus," Vol. III. p. 94, note 2. 6 Herodotus, iv. 108. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 243 It must'be remembered that Herodotus wrote of these Scythic people about the middle of the fifth century b. c. Still he represents them as supplanting the Cimmerians early in the seventh century b. c, and we doubt not that they peopled this region from very remote times. We must remember that the most cultured foreign people were but barbarians in the eyes of Greek and Roman authors. But the so-called barbarians of Europe played too influen- tial a part in shaping the affairs of that continent to be the rude savages that they are represented as being. Returning now to the Greeks, we are to observe, that, as the period of Grecian colonization drew to a close, Ath- ens and Sparta were rivals for mastery in Greece. Sparta however had become considerably stronger than Athens -before 540 b. c. She held sway over all Peloponnesus, and her extremely well disciplined army caused her to be treated with the greatest of respect by all the states of Hellas. In fact, she exercised a recognized ascendancy over all Greece.^ At Athens, Peisistratus and his descend- ants, designated as tyrants, ruled, with intervals of expuls- ion, from 560 to 509 B. c, when Cleisthenes came in^o prominence and completely changed the state of govern- ment in that city. The old tribal organization was com- pletely broken up and the territory of the city was divided into ten territorial divisions, and thus political society founded on territorial relations, took the place of tribal society founded on personal relations.^ Shortly previous to 498 b. c, occurred an event where- in the Greeks were brought into prominence in the inter- national affairs of Europe and Asia. The Ionian colonies of Asia Minor had been conquered and added to the Persian 1 Grote, Vol. II. p. 455. 2 See Vol. II. This Series, p. 194. 244 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Empire. They determined to throw off the Persian yoke, and called upon Athens for assistance, which was readily granted, and the colonies thus gained their freedom. Da- rius, the Persian, subdued this revolt, and determined to punish the Athenians for interfering with his affairs. In order that "he might not forget his resolve, it is stated that Athens Under Pericles. he gave one of his servants the special duty every day, at dinner, of calling out three times, "Master, remember the Athenians."^ In 493 B. c, Darius planned an expedition against Greece which met with defeat both by land and sea. This new and powerful enemy, however, had the 1 Herodotus, v. 105. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 245 effect of uniting G-reece against a common foe as firmly as the Hellenic states were capable of uniting by alliance. The defeat of his army simply- angered Darius against the Grreeks all the more. He again sent messengers to all the Grrecian states demanding submission. Athens and Sparta refused peremptorily, the latter throwing the Per- sian embassadors into a deep well with advice to take from thence the earth and water as tokens of submission. A Miltiades at Marathon. second Persian army, therefore, entered Grreece, more determined than ever to conquer. The great eastern army landed twenty-two miles from Athens, planning to march^ against that city. But the Greeks, under Miltiades, pre- ferred rather to meet them on the open field, and so an engagement took place on the plain of Marathon.^ The 1 490 B c. 246 THE MEDIEVAL WCRLD. result was the overwhelming defeat of the Persians, and Marathon passed into history as one of the great pivotal battles of the world. The Spartans did not participate in this battle which occurred during a time in the month when their ancient customs forbade them to engagein battle' The remainder of Darius' life was spent in prepara- tions for a third invasion of Grreece, but he did not live to realize the desire of his life, the conquest of Grreece. No sooner, however, did his son, Xerxes, succeed to the Per- sian throne than he resolved to accomplish what Darius had begun. The largest army that has ever, in historical times, crossed the border land between the two continents is said to have been marshalled, equipped, and led against the almost insignificant handful of Grreeks, by the great Persian king himself. The lesson that this great army was taught at the pass of Thermopylse, and the story of the martyred Leonidas and his three hundred companions are too well known for mention here. This was followed by the great naval victory for the Greeks at Salamis.' The next year, the Grrecian fleet crossed the Aegaean Sea, while the Persian army under Mardonius, wintering in Thessaly, invaded Attica. . In that year,^ occurred on the same day the famous battle of Plataea, in which the Greeks, under Pausanius the Spartan, almost annihilated the Persians, and the naval battle of Mycale, where the fleet of the Persians was destroyed by that of the Athenians. The severe lessons that Persia had received on the memorable fields of Mararthon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Plataea, and Myc- ale saved the Europeans from any further trouble from that direction. Persian armies did not again try to reduce the Greeks to subjection. In order, however, to be pre- 1 Grote, IV. p. 342. 2 480 b. c. 3 479 b. C- THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 247 pared for any future trouble with Persia, the confederacy of Delos, whereby the principal states of Greece were pledged to contribute either ships or money for the main- tenance of a navy to keep the Persians out of the Aegaean, gave Athens the care of their funds and navy, and thus elevated that city to the chief rank among the naval powers of ^lat day. From 479 to 429 b. c, Athens' greatest benefac- tor, Pericles, was at the head of the State. Though the city had been twice leveled to the ground by the Persians, it was quick- ly rebuilt. But rebuilt Athens was not the same as Athens of old, simple tribal headquarters. Un- der Pericles, magnificent buildings were erected and the city was beautified by paintings and statuary. Above all, were her forti- fications strengthened by almost Cyclopean walls, leading from the city to the harbor. These walls were two hundred yards Pericles. apart and extended over four miles, thus uniting the city with her fleet. "The Acropolis was so enriched by mag- nificent structures that it was called ' the city of the gods.'"' In power, Athens led all the Grecian states, J Barnes: "History of Greece," p. 25-6. 248 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Abroad, she not only gained the respect of all nations, but inspired fear. "During a single year, she was waging war in Cyprus, in Egypt, in Phoenicia, in Aegina, and on the coast of the Peloponnesus ;"^ while, at the same time, she maintained her authority at home. In 450 b. c, she extorted a treaty from Artaxerxes, whereby the Grecian cities of Asia Minor were declared independent, and the Persian fleet excluded from the Aegaean sea.^ It was during this time that Herodotus, the father of history, flourished, and literature and art were at their height. The remaining events of the political history of Greece are too well known to further occupy much of our attention. Athens had at last become a powerful and magnificent city. The jealous Spartans had long sought an excuse to carry war against their rival power. In 431 B. c , a quarrel arising between Corinth and her colony, Corcyra, Athens and her allies sided with the latter ; but Sparta immediately proffered aid to the former. The Hellenic forces were nearly equally divided, and this struggle, called the Peloponnesian war, was continued until 404 B. c. Athens, during this time, had no such hand to guide her affairs as that of Pericles. Her most promising young leader was Alcibiades, who was usually undergoing the punishment of ostracism for some wild ■ escapade just when his country most needed his services. Thus it was when the Athenian forces met with their last disastrous defeat in the harbor of Syracuse in 413 B. c. The city itself held out for ten years longer when Sparta compelled submission. The protecting walls and the magnificent buildings were leveled to the ground, and proud Athens groaned under the oppression of the thirty tyrants. i Ibid. 2 Ibid. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 249 Sparta was now mistress of all Hellas. The five un- walled and defenceless mountain villages dictated to the rest of Greece. Persian money, however, again enabled Athens to rise but only to a shadow of her former grandeur. It seems to have been the plan of Persia to subdue Greece by keeping up this internal strife between Athens and Sparta. With Persian gold, Athens' walls were again re- built and her fleets were^ again able to meet the Spartans on the Aegaean. Then Persia made friends with Sparta Athenian Fleet before Syracuse. and compelled both cities to accept the "Peace of Antalci- das,"^ which surrendered the Greek cities in Asia Minor to Persian rule. Sixteen years later, there arose in the Boeotian city of Thebes, a leader who succeeded in completely changing the political affairs of Hellas. Epaminondas organized and equipped an army that, in discipline, ranked well with 1 394 B. 0. 2 387 B. c. 250 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. the Spartan soldiers. When Sparta heard that the The- ban army was overthrowing her governments in the Boeo- tian towns, she sent her forces to put down the rebellion. The famous battle of Leuctra was fought and won by Epaminondas. The stream of Persian gold was now turned Bust of Alexander. to Thebes, and Epaminondas, conquering one town after another, was soon the ruler of Hellas, At the battle of Mantinaea,^ however, he was killed. No one was found 1 362 B. c. THE HELLENIC ASYANS. 251 after him with ability to fill his place, and Hellas soon be- came a hot-bed of jealous, quarreling, fighting towns and villages, as bad as it ever was in old tribal times. It only needed some one firm hand and strong mind equal to the situation to change all this into a nation of peace. Such a person arose in the North. A new infusion of Teuto- Aryan blood was needed to invigorate the people of South- ern Europe. The "barbarous" Macedonians came to the rescue of Grreece, when Philip of Macedon turned his armies . toward the south.^ Now the Macedonians did not come down into Grreece uninvited. The Phocians, a state that had from time immemorial been a leading member of the Amphictyonic council, and had regarded her right to the presidency of that council as indisputable, had, by some political in- triguing of her neighbors, been expelled . from the league. She raised an army, took forcible possession of the Tem- ple of Apollo, and defied the whole Hellenic world. Philip of Macedon was anxious to be acknowledged as a Greek, and had laid his plans to take a hand in Grrecian afikirs. Thus far he had confined his campaigns to Thessaly and Thrace, where he had reduced town after town and tribe after tribe to subjection. While professing to be the friend of the Athenians, he had taken forcible possession of all their cities along the coast of Thrace and the Propontis. He was then the most powerful prince in Europe. In the course of his campaigns in Thessaly, he met the Phocians in batttle and was conquered by them. His defeat checked his advance, but strengthened his determination to con- quer all Grreece, One man in Athens seemed from the first to have detected Philip's intention. Demosthenes, the greatest orator of his age, delivered oration after ora- 1 359 B. c. 252 TITE MEDIEVAL WORLD tion, exposing the designs of Philip. His Philipics are even to-day considered models of oratory. Both Athens and Sparta awoke to the importance of the occasion too late. They now rushed, to the aid of the Phocians^ against the common enemy, who was fast approaching the pass of Thermopylae, the gateway to Attica and the Peloponnesus. Philip now boldly pro- claimed his championship of the cause of Apollo against the sacrilegious Phocians and their allies. His army was the best disciplined of any in the world. He had intro- duced the Macedonian phalanx and other new tactics that rendered his army almost invincible. He had also fitted . out quite a navy to co-operate with his land force ; and he plundered the merchantmen of the Aegaean for sup- plies and to interfere with the commerce of Greece. Thus Philip increased in power. In 352 b. c, he defeated the Phocians and their allies in battle. For four years Philip was engaged in subduing the Olynthians, while the rest of Greece looked on,® or lent only too tardy an assistance to the besieged city. In 346 B. c, Philip forced the Gre- cian states to a treaty whereby he was made a represen- tative in the Amphictyonic council in place of the Phocians. Thus did he gain admission into Greece and realize his most cherished desires, for he was made president of the Pythian festival, the highest honor that could be conferred upon a Greek. At last, after Philip had stationed his large and finely disciplined army at the pass of Themopylae and had been admitted with honors as a Greek among Greeks, the ora- tory of Demosthenes awoke the people of Athens to the lamentable condition of Grecian affairs. Now itmust be remembered that Philip had conquered as many cities by 1 Grote, Vol. IX. p. 297-8. » 348-344 B. C THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 253 falsehood and intrigue as by open warfare, so that it is not surprising that the Gf-reeks could place no reliance on his word. Athens and Thebes finally united against the Macedonians, but were^ defeated at the battle of Cheronaea. L" '*?"f ! '-"JJ-if T"< V ■"""^^fe^" i -I //*v.**!,L*B» ' 1 I 4t ■irV^ ' '^ jt-ir ./'•' n /k/i^: Alexander and Aristotle. All Hellas passed at once under Macedonian rule, and the Greeks never again gained their independence until after the Roman empire had become a .nation of the past. Under Macedonian rule Greece was united. The hand of a conqueror held all the petty tribes, as well as the more 1 838 B. 0. 16 254 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. powerful cities, in entire subjection, and could command united action upon any and every occasion. Such being the case, unlimited resources were placed at the command of the ruling prince. Philip now conceived the idea of carrying Grecian arms into Persia to punish that nation for the injury that she had often inflicted upon Grreece, and also to extend his own territory. The hand of the assassin was however uplifted against the king, and Philip of Mace- don was slain. -^ Alexander, the young son of Philip, immediately en-, tered upon the plans of his father. After destroying the city of Thebes as a punishmient for revolting, he began his march for Asia at the head of thirty-five thousand well disciplined Grrecian and Macedonian troops. His life was a short one, but it was a life of conquest from beginning to end. From Thrace, he entered Asia Minor and fought battle after battle until the terror of his armies, preceding him, led his enemies to pledge submission without resis- tance. We can follow his troops as they passed down the coast of Asia Minor conquering the armies that met him at every point. Entering Egypt as conqueror and thence passing eastward, he subdued Babylon ; at the battle of Issus he overthrew the Persian power ; burned Persepolis; and penetrated to the Indus river.^ He laid the foundation of many new cities, among which was Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile, that became so famous as a seat of learning. In 323 B. c, he died from the effects of dissipa- tion, and so never returned to his native land. During the nine years that he spent in Asia, the history of Greece is almost a blank. As the empire that he attempted to found was completely broken up at his death, Greece gained 1 336 B. c. 2 See note 3, p. 140. THE HELLENIC ARYANS. 255 very little if anything by his conquests.^ The government of G-reece and Macedon fell to the lot of one of his generals, Cassander. From 323 b. c, until 146 B.C. the old-time strug- gle of the petty states of G-reece for independence was again renewed, but with no definite result. In 146 b. c, Greece iiiWKMWiWWMWBWWiWWWWwwMwwrBmMmmmwimwBWWHWnwawwwma Battle of Issus. came under Koman supervision ; and, as such, she enjoyed a degree of peace and quiet prosperity before unknown to the Hellenic people. Now, as we glance back over the history of the Aryans of Southern Europe, we perceive that their growth has been very slow indeed. They were a people of few origi- 1 In another place we will show the very great influence exerted on civilization in general by Alexander's conquests. 25G THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. nal ideas except the inborn sentiments of liberty and independence. They were ever ready to adopt new ideas from the nations with whom they came in contact, and to develop the same to the highest state of perfection. Their art was developed from borrowed models, and their laws were compiled from the laws of foreign, princes. In the arts of war, however, they seem to have been about the first to originate a system of military tactics worthy of mention. The Spartan companies of hoplites were all-powerful, the brotherhood of three hundred picked Thebans carried everything before them, and the Macedonian phalanx, under Alexander, was literally in- vincible. In literature, the Greeks were not only origi- nators of several schools, but attained a degree of culture and refinement that has placed them at the head of the ancients in every department. And long after she had lost her place in the political history of the world, she continued to lead in thought, in philosophy, and in the fine arts. By no means was this a niean end for this great and peculiar people. M THE SOMAN ABYANS. 259 GHRPTER U THK ROMAN ART AH S FiKST Glimpses of Italy — Geographical Descriptio"! — Phoenicians in Italy — First Aryans in Italy— Greek Colonies ii Italy— Celtic In- fluence in Italy — The Latin Tribes — The Confedei-acy of Alba Longa Physical Sourroundings of Ancient Home — The Etruscans — Legends of Ancient Home — Gallic Invasion of Rome — Architecture of Ancient Eome — Rise of Roman Power — War with Carthage — Extension of Roman Territory — Capture of Carthage — Internal Troubles at Rome — Marius and Sulla — War with Mithridates — Gladiatorial Contests — Spartacus — First Trium.virate — Rise of Caesar to Power — Second Tri- umvirate—Antony and Cleopatra — The Formation of the Empire — The Beginning of the Decline — The Division of the Empire — Review of the Growth of Rome in territory — Conclusion. y^^^^^^j NORTHERN shores of the Medi- / I Jfe ^ ^iJtM^ terranean seem to have been the Ujj^S^^S^^^ border line between races during 1 ^ -'^^ ^ ^ ii J^^ ^i the period of the Ancient and Me- ^^^S^&^^^^^^^m diaeval Worlds. To the south and m!^^^^^^^^^*^' '' south-east of Mediterranean, from time immemorial to modern times, there existed most re- markable civilizations, and there were the homes of the Turanian and Semitic races. Stretching away to the north from the great inland sea even to the lands of the Lapps and Finns, were the homes of the Aryans, the hardiest races of mankind. There was concealed a latent energy and strength of body and mind that were capable of grasping Semitic and Turanian civilization at its summit of development, and bearing it onward to purer ideas higher modes of life, and more perfect forms of government. 260 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. We have seen how fully the Aryan inhabitants of the Troad assimilated Assyrian and Babylonian culture, customs, and enlightened modes of life, and grew into a power dreaded by the pharaohs of Egypt, requiring the combined forces of the Hellenic world to crush. The next European Aryans to come into contact with eastern civili- zation were the Grreeks. In tracing their rapid develop- ment, we have seen how the Hellenic land was peopled by successive waves of immigration from the North ; how the Phoenicians brought a knowledge of Turanian civili- zation to their doors ; and how, with Assyrian and Baby- lonian models, the Aryan Grreeks leaped to the very pin- nacle of ancient and medieval knowledge and culture. What a literature they left to the world ; what models in architecture ; what masterpieces — almost divine — in art ! We have now to consider the gradual rise to a command- ing position in the affairs of the world, of that remarkable people known as the Romans. Their history and culture fill the entire foreground of the Medieval World. They were the lawgivers of the world, and from the ruins of their vast empire, have arisen the various nations of modern times. About the time that Philip of Macedon was coming to the front in Grrecian affairs, Rome,^ as a new and rising power, began to exercise a voice among the ruling powers of the world. Before the first quarter of the third century B. c, Rome was scarcely known, though for centuries pre- viously, the Italian peninsula had been an open field in- viting the spreading Aryan tribes to settle therein. The general lay of this peninsula is from northwest to south- east. Its semicircular head is cut off from the rest of Europe by the Alps, the highest mountain barrier of the continent. With the Apennines for a backbone, the pen- THE R OMAN ARYA NS. 261 insula shoots out into the Mediterranean for a distance of several hundred miles, ending in two spurs which -give it the appearance of a boot. Off the toe of this boot is a triangular shaped island called Sicily. The greatest length from the Alps to the toe of the boot is some over seven hundred miles. The head of Italy is about three hundred miles wide, but its average width is only one- third as much. Its area, including the islands along the shores, is about one hundred thousand square miles. The head of Italy is the only extensive plain, and comprises the valley of the Po, or Padus, river. When we enter the peninsula proper, the rivers are necessarily very short ; and, owing to the many cross ran- ges of mountains and hills, volcanic in character, there are no plains of any size. We must, however, except quite an extensive tract of land on the eastern shore as we approach the heel of the boot. This plain was called Apulia, and was noted for its fertility. The western shore was washed by a portion of the Mediterranean called the Tyrrhenian' Sea. Passing southward along the western coast of Italy, we would pass the mouths of the Arnus, Tiber, Liris, Vul- turnus and Silarus rivers. The waters of the Aesis, Ater- nus, Tifernus, Trento, Cerbalus, and Aufidus flow toward the east, finding there way into the Adriatic. Lying to the west, at some distan'ce out into the Mediterranean, were the two extensive islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The soil of these, as well as that of Sicily, was noted for its fertility. In ancient times, Italy was cut up into a number of small states, each of which was peopled by a confederacy of allied and kindred tribes. The head of the peninsula 1 From the Greek name for the Etruscans, 262 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. was tlie home of the Liguriaris on the west, the Venetians on the east, and the Upper Etruscans between.-' Central Italy, or the upper portion of the peninsula proper, ex- tended down to the mouths of the Silarus on the one side and the Tifernus on the other. It comprised the six states that subsequently played prominent parts in the legendary history of the peninsula. These were Etruria, Latium, and Campana, to the west ; Umbria, Picenum, and the Sabine territory to the east. Southern Italy contained four countries ; Lucania, and Bruttium, on the west ; Apu- lia and lapygia, or Messapia, on the east.^ The opposite shore of the Adriatic was peopled by tribes of lUyrians, kindred of the Macedonians, The Phoenicians were, no doubt, familiar with the coast of Italy long before the Grreeks dared venture upon the open seas. How early these daring merchants began trading along these shores, we have no jneans of ascertain- ing ; but there is no doubt, that they found the whole pen- insula teeming with a population ready to barter native products for their Oriental wares. We recognize two dis- tinct races among these primitive inhabitants of Italy; and there is satisfactory evidence that both these races were but immigrants that had in earlier, pre-historic times, supplanted a more primitive race.' These two races were Aryan and Turanian. The traces that we find of that earlier people are so few and unsatisfactory, that we can only surmise that they were dark-skinned and extremely 1 Such is the ordinary belief regarding the early inhabitants of Northern Italy. [See Eawlinson : "Manual.] But Dr. Freeman dis- tinctly states that they -were more likely Gauls than Etruscans in the center and in the valley of the Po. "Geography of Europe," Vol. 1. p- 47 and note. 2 Rawlinson, Op. cit. p. 323-333. 3 Taylor: "Etruscan Researches,", p. 11-12, London, 1874. THE BOMAN ARYANS. 263 rude in their social life. In earlier times, we do not find the lines of separation between the races so strongly marked that we can assign to each a definite portion of Italian territory. On the other hand, we find here and there, throughout the length and breadth of the land, a confederacy of Turanians in almost an isolated position, surrounded by Aryan states. So, likewise, we find some Aryan confederacies similarly situated as regards Turan- ians. Then there appear other tribes bearing such evident marks of a mixed origin, that we can not assign them any definite racial place. The question as to where the earliest historic inhabi- tants of Italy came from is an interesting one to us. The facts, that the Aryans were immigrants ; that the Greek colonists found Sicily inhabited by Turanians, a part of whom had been driven down from the peninsula ; that some of these Turanians were of Iberian origin and, prob- ably, kindred of the Etruscans and Ligurians — all go to prove that the Aryan civilization of Italy was built upon a lower sub-stratum of Turanian life.^ When the Aryans entered Italy, therefore, they found the land occupied by Turanians, just as they did every other portion of the con- tinent. We are further convinced of this by existing proofs in the shape of monuments, inscriptions, and other remains. From these, we learn that Etruscan territory once extended much further south than ' when this people became known to Grreek historians. There is evidence, that Capua was an Etruscan city, and that the Etruscans were the ruling power from the Alps on the north to the Grulf of Salerno on the south.^ Ko records extend back to the time when bands of ) See Ramsey's "Europe," p. 484, London, 1885. 2 "Etruscan Researches," p. 15. 264 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Aryans began to find their way into Italy. Tradition says, that the ancestors of the lapygians followed the coast of the Adriatic around from Epirus into Italy.' There are other legends, according to which plundering bands of refugees from Troy found permanent homes in Italy .^ We are told also, that the Latins came into Central Italy from the north along the western coast,^ that they were later incomers than the lapygians, and that they "pressed with great weight" upon the population of the southern regions. This all tends to confirm the statement, that there was, from time immemorial, a constant influx of Aryans, both by land and sea, to the Italian peninsula. As we have seen, the first G-recian colony, the^ date of whose foundation can be relied upon, was established in Sicily in 735 B. c. But it is very evident, that bands of Grreeks had long before this found their way across the Adriatic. Then, too, near the site of modern Naples, a Grecian colony had existed for a long time before vessels from Chalcis landed the first settlers at Naxos, which is the oldest Greek settlement, of which we have authentic history. When Campanian Cumse was founded and where the colonists came from, even the ancients had forgotten. That they were Greeks was all that could be positively asserted of them. The first vessels known to have brought new colonists to Cumse were said to be from Aeolic Cyme of Asia Minor. But still, in historical times, Chal- cis was the metropolis of Cumae, just as it was of Naxos. Tradition places the date of the foundation of Cumse way back in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. B. c* On the 1 Eawlinson's "Manual," p. 336. 2 Virgil: "Aenaeid," Book i. 7-12; also Livy: "History of Bome," ch. i. 3 Eawlinson, Op. cit. p. 336. ^ The common date was 1050 b. c, but someauthors carry it back to 1139 B.C. Grote: "History of Greece," Vol. III. p .356-860. Taylor: "The Alphabet," VoJ. II. p. 131-3. TH 3 B OJIA y ARYANS. 2 35 opposite side of the peninsula and a little farther to the north, was located the Grreek colony of Ancona, but nothing definite is known of its foundation. It was there when history dawns on Italy.^ By the close of the eight century B. c, we find Grecian adventurers pouring into Sicily and Southern Italy so rapidly that the shores were soon lined with villages. The country was given the name of Magna Grecia, and was for several centuries regarded as a portion of Greece proper, to whom the colonists looked for assis- tance in war and protection from oppressive foes. The Celts were, doubtless, in possession of the Po valley as early as the Latins were of the hills of Latium.^ As neither history nor tradition informs us to the contrary, we have no doubt that they occupied Cis- Alpine Gaul even before there were any such tribes as the Latins in Italy. They simply prepared the way for their kindred (the Italians) to enter the Italian peninsula. The legend is probably right in stating that the laypgians came from the north down the Adriatic coast. They were probably Pelasgians making their way down from the Aryan home- land.^ The Celtic Latins followed them up pretty closely although they were probably later in point of time. The one descended along the eastern, and the other along the western coast of the peninsula. The Etruscans, between, were strong enough, perhaps, to keep them from over-run- ning Tyrrhenian lands. The only Etruscan city, Popu- lonia, near the coast would not be much of a barrier to the Celtic migration.* These two streams of migration in time met, and fused with the stream of Greeks that was colonizing Magna Grecia. Celtic Latins, Pelasgic lapyg- 1 Freeman: "Historical Geograpliy," "Vol. I. p. 47. 2 Freeman: "Historical Geography," Vol. I. p. 47. 3 Grote, Vol. III. p. 350. « Mommseu: "History of Rome," Vol. I. p. 170. 266 THE MEDIEVAL WOELL. ians, and Hellenic Thracians would probably include the Aryans of the Italian peninsula ; and a mixture of these people would give us the peculiar ethnical result known as the Ancient Roman. This Aryan mixture soon suc- ceeded in forcing the Etruscans to the north of the Tiber. There we find the latter in rather close quarters when au- thentic history of Italy begins. JSTor is language silent on this subject. There was formerly a school of historians who insisted upon deriving Latin from Greek.^ When they were convinced that they were wrong, a hypothetical language was constituted. It was called "Pelasgic," and was made the common parent of the dialects of Greece and Italy. Being as indefinite as the race of people that furnished the name, it was found wholly unsatisfactory, and that theory was abandoned. Greek and Latin are Aryan tongues, and, of course, must have come from the same source, the primitive Aryan language. But, as Professor Sayce remarks, " it is no longer possible to believe that the relation between Greek and Latin is especially close. Latin gravitates rather toward the Celtic languages."^ Speaking more plainly, then, Latin is nearer related to Celtic than to Greek.' "Mountains repeat and rivers murmur the voices of nations denationalized or extirpated."* No people will pass through a country, stopping here and there to spend a winter or to raise a crop of corn, as tribes do on their migratory tours, without leaving names which will forever cling to the villages, mountains, and rivers along their 1 Keane in Ramsay's "Europe," p. 561. 2 "Science of Language," Vol. II. p. 106. 3 8ee also "Celtic Britain," London, 1884, p. 1, by J. Rhys, Professor of Celtic, University of Oxford ; also consult Whitney: "Life and Growth of Language," p. 194. * See Palgrave: "History of Normandy and England," Vol.L p. 700. THE ROMAN ARYANS. 267 routes. The river names are memorials of the very ear- liest inhabitants of a country. In studying the geograph- ical names of Europe, we can detect the presence of Celts over the greater portion of Southwestern Europe before any other Aryan tribes had traversed this region. In Italy, "we find villages which bear Teutonic or Romance names,, standing on the banks of streams which still re- tain their ancient Celtic appellations."^ Thus have the lo- cations of several ancient Celtic colonies been found in Central Italy.* All this tends to the conclusion, that while, and even before, the Grreeks were finding their way across the Adriatic, and, pressing northward in their search for homes and plunder, the Celts were descending from their Trans- Alpine homes in search of better pasture lands upon the Italian hills. When we consider the modern Italians and Latin speaking people in general, we will fitid that they have no ethnical unity.' Romance languages are spoken in por- tions of America as well as in various European countries. But in ancient times in Italy, we can understand how the Celts pressed downward and the Hellenic immigrants pressed upward, while the Turanians were either crushed between them or absorbed. Central Italy, then, must have been a common battle ground where races were fight- ing for bare existence. From the midst of this fighting mass, we at last catch a glimpse of a tribe of Ramnes slowly but surely rising into supremacy. The fabulous wolf had come down to the Tiber to drink, and the royal twins were nourished by the food that she brought them. Among the Italian tribes, the Latins occupy the most 1 Taylor: "Words and Places," London, 1865, p. 195. s Ibid. p. 41. * Keane in Eamsay's "Europe," p. 565. 268 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. important position. They settled along the southern bank of the Tiber, occupying a rugged, hilly district, seven hun- dred square miles in area/ which would seem to have been poorly fitted for the development of the hardy Roman people. Across the Tiber to the north, were the Turanian Etruscans, with whom the Latins waged continual war- fare. But in wars of Capitoline Wolf. races, the Aryans have always been pretty firmly united against a common foe. The Latins were surrounded by the Sabines, the Samnites, and the Campanians. Though forever involved in tribal warfare among themselves, they were often allied against the Etruscans. There were thirty tribes of Latins. Each tribe had- well organized tribal headquarters, which are often mentioned by historians as the thirty Latin cities. The fact, that thirty tribes of shepherds occupied only seven hundred square miles of territory, and had room for new colonies to grow into tribes, is sufficient evidence that these headquarters were not cities in the modern sense of the word. These thirty Latin tribes, however, formed a confed- eracy, powerful enough to make the Etruscans fear them, and even to command respect from the more numerous Sabines on the east. The headquarters of this confed- eracy were at Alba Longa, the home of the Alban tribe. The supremacy of the Albans seems to have been undispu- 1 Mommsen: "Rome," Vol. I. p. 60. THJE HOMAJSr ARYANS. 269 ted for a long time ; and, as they grew and increased in power, the population, no doubt, became, from time to time, too great for the territory. Colonial bands would be encouraged to make for themselves homes in the adjacent country. The young tribes or colonies thus formed would receive the aid and protection of the mother tribe so long as they did not become rebellious. The Tiber, that formed the northwestern boundary of Latium, was the most important river of the peninsula, and was, no doubt, the thoroughfare by which the trading vessels of the Phoenicians reached the interior tribes and the war ships of the Etruscans found their way into the open sea. About fourteen miles from 'the mouth of the Tiber and on its left bank, are located a group of seven hills (the Romans called them mountains), that have been rendered immortal by the many fables and legends that cling to their early history. As we ascend the river, we pass in order the Aventine, the Palatine, and, finally, the Capitoline hills. Here the river makes a great bend to- ward its right bank, thus forming a level plan that bears the name of Campus Martins. Before the great stone quay was constructed, this level plain was overflowed during high water. Bordering this plain to the east, is another of the seven hills which bears the name Quirinal. The other three — called Caelian, Esquiline, and Yirinal — ■ were ranged back of the first three mentioned. These last named were not located along the river bank. As will be seen from the map, this group of hills occupy a commanding position on the river. From their number they were called the "Septimontium."- These hills were of volcanic origin and remarkable for the sterility of the soil. Great natural basins had been formed in their midst, which, when full of water, 270 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. were beautiful lakes. But the heat of a southern sun very often transformed them into fever-breeding districts. So that the climate of Rome was not healthful and the water supply was insufficient. But the location was of enough importance to counteract all this. Were we to in- quire, however, when these hills were first peopled, we would meet with a great mass of conflicting legends totally Map of Rome. improbable and unworthy of a place in any writing that pretends to historical recognition. We may just as* rea- sonably search for gleams of historical truth in German Folk-lore, or in Mother Goose Melodies as in the legends of Rome. The historian who tries to build upon them is building on a foundation of sand. Ethnology and a knowledge of the general movements of the races that inhabited Europe in pre-historic times THE ROMAN ABYANS. 271 have given us a pretty accurate knowledge of the origin of the different people who early found their way int(? the Italian peninsula. It took the Aryan tribes a long while to Aryanize even the central and southern part of Italy. As we have stated, the whole peninsula was, no doubt, for some time prior to the arrival of the Aryans covered by a Turanian population. The legends of Rome tell us but very little of these earlier people. We must search in other records for their footprints, and shall, no doubt, find traces of their presence. There is another source of information regarding an- cient Rome that we must not overlook, for it furnishes us with interesting, valuable, and reliable knowledge. The discoveries of archaeologists are throwing light upon the pages of all ancient history, that enables us to see clearly many truths that were hidden from the visions of our predecessors. In 1883 the spade of the archaeologist un- earthed under the Esquiline hill some very primitive tombs. Previous to this on the same hill, had been dis- covered a large necropolis. These ruins probably date from a much more remote period than the alleged founda- tion of Rome. They are of Etruscan origin, and scholars, on the whole, admit that they are relics of the pre-his- toric people whom the Aryans conquered. But one sig- nificant fact is, that the pottery found among these ruins bears such decorations as to prove that at least the de- signs were borrowed from Assyria and Babylonia. Here, again, we run across the work of the Phoenicians, for they undoubtedly were instrumental in bringing these vessels, or a knowledge of this kind of work, to the shores of Italy .^ The Etruscans were no mean foes for for the Romans to contend with. We have seen how the Turanian 1 Middleton: "Ancient Eome," p. 42-3. 17 272 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. population of Asia arose to the summit of ancient civili- zation.^ The Etruscans were TuraniansJ related to the Acca- dians, Elamites, Susians, and Proto-Medes;^ and the indica- tions are, that they had also attained a higher state of cul- ture than any other European members of their race. They were known to the Greeks as Tyrrhenians^ to the Latins as Etruscans^ and they called themselves Rasena? They were a great commercial people'' before the legendary founding of Rome. Their war ships appeared on the coasts of Egypt be- fore the time of Rameses III.^ Though their history is built upon the ruins of a long forgotten power and opulence, we are surprised at the immensity and abundance of these remains. "The internal history of Etruria is written on the mighty walls of her cities. ... It is to be read on graven rocks, and on painted walls of tombs."" But there are none to interpret her inscriptions. A Scipio might have pre- served for us a clew to unravel these riddles of a lost peo- ple, but forgotten is the tongue that they spoke, and bo one can now interpret to us these, messages from their tombs.'' Jamis. 1 This Series, Vol. II. 2 See Taylor: "Transactions of International Congress of Oriental- ists," 1874, p. 176. 3 "Etruscan Researches," p. 11., cf. the word Turanian. ^ Mommsen's "Rome," Vol. I. p. 195. 6 This Series, Vol. II. p. 598. 6 Dennis: "Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria," Vol- 1, p. xxiii. ' A.11 modern and ancient languages have been searched and studied in vain for a key by which to read Etruscan inscriptions. Dr. Taylor thinlis that he has at last traced Etruscan to the Altai group of langua- ges. See his works referred to in this chapter. THE ROMAN ARYANS. 273 Judging from the remains of her cities and cemeter- ies, Etruria of old was densely populated. Her cities must have compared favorably with those of the ancient Orient. To support its population, the land must have been under a high state of cultivation. Though Dennis^ may use too glowing colors when he paints his pictures of Etruscan life, we may with profit glance at his pen-sketch of a portion of that land restored. "What is now the fen or jungle, the haunt of the wild boar, the buffalo, the Etruscan Graves. fox, and the noxious reptile, where rnan often dreads to stay his steps, and hurries aWay as from a plague-stricken land, of old yielded rich harvests of corn, wine, and oil, and numerous cities, mighty and opulent, into whose laps commerce poured the treasures of the East, and the more precious products of Hellenic genius." Etruria must have represented the culmination of European Turanian civilization. That she figured in the affairs of the Pharaohs proves the high antiquity of her power, and reveals to us the origin of that Egyptian in- fluence, a trace of which is detected in her art and 1 Op.'cit. xxix. XXX. 274 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. architecture. The life of Etruria must have been of long duration. Dr. Taylor^ allows her a thousand years for her development. When, however, we realize that Etruria permitted bands of Aryan immigrants to seize one of her most important posts, and station themselves upon the Septimontium, commanding the Tiber, we can but conclude that her power was even then on the wane. Otherwise we must admit that she had sunken into the wantonness of effeminacy, or perhaps debauchery. As we are only concerned with Etruscan influence upon the Aryans of Rome, we will not enter further upon her his- tory. Turning then to the first Aryan settlers on the seven hills, we find ourselves in a labyrinth of legend, myth, and fable. The thread which might have led us out was irre- coverably lost before the first Roman historian was born. If we accept a single legendary statement, we must accept them all for they are all alike improbable.^ It is not strange that the Aryans, building as they did upon a sub- stratum of Etruscan population, should retain some of the old Turanian legends, such as the wolf story and perhaps the rape of the Sabine woman. ^ Still, the entire fabric of Roman history, for about five centuries from the alleged date of the foundation of Rome, is woven out of just such material. We can not use it and shall therefore pass over this period in utter silence, drawing only a few conclusions 1 "Etruscan Researches," p. 15. a The whole matter of the legendary history of Eomc is discussed by Ihne: "History of Rome," Vol.1. Sir George Lewis "Early Roman History," Vol. I. Schwegeler "Romische Gesehichte," Band I. Dyer: "History of the Kings of Rome," gives the fables in full. 3 Dr. Taylor "Etruscan Researches," p. 369 372, classes the Romans with the Turanian, "wolf people" to whom that legend is common. The rape of the Sabine women is, perhaps, an aetiological myth to explain the intermarriage of two tribes, as contrary to primitive tribal usage. THE ROMAN ARYAN'S. 275 from the condition in which we find Roman life when the light of authentic history first dawns upon the Septimon- tium. Brutus Condemning his Son to Death. Mythological Period It matters little whether we have the details of Rome's early struggle with the Turanians or not. The first five centuries of her history are utterly insignificant even from the stand-point of the legendary historian. Though the 276 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLB. legendary clironology places the foundation of Ptome in the year 753 b. c, it was not until 423 B. c. that the Etruscan village of Fidenae was conquered,-' though it was only five miles up the river. The Etruscan village of Veil was only ten miles from Rome. Many are the legendary wars and battles fought between these two cities. The legends say, Cornelia and Her Sons. [ The Gracchi.] however, that, while the Gauls were fighting Etruria on the north, the Roman army slipped over there and, after ten years constant siege, succeeded in reducing the Veien- ites to subjection. This great conquest is recorded for 392 B. c, over three hundred and sixty years after the founda- 1 Bawliason's "Manual," p. 363, THE BOMAN ABYANS. 277 tion of Rome. As a remarkable climax to the martial prowess of Rome, it is record that four hundred and eigh- teen years after her foundation she had conquered the whole of Latium — a district seven hundred square miles in area, less than an- average county in a western state. In 280 B.C., Rome did, however, become known to the outside world, becaiUse her armies then for the first time met foreign troops even on Italian soil. Authentic Roman history may be said to commence with that date. We shall, however, be compelled to adopt the periods into which historians divide Roman history in order to make our further remarks intelligible to the reader. Thus it is convenient to consider thj-ee periods in the life of the Roman people — ^the Regal period,-' the Republic or Com- monwealth,® and the Imperial period or the Empire.^ The first division rests upon a legendary foundation, the second is more authentic, and the last^ is the date of the dissolu- tion of the Western Empire. Our knowledge of tribal confederacies and of the origin of government would lead us to expect a regal period in the life of the Roman people; but this whole period has been sufficiently treated in another place ; and we will refer the reader to that place for a knowledge of the constitution and government of Regal Rome and the origin and nature of the two great divisions of its people ; the Patricians and the Plebeians.' There is one event in early Roman history that stares us in the face at every point, forces its reality upon us, and thus serves as a starting point in her history. This is the first recorded invasion by the Grauls after Roman his- tory begins. All authorities agree in fixing -the date at 390 B. c. It is not strange that the Aryan tribes had, as 1 753-509 B. c. 2 509-31 B. C. 3 31 B. C.-476 a. ij. « a. d. 476. 6 See Vol. II. p. 195-204. 278 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. early as that, at least, begun to press down over the Alps. At last, they crossed the Apennines in large numbers. The Etruscans were forced to shut themselves up in their towns, and to buy off the invaders with gold and plunder. At last they reached Rome, defeated her armies, and en- tered and plundered the city. The capitol is said to have been saved by Roman gold. If Rome had any system of keeping records, from which her early history could Tlie Gauls in Rome. have been ascertained, such records were all distroyed at this time.' Though writing was, no doubt, in vogue in Italy at an early period, we can thus understand why we have no authentic history of early Rome. These Gauls finally departed from Rome, and tradition follows them through Thrace across the Hellespont, and into Western Asia.^ 1 Dyer "Kings of Eome," p. 28, argues that the records known aa "Annales Maximi," were not whoUy destroyed- 2 Above page 36. THE BOMAN AR VANS. 279 The light of authentic history, which at last breaks over the Appennines, thus reveals to us Rome, risen from the ashes of a G-allic invasion and taking her place among the powers of the infant Aryan World. As to the begin- ning of this period. Sir G-eorge Lewis has so satisfactorily calculated the date, that we quote from him.-' He fixes the termination of the Republican period at the death of Pompey in 48 B.C. " If we take our departure from this point, and ascend the stream of Roman history, we shall find that we are accompanied by native contemporary au- thors, in the strictest sense of the word, for 177 years, up to the commencement of the Grallic war, in the 529th year of the city, or 225 B. c; that, with a;n allowable latitude of construction, this period may be extended to 216 years, up to the commencement of the first. Punic War, in the 490th year of the city, or 264 B.C.; and that, if we call in the assistance of contemporary Greek writers, we may mount as far back as 233 years, to the 473rd year of the city, or 281 b. c, when Pyrrhus landed in Italy, and the Romans came for the first time into conflict with an army of Greeks." Back of the above date, then, we have to rely on the archaeologist for information as to ancient Rome. But considerable has now been made out as to their knowledge of art and practical sciences. The Romans were neither artisans nor architects. They looked to Etruria for everything in this line, until Hellenic cul- ture, in its spread, reached the banks of the Tiber. So marked are these indications that what remains of Ro- man architecture is grouped under three stages of devel- opment: Etruscan, Hellenic, and Roman.-' The same 1 "Early Roman History," p. 19-20, 2 "Ancient Borne," p. 20. 280 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. tomb has been found to contain wall paintings of Hom- eric scenes, doors and cornices of Egyptian type, and painted vases of Assyrian and Babylonian jstyles^ The "Wall of Romulus" was built after Etruscan models and probably by Etruscan workmen.** We are told that the Etruscans were the metal workers for all Europe. The iron founderies at Elba supplied nearly the whole world, and the remains about their work-shops prove that they had an enormous trade in copper and bronze imple- ments.^ Many of the Latin building words are probably of Etruscan origin.* The earliest blocks of stone used- in building were worked with metallic tools.^ Etruscan workmen were the architects of the great temple of Jupi- ter on the Capitoline. Their knowledge of drainage was brought into use when the great sewer, called Cloaca Max- ima, was constructed. Whenever Rome would raise any public building, she employed Etruscan artificers." The catalogue of Etruscaii works at Rome could be enlarged indefinitely, but enough has been mentioned to show how extensive was this foreign influence. To Etrus- can knowledge and culture, Rome added "her virtues, her thirst of conquest, and her indomitable courage,"^ all of which were to a great degree lacking in her almost effemi- nate neighbors. Etruscan scholars, however, do not hesi- tate to claim for that people everything that is cultivating and refining in not only Roman, but even in modern Italian life. Prince Bonapart^ calls standard Italian "the Tuscan 1 Ibid. 2 Conquered Etruscans were Boman slaves. It is more probable that they were forced to do this work for their masters than that hired workmen were imported. We, however, follow authoritiss on this point. 3 Taylor: "Transactions I. C. O. ]fJ74, p. 176. * Ibid. p. 174. 5 "Ancient Rome," p. 25. 6 "Etruria," Vol. I. p. Ixi. ■? "Etruria," p. xxii. 8 "Transactions of Philological Society," 1882-4, p. 179-80. ALPHONSE DE NEUYILLE. OERMAN WOMEN DEFENDING THEIR WAGON CASTLESAGAINST THE ROMAN ARYANS. 283 dialect," and mentions Dante, Petrarch, and Boccacio as "Tuscan luminaries" while Dr. Taylor^ even claims that the leading schools of art are in cities once belonging to the old Etruscan dominion ; and that "Giotto, Fra An- gelico, Grhirlandajo, Masacio, Perugino, Fra Bartolemmeo, Leonardo, Coreggio, Grarofalo, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Francia, GruidoReni, Domenichino, and the Caracci," were not only Tuscans but probably of Etruscan origin. But it required in Etruria, as in other parts of the world, Aryan blood, energy, and mental and physical strength to carry this knowledge of the arts and sciences to the pitch of development that they have attained. To the Aryan, is due the credit of entering upon the labors of such Turanian civilizations ; and, when they are tottering and about to fall under the weight of racial weakness, to carry them forward to a more perfect stage of healthful- ness, vigor and grandeur. After all, Rome had attained no great celebrity for her architecture and buildings until near the close of the Re- publican period. The Etruscan ceremony of encircling the headquarters of a newly established tribe with a fur- row made by a plow drawn by a cow and a bull, was prob- ably early celebrated in the case of Rome.^ The so-called "Wall of Romulus" followed the direction of this furrow," inclosing a portion or the whole of the Palatine hill; and this enclosure has since been called Roma Quadrata, from the rectangular shape of the building blocks used. These central grounds were afterwards enlarged by a wall, at- tributed to Servius, so as to include the whole "Septimon- tium," and considerable space beyond and between the 1 "Etruscan Researches." 2 See Coulanges : "Ancient City." ' "Ancient Eome," p. 44, note. 284 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. seven hills.' The Forum Magnum was a large open space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills, where assem- blies of people were wont to be held. It was rectangular in shape and was, in later times, surrounded by spacious halls where courts of justice might sit. It was here, at a later day, that gladiatorial fights were witnessed which will Entrance to the Capitol. forever tarnish the glories of Rome. Between the Pala- tine and the Aventine hills, was a long, rectangular valley, called the Circus Maximus, or great Circus. Here were celebrated the great games for which Rome was noted. 1 Bawlinson: "Manual," p. 348, THE ROMAN ABYANS. 285 As has been said, the Campus Martius was a great plain without the walls of the city, though above it and near the river's bank. Here the Roman youth engaged in martial sports and the largest assemblies of the people were held. Here, also, the army was wont to assemble at the sound of the horn and listen to commands. A stone wall, bearing many marks of Etruscan workmanship, was early begun and, in time, run along both sides of the Tiber the entire length of the city front.^ Previous to 142 B. c, the only bridge across the Tiber was constructed of wood, so as to be easily cut down in case of danger from an invasion. The whole of Etruria was noted for its system of sewerage. It is not surprising, then, that Rome, whose hills were interspersed with marshy, malarial districts, should have looked to matters of health. When the great sewer, called Cloaca Maxima, was constructed, it would be hard to tell, but it is attributed to Tarquin II. It was a wonderful piece of workmanshij), and finally developed into a perfect system of drainage. Though the water supply was always poor at Rome, it was not until near the middle of the Republican period that a known sys- tem of water works was introduced. It was in the Cen- sorship of Appius Claudius, that the first acqueduct was constructed. It brought the water from a distance of seven or eight miles. In the first century of our era, the city had so increased in size as to require nine of these great water courses to furnish it with a necessary supply.^ The same year,^ the first of those great highways, which, in Imperial times, connected Rome with the ends of the 1 At one place, not far from the mouth of the Cloaca Maxima, a piece of the original wall exists, with projecting lion heads, sculptured in bold and effective Etruscan style. "Ancient Eome,'''p, 78. 2 "Ancient Rome," p. 466. 3 Probably 313 B. c. 286 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. world, was built. This was the Via Appia, or Appian road, and extended from Rome to Capua.'' These roads were master-pieces of engineering, and constructed regard- less of the amount of human labor required. Valleys were bridged over by massive stone viaducts, and moun- tains of solid rock were cut through, in order to make the road level and straight. Appian Way. The principal architectural remains of the Regal and early Republican periods are altars and temples. There were the altars of Saturn and Vulcan ; and, at a later date, though built on the site "of an older altar, there was in Rome also an " altar to the unknown god." The temple of Vesta, of Janus, and of Castor were among the oldest 1 Ibid. p. 477-8. THE BOM AN ARYANS. 287 buildings at Rome. But the earliest, as well as the most celebrated of these ancient buildings, was the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capitoline hill. The legend says, that Romulus vowed a temple to Jupiter ; but it is a well known historical fact, that the Etruscans were wont to erect in every new settlement a temple to their triad of Facade of Jupitor Stator's Temple. gods, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The triple nature of this temple was undoubted ; and, as its architecture is of Etruscan style, it probably belongs to pre- Roman times, though its foundation was attributed to Tarquin I. The statue of Jupiter, also, was modeled by an Etruscan sculp- tor. This ancient building was "numbered among the seven sacred relics, on the preservation of which the wel- 288 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. fare of Home depended."^ It v.as burned in 83 b. c, though subsequently rebuilt on a much grander scale. Resuming the thread of history once more, we will commence with the invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, which as we have seen, Sir G-eorge ' Lewis thinks is about as far back as we have historical light to guide us. With each conflict of Rome with her neighbors, we shall see her emerge with increased power and influence. This was long after the termination of the so-called Regal period, about the middle of the period of the Commonwealth. In 281 B. c, Rome violated her treaty with the Greek city of Tarentum by stationing a fleet in the forbidden waters of their bay. The Tarentines resented this act by attack- ing the fleet and sinking a number of vessels. War was declared. The Tarentines appealed to Greece for aid. Epirus sent an army of twenty-five thousand Greek troops under Pyrrhus, to their assistancs. ■ The Romans, however, had already attained such power, that the combined Grecian forces could not cope with them. The army that Pyrrhus brought with him was at last destroyed, and the colonies were, one by one, subjugated. The Grecian general is said to have quitted Italy in 276 b. c, and all opposition in the southern part of the peninsula was met and subdued by 266 B. c. Roman arms were at the same time carried north, and when, at the close of the year 265 B. c, Vol- sinii, chief of Etruscan strongholds, was taken and razed to the ground, "Rome reigned supreme over the length and breadth of Italy. "'^ Rome next interferred in a quarrel between some pi- i "The other six are said to have been the needle of Cybele ; the ashes of Orestes ; the veil of Ilione ; the scepter of Priam ; the ancilia of Mars, and [chief of all] the Palladium." 2 Bawlinson: "Manual" p. 378-9. THE ROMAN ABYANS. 289 rates at Messina, a town at the extreme north end of Sicily, and Carthage. A war with Carthage was the result. It lasted twenty-three years,-^ and resulted in favor of Rome. This war is known in history as the First Punic War. Sicily was made an independent ally of Rome. During this war, the naval power of Rome was greatly increased, and her arms were carried into Africa for the first time. The Cis- Alpine Grauls were, no doubt, continually encroach- ing upon Roman territory, as they were pressed forward by the restless tribes continually crossing the Alps. Rome was even compelled to act on the defensive against their inroads. She, determining at last to conquer them, became an aggressor in 232 b. c. by planting colonies in Gallic territory. Seven years later,^ the Grauls crossed the Apen- nines and advanced upon Rome, but were driven back. The Roman army followed them into the valley of the Po, and, in 222 B. c, extended the dominion of Rome to the Alps, making Cis-Alpine Graul a province. But in the meantime,^ a Roman fleet, under the plea of driving the Illyrian pirates from the Adriatic crossed over and estab- lished the authority of Rome in lUyria, Dalmatia, and the adjoining islands. Thus the Grreeks established those fatal bonds of friendship with Rome which, not only in their case but in all other cases, soon became the "bonds of servitude. Though the armies of Carthage had been conquered, her spirit had not been subdued. We all call to mind how the infant Hannibal swore at the altar of Baal eternal enmity toward the Romans. The young Hannibal had now grown into manhood. Reared in the camps of the Carthagenian army engaged in the conquest of Spain, he succeeded in 220 b. c, to the command of the forces, and 1 264-241 B. C. 8 225 B. c. 3 230 B. c. 18 290 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. at once began preparations to invade Italy. He chose a route by land across the Alps, and, in 218 B. c, started on his journey with an enormous army and great stores of munitions of war. Two years of Carthagenian conquests followed ; but then, Hannibal found himself in the heart of Italy, surrounded by Roman forces, and unable to get reinforcements from Carthage. Now came the time for Hannibal Swearing Vengeance on Home. Rome to revenge the slaughter of the flower of her youth on the field of Caunae.^ Still for fourteen years longer, Hannibal remained in Italy defying Roman power. At length, Rome carried the war into Carthagenian territory, and Hannibal was recalled to defend his native city, only, however, to be defeated at the battle of Zama by Scipio Africanus, which led to the submission of Carthage.^ As 1 The story is told that after the battle, 216 b. c,., Hannibal gathered a bushei of gold rings from the fingers of the wealthy Bomans that lay slaughtered on the field, and sent them to Carthage to '^jrove the fatality of the day to the Bomans. 2 201 b. c. THE ROMAN ARYANS. 291 a result of this war, Rome not only maintained her au- thority, but again established her supremacy. The terms of her. treaty with Carthage, though probably no more se- vere than might be expected, was such as to forever crip- ple a maritime power. Carthage could no longer hold possessions outside of the African continent; she could not engage in foreign war without the consent of Rome ; she was forced to surrender all her ships, except ten ; and, finally, she was forced to pay trib- ute to -Rome. Still Carthage flourish- ed though crestfal- len and robbed of her riches and power.-' Hannibal, the greatest of Cartha- genian generals, was finally driven from the city by enemies. He fied '*'"' ^ »//H"-T'¥li v V to the'Syrian court, and was instrumen- tal in stirring up a war between that country and Rome, disastrous to the former. Pursued by the Romans into Bithynia, he put an end to his own life rather than fall into the hands of his life-long enemies. By the terms of peace, Rome gained two provinces in Spain. She also had the best of excuses for the com- plete subjugation of all the unfriendly portions of Italy. 1 Rawlinson's "Manual," p. 390-5. Hannibal. 292 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. This she effectively accomplished. In the meantime she had entered into alliance with Egypt, Rhodes, and other eastern people. The Macedonians had at first openly assisted Carthage, but a Roman . army soon compelled them to make peace. But even after this, Macedonia '«..' \^^^*f Proclaiming Liberty to the Greeks, secretly befriended Carthage, as well as carried on war with Egypt and Rhodes ; so that, as soon as opportunity offered, a Roman army was again sent into Macedonia. Now Rome's military tactics were of a two-fold nature. No power had yet been able to successfully defeat her THE BOM AN ABTANS. 293 armies ; but, in almost all cases, she prepared tlie way to success by stirring up strife among the allied tribes of peo- ple, with whom she was at war. This, we will see, was her course against the powerful Gauls and Teutons in thfe times of the empire. Such was her policy at this time with the Grreeks and .Macedonians. The Roman consul, Flaminius, entered Grreece with an army and proclaimed Grecian independence to all the tribes that would' join his cause. The battle of Cynocephalae ended the war, and at the same time the Macedonian empire.' Each Gre- cian state was made separate and independent, except in the case of leagues among themselves, such as those of Achaia, Aetolia, or Boeotia. When Antiochus received Hannibal at his Syrian court, Rome regarded the act as a challenge for war, and was not long in accepting it. Antiochus was really the aggressor. He formed an alliance with Grecian Aetolians, and even entered Greece with an army. The Roman army finally entered Thessaly, defeated the Syrians at Thermopylae, and drove them out of Greece. The Roman fleet defeated the Syrians near Cyj)rus, landed in Asia, and compelled Antiochus to withdraw from that part of Asia Minor north of the Taurus and confine himself to the district south of that range.^ Again^ the Macedonians, under_ Philip's successor, Perseus, became rebellious. The battle of Pydna was fought in 168 B.C., and, as usual, the Romans were successful. Macedonia was broken up into four states. The leagues of Greece, except Achaia, were dissolved and many of the separate states again declared independent. There had always been a party at Rome that consid- ered their own state unsafe as long as Carthage flourished. 1 197 B. C. 2 190 B. 0. 3 171 B. 0. 294 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD, The head of this party was Cato, the Censor. It is said, that he closed every speech to the Senate, or people of Rome with these words, "Carthage must be destroyd."^ Return of Heguliis.* 1 "Delepda est Carthago. 2 During this war occurred the memorable incident of Regulus and his return to Carthage. Captured by the Carthagenians he was paroled and sent to Rome on condition that he return to Carthage if Rome re- fused to make a certain treaty. Regulus refused to enter Rome, strongly advised the Romans not to make the treaty, and then bidding farewell to his family he returned to Carthage to die. THE BOMAN ARYANS. 295 Resolved therefore upon the ruin of Carthage, a Roman army finally appeared before her walls and demanded the destruction of the city as the only condition of peace. With almost superhuman energy, born of despair, the in- habitants withstood the siege for four years. ^ Finally Carthage surrendered, was utterly destroyed, and the terri- tory made into a province. Another quarrel with Mace- donia followed. Corinth was plundered and destroyed.^ The former became a province at once, and the latter finally assumed a similar relation toward Rome. A Ro- man army was employed in Spain from 149 to 133 b. c, when two provinces were added to Roman possessions. Pergamus about this time^ came under Roman power by will of their late ruler, Attalus III. "We have now reached a time in the history of the Roman Commonwealth when her internal troubles had as- sumed frightful proportions.'* The Plebeian population of Rome was no longer Latin. It was a mixture of all free people whom the fortunes of war had driven to that city. The public land of Rome or Italy was in the possession of the Patricians, who worked their large estates with slave labor. The great mass of people, the Plebeians, were landless, and there was little chance of their finding em- ployment except as soldiers. This subject class had to be fed ; and it, in time, came to be an instrument of every ambitious demagogue, by which he could raise himself into power.' The one who could best feed them was their hero for the time being. At times, there arose champions of the Plebeians who deserve great praise for their attempts 1 149-146 B. C. * 146 B. C. 3 133 B. 0. * Vol. II. p. 201 et seq. 5 We have referred to the workings of the same state of aflfairs in Greece, resulting in the formation of Tyrannies. 296 THE MEDIEVAL WOELD. to better the condition of these people by legislation. Such were, no doubt, the Grracchi.^ But every such noble minded legislator came to an untimely death through the enmity of the Patricians. The war with Jugurtha, who had usurped the Numi- dian throne,® both proves the corruption of the leading Romans of the time and brings into public notice the two party leaders, Ma,rius and Sulla. For nine years, Jugur- tha succeeded in saving his throne by bribing Roman con- suls and senators. The inevitable end, absorption by Rome, came at last. Heretofore the Romans, when fighting the ruder people on their northern and western borders, had met only Gauls and Iberians, About this time, they were first called upon to defend themselves from invading tribes of Teutons, whom they found by no means as easily con- quered as the former two peoples. In 113 b. c, bands of Cimbri and Teutones (Germans) crossed the Alps and in- vaded Italy. Contrary to law, Marius was appointed and re-appointed several times to the consulship. He was the ablest commander in Rome, but it took him twelve long years to conquer these Teutonic tribes even on his own Italian soil. Even before this time, it was no uncommon occurrence, for a conspicuous party leader at Rome to meet his death by assassination. In 91 b. c, M. Livius Drusus proposed a "set of measures which had for their object the reconcile- ment, at Rome, of the Senatorian with the Equestrian orders."^ Drusus was murdered, which so enraged the popu- lar party, who regarded him as their champion, that the tribes of Central and Southern Italy took up arms, deter- 1 Tiberius in 133 B. c. ; Caius in 121 b. c. 2 Rawlinsou: "Manual," p. 423. ? 118-106 B. c. THE ROMAN ARYANS. 297 mined to form an independent state. As a source of pro- tection against desertion by the northern tribes, Rome con- ferred full citizenship upon all Italians who had not taken part in the war or would at once return to their allegiance. In this way, Rome retained her supremacy. The Patri- cians were compelled, from time to time, to make just such concessions. This policy was, in Imperial times, extended Celtic Warrors Devoting Themselves to War against the Romans. to all the provinces, though in a modified from. The in- fluential chieftains and the promising young men were selected as candidates for Roman citizenship, and were duly vested with that title and its privileges. They came to regard it as a mark of honor, as well as a safeguard against punishment from local governments.^ So great a change was made, that "the grandsons of the Gauls, who besieged Julius Caesar in Alecia, commanded legions, 1 Vide Paul's answer to the provincial magistrate, . Acts, xvi. 37-39. 298 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. governed provinces, and were admitted into the Senate of Rome" in the time of the Antonines.^ Marius had secretly favored the popular party, while Sulla had remained a firm and powerful support to the city. About this time,^ Mithridates, ruler in Pontus, was defying Roman arms by carrying war into Asia Minor, even mas- sacreing thousands of Italians and Romans. Sulla was given the command of the resulting war against the Pontic chieftain. Marius, at once championed the popular cause at Rome. In this way, he caused the Comitia Tributa^ to recall Sulla and give the command to himself. Then for the first time, we see what a dan^-erous power the command of those fearless Roman legions gave an ambitious leader. Sulla appealed to the legions that had followed him in many a battle. They agreed to support him, so he led them at once against the capital. Marius, not being pre- pared for such a step, found the mob at his command an illy constituted force, with which to oppose the trained legions. He was at last forced into exile, and many of his supporters, being proscribed, were put to death. Sulla now led his army into the East, and began war against Mithridates. He succeeded, during the next four years,'' in compelling that prince to accept his terms of peace. In the mean time, the Marian party had gained the ascen- dency at Rome, and had invited Marius back to the city, but he died in 86 b. c. Sulla's friends had been proscribed and thousands of them murdered. Sulla, after settling affairs at the East, again turned his forces toward Rome. Carbo and young Marius were then the legally elected consuls. Sulla, however, was sure of the cooperation of the Patricians. When he reached Italy, he was met by 1 Gibbon, Vol. I. p. 42. 8 88 B. c. 3 See This Series, Ypl. II. p. 20§, « 88-84 b. c. THE BOMAN ARYANS. 299 Roman legions. For tlie first time legion was opposed to legion. At last, Sulla put down all opposition. His first step was to proscribe and murder thousands of people, both in Rome and elsewhere, for no other crime than that they had favored the popular party.^ He made himself Dicta- tor ; and, as such, suceeded in re-establishing the Senate and In the Arena. the Patrician order in power and glory. In 79 B. c, he abdicated his office and died in the following year. From this time forward, the political history of Rome is little 1 It is hard even for the most careless t(i realize the small value placed upon human life in those times. Three thousand friends of the popular party at Borne and twelve thousand at Praeneste were butchered in cold blood at the nod of Sulla, or bis tools. See Bawlinsou'H "Manual," p. 428. 300 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. more than a history of individuals, who, in various ways, arose to power. The wealthy or ambitious leaders prepared for the amusement of the idle mob inhuman, revolting, and bloody spectacles, known as gladiatorial contests. It is blood curdling, even at the present day, to read the accounts of these scenes. The youth and strength of conquered peoples were brought to Italian cities and skillfully trained in order to make the fight more exciting. The contestants met in the arena to fight for their lives, using all the skill that, training could give them. Sometimes man was pitted against man, and sometimes against the fiercest of wild beasts. Nor would the flowing life-blood and the mortal groans of a single score of dying men quench their thirst for human blood ; the great Caesar himself, when aedile, gained popular favor by glutting the eyes of Rome with the blood of thousands of gladiators, fighting in a single arena.^ Not the mob alone were pleased to witness these games, but consuls, senators, knights, the youth and the aged, fair maidens and worthy dames — all seemed to regard such a scene as did the immortal Cicero, who said, that it was the greatest pleasure in life to see a brave enemy led off to torture and death.-^ Even the eloquent pen of Taci- tus could not wholly escape contamination from the spirit of the times, for we find him writing in regard to some prisoners, that more than sixty thousand fell, not by Roman arms, but "grander far for our delighted eyes."^ All have heard of the gladiator, Spartacus, who, when a body of five thousand gladiators escaped from Capua, placed himself at their head. This band was soon joined by 1 After Trajan's triumph over the Dacians [a. d. 106.J, there were more than 10000 exhibited. " Smith : " Dictionary of Greek and Eoman Antiquities." 2 Elton : "Origins of English History," p. 310. 3 Germania Chapter xxxiii. THE ROMAN ARYANS: 301 slaves and malcontents enough to swell its ranks to one hundred thousand men. l^ov two years, they ravaged the fields and cities of Italy, before they were finally conquered by a Roman army. After the death of Sulla, a number of prominent men came to the front in Roman affairs. Amongst these, we Death of Spartacus. must mention Cn. Pompeius, or Pompey. He belonged to a new family, but had gained the friendship of Sulla. Another was Crassus, a shrewd but indolent man, who maintained his power by his great wealth. Grreate^t among the rising men, was Caius Julius Cae- sar. We need only mention, in passing, Cato the younger and the great orator and statesman, Cicero. It is nqt strange 302 TSE MEDIEVAL WORLD. that we should detect a rivalry for supremacy among these influential men. Our ini^erest. chiefly centers on Caesar. He passed from one ofiice to another ; finally, assuming the government of Spain, he there began to organize that army that was destined to make Rome an Empire. The Senate had become fearful of Pompey's power. He had been made consul, had driven the pirates from the Med- iterranean, and was solidifying Roman power in Asia. Conquest of Gfa-al. He returned to Rome to be slighted by the Senate, for they did not even ratify his acts in Asia, nor pay his troops. Thus offended, he was ready, when Caesar proposed it, to unite with Crassus and form a secret league, known as the First Triumvirate. Caesar Was made Consul,^ and popu- lar measures were adopted ; Pompey's soldiers were provi- ded for ; Cato was given an unimportant foreign office; 1 59 B. c. THE BOMAN ARYANS. 305 while Cicero, the patriot and orator, was banished. The Triumvirate then ruled at Rome. At the close of Cae- sar's consulate, he obtained the government of the two Grauls and of Illyricum for a term of five years. Then were begun the wars against the Grauls and G-ermans, which tended to Romanize a great part of Western Europe. Now Caesar was at liberty to plan for the future. He began at once to raise, equip, and discipline an army that would support him in his ambitious designs. Nor did he fail in the essential point of endearing himself to the soldiers that he led in battle. They were not only ready to obey his commands, but willing to live or die with him. He was not in a hurry, however, feeling that the time for action had not yet come. In 55 b. c, he was re-ap- pointed to the government of the Grauls for another period of five years. Crassus was slain in an expedition against the Parthians.^ Pompey began to fearthe power of Caesar, and induced the Senate to demand,^ that Caesar should disband his army before coming to Rome to stand for the consulship. Had Caesar complied, he would have aban- doned the only means by which he could hold his power, and, perhaps, he would have forfeited his life. He saw that the time had come when he was to abandon all hope of future power, or else strike boldly for the only position of honor left for him. So at the head of his devoted legions, Caesar made the historical "crossing of the Rubicon,"^ and marched against Rome. Now Pompey realized the advantage that his opponent had. He, therefore, determined to fall back upon the East, where he had gained so many victories in the past. There he would raise an army with which he might hope to cope with the mighty Caesar. By this step, Caesar was 1 63. B. C. 2 50. B. C. 3 49. B. c. 306 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. enabled to enter Rome witli little or no opposition. Sta- tioned at the seat of government, Caesar was master of all Italy. He did not, however, wait for Pompey to bring his army into Italy, neither did he allow time for his ene- mies to unite their forces. Caesar's arniy was first suc- cessful in Spain, next on the battle-field of Pharsalia, then the Pompeians were defeated in Africa, and finally crushed Caesar Crossing the Rubicon. in Spain. Pompey was, at last, murdered in Egypt.^ In the meantime, the legislation of Caesar was the best possible for Rome. He was made perpetual Dictator and assumed the reins of government. The Senate was enlarged to the number of nine hundred, the new mem- 1 49-45. THE koMAJ!^ ABYANS. 307 bers being chosen from provincials, as well as from the old class of Roman citizens. The population of a number of Grallic communities was raised to the rank of citizens. The arts and sciences were encouraged. Such cities as Carthage and Corinth were rebuilt ; wise laws, arranging satisfactorily and equitably the matters between debtors and creditors, were enacted. Those who held large es- tates were required to employ free labor. The laws were codified ; the Empire surveyed ; and the calendar reformed. Thus did Caesar find time for the administration of the civil government while he was, at the same time, busy with his wars. But the ambition of Caesar led him to extremes. The people of Rome were jealous of their rights. They would endure all manner of oppression so long as the govern- ment was in name a Republic, and they had the officers that they were accustomed to. But, when the friends of Caesar hailed him as king, when the crown was offered to him by his tool, Mark Antony, the Roman people began to murmur. A conspiracy was formed, and Caesar was murdered on the Ides of Marcy 44 B. c. Chief among these conspirators were his own friends, Brutus and Cas- sius. In his will, he left the sum of ten dollars to every citizen, and his magnificent garden across the Tiber was thrown open as a public park. When Mark Antony made this known to the people; when they heard his eloquent words of praise, and saw the dead Caesar lying before them ; when Antony held up the torn and bloody toga, which Caesar had thrown over his face to meet his death, their rage knew no bounds. They seized torches from th>e funeral pyre of their dead hero ; and, applying flames 1 15th day. 19 308 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. to the houses of Brutus and Cassius, burned them to the Tomb of Caesar. ground. The two arch-murderers fled for their lives. Antony, the sole surviving consul, now thought that THE HOMAN ARYANS. 309 his way to supreme power was clear, especially as the new consul, Dollabella, was his tool. But the young Octavius appeared upon the scene. He was a great nephew of Cae- sar, and had been named in his will as his heir and son by adoption. Though absent from Rome when Caesar was murdered, he hastened to the Capital. Then, by his Suicide of Brutus. liberality to the populace, by paying Caesar's legacy to the soldiers, by politic action toward his enemies, he soon came to be looked upon as the real successor to Caesar. Cicero again entered earnestly into public life, and his burning "Philippics" against Antony were as effective as those, in former times, against the great conspirator, Cata- 310 TMH MSDmVAL WOULD. line. Octavius collected an army, which he paid out of his own income, and pitched his camp near Rome. An- tony retired to Cis- Alpine Graul, and began an attack upon the governor of that province. The consuls, Hirtius and Pausa, were sent against him, while Octavius accompanied them as praetor. The consuls were slain though the army was victorious. In this way, Octavius became sole com- mander of a victorious army. He was made consul. In 43 B. c, there was formed the second Triumvirate — An- tony, Octavius, and Lepidus, a commander of horse when Antony and Caesar were consuls. The last named re- ceiA'^ed Spain for his province ; Antony, the two Gauls ; and Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa.^ The combined forces of,the three, however, were at once needed to engage the army that the assassins of Cae- sar had collected in Thrace. The battle of Philippi de- cided the fate of the Republic. The Triumvirs were suc- cessful. Brutus and Cassius were forced, to fall upon their swords and thus end their lives. Then Antony was given the government of the East ; Octavius, that of Italy and Spain ; Lepidus, Africa. Then began the fatal friend- ship of Antony and Cleopatra. While Octavius grew in power and extended the territory of Rome, Antony was spending his time in voluptous living at the Egyptian court. Lepidus and all other competitors in the West were put down. At last, in 31 B. c, an open breach oc- curred between Octavius and Antony. The battle of Ac- tium, and later the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, left Octavius the sole ruler of Rome. He did not, however, 1 As one of the terms of agreement between these three men, a few thousand men were proscribed, and Cicero's name headed the list. He was murdered in a short time and his head and hands were nailed up in the Forum, where he had so often defended the rights of the Common- wealth against such conspirators as Cataline and Antony. Vide Steele: "Brief History of Rome," p. 204. THE BOMAN ARYANS. 311 attempt to assume the title of king, but contented him- self with such titles as were familiar and not offensive to the people. In every case, he secured his appointment in the usual legal manner, though, no doubt, the Senate and people saw that it was useless to oppose him. He was made, at different times during the first twenty years, ^',f , \.w7f::tdn^ Court of Augustus. commander-in-chief of the army, leader of the Senate, per- petual tribune, perpetual consul, perpetual censor, pontifex maximus, and was given the title of Augustus.^ Rome now enters upon her Augustinian age. The Re- 1 For the Authorities on this period of Roman history, see Bawlinson: "Manual," p. 377-455; Steele: "Brief History of Eome," p. 34-65; Momm- sen's "Borne," Vol II. : Caesar's "Commentaries," and "Gallic War." 312 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. public was never re-established. The reign of Augustus lasted until 15 a. d. It was a mild and popular reign. The rights of all people were regarded. Though the Em- pire maintained its authority and extended its borders, there was almost universal peace. This season of peace and ]prosperity, in the case of Rome as in that of other nations, was the season of her greatest growth. It was street In Pompeii. during the reign of Augustus and in the Roman province of Judea, that Jesus Christ was born. One important step taken by the emperor was the establishment of an imperial guard which was known as the Praetorian guard. It consisted of ten legions.-' Three legions were stationed in the city and seven in the various provinces. It was during his reign, that the Grcrmans, under Arminius, by the complete annihilation of Varus and his three legions, 1 10,000 men. THE BOMAN AB TANS. 313 forever freed themselves from fear of Roman conquest.' Virgil, Livy, Horace, and Ovid were the bright lights of literature during this age. Upon, the death of Augustus, a line of ten Caesars® occupied in succession the throne of the Roman Empire, With Nero, however, the Julian family became extinct.^ The empire soon became the stake for which all ambitious men might play. "When Nero's slave pierced the em- peror's heart and deprived Rome of a ruler, there appeared no less than six pretenders to the throne, each backed by the authority of a number of legions of soldiers. The history of the next few months is but a tale of the suc- cession and deaths of three emperors. Finally, Vespa- sian, commander in Judea, was elevated to the throne by his legions. It was during the reign of Vespasian, that the great eruption of Vesuvius occurred, which buried the extensive cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum.* The reign of Vespasian was distinguished for its strength and vigor. The authority of the empire was maintained throughout all her vast territory ; education and literature were encouraged ; and general prosperity was enjoyed. Upon the death of Domitian,^ succession by appoint- ment was instituted, and there followed a line of emperors whose reigns were, on the whole, creditable, not only to the wearers of the purple, but to the Roman people as well. Says Gibbon,® "If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of Commodus. 1 A. D. 9. 2 Many of them Caesars by adoption. 3 68 A. d. * A. D. 79. 5 A. D. 96. 6 '•Decline and Fall," Vol. I. p. 95. 314 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. The vast extent of the Roman empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom." This was from A. d. 96 to 180. It has been called the "Grolden Age" of Rome. Among the five emperors who reigned during this period, Trajan was the most energetic in extending Roman territory. He "was a great builder. Rome grew larger and more beautiful under his hand ; and throughout the provinces, innumerable bridges, acque- ducts, and temples long served as monuments of the splen- dor and vigor of his reign." Hadrian followed in his footsteps, continually traveling over the empire and su- perintending the construction of roads, walls, and build- ings.-^ Antonius and Marcus Aurelius, or the "two An- tonines," reigned in harmony until the former died, when Aurelius reigned alone. Both seemed to rule with the sole object of making their subjects happy. Almost every land could now count many Roman citizens among its native inhabitants. It was the policy of the government to gain the lasting loyalty of the rising and influential young men in all her provinces by confer- ring the honor of citizenship upon them. So that there was a chance for every young provincial chieftain to rise to the loftiest degree of power. Many aspired to the throne, and some reached this pinnacle of their ambitious dreams. The strength of the legions was no longer composed of the old Italian stock of soldiers, but the youth of the prov- inces were the flower of the army. This army knew its strength. It no longer respected the dignity and authority of the Senate. Anyone who would furnish them with the greatest allowance of money was deemed worthy of the purple. So we find the army in 193 A. D. selling the throne to the highest bidder. From that time, the fate } "Landmarks of History," p 26 THE SOMAN ABYANS. 315 ofthe empire was written. There was a steady downward course. Occasionally tlie army would clothe with the toga of power a spirit stronger than their own united, or rather Trajan's Arch.. divided strength. Such an one was Severus (Septimus) Maximin,^ who, from a Thracian peasant, rose to be em- peror ofthe world. Then there came a time when a large 1 235-238 A. D. 316 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. number of independent kingdoms were organized through- out the empire. This was in the time of the "thirty ty- rants." At last,^ there arose a succession of emperors who were able to control the army and restore the empire to its former size and a shadow of its former glory. These were Aurelian,^ Probus,^ Diocletian,* and Constantine.^ , Diocletian established a new order of things. He ap- pointed Maximian as his full colleague in office, with equal power and also with the title of Augustus. Then each chose, as son and successor, a young officer, each of whom received the title of Caesar. These were Galerius and Constantius. Diocletian retained for himself the govern- ment of Thrace, Macedon, Egypt, and the East. Maxim- ian was given Italy and Africa. Constantius received Graul, Spain and Britain. Galerius ruled the Danuhian provinces. Thus was the authority of the empire enforced throughout the extent of her territory. In 305, both "Augusti " abdicated, and Gralerius took upon himself the right to choose two new Caesars. Constantius died the following year, and his legions immediately appointed his son Constantino to succeed him. In 312, Constantine became engaged in war with his associates in the imperial office. In 324, the last one was defeated and put to death. Constantine was sole emperor of the Roman world. As sole emperor, Constantine ruled with strength and wisdom. He has made his name immortal in two ways. First, though perhaps in a less degree, he is known in history as the founder and builder of Constantinople, which he made the capital of his empire. The walls of magnificent buildings arose on the "Golden Horn" of the 1 268-283 A. D. s 270-275 A. D. 3 276-282 A. D. 4 284-308 A. D. 6 306-337 A. B. THE SOMAN ARYANS. 317 Bosporus, as the imperial city "appeared resplendent in white marble." It remained the capital city of the Eastern Empire until long after the Saracens made their appear- Mausoleum ol Hadrian. ance in Europe. But the one act in his life that has given Constantino more than ordinary historical prominence was the course that he took in religious matters. He was the first emperor that adopted and championed the 318 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD, Christian religion. He early became converted to that faith, and made it the state religion. It had always been the policy of Rome to leave the inhabitants of her provinces free to retain their native religions.' They could worship their gods unmolested. We recall how, in the case of the Jews at the trial of Christ, the Roman governor declined to give judgment because it was a religious trial. Christ had not offended against the Roman law.^ It is true, that many of the em- perors were jealous of any man, or company of men, who appeared to be rising into power. So it is not strange that their imagination, poisoned by fear of assassination, saw political enemies in the leaders and secret assemblies of this newly established church. To suspect a man or a company of men of a desire for power, was a sure death warrant in those days. ^Neither rank nor sex was any protection. Political enemies were put to death in all manner of cruel ways. Some of the so-called religious persecutions may have been instigated through fear of political uprisings on the part of the Christians.^ When the emperor adopted the Christian religion, the opportunity was offered for religious fanatics to try to sup- press other religions. Constantine was their tool. Though ' a good emperor, and, no doubt, an earnest man, " he was strangely superstitious, and his religion, so far as it can be gathered from his public acts, his coins, his medals, and his recorded speeches, was a curious medley of Christianity and Paganism."* Constantine also established throughout the empire a system of "graduated nobility, the archetype of the modern system."^ 1 Gibbon, Vol. I. p. 33-37. 2 John xviii. 28-31. 3 When we come to treat of the history of Christianity, we will re- view this period once niorej i Bawlinson: ";\Ijinual," p. 529. 6 Ibid. 527 = TH^ ttOMAN AUrAm. 310 We must recall also^ the almost continual 'war of the Roman Empire with Oriental Empires over the eastern boundary of the one, and the western boundary of the other. Upon the ruins of the Empire of Alexander the Great, had arisen first the Parthian empire, which occupied nearly all of Central Asia. The Euphrates river was, as a general thing, the acknowledged western boundary of that enxpire. When the Neo-Persian empire succeeded the Imperial Rome. Parthian, it inherited also this perpetual warfare with Rome. Successes were about equal on both sides. While, however, neither Parthian nor Persian emperors ever adorned the triumph of a Roman consul, Cassius fell in battle against the Parthians, and the emperor Valerian eked out a disgraceful life as royal prisoner to emperor Sapor. While Trajan, during his reign,^ seized some territory east of the Tigris and Euphrates, his successor, Hadrian, aban- 1 Above p. 136. 2 98-117, A. D. 320 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. doned it to the Parthians. Generally speaking, in the time of its greatest extent, the eastern boundary of the Roman empire was the Euphrates river.^ In following the political history of Rome through the first three hundred and seventy years^ of the empire, we have omitted to follow carefully its growth in extent of territory. Let us take a hurried glance over this same period, noting the principal accessions that the empire re- ceived from the ruder tribes of the West, as well as from the civilized people of the East. Sicily was the first province to be added to the possessions of Rome. Previous to this time,^ the territory of Rome was confined to Central and Southern Italy. Though early acquired, Corsica and Sar- dinia never amounted to much, owing, probably, to a lack of Aryan settlers. The boundary of Italy was extended to the Alps by the conquest of Cis- Alpine Gr.aul,* Liguria, and Venetia.^ The first of the three was not incorporated with Italy until 43 B. c. "We thus see that not only Yenice, but Milan, Pavia, Verona, Ptavenna, and Grenoa — cities which played so great a part in the after history of Italy — arose in lands which were not Italian."^ Hannibal began his war against Rome by the capture of Saguntum, a Spanish ally of that city. So when the second Punic war closed, Spain became a province of Rome, though it was not completely subdued until 19 B. c. The southeastern part of Trans- Alpine Graul was united to Rome under the name of Provence about 105 B. c. The Cimhri and the Teutons, for half a century, held the Roman army in check in that direction. Finally, Caesar appeared 1 Among the authorities on Imperial Rome, consult Gibbon : "Decline and Fall." Rawlinson: "Manual;" Dawes: "Land Marks of History;" Tacitus: "Annals;" Clintons: "Chronology of Rome." a 31 B. c, A. D. 339. 3 212 b. c. 4 191 b. c. b 183 B. 0. 6 Freeman: "Historical Geography," Vol. I. p. 55. THE BOM AN' ARYANS. 321 in Gaul with his well trained legions. "Before Caesar's Grallic war, the rule of the Romans extended approximately as far as Toulouse, Vienne and Greneva ; after it, as far as \?J'i>- Romans Warring with the Germans. the Rhine throughout its course, and the coasts of the At- lantic on the north, as on the west."-' 1 Vide Mommsen: " Provinces of the Roman Empire," Vol.1, p. 86, New York, 1887. 322 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Grrecian and Roman influence early began to spread among the Gauls ^ — ^the one from the Grrecian colony of Masilla, and the other from Italy and Spain. The Provence already referred to was said to have furnished many Roman merchants, farmers and grazers for Gaul.' They were the business men of the land. While the Gauls practiced agriculture, they paid more attention to grazing.^ To their own native productions, they added others that were brought to them by their fleets, that were constantly navigating the streams and plying between Britain and their own land. Thus were procured wool for their man- ufactures, cattle for their herds. Copper, silver, and gold were obtained from some convenient source, and tin from Cornwall. The Italian merchant found a ready sale for his wine and horses in Gaul. It is said, that a single cask of wine might, in those days, be exchanged for a Gallic slave. The Latin language was not unknown there even before Caesar's time. It had spread through commercial intercourse through Roman merchants. Similarly Greek culture had spread northward from Messalia, whi<;h fur- nished Gaul with physicians and philosophers.' "Thus trade and commerce paved the way to conquest."* The great stream of Teutonic migration, that was at this time setting toward the west, was not checked by the Rhine or the fear of Roman arms. As they began to en- croach more and more upon Gallic territory, rumors of their movements reached the Roman capital. Caesar came with his legions to force the Germans back across the Rhine, and compel them to remain there. It was 1 Mommsen: "Rome," Vol. IV. p. 261. 2 Ibid. 264. 3 Ibid. 261. < In some places [as at Vaison] inscriptions have been fonnd in the Celtic language, using however ordinary Greek letters. TITE HOMAJSr AHYAJSrS. 323 only a temporary check, however, for the pent up forces, in after times, burst through the barriers in all directions; baptising the Western Empire with Teutonic blood, event- ually snatching it from the Romans. It took Caesar seven years to subdue Graul and make of it a Roman province. The Celtic population was conquered, but the Turanian Iberians, disdaining submission, sought refuge in the rocky gorges of the Pyrenees. There they have since lived, and their language has been preserved to tell us of an otherwise lost people.^ Though Caesar crossed into Brit- ain, he made no conquest of -that island. The result of his campaigns was the formation of the province of Trans- Mpine Gaul.^ Upon the conquest of Carthage, Africa became a province; but Carthage was not rebuilt until 49 b. c, and, after that, became, next to Rome, the "chief of the Latin-speaking cities of the empire." As Roman territory was extended toward the East, Roman influence found something stronger to contend with than Celtic influence of Western Europe, and Semitic influence of Northern Africa. The Celts were so nearly allied to the Romans that they accepted without dissent, not only Roman cus- toms but also the Roman language. This was not the case with the Germans along the Rhine, nor of Caesar's Belgic Grauls, who were more Teuton than Celt. From the eastern shore of the Adriatic to the Halys river in Asia Minor, the Grecian language was the literary tongue as well as the most cultivated form of speech. Alexan- dria in Africa and Antioch in Asia were seats of Grecian culture. Now the Greeks were much more Teutonic in 1 Ethnologically they are said to differ but little from the Celtibe- rians of Spain, and the Ibero-Celts of France . Vide Keane in Ramsay's. "Europe," p. 579. * "Historical Geography," p. 58. 20 324 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. ethnology than the Celts ; and, besides, we have seen how, from the earliest times, they were strengthened by a con- tinual renewal of Teutonic blood from the north. Although Constantinople was in the center of this Hellenized district, and Latin was the court language of the empire, neither Roman language nor culture had a lasting influence on the habits of this portion of the empire. In later times the Eastern Empire became in reality a Greek state.^ The complicated state of Grrecian affairs early led to Roman interference. As early as 188 b. c, Rome had, according to her usual line of policy, placed the whole of Asia Minor under the rule of those friendly to her own government. This was sufficient until the time for con- quest came. There was a strip of territory bordering the eastern coast of the Adriatic, north of Macedonia, that, in 34 B. c, became the province of Dalmatia. There was a larger district surrounding Dalmatia, however, that became a Roman possession in 168 b. c. and was subsequently known as the province of Illyricum. In 129 B. c, the province of Asia was formed out of her allies across the Aegaean. Bithynia was annexed in 74, Crete in 67, Syria in 64, Cyprus in 58, Egypt in 31 before the beginning of the Christian Era. The lands between the Alps and the Danube were added during the reign of Augustus.^ Mace- donia became a province in 149 B. c. Greece proper for a long time held the anomalous position of an independent dependency of Rome. It finally became the province of Achaia. The Roman consuls, Caesar, Claudius, and Agricola, were met by a Celtic population when they landed in 1 Freeman: "Historical Course," p. 162. 2 These were the provinces of Raetia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pon- nonia, and Moesia. They were Jsnown as the Danubian provinces. THE nOMAN AR TANS. 325 Britain.' The Teutonic wave of migration that brought our forefathers to the shores of the ocean had not yet reached the land of the Britons. Although Cseesar in- vaded the island in 55 B. c, Agricola^ succeeded in carry- ing the conquest only to the wall of Hadrian. So far north only, did the province of Britain extend. It was Landing of Caesar in 'Bvi%a.in. one of the first provinces to be thrown off by the empire. A few remains only record the presence of the Romans in this now Teutonic Island. Turning again to the East, we find that the northern part of Arabia became a prov- ince in A. D. 106, as did Dacia, the only territory north of 1 "Historical Geography," p. 69; also Rhys; "Celtic Britain," p. 23-4. 2 A. D. 84. 326 TJSE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. the Danube that ever fell under Roman sway. This, the last of the provinces to be annexed, was the first to be given up. Aurelian withdrew from it in 270 and trans- ferred its name to Moesia.* When the Roman empire had at last reached its growth, we can give as its northern and eastern bounda- ries three great rivers, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates. In Africa, it included the strip of fertile country north of the Great Desert and Egypt as far south as the Tropic of Cancer. The only provinces lying beyond these boundaries were Britain and Dacia, the last to be added and the first to fall away from the Roman posses- sions. "In every part of that dominion, the process of conquest was gradual. The lands which became Roman provinces passed through various stages of alliance and de- pendency before they were fully incorporated. But, in the end, all the civilized world of those times became Roman."^ We must now remember that Rome carried her own lan- guage with her into all countries. The Latin language, however, had no lasting effect upon the Grreeks of either Europe or Asia. In some places, it has been since swept away by Teutonic, Slavic, or Turkish conquests, so that it may be said that the Romance world of to-day is built upon a Celtic or Turanian foundation. The occasional attempts to conquer Germany were failures. Constantino divided the empire into four "Praetorian Prefectures — the East, Illyricum, Italy, and Gaul.^ These were divided into first Dioceses, and these sub-divided into Provinces. The last emperor of the house of Constantine was Julian, the apostate. He is chiefly known for his attempts to root out Christianity and re-establish Pagan- 1 Vide "Historical Geograpliy," p. 70. 8 "Historical Geography," p. 71-2. s Ibid. 75. TB.E ROMAN AB YANS. 327 ism. After his death/ Jovian ruled about eight months. He was succeeded by Yalentinian who shared the empire with his brother, Yalens. The empire was re-united by Theodosius ; but the sons of Theodosius^ divided it into two empires, Arcadius taking nearly the same territory that was included in the first two prefectures of Constan- tine, while Honorius took the western two. Thus were formed two lines of emperors who ruled during the greater part of the fifth century — the one having its cap- ital at Constantinople, the other usually at Ravenna or Milan. We have now traced the history of the Romans from the first arrival of Aryans in the Italian peninsula until the great empire was finally divided into two nearly equal parts. We have .seen how the Turanians first gave way before the pressure of the Celts from the north. The lat- ter were met by the Helleno-Teutonic colonists crowding their way toward the north. The resulting Italians were a hardy race (if we may be permitted to use that word) of Celto-Teutonic Aryans. For a long time the Roman people retained their strong and hardy character, capable of ruling the three continents known to the Medieval World. But in the times of the empire, the effeminate Oriental became a Roman citizen. The riches of the East lured the Triumvir Crassus to his death. The great Cae- sar could not wholly resist the dazzling beauty and the intoxicating charms of Egypt's fair queen, Cleopatra, in the delirium of which the weaker Antony revelled himself to death. The emperor Elagabulus himself was a priest of the Syrian sun-god, and brought his ideas of Oriental court life to Rome,* Luxurious baths followed the Roman I 263 A. p. * h. D. 395. 'See Gibbon, Vol. I. p. 167-8. 328 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. legions to their winter quarters, wlien formerly the sol- diers were hardened by severe and vigorous discipline. The court, which once gloried in the death of the chaste Lucretia, now applauded the shameful lives of the licen- tious Julia and the voluptuous Faustina.^ The streams of crimson blood that flowed from the veins of the dying glad- iators poisoned the sympathetic hearts of even the gentler sex, and more than one empress prepared the poisoned food for her fated lord. The army had come to know its power, and usually decided the title of the one who aspired to the throne. "Of the sixty-two emperors from Caesar to Con- stantino, forty-two were murdered, three committed suicide, two abdicated or were forced to abdicate, one was killed in a rebellion, one was drowned, one died in war, one died it is not known how, and no more than eleven died in the way of nature."^ ■ The imperial life averaged only five years. When we reflect upon this condition of affairs, we see the doom of the Roman empire written so plainly that "he who runs may read." Still the empire did not fall with its division into two parts. The Eastern Empire continued to exist and exert a great influence until the fanatic tribes of Islam appeared before the gates of Constantinople. The break- ing up of the "Western Empire is so intimately connected with the "Rise of Modern Nations" that we will consider it in that chapter. We have seen how the Roman legions fixed the boundaries of the powerful Grerman tribes and so limited the primitive Aryan domain. But the.destiny of races can not be directed by mortal man. The pent up Aryan forces must come forth. Long since we have seen these same Teutonic tribes climbing the Alps, and fording 1 See Gibbon, Vol. I. p. 151. 8 Steele: "History of Borue," p. 68, THE ROMAN ARYANS. 329 the Danube and the Rhing. We now hear the ominous tread of the advancing Groths and Franks, and the re- sulting baptism of Teutonic blood was destined to vitalize the modern world. Bas Relief, Island ol Java. 330 THE MEDIEVAL WOELD. GlH^^PTEf^ V, THE RISE OF MODERN HATIOHS. Intboduction — The First Appearance of the Huns — The Migration of the Goths — Invasion of the Western Empire by the Teutons — Fall of Gaul — Atilla — Gothic Conquest of the Western Empire — Rise of the Franks — The Saracens — Charles Martel — Charlemagne^The Final Separation of the Two Empires — The Basilian Dynasty in the East — Fall of the Eastern Empire — The Triple Division of Charle- magne's Empire — Italy under the Karlings — Change of the Western Empire to the German Empire — Rise of the Italian Cities — Outline Sketch of Germany — The Hohenstaufen Dynasty — Frederic Barba- rossa — Rise of Austria — Outline Sketch of France — The Norsemen — Rise of Normandy — The Capets — Appearance of Modern France- Sketch of Spanish History — Castile and Aragon — Charles V. — The Small States of Switzerland, Belgium, and Holland Explained — Sketch of Russian History — The Muscovites — Peter the Great- Hungary, Lithuania, and Poland — Sweden and Norway — Denmark — Outline of English History — Aelfred— The Norman Conquest— The Plantagenets — The Magna Charta— Henry VIII.— General Con- clusions AN ERA of time recedes in the gloom of antiquity, its history seems to cluster around certain masterspir- its, who, for the time being, Adrtually swayed the world. During the grea- ter portion of the time, when the boundaries of the Ro- man Empire circumscribed the historical world, the lead- ing figure of each generation was ihe Emperor. When the right of succession to the imperial throne came to rest upon the will and power of the strongest organized array, and when the choice of such an authority fell to the one SISE OF MODEBN NA TJONS. 331 who could shower the richest gifts upon them, there arose many an emperor whose whole career may be written : "He was emperor of Rome." An empire that a Caesar could organize and rule was too vast for the playhouse of a childish Commodus. The territory which Trajan added to the empire was lost by his successor, Hadrian. Diocletian (286 a. d.) recognized the fact that the empire was too extensive to be ruled by one man of ordinary ability, so we find him appointing a colleague. Constantine the Great found it to be an ad- vantage to have the empire divided into four prefectures. Later, Yalentinian shared the empire with his brother, Valens. And, as previously shown, upon the death of Theodosius (a. d. 395), the empire was divided into two nearly equal parts — one to each of his sons — ruling with nearly equal independent powers. Honorius received the western half and Arcadius the eastern. The empire was re-united again, for a moment only, in the time of Zeno, (474491) and of Justinian (527-565), though many of the more remote western provinces were never again brought under the rule of one emperor.^ This partition of the Roman Empire marks a period when a new element appears in the history of Europe. The history of the continent no longer centers around the emperors of Rome. In fact, individuals are now, for a time, almost lost from history, while the names of tribes and confederacies from the central part of Europe are taking the place of those of individuals. The German people now appear as a great or controlling factor in shaping European events. This is especially the case in the Western Empire. The Eastern Empire, however, was not particularly troubled by the movements of the 1 Vide Freeman: "Historical Course," New York, 1876, p. 103, 114. 332 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. G-ermanic tribes. The most that they asked of it was a passage through its territory and such plunder as they could hurriedly gather on the march.^ Europe had become pretty thoroughly Aryanized be- fore this time. The Etruscans were swallowed up by the Celto-Italians. The Iberians, then as now, were, probably, Arrival of the Huns in Europe. Turanian merely in speech.^ The Huns and Magyars had not yet appeared upon the scene of European life. Their place was probably filled by more or less pure Germanic tribes. The Finns and Lapps that had not already yielded 1 Freeman: '-'Historical Geography," The Goths, however, occupied Constantinople in 400 A. D. FWe 8tol.es: "Medieval History, PhUa. ^elphia, 1887, p. 26. 2 Keane in Ramsay's, "Europe," p. 579. BISE OF MODERN NA TIONS. ■ 333 to Aryan influences were but a fringe along tiie icy shores of the northern seas. To the east, the way was still open to Teuto- Aryan migration ; and, during the long centuries that the Roman legions guarded the fords of the Rhine and the Danube against the westward passage of the Ger- mans, the great aurplus of Teutonic life must have flooded the steppes and plains of Russia. But in the fourth century, a new people of Turanian origin appeared upon the eastern horizon, who became known in history as the Huns. Their ancestors were, per- haps, the people who had, before the dawn of history, cut off the Sarmatians from farther migration into the Trans- Caspian region, and who had been gradually filling up the steppes of Southern Russia. The vanguard of the invaders was now pressing hard upon the eastern border of the Slavic possessions. They were in possession of the basin of the Volga long before they were known to the Romans^ ; and, for an unknown time, there had been a steady advance to- ward the West. They gradually re-claimed the plains of Russia from the Aryans, who had come to consider them as their home. Dacia was the only province that Rome ever held north of the Danube river, and Aurelian withdrew from this province as early as 270 a. d. It then became the home of powerful Grerman tribes known as Goths. ^ There were two confederacies, known afterwards as the West- Goths (Visi-Goths) and the East-Goths (Ostra-Goths.) Here they formed a state of considerable power. The Arian Bishop Ulfilas dwelt among them (about 375)^ and by his preaching,' converted them to Christianity. For the 1 Millman's Gibbon: "Rome," Vol. II. p. 125 et seq. 2 This word is not derived from Aryan, but is the name of a religious sect. 3 His translation of the Scriptures is about the only specimen of Qotbic writing that we bav?. 334 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. next century, there was much fighting between the Groths and the Romans along the Danube, which was the border line between the two. At last* the West-Grothic tribes, forced by the j)ressure of the Huns at their backs,^ were allowed by Emperor Yalens to cross the river, and were given a large tract of land upon which to. settle. rinally, the jflood-gates of the Turanian home-land seem to have been burst asunder, and an irresistible deluge of Hunnish warriors swept over the whole of Eastern Europe and crowded hard upon the Goths. Even those stalwart Teutons were not able to stand against them. "Then the Danube, for many, days and nights, was covered with a large fleet of boats and canoes, each sunk to the water's edge by its crowded freight of fugitives."' Some of these were induced by Bishop Ulfilas to adopt a settled mode of life in Moesia. But the most of them re- mained warriors, and their vast army of two hundred thou- sand fighting men was, for a moment, a barrier between Rome and the Huns. If we turn now to Graul, we perceive that the Rhine was no longer a barrier between the Empire and Germany. In the third and fourth centuries, we begin to hear the names of the Franks and the Burgundians, who were cross- ing the Rhine into the imperial territory.* At this time, Rome was steadily growing weaker. The Germans were pressing into her territory in every conceivable manner — they crowded into the Roman army ; their chiefs conquer- ed and held lands, as Roman officials, within her bounda- ries. ° The time at length came when Rome could no longer defend her vast possessions. The Franks began to 1 370. 2 Freeman : "Historical Course," p. 88-9. p. 22, et seq. 8 "Land Marks of History," p. 106. * Freeman: "Historical Geography," p. 85. ^ Ibid. JinSH OF MODESN NATIONS. 335 migrate iii bands and occupy Northern Graul, while the Burgundians took like possession of Southeastern Graul. At the same time, many of the Grerman youths, attracted by the luxury and life of ease of the Roman citizen, were Incoming of' the Barbarians. willing to sell their birthrights, and change their plainer dress and harsher names f#r Roman luxuries and the honors of Roman life. All stations in public life were opened 336 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD, to them, we find that some of the emperors even of this period,' who were raised to the purple by the border legions, could not conceal their Teutonic origin.^ By the close of the fourth century, Rome began to lose territory on all sides. She had reached the pinnacle of her fame, and the sad period of decline and ever lessen- ing influence was now before her. She could no longer be called the world. Her doom was written. Luxury and profligacy reigned where once discipline and virtue held sway. The land, from which, in ages past, the pure streams of sturdy Romans had poured to subdue the world, had become defiled by Celtic, Egyptian, and Asiatic influence, and could produce nothing but a weak and effeminate race. It needed a powerful mixture of pure Aryan blood to re- invigorate this declining people. Such was to come from the baptism of the Old Empii-e with Teutonic blood, and was heralded by the Goths crossing the Danube, and the Franks and Burgundians, the Rhine. Such a flood was to cause much destruction, to cost many lives, and to entail much suffering. But from this, there was destined to emerge new nations and new Romes, far excelling the old in grandeur, j)ower, and culture. As soon as the West-Groths had become settled south of the Danube, they had a chance to test the strength of the imperial armies. Ill-treatment from Roman ofl&cials caused dissatisfaction, which led within two years to open rebellion. Emperor Yalens, marching against them, was 1 200-400. A. D. 2 Septimus Severus [193-211], Aurelian [270-275], and Maximian [286- 305] were made emperors by the proclamation of the Pannonian legions. Claudius. II. [269-270], Probus [276-282]^, and Valentinian I. [364-875] were of Pannonian origin. Vide Vamfcery, "Story of Hungary," New York, 1886, p. 22. Justinian was of "Gothic parentage." Vide Stokes ; "Med- ieval History," p. 67. BISi; OF MODEBN NATIONS 337 defeated and slain (378.)^ Henceforth it was continual war- fare between the ruler of the Western Empire, and the Goths and other German tribes. Theodosius, the last real Stilicho and the Goths. emperor (379-395) of the united empire, Was able by justice and good government to hold the Groths in check. Then 1 Freeman: "Historical Course," p. 100-1. S38 THE MELIEVAL WORLD. succeeded Honorius (395-423) in the West and Arcadius (395-408) in the East. The empire was rent asunder, and Honorius, said to have been "cowardly and incapable,"^ had not the power to defend his territories. Honorius had one general, Stilicho, who was able to manage the Groths ; but, on the whole, they roamed and plundered as they pleased. Stilicho was put to death, and then no one could check their ravages. Under their leader, Alaric, they took and sacked the Imperial city itself (410), and kept the Emperor penned up in his capital, which had been changed from Home to Ravenna.* The same year, the Emperor withdrew from Britain, which was ever after independent of Rome. Alaric soon died ; and Honorius entered into a treaty with his successor, Athaulf, whereby the latter became Roman governo'r of Spain, whither he led the West-Groths and drove the Vandals into Africa. Henceforth Southwestern Europe became a powerful Westr Gothic kingdom. These Vandals, a Teuto-Slavic' people, who had early passed from Germany into Spain, took pos- session of Carthage (439), and soon grew in power so as to become formidable to Rome. Genseric, their chief, led his forces against that city which was captured (455), though, by the intercession of Pope Leo I., it was saved from universal pillage. Pope Leo was the leading man at Rome at this time. The emperors were, as a class, without power, ability or ambition, as we shall see in their dealings with the Huns. This powerful people had now reached the Western Empire (433-454.)* The Roman general Aetius commanded the i Stokes: "Medieval History," p. 19. 2 Freeman: "Historical Course," p. 101. 8 Quatrefages: "The Prussian Race," p. 12, note by Maury. 4 If these people were on the Volga in a. d. 100, forced the Goths out of Dacia in 376, and invaded the Western Empire in 433-454, we fail :bisi! of modebn na tions. ' 339 imperial forces. Atilla, "the Scourge of God," led the Hunnish horde, and first pushed forward into Graul, sweep- ing everything before him. Theodoric, the West-Goth, rallied his forces and went to the aid of Aetius. At the battle of Chalons (451), the Huns were completely defeat- ed, though it cost the life of Theodoric. This is one of the great battles of the world. Christianity, Aryan civiliza- tion, and all that distinguished Europe from Asia were at stake.'^ It was a struggle between Iran and Turan. The former were successful; and, although Atilla appeared be- fore Rome (452), which was saved from plunder only by intercession of Pope Leo and by the power of Roman gold, the Turanians ultimately fell back beyond the Danube. The Western Empire was now rapidly falling to pieces. There ruled a succession of weak emperors until 476 when the Senate voted that one emperor was enough, and that the eastern emperor, Zeno, should rule the whole empire. Zeno assumed the government, but never visited Rome. He appointed Odoacer, commander of the German mer- cenary troops, to rule as Patriarch at Ravenna as his rep- resentative. At the command of Odoacer Romulus, the claimant of the western crown, was forced to yield it up. But the triumph of Odoacer was short. The East-Goths were moving toward the west. Their king, Theodoric, con- quered Odoacer, and, though in reality king, he "reigned (493-526) by an imperial commission" as Patrician.^ "Italy under Theodoric was the most peaceful and flourishing to understood the "lightening like speed "with which they crossed Eu- rope, mentioned by some writers. We look upon their western advan- ces as that of a powerful people in search of homes or plunder. They ii^ere probably no more hideous, blood-thirsty, and cruel than the more ordinary run of invaders of those troublous times. 1 Freeman: "Historical Course," p. 102. 2 Freeman: "Historical Course," p. 102-3, "Historical Geography," p. 94-5. 21 340 TSE MEDIEVAL WORLD. country in the world, more peaceful and flourisliing than it had been for a long time before or than it has ever been since till quite lately."^ In the meantime, the Eastern Empire was full of trouble. Though the religious history of this period will Atilla at the Battle of Chalons. be fully treated in the proper place, it is necessary to re- mark that already the Christian church was rent with dis- sensions. Arianism had arisen at Alexandria ; Nestorian- 1 Freeman; "Historical Course," p. 105. RISI! OP MODEBIT NATIONS. 341 ism, at Constantinople ; and both had been condemned by the councils of the Catholic church, while the emperors were continually trying to mediate between these and other factions. The patriarchs at Constantinople, though Odoacer Compels Romulus to Abdicate. at the head of the Eastern Church, were always subject to the emperor ; but at Rome, the bishops had drifted into popes, who were the acknowledged head of the Western (Latin or Catholic) Church, and were already beginning to gain ascendency in temporal power over political rulers. Now there was always a bitter enmity between the various 342 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. religious factions. The Goths and Vandals were Arian Christians. Theodoric ruled at Rome without stooping to the persecution of Catholics; but this stands out as an al- most isolated example where, during medieval times, the sect in power did not persecute their weaker brethren. When Justinian became emperor (527-565), he deter- mined to unite the West with the East, and rule the whole in reality. His generals, Belisarius and Narses, entered Italy, conquered the Goths, and put an end to the Italian kingdom (553). Italy was now ruled from Ravenna by officers called exarchs. For two and a half centuries (550- 800), there was no Western Empire. But another wave of Turanian people, the Avars, had now appeared in Cen- tral Europe, where they dwelt for nearly two and a half centuries (566-796). They took possession of the valley of the Danube.' They displaced a Teutonic people known as Lombards, who, in turn, sought homes in the valley of the Po (567). These Lombards formed the third Teutonic kingdom that had been formed in Italy ; and they ruled nearly the whole of the peninsula except Rome, Ravenna, Naples, and Venice. Though Rome never fell before the Lombards, the Exarchate at Ravenna was finally conquered by them (753). The Lombards remained a power in Italy for centuries, and we shall hear more of them as we pro- ceed. In the fifth century, we find German tribes crossing the English channel, penetrating into Britain, and form- ing a host of petty kingdoms there, which finally shifted around into seven more or less well defined confederacies. The bonds of confederation were, however, very loose, and many tribes seem to have remained independent for a long time to come. Now three — Sussex (477), Wessex 1 Vambury: "Story of Hungary," p. 24-5. BISE OF MODEBN NA TIONS. 345 (495), and Essex (500) — of these confederacies were of Saxon origin ; three — Northumbria (547), Anglia (455- 579), and Mercia (584). — were of Anglian- origin ; while one — Kent (465) — was of Jutish origin. All were " Low Dutch, "^ that is coming from the low lands along the Baltic Sea. These loosely organized confederacies form the so-called Heptarchy, or Seven Kingdoms. The Angles have furnished us with the name of our English race, while from the combination of Angle and Saxon, we have the ethnical term Anglo-Saxon.** Interest now centers in Graul, and we must consider the rise of the Frankish power. Near the end of the fifth century, we read of Clovis (481-511), who made him- self ruler of much of ancient Gaul. Around his head, there cluster many ]egends of his prowess and virtue, among which, the most often repeated is the one coacern- ing the vase of Soissons — of "marvellous size and beauty." Clovis was a pagan, and this vase was among the plunder that his warriors took from the church at Rheims. At the request of the bishop, St. Reni, Clovis wished to return it to the church, but when the spoil was divided, an ill- natured Frank dashed it to pieces with his battle-axe. This was his right as a Frank, or "Freeman." But before a year had passed, Clovis found an opportunity when it was his privilege to punish the Frank, and struck him dead with a battle-axe saying: "Thus didst thou to the vase of Soissons."* 1 The terms High Dutch and Low Dutch often occur in history, the former meaning the inhabitants of inland or Southern Germany, and the latter, the population of the lowlands along the coast. Vide "His- torical Course," p. 107. 2 Vide Buckley: "History of England," London, 1887, p. 13. 3 For extended account Vide Guizot: "History of France," Black's translation, Boston, Vol. I. p. 138 et seq. 346 ' THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. In regard to the life of Clovis, this much is true. He was the first Frankish chieftain to rise into prominence. The eyes of the religious world were upon him ; and there was rivalry between the Arians and Catholics, each en- deavoring to achieve his conversion. He (492) received in marriage Clotilda, the Catholic princess of Burgundy, and soon (496) became a devout Catholic. Henceforth he was the Catholic champion against the Arian West-Goths. At the battle of Poitiers (507), Clovis broke the power of the West-Groths north of the Pyrenees, and checked the further spread of the Arian religion in that direction. He defeated the Roman governor of Gaul and became, at last (508), consul by the appointment of the Emperor Anasta- sius. Under Clovis, then, we have the first appearance on the map of Europe of a state somewhat resembling modern France. But this territory was to undergo many changes be- fore our own times. When Clovis died (511), it was divided among his four sons. This line of rulers was known as the Merovingian dynasty. And the history of these prin- ces was "one long, dreary story of blood, vice, and cruelty."^ They became so weak and incapable that their provinces were ruled by deputies known as Mayors of the Palace.* The princes were mere figure-heads and, at last (751), passed away altogether. Pippin, one of these Mayors of the Palace, encouraged by the Pope, asserted his power, deposed the last Merovingian king, and ruled a united Frankish empire for seventeen years (751-768), gaining even greater renown than his illustrious father, Charles Martel (Mayor of the Palace 715-741), who gave the name of Karlings to this dynasty, and of whom we shall hear 1 "Medieval History," p. 47. 2 Eeally the tribal cbjefs of the older periocl. mSH OF MODERN NA TIONS. 347 again in connection with the Lombards and the Saracens. If we were to glance at a map of Europe showing the ruling people at the beginning of the sixth century A. D., we would perceive how thoroughly Western Europe had become intermixed with Teuto-Aryan blood. The Celts were driven either to the farthest corner of ancient Gaul and to the remotest shores of the British Isles, or had become the serfs of Teutonic over-lords. Caesar's Graul and Spain were occupied by the Teutonic kingdoms of the Suevi, West-Groths, Franks, and Burgundians. The East-Groths occupied the whole of Italy. The northern and eastern banks of the Rhine and of the Danube were the homes of the Saxons, Thuringians, Lombards, and Gr^pidse ; while the Angles, Jutes, and some of the Saxons had already reached the shores of Britain. The European possessions of the Eastern Empire had dwindled away to a small portion of the Hellenic peninsula south of the Danube river — Thrace and Illyricum. The Slaves at last take their place along the eastern borders of Teutonic realms, situated so as to receive the brunt of the later battles with the Avars and other invading Turanians.^ The Eastern Empire was at this time eking out an almost uneventful career. Theodosius II. (408-450) initia- ted the work of compiling the customs, usages, and laws of the Roman court into a code of laws. Justinian (527-565) took up the work and gave the world the "Justinian code," which is the foundation of much of modern European law. As a legislator, he had no equal among the early emperors. The imperial throne was occupied by Heraclius (610-641). During his reign, Jerusalem was captured by the Persians, but was afterward retaken. A new element in the world's history made its appearance early in the seventh century. 1 Hallara: "Middle Ages," New York, 1880, Vol. I. p. 1-2. 348 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLB. This was the rise of Mohammedanism. It was during the reign of Heraclius (June 18th, 622) that the Hegira of Mohammed occurred. And thus was inaugurated one of the most important religious movements of the world, one tha:t was to weld the Semitic tribes of the desert into a powerful government, destined to make Christian Europe tremble before it. Mohammedanism will be fully treated in its proper place. Itissufficienthere to note that the founder belonged to the ruling family of one of the most powerful tribes of Arabs, the Koreysh tribe, which had for a long time ruled over Northern Arabia. Mohammed was born at Mecca, but was forced to flee to Medina, and this flight is the "Hegira" of Mohammedanism. The Mohammedan era dates from that event. The particular faith known as Mohammedanism is said to have been compounded from all the philosophical religions of that day. Its peculiar tenets are set forth in the Koran, the Bible of Mohammed. This new faith rapidly spread over the plains and deserts of the East, and especially among the wandering tribes ■of Arabia. The followers of Mohammed are called Sara- cens; and, with the battle cry of "The Koran, the sword, or tribute," they entered upon their era of conquest. The successors of the Prophet were called Caliphs. Omar, the second caliph, was father-in-law to the Prophet. Under his rule the faith was carried into Syria, Persia, Central Asia, and Egypt. Alexandria was taken, and its famous library burned. The caliph claimed that if these books agreed with the Koran they were superfluous; if they disagreed, they were pernicious and ought to be destroyd.' The Ommiade dynasty of caliphs ruled at Da- mascus until 750; the Abbasside dynasty, at Bagdad, from 1 Dawe: "Land Marks of History," p. 91. msi; OF MODEBN NATIONS. 349 750 to 1258, wlien the last caliph was slain by the grand- son of the Mongol chieftain, G-enghis Khan. These Sara- cens spread in every direction. They reached India on the east, and Spain on the west, the same year (711). Twice, during the first century of their existence, they be- sieged Constantinople. In 673 they were beaten back by The Alcazar in Spain. [Saracen Architecture.'] the armies of Constantine IV. Finally Leo I. (717) so utterly defeated them that no ^'Moslem army ever again appeared under the walls of New Rome until the caliphate had passed away and a sterner race of conquerors had assumed its mission."^ The Saracens entered Spain (711), 1 Freeman: "History and Conquests of the Saracens," London, 1876, p 91-2. 350 ' THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. and in three years had completed its conquest.' The comparative ease with which they gained control of this peninsula is somewhat surprising; but, when we consider, that the population of Spain and Northern Africa were no doubt kindred, that the straits were the highway over which the Phoenicians and the other conquerors of Spain had passed, and that the mass of the population were held in the condition of serfs to foreign or West-Grothic over-lords, we can account for the rapid conquest of the country by the Mohammedans. As they spread over the peninsula, the most powerful Gothic chief- tains rallied their tribesmen about them, fortified some mountain fastnesses, and waged continual warfare with the Saracens until the latter were finally driven out by Fer- dinand and Isabella (1492). In fact, it is to these bands of independent West-Goths in their mountain homes that we are to look for the germs from which sprung the king- doms of Castile, Aragon, Leon, and Portugal, and by the union of the first three, the kingdom of Spain itself.^ The Saracenic government in Spain is said^ to have been one of the best of its age. ' Religious persecution happened only in cases where it was invited by zealots who had determined upon martyrdom. Literature was cultivated; and, in architecture, the ruins of the Alhambra^' testify to the degree of perfection and grandeur which they had attained. In time (about 755), Spanish Mohamme- dans became alienated from their brethren in the East, and a separate caliphate (the Western) was formed. Not satisfied with the conquest of the peninsula, the Saracens crossed the Pyrenees and began to encroach upon the ter- 1 "Historical Geography," p. 111. 2 P'reeman: "History and Conquests of the Saracens," p. 138-9. 3 Ibid. V67 etseq. * Vide Irving: "The Alhambra." RISE OF MODEBN NATIONS. 351 ritory of the Burgundians and Franks. The cities of Southern Gaul became for a time Saracenic.^ Charles Martel, though only a mayor of the palace, was really the chief man among the Franks at this time. As the Saracens grew bolder, by reason of a succession of conquests, they penetrated farther and farther into Frank- ish territory. Charles Martel summoned all the forces of Gaul, and met the invaders at Tours or Poiters (732). Another of the decisive battles of the world was fought, and the Aryan triumphed over the Semite. The Saracens were driven to the south of the Pyrenees, and these moun- tains henceforth remained the boundary between the two races in the West. By this battle, Europe was preserved to the Aryans. It will be remembered that Charles Martel was the founder of the Frankish dynasty known as the Karlings.^ When Pippin, the son of Charles, was king of the Franks, the Lombards,' after conquering nearly all of Italy, ap- peared at the gates of Rome, Pope Stephen III. invited Pippin to enter Italy and save the imperial city. Pippin was successful, and restored the exarchate to the empire. For this service, he was made patrician, or governor, of the exarchate (Rome and vicinity), for Rome still regarded herself as a part of the empire and bowed, to the imperial authority at Constantinople. Pippin was succeeded by his son, Charlemagne,' who raised the Frankish kingdom to its greatest power. His reign might be called the Golden Age of the Franks, as distinguished from the later French, for this people never again enjoyed such power and happiness as during his wise reign. Conquests were pushed in all directions. 1 "Historical Geography," p. 111-12. 8 Above p. 346. » Above p. 343. i Charles the Great, 768-814. 352 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. His armies were everywhere carrying peace to those who chose to submit to his authority, the sword to those who withstood his arms. The Saxons were his most obstinate subjects, for he tried to force them to change their religion. They desired independence and the privilege of worshiping Defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel. their own gods. Though many of them submitted to baptism at the point of the sword, they worshiped their pagan gods in peace. The ruthless hand of the destroyer, however, cut down their images and defiled their sacred places. Revolt after revolt happened, proving to Charle- magne that they were still pagans, and the only way to save SI SE OF MODEMN NATIONS. 353 their souls was to take their lives. So he assembled over four thousand of their foremost tribesmen and caused their heads to be struck off in one day.' The remnant, continued to fight until each small band was conquered or annihila- ted. The Avars were by this time crowding over the mountains and threatening the Franks.^ They already held the Byzantine (or Eastern) Empire under annual tribute. But, toward the close of the eighth century, Charlemagne drove them back to their Danubian home.* The Lombards were again threatening the imperial city, and Charlemagne responded to her call for help. He (774) completely subdued these dangerous neighbors, and held them under, subjection for the remainder of his reign. The cruel Irene had usurped the throne at Constanti- nople. The Imperialists at Rome claimed that a woman could not. be Caesar and turned their eyes toward Charle- magne, the saver of the imperial city, the champion of Christianity against Paganism, as the only proper person to occupy the seat of Caesar. Amidst great pomp and ceremony, on the last day of December, in the year 800, as Charlemagne knelt at the altar in St. Peters at Rome, Pope Leo III. placed upon his head a crown, and, amid the acclamations of the people, proclaimed him Emperor and Augustus. In this manner was the Western Empire revived, though a Teuton wore the crown ; and we must remember that the Western Empire was ever afterward a truly Grerman Empire, and nearly all the emperors were kings of Germany. Charlemagne never became the slave of the 1 Guizot: "History of France," Vol. I. p. 216-17. 8 Above p. 834. 3 Vide Vambury: "Story of Hungary," p. 24-5. 354 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. Pope. He openly differed from the church and its council by rejecting their decrees to authorize image worship when sent to him.* So, too, he was in advance of his time in regard to culture. His reign was a period when great progress was making; literature and art were encouraged; and, at his invitation, France became filled with scholars of the day. The mind of Charlemagne was one of those master minds that could carry on conquest after conquest, spread- ing his power in all directions, and, at the same time, capable of conceiving and perfecting plans for the im- provement of his subjects, for the advancement of educa- tion, and for the introduction of good government. Ordi- narily, if the prince be a soldier, his mind is too much filled with his jDlans of conquest to be able to attend to his government; if he be, a scholar and legislator, he is utterly incapable of defending his possessions from the encroachment of his neighbors. While Charlemagne was extending his empire in all directions, he was holding the reins of government with a strong hand ; shaping the religion of the Catholic church ; establishing schools throughout his vast domain ; and bringing scholars from the ends of the world to preside over them. Though he was continually called upon to battle with Saxons, Danes, Saracens, Slaves, Avars, and Lombards, the internal por- tion of his empire was enjoying the prosperity of a time of peace, and reaping the rich rewards in culture that always attend such eras in the history of a country. When Charlemagne died (814), his empire extended from the Baltic to the Mediterranean and from the Atlantic to the banks of the Danube.^ 1 Btokes^ "Medieval History," p. 51. 2 We must not forget that Ciiarlemagne is one of those persons BISE OF MODERN NA TIONS. 355 The Eastern Empire did not recognize Charlemagne as Emperor of Rome, neither did they acknowledge the right of the Pope to crown him. They went right on electing emperors, and they considered that "the emperor anointed St. Sophia at Constantinople. in St. Sophia had a right which none could take away, to reign over the Old Rome as well as the New. Each emperor (East and West) in short, asserted himself to be the one true Emperor and the other to be an impostor or a tyrant."^ The act of Pope Leo III. in crowning Charle- arouud -whose names have clustered many myths Vide Hallam : "Mid- dle Ages," Vol I. p. 23 et seq. 1 Freeman: "Chief Periods of European History," London, 1886, p< 107 356 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. magne was an open and ever widening breach between Rome and Constantinople. The two empires were now absolutely and finally separated, and henceforth led separate existences. So too with the churches, the Pope became the head of the Western Church, while the Patriarch at Constantinople became the head of the Eastern Church. As time passed, both empires and churches drifted further and further apart, and the most bitter hostilities and jealousies came to exist between them. The Eastern Empire and Church became decidedly Greek, and are often mentioned as the Greek Emj^ire or the Greek Church. The Western Em- pire and Church as often bear the names of Latin Em- pire and Latin Church.^ So great did the hostility be- between the two become, that we shall find one army of crusaders turning aside to besiege Constantinople as though it were a city of unbelievers. But in the East, we will always find the Patriarch subject to the political power of the emperor; while, in the West, we must notice how the Pope began gradually to acquire political power until his decree of excommuniction was more powerful than the army of a prince.** As the strength of the Mohammedans increased, the strength of the Eastern Empire decreased. Occasionally a superior line of sovereigns would gain control of the government and the empire would blaze out like a meteor among the powers of the world. The Basilian dynasty (867-1057) was such an one. Basil I. was a Macedonian.^ During his reign, Photius was patriarch of Constantino- 1 "Historical Geography," p. 366. 2 For example we would refer to the defeat of Harold by William the Conqueror, and the journey of Henry to Conossa. Vide Hallam: "Middle Ages,"Vol. I. p. 656-7. 3 Stokes: "Medieval History," p. 114. mSH OF MODERN NA TIONS. 357 pie ^nd instructor of Prince Leo, the philosopher. The reigns of Leo (886-912) and of his son Constantine VI L (912-959) form "one of the most properous eras of the Byzantine literature."^ During the childhood of Basil II. (963-1025), Nicepjioras (963-969) and Zimices (969-975) were in turn raised to the position of colleague with the Emperor, by marriage with Theophona, the empress. They were the greatest generals of their age, and, in suc- cession commanded the royal army. Basil profited by their training, and was one of the few of the later em- perors who was able to lead his own armies to victory. Under these three generals, the imperial army twice defeated the Russians.* The Bulgarians were conquered by Basil himself, and were most inhumanly treated. The boundaries of the empire again ismbraced. the most of Asia Minor, the Euxine basin, the Hellenic peninsula, and a part of Southern Italy. But Basil seems to have intro- duced changes in the government, which, by promoting favorites to the chief positions, ultimately destroyd the old civil service organization. The Basilian dynasty came to an end in 1057 by the the nobles transferring the crown to one of their own number, Isaac Comnenus.' The capital of the Eastern Empire was not only open, to attack from the Turks and Mongols, but her re- lations with the Western Empire were becoming more and more estranged. In the West, the great crusades were forming. These crusades were great armies of men marching to the rescue of Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulcher. The commanders lacked power ; and the sol- diers of the Cross, unity and discipline. As they passed 1 Gibbon's "Rome,"Vol. V. p. 379. 2_ These people had risen in power so as to become formidable to the empire, as we shall see in the proper place. 3 Vide Gibbon, Vol. IV. p. 610 ct seq. 22 358 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. through the country, they were very lax iu observing the rights of property holders and the laws of hospitality. Constantinople, more than any other city, was subject to outrages from these lawless hordes, as they often encamped in that vicinity. Then, too, numbers of these western people adopted the eastern capital as their home, never returning to their native lands. Finally their presence became intolerable, and (in 1183) all the Latin residents in that city were massacred. The fourth crusade, there- fore, turned aside from its real mission, twice besieged Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204. For nearly sixty years (1204-1261), a Latin dynasty ruled the Eastern Empire, although the Greek emperors ruled at Mcaea and Trebizond. In a few lines, we can give the story of the final fall of the Eastern Empire, and with it the disappearance of the- Roman Empire from the pages of history. The thirteenth century witnessed strange upheavals in the Orient. The great Genghis Khan subdued nearly all Asia to his rule. His empire, however, as rapidly disintegrated on the death of its founder, as it had sprung into being under the guidance of his genius. Out of the ruins of his empire, there arose into prominence the Ottoman Turks. They rapidly swallowed up the provinces of Asia ; and in 1343, they entered Europe. Their season of conquest continued. They conquered the Slaves and the Hungarians. Under Sultan Bajazet, they triumphed over the combined forces of Europe (1396), led by king Sigismund of Hungary, at the battle of Nicopolis.^ They drafted the flower of the Christian youth into their armies, so that their soldiers were as powerful as any in Europe. The knights of the 1 Fiiie Vambury: "Story of Hungary," p. 183. CLOVIS AND THE VASE OF SOISSONS. 359 RISE OF MODE UN NA TIONS. 361 AV^est were powerless before them. At last, (1402) Sultan Bajazet sent a message to the Emperor which read : "By the Divine clemency, our cimetar has reduced to our obe- dience almost all Asia, with many and large countries in Europe, excepting only the city of Constantinople ; for beyond the walls thou hast nothing left. Resign"-that city ; stipulate thy reward ; or tremble for thyself and thy unhappy people, at the consequence of a rash refusal.'" The Emperor sought aid from the West but to no avail. But the Mongols, rising into power under Timour, or Tamerlane,^ gained a respite of a half a century for the fated city, while the Turks were busy subduing the rebel- lious Mongols. The Ottomans, however, besieged the capital in 1421, but still she held out. The Greeks tried, in every way, to reconcile themselves with the Western Empire and the Western Church, but no substantial aid was sent. Mohammed II. became Sultan of the Ottoman Turks in 1451. Crossing the Hellespont, he laid siege to Con- stantinople. On the twenty-ninth of May, 1453, that city fell before the arms of the unbelievers, and the Christian temple of St. Sophia became a Mohammedan Mosque. Eight years later the Sultan conquered the Grreek enipire of Trebizond. The Eastern Empire was no more. Rome, that proud mistress of the world, now existed only as the German Empire of the West ; and the seat of Christian power and learning had passed into the hands of the un- believers. The Turkish power continued to spread, al- though it had met with some checks by the Hungarians under the great "Raven Knight," John Hunyadi, but this was for a moment only. When the Turkish Empire had 1 Gibbon, Vol. VI. p. 243. 2 Probably a Turk. Vide "Historical Course," p. 225. 362 TME MEDIEVAL WOULD. attained its greatest European limits, it included the Eux- ine basin, Podolia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and a large part of Hungary. From these boundaries, it has since greatly fallen away. Fall of Conatantinopla. Returning now to the west of Europe, let us take up the thread of history with the successors of Charlemagne. They were weaker and less capable rulers than their illustrious ancestor. By the treaty of Verdun (843), the great empire which he founded was divided among his three grandsons. Charles the Bald was given rule over the Western Franks, who afterward became the French. Lewis became king of the Eastern Franks, or Grermans BISE OF MODEBN NATIONS. 363 proper. Lothair was called king of Italy, although his dominions extended in a broad belt from below Rome toward the northwest, between the other two kingdoms, even to the German ocean. Here we have the germs of three prominent nations of our day, although there was The Huns in GEermany. much shifting about and changing of border lines before they assumed their modern shapes. Nearly the whole territory was again united under Charles the Fat (884-887). Then it again fell apart, and broke up into ir.r.ny king- 364 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. doms, principalities, dukedoms, and commonwealths. But throughout all this series of changes, the Western Empire of Rome was still feigned to exist, and one of the kings was elected as emperor. Perhaps the best way of treating our subject from this point is to give a brief outline of the various modern na- tions in Europe, as they gradually emerged out of these three divisions -of Charlemagne's empire. Under the successors of Lothair, Italy was a hot-bed of contending factions. The G-reeks entered and occupied Lombardy. The Saracens occupied Sicily and extended their conquests further north. The Magyars penetrated the peninsula from the north, and the Northmen ravaged the coast.- Then there came a time when a number of petty kings contended for superiority in Italy. The greater part of Lotharingia had by this time fallen away. King Otto the G-reat, of Germany, came to the rescue of Italy, was crowned emperor (962), and Italy was united to Grermany. Henceforth it was a rule, that "the king of G-ermany had the right to be crowned king of Italy at Milan, and to be crowned Emperor at Kome."^ • Now the petty kingdoms were held in check, and the independence of the principal cities was encouraged. Thereafter many of them became republics, or commonwealths, and rose to enormous power and wealth. They made wars and thus added to their possessions, so that their power was by no means limited or indicated by the extent of their city walls. The most important of these cities were Venice, G-enoa, Pisa, Naples, Florence, Milan, Yerona, Padua, and, of course, Rome as head of the states of the church. Nearly all of the cities of Italy were at times, and some of them at all times, fiefs of Rome. At Florence, the i Ibid. p. 140. BISE OF MODERN NA TIONS. 365 home of Dante (1265-1321) and the birthplace of Michael Angelo (1475-1564), there arose the renowned house of the Medici, that furnished a number of popes, and caused much trouble to the emperors. While Frederic Barbarossa was emperor (1152-1190), the great Lombard league of the cities of Northern Italy was at the height of its power. There were two factions of cities, Gruelphic (Imperial and anti-Pope) and Ghibe- line (Popish and anti-Emperor). "Round Gruelphic Milan and Grhibeline Pavia, gathered a crowd of famous names : Como, Bergamo, and Brescia, Lodi, Crema and Cremona, Tortona, Piacenza, Parma, and Al- lessandria."^ Barbarossa was de- feated (1176) by the Grhibelines, and the Lombard cities gained their independence.^ Pisa, Grenoa, and Venice were __ A| the great naval powers of medieval \ times. The former is said to have B "forestalled the crusades and won back lands from the Saracens." ' While an idea of her greatness is i^eaning "rower at Pisa. still to be gained by her "cathedral, baptistry, and bell tower." Grenoa was still more powerful. She extended her commerce to the Black Sea, on whose shore she built factories. She defied the navies of the world, for she could muster and man an armament of one hundred and fifty-five galleys — in one battle conquering the navies of the Venetians, the Catalans, and the Greeks. At last (1378), she threatened Venice herself with siege. But on 1 "Historical Geography," p 237. 2 This was during a period when the popes and emperors were con- tending with one another for precedence in temporal power. 366 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. the whole, Venice was the greatest of the three powers and retained her independence until modern times. When Atilla led the Huns into Italy, they destroyed the city of Aquileia, and her inhabitants fled to the islands of the Adriatic, where they laid the foundations of "Venice (452). This city grew and flourished. For a number of centuries, she acknowledged allegiance to the Eastern Empire, but joined the Lombard league, and finally rose to the chief place among the maritime powers of the world. She gained her independence with the rest of the Italian cities. Then she first became an oligarchy (1297), then a republic (1311), remaining such until 1797. We must not regard Venice as merely a city built upon a few islands at the head of the Adriatic. But from that as a center of action, she extended herpower.in all directions; on the mainland, along the eastern shore of the Adriatic, Dalmatia, Crete, Cyprus, Thessalonica, the Peloponne- sus ; in fact, she became mistress of the Adriatic and Ionian seas. In naval warfare, she was all-powerful, and was acquainted with the most advanced methods,' deeming herself, even in her last days, powerful enough to offer war to England.^ Her seamen taught other nations the science of navigation as we shall see. When Constantinople fell, she became the bulwark of Christianity against the Turks upon the sea, as Poland did upon the land. In Southern Italy, the kingdom of Naples arose and grew into the kingdom of the two Sicilies. The founda- tion of this power was laid by the Normans (of whom we shall speak again), who appeared on the scene early in 1 Vide battle between the Venetians and Normans in Barlow: "The Normans in South Europe," London, ]886, p. 171. 2 Patton: "Modern History," Philadelphia, 1887, p. 345. BISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 367 the eleventh century. Their leaders were the De Haute- villes, and came from France. They sought conquest and empire in Italy and found both. Apulia, Naples, Sicily, were ^conquered in succession,'^ and Roger II. added Capua and a large tract in Northern Africa, reigning over the whole as vassal of the pope.^ These Norman rulers in- terfered with the affairs of the two empires, and were among the foremost leaders in the Latin conquest of Con- The Rialto at Venice. stantinople. They finally became so powerful as to alarm the popes who then favored the Angevin claimants to Italian possessions. Charles of Anion was raised to the 1 Vide Jewett: "Story of tbe Normans," NewYorK, 1887, p. 138 et seq. 2 The De Hautevilles were the tools of the Pope [ Vide Barlow : "Normans mi South Europe."] Although they were powerful enough to be independent, they were aware that they were foreigners and usurp- ers; and they gained much lof-al power and protection from inter- ference on the part of other rulers by holding their possessions as fiefs of the pope. 368 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. throne of Naples (1272) and ruled also at Acre as king of Jerusalem. The Spanish Aragonese princes were also claimants to the throne of Naples. Sicily revolted to them in 1282 and Ferdinand was at last (1464) fully recognized as the king of the two Sicilies.^ On the whole, however, this was not an unprogressive period for Italy. During this and successive periods the The Norsemen Menacing Italy, peninsula first fell asunder into .principalities, which vanished before the growth of free cities, then these cities became principalities which all have merged into the present kingdom of Italy under the rule of the Savoy princes. Turning our attention to Germany proper, a wide and 1 ' 'Naples and Sicily." BISE OF MODEBN NA TIONS. 369 confused field of observation is before us. But all through the history of Germany, we must bear in mind, that the king was elective, and that the country was broken up into many independent principalities, duchies, etc., whose ruling men, and, finally, whose princes formed the council of the kingdom and the electors of the king. The dynasty of Mongols Crossing the Volga. the Karlings lasted nearly a century when the Saxon Buke, Henry the Fowler, was elected to the throne (918- 936). He was called upon at once to defend Western Europe from a new people, who had settled in the Dan- ubian region. These were the Magyars, a Finnish or at least a Tu- ranian people, who have to this day retained their IJgrian 370 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. form of speech. They founded there a state that after- ward became the kingdom of Hungary and one of the principal divisions of the Austrian empire/ Although they had become Christianized, they had not lost their love of war and conquest. In fact, the gold of the Kar- lings had more than once saved their kingdoms from Magyar, inroads. Henry the Fowler agreed to pay tribute for ten years, and during that time he organized a power- ful army and built defenses for the protection of his sub- jects. At the end of the truce, he was not only determined to stop tribute, but to defend his kingdom, and was suc- cessful in doing both. He also made the Danish king his vassal. Otto I. (936-973) was the "greatest sovereign of the tenth century."^ He not only crushed the Magyar power, but twice delivered the Pope from the power of petty Italian kings. He was crowned emperor (962) at Rome ; and, as we have stated, henceforth the king of Germany was considered heir to the thrones of Italy and the Em- pire. The imperial crown was received from the hands of the Pope. So far as Germany was concerned, this was not a wise step ; for nearly all the rulers who held the triple crown were obliged to neglect the affairs of Germany for those of the Empire, to the detriment of the former. It was customary in those days for bishops, prelates, and ab- bots to have temporal possessions, and so they became members of the national council. While the king was away attending to his imperial duties, the power of the central government was growing weaker through the de- mands of the princes, bishops, etc., for greater privileges. But Otto was strong enough to retain his full powers. The 1 Vambury: "Story of Hungary," p. 28 et seq. fc Stokes: "Medieval History," p. 79. RISE OP MODERN JSTA flONs'. 371 boundaries of the empire were enlarged. The kings of Denmark, Poland, and Bohemia were his acknowledged vassals/ Conrad II. (1024-1039) introduced the Franconian line of emperors. Of this dynasty, Henry III. (1039-1056) stands out pre-eminent. In his time, the pope bowed to the temporal power of the emperor. But from his time down, the pope grew in temporal power while the em- peror decreased in equal degree. Henry III. entered Italy, deposed three rival popes, and appointed a succession of Germans to the office of chief pontiif, by the first of whom he was crowned emperor. Henry also wore the kingly diadem of Burgundy, so that he possessed four crowns, thus we can see how the boundaries of the empire were changing.^ From this time the quarrel between prince and pope grew more bitter. A number of modern nations had be- gun to form, and the kings of all were devout Catholics, usually ready to fight the battles of the pope and es- pecially when invited to make war against their own natural sworn enemies. The joopes were not now depen- dent upon the temporal power of the emperors, and began to try to render the latter submissive to their dictums. While Henry IV. (1056-1106) was emperor, the great Hildebrande (Gregory VII.) was pope, and he strove in every way to establish the supremacy of the church. He was the first pope to enforce the law that the clergy should not marry, and he established the further rule that no 1 Ibid. p. 55. 2 Burgundy was the name of first, a kingdom, which was often in- dependent, or, at most, a vassal to some greater power, usually Gemany; second, a duchy ■entirely distinct from the kingdom and usually, if not always, vassal of the French king; third, the country which was a part of the kingdom and a flef of the empire. They all were from the middle or Lotliairingian kingdom. Vide "Historical Geography" 372 " TB.E MEDIEVAL WORLD. temporal prince "should bestow any ecclesiastical benefi- ces." Tbe emperors and princes were very jealous of this right of "investiture," whereby they might reward their friends, who were not soldiers, with abbacies and bishop- rics. From this time, there was much fighting between the armies of pope and prince over this one cherished privilege. Henry IV.,, refusing to submit, waged war against Gregory VII.; but the pope's curse against his followers brought the emperor to Conossa as a suppliant, but only to return, raise a new army, and banish Gregory from Rome. Henry V. (1106-1125') inherited the strug- gle, and so it continued.' The Hohenstaufen dynasty succeeded to the imperial throne in 1137.^ They were dukes of Swabia and were violently opposed to the dukes of Bavaria. The followers of the one were dubbed Ghibelins (Waiblingen), and those of the other Guelfs (Welf). But the popes were at the bottom of this quarrel also ; and, as we have already seen, the former were imperialists and the latter papists^.^ The Hohenstaufens, therefore, inherited this old quarrel, though they were the most devout of Catholics and were foremost in their crusades against unbelievers. The most illustrious rulers of this line were the two Fredericks. Frederick I. (or Barbarossa-red beard— 1156- 1190) spent most of his time in Italy, where, as we have seen, he was defeated at the battle of Legnano (1176) by the Lombard league. This is recorded as a great victory for the pajDists. His rule in Germany, as she was left 1 Vide This Series, Vol. IV. 2 Baring-Gould : ''Story of Germany," New York, 1886, p. 113 et seq. 3 "TheWaiblingen family long ago died out, but the Welf remains. It is represented by Queen Victoria of England and the Duke of Bruns- wick. It is one of the most ancient reigning houses that exists." Ibid. 116. RISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 373 principally to herself, was "peaceful, flourishing, and pop- ular." But the Gruelfs, under Henry the Lion, caused some trouble. Barbarossa entered upon the third crusade. Barbarossa Asking Aid of King Henry. leading a land force to the aid of Richard of England and Philip of France, but was drowned while crossing a stream 374 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. on the way. He left the enviable name of the greatest of Grerman emperors after Charlemagne.^ Frederick II. [1212-1250], grandson of Barbarossa, came to the throne while a mere boy; and, before he reached maturity, was 'forced to dispute his throne with two powerful rivals— Philip of Swabia and Otto lY. of Brunswick. He was usually successful in his wars, though the popes were continually stirring up his subjects to re- bellion. He regained some of the territories that his pre- decessors had lost, and, in the end, possessed seven crowns — those of the Empire, Grermany, Lombardy, Sicily, Bui;- gundy, Sardinia, and Jerusalem. In order to lessen his power, the popes kept him under the ban of excommuni- cation during the whole of the latter part of his reign. Pope Gregory IX. finally sent him on a crusade. Sickness prevented his reaching the Holy Land at first, but the pope refused to listen to his messengers. When, at last, he did reach Palestine, he accomplished more than any one who had preceded him, for he forced the Sultan to a treaty whereby all the holy places were recovered,'^ though it is said that the pope ordered all eastern Christians to hold aloof from him and render him no aid. When he returned, crowned with success, the bans were not removed. As Freeman^ says, he was "cursed first, for not going on the crusade, then cursed again for going, cursed most of all for actually winning the prize of so many struggles." When Frederick returned, he found his vassals in rebellion, and a new blast of papal anathemas awaiting him. At last the bans of the pope had the desired effect. To gain the smile of the pope, his vassals fell away from him, one after another. They sought to divide the empire among 1 Ibid. 120. 2 Ibid. 132. 3 "Chief Periods of European History," p. 163. RISE OF MODEBN NA TI0N8. 375 themselves, for now they had an excuse. "The robbers rejoiced over their spoils. Then were the plowshares beaten into swords, and the reaping-hooks into lances. No one went anywhere without steel and stone to set in a blaze whatever he could fire." Frederick II. died (1250), and the Hohenstaufen dynasty lasted only four years longer. With it, the glory of the empire passed away from Germany. No prince was found daring enough to accept the imperial diadem while the fates of the Fredericks were fresh before their minds.' A long inter-regnum followed (1256-1273), with no one at the head of the empire, every prince was inde- pendent. There was no power to restrain the ambitious. Everyone did as he pleased. There arose a generation of "robber knights," who built strong castles in places easiest of defense. Rushing out from their defenses, they plundered travelers and the unprotected, robbing, murder- ing, and imprisoning for ransom the men, and making the women captives. It was a terrible time for Grermany, and those princes who desired to restore order were almost powerless. There arose during this period, for the protec- tion of trade, a number of mercantile leagues that gained enough power to carry on wars and to make treaties. The most noted of these was the Hanseatic League, of which we shall say more in its proper place.^ Up in the mountains of Switzerland, there lie the ruins of an old castle, that was built in 1020. This was the cradle of the imperial house of Austria. Here the Hapsburgs rose into power. From this old castle, the German empire finally chose an emperor, Rudolph (1273- 1291), a vigorous, energetic man, capable of restoring order in Germany. He began by engaging the king of Bohemia 1 "Story of Germany," p 136. 2 Ibid. 146-7. 23 376 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. in battle, in which Rudolph was victorious, and by which he gained the Duchy of Austria and otjier possessions in Central Europe,^ which have ever since remained in possession of the Hapsburgs. Rudolph is said to have destroyed seventy castles of robber knights in Germany. It was during his reign that the foundation to the Swiss Republic was laid. Three cantons — Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden — rose in rebellion, formed a league, and later, established their independence. Albert (1298-1308) established himself o^i the throne by the defeat of Adolph of Nassau. He sent the "tyrant," Gressler, as governor to crush the Swiss revolt. A half- witted peasant^ shot him, and Albert himself was assassi- nated by orders of his nephew, John, a pretender to the throne. Thus we are furnished with the facts from which the fable of Tell and the apple has arisen. The reign of the Hapsburg dynasty was broken (1308-1437) by a suc- cession of emperors elected from the various princes of Grermany, Hungary, and Bohemia. The most distin- guished of these emperors was Charles lY. (Bohemia, 1347-1378) who is renowned as the author of the famous "golden bull," so-called from its seal of gold. This edict established (1356) a fixed number of electors, by whom and from whom the future emperors should be chosen. It further fixed the place of election at Frankfort and the place of crowning at Aix. The electors were seven, as follows : Princes of Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, and the Palatinate of the Rhine ; and the archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Treves.' Another house now makes its appearance in Germany. 1 Ibid. 148-150. 2 Toffel, Toll, Tell, means half-witted. Vide Baring-Gould, Op. cit., p. 151-2. 8 Stokes: "Medieval History," p. 140. T U PJ niSE OP MODERN NA TI6NS. 579 In 1415 Frederick, count of Hohenzollern, was granted the march of Brandenburg. From that time, the princes of that house have been prominent among the rulers of Europe.^ The Hapsburgs came into power again with Albert II. (1433-1439), From that time until the male line became extinct (1740), the emperors were of the old Hapsburg dynasty. Emperor William of our own time is a HohenzoUern, descended from the old line of counts. We have reached a period when religious reforms be- gan to be preached. John Huss and Jerome of Prague were boldly denouncing the evils that had crept into the church. When Sigismund of Hungary was emperor (1410-1437), so great had become the agitation that the council of Constance was evoked by Pope John XXIII., who was himself deposed on account of his enormous vices.^ This is the period of the Hussite war and of the burning of Huss (July 6th, 1415) and of Jerome of Prague (May 30, 1416). The Germans were in open rebellion against the popes, and were rapidly ap- proaching the great Reformation. Just at a time when the Eastern Empire was breathing its last, they were initia- ting new movements destined to set the Aryan world ablaze. . Just as new life and new energy arose from the bap- tism of the Western Empire with Teutonic blood, and new nations mounted into existence, we see the mighty agencies forming in the old German land, destined to lift civilized nations into the blaze of modern enlightenment. The fagots that burned the reformer Huss, cast their rays of light into the ends of the world. Illuminated by their 1 Frederick V . of this house was raised to princely rank in 1363, another Frederick was made Elector of Brandenburg in 1415, and an- other Frederick was made king of Prussia in 1701 . 2 Hallam: "Middle Ages," Vol. II. p. 39. 380 fStli Mi:biEVAL Wo^LB. "fading light, we catch sight of the mechanic, Gutenberg, fixing the last bolts and driving the last scre\YS into the first of those great "educators of the people," the printing press. Nay, before the followers (1450) of Islam had entered the gates of New Rome, he had given the first press to the world. Then, too, we see the powers at work that were to call out just such rugged natures as those of Martin Luther and his heroic followers. Though these great changes were to cost the world many lives, and much wealth and suffering, we, of the nineteenth century, ought ' to be the last to say that they have been purchased at too high a price. We must now trace the development of France from the triple division of Charlemagne's kingdom.^ The king- dom that fell to Charles the Bald (843-877) barely occu- l^ied that portion of Gaul west of the fifth meridian east of Greenwich, and was called Karolingia. It was bro- ken up into duchies, principalities, etc. The most power- ful among its petty rulers was the duke of Frankia. While the Karlings still spoke German, these dukes and their subjects spoke a Latin dialect out of which has developed the modern French language. The reign of Charles the Bald is spoken of as a creditable one. He endeavored to follow the course that his grandfather, Charlemagne, had instituted. He was a patron of literature and education. He gathered scholars around his court The famous John the Scot^ was invited from Ireland to preside over the Palace School established by Charlemagne. Charles made the possessions of his fiefs hereditary in certain families; and, from that time, the power of the Karlings was on the decrease, while that of his vassals grew — the dukes of France more than any others. 1 Above p. 362. 2 Johannes Scotus Erigena. BISE OF MODEBN NATIONS. 381 Odo, duke of France, was finally elected king by the nobles (866-898), but again the crown returned to the Karlings. During the next century, there was almost continual strife between the Karlings and the French dukes. When the former wore the crown, the capital of the kingdom was at Laon ; when the latter ruled, it was at Paris. During this time, the greatest event that hap- . pened to France was the arrival of the Northmen, or Normans. This new element in the history of Southern Europe made its appearance during the reign of Charle- magne, and led him to prophesy its future greatness.' They came from the north lands and so were called Northmen or Norsemen. Their ships sailed far and near ; and, appearing suddenly upon some unprotected coast, they plundered its inhabitants without constraint. So they were called vikings or "sea robbers." During three centuries (800-1100), scarcely a foot of the • North Atlan- tic's surface was unknown to them, from Greenland to Hellas, from Vinland to the northern coast of Russia. Were we to seek the origin of these hardy, daring, giant sailors, with their blue eyes and their blonde hair, we would have to visit the Baltic homeland of the Aryans. Could we but penetrate further into the pre-historic past, we might find these people sharing with the German's the honor of ancestry of our own race. But as the Northmen penetrated to the north toward the frozen sea, we find them shading off into Turanian — Finns and Lapps. They were also called Scandinavians. By the time of Charle- magne, three kingdoms had arisen in these northern re- gions — Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The Western Empire, from Charlemagne's time down, had much fight- ing with the Danes. The Swedes controlled the Baltic I Jewett: "Story of the Normans," p.-ll. 382 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. basin, pushed to the east, and, in the tenth century, settled in Russia, laying the foundation of the modern Russian TJie Yikinga. Empire. The Norwegians and Danes combined ravaged the coast of Europe from Flanders (Holland and Belgium) RISE OF MODEBN NATIONS. 383 to Asia Minor, completely terrorizing the inhabitants of France and Britain. That these Northmen were not lack- ing in culture is proved by that store-house of literature which they have left — the Eddas — composed as early as the eighth century, and preserved on the island of Iceland, cut off from all other influences.^ The visits of the vikings to the coast of France be- came more and more frequent. First they came on fly- ing expeditions for plunder ; next they built forts, which they occupied for several seasons in succession, and into which they could safely gather their stores ; then at last, they came to settle and found homes for themselves, giving up their roaming lives. In 912, a large band of Northmen, under Rolf or Rollo.took possession of Rouen. In order to gain his friendship, king Charles the Simple (893-929) ceded to him a large province in Western France, which he was to hold in fief to the king, but on the condition that he was to be baptized and receive Christianity.^ To seal the treaty, the king's natural daughter was married to Viking Rolf Now that these Northmen had possessions in France, and had become vassals of the French king, they adopted the language, dress, and manners of the French. They became Nor- mans and their chief, the duke of Normandy. They were ever ready, however, to assert their independence of kingly authority, claiming as many rights as their over- lords.* The Karlings were superseded by the French dukes,* 1 Vide Encyclopedia Brltannioa, article Edda, also Karl Blind: "Etjiic Ideas of the Edda," University Magazine, April, 1878. 2 Freeman: "Norman Conquest," Oxford, 1873, Vol. I. p. 112. s Hallam: "Middle Ages," Vol. I. p. 37, note 3. * Hallam claims that Hugh Capet's accession to the throne was an usurpation. "Middle Ages," Vol. I. p. 30-31. 384 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. when Hugh Capet was chosen king (987-996), and then modern France appears in history, for we have now a French people, governed by a French king, who spoke a French language, and the capital of the kingdom was Paris. The number of hereditary fiefs had increased from twenty-nine to fifty-five. However, a few of the great vassals occupied a greater portion of the kingdom and the remainder did homage to them. These greater vassals were six in number, as follows : the counts of Flanders, Champagne, and Toulouse ; and the Dukes of Normandy Aquitaine, and Burgundy.' And now a feudal monarchy was fully established.^ For a long time before and after the accession of the Capets, France can be said to have no national history. The king of France was not powerful enough to compel obedience from his great vassals. Indeed they were nearly all equal in power; and, during the reigns of the first four Capets, they were too busy with quarrels among them- selves to trouble the outside world very much. Every great vassal was lord over a number of barons, who, in turn, had their vassals.^ Every chieftain was independent to rule his own subjects, and every great vassal had power to make treaties and alliances, to wage war and make con- quests. Therefore, it is not surprising to find the dukes of Normandy, the most independent of all, continually at war with their neighbors, and even in open rebellion against their lord the king.* i Vide Hallam Op. cit. p. 35, and compare with Stokes: "Medieval History," p. 88, who mentions the count of Vermandois instead of Tou- louse, and adds the duke of Brittany. 2 Feudalism will be treated in a following chapter. 8 Hallam, Op. cit. p. 36. * Tn treating of England we will see how the duke of Normandy became lyng of England, and thus one of the vassals of the king of France became more powerful than his master. JJJ^JSr OF MODE BN NATIONS. 385 From the time of Louis VI. (1081-1137) it became the open policy of the French kings to reduce the power of their vassals, and especially that of the Norman dukes. Louis VI. and VII. spent their energies in building up the power of the towns to the detriment of the nobles. It was, however, a flourishing period for agriculture, com- merce, and internal improvement.^ At last Philip (II.) Augustus (1180-1223) succeeded to the throne. He is represented as a cool, calculating, capable ruler — "a great king but not a great man." He found Henry II. of Eng- land still in possession (as duke of Normandy), of his great dominions in France ; and he began, at once, to lay plans for undermining the English king's power. The entire military forces of England and Normandy were called into activity to repel the encroachments of Philip. Henry II. and his successor Richard I. (Couer de Lion) were able to hold their own against king Philip. In fact, Richard, Philip, and Frederick Barbarossa, had united their forces for the third crusade. But John, Richard's brother and regent, was unable to maintain his rights against the French king. When Richard died, young prince Ar- thur was murdered (perhaps by John his uncle), and John became king of England (1199-1216.) Philip immediately summoned him, as vassal duke of Normandy, to appear at the court of France in answer to the charge of murdering Arthur, who was tha choice of the Norman nobles for the vacant throne. John refused to come, and Philip, declar- ing his continental possessions forfeited, poured his armies into Normandy, and wrested all except Aquitaine, Gas- cony, and the Norman islands from England.^ Philip be- gan also the -crusade, or "Albigensian war," against the 1 "Medieval History," p. 146-7. 2 "Historical Geography," p. 333-4. 386 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Manicliseans in and around Toulouse. The result of this struggle was the annexation, during the thirteenth cen- tury, of a number of provinces — Beziers, Narbonne, Mmes, Albi, Toulouse — which form the valuable province of Lan- guedoc.^ Louis the Pious, or St. Louis (1227-1270), "was per- haps the best king that ever reigned, unless it were our own (English) Aelfred."* Louis conquered his enemies by arbitration and by just and faultless action. His vassals came to look upon him as their judge and legislator, rather than their master. His yoke sat so lightly upon their shoulders that they perceived not the "transition of the French constitution from a feudal league to an absolute monarchy.'" By his virtue, justice, and moderation, he raised the power and influence of his kingdom to a much higher level than his more war-like and ambitious pre- decessors. Thus, during his reign of nearly half a century, we see France, under the smile of the goddess of peace, making enormous strides in culture and internal prosperity. All the feudaries were inspired with confidence in their monarch. France "had havens on the three seas, the Mediterranean, the Ocean, and the Channel." She was prosperous and growing, while Germany was struggling with her Italian dependencies, or was at the mercy of her " robber knights." About this time, Paris reached her highest fame as a seat of learning. Her university attracted such men as Ro- ger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas. Louis advocated the highest education for theologians, who only should dispute with unbelievers. If a layman "heard a man to be an unbeliever, he should not dispute with 1 Ibid. 335. a "Hiatorical Course," p. 182. 3 Hallam: "Middle Ages," Vol. I. p. 43, BISE OF MODEBN NA TIONS. 387 him, he should at once run his sword into his entrails, and drive it up to the hilt." His zeal and bigotry were the cause of his dying outside of his kingdom. He or- ganized and led the last two crusades, dying before Tunis while besieging that city, , He had heard that its ruler were longing for Christianity, and he was carrying it to him according to the manner of his age.^ Philip the Fair (1285-1314) added Navarre to his kingdom by marriage with the heiress, Joanna. Finally (1312) Lyons was annexed. For openly defying the pope (Boniface VIII.) for usurpation of power belonging to the temporal ruler, he was placed under the ban of excommunication. Pope Clement V. was more lenient with him, for he sought, by alliance with France, protec- tion from the Emperor. The papal chair was removed to Avignon where it remained for seventy years, known as the "Grreat Captivity." This is recorded as a great victory for prince over pope. The house of the Capets passed away with the death of Charles IV. (1328). Philip of Valois succeeded to the throne in 1350. The rivalry , between the French king, and the Norman duke (or En- glish king), was the cause of much quarreling between France and England during all this time. Edward III. of England urged his- claim to the crown of France a^ the son of Philip the Fair's daughter Isabel. And thus began the "Hundred Years War" (1337-1453), which was carried on, with short intervals of peace, during a suc- cession of five English and five French sovereigns. Dur- ing a portion of the time, the English were supported by the emperors, and the French by the Bohemian kings. For many years, the English were conquerors, and boasted of great victories at Crecy (1346), Calais (1347), and Poiters 1 Ibid. p. 52. 388 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. (1356), from which field the French king John was carried a prisoner to England. Fortune continued to snaile upon the English during the next century, for they won the battle of Agincourt (1415), and captured Rouen (1419). Finally, to close this eventful period, that strange personage, professing divine guidance, came to the aid of the frightened king, Charles VII. (1422-1461). When France had lost almost CA^ery- thing ; when Paris was occupied by the English ; when the English king, Henry VI., had been crowned king of France at Paris (1431); when all France was discouraged, a peasant maid, Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans, appeared at the head of the disorganized French army, and, in two short years, succeeded in so turning the tide of affairs that English power in France was completely crushed.^ The war dragged on for twenty years longer, however, though there was not much fighting. The internal history of France during this whole period is, as we could expect, only a story of confusion, misery, and ruin. When King John was taken ca;ptive to London, there was no political head to the kingdom; and an attempt was made to organize a "popular and constitu- tional government". This led to a peasant war (the Jac- querie), under a leader named Caillet (nicknamed Jacques Bonhomme). Later (1413) another popular insurrection was instituted by one Caboche. Both were miserable fail- ures and cost the lives of many peasants. They were only the harbingers of that greater uprising of a later time — the French Revolution. The medieval period closes with the French kings masters of nearly all of modern France, and stronger than at any previous time. 1 For extented history of Joan of Arc, Vide Guizot: "History ot Fraace," Vol. III. p. 90. et seq. MSE 6P m6d:^BN NAtiONS. 389 The Western Mohammedan Caliphate' came to an end (1031) by breaking up into a number of small Saracenic Hall in the Alhambra. [Spain.] states. The Grothic chieftains, who still retained their in- dependence in their mountain homes, now found them- •1 Above page 350. 390 tSE MEDIEVAL WOltLD. selves able to take the offensive against these small powers where they could accomplish nothing against a united Mohammedan power. So they began to reclaim some ter- ritory from the sway of unbelievers. The kingdoms of Leon and Castile became united (1084), and their king, Alfonso VI., was the most powerful ruler in Spain, reclaim- ing even the ancient capital, Toledo, to the Christians. The power of Aragon also arose, so that Castile and Ara- gon were the principal states of the Spanish peninsula. As we have seen, the house of Aragon became rulers in Sicily (1282), and finally (1464) they ruled the "Two Sicilies and Sardinia." 'In time (1474), the crown of Castile was placed upon the head of Princess Isabella ; and, soon (1479), her hus- band, Prince Ferdinand, was crowned king of Aragon. These are the famous Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. They soon began a w^ar of extermination against the unbelievers. The Jews were expelled from Spain. The famous stronghold of the Moors (Saracens), the sto- ried Granada,^ was taken (1491), and the inhabitants were driven out of the country. Though they were married, Fredinand and Isabella ruled their respective kingdoms as separate monarchs. Upon the death of Isabella (1504), the crown of Castile fell to their daughter, Joanna, wife of Philip, a Hapsburg prince. Ferdinand soon supplanted her on the grounds of her incapacity. By giving another of his daughters in marriage to the king of Portugal and by the annexation of Navarre (1512), all the kingdoms of the peninsula became subject to one ruler. Now Thilip, the husband of Joanna, was son of Mary, duchess of Flanders, and of Maximillian, Emperor of G-er- many and a prince of the famous Hapsburg house. Char- 1 Vide "Conquest of Granada," by Washington Irving. BISE OF MODE EN JSTA TIOiTS. 391 les, the son of Philip and Joanna, then was duke of Flan- ders (The Netherlands), Duke of Burgundy, Archduke of Austria, King of Spain (1516), King of the Two Sici-, lies, Lord of the Spanish possessions in America and Africa; and less than three years more (1519) were to see him "raised to the greatest dignity in the world as Emperor of Grermany."^ Charles I. of Spain became Emperor Charles V. Spain soon became an absolute morarchy, and was ruled with severity. Charles was continually at war with Francis Charles V. I. of France. We can see how the interests of the two sover- eigns would conflict when we perceive how their posses- sions lay. Those of Charles extended from Spain through Italy, Austria, Burgundy, G-ermany, and the Nether- lands, thus surrounding France on three sides. But Charles abdicated his throne in 1556 — the Spanish (in- cluding the Netherlands) throne in favor of his so'n Philip II. (1556-1598) and that of the empire in favor of his son Ferdinand (1556-1564). Philip was a Catholic, and his cruel bigotry led him to adopt such refined meth- 1 Patton: "Modern History," p 78. the Netherlands," p. 40. Vide also Young: "History of 392 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. ods of torture and such inhuman modes of execution of heretics, that, had .he been a pagan, history would have remembered him only as a bloodtliirsty tyrant. We shall hear of him again in connection with the Netherlands. The small kingdom of Portugal assumed its present shape and size during the thirteenth and fifteenth centu- ries. By marriage of king Emanuel and the daughters (two in succession, the first dying) of Ferdinand and Isa- bella, the kingdom became really united to Spain. Then again for a brief moment (1581-1652), she became an actual part of Spain, but finally gained her independence. Her importance is confined almost wholly to her commer- cial enterprises and extensive discoveries, so her history belongs more properly to our chapter on the Age of Dis- covery, where it will be fully treated. We have now briefly outlined the formation of mod- ern nations from two of the three divisions of Charle- magne's kingdom. Let us now turn our attention to the third division, Lothairingia, lying between France and Germany and stretching from Central Italy to the Ger- man Ocean. This central strip of land was occupied by a large number of semi-independent princes and dukes, who made themselves vassals of now one king and now another, as it suited their interests, or as they were forced to yield to conquest. Now these central duchies and kingdoms were in their palmy days no insignificant powers. The dukes of Savoy, though they may not be said to hold one foot of the old Savoyard dominions, have made themselves kings of a united Italy. The kingdom of Burgundy oc- cupied a sort of middle position between France and Ger- many, which Switzerland has inherited.^ Holland and Belgium have risen from the Spanish possessions of the 1 "Historical Geography," p. 146. BISE OF MODERN NA TIONS. 393 Netlierlands into independent powers, and eact has a his- tory of its own. While the emperors of Germany were busy with their Italian affairs, the princes of their Grerman kingdom were left a great deal to themselves, and were often obliged to unite themselves into leagues for mutual pro- tection. There were a number of such leagues in the thirteenth century. Such was the league of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden, that asserted its independence (1291) and began to extend its power, growing into the greater Swiss Confederation. Luzern (1332), Zurich (1351), Gla- rus and Zug (1352), and Bern (1353) were added in suc- cession, comprising the eight ancient cantons. A century of internal peace and prosperity followed. The power of the confederation was extended in various directions though no new cantons were admitted. Then there was another season of growth, Freiburg and Solothurn (1481), Basel and Schaifhausen (1501), and Appenzell (1513), were admitted to form the later confederacy of Thirteen Can- tons. By conquests and allianSfes, the power of this con- federacy was extended across the Alps into Italy. Thus it remained until the wars of the French Republic, when the "federal system was abolished," and there arose what has been called the Helvetic Republic. That portion of old Lotharingia bordering the Grer- man Ocean had little to attract the immigrant. The soil was poor and a portion of the country had been reclaimed from the sea by means of dykes and windmills Still this part of Europe had become the homes of wealthy "merchant princes." The southern part was the site of the famous Flemish manufactories whose proprietors consumed the wool of England and other parts of Europe. And we shall see how the ships of Holland were foremost in ex- 24 394 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. tending commerce to newly found portions of the world. We have seen how, in the fifteenth century, the Nether- lands passed under the control of the dukes of Burgundy ; and, finally, to king Philip II. of Spain (1566). Thus we are brought down to the later half of the sixteenth cen- tury before the real history of the Netherlands begins. Philip seems to have been determined, under the cloak of zeal for the Catholic church, to exterminate the population of the Netherlands. His cruel persecutions under the Duke of Alva led to a revolt under William of Orange, called also the Silent.^ The Duke of Alva with his famous "Council of Blood," was tireless in his endeav- ors to invent excuses for arresting both peasants and nobles who had offended him or who had money. Arrest meant speedy execution, by the most refined and horrible modes of torture, and often without the form of a trial. The Inquisition was active in prying into men's private lives, and on the least suspicion condemning them to some new torturing, lingering death. The Duke of Alva is said to have ordered more than eighteen thousand execu- tions while governing the Netherlands.^ After every manner of defeat and discouragement, William the Silent succeeded in establishing the independence (1578) of the seven northern provinces,^ which form the commonwealth of the Seven United Provinces. William, however, was, after many attempts, assassinated, (1584) by the secret order of king Philij).* That portion of the Netherlands, that now forms 1 Vide Motley: "Rise of the Dutch Republic," New York, 1856, Vol. I. p. 245 et seq. 2 Young: "History of the Netherlands," p. 165. 3 These were Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Overessel, Friesland, Grounigen, "Historical Geography," p. 299. * Motley: "History of the United Netherlands," New York, 1861, Vol. I. p.]. TH. "WEBER, ON THE ROAD TO THE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD-HENRY VHL LANDING AT CALAIS. RISE OF MODH UN NATIONS. 397 the kingdom of Belgium, remained under Spanish rule for some years longer. It then (1595) passed to the Duke of Austria. It was composed of a number Duke of Alva at Brussels. of states, such as Flanders, Brabant, Artois, Hainault, etc. As it remained disputed territory for a long time, parts of it were continually changing their vassalage 398 TSE MEDIEVAL WORLD. from one power to another, subject to French, Dutch, Ger- man, or Spanish authority. Finally, in the settling of Europe, after the troublous times of Napoleon, the jeal- ousy of these greater powers led to the formation of the kingdom of Belgium. It is fitting here to notice that the existence of these three lesser powers in the midst of so many greater is due, not so much to their spirit of inde- pendence and their military prowess, as to their middle position among their greater neighbors. The jealousy of one another's power, that exists among the great nations of Europe, is a sufficient safeguard to the independence of these three nations. We must now turn our attention to that portion of Europe, lying outside of Charlemagne's kingdom, which was but a part of the Roman empire. Russia has, in his- torical times, been pre-eminently the home of the Slave. But, as we have seen, the great waves of Turanians, who have, in our era, spread over the steppes of Russia on their way toward the West, must have in places, almost annihi- lated every trace of Aryan occupation. "Iran and Turan have ever been at feud ; they could not dwell on the same soil in peace,"^ so we find the Slaves and Mongols contin- ually at war. It is not unreasonable, then, to suppose, as Rambaud suggests'^ that the Northmen (Swedes) came upon invitation (862) as allies of the Slaves against the Mongols.^ Rurik and his followers came, and seem to have had no trouble in conquering and ruling the Slaves. (They were also called Varangians). They made their headquarters at Novgorod and Kief, and increased so rapidly in power that we find them, very early in th( tenth 1 Quatrefages: "The Prussian Race," p. 34. 2 "History of Russia," London, 1879. 3 Above page 382. mSE OF MODEBN NATIONS. 399 century, besieging Constantinople (907 and 943). In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, three Rurikan princes ruled a territory seven hundred miles from north to south and six hundred miles from east to west/ Like all Europe at this time, Russia was occupied by many independent princes, who became vassals, of all Kntry of Ivan into Kazan. grades of dependency, to the Rurikans. Chief among them were the princes of Vladimir, Kief, and Novgorod, which correspond respectively to Great, Little, and White Rus- sia of our own times.^ Under Vladimir (972-1015) the 1 Vide Abel: ''Slavic and Latin," p. 9, S "Medieval History," p. 106, 400 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. fifth, prince of the house of Rurik, the Eussians accepted Christianity from the Eastern Church, and have ever since held to its doctrines.' In the thirteenth century, Russia was governed by a number of princes who failed to rule in harmony; and when the Mongols came, they were easily conquered (1223). Russia remained under Mongol rule for two and one half centuries.^ Still many of the western princes became subject to Lithuanian and Polish rule.^ Some of the Rurikan princes, through, all this time, held possessions as vassals to the Mongol Khans. Such was the prince of Moscow, who seems to have been a trusted subject of the khan. Around his standard, gathered many of the Aryans of Russia ; and, at last, under Ivan the Grreat (1462-1505), they threw off the Mongol yoke and gained their indejoendence. These new ruling people were called Muscovites, they were probably greatly Tu- ranized by intermixture while subject to the Mongols,^ as well as by mingling with the subject Einns. Ivan allied himself, by marriage, with the royal house of the fallen emperor at Constantinople. He really laid the foundation of modern Russia. He increased his possessions in all directions; and, receiving embassadors from other Euro- pean powers, he opened Russia to western civilization. Ivan III. first bore the name of Czar.* Ivan IV. (the Terrible 1533-1584) continued to build up his empire. By the annexation of Astrakan, at the mouth of the Volga, 1 "Historical. Geography," p. 483. Abel makes this period two cen- turies. "Slavic and Latin," p. 13. 2 Vide Kambaud: "History of Eussia," Vol. I. p. 183 et seq. 3 In later times under Elizabeth [1741-1762J, a scholar who dared to argue that the Muscovites were of Finnish origin received one hundred stripes with the knout. Under Catharine II. [1762-1796], the subject was again raised, when the Czarina "issued a Ukase commanding Mus- covites to be Europeans. Abel: "Slavic and Latin," p. 17. ^ Probably Caesar, for he "was the only person who claims succession to the Eastern Emperors. Rambaud : 'History of Russia," Vol. I. p. 266. BISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 401 he gained seaboard on the Caspian. About this time, En- glish vessels had found their way to the White Sea along the northern shore of Europe. The seamen visited Mos- cow, and their kind reception led to commercial relations between the two countries.^ Ivan gave Russia a valuable code of laws and likewise improved the condition of his subjects. In the later years of his reign, he became in- volved in wars Avith Poland, Sweden, and Denmark ; and was obliged to seek the assistance of Pope Gregory XIII, in order to save himself. Feeder I. (1584-1598), the last of the Rurikans, added Siberia to his dominions. Then there followed a time of anarchy and misrule for Russia until Peter the Great (1682- 1725), of the Romanoff line of princes, came the throne. Peter did more than reclaim Russia to her former state, for he raised her to a place among the powers of Europe. He extended his dominions until he could boast of seaboard on four seas — "White Baltic, Black, and Caspian. St. '''^ Petersburg was founded and ^eter the Great. made the capital. By study, travel, and intercourse with other nations, new ideas and improvements were intro- duced into all departments of the government and into all lines of industry. Catherine II. (1762-1796) was a patron of literature, science, and education and her reign was a time of great internal improvement for Russia.^ 1 Patton: "Modern History," p. 138. 2 Vide Eambaud: "History of Russia." Vol. II., for a full account ^the reign of Peter and Catherine. 402 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD, But in early times there was a broad belt of territory, or middle land, stretching from the Baltic sea southward to the Turkish dominions, between Germany on the Avesl, and Russia on the east. Here were the states of Lithu- ania, Poland, Bohemia, and a number of others of less importance. They were occupied by a mixed population of Germans, Slaves, and Turanians. But it is safe to say, that they all now differ little from other Aryan people. The Magyars of Hungary are the only ones that have kej)t a Turanian dialect.'' All of these states were factors in the settling of Europe into its modern political divi- sions. But their individuality has long since passed away, and we can give the parts that each played in the history of -Europe only a passing notice. In the ninth century, when the Magyars of Hungary were so troublesome to the empire, there was established a number of outposts (marks) as defences against their invasions. Among these was the Eastern Mark (Oester- reich) almost between Bohemia and Hungary. Thus was planted the germ from which modern Austria has grown. By a series of marriages, successions, elections, and conquests, the Hapsburg^ dukes of Austria became sovereigns of Bohemia, Hungary, and a number of smaller principalities, of various Aryan and Turanian populations, which were finally united into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. There was much shifting about before Austria assumed its present form. We have seen that the Haps- burg princes were usually emperors. We have noticed that 'Charles I. of Spain was Archduke of Austria and emperor Charles V. So we wouldfind, were we to trace the history of Austria doAvn to modern times, that, in the treaty cf 1 Keane in Ramsey's "Europe,'' p. 554 et seq.. 2 Above p. 375. mSE OF MODERN NATIONS. 403 Pressburg (1805), Francis of Austria is styled "Emperor of G-ermany and Austria." Poland was one of the greatest European states of the seventeenth century. Previous to this, for a moment only, Poland had become an Angevin possession by the election Death of Louis II. of Hungary. of Henry of Anjou as king. Poland and Lithuania accepted the faith of the Latin Church (Catholic). When the Mongols were rulers of Russia, these countries were the champions of Christianity against the invaders. The great general and king, Sobieski (1674-1697), at this time, made himself immortal by hurling back the Turks who 404 TSE MEDIEVAL WORLD. were advancing on Europe,. ■" When the Muscovites came into power in Russia, Poland was the fighting ground be- tween the Latin and Greek churches. Russia, Prussia, and Austria, becoming jealous of Polish power, resolved upon her destruction. The gallant defence, which Poland made against its enemies, gained the admiration of the world, and the name of Kosciusco will never be forgotten. In the Baltic region, composed of two great peninsulas and numerous islands, were forming, as we have seen, the three kingdoms of Scandi- navia ; Denmark, Norway, and Swe- den. In the tenth century, the John Sobieski. kingdom of Denmark included the greater part of the northern peninsula, as well as the southern. Under Cnut (1017-1035), a momentary em- pire of the northwest was formed, embracing also the British Isles. In the fourteenth century, Denmark waged frequent wars with the great Hanseatic League. By the "Union of Calmar " (1397), Norway, Sweden, and Den- mark were united under queen Margaret, This union lasted, in the case of Sweden, until 1523, when Gustavus Vasa broke the yoke of Den- mark. Norway remained a part of Denmark for three centuries longer (1814). The latter part of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries was a period of growth and prosperity for Denmark. This was under Frederick II. (1559-1588) and Christian IV. (1588- 1648). They were patrons of literature, science, and art. It was in their time that the great Tycho Brahe (1546- 1601) flourished. 1 Above page 361. BISE OF MODEBN NATIONS. 405 Sweden was ruled by Grustavus Vasa until 1560. The latter part of that century was filled with wars with Poland and Russia. Grustavus Adolphus then came to the throne (1611-1632) ; and, as we reach the modern period of history, we can see him leading a Protestant army from victory to victory in the heart of Europe ; and, finally, to his own death on the field of battle. As the period of Medieval history closes on the continent, we see the whole country convulsed with religious wars. The liberty gained by so much bloodshed nourished the growth of the enlightenment of our own time. We have now only to give an outline of English history, the country that had so much to do with our own early history. We have already^ seen the commence- ment of this history. We will resume the thread with king Egbert, a West Saxon prince, who had resided at the court of Charlemagne, and who could boast of de- scent from the great Cedric. He ascended the Wessex throne (802-847). Filled Gustavus Yasa. with that ambition and spirit of conquest that must have pervaded the court of Charlemagne, Egbert planned the conquest of the whole island. Mercia and Northumbria fell before his power (829), and Egbert styled himself "King of England."^ He was not master of the whole island, however. Scotland and some portions of the 1 Above p. 348. » "Medieval History," p. 60. 406 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. Western Celtic territory were never conquered by Egbert. Already tbe Danes had begun to plunder the coasts of these islands, and his armies were needed to guard against their attacks. His successors (837-881) inherited this con- flict with Danish vikings. The Norsemen now began to form settlements, although they were merely headquarters or camps, where their marauding bands could store their plunder. When Aelfred the Great, grandson of Egbert, came to the throne (871-901), nearly the whole island had been lost to the English. From the very commencement of his reign, he engaged in war with the Norsemen. He became so reduced in power and resources that he had no followers, and was obliged to hide himself in the marshy lands of Somer- setshire. There be built himself a stronghold and secretly organized an ar- my, with which, during the next seven years, he won many battles against the Danes. Finally they entered into treaty with him, by the terms of which the Danish chief- tain, Guthrian, was per- mitted to occupy all of England north of Watling street, or the road running from London to Chester, as vassal to the English king, on condition, however, that he should embrace Christianity. Aelfred, therefore, was real ruler over only the southern portion of England.' 1 "The I^ormq,n Conquest," Vol. I. p. 34. Aelfred. BISE OF MODHnisr NATIONS. 407 The reign of Aelfred, after the conquest of the Danes, was a season of peace and prosperity for England. Ranke' calls hina "a marvelous phenomenon," not merely a king and a great general, but a wise legislator and the foremost author of his times. He organized his government. He adopted a system of defenses by which he was able to protect his kingdom from all foes. He bUilt and main- tained a navy which was serviceable alike for war, for commerce, and for discovery. Thus was laid the foun- Aelfred's Mother Teaching Him Saxon Songs. dation of the naval power that has kept England among the foremost nations of the world. He made the accumu- lated customs, practices, and usages of his Teutonic fore- fathers the common law of the land. The aim of Aelfred's legislation seems to have been the elevation and happiness of his subjects. He tried in every way to introduce advanced ideas in learning and culture. Not satisfied in simply inviting foreign scholars 1 "AHlstory of England," Oxford, 1875, Vol. I. p. 19, 408 TBE MEDIEVAL WOULD to his court, he placed himself in theii' front and even surpassed them all in the amount and character of his literary work. A large number of volumes that had pre- viously been written only in Latin were translated into English by the king himself. Thus English was made the popular literary language. Now Aelfred is not to be compared with other literary kings, who, in general, rank very poorly as writers. He wrote just as he fought and legislated, "with a single eye to the good of his people." " The culture already existing, the whole future of which had been saved by Aelfred, attained in him the fullest development. We weaken the impression made on us by this great figure .... by comparing him with the brilliant names of antiquity."^ The descendants of Aelfred, "for nearly a century, form one of the most brilliant royal lines on record." All the Teutonic elements — English and Danish — were at last drawn into one kingdom. Then the chieftains and princes of the Welsh and Scots became vassals to the English king (924), who was often styled Emperor or Basileus of Britain. Under Eadgar (959-975), the royal house of Aelfred and Saxon England reached the summit of its power. This king is called "the peaceful," though never before were vaster military preparations made. A standing army was organized. A naval-fleet was kept in readiness for action and constantly encircling his domains, in order to guard against attack by sea. Eight of his vassal kings met at one time and place to do him homage. It was, therefore, a time of peace and prosperity for Eng- land, during which no foe dared to approach her borders. Succeeding kings were not as careful as Eadgar about their defences ; and the Danes, who had now eflfected a lodg- 1 Banke, Op. cit. p. 20. BISE OF MODEBN NA TIONS. 409 ment in Normandy, again plundered the coasts of the British Isles. Aethelred, the Unready, and his son Ed- mund Ironsides (979-1016) were so hard pressed by them that they were obliged, season after season, to buy oif the invaders. An annual and ever increasing tax was levied to furnish the crown with this "'Danegeld" instead of to Aelfred tlie Great in his Study. place the kingdom in a state of defence. Finally, on St Brice's Day, 1002 a. d., the king ordered a generar massa- cre of the Danish freebooters, who had by treaty been promised protection in his realms. This only hastened the final conquest of England by the Norsemen. Another element appeared in England during Aethel- red' s reign, which continued to grow in power and impor- 410 TSE MEDIE VAL WOULD. tance, until it ruled the whole island. His queen, Emma, was a Norman lady. Her appearance at the court of Eng- land opened the gates of the government to a host of Nor- man adventurers, who flocked around her, and received many profitable offices at her hands. The Danish king, Svvegen, soon appeared to revenge the murdered Danes. To the weakness of the English king, were added the dis- trust and disloyalty of his noblemen and his generals (many of them Norman favorites of Emma) and a lack of zeal on the part of his subjects. So, in spite of the almost superhuman efforts of Edmund Ironsides, the Danes were successful, and Britain was added to the great Empire of the Northwest ; and Cnut, the Dane, son of Swegen, was crowned king of England (1017-1035.) Cnut dwelt at London, and married the widowed queen Emma, thus reconciling himself to many of his sub- jects. "Cnut had entered England as a conqueror and a destroyer ; but his reign, as far as the internal state of England is concerned, was a time of perfect peace. No in- vasion from beyond the sea, no revolt, no civil war, is re- corded during the eighteen years of his government Within England itself we read of no district being ravaged either by rebels or by royal conlmand, we read of no city undergoing, or being threatened with, military chas- tisement. This is more than can be said of either the reign of Eadgar the Peaceful or of Eadward the Saint."' Here we have another instance of a wild "barbarous viking" from "pagan lands," who made one of the best kings that history mentions and that, too, in the middle of the "Dark Ages". Still, the successors of Cnut were failures as kings, and the banished son of Aethelred and Emma, Eadward 1 "Norman Conquest," Vol. p. 296-7. mSJS OF MODERN MOTIONS. 411 the Cosfessoj, or Saint, was hailed with joy then he caijie oyer from Normandy to occupy the English throne (1042-1065). He was a grandson of Robert the Fearless, duke of Normandy, and had been educated at the Norman court; so, it is not surprising, that many Norman adven- CnutttheQreat and liis Courtiers. turers followed him aCTOss the channel, and that they re- ceived good offices and large possessions for their homage and friendship. Meanwhile, there had arisen an English- man from humble bir.th to the first position in England. This was Earl Grodwine. As Eadward was better suited to the monastery than to the throne, Godwine, became 25 412 fUJE MEDIEVAL WOULD. virtual ruler of the kingdom. Though never himself a king he " was the maker, the kinsman, the father of kings." Next to Godwine, his son Harold, was the first man in all England. He already ruled as vassal earl over the East Angles ; and, upon the death of Godwine, he became earl of the West-Saxons, which, as Freeman* says, was "equivalent to investing him with the practical manage- ment of the King and his Kingdom." When Eadward, the last of the line of Cedric, died, Harold was the choice of the people as king ; he had also been named by Ead- ward, upon his death-bed, as his successor; and finally he was the choice of the Witaii (or English council) who alone claimed the right of electing a king. He was crowned 1066. We now have arrived at the Norman conquest. Wil- liam,^ duke of Normandy, claimed the right to succeed Eadward on three grounds— the promise of Eadward, the promise of Harold, and the right as a descendant of Ael- fred through the female line. As to these claims, William had visited Eadward, and may have been at that time promised the succession, but there is no doubt that Harold was the final choice of the dying monarch. As to the second cl«,im, Harold had, upon a time, been shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy, where he was held a prisoner until he had sworn that he would not accept the English crown. The third claim savors so much of the legendary that it is usually pronounced fictitious.' William landed in England ,at the head of a vast army of Norman knights ; and, armed with a papal curse 1 Freeman, Op. cit. p. 236. * Above page 384. 3 The work of some unreliable Chronicler who wished to make all English kings of English birth. On this point Vide "Norman Con- quest," Vol. II.. p. 116. RISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 415 against those who dared support Harold, as well as with the sword, he demanded the crown from Harold. The battle of Hastings followed (October 14th, 1066), in which Harold was killed. William was then crowned King of England. From this time the King of England held posses- sions in France as vassal of the French king, which led to endless wars between the two nations. Norman knights now be- sieged the English court for appointments and possessions. They obtained both, even if a loyal English subject had to be robbed to accommodate them. The policy of the new wniiam the Conqueror. king seemed to be to crush out the English. Norman customs and language were introduced and forced upon the peo- ple, whom the rulers had made little better than slaves. William was now the "Conqueror," and he seemed to have deserved that title in every sense of the word. When William had succeeded in thoroughly subduing England, he returned to Normandy, where he died (1087) from an accidental injury received while urging his soldiers to plunder and burn the city of Mantes, in order to satisfy some old grudge. His second son, William Rufus (the Red), was his successor (1087-1100), although there was much quarreling over the throne among his three sons- Robert, William, and Henry. By the treaty of Winches- ter (1101), Henry, the youngest, became king (1101-1135) to the exclusion of Robert, the oldest.^ Henry could trace 1 Norgate: "England under the Angevin Kings," London, 1887, Vol, I. p. 1-12. 416 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. his lineage back to the goodKingAelfred through his mother, Matilda of Flanders.^ He united himself with Scotland bj marriage with Matilda,daughter of Queen Margaret,^so that his descendants could trace lineage back to Aelfred by two descents.^ Henry's daughter, Matilda, became the wif€ of Burial of William the Conqueror. Emperor Henry V., and, after his death, of Geoffrey, count of Anjou, thus becoming the mother of the Ange- vin, or Plantagenet kings of England. We perceive 1 Lineal descendant of Aelfthiyth, daughter of Aelfred and wife of Count Baldwin. 2 Who was grand daughter of Edward Ironsides." S "Norman Conquest," Vol. II. p. 200. note. i?ZSE OF MODEISN NA TIONS. 417 at once the politic plans that Henry purstted in uniting himself with as many of the contemporary powers as he could. He was no less politic in his government, though most of his plans for reform died away in promises to nobles and subjects. These broken promises, however, had the effect of so arousing the people that future kings were compelled to make many concessions to them. When Henry died, the Witan elected his nephew, Stephen (1135-1154), to the exclusion of his natural son, Robert, earl of Grioucester. The nineteen years of Ste- phen's reign are called a "time of utter anarchy" and a, "time of utter wretchedness, such as we may safely say England never saw before and never saw again. "^ It was a season of strife between Stephen and Matilda about the right of succession of her offspring. At last to settle the matter, Stephen adopted Henry (Plantagenet), son of Matilda, as his son and successor. Henry II. (1154-1189), the first of the Angevin kings, inherited greater possessions than any of his pred- ecessors. He was heir to England, Scotland, Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Aquitaine. Thus, as vassal of the French king, he held greater possessions in France than did that monarch. The next year (1154), he obtained a bull (bulla) from Pope Hadrian IV. giving him permission to conquer and possess Ireland, as prompted by his "ardour of faith and love of religion,"^ though Ireland was the cradle of Wester n-Ghristianity.^ We see, therefore, that England was only a small part of the possessions of her kings. 1 "Norman Conquest," Vol. V. p. 161. 2 Lawler: "Story of Ireland," New York, 1887, p. 81-91. 3 "One hundred and flfty-flve Irish saints are venerated in the churches of Germany ; forty-five in Gaul; thirty in Belgium; thirteen in Italy ; and eight in Scandinavia. For a long time all Christendom looked upon Ireland as the favorite home of religion and wisdom. Justin Mc- Carthy : "An Outline of Irish History," Baltimore, 1883, p. 23, 418 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Henry is remembered as "the law-giver," for during his reign not only many useful and wholesome laws were en- acted but the well known legal system of England took Death of Becket. its shape.-^ His ablest counselor Avas Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury as well as King's Chancellor, "Medieval History," p. 16X, BISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 419 whose murder, by order of Henry, has left an inefifacable blot upon that king's name. The first years of Henry's reign brought peace and order to England; the last years, however, marked a succession of quarrels between Henry, his wife, and his heirs. Richard the Lion Hearted (1189-1199) was a great crusader, joining his forces with Emperor Frederick Bar- barossa and Philip Augustus of France. He spent the most of his time out of his kingdom. John (1199-1216), through his quarrels with Philip of France, lost almost his entire possessions across the channel.^ But to English people the one event, important above all others of John's reign, was the granting of the Magna Charta, which the united barons compelled the king to sign (1215).^ Several of the last kings had been obliged to grant new and greater privileges to their subjects and especially their old English thanes (nobles). The granting of the charter was the culmination of their demands. It assured to Englishmen their most cherished rights, among which were freedom, justice, good government, security of prop- erty, and freedom against unjust taxation. Though the mortification of John was great, and though he swore ter- rible vengeance against his barons, the great charter has lived and gained new strength and greater privileges from succeeding kings. Every king thereafter was made to con- firm it upon receiving the crown ; but nearly all were ready to break it when once firmly seated upon the throne. The Witan about this time began to shape itself into i Vide "England under the Angevin Kings,'' Vol. II. p. 38 et seq 2 The Barons of this age were only the old English thanes under "a new name and a baron's war of the time of Henry III. "meant a war which the people, with native barons in their forefront, waged against a foreign-hearted king" Vide "Norman Conquest," Vol. V. p. 264 and 277. 420 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. the modern Parliament. Its power grew as freedom was granted to the English people. It refused to raise money for the foreign wars of Henry III. (1216-1273). The Commons were then admitted to Parliament. During the reign of Edward I. (1273-1307), the "English Justinian," many' new .laws and re- forms in existing statutes were enacted, not the least among which was a law forhiddiiig the levying of taxes without the consent of Parliament. Wales was annexed to England, but 5^\ the Soots, under Wallace, \ :„ rebellion, rose m open (1297) which was contin- john. Tied under Robert Bruce.' His armies gained a victory over the English at Bannock- burn (1314), and at last captured Berwick (1318). Parliament had now gained sufficient power to depose King Edward II. (1327), for incapacity, for breach of cor- onation oaths, and for loss of Scotland, electing Edward III. to the throne (1327-1357). But the tide of Scottish war did not turn with the coronation of a new king. The independence of Scotland was finally acknowledged with Robert Bruce as king. Henceforth. Scotland was, for some centuries, a separate European power ; though, for a mo- ment, young David Bruce was driven from the throne by John Balliol, at the head of the English barons. We have reached the period of the "hundred years war" between England and France. We have already 1 Greene: "History of the English people," Ne-Si^ York, 1880, Vol. 1. p. 271 etseqj SISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 421 seen^ how suecessftxl England was until the last years of the war. That need not be repeated. But during this time, England was filled with clamors of the barons and the people for greater privileiges and greater personal and political ffeedom. The spirit of religious freedom, too, Jolin Swearing Yengeance against h.is Barons. had awakened. The great Wycliffe (1324-1384) was at the height of his fame. He preached his doctrines and spread his tracts over all England, and laid the foundation for the great Reformation of the next century.^ Then fol- 1 Above p. 387 et seq. 2 Vide This Series Vol, IV. 422 . THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. lowed the popular outbreaks under Wat Tyler, and the bloody scenes that resulted, the promises and broken promises of young Richard II. (1387-1399), the rising of the Lollards (a term applied to Wycliffites) and their per- secution as heretics ; all of which are more or less connec- ted with the religious history of that time, and will be treated in the proper place. With Henry IV. (1399-1413), the house of Lancaster began to reign, Henry Y. (1413-1422) made "himself lord of the two great western kingdoms," England and France, and was closely related to the royal lines of Por- tugal and Castile.^ Henry VI. (1422-1461), however, saw the English ignominiously expelled, from France. There was a strife at this time between the houses of York and Lancaster over the right to the crown of the kingdom. The Yorkists claimed it as descendants of the fifth son of Edward III. while the reigning house was descended, through the fourth son, from the same monarch. The Yorkists wore a White rose as a badge and the Lancasters a red rose, the quarrel has since been called the "wars of the roses." The white rose succeeded in deposing Henry VI.; then three white roses— Edward IV. (1461-1483), Edward V. (1483, three months), and Richard III. (1483- 1485) — wore the crown in succession. The Lancasters again came into power with Henry VII. (1485-1509) ; and forever healed the strife between the two houses by his marriage with Elizabeth, daughtei" of Edward IV. When their son, Henry VIII. (1509-1547), came to the throne, there was none to dispute his title, for he represented both houses.^ This strife seems to have been instrumental in de- 1 Greene, Op. cit. Vol. I. p. 546. 2 Greene, Op. clt. Vol. II. p. 86, BISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 423 stroying feudalism in England by exterminating the no- bility, and it also left the crown with greater powers than it had previously enjoyed.^ Indeed the war seems to have been confined to the nobility, and disturbed the population but little. Commerce was maintained all through this period. Henry VII. was the patron of the Cabots, of whose voyages to America we shall hear again. Litera- ture and education flourished, while printing was intro- duced by John Caxton (1476). Scotland was, during this time, governed by the Stuarts, the ablest of whom was James I., while James IV. became the husband of Henry's daughter, Margaret. This marriage furnished England a line of kings at a later 'date. It would require a volume to record the political his- tory and internal development of the English people du- ring the reign of Henry VIII. ^ One fact we must now observe in English history ; and that is, the king is no longer the only individual that plays a part in the world's drama. Among the most powerful men of that day, was the king's chancellor, Cardinal Wolsey. In fact, his power and fame lacked little of royalty. Able to perform Herculean mental tasks, he gained the favor of his sover- eign, and was allowed to hold the reins of government. As a diplomat, he had no equal. Both King Francis of France and Emperor Charles V. are said to have ac- knowledged the Cardinal's power and courted his favor by bestowing upon him liberal pensions and costly gifts. Henry showered riches upon him, and he became the most powerful subject of the English king. When that cele- brated meeting, known as the " Field of the Cloth of 1 stokes: "Medieval History," p. 172. 2 FWe for this reign Froude : "History of England," London, 1870, Vol. I. Hume: "History of England," Vol, III. 424 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD, Gold " (1519) took place between Henry and Francis, gorgeous was the appearance of Wolsey. Clothed in a, crimson robe, mounted on a mule trapped with gold, he rode beside his king as they entered the " camp of three hundred white tents that surrounded a fairy palace with gilded posterns and brightly colored oriels which rose lite a dream from the barren plain of Gruisnes, its walls hung with tapestry, its roof embossed with roses, its golden fountain spouting wine over the greensward."^ Still when his day arrived, Henry proved how little the powerful Cardinal was in his way, by casting him from his lofty seat and depriving him of life itself. So with all his powerful subjects, the will of the monarch sufficed for their death warrants, and they were often led to the fatal block without the form of a trial. He is said to have ordered seventy-two thousand executions during his reign.''' Nor was Parliament an obstacle to attaining his ends. Instead of fearing the power of that body as former kings had, he made it his tool, and ruled it as he ruled his subjects. So that, when he wished money. Parliament voted a tax to raise it. As Henry could not brook a superior, he finally cast off allegiance to the pope and had himself declared head of the church in England. The arbitrary manners of the king are illus- trated by the treatment of his wives. He was the hus- band of six successive wives, whose sad fates gained for them world-wide sympathy, but for him eternal condem- nation.^ It must be added, however, that Henry VIII. was a great legislator, a scholar, and a patron of literature. 1 Greene, Op. cit. Vol.'II. p. Ui. 2 Patton: "Modern History," p. 130. 3 These were Catharine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catharine Howard, and Catharine Parr. RISE OS" MODEBN NATIONS. 425 During no former reign, did England make sucli advances in all departments. She ceased to be a secondary power and took her place in the front ranks of the great nations of the age^England, the Empire, Spain, and France. Oxford had gained a world wide reputation for the learn- ing and the independence of the masters who taught there. John Colet, Dean of St. Pauls and founder of St. Pauls school,^ trained up a class of scholars who were not afraid to think, talk, and write upon all political and religious subjects. Even the king was not spared in their criticisms; but, with wit and irony, they held his ac- tions up before the world and tried to prove that kings were only men. Among these free and earnest reform- ers, Erasmus and Sir Thomas More stand foremost. Henry, himself was a patron «f this "New Learn- Eraemus. ing," as it had been called. His was by no means an inferior mind. But to a powerful, well proportioned, well trained physical frame, was added a superior intellect and a po\s5etful will, Erasmus had been his teacher ; and, in wit And learning, he appeared at no mean advantage among the most illustrious scholars who thronged his 1 Vide Lecture by Eev. Ronald Bayne in "God's Englishmen," LfHidon, 1867, p. 106. 426 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. court and his universities. As we have intimated, his will was a strong and overbearing one. Though his sub- jects might boldly write and talk, their doom was sealed if they dared to cross their king's will. Even Wolsey's successor, the bold and polished Sir Thomas More, was led away to the block, because he would not sacrifice his religious freedom to the caprice of his stern sovereign. In this chapter, we have attempted to give a short out- line of the gradual formation of the Modern Nations of Eu- rope out of the crumbling ruins of the great empire of Rome. Even though extending over many centuries, like all formative periods in the world's history, it was a time of confusion and shifting of power. Let us attempt to keep in mind the main points brought out. Looked at broadly, it is the period of the gradual emergence into the full blaze of history and into the light of modern culture of the Teu- tonic people of Europe. Of necessity, only the main de- tails of this outline could be given. The development and growth of culture during this period of time require a separate chapter for a full treatment. With this chapter, we bring too a conclusion the his- torical part of this volume. Before turning to study" the culture of the Classical and Medieval periods, let us sum- marize this sketch of Aryan history. Although we have every reason to conclude that the Aryans (whether immi- grants or not) were in Europe at extremely early times, yet their history is, comparatively speaking, modern. We are to regard the Aryans of Asia as emigrants from Europe, who wandered so far toward the rising sun that their route home became cut off by returning waves of Turanian people. In their new homes, their native energy for centuries blazed forth, a light to surrounding people; but as far as the main history and culture of the Aryan RISE OF MODEMN JSTA TIONS. 4:'2i'l people are concerned, tlie Aryans of Asia are not of great importance. Turning to Europe, the development of her history- is that of a cymiferous flower, the terminal blossoms are the first to unfold. Pushing away from the Baltic home- land, the people of Greece and then of Rome caught the sunlight of Oriental culture and unfolded in the light of the same. And then other blossoms, successively nearer and nearer the base, unfolded in turn until, finally, we have before us the full flowered plant of European history. In this hurried review, we have tried to outline the history of Aryan people from a prehistoric past to the final appearance of the Modern Nations of to-day. Let us now turn to consider their development in culture. We will then see more clearly than ever that Aryan civiliza- tion and history are the civilization and history of the Medieval and Modern worlds ; the Semitic and Tura- nian history and culture belonging to the Ancient period of history. Part II. History of ttie IntellecttJ.a.1 Development of th.e Aryan People. I. { Greek Civilization. II. Roman Civilization. III. Medieval Civilization. IV. Aryan Religion. 429 26 "Those conspicuous circumstances, to which the prog, ress of civilization is commonly ascribed . . . far from being the cause of civilization, are at best only its effects .... although religion, literature, and legislation do, undoubt- edly, modify the condition of mankind, they are still more modified by it They are themselves the .product of pre- ceding changes, and their results will vary according to the variations of the sodiety on which they work." Buckle. "Civilization may be looked upon as the general im provement of mankind by higher organization of the individual and society, to the end of promoting at once man's goodness, power, and happiness." Tylek. 430 GtlEEK CiVILIZATiOlf. 433 GRKEK CIVILIZATION. Inteoduction — Importance of Grecian Culture— Factors of Grecian Culture— Influence of Tribal Society — City Life— Family Life in An- cient Greece — In Classical Greece — Condition of Women at Athens — In Sparta — Explanation of the Same — Daily Life of an Athenian— The Value of Athenian Citizenship — Consequences of the Condition of Women in Athens — Education in Athens— Theatres of Athens- Greek Games — Greek Public Meals- -Music and Dancing — Public OflBcial Life — The Ecclesia— The Court of Areopagus — The Senate — Gre'ek Philosophy — Thales — The Pythagoreans — Xenophanes — Par- menides — Heraclitus — Empedocles — Democritus — The Skeptics Sophists — Socrates — Plato — Aristotle — The Epicureans — The Stoics — Grecian Science — Astronomy — Mathematics — Greek Art — Temple Architecture — Painting — Phidias ARE now ready to study Aryan civiliza' tion. The great importance of this will be apparent when we reflect, that the civilization of the world to-day is Aryan. Let us, therefore, strive to learn what we can of the growth and development of Aryan culture. We have before Remarked, that the peculiarity of Aryan culture is not that the Aryan people, for the first' time, discovered and applied the various factors which make up their culture, but that they adopted, applied to new uses, and developed the ideas that had long been extant in the world. On the whole, though Aryan culture has flowed on in an ever widening and deepening stream, yet we may con- veniently consider it under three great divisions, periods, 434' THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. or epociis. In this connection, we will not consider the Aryans in Asia, For the latter are but exotics, and their culture is not a fair test of Aryan culture. The first Aryan people to come in contact with Oriental culture, to seize on it, make it peculiarly their own, and develop it to an extent before unthought of, were the Hellenic peo- ple of Asia Minor and Grreece. Here we find the first stage of Aryan development. When, in the course of time, the inevitable hour came that the jDower and influ- ence of Greece declined, we detect the dawning greatness of Rome, that country that for many centuries was to rule the world. In Rome, accordingly, we find a second stage of development. In the case of Grreece, the culture was confined to a very limited area. Rome ruled a much greater country; but the centuries sped by, and, at last, Teutonic Europe, spurred on by Aryan destiny, demanded a share in the culture of their more favored southern kinsmen. Accord- ingly, when their armies brought down in ruins the Ro- man Empire, and their people commenced to absorb the culture of Classical times, we enter on a third period in the intellectual development of modern Europe. Under these three divisions, then, we will study the culture of the Aryans. It is needless to dilate on Grecian culture. The most casual reader knows of its importance, and understands somewhat of the great influence it exerted in the culture history of the Aryans. Greek art has always been, and always will be, considered the purest and most perfect approximation to the ideal. Even the poor remnants oi their architecture and sculpture, which we admire in the museums of Europe, and in some places of Greece, Sicily and Asia Minor, even these dilapidated fragments of the GREEK CIVILIZATION. 435 original works fill us with awe, with wonderment, with unbounded admiration. The pottery works found in Grecian tombs exhibit the most exquisite designs, the most delicate use of colors, and the most delightful orna- mental forms. All these objects breathe the very spirit of liigh art ; and the severest critics of modern times are unable to find fault with the gorgeous, and yet chaste, or- ders of Grecian columns, or with their representations of male and female beauty. It is the same in Literature. The dramas of Sopho- cles or Euripides, the odes of Pindar, and the comedies of Aristophones haA'^e survived the varying tastes and fas- tidious criticism of over sixty generations, and they still shine forth in unfaded brilliancy and poetic splendor. In Philosophy, with the exception of the founders of new re- ligions, no other individuals can compare with Grecian philosophers in point of influence on the thoughts and opinions of mankind. It has well been said, that every man is either a born Plato nist or a born Aristotelian; meaningthereby, that men are naturally divided into two classes of mental caste, of peculiar turn of mind — into such as would lean toward Aristotle and his way of think- ing, and into such as would feel inclined to follow the foot- steps of Plato. Let us first inquire into the cause of Grecian culture. What was it which enabled this people, inhabiting a very limited area of country, to achieve so great conquests in the culture history of the world? Many scholars have attempted to answer this query. Some have thought that their geographical location explained all. As is pointed out in a previous volume,^ "the culture of a people is greatly influenced by their surroundings, The 1 Vol. I. p. 765. 436 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. very appearance of a country, whether it is mountainous or plain, sea-girt or inland, influences the character of a people." Buckle^ shows how much the culture of a peo- ple depends on climate, food, and physical surroundings. Von Humboldt and Ritter have pointed out the strange relation between the length of a country's coast line and the intelligence of its inhabitants. Others, again, seek to explain everything strange in the culture of the Grreeks and other people by referring to inborn race qualities. We need not discuss these various opinions; but let us, in the case of Greece, point out a potent factor. In our search, we must not loose sight of the results obtained in a former chapter.^ It has been abundantly shown that the organization of a people for social and governmental purposes exerts a wonderful influence on their culture. Since society in ancient Grreece was tribal society, we know that when we talk about a "state," we mean something altogether different from a political "state" of the present day. Long before the dawn of authenic history, owing to their limited expanse of terri- tory, their tribal head-quarters had expanded into cities, and finally the tribe lost itself in the city. City and tribe became exchangeable terms. Hence we understand why, in ancient Grreece, "city" and "state" were identical and co-extensive terms. This one point is of such importance for the whole of Greek civilization that it must not be lost sight of. In fact it is the main point.' It shows at once a vast difference between modern and ancient times. In Greece (as well as in the Roman empire), people did not know of any other dwelling place than a city. Every- 1 "History of Civilization," Vol. I. chapter ii. 2 This Series, Vol. II. chapter ii. 3 This important point in Grecian culture has been elaborated in a recent work by Kuhn. GREEK CIVILIZATION. 437 body belonged to a city, because city and tribe, or confed- eracy, were co-extensive. In the "Politics" of Aristotle, the great work on Grreek state-institutions, we read of ''^**i«*i:^5^^gaBS»" Grove of Altis. nothing else but of cities. This statement does not, how- ever, exclude the existence of little settlements outside the 438 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. precincts of cities. We know the names of a number of such settlements in Attica, in Argolis, in Messene, etc. But these little "villages" (as we would callthem)^ had no existence of their own. They were incorporated into the city (of Athens, of Corinth, of Argos, etc.) as wards of the city, and they were administered by boards of commission- ers whose head-quarters were invariably in the city. The experience of all ages has proved the powerful influence of city-life on all descriptions of menta,! activity. The inhabitants of cities are continually subject to the stirring, suggestive, animating atmosphere of a higher developed life. They see more, they undertake and risk more, they experience more than country-people. All the energies of their souls are called forth, and almost daily, by an unceasing array of grave and less serious affairs, by meetings of all kind, by street occurrences, by shows, by business transactions, etc. It is, accordingly, a mere matter of course, that the inhabitants of cities develop more rapidly than those of country-places, villages, or hamlets. Their intellect, being taxed to its utmost capacity, responds by a more comprehensive and profound activity. Nothing can illustrate this remark more vividly than a comparison of Grreek civilization with medieval culture. In the Middle Ages, at least in the first half of the Medieval period, there were but very few cities in North- ern and Central Europe. In England, in the northern part of France (the southern part was an old province of Rome), in Germany (northeastern part), in Austria only a few small cities were to be found.^ The bulk of the people 1 In many cases these "villages" were tribal head-quarters of subject tribes, or of tribes whose union made the confederacy whose headquar- ters were the city. 2 Because in these countries, the land had become the basis of divi- gion [See Vol. II. p. 164]. GREEK CIVILIZATION. 439 lived in the country in "marks," as they were called in Grermany, in "shires,"^ as they termed them in England. The cities of Europe-, at that time, were mostly in the south- .ern part of the continent; that is to say, in the very parts where the wisdom and energy of the Romans had erected numerous bulwarks against.the inroads of the barbarians. This being the state of affairs in the Middle Ages, we need not be astonished to hear, that the people of those times Siege Machine. display a very slow development of intelligence and en- lightenment, that superstitious beliefs were rife amongst them, and that, in all higher walks of literature and art, they were sadly deficient. Here then we come upon one important factor in the culture of Gr eece. Owing to their contracted area, the 1 These had taken the place of tribes of the older period. Ibid. d. 173. *^ ^ 440 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. land did not become with them the basis of society at the expense of kinship. Hence their tribal headquarters grew into cities and their culture became intense, the social con- tact of mind with mind spurred them on to ever greater flights. Now let us turn to study some of the peculiarities of every day life in Greece. In reading the Homeric poems, we gain a clear and highly gratifying picture of the consti- tution of old Greek tribal life (1200-1000 b. c). The father is the head of the joint-family, which had become, by that time, the unit of society. The house-father was not an irresponsible despot. The house-mother seems to have lived on terms of equality with him. The people lived in single mansions, although cities are mentioned.^ In the political life described by the Homeric poems, the tribal chief, basileus or king, rules, and his oflBce generally passes by inheritence, though the gentes exercised the' right of election if necessary. But he is not, like an eastern monarch, even practically despotic ; he is bound, first, by "themistes," viz., the traditional customs of the people; he must consult the "boule," the tribal council; and lastly, his proposals require to be ratified by the "agora," or popular assembly. Many of the pictures of manners, especially in the Odyssey, have the refinement of a noble simplicity in thought and feeling and of genuine courtesy which is peculiarly Hellenic. The useful arts are still in an early stage. The use of the principal met- als is known, but not, aj^parently, the art of smelting or soldering them. Money is not mentioned, oxen being the usual measure of value ; and there is no certain allusion to the art of writing. The main occupation of the people was agriculture and war. This picture, however, differs from historical Greece, 1 Argos, Troja, etc. GREEK CIVILIZATION. 441 that is to say from G-reece as it developed from the ninth century b. c. to the time of the Roman conquest. Mo- nogamy, it is true, was kept up as formerly. But in the position of women, a radical change took place, a change the explanation of which requires a thorough understanding of the whole frame of Grrecian culture. In general, we seldom hear of anything else than the deeds and exploits of men. Battles, sieges, truces, adventures of all sorts are told, and all and each of them bespeak the audacity, the adroitness, the failures, or successes of men. We con- stantly hear of their state of affairs, of the way they governed and were being governed, of their assemblies and war-councils; of the state of women, however, we hear but little. They usually sink back into the insignifi- cance of their households, and are not considered worth mentioning. But such is not the method and duty of a real His- tory of Civilization. It is a fact of all experience, that women exercise a vast although silent, and, as it were latent, influence over the destinies of men. To ig- nore such influence in the study of nations is equiv- alent to ignoring one of the most powerful factors in the development of culture.^ Hence we have first to dwell upon the condition of women in historic Grreece. Now in modern times, the social condition of women is pretty much the same all over the Christian world. No- body thinks of curtailing their natural rights as free-born women ; they obtain the same rank and positions that their husbands hold; they can move freely; they can join their fathers or brothers at public shows or other locali- ties; they can have free intercourse with male and female 1 Buckle writes a very elaborate chapter, showing the influence of women on civilization. 442 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. persons; they can dress as they please, etc., etc. In one word, a modern " lady " of South or North America does not essentially differ from a "lady" in Spain or Germany. As to personal demeanor, as well as to social standing, they occupy an almost identical position. Types of Greek Women. This, however, was not the case in ancient Grreece. The position, the social standing of a women in Athens was totally different from that of a woman in Sparta, although only a few miles intervened between the two. Athenian women lived in upstairs-rooms, so that their husbands would know when they left their apartments. They were obliged to stay at home in the midst of their servants. GRBEK CiyXLJZATtON. 443 They were not permitted to go to theaters or other public shows, unless some very serious tragedy was given. From the social gatherings of their husbands, from the so-called symposia (which are so charmingly described in Plato's works), they were excluded; and even at family suppers, they had to sit apart. When in the streets, they were con- stantly attended by slaves, and nobody dared to address them, nor were they allowed to approach anybody.^ The choice of a wife among the Athenians was rarely grounded upon affection, and taking into consideration the secluded existence of an Athenian maid, could have been but seldom the result of previous acquaintance or famil- iarity. In many cases, a father chose for his son a bride Avhom the latter had never seen, or compelled him to mar- ry for the sake of checking his extravagance. Nor was the consent of a female to a match proposed for her gener- ally thought necessary ; she was obliged to submit to the wishes of her parents, and receive from them her husband and lord, even though he were a stranger to her. Sophocles, the greatest of all Grreek drama writers, thus describes the lot of woman in this respect. "When we are grown up (he makes a female say), we are driven from our parents and paternal gods." So also in Euripides, Hermione,^ a representative Greek woman, declares that it is her father's business to provide a husband for her.^ And, for fear the father might not be strict enough, there were magistrates in Athens, the gynae- 1 See "Athenaeus," Lib. vii, and Aristotle in the fourth book of his "Politics." In the Excursus "On Women," in Becker's admirable ''Charicles," many instances will be found of the rigid measures adop- ted as to exclusion of women in Greece. *s Andromache, 951. '3 But match-making among the ancients was not, in default of legal regulations, entirely left to the care and forethought of parents, for we read of women who made propositions of marriage. Pollux, iii. 31. 444 THE MEDIEVAL WOitLti. conomi, who superintended the conduct of women.^ They, most probably, were instituted by Solon, whose regulations concerning the female sex certainly rendered some special officers necessary for their enforcement. In their official capacity, they had to see that the regulations concerning the conduct of Athenian women were observed, and to pun- ish any transgressions of them. Athenian women were always minors, subject to some Home Life of Greek Women. male — ^to their father, to their husband, to their brother, or to some of their male kin. Here we see the working of the joint-family in tribal society.^ The woman were always members of some joint-family, and so under the rule of some house-father. Marriage simply transferred them to some 1 Pollux, viii. 12. Plutarch, Solon, 21. 2 This Series, Vol. II. p. 216, GREEK CIVILIZATION. 445 new joint-family.^ Aristotle always classes women and children together.^ An unfaithful woman was practically expelled from society and excommunicated. If she ap- peared in a temple, and even in those temples which for- eign women and slaves were allowed to enter, any one might treat her as he pleased, providing he did not kill or mutilate her.^ It is in accordance with the spirit of this treatment of Athenian women that Athens did not allow her citizens to marry with foreign women, nor conversely.* This peculiar and unworthy position of women in Athens found its counterpart in Sparta, in the Laconian state. Women in Sparta were much less restricted in their personal freedom. They were not only permitted to join the social gatherings of men, and to appear alone in public, but. they were simply obliged to partake in the athletic exercises of the stronger sex, proving their phys- ical valor by wrestling and boxing matches.^ Accordingly their flesh became developed to the statuesque beauty of marble figures; and, on their occasional visits to Athens or other cities, they roused the envious wonderment of their lady hosts. When married, they were expected to have children ; and this main and principal object had to be obtained by any means. An old husband had to be supplanted by a young lover, with both the consent of public opinion and the approval of the state.* In Sparta, the state, the conservation of those old, time-hallowed institutions, was the first and last consid- 1 Vide Hearne: "Aryan Household." 2 Aristotle, 4th book of Politics. 3 Demosthenes adv. Near. ch. 22. Aeschines adv. Tim. ch. 36. 4 Demosthenes adv. Near. p. 1350. 8 Plato, Leg. vii. 6 Limburg-Brower: "Historie de la Civil Morale et R. des Grees," IV. 165. 446 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. eration. It is a well-known fact, that in Sparta ©very newly -born baby had to be submitted to a jury of com- missioners, who passed an ultimate decision on the vitality of the child. In cases of an unfavorable decision, the baby was simply flung into the abyss of the Taygetus.^ The State had no use for weak, fragile citizens. For the meditative mind, these facts are highly sug- gestive. Why did women enjoy a liberty in Sparta that was absolutely with- held from them in Athens? Can such broad facts be as- cribed to mere accidental Discus Thrower. causes, to the mere whim of legislators ? On the contrary, the general and determining facts of history, or, in other words, the institutions of na- tions do not, and never did, depend on accidental, whim- sical freaks of this or that prominent man or men. They invariably depend on some broad, general cause, the work- ing of which can not be tampered with by the inter- ference of single individuals. Often all, or the majority, of Athenian and Spar- tan institutions are attributed to the wisdom and legisla- tive prudence of Solon and Lycurgus respectively. And no doubt, these two eminent men enacted a few very wholesome laws, and administered their states with great insight into the character and tendencies of the people. But far from being the sole originators of all Athenian or 1 Plutarch, Lycurgus. OREEK CIVILIZATION. 447 Spartan institutions, they found these institutions already in existence and did nothing else but simply sanction tiiem. The institutions of a nation can not be created by municipal ordinances or by state-laws. The real root of the peculiar standing of the women of Athens and Sparta lies outside the scope of individual lawgivers. The real source will be found in the rights and duties of citizenship in these two states, a-nd the care taken to preserve purity of blood. Let us then inquire into the rights and duties of Athenian citizenship. As we would expect, being in the advanced stage of tribal society, the city-states in Greece were thoroughly democratical states ; that is to say, each citizen was called upon to take an active part in the administration of the state. But this, in itself, was not suflEi- cient. Citizens may take part in the administration of their state by exercising the right of suffrage only. They elect boards of indi- vidual officials and entrust them with the administration of affairs, < occasionally controlling them by some other board. This, in gen- Soion. eral, is the American system. In Greece, however, the affairs of the state were carried on, not by a few boards of offcials, but by the people themselves. The whole people, as such, took part in the government. There were several thousand judges (dikastes), several hundred councilmen, priests, civil and naval officers — and these thousands of offices were occupied by nearly every single citizen in turn. We will form a more adequate idea of Greek civili- zation by representing to ourselves the daily life of an 27 448 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Athenian citizen. The average citizen of Athens spent his day mostly out of his house. His material cares were reduced to a very low measure. The warm, bracing climate of his country did not require much substantial food or much or costly clothing, and his private income was considerably enhanced by the fees and compensations received at the hands of the state. Athenian citizenship was an ample source of all kinds of- small revenues. In visiting the public theaters, the poorer citizens, instead of paying their entrance-fee, were, on the contrary, the re- cipients of a small remuneration.^ In a lawsuit at Athens, the jury did not consist of twelve good men and true, but generally of several hundred,® and consequently every single citizen had frequent chances to act and to be paid as a juror. Besides there were numerous festivities' of a public character, and at the expense of the state, at which every citizen could indulge in all kind of merry-making, feasting, and frolic. In addition to all these great attractions, all public halls and thoroughfares, arcades and "academies" were swarming with all sorts of orators, philosophers, "sophists," and politicians, who were continually harangu- ing the people, and a great number of whom were model representatives of their art or profession: like Pericles, the unique statesman ; Isocrates and Demosthenes, the un- rivaled orators; Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Antisthenes, Theophrastus, the philosophers ; etc. Very few Athenians were so poor as to be without a slave, who was considered his legal property and who, in fact, did all the business, all the work and drudgery in his stead. Finally the nu- 1 Bockhs: "Publ. Econ of Athens," p. 219, 226. 2 Maer and Schoemann: "Altisches Prozess," p. 125. 3 The Dionysia, the Delphinia, the Eleusinia, etc., etc. These will %e treated later. GREEK CIVILIZA TION. 449 tnerous wars of the Athenian Commonweal th were a fruit- ful source of revenue for the state as well as for the in- dividual citizen. If we now combine these features into one whole, we will readily see that a citizen in Athens did not possess any more precious good or booh than his citizenship. It was not only an honor, a high standing, as in modern states ; but it was an almost sure guarantee of a safe liv- ing. Hence it is but a matte"r of course, that the Athe- ^. \ m^ Sill! rV:!b*^--X..^:^- Graves at Cyrene. nians looked upon their citizenship as upon a treasure, the great value of which would be greatly impaired by a lav- ish distribution of the same. They established, therefore, very strict and rigid laws as to the capacity of foreigners to become citizens of Athens ; and, as a matter of fact, this honor was conferred on but very few outsiders. Even a born Athenian had to undergo a great variety of inquiries into his descent, parentage, etc., before being admitted into the rank of the full citizen. The candidate, on whom the citizenship was to be conferred, was proposed 450 THI! MEDIEVAL WOULD. in two successive assemblies ; at the second of which at least six thousand citizens voted for him by ballot. Even if he succeeded, his admission, like every other decree, was liable, during a whole year, to an indictment for pro- pounding an illegal nieasure, in other words, it was liable to the question of its constitutionality. He was then regis- tered in the gens and phratry to which he belonged. We have pointed out how the phratry, as one of the divisions of tribal society, early tends 'to disappear.* In Grreece, the phratries survived, indeed, but simply to preserve a record of the descent of the citizens. Aristotle says'^ that for prac- tical purposes it was sufficient to define a citizen as the son or grandson of a citizen, and the register of the phra- try was kept chiefly as a record of the citizenship of the parents. If any man's claim were disputed, this register was at hand, and gave an answer to all doubts about the rights of his parents or his own identity. Every newly married woman, herself a citizen, was enrolled in the phratry of her husband, and every infant registered in the phratry of its father. All who were thus registered must have been born in lawful wedlock, of par- ents who were themselves citizens ; indeed, so far was this carried, that the omission of any of the requisite formali- ties in the marriage of the jDarents, if it did not wholly take away the right of citizenship, might place the offspring ■ under serious disabilities.* If we now compare the mode of acquiring the citizenship of Athens with modern meas- ures with regard to the same object, 'Ve can feca?8^§TfTtil to see the great stress laid upon purity and legitimacy of de- scent. This again is a mere outcome of the pure and legiti- 1 This Serieis, Vol. I. p. 782; Vol. II. p. 148, 173. 2 Aristotle, Pol. iii. 2. 3 Plutarch, Pericles, chapter 37. GBEEK CIVILIZATION. 451 mate conduct of women. If the slightest doubt can be thrown on the purity of a woman's life, the purity of citi- zenship is also at stake. And, consequently, it was nothing but self evident, that the Athenians, in order to preserve their most precious attribute free from all stains, took re- course to the severe measure of keeping their women in the state of perfect prisoners. In doing so, they did not show much confidence in the natural bent of women towards Wedding March. a virtuous life; they preferred a sure lock to all specious promises. We have so far succeeded in accounting for the pecul- iar state of women in Athens. But what as to Sparta ? How shall we explain the freer state of women in Sparta ? Did not the Spartans estimate their citizenship as highly as the Athenians ? Did not it confer upon them similar emoluments and privileges ? Most certainly. Why then. 452 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. did they not think of debarring their women from all inter- course with the outward world? To this there is a very- simple and satisfactory answer. Of all the Dorian people, the Spartans kept themselves the longest unmixed with foreign blood. So jealous were they to maintain their ex- clusive privileges, that they had only admitted two men into their body before the time of the historian Herodotus, (the fifth century B. c.)\ There being no strangers in the state, they did not dread the admixture of foreign blood, entertaining, as we remarked above, rather latitudinarian views about matrimonial exclusiveness. In addition to this, there was another cause at work in Sparta, which illustrates the peculiar bent of the Spartan mind. The constitution of the Spartan state displayed a decided aversion to foreign immigrants ; and, in order to hjld out as few attractions as possible, they instituted the use of a money, that had no intrinsic value whatever. Thus, their money consisted of huge iron discs, and no gold or silver was admitted into the country. The iron discs, while red hot, were dipped in vinegar to render them unmalleable and useless for any other purpose than money. Of a consequence, tliis kind of money was no allurement to the trading people of other communities. Market for the same was restricted to the community of the Spartans. Hence Sparta, not being pestered with the dangerous in- fluence of foreigners, who helped to swell the population of Athens to hundreds of thousands of people, could easily dispense with rigorous measures with regard to the private conduct of women. 1 Herodotus i. 33-35. Afterwards their numbers were occasionally re- cj-uited by the admission of Laconians, Helots, and foreigners, but this was done very sparingly prior to the time of Agis and Cleomenes, who created lar^e numbers of citizens. • r - «.'*_. 11 ■■ Si ■ij-'" I ' /' ^':^*^^ GREEK FESTIVAL. 153 QBEEK CIVILIZATION. 455 We have now gained an insight into the state of women of Athens and Sparta, and likewise into the causes of the same. Our information about women in other Gre- cian communities is rather scanty. But by what we occa- sionally read in the historians and dramatists of Grreece, we may fairly infer, that the cities of Asia Minor, Sicily, Thessaly, Macedonia, and of other Greek settlements fol- lowed the example either of Athens or of Sparta. This peculiar position of women in Greece, more especially in the cities where women were treated after the Athenian pattern, did not fail to produce national features equally peculiar and important for the historian. We mean the strange love of men for men and the "Hetairae". The eternal yearning of men for deeper emotions like love and sympathy could not be gratified by a system which regarded women as a means for maintaining the purity of citizenship rather than the sweet and consoling compan- ions of life. As a mere consequence, men became alien- ated from their wives; and the tender relation between the two sexes was exchanged for the stern duties of guard and prisoner. But the emotions, which men were unable to find and to indulge in at their homes, were sought for in other direc- tions. Thus arose a closer intimacy between men and men than would else be explicable. Men attached themselves to their male friends with all the unalloyed force of their soul, and sought to make up for the joys of wedlock by delighting in the charms of friendship. We read of famous friends, like Epaminondas and Pelopidas, Harmodius and Aristogiton, Damon and Pythias, etc., who, to the present, serve as the model archetypes of elevated friendship. The -celebrated three hundred Theban youths were all closely united by the bonds of unswerving friendships and, as 456 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. a rule, we hear more frequently of the friendship than oi the love of a G-recian. Friendship, however, is not able to quench the pas- sionate longing for more vehement feelings, which is so nat- ural to humanity. And hence the G-recians, with their keen sense of beauty and their highly susceptible minds, Music and Dance. turned to more gratifying sources of pleasure. It is no wonder that these sources were represented by females and these females are called "■ Hetairae''\ They were free, emancipated women, who lived by their physical and men- tal charms. There were several classes of these women. The lowest were much like their equivalent class of to day, they lived in public houses {pemeia), state-institutions, GREEK CIVILIZATION. 457 which were first established by Solon.' Then comes the numerous class of freed-women, comprehending the flute- player, cithera-player, etc., who were hired to assist at the domestic sacrifices. Many in this class were probably distinguished for wit and vivacity. But those remai-kablc personages, who by their intellect and power of fascination, rather than by their beauty, exerted such an extensive sway over their age, and who, by the position in which they stood to the greatest men of the day, have secured an his- toric celebrity, were sprung from a different order. For Aspasia and the Corinthian Lais, as well as Phryne and Pythionice were aliens, and Lamia was the daugter of a free Athenian citizen. Almost every famous man of Greece had one of these lady-companions with whom he discussed the pursuits and soothed the evils of life. Thus we read of Plato and Archaenassa, Aristotle and Herpyllis, Epicurus and Leontion, Isocrates and Metaneira, Menander and Glycera. The beauty of some, especially of Phryne, said to have been the most beautiful women that ever lived, attracted the eyes of all Greece ; Apelles pain- ted her j)icture, and Praxiteles made her the model for the Cidian Aphrodite, the loveliest representation of woman- hood that ever the sculptor's chisel produced. Some were renowned for their musical faculty, some were celebrated painters. Socrates, the wisest of men, did not hesitate to say that he considered Aspasia his teacher. It was not to be expected that all women would ac- quiesce in the general view of their rights and duties. Some of the woipen in Greece were aware of their unwor- thy social standing; and, in the seventh century, a move- ment began with a view to a reformation, or an emancipa- tion of women. The center of this movement was the great 1 Athenaeus, xiii. p. 569. 458 TSE MEDIEVAL WOULD. poetess Sappho. She was the only women in all antiquity whose productions, by universal consent, placed her on the same level as the greatest poets of the other sex. Solon, on hearing one of her songs sung at a banquet, got the singer to teach it to him immediately, saying that he wished to learn it and die. Herodotus, the historian, Plato, and Aristotle refer to her in terms of profound respect. Plato called her the tenth muse. Sappho determined to do all she could in order to ele- vate her sex. The one method of culture open to women at that time was poetry; and, accordingly, Sappho establish- ed a school of Greek jjoetesses, the most celebrated of her disciples being Erinna. But this, as well as similar other efforts to raise GTreek women from the stagnancy of their lives, failed entirely of its object. Their condition being a growth and natural product of deep-rooted institutions, it could not be altered or modified by the spasmodic efforts of a few individuals. Great changes are never the result of measures taken by isolated indiAdduals, whom the near- sighted opinion of the public are pleased to call "heroes". Great national changes are brought about by new institu- tions or by the decay of old ones. When we think of the great influence of political in- stitutions in Greece, we are surprised at the lack of public schools. Very few people could do without a knowledge of reading and writing, but still they never had a system • of public schools. The state never thought of erecting public institutions of that kind to be maintained at the general expense. The sort of an education that children received depended mainly on the parents' own conscien- tiousness. Some got none at all.'^ This however was not usual; and so necessary a thing did school-going seem, that 1 The SausETge seHer, for instance. Aristophanes, Equities, 1294. GREEK CIVILIZATION. 4:9 when the women and children of Athens fled to Troezen. at the time of the Persian invasion, the inhabitants, besides supporting them, paid persons to teach the children.^ The selection of a teacher rested entirely with the pa- rents. The tutors were, in some degree under the surveil- lance of the state, though this latter exercised, little supervis- Entrance to a Graek Garden. ion over the qualifications of the tutors or their methods of -^--;^'c- teaching. It is thought that the only requirement was one as to age.^ Instruction was in three branches ; grammar, music, gymnastics "Grrammar" was 1 Plutarch, Themistocles, 10. See also Aelian Var. History vii. 15. Where we read that the Mytelenaeans, when masters of the sea. pun- ished their revolting allies by not allowing their children to be taught, ddeming this the severest penalty they could inflict. s In our account of Greek customs, etc., we ha.ve freely drawn from Becker's "Charicles." 460 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. the most indispensible part of instruction. It comprehen- ded reading, writing, and arithmetic. 'When the children could read and understand what they read, the works of the poets were put in requisition, to exercise their minds, and awaken their hearts to great and noble deeds. The study of music began somewhat later, according to Plato with the thirteenth year.^ ■ The Grreeks knew nothing of a two-months' or four-months' summer vacation for the school-children. Attendance at school was continued till the pupils reached riper years in the G-reek sense, which would generally be at the age of sixteen. The more advanced instruction was imparted by teachers of a higher order, the Rhetoricians and Sophists, whose charges only the rich could defray. But this did not prevent the lovers of knowledge from jiurchasing their instruction even at the greatest sacrifices. Thus Clean- thes, Menedemus, and Asclepiades worked by night in gardens and mills, in order to be able to attend by day the classes of the philosophers. With the Spartans, how- ever, mental culture was a secondary consideration, and Aristotle^ .justly upbraids them for bringing up their off- spring like animals. We nowhere hear anything of edu- cational institutions for girls, and indeed, they would have been incompatible with the universal training of the female sex. The lack of public state schools will more easily be understood if we consider the innumerable occa- sions for instruction of all kind afforded by the publicity of all proceedings in statesmanship, science, and art. To listen to the great orators of the -court-hall, of the assem- bly, or of the philosophical "academy" was an ample resource of useful information. But perhaps the most fruitful source of general instruction was afforded by the 1 Leg. vii, 2 Polit. viii. 4. GREEK CIVILIZATION. 461 magnificent theaters and their tragedies and comedies, which comprised all that is great, profound, and suggestive. Here, as well as in other cases, our main information refers to Ath,ens, but we can the more readily acquiesce in it since the other cities of Grreece arranged their theatric- als according to the Athenian standard. The Athenians, before the time of the great tragedian, Aeschylus, 525-456 B. c, had only wooden scaffolding on which their dramas were performed. Such a wooden theater was erected only for the Dionysiac festivals, and was afterward pulled down. The first drama that Aeschylus brought upon the stage was performed upon such a wooden scaffold, and it is recorded as a singular and ominous coincidence that on that occasion-^ the scaffolding broke down. To prevent the recurrence of such an accident, the building of a stone theater was forthwith commenced on the southeastern descent of the Acropolis ; for it should be observed, that, throughout Greece, theaters were always built upCn emi- nences, or on the sloping sides of hills. The Attic theater was, like all Greek theaters, placed in such a manner that the place for the spectators formed the upper or northwestern, and the stage, with all that belonged to it, the southeastern part, and between these two parts lay the orchestra. The seats for the spec- tators, which were in most cases cut into the rock, con- sisted of rows of benches rising one above another ; the rows themselves formed parts (nearly three-fourths) of concentric circles, and were at intervals divided into com- partments by one or more broad passages running between them and parallel with the benches. The entrance to the seats of the spectators was partly underground, and led to the lowest row of benches. 1 500 B. C. 462 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. The orchestra was a circular, level space, extending in front of the spectators and somewhat below the lowest row of benches. But it was not a perfect circle, one seg- ment of it being appropriated to the stage. ,The orches- tra was the place for the chorus, where it performed its evolutions and dances, for which purpose the orchestra was covered with boards. As the chorus was the element out of which the drama arose, so the orchestra was origi- nally the most important part of a theater. It lay under the open sky. Steps led from each side of the orchestra to the stage. The ma- chines in the Greek theatres were ex- tremely numerous, but we are in many cases unable to form an exact idea of their nature and Entrance to a Qreek Theatre. their effects. Theatrical representations at Athens began early in the morning, or after breakfast, and when the concourse of people was expected to be great, persons would even go to occupy their seats in the night. When the weather was fine, especially at the Dyonisiac festivals in spring, the people appeared with garlands on their heads. As it was not unusual for the theatrical performances to last from ten to twelve hours, the spectators required refresh- ments, and they used to take wine and cakes. The whole of the cavea in the Attica theatre must have contained about fifty thousand spectators. The places for generals, archons (chief magistrates), priests, GREEK CIVILIZATION. 463 foreign embassadors, and other distinguished persons were in the lowest rows of benches, and nearest to the orchestra. On the stage the actors were playing, all of them wearing characteristic masks. It seems to us rather inappropriate that an actor should have one and the same mask all the play through. But we must bear in mind the immense dimensions of a Grreek theatre, where the most distant spectators were not likely to see the fea- tures of the actors unless artificially enlarged. These Rural Festivities among the Greeks. masks, therefore, were a means to make up for our modern opera glasses. The Greek theater leads us to a consideration of the Grreek games. The public games of Greece were athletic contests and spectacles of various kinds, generally connec- ted with, and forming part of a religious observance. Probably no institution exercised a greater influence in molding the national character and producing that unique type of physical and intellectual beauty, which we see 464 TSE MEDIEVAL WORLD. reflected in Greek art and literature, tlaan the public con- tests of Greece. For them, each youth was trained in the gymnasium ; they were the central marts to which poet, artist, and merchant each brought his wares, and the com- mon ground of union for every member of the Hellenic race. Delphi and Parnassus- The Olympian games were the earliest, and to the last, they remained the most celebrated of the four national festivals. Olympia was a natually enclosed spot in the rich plain of Elis. There was the grove of Altis, in which were ranged the statues of the victorious athletes, and the temple of Olympian Zeus, with the chrys-elephantine (ivory and gold) statue of the god, the masterpiece of Phidias. In 776. b. c, the Eleians engraved the name of their countryman, Coroebus, as victor in the foot-race; and GS£;£!K CIVILIZATION. 465 thenceforward we have an almost unbroken list of the victors in each succeeding Olympiad, or fourth recurrent year. The Olympian games survived even the extinction of Greek liberty, and had nearly completed twelve centu- ries when they were abolished by the decree of the Chris- tian emperor, Theodosius, in the tenth year of his reign. The last Olympian victor was a Romanized Armenian named Varastad. Let us attempt to call up the scene which Olympia in its palmy days must have presented as the great festival approached.^ Heralds had proclaimed throughout Greece the truce of God, which put a stop to all warfare, and en- sured to all a safe conduct during 'the sacred month. So religiously was this observed that the Spartans chose to risk the liberties of Greece, when the Persians were at the gates of Pylae, rather than march during the holy ; days. Those white tents, which stand out against the somber gray of the olive groves, belong to the Hellanodicai, or ten judges of the games, chosen one for each tribe of the Eleians. They have already been here ten months, re- ceiving instructions in their duties. All, or most, of the athletes must have arrived, for . they have been undergoing the indispensible training in the gymnasium of the Altis. But along the "holy road" from the town of Elis, there is crowding a motly throng. Conspicuous in the long train of pleasure seekers are the sacred deputies, clad in their robes of office, and bearing with them in their carriages of state offerings to the shrine of the god. Nor is there any lack of distinguished visitors. It may be Alcibiades, who, they say, has entered seven chariots ; or Gorgias, who has written a poem for 1 In the description of these games we follow Conrad Francis Stoer. 28 466 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. the occasion ; oi' tlie sophist Hippias, who boasts that all he bears about him, from the sandals on his feet to the dithyrambo he carries in his hand, are his own manufac- Herodotus Reading History. ture ; or Aetion, who will exhibit his picture of the mar- riage of Alexander and Rosana — the picture that gained him no less a prize than the daughter of the Hellanodicas, Praconides ; or, in an earlier age, the poet-laureate of the OSEElt CIVILIZATION. 467 Olympians, Pindar, himself. Lastly, as at the medieval tournament, there are "scores of ladies whose bright eyes rain influence ;" matrons, indeed, are excluded on pain of death, but maidens, in accordance with Spartan manners, are admitted to the show. At daybreak, the athletes presented themselves iri the Bouleuterion^ where the presidents were sitting, and proved by witnesses that they were of pure Hellenic de- scent, and had no stain, religious or civil, on their charac- ter. Laying their hands on the bleeding victim, they swore that they had duly qualified themselves by ten months' continuous training in the gymnasium, and that they would use no fraud or guile in the sacred contests. Thence they proceeded to the Stadium^ where they stripped to the skin and anointed themselves. A herald proclaimed: "Let the runners put their feet to the line," and called on the spectators to challenge any disqualified by blood or character. If no objections were made, they were started by the note of the trumpet. The presidents seated near the goal adjudged the victory. The foot-race was only one of the twenty-four Olympian contests which Pausanias enu- merates. Till the 77th Olympiad all was concluded in one day, but afterward the feast was extended to five. The following were the chief games : foot-racing, wrest- ling, leaping, boxing, and chariot-racing. The prizes were at first, as in Homeric times, of some intrinsic value, but after the 6th Olympiad, the only prize for each contest was a garland of wild olive. Greek writers from Herodotus to Plutarch, dwell with complacency upon the magnanimity of a people who cared for nothing but hon- or, and were content to struggle for a corruptible crown. But the successful athlete received in addition to the imme- 468 TME MEblMVAL WOMLD. cliate gift of the crown and the congratulations of his friends, very substantial rewards. A herald proclaimed his name, his parentage, and his country; the Hellanodicai took from a table of ivory and gold the olive crown and placed it on his head, and in his hand a branch of palm; as he marched in the sacred revel to the temple of Zeus, his friends and admirers showered in his path flowers and costly gifts, singing an old song of Archilochus, and his name was canonized in the Greek calendar. Helmets, Head Covering, and Weapons. . Fresh honors and rewards awaited him on his return home. If he were an Athenian, he received, according to the law of Solon, five hundred drachmae,' and free rations for life in the Prytaneum ; if a Spartan, he had as his JDrerogative the post of honor in battle. Poets like Pindar, Limonides, and Euripides sang his praises, and sculptors like Phidias and Praxiteles were engaged by the state to carve his statue. We even read of a breach in the town walls being made to admit him, as if the com- J- $20. GBEEK CIVILIZATION. 469 mon road were not good enough for such a hero; and there are well-attested instances of altars being built, and sacri- fices offered to a successful athlete. No wonder, then, that an Olympian prize was regarded as the crown of human happiness. Cicero, with a Ro- man's contempt for Greek frivolity, observes with a sneer, that an Olympian victor receives more honor than a triumphant general at Rome ; and he tells the story of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having himself won the prize at Olympia and seen his two sons crowned on the same day, was addressed by a Laconian in these words : "Die, Diagoras, for thou hast nothing short of divinity to desire." Alcibiades, when setting forth his services to the state, puts first his victory at Olympia, and the prestige he had won for Athens by his magnificent display. But joerhaps the most remarkable evidence of the exaggerated value which the Greeks attached to athletic prowess is a casual expression which the historian Thucydides employs when describing the enthusiastic reception of Brasidas at Leione. The government, he says, voted him a crown of gold, and the multitude flocked round- him and decked him with garlands, "as though he were an athlete.'" The above de- scription of the Olympian games will servo generally for the other great festivals of Greece.^ The peculiar caste of a nation's civilization manifests itself, not only in those broader and more striking institu- tions like political or military devices, but also in the most ordinary customs and habits of every day life. Nay, for the historian of civilization, these latter customs are the central point of attention. It is from this point of view, that we are now going to treat of the manner, in 1 Thucydides, Bell. Pel. iv. 121. % Otber pjttional games were the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. 470 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. which the ancient Greeks used to take and enjoy their meals. The ways in which different nations take their meals, the kind and the quality of food they use, are just as characteristic of their culture, of their degree of de- velopment, as are their language and their laws. Some people are vegetarians ; and, to the present day, the peas- ant class in Europe, especially in the eastern part of Eu- rope, are almost exclusively vegetarians. Other nations will be more fond of eating than drinking. Others, again, have a decided predilection for meat, using pastry but Arrangements for a Meal. very sparingly. In doing so, they are not prompted by mere economic reasons ; it is not the scarcity or the abun- dance of meat or flour which regulates the wants of a people above the primitive stage of civilization. There are other causes of a purely social character. In Sparta, for instance, the inhabitants took their meals in common, in a public place, in the Syssitia} 1 The custom of taking the principal meal of the day in public pre- vailed not only at Sparta and Athens [where it was kept up until com- paratively recent times] but also at Megara in the age of Theognis [ V. 305.] and at Corinth until the age of Periander [ about 620 b. c], by GREEK CIVILIZATION. 471 Every head of a family was obliged to contribute a certain portion at his own cost and charge ; those who were not able to do so, were excluded from the public tables.^ The guests were divided into companies, generally of fifteen persons each, and all vacancies were filled by ballot, in which unanimous consent was indispensible for election. No persons, not even the kings, were excused from attendance at the public tables, except for some satis- factory reason. Each person was supplied with a cup of mixed wine, which was filled again when required ; but drinkiDg to excess was prohibited at Sparta. The repast was of a plain and simple character. The principal dish was the "black broth" with pork. The after meal was however more varied and richly supplied by presents of game, poultry, fruit, and other delicacies which no one was allowed to purchase. Moreover, the entertainment was en- livened by cheerful conversation, though on public mat- ters.^ Singing also was frequently introduced as we learn, from Alcman,^ that "at the banquets of the men it was fit for the guests to sing the paean." (a hymn). The use and purpose of this institution are very mani- fest. They united the citizens by the closest ties of inti- macy and union, causing them to consider themselves as members of one family. At Sparta, also, they were emi- nently useful in a military point of view, for the members of the syssitia were formed in corresponding military di- visions, and fought together in the field as they lived to- gether at home, with more bravery and a keener sense of shame than could have been the case with merely chance whom it was abolished as being favorable to aristocracy [Aristotle, Polit. V. section 32]. Nor was it confined to the Hellenic world [Pol. vii. 9], for, according to Aristotle, it prevailed stilJ earlier among the Venotrians in Southern Italy. i Aristotle, Pol. ii. 7, 4. 2 Xenophon, Rep. Lacon. v. 6. 3 Fragm. 31. 472 TffE MEDIEVAL WOULD. comrades.^ The refinement of private cookery was of course almost totally excluded ; the bulk of the courses consisted of roughly roasted beef or venison. Let us now cast a glance at the other meals of the Greeks. .From the earliest times, it was usual to take three meals a day. The names ■ of these were Ariston (corresponding to our breakfast), Deipnon (luncheon), Dorpon (supper). The breakfast was taken quite early,. Living Room in a Greek House. directly after rising.® The chief meal, as among the Ro- mans, was the third, the Dorpon. If a person ate alone without any company, the Greeks did not call it a regular meal. It was very common for several to club together and have a feast^ at their joint expense. Picnic parties were often made up to dine in the country, especially on 1 Herodotus, i. 65. 2 See Aristophanes' Birds, 1825. OBEEK CIVILIZATION. 473 the sea-shore. It was not thought a breach of good man- ners to bring to a friend's house an uninvited guest. It was expected that guests should come dressed with more than ordinary care, and also have bathed shortly before. As soon as the guests arrived at the house of their host, their shoes or sandals were taken off by the slaves and their feet washed. After the feet had been washed, the guests reclined on couches. Homer never describes persons as reclining, but al- ways as sitting at their meals ; but at what time the change was introduced is uncertain. The Greek women and children, however, like the Roman, continue to sit at their meals. It was usual for only two persons to recline on each couch. In eating, the Greeks had no knives or forks but made use of their fingers only, except in eating soups or other liquids, which they partook of by means of a spoon. After eating, they wijjed their fingers on pieces of bread. They did not use any cloths or napkins. The most common food among the Greeks was the '■'•■madra" a kind of frumenty or soft cake which was pre- pared in different ways. Wheaten or barley bread was the second most usual species of food, it was sometimes made at home, but more usually bought at the market. The A'egetables ordinarily eaten were mallows, lettuce, cabbages, beans, lentils, etc. Pork was the most favorite animal food; sausages also were very commonly eaten. It is a curious fact, which Plato has remarked, that we never read in Homer of the heroes partaking of fish. In later times, however, fish was one of the most favorite foods of the Greeks. A dinner given by an opulent Athenian usually con- sisted of two courses. The first course embraced the whole of what we consider the dinner, namely ; fish, poultry, 474 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. meat, etc.: tlie second, which corresponds to our desert, consisted of different kinds of fruit, sweetmeats, confec- tions, etc. When the first course was finished, the tables were taken away and water was given to the guests for the purpose of washing their hands. Crowns, made of garlands of flowei^s, were also then given to them, as well as various kinds of perfumes. Wine was not partaken of tllltil the first course was finished ; but as soon as the guests had washed their hands, unmixed wine was introduced in a large goblet, of which Hit r~ -IT- ^i.1.- i' m sv- 1 i . Dwelling of a Rich Greek, each drank a little, after pouring out a small quantity as a libation. This libation was usually accompanied with the singing of a paean and the playing of flutes. Then the regular Symposion began. The symposion was the principal part of a supper. It consisted chiefly of hard drinking, enlivened with brisk conversation and music. The Greeks, with the exception of the Spartans, Cretans, and a few other communities, were devoted drinkers. But, with the exception of the first goblet mentioned above, none but watered wine was used. To mix it half and half was considered rude, the proportion generally was three OBEEK CIVILIZATION. 476 to one ; or two to one ; or three to two.^ Drunkenness was not considered a shame, and even Plato himself apolo- gises for it. Every Grreek symposion had a Symposiarch, a presi- dent of the entertainment, a "master of the revels," who was generally chosen by the throw of dice. The sympo- siarch determined the proportion of the mixture aijd the number of Kiatoi (goblets); he could also impose fines, etc. It was customary, at least at Athens, to drink out of small goblets, or, at all events, to begin with them, afterward resorting to larger. According to Ephippus,^ Alexander the Great drained off a goblet holding a gallon and a half. In the "Symposion" of Plato, Alcibiades and Socrates each empty an immense cup containing nearly four pints, and frequently such cups were emptied at one draught. The cups were always carried round from right to left, and the same order was observed in the conversation. The company frequently drank to the health of one another, and they did so in a peculiar way. They drank as many goblets as there were letters in the name of their friend. Thus Alcibiades would drink to the health of Socrates by emptying eight goblets, to which Socrates would respond with a still greater number of goblets, the name of Alci- biades being composed of .ten letters. Music and dancing were usually introduced, as already stated, at symposia ; and we 'find few representations of such scenes on ancient vases without the presence of female players on the flute and the cithera. But these symposia 1 In this as well as in all our statements regarding the meals and symposia of the ancient Greeks, we follow chiefly the incidental remarks in Plato's dialogues, and the ample allusions in Aristophanes and other Greek comedians. 2 Atbenaeus, x. 476 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. were not wassailing excesses only. All that Athens, Cor- inth, or Argos could display of refined, cultured, witty people — all these choice minds used to meet at these sym- posia, and the most charming conversation, spiced with games of all societies, was the usual feature. The dancing' of the Greeks formed quite a telling feature of their civi- Ornamental Articles used in Greek Life. lization. It had very little in common with the exercise which goes by that name in modern times. The funda- mental notion of all G-reek danciiig is the bodily expres- sion of some inward feeling, and that which poetry affec- ted by words, dancing had to do by movement. Dancing &AEES: CIVILIZATION. 477 was originally closely connected ■with religion. Plato^ thought, that all dancing should be based on religion. Ac- cordingly the dances of the chorus at Sparta and in other Doric states were intimately connected with the worship) of Apollo. All the religious dances were very simple and consisted of gentle movements of the body with various turnings and windings around the altar. We have thus far been considering the unofficial life of an ancient Greek; before considering the official life, let us notice the absence of private home life. Public life en- grossed the time and attention of every Grecian to such an extent that private life Avas, as it were, at the .mercy of pub- lic life. Their games, religious exercises, and manner of living were public. Home life was reduced to a minimum. This constant association of men with men, mind acting on mind, contributed in no small degree to bringing about the state of culture found in ancient Greece. Let us now consider official life in early Greece. As was the normal state in all tribal society, the ultimate power of legislation rested with the people, or, more cor- rectly, with the legitimate assembly of the people, with the Ecclesia. In it, and through it, the sovereign will of the people of Athens was expressed. Here were brought before them all matters, which, as the supreme power of the state, they had to order or to dispose of ; questions of war and peace, treaties and alliances, levying the troops, raising of supplies, religious ordinances, bestowing of citi- zenship ; likewise the election of a great variety of magis- trates, embassadors, commissioners, etc. Anciently the people used to assemble once only in each Pritany, or ten times a year; afterward, they met every week. These were called the regular or ordinary 1 Plato, Leg. vii. 478 TSE MEDIEVAL WOULD. assemblies. On what days they were held is not known ; the Athenians avoided meeting on holidays or unlucky days. The assembly used anciently to be held in the mar- ket-place, Agora. ^ Afterward it was transferred to the theater of Bacchus. But it might be held anywhere, either in the city or in the Piraeus (harbor of Athens), or elsewhere. The assemblies were usually convened by the presidents of the council (senate), who published a notice four days before, specifying the day of meeting and the business to be transacted. All citizens of the age of twenty, who had been duly registered, were entitled to attend and vote,^ Before the business of the day commenced, a sacrifice of purification was offered. The lustral victims were young pigs, whose blood was carried round and sprinkled on the seats, while at the same time incense was burned in a censer. The cryer then pronounced a form of prayer and commination, imploring the gods to bless and prosper the consultations of the people, and imprecating a curse upon all enemies and traitors. The chairman then opened the business of the day. If any bill had been prepared by the senate, it was read by the crier or the usher, and the people were asked if it met their approbation. If there was no opposition, it passed. Any citizen, however, might oppose it, or move an amendment. Every member of the assembly was at lib- erty to speak, but only once during a debate. According to the institutions of Solon, those who were above fifty years old were first called upon, and afterward the younger men. But this custom fell into disuse.^ Although all 1 Harpocration, 5, v. Parthemos Aprodite. 2 Demosthenes, c. Neaer p. 1380. In Athens the right of suffrage be- gan at the age of twenty. s Demosthenes, De Cor. p. 285. Aristophanes, Acharu. 43. GMEEK civizijgA tion: 481 citizens had the right of speaking, the privilege was, of course, exercised by a few only, who felt themselves com- petent for the task ; it was not very easy to get up after one of those matchless speeches of orators like Isacus, Lysias, Isocrates, or Demosthenes, and to address the assembly in a befitting way. Whoever rose to sjDeak put on a wreath of myrtle,^ as a token that he was performing a public duty, and entitled on that account to respect. It was a breach of decorum to interrupt the speaker. When the debate was ended, the chairman put the ques- tion to the vote. The method of voting was either by show of hands {Ckeirotonia) or by ballot.^ Show of hands was the most common. When all the business was con- cluded, the crier by command of the president dis- missed the assembly. A decree having been carried by tLe votes of the people, it was copied on a tablet, and de- posited by the secretary among other public records in the temple of Cybele. The great power of the assembly was held in proper balance by the influence of two other political and judicial institutions of the Athenians; by the Areopagus and the Senate. The areopagus,^ so called from the Hill of Ares (Mars) where it held its sittings, near the Acropolis, was a judicial and deliberative body greatly esteemed at Athens. It was from time immemorial established as a court of criminal jurisdiction, to try cases of murder, maiming, and arson. It sat in the open air, to escape the pollution of being under the same roof with the guilty. In its proceed- ings the utmost solemnity was observed. Both parties were sworn to spea.k the truth, and the facts alone were i Aristophanes, Eeeles. 130. 147. 2 Suidaa, 5, v. Katecheirotonesen 3 The find development of the council of the chiefs of the phratries, See Vol. II. p. 192. 482 THE Mllt>mVAL WOULD. inquired into, without appeals to the feelings- or oratorial display. The Areopagus used to be taken from the noble families of Attica. But Solon introduced a new law, that the archons whose official conduct had been approved should be members of this council for life. At the same time he enlarged the power of the council, attaching to it Gathering of the Areopagus. political and censorial duties/ in order that, together with the council of five hundred (senate), it might act as a check upon the democracy, or to use Solon's own words, that "the state riding upon them (areopagus and senate) as anchors, might be less tossed by storms." In their censorial character, the areopagites kept watch over the religion and morals of the city, maintained order 1 Plutarch, Solon, chapter 22. Isocrates, Areip. p. 147. gmeek a VI LIZ A TioN. 483 and decency, looked to the education of the young, inquired how people got their living, and checked riotous excesses and debauchery. We read of their entering houses ..on feast days to see that the guests were not too numerous. A party in Athens consisted of either three persons, in agreement with the number of Graces, or of nine, according to the number of Muses. Any thing above that was con- sidered excessive. The second great and effective check on the power of the democratical assembly was the senate (boule),^ or, as it was also called (at a later stage), the council of the five hundred. This executive and deliberative body managed various departments of the public business, more especially those which related to the public assembly. They were annually chosen by lot— in Solon's times from the first three classes only, but afterwards from the whole body of the people — with no other restriction than that they must be genuine citizens on both the father's and the mother's side and of the age of thirty. At the expiration of their year of office, they had, like all other functionaries, to render an account of their official conduct to the auditors. For the more convenient dispatch of business, the tribes apportioned the year among them, and took the du- ties in rotation. The council was thus divided into ten bodies of fifty men, who were called Pryianes, or Presi- dents, and who for the time represented the whole council. This term of office was called a Pritany. As the lunar year at Athens consisted of three hundred and fifty-four days, it was so arranged, that there were six prytanies of thirty-five days each, and four of thirty-six. The turns were determined by lot. The council was to be, according to Solon's design, a sort of directorial committee, to assist 1 In the first stage, the chiefs of the gentes. 29 4a4 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. the people in their deliberations and to guide and control their acts in the assembly. It was their duty to discuss beforehand and to prepare in proper form the measures submitted to the people. Besides preparing questions for Ihe assembly, the council had a right to issue ordinances of their own, which, if not set aside by the people, re- mained in force for the year.-* The excutive duties of the council were very numer- ous. The whole financial department of the administra- tion was under their control. The income of the Athenian state ranged between twelve and fifteen hundred talents,^ Funeral Customs Among tlie Greeks, besides the tributes of dependent states. Taxes were levied, but not regularly. Neither an Athenian nor a Roman had any idea, that the first duty of a law-abiding citizen was to pay taxes. The accounts of the moneys that had been re- ceived, and of those still remaining due, were delivered to the senate by the Apodectae, or public treasurer. The senate arranged also the application of the public money, even in trifling matters, such as the salary of the poets, the superintendence of the cavalry maintained by the state, and the examination of the infirm supported by the state. These are the outlines of the Athenian state. We see 1 Herrmann: "Griechlsche Staats Alberthiimer," ss. 125 et seq. Boeckh : "Publ. Econ. of Athens," p. 154 et seq. 2 $2,000,000, OSEEK CI VILIZA TIOJST. 48G an assembly of all citizens, meeting almost twice every week, and, apparently at least, determining and ruling every thing by a majority vote. But we perceive also powerful checks on the activity of the assembly, namely the areopagus and the boule (senate). In fact the ulti- mate lawgiver in Athens was not to be found in the assem- bly. For a bill that had passed the votes of the assembly was not considered an ultimate law, a Nomos^ but only a Psephisma. It had still to pass the supervision of a board of law-revisers, Nomothetai, who were entrusted with the power of deciding whether a bill carried in the ecclesia (assembly) was to be considered constitutional, or whether, on account of its divergence from the fundamental laws of Athens, it was to be discarded. In this the nomothetai of Athens exercised a right of negative legislation identi- cal with the right of the supreme courts of the states of the United States.^ We have now gained an idea of life, both public and private, official and non-official, in Ancient Greece; and have pointed out the tendency of the same to active, men- tal life. Hence, at this point, we turn to the consideration of some other department of Greek culture, and there we find the basis of the great merits of Grecian civilization. The men and women of Greece have passed away, and their political institutions no longer determine the fate of nations. But the achievements of the Greeks in other fields of mental activity are well-nigh imperishable, and thus they still continue to exercise a strong influence over the civilization of mankind. These achievements are in the fields of philosophy, art, and science. Our review of Grecian civilization would be incomplete, were we to neglect the great works of Gre- 1 Vide Vol. II. p. 190 486 TSM MEDIEVAL WOBLD. cian writers in these fields. Their philosophy is not, like the systems of the old Egyptians, of the Persians, or of many other nations, alien and strange to our mind; it is not an obsolete product of antiquity, in no connection whatever with our modern line of thought. On the con- trary, it is in intimate contact with our latest endeavors to investigate the problems of philosophy; and hundreds of treatises are being published every year, elucidating and commenting on the writings of Grreek philosophers,^ Greek Art— Vases and E-wers. The first real philosophers of G-reece arose about the beginning of the seventh century b. c, and it is almost generally agreed that Thales was the first in point of time.^ Thales, together with Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Diogenes of Apollonia, form what is usually called the Ionic school of Greek philosophers. These profound 1 At the twenty-six universities of Germany and Austro-Hungary, there are separate chairs for Greelc philosophy, and every year turns out at least fifty new dissertations on Aristotle aloue. "Statistik des Deut- schen Buchhandels." 2 Zeller: "Die Philos. der Griech," Bd. I. s. 133. GBEEK CIVILIZATION. 487 thinkers turned their thoughts chiefly to an explanation of the arche^ the origin of things, and this being their aim they speculated principally on the first principle of nature. Hence, {physis being nature in Greek), they were also called Physiologists. It is highly interesting to follow their peculiar train of ideas. T hales taught, that the arche of all things is to be found in water.^ In other words, he thought that water was the first principle, the first cause of nature, out of which everything arose. Anaximander taught, that the first principle was an endless, unliniited mass, subject to neither old age nor decay and perpetually yielding fresh materials for the series of beings which issued from it.^ Out of the vague and limitless body, there sprang a central mass — this earth of ours, cylindrical in shape. Man himself and the animals came into being by transmutations.^ Man was supposed, by Anaximander, to have sprung from other species of animals, probably aquatic. Anaximenes taught that the air, with all its variety of contents, its universal presence, was what maintained the universe, even as breath, which is our life and soul, sustains us.* Everything is air of difi'erent degrees of density. By a process of condensation, brought forth under the influence of heat and cold, the broad disk of earth was formed, floating like a leaf in the circumambient air. Simi- lar condensations produced the sun and the stars.' Dioge- nes of Apollonia adopted the teachings of Anaximenes re- specting air as the arche of things. But he declared that i Aristotle, Met. i. 3, 983; Cicero, Acad. ii. 37, 118. 2 Aristotle, Phys. iii. 4, 203, c. 10. ^ It is more than likely that this doctrine of Anaximander was one of the numerous precursors of Darwin's Theory. * Aristotle, 984. Met. ch. i. 3, a 5. 5 This seems an anticipation of the celebrated Kant-Laplace theory concerning the origin of our planetary system. 488 TSE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. air was not only force, substance, but also intelligence, that it was endowed with consciousness and reason ; for without reason, he said, it would be impossible for all to be arranged duly and proportionately.-^ After the Physiologists came the Pythagoreans, the head and originator of whom was the celebrated Pythagoras, equally renowned as mathematician, philosopher, physicist, and law- giver. The central thought of Pythagoras' philosophy is "iAe number T"^ Instead of alleging that this or that material sub- stance was the arche of the Universe, Pythagoras taught, that "the number" was the es- sence, the first j)rinciple. Thus he accounted for the origin of the world by placing a formal cause, an ideal concep- tion (the number), in the center of his speculations. "J^um- ber," said Philolaus, one of his disciples, "is great and perfect and omnipotent and the principle and guide of divine and human life." Immediately connected with their central doctrine is the theory of the oppqsites, held by the Pythagoreans. Numbers are divided into odd and even, and from the com- bination of odd and even, all numbers and all things seem to result. The odd number was identified with the limited, the even with the unlimited. Following out the Hesiod. 1 Mullaeh : Fragm. Philos. Gr. I. 259. When we come to study Hin- doo philosophy we will discover the close similarity between the lonio system of philosophy, and the Vedantic school of Indian philosophy. 2 Aristotle, Met. i. 6. OBEEK CIVILIZATION. 489 same thought, they developed a list of ten fundamental opposites, which roughly resembles the tables of "cate- gories" framed by later philosophers. The ten groups of opposites are as follows : Limited and unlimited ; the odd and the even ; one and the many ; right and left ; masculine and femenine ; rest and motion ; straight and crooked ; light and darkness ; good and evil ; square and oblong.^ Hence the whole universe is harmony, and the regular movements of the heavenly bodies produce the famous harmony of the spheres ; the seA^en planets being considered as the seven golden chords of the heavenly heptachord.^ The holy number of the Pythagoreans was four, be- cause it is the first square number; the number five signifies marriage, because it is the union of the first mas- culine and the first feminine number, namely three plus two ; the number one is identified with reason, because it is unchangeable; two with opinion, because it is indeter- minate. The most renowned doctrine of Pythagoras, ■ however, is the transmigration of the soul, the Metempsy- chosis. The bodily life of the soul, according to this doc- trine, is an imprisonment suffering for sins committed in a former state of existence. At death, the soul reaps what it has sown in the present life. The ^reward of the best is to enter the cosmos, or the higher and purer regions of the universe, while the direst crimes receive their punish- ment in Tartarus. But the general lot is to live afresh in a series of human or animal forms.^ Next to Pythagoras and his numerous followers, stands the subtle school of the Eleatic thinkers. Instead of 1 Ibid. i. 5, 986. 2 Aristotle, De Code, ii. 9. 3 Clemens- Strom, iii. 433 A. Plato, Gorg. 493 A. Everyone must see the connection between this belief and the Hindoo belief. 490 THE MEDIEVAL V/OSLD. attempting the solution of the arcks problem, they entered upon new lines of thought, and their profound speculations form one of the most striking features of Grreek philoso- phy.^ Their leading men were Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno. Xenophanes recognized no distinction between truth for the many (exoteric knowledge) and truth for the initiated few (esoteric knowledge), as Pythagoras did ; Xeno- phanes thought and acted as if truth was for all men; for three-quarters of a century he wandered into many lands uttering the thoughts which were work- ing in him. He combated the prevail- ing belief in many gods chiefly on ac- count of the personification of the gods, Euripides. and his doctrine was, that "the One was the All,"* in other words his doctrine was Pantheism. It was expanded by Parmenides, the most notable of the philosophers of the Eleatic succession. His doctrine is, that the £ns, the Being (io-on in Grreek), is one, invariable and immutable, and all plu- rality, variety, and mutation (viz : all the shifting, indi- vidual things and persons in existence) belong to the Non-ens. Whence it follows, that all the states and pro- cesses which we commonly recognize as generation and destruction, change of place, alteration of color, and the like, are little more than empty words.' The diiference between Parmenides and his predecessors in Greek specu- lation is this, that he, far from assuming a corporal prin- 1 The best resume of the Eleatic doctrine is given in Duckring's "Krit. Gesche. d. Phil." 2 Parmenides [A fragment of his Philos. poem], v. 33. 3 Cf. the Hindoo doctrine of Illusion, GREEK CIVILIZATION. 491 ciple (air, water, etc.,) as the arche of things, declared all corporal things to be mere phantasms, teaching that all plurality is but apparent, and that all so-called indi- vidual things are merely passing modes of the One Being, the Ens} The third great leader of the thinkers of the Eleatic school was Zeno. In order to render the doctrine of his master, Parmenides, unassailable, he attempted to prove, that the common notions of time, space, motion, multi- plicity, sight, sound, etc., are self-contradictory and un- thinkable. His so-called "paradoxies" were stated with a subtlety which has forced distinguished thinkers (for instance Hamilton) who were opposed to his main posi- tion to admit that some of them were unanswerable. Against motion Zeno directed several arguments, the most celebrated being that of the well-known problem of Achilles and the tortoise. Next in point of importance as a system of philosophy are the profound teachings of Heraclitus of Ephesus. This celebrated thinker used to clothe his ideas in ex- tremely obscure language, and it was this quality which occasioned his surname, "the obscure," He tried to get rid of the difficulty so prominent in the Eleatic philoso- phy of overcoming the contradiction between the One and the phenomenal Many, by enunciating, as the principle of the universe, the process of Becoming, implying that everything is and at the same time, and in the same re- lation, is not. His favorite way of expressing this ab- struse doctrine was as follows : "Everything is flowing." Accordingly he selects fire as the -arche, this being the most appropriate embodiment of the principle of 1 These Bpeculations form the basis of two of the most important systems of philosophy of modera times, Brunoism and Spinozism. 492 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Becoming, of simultaneous existence and non-existence.^ The next great Grreek philosopher is Empedocles. He propounded a new doctrine. There are, according to 'Empedocles, four ultimate kinds of things, four principal divinities, four elements, from which are made all struc- tures in the world — fire, air, water, earth. These four elements are eternally brought into union, and eternally parted from each other, by two divine powers : Love and Hatred — an attractive and a repulsive force, which the ordi- nary eye can see working amongst men, but which really pervade the whole world. Flesh and blood are made of equal parts of all four elements, whereas bones are one- half fire, one-quarter earth, and one-quarter water. Nothing new (jomes into being, the only change that can occur is a change in the juxtaposition of element with ele- ment.® The similarity, or rather iden- tity between modern and ancient Grreek thinking is still more striking, when we approach two other schools of Grreek philosophy, the Atomists 'and the Sceptics. The chief of the former was Democritus. The intensity of his thinking was figured by the ancients in the story that he put out his eyes in order that he might not be diver- Aeschylus. 1 The most elaborate treatise on Heraclitus has been written by F. LaSalle, the German Socialist. Zeller's review (in his D. Phil. d. Grich.) is highly valuable. Although he assumes fire as the arohe, we must not connect him with the Ionic school. He uses it more as a symbol. 2 Our knowledge of Greek philosophy, anterior to Aristotle, rests largely on the philosophical works of this philosopher; as to Empedo- bles, see Aristotle, Metph. i. 4. OBEEK CIVILIZATION. 493 ted from his meditations. His theory of the universe is to the present the prevailing theory among physicists. He taught, that all that existed is vacuum and atoms. The atoms are the ultimate material of all things, inclu- ding spirit. They are uncaused and have existed from eternity, and are in constant motion. Democritus reduced all sensation to touch, and all qualities of bodies to these two main qualities, extension and resistance.^ The sceptics, or Pyrrhonists, bear a still greater re- semblance to modern thought. Pyrrho, their founder, asked, what is the criterion of our opinion? Reason, it is said. But what is the criterion of Reason, he again asked ? And, as he could find no adequate answer, he simply inferred, that all philosophy and all science is groundless, there being no general criterion of Truth.^ All these philosophers (with the exception of Pyrrho) lived before Socrates, and they are to be considered as the precursors of the most perfect development of Greek philosophy, as represented in the teachings^ of Socrates, and in the writings of Plato and Aristotle. Socrates, born in Athens in 470 or 469 b. c, em- braced the whole of philosophy (Ontology, Logic, Meta- j)hysics, Psycology) with a new spirit, the spirit of self- conscious truth. The skeptical movement had confused men's notions as to the value of ethical ideas. If "right" be one thing in Athens and another at Sparta, why strive to follow right rather than expediency? Every case seemed capable of being argued in opposite ways. Even on the great question of the ultimate constitution of things, the conflicting theories of absolute immutability (Parmeni- 1 Aristotle, D^gen. et corrupt, i. 8. a D. Phil. d. III. Bd. 3 Socrates has left us no writings of his own ; our information about him we take from Plato and Xenophon. 494 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. des) and eternal change (Heraclitus) appeared to be equally creditable. But the faith of Socrates remained unshaken by these conflicting views. He did not ask : "Is virtue a reality ?" or "Is goodness a delusion?" But with perfect confidence that there was an answer, he asked himself and others, "What is it?" or, more particularly, as Xenophon testifies, "What is a state ? What is a states- man? What is just? What is unjust? etc." In this form of question, however simple, the originality of Soc- rates is typified ; and by means of it he laid the first stone, not only of the fabric of ethical philosophy, but of scien- tific method. The secret of his success lay in the combi- nation of a deep sense of human ignorance with a confi- dence not less deep in the power of reason. He taught, that human life and experience are the sphere of search ; truth and good, regarded as identical, the end of it ; uni- versality, the test of reality, conversation the method, ra- tional thought the means — these are the chief notes of the dialectics of Socrates. Applying the native strength of his intelligence di- rectly to. the facts of life, he revealed their significance in countless ways, by unthought-of generalization, by strange analogies, combining what men had not combined, distin- guishing what they had not distinguished—but always with the single aim of rousing them to the search after eternal truth and good. But all this equanimity, virtue, and genius could not save him from the ill-will of his countrymen, whose anger was roused by a few of his per- sonal enemies. The great philosopher was indicted for atheism and contempt of the gods, and sentenced to the hemlock-cup. He suffered death with perfect composure of mind, sealing the tenor and activity of all his life with a glorious submission to the dictations of his fellow-citi- AN EGYPTIAN ASTRONOMER; OR, HIPPARCHUS AT ALEXANDRIA OBEEK CIVILIZATION. 497 zens and the doctrines of his own profound mind.' This lifelong work of Socrates, in which the germ of all later philosophy was contained, was idealized, devel- oped, dramatised, first embodied, and then extended be- yond the original scope, in the writings of Plato, which may be described as the literary outcome of the profound impression made by Socrates upon his greatest follower. These writings (in pursuance of the importance given by Socrates to conversation) are all cast in the form of imag- inary dialogues. The Platonic dialogues are not merely the enibodiment of the mind of Socrates and of the reflec- tions of Plato. They are the portraits of the highest in- tellectual life of Hellas in the time of Plato — a life but dis- tantly related to military and political events, and scarcely interrupted by them. It is, of course, next to impossible to delineate the leading principles of Plato within the ex- tremely limited space we can devote to a consideration of his philosophy. But we can not omit adducing some of the main ideas of his system, especially those that have an historical bearing on the course of civilization. For very few thinkers have exercised such a vast influ- ence on the thoughts of mankind as Plato. In fact, his influence is almost equal to that of Aristotle. Many schools were formed in Asia,^ Africa,^ and Europe, in which the thoughts of Plato were made the subject matter of profound study, and scarcely a treatise on philosophy ever made its appearance without showing the unmistaka- ble traces of the Platonic philosophy. Plato was the first 1 A whole literature treats of the sentence and death of Socrates ; and some great authorities lean toward the opinion, that Socrates could have easily escaped the fatal sentence but for his high sense of obedi- ence. See a very able discussion in Zeller. 2 Not only in the time of the Greeks and the Byzantine empire, but in the time of the Saracens as well. 3 Neo-Platonists in Alexandria. 498 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. to establish that fundamental distinction between the ab- stract and the concrete, between the rational and the em- pirical, between the a priori and the a posteriori^ which, to the present day, pervades the whole of philosophy, and without which no philosophical thinking is deemed possi- ble. This distinction reappears in that other fundamental division of philosophical subjects, in the division of things into universal and particular. Plato declared that philosophy is the study of the ab- stract, of the apT-iori, of the universal. This is one of the pivots of his system. The particular, the empirical, the a posteriori, belong to the practical knowledge of the ordinary mind; it has nothing to do with the investigations of the philosopher. But this was not sufficient. Plato not only excluded the empirical, he pointed out, in a dis- tinct and clear way, what were the proper subjects of real philosophy. He taught, that previous to all - experience, and underlying it, there are innate conceptions, notions born with the mind, in one word. Ideas, the study of which forms the chief object of the philosopher. These ideas (ideai in Grreek) are divine models, eter- nal types of the objects in nature, and the principles of our knowledge. By propounding this theory and by his endeavor to apply it to all branches of science, to natural philosophy as well as to politics and ethics, Plato became the founder of "Idealism," that is to say, he is to be con- sidered the founder of that truly philosophical tendency of confining our thoughts to the ideal aspect of things. He openly taught, that there is but one G-od, the creator of this world, the preserver of it, who governs it with providential care.^ Virtue is the attempt at an imitation 1 The Monotheistic tendencies in Plato are evident in every line of "Timaeus." The most comprehensive work on Plato and his philoso- phy is by Grote. GREEK CIVILIZATION. 499 of Gfod, and consists of four elements, of Sophia (wisdom^,,,^^^ QiAndreia (consistency), of Sophrosyne (temperance), and of Dicaiosyne (justice). Politics is the application of the great law of morals, the state being a union of a mass of people under the same law. Its object is liberty and har- mony. Beauty is the preceptible representation of moral and physical perfection. Being one and the same with truth and with "the good," it inspires Eros (Platonic love) which leads to virtue. The greatest of all G-reek philosophers was Aristotle, the disciple of Plato. He was born in 384 b. c, at Sta- gira in Macedonia, and this circumstance gave rise to his surname, the Stagirite. His works cover the whole ground of both philosophy and science. In order to illustrate his merits, we will select his works on Logic. The matter of the "Prior Analyt- ics" has become the common property of all modern books on logic ; and what he wrote upon the syllogism, the mode of inference, has scarcely been altered. Both Kant and Hegel, two of the greatest of Grerman thinkers and Sophocles. scholars, acknowledge, that from the time of Aristotle to their own age (nineteen centuries), logic made no prog- ress. His was the proud distinction of having discovered and fully drawn out the laws under which the mind acts in deductive reasoning. That in deduction the mind pro- ceedes from some universal proposition, and how it pro- ceeds, these were amongst the most important things which Aristotle had to tell the world. We have now begun to exhaust the list of Greek 500 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. philosophers, we have, however, only space to name some of the great leaders and founders of schools of philosophy in post- Aristotelian times. Foremost in the ranks of these was Epicurus, born 341 b. c. The scene of his philosophic life and teaching was a garden in Athens which he bought at the cost of about eighty minse.^ There be passed his days as the loved and venerated head of a remarkable society, such as the ancient world had never seen. Th© mode of life in this community was plain. The general drink was water, and the food barley bread ; half a pint of wine was considered an ample allow- ance. The company was held in unity by the fascinating charms of Epicurus' personality, and by the free sociality which he incul- cated and exemplified. All that exists, says Epicurus, is corporal ; the intangible is non- existent, or empty space. If a Aristophanes. thing exists, it must be felt; and to be felt, it must exert resistance. But all things are not intangible, which our senses are not able to detect. The fundamental postulates of Epicureanism are atoms and the void. This universe of ours is only one section out of the innumerable worlds in infinite space ; other worlds may present systems very different from the arrangement of sun, moon, and stars, which we see in this. In the sphere of human action Epicurus would ailow of no abso- lutely controlling necessity. There is much in our cir- cumstances that springs from mere chance, but it does not over-master man. With a latent optimism he asserts 1 $1500. CUtEEK CIVILIZATION. 501 that, though there are evils in the world, still their domi- nation is brief at their height, and there are many consol- ing circumstances while, on the other hand, it is easy to attain the maximum of pleasure.^ Toward the close of the fourth century b. c, another iDeath. of Socrates. school of Greek philosophy was founded by Zeno of Citiimi. The disciples of this school were named Stoics, from the Stoa, or painted corridor on the north side of the 1 Vide Gasendi's works on Epicurus and Steinthal's article in Ersch., Gruber. 60^ TSE medieval WOBLt). market-place at Athens, where its chief members were delivering lectures on the problems of philosophy. But, though it arose on Hellenic soil, the school is scarcely to be considered a product of purely G-reek intellect, but rather as the first-fruits of that inter-action between the West and the East which followed the conquests of Alexander the Grreat. Hardly a single stoic of eminence was a citizen of a city in the heart of Greece, unless we except Aristo of Chios, Cleanthes of Assus, and Panaetius of Rhodes. Nor did Stoicism achieve its crowning triumph until it was brought to Rome, where the grave earnestness of the national character appreciated its doctrines. For two centuries or more, it was the creed, if not the philoso- phy, of all the best of the Romans. One of the grand- est of the stoics was Chrysippus, who lived from 280 to 206 B. c. He Aristotle. -was the author of a great number of works, of which, however, but small fragments have come down to us. He taught that, as the sole aim of philosophy is to discover man's duty, ethics is the only science that is of real importance in itself, while physics (/'. e. the study of nature) is to be regarded merely as an aid to this study. The explanation of the universe GREEK CIVILIZA TION. 503 adopted by Chrysippus is that of the stoics in general. The real' is the corporal ; man and the world are all that ex- ist. In each there is that which is inert, and also the informing soul, or vivifying fire. The soul of the universe is Grod, or destiny. Each human soul is part of the uni- versal soul, in which the souls of all, except the wise, are again swallowed up at death. The universe is perfect. So-called physical evil there is none. Moral evil is the necessary complement of good, and is turned by Provi- dence into good. All is the result of perfect law. Per- fect unanimity of life can only be achieved through the unrestricted dominion of right reason, that is, by our rea- son not only ruling unconditionally over our other energies and circumstances, but also coinciding with the Universal Reason — the reason which governs nature.-' The achievements of the Grreeks in the field of phi- losophy were equalled, if not excelled, by their productions of a strictly scientific character. In fact, the Greeks must be considered as the real originators of modern, as well as of all science. They were the first to reduce a mass of observed facts to a coherent, lucid, and well arranged system of science. Their power of generalization and an innate delicate perception of fitness kept them free from the wild plays of imagination, in which, amongst others, the Indian masters of science used to indulge. To the present day, we have no better examples of scientific reasoning than Euclid's works, or the writings of Archimedes and Ptol- emy. They continue to form the foundation of our stud- ies, and all modern trials to supersede them have proved abortive. 1 The sources of Stoicism are the seventh book of Diogenes' Laer- tius, the philosophical books of Cicero [especially De Finibus] Stobaeus and Plutarch. The most exhaustive modern treatise is that by Zeller. 504 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. The scientific achievements of the Greeks are chiefly concerned with mathematics (arithmetic as well as geom- etry) ; mechanics, astronomy, geography, and medicine. They founded both elementary arithmetic and the most important portions of plain and solid geometry. In me- chanics, they laid the foundations of statics and hydro- mechanics. In astronomy, they discovered some of the Greek Art— Phidias in his Studio. most important and fundamental laws of the heavenly bodies. Pythagoras as well as Philolaus and Nicetas of Syracuse taught, that the earth is a planet revolving around the sun. Copernicus himself confesses his great obligation to the Pythagoreans.^ 1 lu the preface of his work: ''De Eevolutionihus Orbium Coeles- tum." QBE'EK CIVILIZATION. 605 Aristarchus of Samos, who left us a very valuable treatise on tlie magnitudes and distances of the sun and, moon, measured the diameter of the sun, and his results do not differ very much from the calculations of modern astronomers. Eratosthenes determined the magnitude of the earth by a most ingenious method, and Hipparchus^ added the most essential discovery — the precession of the equinoxes. Hipparchus, furthermore, discovered the ec- centricity of the solar orbit. He accounted for the ap- parent inequality of the sun's motion by supposing that the earth is not placed exactly at the center of the circu- lar orbit of the sun, and that, consequently, his distance from the earth is subject to variations. When the sun is at his greatest distance, he appears to move more slowly, and when he approaches nearer, his motion becomes more rapid. The attention of that great astronomer was also di- rected to the motion of the moon, and, on this subject his researches were attended with equal success. From the com- parison of a great number of the most circumstantial and accurate observation of eclipses ''' recorded by the Chaldeans, he was enabled to determine the period of the moon's revolu- Hippocrates tion relatively to the stars, to the sun, to her nodes, and to her apogee. These determinations are among the most valuable results of ancient astronomy, since they corrobo- 1 Of the life of this, the greatest of all Greek astronomers, we know but very little. Suidas, the lexicographer, placed him at from b. c. 160 to 146, but without naming these epochs as those of his birth and death. 506 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. rate one of the finest theoretical deductions — the accelera- tion of the mean lunar motion — and thus furnish one of the most delicate tests of the truth of Newton's law of gravitation. Hipparchus, likewise, approximated to the parallax of the moon. Besides he drew up a catalogue o* ten hundred and eighty fixed stars. In the 130th year of our era, Ptolemy, the prince ci astronomers, as he was called, flourished in Alexan- dria, a man who did inestimable service to astronomy. Although his system of astronomy has been supplanted by the system of Copernicus, his merits, nevertheless, entitle him to the esteem and admiration of mankind. •His works are a perfect treasury of astronomical dates Fifty-oared Greek Boat. and theories; and all civilized nations took their first information on astronomy from the "Almagest" of Ptol- emy.^ If we were to characterize the scientific labors of the Grreeks in the shortest and still most effective manner, we would sum up all points into the one remark, that the Grreeks pre-eminently possessed the rare power of general- ization, the ability to rise above the immediate wants of practical life, and to soar to the abstract relation of ideas. It is strange that the Grreeks did not invent the so- 1 The original Greek name of Ptolemy's work was Syntaxis or Me- gas Astronomos (the Great Astronomer). To designate this valuable work, the Arabs used the superlative "Megiste" (Greatest), to which the Arabian article 'al' being prefixed, the hybrid name Almagest, by which it is now universally known, is derived. GREEK CIVILIZA TION. 507 called Arabian (properly speaking Indian) way of denoting numbers. They used the letters of the alphabet, as did the Hebrews and other Semites, and this extremely clumsy way of figuring formed a check on the free development of Grrecian arithmetic. Some of the simplest problems of arithmetic (especially those where fractions come into play) become, in Greek letter-denotation, so complicated that, amongst others, some of the arithmetical writings of Archimedes, wherein he used letters instead of digits, are almost unintelligible. The Grreeks had a decided bent for Greek Art— Hector Taking Leave of Andromache- geometrical investigations, in preference to arithmetical ones. Their geometry remained a model presentation of geometrical truths for twenty centuries, and, in all likeli- hood, will never be surpassed.^ We are now to approach one of the most attractive 1 Modern Geometricians (especially Steiner, Plucker, Grassman), al- most unanimously concede the greater perfection of forno. and system in Greek geometry. 508 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLB. and most enduring features of Grecian civilization, one wliich will never loose its sway over the ideas and thoughts of civilized mankind. We refer to Grreek art. The achievements of the Grreeks in this field of culture ap- parently laid the foundations of all that is beautiful and in keeping with harmony. Greek art continues to be the study of the artists of all nations who spend years f i'iivV'KllH If: 'fli qui! mm^'% :s!"i' ill II liillii iiil lte!il!ii!!ili Doric Column. in obtaining a mastery of the rules laid down by the art- ists of ancient Greece. The Greeks possessed charming freedom of mind, and superabundance of inventive in- genuity. Delicacy of preception, an aptitude for seizing nice relationships, the sense of proportions are what en- able an artist to construct a unity of forms, colors, sounds, and incidents — in short, elements and details — so closely united among themselves by inward dependencies, that their combination brings to pass a result, surpassing in the imaginary world the harmony of the actual world. Let us take an object exposed to the eye, and that which first attracts attention on entering a Greek city. GREEK CIVILIZATIOi:. 509 We refer to the temple.^ It stands usually on a height, called the Acropolis, on a substructure of rocks, as at Syra- cuse ; or on a small eminence which, as at Athens, was the first place of refuge and the original site of the city. It is visible from every point on the plain and from the neighboring hills; vessels greet it at a distance on ap- proaching the port. It stands out in a clear and bold relief in the limpid atmosphere.^ It is not like our me- dieval cathedrals, crowded and smothered by rows of houses, secreted, half concealed, inaccessible to the eye save in its details and its upper section. Its base, sides, entire mass, and full proportions appear at a glance. We are not obliged to divine the whole from a part. In order that the impression may bo clear and dis- tinct, they give it medium or small dimensions, that bear no resemblance to the vast monuments of India, Baby- lon, or Egypt; the storied and crowded palaces, the masses of avenues, enclosures, halls, and colossi, so nu- merous that the mind at last becomes disturbed and be- wildered. On the contrary, the Greek temple is so simple that a glance suffices to comprehend the whole. The ed- ifice has nothing complicated, quaint, or elaborate about it. It is a rectangle, bordered by a peristyle (range) of columns ; three or four of the elementary forms of geom- etry suffice for the whole. The crowning of the pediment, the fluting of the pillars, the abacus of the capital — all the accessories and all details — contribute yet more to show in stronger relief the special character of each mem- ber ; while the diversity of colors serves to mark and de- fine their respective value. 1 In the description of the architectural beauties of a Greek temple, we follow mainly the accurate and well expresssed statements in Taine : "L'Art en Grece.'' 2 gee the restoration, accompanied with essays, by Tetar, l^accard, Boitte, and Gamier. 510 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. In other respects, Grreek art was equally excellent. A school of sculptors in marble existed in Chios as early as 660 B. c, and there also Grlaucus is said to have dis- covered the art of welding iron, as to the remains of Grreek sculpture, which may with more or less certainty, be assigned to the period in which Glaucus, Dipoenus, Scyllis, and other noted sculptors were at work, there are the metopes from some of the most celebrated temples in .the island of Sicily, which up to the present have been regarded as furnishing the first au- thentic, and as yet, the clearest glimpses of that early stage of Grreek art. There are also some other authentic remains, espec- ially the sculptures from the temple of Athene at Aegina, now in Munich, Greek painting, or rather coloring, as it would be more properly described in its earliest phase, in which it was entirely subservient to architecture and cera- mography, is said to have been first elevated to an Ionic Column. art by Cleanthes of Cor- inth,^ who introduced the drawing of figures in outline; by Telephares of Sicyon,^ who improved on this by indica- ting the principal details of anatomy ; and Eumaras of 1 Pliny: "Historia Naturalis," xxxv. 5, ? Ibid. GREEK CIVILIZA TlOy. 511 Athens, who is said to have first distinguished in his paintings men from women, probably by the means adop- ted in the early vases, that is, by painting the flesh white- in the case of women. Like their followers down to the timeof Apelles, these painters used only the simple colors, white, yellow, red, and bluish black, greater attention being paid to the dravping than to the coloring. In temple architecture, the principles of both the Doric and Ionic orders were already fully established ; the latter in Asia Minor, and the former in Grreece proper. Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Among the remains of Doric architecture assignable to this period/are, amongst others, the two temples of Paes- tum. Of the Ionic order during this period (the sixth century), the principal example was the temple of Diana at Ephesus, the construction of which, begun by Theo- doras of Samos, was carried on by Chersyphfon of Crete and his son Metagenes, and completed by Demetrius and 512 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Paeonius about the time of Croesus. It is said that from first to last, one hundred and twenty years were con- sumed on the work. This temple having been burned by Herostratus was restored under the directions of Alex- ander's architect, Dinocrates. We have reached the time of Phidias, and have now done with imperfections in sculpture, so far at least as they originated in want of knowledge either of the human form or of technical means. Phidias, the son of Charmi- des, was an Athenian, and must have been born about 500 B. c. When Pericles succeeded to the administration of affairs, and it was determined to erect new temples and other public buildings worthy of the new glory which Athens had acquired in the Persian wars,- it was to Phidias that the supervision of all these works was entrusted, aided by an army of artists and skilled workmen. By 438 B. c, the Parthenon was completed, with its colossal statue of Athene, in gold and ivory, by Phidias himself, aiid with its vast extent of sculpture in marble, executed at least under his direction, and reflecting in most parts his genius. After the completion of the Parthenon, -Phid- ias accepted the invitation of the people of Elis to exert his highest power in fashioning for their temple of Zeus at Olympia a statue worthy of the majesty and grandeur of the supreme god of Grreece. His workshop was near the Altis, or sacred grove, where through successive centuries down to the second century of our era, it was preserved and pointed out with feelings of reverence. The finished work was over forty feet high, and represented the god seated on his throne. On his head was .a wreath of olive. The drapery was of gold, richly worked with flowers and figures in enamel. On the footstool was inscribed the verse: "Phidias, the OBEEK CIVILIZATION. 613 son of Cliarmicles, an Athenian, has made me." The throne was mostly of ebony and ivory, inlaid with pre- cious stones, and rich- ly sculptured with re- liefs, and in parts painted. All Greece made a pilgrimage to this marvelous statue and every one who had seen it was pronoun- ced happy. Most af- fectingly is the unsur- passable character of the work expressed in that beautiful le- gend, which tells how that Phidias, after the completion of his statue, when he stood thoughtfully contem- plating his work, raised his hands in prayer to Jupiter, and ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^.^^ pj^.^.^^_ implored a token whether his work was well pleasing to the god. Then suddenly, through an opening in the roof, a lightning flash glanced from the sky upon the temple floor, as an unmistakable sign of the perfect satisfaction of the Thunderer .^ We possess, in the sculptures of the 1 Pauaanius, Deser. Gr. v. 10. 514 TME MEDIEVAL WORLD. Parthenon, a large series of works in marble, at least de- signed or modeled by Phidias and executed under his im- mediate care, if not in many cases finished by his own hands. Olympian Zeus, after Phidias- The mantle of Phidias fell on his pupil, Alcamenes, an Athenian, the lofty conception in his figures of deities was highly praised, while in point of gracefulness in womanly form he appears to have excelled his master. His most celebrated work was a statue of Aphrodite for her temple, of which, however, the merit of the last touch Was ascribed to Phidias. Her cheeks, hands, and figure GtitlES: CIVILISATION. 515 were specially admired ; but as to the attitude and general effect we have no information, and are not justified in ac- cepting the Aphrodite of Mino in the Louvre at Paris as a copy of it, much less as the original work. Amongst the painters of this period, Polygnotus de- serves particular notice. He found favor with Cimon, to whose zeal the new impulse for the improvement of Athens was due, and was employed to execute wall paintings for the Stoa Poecile, the Theseum, and the Anaceum, or tem- ple of the Dioscuri. For his services, and especially for the disinterestedness of his character, Polygnotus received what was then regarded as the highest distinction — the freedom of the city of Athens. As regards the style of Polygnotus, we h^-ve the distinction drawn by Arisotle between it and that of Zeuxis (another celebrated Greek painter), a distinction which he expressed by the words ethos ?ixA pathos. By ethos, as applied to the paintings of Polygnotus, we understand a dignified bearing in his fig- ures and a measured movement throughout his composi- tions, such as the Parthenon frieze presents, compared with the pathetic rendering of scenes in the frieze from the temple of Apollo at Phigalea, or in the frieze of the Mau- soleum of Halicarnassus. The sculptures of the latter monument were made by Scopas, a native of Paros, who settled in Athens about 380 b. c, where for thirty years he maintained a reputation for an unparalleled power of ren- dering the human or divine figure, especially in a state of excited feeling. When considerably advanced in years, he was invited by Artemisia, the queen of Caria, to direct the sculptors for a monument that she was erecting at Halicarnassus in memory of her husband Mausolus.^ The 1 Cicero, Tusc. Quaest. iii. 31; Strabo, Geog. xiv.; Pliny, Hist. Nat. XXV. 516 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. site of the Mausoleum, one of the seven wonders of an- tiquity, was discovered and excavated by C.-T. Newton in 1856-7, the result being the recovery of an important part of these celebrated sculptures. More celebrated still than Scopas was Praxiteles. The scene of his labors was mostly Athens and the neigh- boring towns. His model was Phryne, the courtezan. Like Scopas he had little taste for bronze in comparison ^K^ P" ^B^^HH^^^-'^^^^^P^^^r ^^^^KP' jSSS^^b^ L-J Ici: J jw^^^K^^K^SsSt^wB^^Ui^^^^^^ ''jT' ^H^HJ^HIH^H^^^^H Greek Art— Fight of Acliilles. with marble, with its surface finely sensftive to the most delicate modulation. Unsatisfied with even this, he en- deavored to soften the asperity of the marble in the crude parts by a process of encaustic. That he was peculiar in thus tinting the marble and an exception among other Greek sculptors can not be meant in the face of so many instances of coloring in the remains of Greek sculpture and architecture. Of his works, the number of which was unusually large, the most celebrated were the following GUBEK CIVILIZATION. 517 ones : The marble statue of Aphrodite at Cnidus, a statue of Aphrodite at Thespiae, a statue of Phryne, and a statue of Eros. In painting, a great step in advance was made by Zeuxis and Parrhasius of Ephesus. An interesting tale describes their contests. Once Zeuxis painted some grapes so perfectly that birds came to pick at them. He then called on Parrhasius to draw aside the curtain and show his picture ; but, finding that his rival's picture was the curtain itself he acknowledged himself to be surj)assed, for Zeuxis had deceived birds, but Parrhasius had deceived Zeuxis.-^ The next great painter was Timanthes. But it is Apelles, in whose person were combined, if we may judge from his reputation, all the best qualities of the hitherto existing schools of painting. The best part of the life of Apelles was probably spent at the court of Philip and Alexander the Great. Many anecdotes are pre- served of Apelles and his contemporaries, which throw an interesting light both on his personal and his professional character. He was ready to acknowledge that in some points he was excelled by other artists, as by Amphion and by Asclepiodorus in perspective. He first caused the merits of Protegenes to be understood. By the general consent of ancient authors, Apelles stands first among Greek painters. To the indiscrimina- ting admiration of Pliny, we may add the unmeasured praise which Cicero, Varro, Ovid, and other writers give to the work of Apelles and especially to his Venus Ana- dyomene.^ Apelles is said to have made great improve- ments in the mechanical part of his art. His principal 1 Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 9. 36, 3. 2 Cicero, Brutus 18, de Orat. iii. 7; Varro, de Lingue, Lat. ix. 12- Ovid, Art Amandi, iii. 401. ' 31 518 THE MEblEVAL WO^LD. discovery was that of covering the picture with a very thin black varnish, which, besides preserving the picture, made the tints clearer and subdued the more brilliant colors. That he painted on moveable panels is evident from the frequent mention of tabulae with reference to his pictures. Pliny expressly says, that he did not paint on walls.^ Greek Art— Capture of Helen. We have now made a short study of G-recian Civili- zation. We have seen how, owing to their contracted area and their mode of life, the mental activity of the Greeks was wrought up to a high pitch ; and we have traced the results of this in the fields of philosophy, science, and art. Taking a general view of this whole matter, regarding G-reece as simply the first point where Aryan civilization 1 Hist. Nat. XXXV. 37. CtBEEK CI VILIZA TION. 519 came to its fruitage, we are now to turn to the study of Eoman Civilization. And here we are to notice that the waves of Aryan culture are swinging in a greatly wider circle than in Grreece. This is but a prophesy of the time when all Aryan Europe was to glow refulgent with the light first focussed in Ancient Hellas. Bacchus. 620 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. ROMAN CIVILIZATIOK, Influence of the City of Rome— First History of Rome— Description of Rome— Tlie Houses— Tlie Fora— Slavery in Ancient Rome— Dif- ferent Classes of Slaves— Treatment of Slaves — Manumission of Slaves — The House Sons — House Daughters — Marriage in Ancient Rome — The Status of Married Women — Ceremonies of Marriage — Education in Rome — Compared with Greek Education — Public Life in Rome — Public Games — Races — Gladiatorial Games — The Coliseum — The Gladiators— Influence of these Games on the People— The "Ludi Magni " — Public Baths — Meals and Foods of the Romans— Use of Wine in Rome — The Dress of Romans — The Toga — The Tunica — Special Articles of Dress— Female Dress— Roman Literature— Cicero — Tacitus — Finances in Rome — Taxes — Commerce — The Government in Ancient Rome— Normal Development of Tribal Government- Roman Civil Law— The Vast Influence on Our Civilization— Conclusion. OUR delineation of Grrecian Civi- lization, we dwelt, to a considera- ble extent, on tlie general fact, that it developed in cities ; and thus we reduced quite a number of the most important fea- tures of that civilization to one far-reaching cause. This feature of city life is not peculiar to G-recian civilization. It applies in a still greater degree to the civilization of Rome. For, though in Grreece civilization radiated from cities, there were many such centers distributed over the mother country and Asia Minor, the southern part of Italy and Sicily. As a rule, Athens is considered the head and the DESTRUCT NOF POMPEII. SOMAN CIVILIZATION. 525 leader of Grrecian civilization, but this holds good pnly with respect to a few departments of the mental develop- ment of Grreece ; and, even here, the cities of Sicily and Asia Minor contributed considerable, and so, to the great name of Athens, we have to add those of Crotona, Elea, Syracuse, Halicarnassus, etc. Thus Grreece displays the spectacle of a de-centralized mental development. This de-centralization was carried to a still greater extent in the political life of the Greeks. With regard to Rome, however, there was no room for de-centralization. Rome was the exclusive center of Roman civilization. Neither the political, the intellectual, nor the moral life of the Roman Empire had its roots else- where than in Rome. Itwas from Rome, that all the func- tions and activities of the vast empire radiated. The great Roman jurists were educated in the city of Rome. They might have been Phoenicians, like Ulpian ; or Greeks, like Gajus; but their development as jurists was completed in Rome. It was likewise there, that the great generals and heroes of Rome found their mstruction, their object, and their success. This one city decided the aifairs of Italy, Spain, Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Mace- donia. Political success was sought for in this city ; thus, when Cicero wished to be consul, his brother Quintus ad- vised him to gain first the votes of the city of Rome, for, in comparison with these votes, the balance of the Italian votes would scarcely count. That the civilization of a vast empire should be, as it were, dependent on one city is one of the most singular facts in history. There have been large cities, possessing millions of inhabitants, cities commanding great influence over the destinies of countries ; but the influence of vast cities, like Babylon or Mneveh, London, Paris, or Berlin, 526. TffE MMOmVAL WOmBMi is far from, being an exclusive one;. In addiMon' to these; large cities, there are others which, exercise similar lnfi% ence and prevent the civilization of thosje countries front depending exclusively on the development of one :s|i:^i|f point. The city of Rome is situated on the Tiber.. At the time when the seat of Rome was building, there were many other small cities in Italy, which belonged to the Etruscans ^ and the various Aryan tribes of the peninsula.-' These cities were really each the headquarters of a tribe, and consequent- ly, as a rule, they were independent of one another. Intef*^ tribal wars were, of course, frequent, but in spite of their feuds, they had many things in common. Thus, in the first place, their language, with the exception of the Etrus- cans, evidently pointed to a common origin. Their relig- ious rites were more or less the Sjpime. Tltelr/ sociar^d political institutions show a general resemblancfe; and thus we are enabled to explain m^ny of the Roma^ insti- tutions by some hints, and remnaiits found in the districts , -pf-JJie Umbrians and Oscans. We have had occasion to point out that almost nothing is known of the early history of Rome. The mass of fa- bles on which it rested has been sw|pt away befqre the de- structive criticism of modern schteam''' This, Ijoi'verer, will not prevent us from a descriptW of the politi^-al /md social institutions of Rome, in the Begp^period, as well m in the first part of the Republicepi times, bei'auoe tlKtst criticisms are directed more againstteeclir ■Doiojry of {j.uL- tles a;nd siniilar military affairs, thai against tho.w <\x\\vi and peaceful institutions, the contem^laMeffi of which fonris the prominent part of a history of c|vili8«t.i(tn. In <^nj«r 1 Above .page 268. « Tbis Series, Vol. II. p. 195 et seq. ; This Vol. p. 274 et sS^^ - < BOM AN CIVILIZATION. • 527 to form a clear picture of Roman civilization, we will be- gin with tlie description of the city, of street life, and of public and private life in Rome. Accordingly we will imagine a visit to Rome in the second century b. c, when the Republican institutions were not yet destroyed, and the institutions of the Regal period were still more or less active. It is a mistake to suppose that the institu- tions of the Regal period differed essentially from those of the Republic.^ In every respect, these two periods were, of one and the same cast and tenor, save that the life- kings of the first period were replaced by the year-kings of the second. Even the city of Rome herself did not appear much different in the second century b. c, than she did in the times of the kings. The oldest part of the city was called Roma Quadrata; and in the second century b. c, as well as now, the huge walls, attributed by tradition to king Servius, were ex- tant. The streets of the city, with the exception of two, were narrow and short. The pavement was a privilege of very few streets. Houses were divided into -two -classes. The regular private house of a wealthy Roman citizen was called domus. It consisted of a one-storied building, with a flight of three or four large halls opening into one another. The first of these halls was called the atrium. The adjoining hall was called the tablinum, and the third was called \hQ perystylium. The domestic life of a Roman house centered in the atrium. It was there, where the family took their meals, where they sacrificed to the gods, where the family council was held, and where the matron of the house cooked the meals. In addition to these three large halls, there were small compartments for the slaves of the house, for the children, and for bed-rooms. A Ro- J This Series, Vol. II. p. 304, 528 rilE MEDIEVAL WORLD. man private house had no windows facing the street. They had only sky-light arrangements, so that the house resembled a castle more than a private residence. The number of houses of this kind, in the times of Augustus, is given as seventeen hundred and eighty. The Entrance to a Roman House. second kind of house was the so-called Insula, which is identical with our tenement house There were about forty-four thousand in the time of Emperor Augustus. They had several stories and hundreds of persons were living in them. The real estate business m Rome was conducted on a very large scale, and millionaire Crassus ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 629 gained most of his fortune in insula speculations. In spite of the narrow streets, there were,, comparatively speaking, few cases of house-burning ; and this fact may be accounted for by the circumstance that tenement houses were perfect blocks, apart from one another, so that small lanes separated them, and danger from spreading fire was thereby lessened. In the streets, no carriages were to be seen, with the ^exception of those of high dignitaries, or of public conveyances for city purposes, before four o'clock in the afternoon. Private conveyances were not permitted to drive in the streets of Rome before that hour. The car- riages afforded a very interesting show for the lover of sport. - \ Thdy were two-wheeled, three-wheeled, and four- wheeled ; ^nd the horses were of the very best race, hav- ing been Imported from the most beautiful breeds of Numidia and Arabia. Early in the morning, the life of the city began its course. There were several large market halls, one for pork, arrother for sweets, a third for meats of all kinds; and these market-halls were under the strict surveillance of the Aediles. These market-places were called Fora. But the m,ost important forum in Rome was the one that was properly called "the Forum." It was situated between the Palatine and Capatoline hills, and its extent was seven, jugera. It was originally a swamp or marsh, but was said to have been filled up by Romulus and Tatius, and to have been set apart for a place of administration ' of justice, for the assemblies of the people, and for the tfansaction of other kinds of public business. In its widest sense, the Forum included the comitium, or the place of assembly for the Curiae, which was separated from the forum, in its narrower sense, or the place of assembly for the Comitia Tributa by the Rostra. 530 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. These rostra were elevated places of ground, from ■which on a stage, the orators addresssed the people. They derived their name from the fact that after the subjuga- tion of Latium their sides were adorned with the beaks (rostra) of the ships of the Antiates. The orators addressed the people from the rostra, and from thence the tribunes of the people, in the early times of the Republic, used to confront the comitia and the curiae. In 300 B. c, the The Forum. Romans adorned the Forum with gilt shields, which they had taken from the Samnites ; and, subsequently, this cus- tom of adorning the Forum was observed during the time of the public Roman games, when the magistrates rode in their chariots in procession around the Forum. After the victory of Duillius over the Carthagenians, the Forum was adorned with the celebrated Columna Rostrata. In the principal part of the Comitium the laws of the twelve tablets were exhibited for public inspection. Beside^ the BOMAN CIVILIZATION. 531 ordinary business which was carried on in the Forum, we read that gladiatorial games were held there, and that there prisoners of war and faithless colonists were put to death. The ^^cuud forum was built by Julius Csesar, and was called Forum Julii. The leveling of the ground alone cost him about a million of sesterces, and he adorned it besides with a magnificent temple of Venus Genitrix. A third forum was built by Augustus, and called Forum Augus- tium, because the two existing ones were not found suffi- cient for the great increase of business which had taken place. Augustus adorned his forum with a temple of , Mars and the statues of the most distinguished men of the Republic. Besides these fora, were the numerous temples in ~ Rome dedicated to the gods and goddesses of Greece and Rome, and even to the gods and deities of foreign nations. The distinctive ftjature of a Roman temple was, that it was considered the abode of the god and not the place of devotion. The people never thought of going to (3hurch as we do. The temple was the residence of the god, his private dwelling place, and people prayed and observed their devotional exercises in their own houses. There were of course religious processions, which frequently filled the streets of the city, but they were generally such as exerted an influence on political factors. The city of Rome had a suburb, as we might say, in the neighboring cemeteries. The most splendid tomb-stones and burial monuments adorned both sides of the magnificent Via Appia, and made the impression of a city of its own. Rome had a most excellent system of sewerage of which there are consid- erable remnants left. There were, besides, several aque- ducts conveying water to the city. The whole territory 532 TSE MEDIEVAL WORLD. of Rome was divided by Augustus into fourteen regions, as it were wards, and at the head of every ward there was an official directing its internal affairs. Interesting though the architectural and monumental appearance of ancient Rome may be, the people who in- habited that city afford a still greater interest. It was the sturdy and energetic, relentless and shrewd, pains- taking and severe people of Rome, which presented the spectacle of men, who were at once the best conquerors and rulers and the best obeyers known in general history. To obey, to stand by the command of a supe- rior, was engrafted on the mind of every Roman from his childhood; and, even in the times of the wildest licentiousness, we do not hear of a Roman who ven- tured to revolt against the Household Chapel. authority of his father, or against the principal magistrates of the city. The population of Rome was divided into three parts. In the first were the free-men; second, the freedmen ; and third, the slaves. But if we consider the condition of a son who was still in the household of his father, and if we notice the utter dependence in which he was left on the good will of his parent, we might say that, practically, there were only two classes of people in Rome, that is to say, Free-men and Slaves. For the son, as long as he was not emancipated by his father, was legally unable to earn his living, to acquire a fortune, or to live independently. In BOMAN civilization: 533 everytliing necessary to support himself, he had to depend on his father, with one exception ; as far as political life was concerned, he was considered a free, independent man, and it was there that the power of his father ceased. The slaves in Rome formed over two-thirds of the city. Of course we speak of the later times of the Repub- lic, for in the beginning of Rome, there were comparatively few slaves in the city. The slaves, forming such an over- whelming part of the population, claim our close attention; let us therefore describe their condition in detail. The most fruitful sources of slavery were the continual wars of the Romans. The number of captives brought home into slavery sometimes appears incredible. The caj)tives were divided with the spoils upon the battlefield, and each sol- dier provided for the slaves allotted to him. It became common for the slave-dealers, or as they were called Mango- nes, to accompany the armies for the purpose of purchasing the captives. Prices at such times became very trifling. Sometimes as small as four drachmae} According to Josephus, ninety-seven thousand captives followed the de- struction of Jerusalem. Men of the highest rank in Rome engaged in this horrible calling and constituted a powerful organization. Children of slaves followed the condition of the mother. There were great slave markets in Car- thage and in Delos, but the center of the trade wr.s at Rome. Slaves, generally, were sold at auction, standing upon a stone so that they might be closely scrutinized. Slaves of , peculiar beauty and rarity were kept separate and sold privately. Newly imported slaves had their feet whitened with chalk. Those from the East had their ears bored. Each of them had a scroll suspended around his neck, giving 1 About 75 cents. 534 THE MEBISiVAL WOULD. his age, birthplace, qualities, health, etc., and the seller was held to warrant the truth of this statement. He was bound to discover all defects, especially as to health, thiev- ishness, disposition to run away, or to commit .suicide. If the seller was unwilling to warrant, instead of a scroll, he placed a cap {j)ileus) upon the head of the slave. A crown Roman Slave Market. upon the head indicated a captive taken in war. The seller would cause the slave to run, leap, or perform some other act of agility. They possessed the art of causing their limbs to look strong, their flesh young, and to retard the appearance of age. The nationality of the slave gave some indication of his qualities. Thus the Phrygian was SOMAN CIVILIZATION. 535 timid ; the African, vain ; the Sardinian, unruly etc. The private slaves of the rich Roman were divided into two classes, the country and the city slaves. Any number of them, owned by the same master, 'were called respectively familiarustita wAfamilia, urbana. The slaves were still further classified according to their occupations, such as Ordinarii, Vulgares, Mediastini, Literati, etc. They were chiefly employed in agricultural pursuits or the mechanical arts. Many, however, were used as personal attendants, it being considered discredit- able for a person of rank to be seen without a train of slaves. From the moment a stranger entered the vesti- bule of the Roman house, through the hall, in the recep- tion room, at the table, everywhere he was attended by different servants, eachtakinghis name fromhis occupation. The number of slaves at any given period can not be ac- curately ascertained. That they were very numerous, in fact more numerous than the free population, is indispu- table; and, it is further known, that the numbers in- creased during the latter days of the Republic and under the emperors. The number sometimes owned by a single individual is almost incredible. A Greek writer, Atha3- neus, says, that some persons owned as many as twenty thousand. The same system was in use in every part of the household. The female slaves were distinguished in like manner. Every conceivable want being attended to by a separate slave. The smallest service had its slave. Thus the holding of the umbrella, of the fan, of the sandals, etc., gave names to particular slaves. Similarly the arranging of dress, the setting of the teeth, and the painting of the eye- brows, required separate attendants. A prominent Roman always had a nomenclator, that is to say, a slave who told 536 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. him the names of the passers-by on the street, for it was considered gentleman-like to address everybody by his name. The wife, upon her marriage, received a confiden- tial slave, dotalis servus. He belonged to her, the master had no control over him. He frequently had the confidence of the wife more than her own husband. Even the school- boy was followed by his little slave to bear his satchel to school. The old and luxurious were borne in sedans or chairs by special slaves. Slaves were even trained for gladiatorial contests, especially was this the case under the emperors, who encouraged the sports in order to disengage the thoughts of the people from their own bondage. We should not, however, judge the Romans too hashly for this cruelty, as frequently free men, knights, senators, and even emperors, for instance Commodus, descended into the arena and engaged in the fatal encounter. Sometimes even women joined in the conflict. The price of slaves in Rome varied much at different times and according to the qualities of the slave. Under the Empire, immense sums were paid for beautiful slaves and such as attracted the whim of the purchaser. "We have accounts of their selling as high as from five thousand to ten thousand dollars. In the time of Horace, about a • hundred dollars was a fair price for an ordinary slave. Clowns, jesters, and pretty females brought high prices, although females generally sold for less than males. Han- nibal, after the battle of Cannse, being encumbered with his prisoners, suffered the knights to be ransomed at sev- enty-five dollars; the legionary soldiers, at fifty dollars; the slaves, at twenty dollars. There were certain feasts, during which, for the time being, slaves were allowed perfect liberty. Of these, the most remarkable were the Saturnalia, when such perfect ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 537 equality existed that the master waited on the slaves at table. This feast was in the latter part of December and lasted seven days. Another was a feast in honor of king Servius Tullius, he being himself, according to tradition, the son of a captive and a slave. This feast lasted from the Ides of March, the date of his birth, to the Ides of April, the date of the inauguration of the temple of Diana. A Roman Villa. The punishment inflicted upon slaves for offenses were .various and some very severe. They necessarily differed from those prescribed for the same offenses when committed by free men. Minor misdemeanors were sub- mitted to the correction of the master. Cato -the censor, instituted upon his farm, a kind of jury-trial among the slaves themselves, and submitted to them the guilt and the punishment. The courts took cognizance of graver charges. The removal of the urban slave into . the fa- milia rustica was a mild and yet a much dreaded penalty, 32 538 TSE MEDIEVAL WOULD. for in such cases they worked in chains. The hand-mill was also a place of punishment. Sometimes they were scourged, after being suspended with mancles to the hands and weights fastened to the feet. Another mode of pun- ishment was a wooden yoke upon the neck and bound to the arms on either side. Upon every Roman farm there was a private prison in which refractory slaves were con- fined. They were, however, abolished in the time of Ha- drian. In some cases very severe punishments were re- sorted to, such as cutting off the hands for theft, and death by the cross. These however were very rare. To pro- tect the master, the Roman laws were very stringent and provided that, where the master was found murdered in his house and the perpetrator was unknown, all the domes- tic slaves should be put to death. There was no distinctive dress for slaves. It was once proposed in the senate to give slaves such a costume, but it was rejected since it was considered dangerous to show them their number. Male slaves were not allowed to wear the toga or bulla, nor females the stola, but otherwise they were dressed nearly in the same way as poor people, in clothes of dark color and slippers. The rites of burial, however, were not denied to slaves, for as the Romans re- garded slavery as a political institution, death was held to put an end to the distinction between free-men and slaves. In view of the many false opinions as to the treatment of slaves, in the times of the Romans, we will add a few well established facts, concerning the treatment accorded them in some instances. Cato ate and drank the same course of victuals as his slaves, and even had the children nourished by his wife, that they might imbibe a fondness for the family. He allowed the marriage of male and female slaves at the BOMAN CIVILIZATION. 539 price of a money payment from their savings. Columella, another Roman writer, regarded the gains from the births as a sufficient motive for encouraging these union's, and thought that mothers should be rewarded according to the number of their children. The immense extension of the majority of Roman real estates made it impossible for masters to know their slaves, even if they were disposed to do so. In the familia urbana, the favorites of the master had good treatment and exercised extensive in- fluence over him. Doubtless there was often mutual affec- tion. Slaves sometimes, as in noted instances during the civil wars, showed a noble spirit of devotian to their masters. Those who were common inmates of the household, but were employed outside of it as keepers of a shop or boat ; chiefs of workshops or clerks in the mercantile business, had the advantage of greater freedom of action. One proof of the generally humane treatment of slaves in Rome, may be found in the fact, that conspiracies and rebellions against the masters belonged to the rare and exceptional features of Roman history. Blair, in comparing the Grreek and Roman systems of slavery, points with justice to the greater facility and frequency of emancipation as the great superiority of the Roman system. "JN'o Roman slave," he says, "need despair of becoming both a free-man and a citizen." Manumission, or emancipation, took place in either of two general ways, /usta, and Minus Justa. Of the last form, there were four modes. First, by adoption, rarely resorted to ; second, by testament ; third, by census, which was of exceptional use and did not exist later than the time of Vespasian ; and, fourth, by vindicta, which was the general form. In tha last method, the master turned the slave around with the words "liber esto," in the presence of the praetor, that 540 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. officer with his lictors, at the same time, striking the slave with his rod. The manumissio justa was eflfected by a sufficient manifestation of the will of the master; as by letter, by words, by putting the cap of liberty on the slave, or by any other formality which had by usage become significant of the intention to liberate, or by such an act as making the slave the guardian of his children. The free-man, un- less he became such by operation of law, remained client of his master and both were bound by the "mutual obliga- tions arising out of that relation. These obligations existed !"*. \ w Trr--=^?^=Tt"i^5^ The Atrmm. also in the case of freemen of the state, of cities, temples, and corporations. The free-man took his former master's name, he owed him deference and aid, and neglect of these obligations was punished, in extreme cases, even with the loss of liberty. Conditions might be annexed by the mas- ter to the gift of freedom, such as continued residence with him, or of general service, or some particular duty to be performed, or of a money payment to be made. In the second century of the Grreek era, we find a marked change with respect to the institution of slavery, both in the region of thought and in that of law. Al- ROMAN CIVILIZA TION. 641 ready the principles ' of reason and humanity had been applied to the subject, as by Seneca, who, whatever we may think of him as a man, deserves our gratitude for the just and liberal sentiments he expressed respecting slaves, who, he says, should be treated as humble friends ; and especially for his energetic reprobation of gladiatorial combats and of the brutality of the public who enjoyed these sanguinary shows. The military vocation of Rome was now felt to have reached its normal limits, and the emperors, understanding that, [in the future, industrial activ- ity must prevail, prepared for the abolition of slavery, as far as was then possible, by honoring freemen, by protecting the slave against his master, and by facilitating manumission. The state granted to public slaves the right of be- queathing half of their possessions, and private persons sometimes permitted similar dispositions even to a greater extent, though only within their familiae. Hadrian took from masters the power of life and death and abolished the subterranean prisons. Antonius Pius punished him who killed his own slave, as if he had killed another's. Already in the time of Nero, the magistrates had been ordered to receive the slave's complaint of ill-treatment and the Lex Petronia, belonging to the same or an earlier period, forbade masters to hand over their slaves to com- bat with wild beasts ; and Antonius Pius directed that slaves treated with excessive cruelty, who had taken refuge at an altar or imperial image, should be sold ; and this provision was extended to cases in which masters had employed a slave in a way degrading to him or beneath his character. Marcus Aurelius gave to masters an action against their slaves for any cause of complaint, thus bring- ing their relation more directly under the surveillance of law and public opinion. A slave's oath could still not be 542 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. taken in the court of war. He was interrogated by the torturer, but the emperor and jurists limited in various ways the application of torture. We learn more about the private and intimate rela- tions between Roman slaves and their niasters from the numerous mortuary inscriptions found all over Italy and, in fact, all over the Roman Empire, and which have been most carefully collected and compiled. In these inscriptions, we find numerous allusions to the relations of Roman slaves to their masters ; and it is both pleasing and instructive to see how frequently the relation between master and ser- vant assumed the form of real friendship. On many tomb- stones, we read of the master's will to let his slave be the sole heir to his fortune. On others, he expresses a desire to lie beside his slave, who was his only and most trusted friend. On others, again, he expresses his deep gratitude for all the beneficial work that his slave had bestowed upon him. These and similar testimonials bespeak the real condition of slavery in Rome in a much clearer and in a more unequivocal way than the text of Roman laws, which by their very nature, had to be harsh and severe. In the real life of the Romans, the slaves formed a very con- siderable constituent of the comfort, of the industry and commerce, of the instruction of the people. The slaves were the trades-people; they were the agents, commission- ers, representatives ; they carried on a brisk trade for their masters ; they were the private tutors and instructors of the master's children; they were the physicians of the house, and to them the lives of noble Romans were trusted daily and hourly. The second class of people in Rome, technically known as free-men, comprises those persons who were free, and yet, as being members of a joint-family, were under the ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 543 control of a house-father. Here it is of the utmost impor- tance for us to keep in mind the results of previous inquiry into Ancient Society and especially as to the rights and duties of the various members of a joint-family. Many of the laws and institutions of ancient Rome admit of easy explanation when we once recall the peculiar standing of the joint-family.^ We have seen, that wherever ancient society has had a normal development the joint-family inva- riably made its appear- ance. Every known branch of the Aryan race achieved its devel- opment. Now in an- cient Rome, when the other institutions of an- cient society were fast breaking down, when we can only dimly make i out the tribe, phratry, and gens, we find the joint-family still enjoy- ing a vigorous life. The ' constant tendency of advancing civilization, which is to break up this form of the family, had made but slight in- a Roman Citizen. roads upon the joint-family among the Romans. Recall to mind that, in the developed form of the joint-family, the house-father or house-chief owned and controlled all its ^ rjijs Series, Vol. II. p. 217 et seq. 544 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. property, voted for it in the general assemblies, was its judge and general executive.^ We have further seen how most people made arrange- ments for liberating the sons from the control of the house- chief. But in Rome this step had not been taken. Hence a house-son had no public civil rights whatever. He could not acquire a cent's worth of property, he could not call his own the minutest thing in the world, and anything that he acquired belonged to his father. He could hot marry without his consent and, when married, he had to ask for the means of his sustenance, and he remained depend- ent just as in the days of his childhood. His father could punish him, nay, more than this, in point of law, his father could put him to death, and we have several records in the Roman and Grreek historians of Roman fathers who ex- ecuted their sentence of death, and did not hesitate to sacrifice their own sons to their stern morality. But within the family he probably did have some rights. He was entitled to maintenance, and could probably be pun- ished only in accordance with the decree of the family council.^ The position of the female members of this joint- family were, in the first stage, even more dependent than the house-sons. Theoretically they were always members of some joint-family, and always under the power of some house-chief. Marriage, in the first stage, simply trans- ferred her to a new joint-family, of which her husband was chief. Legally she was in the same relation to him as was her daughter. On the death of a house-father, the female members did not thereby gain their liberty. They simply passed under the control of the new house-father. There- 1 Ibid. 218. 2 Ibid, BOMAN CIVILIZATION.- 545 by the mother might come under subjection to her own son, sisters to their brother.^ Such was the joint-family among the Romans. It was not something peculiar to them, but it long retained its archaic rights and privileges ; the reason of which reten- tion is probably to be found in the peculiar surroundings of the Patrician tribes. By skillful management, these three tribes had gained enormous power, and acquired great wealth. We have also seen how from the very earliest times they were called upon to exert all their skill, power, and diplomacy to keep their Plebeian population in subjec- tion and how many centuries went by before they Avere' finally vanquished in this matter. Of necessity, such a people became very conservative of old customs. Nearly every change was forced from them. It is not strange, then, that the joint-family was one of the very last to be attacked.** Yet we detect the entering wedge. If the process of civilization be the bringing to the front of individuals and individual rights, the joint-family must disappear in time. So in Rome, sons in the service of the state were in a measure released from the control of the house-father. What they gained in such service they did not turn in to the family treasury. And, of necessity, the public officers' were released from this control, at least as regards all offi- cial acts. We have just pointed out that women were always considered members of a joint-family and hence under the control of a house-father. It becomes then of interest to consider marriage in Rome and the transferrence from one joint-family to another. When the joint-family as- 1 Hearn : "Aryan Household," p. 89. 2 This geries, Vol. II. p. 229. 546 THE MEDIEVAL WOELD. sumed the highly artificial form' that it did in ancient Rome, we would naturally expect to find many ceremonies attending the transferrence of a female from one joint- family to another. Hence arose the solemn and stately form of marriage known as the Confarreatio. This was largely a religious act. The woman was about to renounce the household gods of one family, and henceforth worship another set. She was to break all legal connections with one family, and unite herself with another. Hence the set words to be spoken before ten wit- nesses, and the religious cere- monies, in which the eating of a symbolic meal occurred, and from which this form of mar- riage was derived.-^ As we Avould expect, this form of marriage long sur- vived among the conservative Patricians, and when it had died out in common use, was still employed in the marriage of priests.^ But there were other forms of marriage in Roman Matron. use, which were not so solemn and stately, and which may have been the older forms.^ One was Coemptio. It was effected by a formal sale of the woman, in the same manner and form as the sale of any article of personal property. Still a third form was that "Ancient City." 1 FidsHearn: "Aryan Household," also Coulanges: 8 Becker: "Gallus," Excursus i. 3 Wood: "Wedding Day in all Ages," p. 51. McLennan: 'Primitive Marriage," p. 8. ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 547 of Usus, in which marriage was implied by the living together of the parties for one year, though should the woman absent herself for three whole nights this legal presumption would not follow.^ Besides these legal forms, there were many ceremonies at which we will glance. After the parties had agreed to marry and the house-fathers, in whose dominion they were, had consented, a meeting of friends was sometimes held at the house of the maiden for the purpose of settling- the marriage contract, which was written on tablets and signed by both parties. The woman, after she had promised to become the wife of a man, was called Sponsa or, Pacta. The rnan put a ring on the finger of his betrothed as a pledge of his fidelity. This ring was probably, like all rings at this time, worn on the left hand and on the finger nearest to the smallest. The last point to be fixed .was the day on which the marriage was to take place. Towards the close of the Republic, it became customary to betroth young girls while they were yet children. Augustus put a check on this custom. Grirls, before they had completed their tenth year, could not be betrothed. The Romans be- lieved that certain days were unfortunate for the perform-' ance of the marriage rites, either on account of the relig- ious character of those days themselves, or on account of the days by which they were followed, as a woman had to perform certain religious rites on the day after her wed- ding, which could not take place on a Dies ater (a black day). Days not suitable for entering upon matrimony were the first, ninth, and fifteenth of every month. Fur- thermore, the whole months of May and February were _ excepted, as well as a great number of festivals. Widows, 1 "Wood, L. 0. : Becker: "Gallus," Excursus!. 548 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. however, might marry on days which were inauspicious for maidens. On the wedding day, the bride was dressed in a long white robe, with a purple fringe adorned with ribbons. This dress was called the Tunica recta and was bound round the waist with a girdle, which the husband had to untie in the evening. The bridal veil was of a bright yellow color, and her shoes likewise. Her hair was di- vided, on this occasion, with the point of a spear.^ The only form of marriage which was celebrated with solemn religious rites was that by confarreatio. Then a sheep was sacrificed and its skin was spread over two chairs, upon which the bride and bridegroom sat down with their hands covered. Hereupon the marriage was completed by pronouncing a formula or prayer, after which another sac- rifice was offered. The bride was conducted to the house of her husband in the evening. She was taken with ap- parent violence from the arms of her mother or of the person who had to give her away.** On her way, she was accompanied by three boys dressed in the Praetexta and whose fathers and mothers were still alive. One of them carried before her a torch of white thorn, or accord- ing to others, of pine wood. The two others walked by her side, supporting her by the arm. The bride herself carried a distaff and a spindle with wool. A boy called Camillus carried, in a covered vase, the so-called utensils of the bride and playthings for children. Besides these persons who officiated on the occasion, the procession was'attended by a numerous train of friends, both of the bride and the bridegroom, whose attendance 1 A probable survival of marriage by capture. This Series Vol. II. p. 126. 2 Notice the survival of capture. ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 549 was called officium. When the procession arrived at the house of the bridegroom, the doors of which were. adorned with garlands and flowers, the bride was carried across this threshold by men who had been married to only one woman, that she might not knock against it with her foot, Wall Ornament at Pompeii. which would have been an evil omen. Before she entered the house, she wound wool around the door-posts of her new residence and anointed them with oil. The husband received her with fire and water, which the woman had to touch. The bride saluted her husband with the mystic words, "TJbitu Caius, Ego Caia." After she had entered 550 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. the house, slie was placed upon a sheepskin, and here the keys of the house were delivered into her hands. A re- past given by the husband to the whole train of relatives and friends who accompanied the bride generally conclu- ded the solemnity of the day.^ These strict forms, of marriage, which we have de- scribed, all had, as one result, the adoption of the wife into the joint-family of her husband ; and, consequently, she came under his power, or as the Romans expressed it in Manum Mariti. From a very early time, there existed a less binding form of marriage, in which the wife did not become a member of the joint-family of her husband.^ She remained in the family of her father. Instead of being de- pendent on her husband, and instead of loosing all her individuality, she kept her independence and freedom to an extraordinary degree. She did not even share the name of her husband, and instead of being called by his family name, she kept her old maiden name as before. So we see that Roman wives were either in a kind of legal bondage, which seems to be utterly repulsive to our modern feelings, or they were independent to an extent which seems to clash with the natural and religious tendencies of matrimonial life. On the one hand, a Roman wife was considered a babe, a minor, a ward, a person incapable of doing or act- ing anything according to her own individual taste, a per- son continually under the tutelage and guardianship of her husband. On the other hand, she was considered 1 These various ceremonies are largely extracted from Smith's Dic- tionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Article "Matrimonium." 2 This was Matrimonium Justus without conventio in manum. Here we have followed Becker: "Gallus." Some think that only the first form of marriage eore/arreaiio placed the wife in manum,. Yet if coemptio and usus be the older forms, of necessity they must, at least in the first place, have placed the wife in the power of the husband. ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 551 capable of exercising a freedom of action which seems out of place with our ideas; and her life with her husband Avas anything but that intimate and religious companionship which forms our ideal of v/edded life. We "need only remark that this form of marriage grew in favor. Property considerations largely conduc- ed to this result. Marriage, thus loosely contracted, could be as loosely dissolved. Thus toward the close of Furniture, etc, in the Room of a Ricli Homan. the Republic, the marriage tie was looser in Rome than in almost any other Aryan community. Against this merely nominal marriage, a reaction set in under Christianity. We piust observe how greatly this change must have af- fected the old joint-family, and this doubtless had a great deal to do in effecting its dissolution, and so bringing on the stage the modern family.-' However restricted the legal rights of women were theoretically, practically they enjoyed a great amount of 1 FideHearn: "Aryan Household," p. 479. 652 trjB medieval would. freedom. The legal enactments were disregarded, and the social position of a Roman woman was as free, honored, and as high as the social position of any woman in any- other country. In fact, the women of Rome enjoyed a far greater' social liberty than the women, for instance, in Grreece. In the latter country, as we have seen, women were not permitted to join the meals and associations of men ; whereas the Roman matrons could freely mingle with gentlemen and enjoy the evening parties of their husbands or sons. They could go to theaters ; they could appear in the assembly hall of the Senate ; they could go to the arena, and their influence on the education of child- ren was decisive. In fact, their great influence naade itself manifest, in the first two centuries of our era, in that they were mostly instrumental in starting the new religion, which, under the name of Christianity, had commenced to exert its beneficial influence. In spite of the republican and more or less demo- cratical character of their state, the Romans never thought of establishing public schools, and, least of all, of making them free. A home education was all that a Roman child received, and the range of this studies was rather narrow. Tuition was left entirely in the hands of private tutors who, as we have observed, were mostly slaves or freedmen. The Roman boy learned to read and to write ; and, as far as our historical knowledge of Rome goes, the art of read- ing and writing was known almost generally even from the earliest times. It would have been almost impossible to do without a knowledge of these arts ; for, according to Roman usages and Roman exigencies, it was almost in- dispensable for every citizen to know the art of writing, and, consequently, that of reading. For instance, every house-father was com2Delled to keep a strict account of his ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 553 income and of his outlays. In modern times, sucli accounts are generally incumbent on merchants only, but in Rome the house-books, as they were called, were of great value as evidence in cases of litigation. In addition to reading and writing, a little arithmetic was taught ; but, in this respect, the Romans were greatly deficient. Even in times when the Romans had conquered the whole civilized world, they still displayed a curious ignorance of mathe- Copying Manuscripts in Home. matics, and they were obliged to resort to the help of Grreek mechanics and engineers. The last part of a Roman edu- cation was a knowledge, or at least a smattering of the fundamental law of Rome, in other words the so-called twelve tablets. If we compare the amount of knowledge imparted to a young Roman boy with that to a young Grrecian, we will readily see the great diiference in the character of these 53 554 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. two nations. From his early childhood, every G^recian was compelled to learn by heart the poems of Homer, which gave him a treasure of poetical knowledge as well as a stock of practical wisdom. Accordingly we find that the Grecians had a decided inclination to a more elevated conception of life, to a more poetical, tender, sympa- thetic love for their fellow beings and for the world in general. The bent of a Roman's mind, on the contrary, was thoroughly practical, stern, unbending ; his life was not filled with images of poetry, with high strung conceptions of fancy. He was taught to strug- gle for what is immediate, for earthly goods, for money, and for power. It was only in later times, that the Ro- mans were accustomed to go to Greece and spend several years in Athens and Rhodes, in order to acquire part of that noble and philosophical knowledge, which the Greeks, even in their decadence, did not fail to teach. Down to the latest times, Roman education was mainly a practical one, shunning all the higher and moral ideal objects which were so fervently embraced by the Greeks. In the times of the emperors, the Romans devoted an undue amount of attention to the art of oratory, but even then they neg- lected the science of philosophy, as well as mathemati3al and astronomical speculations, by the cultivation of which the Greeks immortalized their names.-' The education of a Roman resembled, in its main fea- tures, the education of the majority of the people of our land, who, after having laid a foundation of general knowl- edge, rush into real life, and the experience there ob- tained completes what the schools omit. Public life was the domineering factor in Roman education. Their 1 "As the twig is inclined, the tree is bent." The diflferenoe here pointed out characterized the two people throughout, and left Indelible marks on history. ROMAN OIVILIZA TlON. 565 men were public men, men who either yielded to public opinion, or who tried to wield the opinion of the public. We will fail to understand the spirit of Roman civilization, unless we represent to ourselves the great importance of public life as opposed to private life. Without exaggera- tion, we can say that there was little private life in ancient Rome. Rome knew only of public life, the life of the streets, of the forum, of the campus, of the army and navy, and every Roman was more or less engaged in these HiJL^wl* Circus Maximus. public activities. Hence, all the sports, games, amuse- ments, etc., of the people, were of a public character. This point must be steadily kept in view, if we would under- stand Roman institutions. These general reflections will help us to understand the public amusements of the peo- ple, and in the first place, the amusements of the circus. The circus was a place for athletic contests and for chariot and horse races. When Tarquinius Prisons had taken the town of Apiolse from the Latins, he commem- orated his success by an exhibition of races and pugi- 556 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. listic contests in the Murcian Yalley, between the Pal- atine and Aventine hills, around which a nnmber of temporary platf6rnas were erected hj t\e patres av^d^equites, each one raised a stage for himself upon which he stood to view the games. This course, with its surround- ing scaifoldings, was termed "circus." Previous to the death of Tarquin, however, a permanent building was constructed for such games, with regular tiers of seats in the form of a theater. To this the name of "Circus Maximus" was subsequently given to distinguish it from other similar buildings, which it surpassed in extent and splendor, and hence it is often spoken of as the circus, without any distinguishing adjective. Of the Circus Maximus, scarcely a vestige now re- mains beyond the palpable evidence of the site it occupied and a few masses of rubble work in the circular forum, which may be seen under the walls o'f some houses in the Yia de Cerchi, and which retain traces of having sup- ported the stone seats of the spectators. This loss is for- tunately supplied by the remains of a small circus on the Appian Way, commonly called "the circus of Caracalla," the ground-plan of which, together with much of the super- structure, remains in a state of fair preservation. The seats, termed collectively the cavea, were arranged as in a theater. The last rows were separated from the ground by a podium. The tiers of seats were divided longitudi- nally and diagonally by passage ways. Toward the extrem- ity of the upper branch of the cavea., the general outline is broken by an outwork which was pvohablj the ^u/vinar or station for the emperor, as it is placed in the best situa- tion for observation and in the most prominent part of the circus. In an opposite branch is situated another interrup- BOMAN CIVILIZATION. 557 tion to the uniform line of seats, showing also from its con- struction a place of distinction, which might have been assigned to the person at whose expense the games were given. In the center of the area, was a low wall running lengthwise down the course, which, from its resemblance to the position of the dorsal bone in the human frame, was termed spina. At each extremity of the spina, were placed upon a post three conical, wooden cylinders like cypress trees, which were called metae (the goals). The most re- markable objects upon the spina were.two columns support- ing seven conical objects, which, from their resemblance to eggs, weref called ova. Their use was to enable the specta- tors to count the number of rounds which had been run, for which purpose they were first introduced by Agrippa. They were, therefore, seven in number, such being the number of circuits made in each race, and as each round was run, one of the ova was put up or taken down. At the other extremity of the spina, were two similar columns, sustaining seven dolphins, which do not appear to have been intended to be removed, but only placed there as corresponding ornaments to the ova. At the extremity of the circus, in which the two horns of the cavea termi- nated, were placed the stalls for the horses and chariots, commonly called carceres. The number of these carceres is supposed to have been usually twelve. They were vaults, closed in front by gates of open wood work, which were opened simultaneously, upon a signal being given, by removing a rope attached to pilasters placed for that pur- pose between the stalls. 'The games in the circus embraced six kinds. First, the races ; second, the Trojan games ; third, the eques- trian battles; fourth, the gymnastic contests; fifth, the chase ; and, sixth, the naval battle. The . games com- 558 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. menced with a grand procession, in which all those who were about to exhibit in the circus, as well as persons of distinction, took part. Statues of the gods, paraded upon wooden platforms, formed the most conspicuous feature in the procession. They were borne upon the shoulders as the statues of saints are carried in modern processions. The races {cursus) formed the most common games. The chariots, employed in the races, were drawn by two or four horses. The usual number of chariots entered for each race was Chariot Race. four. The drivers were also divided into four companies, Q.?^Q(ifactiones, each distinguished by a different color, to represent the four seasons of the year. The driver stood in his car within the reins, which went around his back. This enables him to throw all his weight against the horses by leaning backwards, but it greatly increased his danger in case of an upset ; to avoid this peril, a sort of knife or bill-hook was carried at the waist, as is seen in some ancient reliefs, for the purpose of cutting the reins in the case of emergency. BOMAN CIVILIZATION. 659 When air was ready, the doors of the carceres were flung open, and the chariots were formed abreast of the alba linea. The signal for the start, sometimes the sound of trumpet or, most generally, the fall of a napkin, was then given by the person who presided at the games. The alba linea was then cast off and the race commenced, the extent of which was seven times around the spina, keeping it always on the left. A course of seven circuits was termed unus missus^ and twenty-five was the number of races run each day. The victor descended from his car at the conclusion of his race, and ascended the spina, where he received his reward, consisting of a considerable sum of money, which accounts for the great wealth of Ro- man charioteers. A single horseman attended each chariot, the object of which arrangement seems to have been two- fold — to assist his companion by urging on the horses, when his hands were occupied in managing the reins, and, if necessary to ride forward and clear the course. The enthusiasm of the Romans for these races ex- ceeded all bounds. Lists of the horses with their names and colors and those of the drivers were handed about, and heavy bets made upon each faction; and sometimes the contests between two parties broke out into open violence and bloody quarrels. The Emperor. Justinian nearly lost his crown in consequence of disputes which originated in the circus. The Trojan games were sort of sham fights, said to have been invented by Aeneas, performed by young men of rank on horseback. As to the other kinds of games, their names show their nature.^ A most important class of games yet remains to be described ; the gladiatorial combats. These games were 1 This account is extracted from Smith's Dictionary, "Greek and Eoman Antiquities," art. Circus. 560 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. generally executed in the amphitheater. There were several amphitheaters in Rome at different times, and it was among . the designs of Augustus to erect an amphitheater in the midst of Rome in keeping with the magnitude of the city. It was not, however, until the reigns of Vespasian and Titus, that the design of Augustus was carried into effect, by the erection of the Amphitheatrum Flavium, or as it has been called the Colosseum. This wonderful building, which for magnitude can only be compared to the pyra- mids of Egypt, is perhaps the most striking monument of the material greatness of Rome under the empire. It was commenced by Vespasian, but at what precise time is un- certain. It was completed by Titus, who dedicated it in the year 80 a. d., on which occasion five thousand animals of different kinds were slaughtered. The Flavian amphi- theater became the place where princes and people met to- gether to witness those sanguinary exhibitions, in which the Roman people delighted. In the reign of the emperor Macrinus, it was struck by lightning, by which the upper rows of benches were consumed, and so much damage was done to other parts of the structure, that the games were for some years celebrated in another locality. Its restora- tion was commenced by Emperor Elagabalus, and com- pleted by Alexander Severus. It was again struck by lightning in the reign of Emperor Decius, but was soon re- stored and the games continued to be celebrated in it down to the sixth century. Since that time, it has been used sometimes in war as a fortress and in peace as a quarry. Whole palaces, such as the Cancellaria and Polazzo Far- nese, were built out of its spoils. At length, the popes took steps to preserve it.^ Notwithstanding the damages of time, war, andspolia- i Consult Smith's Dictionary, art. Amphitheater. SOMAN CIVILIZATION. 563 tion, the Flavian amphitheatre still remains complete enough to give us a fair idea, excepting in some minor de- tails, of the structure and arrangement of this kind of build- ings. The very site of the Flavian amphitheater, as of most others, furnishes an example of the prodigal contempt of labor and expense, which the Roman emperors displayed in their great works of architecture. The Grreeks, in choos- ing the sites of their theaters, almost always availed them- Colosseum at Rome. selves of some natural hollow on the side of a hill; but the Roman amphitheaters, with few exceptions, stand on plains. The site of the Colosseum was in the middle of the city, on the marshy ground which was previously the pond of Nero's palace. Figures can not give an adequate concep- tion of this vast structure. Its dimensions and arrange- 664 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. ments were sufficient to furnish seats for eighty-seven thous- and spectators; it inclosed an arena large enough to afford space for the combats of several hundred animals at once, or that sufficed for the evolution of mimic sea-fights and the exhibition of artificial forests. Its passages and stair- cases gave ingress and egress without confusion to the immense mass of spectators, and for those who fought in the arena. There were dens for the thousands of animals devoted to destruction. There were also channels for the rapid influx and outlet of water, when the arena was used for the naval battle ; and the means for the removing of the carcasses and the other abominations of the arena. We need simply add, that the wealth and luxury of Rome were exhausted in adorning'this enormous building.^ The gladiators who fought in this arena, were men who were trained to fight either with their fellow men or with wild beasts. The origin of such contests is thought by some to be the practice among savage people of immo- lating slaves and prisoners on the death of illustrious chief- tains, a practice recorded in Grreek, Roman, and Scandina- vian legends, and even much later in the Indian suttee. Even at Rome, they were for a long time confined to funerals and hence the older name for gladiators was dus- tuarii ; but in the later days of the Republic, their original significance was forgotten and they formed as large a part of the public amusements as the theater or the circus. The first gladiators are said to have been exhibited at Rome by Marcus and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral of their father, B. c. 164. On this occasion only three pairs fought, but the taste for these games spread rapidly and the number of combatants grew. Julius Caesar engaged 1 An admirable picture of the magnitude and magnificence of this amphitheater is drawn in the latter part of Gibbon's twelfth chapter. ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 665 such, extravagant numbers for his aedileship, that his political opponents took fright and carried a decree of the Senate imposing a certain limit of numbers; but notwith- standing this restriction, he was able to exhibit no less than three hundred couples. During the later days of the Republic, the gladiators were a constant element of danger to the public peace. The more turbulent spirits among the nobility had each his band of gladiators to act as a body-guard, and the armed Dying Gladiator. ' troops of Clodius, Milo, and Catilina played the same part in Roman history as the armed retainers of the feudal barons or the condoiiieri oi the rebellious republics.. Under the Empire, notwithstanding sumptuary enactments, the passion for this species of ganies steadily increased. Augus- tus limited the shows to two a year and forbade a praetor to exhibit more than a hundred and twenty gladiators ; but many allusions in the Roman poets, show that a hun- 566 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. dred pairs was the fashionable number for private enter- tainments. In a description still extant, the emperor states that more than ten thousand men had fought during his reign. The Emperor Claudius was devoted to this pas- time and would sit from morning until night in his chair of state, descending now and then to the arena to coax or force the reluctant gladiators to resume their bloody work. Under Nero, senators and even well born women ap- peared as combatants. Emperor Titus ordered a show which lasted one hundred days, and Trajan, in celebration of his trumph over Decebalus, exhibited five thousand pairs of gladiators. Domitian instituted chase by torch- The Amphitheater in Pompeii. light, and at a festival, in the year 90 a. d., he arranged a battle between dwarfs and women. Even as late as 200 A. D., an edict was passed forbidding women to fight. How widely the taste for these sanguinary spectacles extended throughout the Roman provinces is known by monuments, inscriptions, and the remains of those amphitheaters. Erom Britain to Syria, there was not a town of any size that could not boast its arena and annual games. Gladiators Avere drawn either from prisoners of war, slaves, or criminals condemned to death. In the first ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 667 class, we read of tattooed Britons in their war chariots, Thracians with their peculiar bucklers and cimeters, Moors from the villages around Atlas, and Negroes from Central Africa. Down to the time of the Empire, only great malefactors, such as highway robbers and incendia- ries, were condemned to the arena ; but by Caligula, Clau- dius, and Nero, this punishment was extended to minor offenses, such as fraud and peculation, in order to supply the growing demand for victims. In the first century of the Empire, it was lawful for masters to sell their slaves as gladiators, but this was forbidden by Hadrian and Mar- cus Aurelius. Besides these three regular classes, the ranks were recruited by a considerable number of freed- men and K,oman citizens who had squandered their estates and voluntarily took the profession of gladiators. Even men of birth and fortune frequently entered the lists, either for the pure love of fighting or to gratify the whim of some dissolute emperor, and one emperor, Commodus, actually appeared in person in the arena. Griadiators were trained in schools, owned either by the state or by private citizens; and, though the trade of a lanista (a trainer of gladiators) was considered disgrace- ful, to own gladiators and let them out for hire was reckoned a legitimate branch of commerce. Cicero in his letters to Atticus, congratulates his friend on the good bar- gain he had made in purchasing some gladiators, and urges that he might easily requite himself by consenting to let them out twice. Men recruited mostly from slaves and criminals, whose lives hung on a thread, must have been more dangerous characters than modern galley-slaves or convicts; and, though highly fed and carefully attended, they were, of necessity, subject to an iron discipline. In the school of gladiators discovered at Pompeii, of the sixty- 568 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. three skeletons buried in the cells, many were in irons. Still, hard as was the gladiator's lot, so hard that special precau- tions had to be taken to prevent suicide, it had its consola- tions. A successful gladiator enjoyed far greater fame than any modern prize-fighter or athlete. He was presented with broad-pieced chains and jeweled helmets, such as may be seen in the museum at Naples ; and poets, like Martialis, sang his praise, and his portrait was multiplied on vases, lamps, and other articles, and (human nature is so persist- ently the same) high-born ladies contended for his favors. Mixed, too, with the lowest dregs of the city, there must have been many noble barbarians condemned to the vile trade by the hard fate of war. There are few finer char- acters in Roman history than the Thracian Spartacus, who, escaping with seventy of his comrades from the school of Lentulus at Capua, defied the legions of Kome. After the Emperor's defeat at Actium, the only part of his army that remained faithful to his cause was the gladiators, whom he had enrolled to grace his anticipated victory. There were various classes of gladiators, distinguished by their armor or the modes of fighting. The Samnites fought with their national weapons, a large, oblong shield, a visor, a plumed helmet, and a short sword.< The Thra- cians had a small, round buckler and a dagger curved like a scythe. They were generally pitted against the mir- millones, so-called from the fish which served as the crest of their helmet. In like manner the retiarius was matched with the secutor. The former had nothing on but a short tunic or apron and sought to encircle his pursuer, who was fully armed, with the cast-net that he carried in his right hand, and if successful, he dispatched him with the trident that he carried in his left. We may also men- tion the andabatae who wore helmets with closed visors. n.OMAN CIVILIZATION. 569 The essedarii who fought from chariots like the ancient Britons, and the laqueatores who tried to lasso their an- tagonists. The estimation in which gladiatorial games was held by Roman moralists deserves notice, and so also the in- fluence that they exercised upon the morals and genius of I f 1 . 1 I , I 1 t Fighting Gladiators. the nation. The Roman was essentially cruel, not so much from spite or vindictiveness, as from callousness and de- fective sympathies. This fact may be easily explained by the daily habits of the Roman people. If a peo- ple are accustomed to move in masses, in aggregates of 570 TBE MUDIUVAL WORLD. men, they will quickly loose those delicate emotions which the individual private life requires and which, as a rule, are entirely stifled in the movements of masses. We may easily observe the change of feelings which comes over us when we stand in the midst of a large mass of people. Our finer sentiments become obtuse and we lose our sense of delicacy, which is entirely supplanted by the rougher, coarser, and also more cruel kinds of sentiments natural to amass of people. That the sight of blood-shed -pro- vokes love of blood-shed and cruelty is a common-place of morals. To the horrors of the arena, we may attribute in part the frequency of suicide among the Romans. It is one of the finest remarks of Lessing that the Romans were una- ble to produce a great dramatic writer because of their love of the arena. People, who could see, unmoved, real agony and the real unmitigated horrors of death could not be satisfied wdth the imitation of agony on the tra- gical stage; and, accordingly, we find that the Romanp, while they produced a few good writers of comedies, as Plautus and Terentius, never produced a great writer of tragedy. In connection with this fact, we remind the reader that the G-reeks, as remarked above, abhored the games of the arena and, by thus retaining all the delicate, subtle nature of their feelings were enabled to write the most touching tragedies. But we must not exaggerate the effects or draw too sweeping inferences from the prevalence of gladiatorial or similar amusements in Rome. Humdn nature is happily illogical, and we know that many of the Roman statesmen who gave these games and themselves enjoyed these sights of blood were in every other department of life irreproachable. They were indulgent fathers, humane ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 671 generals, and mild rulers of provinces. In the present state of society, it is difficult to conceive how a man of taste could gaze upon a scene of human butchery : yet we should remember, that it is less than half a century since bear-baiting was prohibited in England; and we are only now attaining that stage of morality in respect to cruelty to animals that was reached in the fifth century, by the help of Christianity, in respect to cruelty to men. We shall not, then, be greatly surprised if few of the Roman moralists be found to raise their voices against this amusement, except on the score of extravagance. Cicero, in a well-known passage, commends the gladia- torial games as the best discipline against the fear of death and suffering that can be presented to the eye. The younger Pliny, who perhaps of all Romans approached nearest to our ideal of a cultured gentleman, speaks ap- provingly of them. Marcus Aurelius, though he did much to mitigate their horrors, yet, in his writings, condemns the monotony rather than the cruelty. Seneca is indeed a splendid exception, and his letters to Lentulus are an elo- quent protest against this inhuman sport. In the Confes- sions of Augustine there occurs a narrative, which is worth quoting as a proof of the strange fascination which the games exercised even on a religious man and a Christian. He tells us how his friend Alipius was dragged against his will to the amphitheater ; how he strove to quiet his conscience by closing his eyes ; how, at some exciting crisis, the shouts of the whole assembly aroused his curi- osity ; how he looked and was lost, grew drunk with the sight of blood, and returned again and again, knowing his guilt, yet unable to abstain. The first Christian emperor was persuaded to issue an edict abolishing gladiatorial games in the year 325 a.d., yet, in 404, we read of an ex- 34 572 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. hibition of gladiators to celebrate the triumph of Honorius oyer the Goths, and it is said that they were not totally extinct in the West until the time of Theodoric. Besides the gladiatorial games and the races, there were the Ludi Magni. They were originally a votive feast to Capitoline Jupiter, promised by the general when he took the field and performed on his return from the annual campaign. They thus presented the appearance of a military spectacle, or rather a review of the whole Burgess force, which marched in solemn procession from the capitol to the forum and thence to the circus. First came the sons of Patricians, mounted on horseback ; next the rest of the Burghers, arranged accordingto their military classes; Roman Lictors. after them, the athletes, naked save for a girdle around their loins ; then the company of dancers with the harp and flute players ; next the priests in colleges, bearing censors and other sacred instruments ; and, lastly, the images of gods, carried aloft on their shoulders or drawn in carts. The chase in the circus was the baiting of wild animals, which were pitted either with one another or with men. The taste for these spectacles grew until the most distant provinces were ransacked by generals and pro-consuls to supply the arena with rare animals, giraffes, tigers, and crocodiles. The other great public amusement of the Romans was the theater. Plays given in the Roman theaters were not national plays, representing the types and figures of Ro- ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 573 man life, but they were mostly composed after Grrecian patterns. The two most celebrated writers of Roman plays, Plautus and Tarentius, modeled their plays almost exclusively according to their Grecian masters. The actors and actresses were despised by the public, and thus theaters were far from forming a part of the nation's life as they did in Grreece. There successful writers of plays, as Sophocles, were honored with a military leadership ; or, in modern times, great actresses and dramatic authors were generally the recipients of great honors. The pecu- liarly stern and rigid character of the Romans is well shown by their abhorrence of dancing. In the words of one of their great writers (Cicero), no sober man will dance. They considered dancing a consequence of intem- perance and could not conceive of a man enjoying the pleasure of dancing in a decent way. Among them all, dances were performed by hired people, mostly servants or profligate women. The Romans attributed great importance to the culti- vation of bodily exercises and bodily purifications. Almost every city in the vast empire, possessed bathing-houses with the most luxurious, practical, and beautiful arrange- ments, where, in addition to the lotion of the body, all possible amusements were offered. It was in their public bath-houses where the Romans met ; where they generally discussed the events of the day ; where they listened to the arts of great reciters, to the lectures of jurists, of phi- losophers, and of all kinds of scientists. Frequent bathing, was a necessity for the Romans, since as they did not know the use of shirts, cleanliness demanded a constant purifi- cation of the body. The Romans had only two meals a day or, if we take it in a strict sense, only one. The breakfast consisted of 574 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. a piece of bread and dried fruit. Many people did not take it at all. Then followed a very light luncheon and, after the bath, the meal proper, the coena. The table, which in rich houses was made of citron, maplewood, or even ivory, was covered with a table-clothe {mantele)\ and each of the different courses, sometimes amounting to seven, was served upon a waiter. But the dinner usually consisted of three ourses only. First the promulsis, called also gustatio, made up of all sorts of stimulants for the appetite. Eggs were consid- ered' so indispensable to the first course that they almost gave a name to it. Of birds, the Gruinea hen, the pheasant, and the thrush were most in repute. The liver of the capon steeped in milk and becaficoes, ^= dressed with pepper, were considered delicacies. The peacock acquired such repute among the Roman gour- Roman Soldier mands, that it was commonly sold for fifty denarii. Other birds are mentioned, such as the duck, especially its head and breast, the woodcock, the turtle, and flamingo, the tongue of the latter especially commended itself to the delicate palate of Roman nobles. Of fish, the variety was still greater. The charr, turbot, sturgeon, and mullet were highly prized and dressed in the most various fashions. Of solid meat, pork seems to have been the favorite dish, especially sucking pigs. The paps of a sow, served up in milk, the flitch of bacon are mentioned by Roman writers. Bear's flesh and venison were also in high repute. Condiments were added to most of the dishes. Such ' SOMAN CIVILIZATION^ 675 was the wuria, a kind of pickle made from the tunny fish. Another condiment was made from the intestines of the mackerel. Several kinds of truffles and mushrooms are mentioned, which either made dishes by themselves or formed the garniture for larger dishes. It must not be supposed that the cooks of imperial Rome were at all be- hind ourselves in the preparation and arrangement of the table. In a large household, the functionaries, to whom this important part of domestic conomy was entrusted, were four — the butler, the cook, the arranger of the dishes, and the carver. Carving was taught as an art, performed to the sound of music with appropriate gesticulations. We will now suppose the table spread and the guests assembled, each with hmmappaov napkin, and in his dinner dress, usually of a bright color and variegated with flowers. First they took off their shoes for fear of soiling the cotich, which was often inlaid with ivory or tortoise shell and cov- ered with a cloth of gold. Next they lay down to eat. They reclined on the left elbow, supported by cushions. There were usually, but not always, three on the same couch, the middle place being the most esteemed and honorable. Around the table stood the servants clothed in tunics. Some removed the dishes and wiped the table with a rough cloth. Others gave the guests water for their hands or cooled the room with fans. Here stood a servant half be- hind his master's couch, ready to answer the noise of the fingers, while others bore large platters of different kinds of meat to the guests. The coena, in Cicero's day, at all events, was an evening meal. A dinner was set out in a room called Coenatio. The coenatio, in rich men's houses, was fitted up with great magnificence. The historian Suetonius mentions a supper, room in the golden palace of Nero, constructed like a thea- 576 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. ter, with shifting scenes to change with every course. The Grreeks and Romans were accustomed in later times, to recline at their meals, but even,, in the time of the early- Roman emperors, children, in families of the highest rank, used to sit together at an inferior table while their fathers and elders reclined on couches at an upper part of the room. Roman Dining Hall. Roman ladies continued the practice of sitting at the table even after the recumbent position had become common with the other sex.-' The Romans, as well as the Grreeks, indulged in very- hard drinking. In their time, as well as at present, Italy 1 This account ot the dining customs of the Romans is extracted from Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Eoman Antiquities, article "Coena." SOMAN CIVILIZATION. 577 produced some of the most aelicious wines of the world. It is a remarkable fact, however, that the places celebrated for very delightful grapes in antiquity are nowadays en- tirely deprived of good vine-yards and do not furnish a drinkable wine. The Romans made .all kinds of fruit- wines from the various fruits of their orchards, but they never indulged in beer. At their meals they accepted the Greek custom of electing a "master of the revels," who Taking the Toga Yirilis. directed the number of goblets to be emptied by each guest. In addition to this, they generally drank the health of their friends according to the Greek fashion, that is to say, they drank as many goblets as there were letters in the names of their friends. They never drank wine without a mixture of water ; to do so was considered barbarous. We seldom or never hear of Roman women joining the drinking parties of men, and even the frequent exaggera- tions in Roman satirists, like Martial and Juvenal, show their exaggerated character but too evidently. 578 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. The chief dress of a Roman was the toga. This was a nearly elliptical piece of cloth, its greatest length being three times the height of the person who wore it and its greatest breadth equal to at least twice the height of the wearer. It was of thin, woolen stuff, and, as to color, was always white for the ordinary citizen. A white toga with a purple border was worn as a distinction by those holding public offices, entitling them to the curule chair (made of ivory) and \}siq fasces (a bundle of twigs with an ax) ; by the great college of priests {Flamenes Diales^ Pontifices, Augurs, Arvales), but in this case only during the act of performing their offices ; and by boys up to their sixteenth year, when they assumed the Toga Virilis. The tribunes and aediles of the Plebeians and the quaestors were de- nied the right to wear the purple bordered toga. A purple toga was always the mark of high office and as such was worn by the magistrates of republican times, though only on public occasions, as well as by the emperors. It was sometimes embroidered with gold and it could only be worn with an under-dress of the same color. The toga with a purple border could only be worn over a white tunic with a purple stripe. It was laid aside when the wearer retired from office, but the purple stripe on the tunic was retained, and became, in consequence, the distinguish- ing mark of the senatorial order. The tunica was the other dress of the Romans. It reached half-way down the thigh and was girt around the waist. The people generally wore two tunicas ; some, like the Emperor Augustus, even wore four. The one next to the skin was known as the subuctila and the other as the intusium. Only the latter had sleeves and over it passed the girdle. The tunicse of the senatorial order were pdorned with a broad purple stripe down the front, while BOMAN CIVILIZATION. 579 those of the knightly order had two narrow stripes of the same color. This garment was usually of linen, and the national color, for ordinary purposes, was white. Poor persons, were doubtless content with the natural color of the linen or wool ; and, when in mourning, the higher classes generally wore a dark colored one though this was not always the rule. More convenient than the toga, but retaining a gen- eral likeness to it, was the pallium. Some toilet articles were worn only by certain classes, or at certain times. The trabea formed the official dress of the seers {^Augurs Salii) and was purple. The paludamentum, worn by the em- peror as head of Rome, was also purple in color, though white was allowed. The sagum, similar to the last, was Avorn only by soldiers. The paenula, was worn, in rainy weather generally, to cover the dress. It was made of thick, flaxen material or of leather, with or without a hood. It was elliptical in shape with a round hole in the middle for the head to pass through. The lacerna, formed of expensive materials and colors, was worn in the theater or circus in the presence of the emperor. As regards covering for the head, there was the hood of the psenula in rough weather, or the toga could be drawn up over the head, or there was a separate article, called ricinium, in the form of a veil. Workmen and others wore hats or caps. As an ornament for the head, the diadem was only occasionally used by the emperors before the time of Con- stantino. It was declined by Caesar. After Caracalla, the most usual mark of an emperor was a crown of rays. The heavy garments worn out of doors were replaced at dinner, as we have said above, by garments of thin ma- terial. Trousers were not worn until comparatively late, and even then only by soldiers, who were exposed to 580 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. northern climates. The Romans ridiculed the tight trou- sers and pants of northern nations, and they could not understand how people of sense could prefer tight garments to the comfortable ample dress of the toga or tunica. The legs were protected by flat bands, laced around them up to the knees. On the feet, senators wore shoes of red leather, ornamented with knobs of ivory or brass and having a Household Utensils. high sole. The Patrician order wore shoes of black leather, ornamented with an ivory crescent for non-official occasions. Persons not belonging to these orders wore sandals. The compagus^ said to have been introduced from Etruria, ap- pears to have been a sort of shoe. For personal ornament, finger-rings of great variety of material and design were worn, sometimes to the extent BOMAN GIVILIZA TION. 581 of one or more on each finger. Many persons possessed small cabinets of them. At first the Roman citizon wore only an iron ring as a signet, then a gold ring was intro- duced for persons sent on foreign embassies, but by degrees the right of the golden ring was extended to all classes of citizens. In the case of baldness, a wig was allowed to meji as well as women during the Empire. The hair and the beard were allowed to grow long until about 290 b. c. From that time, shaving the hair short was the fashion, but, under Hadrian, long beards again came into fashion. For the lady's toilet we may mention first, the tunica interior^ loose and without sleeves. Across the breasts passed the mamillare, then came the tunica proper, gen- erally called stola, girt at the waist, and having sleeves fastened down the arms as in the Greek chiton. Over this was thrown, for out-door wear, the palla or plaid. A veil over the back of the head was the mark of a well-to-do matron. In rainy weather, a hood like the Etruscan cucul- lus was worn. To cover or hold up the hair, nets were used; but this simple article was far froni common among the Roman ladies, whose chief characteristic inworking of art is the elaborateness of their manner of braiding and twining the hair. Subsequently a blonde color of hair became fashionable, and to produce this color dying was resorted to. Nor were the ladies of ancient Rome un- acquainted with various innocent means of increasing their charms. Generally the eyebrows and eyelashes were painted. Even the veins on the temples were sometimes- touched with delicate blue color. The complexion was improved by various powders and waters. The teeth were carefully looked after, false ones making up the de- ficiency of nature. For the feet, sandals, but, by prefer- ence, shoes were made use of, generally of bright colors 582 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. and embroidered with gold or pearls. Socks or stockings were confined to ceremonial occasions. Personal orna- ments consisted of brooches, bracelets, armlets, ear-rings, necklaces, wreathes, and hair-pins. The torques, or cords of gold, worn around .the neck, were introduced from Graul. A profusion of precious stones was used. Roman jewelry Roman Lady at her Toilet. was distinguished from Greek or Etruscan by the absence of skill and refinement in workmanship, but not in charac- ter of designs. From v/hat we have had to say of Roman education and manner of life, we would not expect to find them in the possession of a very extensive literature unless it bo JtOMAJSr CIVILISATION. 583 on some intensely practical subject; such, for instance, as law. Yet, as wealth and luxury increased, it became fashionable to gather together libraries. The books were rolls ; the material used varied, but that most generally emj)loyed was papyrus. Lzdraru, or publishers, supplied the demand for books. The only way in which books could be duplicated was by laboriously transcribing the contents. The scribes who performed this work were either slaves or free-men who worked for hire. Probably one person dictated to several scribes at once. Roman Books and. Rolls. We will mention only a few of the authors of Rome. We will speak first of Cicero and his writings. Cicero, as a statesman and politician, acquired a vast knowledge of the factors and working causes of Roman civilization; and, consequently, in his writings we find the reflections of a mind richly stored with the treasures of both G-reek 584 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. and Roman thought. These consist of fifty-six orations, several books on the art of oratory, philosophical treatises private letters and a few historical books. In his orations, we have the most perfect examples of oratory. Every oration is lucid ; the diction is fluent and always appro- priate. He never indulges in redundant phrases ; he is always simple, always naive ; he saves all the strength of his oratory for certain points, toward which he is con- stantly working; and so the whole of any of his orations is so well balanced and well proportioned, that we seldom leave him without being convinced, if not of the justice of his cause, at least of the magnificence of his defence. The most perfect of all his orations are those directed against Catiline and Verres. The daring courage of his orations against Catiline and the wonderful composure which he keeps up amidst the most furious onslaughts of political enemies will forever remain the delight of the reader and the dispair of the imitator. In the domain of history, Rome can boast of several very great authors. There is, in the first place, the master- work of Livy. It is, or rather it was at the time of its appearance, a complete history of Rome in one hundred and forty-four books,^ of which we at present possess but thirty-five and a few abstracts of the rest. But even these fragments sufiice to show us the great value, the fascinating style, the vast store-house of facts, the beautiful arrange- ment and general fairness and reliability of the work. Although he may lack the profoundness of Greek his- torians, he is still a most interesting narrator and one of the most instructive teachers. All are pleased with the pictures of the lives and actions of those heroes of Rome, 1 The Romans divided their work according to books. A book cor- responded to our modern chapter. MOMAN' CIVILIZATION. 585 for in this form is told the history of Rome. Modern critics, it is true, have pointed out many a deficiency, es- pecially in the first books of Livy, but Livy himself con- fesses that the first five books of his work are more poeti- cal legends than sober history. A second great historian of Rome is Tacitus. His works, the "Annales" and the "Historise," treat of the times of the first emperors with the exclusion of Augustus. He is full of deep reflections, although his temper is rather soured with the despondency of an old republican, who hates to see those institutions succumb to the encroach- ment of the emperors. His style is a work of art. It is so precise, so terse, that but seldom a word can be omitted without upsetting the fabric of a sentence. But he sometimes -ex- presses a variety of ideas in two or three words, and this frequently leads to a certain darkness of ex- pression ; and, besides, many of his sentences admit of several expla- nations. But his meditations on the characters of individual em- perors, or as he called them ty- Saiiust rants, his investigations into the constitution of a free people, his scathing remarks on the weakness and frailty of courtiers and of the people in general, are subjects of deep interest to the reader of all times, and more especially to the people of this country, where the republican sys- tem has been developed to a greater extent than ever be- fore, and where, therefore, the dangers of loosing -it are equally great. We had occasion to remark, a few pages back, that 686 THE MED1EVA.L WOULT). the Romans did not produce any great writers of tragedy." Owing to the workings of the same law, perhaps, poetry was never a very favorite branch of literature among the Romans, and they do not rank as high as the poets of Greece. Every one knows the classical value of Virgil's writings. There is also a charm in the writings of Horace. In his poems, we find the composure of a well=balanced mmd, the quietude, not of a dead intelligence, "but of a philosophy, which, as the usual saying is, "takes things easy" and finds a blessing where the majority of people Ancient Roman Ship, find nothing but injury and misfortune. His writings ex- hale, as it were, the soothing odor, the quieting flavor of one of those Eastern aromatic compounds, of which, it is said, it allays all plaints and relieves the most violent attacks of pain. Money and the mechanism of exchange play a very important part in the culture of all civilized nations of the present day. "We have also pointed out the very great HOMAJSr CIVILIZATION. 587 influence of commerce in developing civilization.* We must therefore inquire as to the standing of the Romans in this matter. The passages in Roman writers treating of this topic are very obscure, admit of different explana- tions, and frequently have no co-herence with one another. Thus it was taught that the Romans, for several centuries, had no other money than the heavy, copper as; and it is related by Pliny, that a large debt in ancient Rome could be defrayed only by using several vehicles to transport Funeral Ceremonies. the money. As to the time when silver money came into use, the ancient authors have different reports ; and, al- though we still possess a large number of silver coins of the time of the Republic as well as of the Empire, we can not fix the exact date of their introduction into the com- merce of the city. One point has, however, been made clear; that is that 1 This Series, Vol. II. p. 230, 732 85 588 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. the copper as was a representatiA^e money analogous to the use of paper in our times. Many people suppose, that paper money is an ingenious invention of the last few cen- turies, and that the ancient nations had no idea of the con- trivance by which value is ascribed to a valueless thing and by which, in the opinion of some people, we could make ourselves independent of the products of silver and gold mines. But the idea of representative money goes back to the second millennium before Christ, the difference being that those nations did not use paper, and this for a very simple reason, they had no paper. They used iron bars or copper bars or leather, and they had a very dis- tinct and precise idea about the commercial functions of such money. The Romans however had a complete bank- ing system, and, through the excavations in Pompeii, we are pretty well acquainted with the inner, machinery of the Roman banks. Their business consisted more or less in what' it does to-day, in exchanging, advancing, loaning money, mortgaging property etc. Even their commercial books resembled ours to a great extent, although they were much simpler and much was trusted to the memory. The Roman state, as such, never incui'red debts; and, consequently, the modern ideas of "state debts " were en- tirely unknown. The Romans did not have the modern idea of taxing every citizen as high as possible, and of hav- ing a regular annual tax levy upon every household, in order to cover the expenses of the state. On the contrary, taxes were considered as an irregular, almost accidental thing. Booty from conquered people rendered the levy- ing of taxes unnecessary. In the times of the Macedonian war, the immense booty from the conquered G-reeks was sufficient to meet all demands of the state for many years. The income of the provinces, as well as the management MOMAN CIVILIZATION. SSS of the different mines, was leased out to corporations, and thus the whole system of the state was reduced to its simplest form of management. Roman ideas about riches differed very extensively from our modern ideas. None of the Romans was as rich as some of our great bankers or railroad magnates, and the largest fortunes we occasionally read of, like that of Crassus or some of the savings of the Roman emperors, amounted to fifteen or twenty million dollars ; but the trouble in Rome was, that riches and poverty were so un- equally divided. The small land holders, at the time of Augustus, were almost entirely extinct; and in the time of the elder Pliny, that is in the latter part of the first cen- tury, almost all the land of Italy was concentrated in the hands of a few powerful land-owners. The Romans did not fail to notice this element of danger in the economical structure of their country, and the author just mentioned confesses that the la'tifundia, or the large estates as he calls them, would be the ruin of the state. Although there were all necessary conditions for a brisk trade and an extensive commerce, the Romans as a rule were adverse to mercantile transactions. It is very easy to account for this fact. The Romans, in the first place, were soldiers, and military pride disdains the occu- pation of trading. The average Roman preferred to gain his wealth by plundering weaker people rather than trusting to the more prosaic chances of trade and commerce. Con- sequently the commerce of Rome was more or less in the hands of non-Romans, especially of Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians. Our ideas of commerce, as being a great in- terchange of necessaries, does not apply to the commerce of the Romans. The merchants generally rushed to those departments of trade, which promised big returns ; jew- 590 THE M^DIUVAL WOBLD. elry, eastern pearls, opals, and eastern silk found a ready market in the imperial city. Amongst the Romans many ceremonies attended the burial of the dead. Believing, as all ancient people did, in the worship of ancestors, the tomb Avas a sacred spot. Every important family had its own burial place. It was generally believed that the shades of the departed could not rest if the body were allowed to remain unburied. Hence non- burial was considered a great calamity. Should Specimens of Roman Art. strangers chance to find an unburied body, they were ex- j)ected to throw earth on it at least thrice. Many little incidents of death-bed scenes show the survival of bits of primitive superstition. Such was the loud calling on the dead to return.^ After death the un- dertakers, Libitinarii, were called, who took charge of all arrangements for burial. The body, when prepared, lay in 1 Cf. Vol. II. p. 269, ■ ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 591 state in the atrium on tlie Ledus funebris. Here friends brought leaves and flowers, and had the deceased when alive acquired the right to wear a crown, it was placed on his head. By the side of the lectus, a censer was placed; and, near the door of the house, a pine or cypress was planted, symbolical of death, and also serving as a warning to those persons who were forbidden on religious grounds to enter a house where there was a dead body. Place of Eating the Funeral Meal. When -the day of burial arrived, a strange procession accompanied the body. In front there marched officers to preserve order, musicians, hired mourners, and Mimi or people who undertook to represent the traits of character of the deceased. Then followed a ghastly company, people wearing the masks of the deceased ancestors of the dead. Thus symbolically, the deceased, ancestors accompanied the body of their recently -Hiead kinsman to his grave. Then came the body, borne on the lectus, followed by mourning relatives and friends. The procession wound its way to 692 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. the Forum, and the funeral oration was delivered from the tribune. Nine days after the burial, there came the last sad, sacrificial m.eal. It consisted of simple dishes, partaken of near the grave, for which purpose sometimes special tri- clinia (/rzV/zWizy^^e^Jra) were built. Sometimes games were provided for the general multitude, who were likewise re- galed with food and presents of money. Offerings to Mars. We haA^e now tried to describe the home life, both public and private, of the Roman citizen. We must ob- serve that the whole tendency of such a life was in the direction of immediate, practical ends. They were not, like the Greeks, discussing questions of deep philosophical and scientific import, or deciding points in fine art ; but more practical questions engaged their attention ; how con- duct this war ; how govern that province ; how get the most tribute from such a people. They examined, every question from such a stand point. And to their credit, be ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 593 it said, that every subject they had to settle they generally settled in a most enduring manner. To make foreign con- quests, disciplined soldiers were needed ; accordingly the Roman army was drilled as soldiers never were before. To get the most good out of conquered provinces, some- thing more was necessary than to simply extort a vast tribute ; accordingly, for the first time in the history of the world, an intelligent attempt was made to fuse the various conquered people into a homogeneous whole. To attract commerce to the shores, it was necessary to treat foreign- ers justly, extend to them the protection of laws, an idea unknown to the older tribal law ; hence in Rome we find the law for foreigners, or equity, taking its rise.'^ When the time at length arrived for the old tribal customs to be codified and enlarged to suit new ideas, we find the Ro- mans evolving that splendid product of their genius, the Roman Civil Law. The statements just made will go far to explain the sudden rise to power of the Roman commonwealth. If we recall the political history of Rome,® we find that in a short time, comparatively speaking, the Romans reduced to their dominion the then known world. It is no easy matter to explain this fact. A mere knowledge of the pro- gress of the various conquests, of the successive campaigns, of victorious battles, of the deeds of this or that general, will afford no explanation of the sudden splendor of the Roman conquest and civilization. This same phenomenon attracted the attention of ancient writers as early as the second century before Christ. At that era, we find Poly- bius, a Grreek historian, who, as a statesman, was frequently engaged in settling political affairs with Roman generals, and who, besides, was the personal friend of Scipio Afri- 1 This Series, Vol. II. p. 231. 2 Above ch. iv. 594 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. canus, writing a large work on the liistory of tlie then known world with the express intention of accounting for the sudden growth of the Roman commonwealth — that growth being by far the most striking fact of classical an- tiquity. It is a common-place statement, that the wisdom, the valor, the self-restraint, in one word, that the domestic vir- tues of the Romans were chiefly instrumental in bringing to pass the great facts of their history. In almost every hand-book of history, we find the author pointing to the virtues of a Cincinnatus, Regulus, Fabius Cunctator, Ca- millus, Scipio, Cato, etc., etc., as the real main-spring of Roman greatness. Now, while far from denying the bene- ficial influence of domestic virtue, although nobody will deny the great advantage accruing to a nation that can boast of such men, yet it is clear that these virtues, in themselves, are not suflScient to produce results equal to those that we find in the history of Rome. For every Roman who excelled in virtue of any kind, we can find a Greek who cultivated the same kind of virtue with equal success. The Romans, themselves, taught their children to look to the heroes of Grreece as their models and ideals, and the noblest Roman youth had no higher ambition than to copy the glorious king of Macedonia, Alexander the Great. The Roman historians, especially Livy and Cornelius Nepos, constantly hold up the warriors and sages of Greece as the patterns of morality, of all -social and political wis- dom. The Romans, themselves, therefore, never hesitated to confess that, as far as virtue and morality are con- cerned, other nations were on a par with them. "We must look, then, for other causes, which are more or less inde- pendent of private morality, for an explanation of the BOMAN CIVILIZATION. 595 sudden and great rise in power of the Roman common- wealth. Polybius, writing as we have observed in the second century b. c, found an answer to this query in the form of government adopted by the Romans. In attempting to follow Polybius in his reasoning, we will be struck with the conservatism of the old Patrician tribes of Rome and their practical, sound sense. They indeed clung tenaciously to their rights, but were ready to yield when they saw that further resistance was useless. And, in thus yielding gracefully, they not only made the best terms for them- selves, but they effected a compromise, which in turn led to the form of government which attracted the admiration of Polybius. We must recall the constitution of tribal society in a normal state. There is first the tribal chief, an elected officer, but whose office tends to become hereditary, aiid whose powers, especially in times of war, are very great. Next, the tribal council, composed of the chiefs of the various phratries and gentes — all elected officers — who ad- vised the head chief on all important matters, and whose decision even he is bound to obey. Finally, the general assembly of the people, which must be convened to discuss all laws and all proposed measures.^ Now, as civilization advanced, the natural tendency would be for each of these departments of government to develop at the expense of the other two. The result would be, that, in the course of time and among different people, we would find represen- tatives of the three different forms of government known to the ancients. If the office of head-chief developed at the expense of the other departments until the powers of government were absorbed by this one office, the result 1 This Series, Vol. II cb. ii. 596 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. was a monarcliy. If the council thus developed, the result ■was an oligarchy; or, if the general assembly absorbed these powers, the result was a democracy. The above represents what we might call the natural development of government. But we, of course, under- stand that the form of government was often subverted by force. Now the ancients were acquainted with these Naval Battle. three forms of government and discussed the strong points of each ; for, as all are aware, each had its strong and weak points. The trouble with many of the Grrecian states, for instance, was that they were divided into fac- tions, each clamoring for its desired form of government, and when one party, as at Athens,gained the ascendency, the other was almost extirpated. BOMAN CIVILIZATION. 697 Now Polybius concludes, from a study of the Roman state, that it alone of all the states of his time had a sys- tem of government, which combined the strong points of the three systems. If that be so, then, in the case of Rome, we have a normal development of tribal society, which, as above remarked, is a striking proof of the prac- tical conservatism of the people. Turning to the gov- AucLience with a Roman Emperor. ernment of Rome we find much to confirm this conclusion. A number of officers still exercised powers analogous to those of the old rex or tribal-chief. Such were the con- suls, in a less degree the censors, and in times of emergency the dictators. The consuls were really year-kings, and the direct heirs of the older life-kings. Like the old tribal chiefs, their powers were greatest in times of war. 598 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. In point of fact, the dictator exercised greater power tlian a king. The tribal council survived in the senate of Rome. It consisted of the best and wisest and, to some extent, the worthiest citizens of the state. In its meetings, the more important topics of the state were the subjects of deliberation. It was a corporation, which, in its dignity and in its wisdom, made the impression of a collection of kings. The senate occupied a position half-way between the legislative and the monarchial powers. Instead of interfering with the machinery of the state, it served as a sound and healthy check in times of political fury ; and thus it promoted the welfare of the state and acquired a respect and esteem which made its decrees and ordi- nances, in course of time, equal to laws passed by the whole nation. It was the senate of Rome that drew up treaties, ordained regulations for conquered nations, car- ried on the immense political business of the city, regu- lated the forces of the most distant provinces, sent out armies and directed their marches. As for the general assembly of the people, it is well known that it was in full vigor at Rome. All laws, properly so-called, were passed in the assemblies, or as the Romans called them, in the comitia, where every Ro- man citizen had a right to cast his vote. This assembly was indeed considered the supreme power of the Roman commonwealth, inasmuch as all was depending on laws, and laws could not be enacted by any other power than by the general assembly. It was there that the great magistrates^ — the consuls, the censors, the praetors — ^were appointed ; it was there that the great leaders of the ar- mies were elected. Some modern writers think with Polybius, that here HOMAN CIVILIZAtlON. 599 is the explanation of the sudden rise of Rome. It gives us some light but does not explain all. We need but go a little way back in time to find the same government in Greece.^ But by the second century b. c, the ancient in- stitutions in that country had largely disappeared, owing to the incessant conflict between the ruling and subject classes.^ Rome had indeed this same conflict to meet,^ but though clinging tenaciously to their ancient customs, they granted from time to time such concessions to the people as enabled them to retain a large measure of their government. It now only remains to inquire what were the pecu- liar characteristics of Roman civilization, what was their part in developing Aryan civilization in general, and what was their great legacy to the civilization of the present. The Romans were not distinguished in the field of litera- ture, science, and art. That was the province of Grecian civilization. They were distinguished in' the direction of government. Away back in the night of time, we see the three tribes^ of singular ethnical mixture^ that composed the Patricians of Rome, rising on the banks of the Tiber. After some centuries of time, they succeeded in reducing to their power a large portion of Italy. ^ In the meantime they had passed through the conflict which came to all the tribal societies of antiquity; the conflict between the ruling tribes and their subject people, who were continually pres- sing for a share in the government. And we have just pointed out how from this conflict they had emerged, in ■ the early days of the Republic, with a government which attracted the admiration of the ancients. 1 Recall the kings, ephors, gerushla, and assembly in Sparta; the archons, council, and assembly in Athens. This Series "Vol. II. p. 185 et seq. 2 This conflict is traced in Vol. .II. p. 187 et seq. 3 Ibid. p. 195 et seq. * Vol. II. p. 198. B Above p. 266. 6 Above p. 274. 600 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. These centuries of conflict had trained them in the art of governing. The whole aim of the Patrician tribes was toretain the practical advantages of their position. This was the question that confronted the Roman citizen from childhood to old age. Their education and man- ner of life show that this was the main aim. We need not wonder, then, that we have before us such a pro- saic matter-of-fact people, who cared little for merely in- tellectual pursuits, and disdained many of the more inno- cent enjoyments of other nations. On the contrary they A Bakery in Rome. delighted in the brutal games of the amphitheater, and lived only to extend their power and influence, to in- crease their wealth and luxury. Their power, skill in diplomacy, and vigorous intellect were now united for the conquest of the world, and one people after another fell before them. They did not hes- itate to use treachery if it would advance their ends. They understood well the art of fanning the flames of in- ternal dissentions among a people they wished to subdue. ROMAN CIVILIZATION. 601 It is, perhaps, not surprising tliat tlaey succeeded, and re- duced the whole world to their power. But to their credit be it said, that the conquered provinces were organized, governors were appointed, cities built, roads surveyed and laid out, and the Roman law gradually extended over them. Here then we see their great influence on Aryan civilization. It was a great step in advance when the numerous independent and war-like tribes of a country, like Graul for instance, were brought under subjection to one central power, under the workings of one system of laws. Development in civilization went forward rapidly. With consummate wisdom also, the ruling powers at Rome, from time to time, extended the benefits of Roman citizen- ship to the more prominent leaders in their provinces. Thus was gradually built up a state of vast power, poses- sing a civilization, which, if it lacked the polish of Grecian civilization, embodied a great store of practical wisdom, better suited perhaps to the real wants of practical life. One inquiry yet remains before us, what was the great legacy of the Romans to our present civilization. After our remark on the skill of the Romans in the difficult task of governing, it may not occasion surprise to learn that the answer to the question is — The Civil Law. People who would govern well must know how to legislate well. When we treated of Greek civilization, we drew the at- tention of our readers repeatedly to the fact that the great merit of that civilization was chiefly in the field of art. There Grecian genius showed itself at its best and in that field they continue to be the masters of the world. In Roman civilization, we find an analogous fact. The Ro- mans were the first and the most perfect teachers of law; and their laws have come down to us in a form so lucid. 602 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. SO instructive, so fell arranged, that the majority of Ro- mance nations could onlyaccept them in spite of the fact that many of the4 had already developed a legal system of their own. In the field of legal science, then, we find the most importaht feature of Roman civilization. They Roman Judgment Hall. were at once the greatest law-givers, the best lawyers, and the most profound jurists. . We will therefore point out the most salient points of their legal system in order to BOM AN CIVILIZATION. 603 illustrate its vast influence on the course' of general civili- sation. The Romans themselves used to complain that they had too many laws ; but in fact, if we compare the number of their laws with those of a modern nation, we will be struck with their small number. They had, comparatively speaking, few laws and their laws were expressed in a terse, short, technical language, which however, every body understood, because every body participated more or less in the jurisprudence of the Republic. The Romans from the very first established the jury system. Every civil case was decided by a juror — eventually by three jurors — and this is one of the marked differences between the Roman and the English system. The great number of English jurors (twelve) is recognized as one of the great draw-backs of the system. In Rome one juror, as a rule, decided a case, though he generally called to his assistance two or three of the well known and learned jurists of the city, who formed his council. It is not surprising, then, that every educated Roman acquired a very adequate knowledge of the laws of his country. In England and America, the development of law rests chiefly with the judges, and consequently every lawyer is compelled to form a vast library containing the various legal reports. In Rome, the development of law rested^ entirely with the jurists ; and in their writings, they en- larged, commented upon, and revised the laws given in the legislature and in the senate. It is interesting to notice the form in which their writings have come down to us. In the sixth century after Christ, Justinian deter- mined to collect the most important parts of the numerous writings of the Roman jurists into one vast collection. He entrusted his chancellor, Tribonian, with the task of coUect- 36 604 THE MEDIEVAL WOltLt). ing and sifting this great mass of judicial lore. He, assis- ted by a number of other great lawyers and jurists, suc- ceeded in making an abstract of the writings of thirty-nine of the best and most renowned Roman jurists, which were published under the title of "Digest". One of the most ancient copies of this collection, a manuscript of the seventh century, inestimable in value, is still extant in Florence. It is kept under a glass cover, constantly guarded, no body being permitted to touch it unless by special permission of the municipality. In fact, so great is the value attributed to this manuscript that a formal ceremony is enacted while the spectators gaze on it. Amongst others, servants with torches in hand and sol- diers with drawn swords stand around during the exam- ination. This manuscript has been copied by various hands and its contents form the foundation of law and jurisprudence in most of the countries of Europe; though England refused to accept the Roman system of laAv, and, conse- quently, American courts, as a rule, do not pay much attention to the study of Roman jurists. To the law of the Romans, then, we ascribe the vast im- portance of Roman civilization; for, as a matter of course, their law was a direct outcome of their civilization. We should estimate the value of the influence of different na- tions on civilization according to the lasting benefit that they were able to confer upon the world. Perhaps no nation of modern times, can compare in this respect with the Romans. We can not point to any one element in our civilization, as derived directly from the Semitic na- tions of antiquity. The influence of these people, though doubtless very great in developing civilization, is lost in the distance. This is true of the Assyrians and Baby- lonians, though they established vast empires, ruled many ROMAN CtViLtZAtJON. 60 j millions of people, built numberless edifices of great beauty, collected large libraries, and conquered immense terri- tories. But in the case of the Romans, we can say that they continue to exercise a great influence in the field of legal science. Every day, cases of the utmost importance arfe decided on the strength of the reasoning employed by some of the old jurists of Rome. We have now finished our brief outline of Roman civ- ilization. We have traced the rise of this people, have studied their national character, and have pointed out the direction in which they exerted their greatest influence in the development of Aryan civilization. Let us notice the rapidly widening sweep of Aryan culture. How con- tracted the area of Grecian civilization appears as com- pared with that of the Roman ! And yet, less than half of Europe was brought under the sway of Rome. In tracing the political history of Rome, we have seen how that country, enervated by luxury, hopelessly divided by in- ternal dissensions, finally disappeared as a political power before the ruthless march of the Teutonic tribes. But their culture did not disappear. It conquered the Teutonic in- vaders and was by them disseminated throughout the length and breadth of Aryan Europe. Let us now follow it into this, its third and last stage of development in the Medieval World. 606 THS MEDIEVAL WORLD. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. INTEODUCTION — Kight Ideas as to the Middle Ages — Feudalism — Its Ori- gin — Feudal Tenure — Ceremonies attendingthe Transference of a Fief — Duties of the Vassal — Military Service — Feudal Incidents — Reliefs — Fines — Forfeitures — Aids — Feudal Nobility — Origin of Classes — Free m.en— Villeins — Medieval Slavery — ■ Feudalism, a Development of Tribal Society — Feudal Jurisdiction — Wager of Battle — Origin of this Custom — Rise of Free Cities — ^^Chivalry — Its Origin — Influence of the Church in this Matter — The Page and his Duties — Squires and their Duties — Modes of Conferring Knighthood — The Ancient Ceremony — The Shortened Cererhony of Later Times — Classes of Knights — The Tournament — Knight Errantry — Estimation of Feudalism — Picture of the Middle Ages — The Crusades and their Influence — Powers of the Church — Estimation of Church Influence — Church Influence in the Matter of Advancing Knowledge — Trade in the Middle Ages — Social Life, etc. — Conclusion. WIDENING- stream of Aryan cul- ture now enters on its third stage of development. By the end of the fifth century of our era, the Roman Empire, as a great political power, had disappeared. From out of the confused scenes of those far away centuries, "we have traced the gradual rise of the present nations of Europe. We have yet before us the study of the culture of the Middle Ages. Greece was the solitary peak which first caught the glow of the rising sun ; Rome, the mountain range shining afar ; the Middle Ages, all Europe basking in the light of culture. Let us, then, enter on an investi- HENRY VIII. CONI NG ANNE BOLEYN, CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 611 gation of the culture of this last period, and learn what we can of the culture of Europe in the Middle Ages, which, in a general way, may be taken to mean the thousand years preceding the discovery of America.-^ The middle ages have been called the dark ages, a period of superstition, an age of church rule, and similar expressions — all denoting a retrograde state of civilization, all expressive of a stage of development inferior to that of the present. It is customary to look down upon those times and to decry the customs and habits of the nations and people. It is almost generally accepted, as a state- ment admitting of no doubt, that the middle ages form the dark part of European history, that there is an ugly gap between the brilliant times of classical antiquity and the still greater splendor of our own modern age. It is still further held that during that time, science and litera- ture had scarcely an existence ; that people in general were indiscribably ignorant and entertained the most ridiculous opinions. Ifo doubt, it is easy to point to many erroneous ideas prevailing throughout that period. It is one of the easiest things to discover fault in other people; or, as in our case, in the culture of other ages. Many of the opinions universally accepted in the middle ages are now known to be errors. We no longer 'believe, as did the people of that time, that since the cap- ture of Jerusalem, all children are born with four teeth less than before. In general, we no longer believe in 1 In our view of the middle ages, we have followed several of the best acknowledged authorities about the history and institutions of those times. Our main guides were the impartial Hallam, whose statements we frequently thought of accepting in his own words without constantly alleging his name ; next in importance and as a controlling check to the Protestant Hallam, we followed the Catholic Cantu, the great Italian his- torian. Furthermore, K. F. Eichhon, as a guide in the legal field ; Mich - aud, as to the crusades; John Selden, concerning knighthood ; Muratori, concerning the church and general history, etc. 612 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. witchcraft and sorcery, though, in the middle ages, almost every one, even those most enlightened, believed in both. In the middle ages, the power of the church was supreme, and the mfluence of the clergy on the mental as well as temporal well-being of the people was enormous. These things have changed; and, at the present -time, science and literature are flourishing. It is not strange, then, that our opinions differ, on many points, from those of the people of the middle ages, and that the influence of the clergy seems to be less than that of scientific ideas. After an earnest study of the middle ages, we find ourselves unable to agree with those who take extreme views as to the backward state of the culture of the middle ages. Far from denying the existence of many blemishes in their culture ; far from denying that superstitions and false opinions were much more general in the middle ages than at present; and, far from denying that many of the institutions of those times seem to us exceedingly strange, we can but believe that the general judgment of writers on this point is far too severe. We think it has been unfairly biased by religious and party opinions. As is but natural, the historians of Protestant countries are inclined to exaggerate and thereby, disfigure the features of a time in which the Catholic church reigned and ruled without opposition. To deny the many benefits conferred upon Europe and all the world by the institutions of the Catholic church is equivalent to a confession of ignorance. The institution of the Catholic church furthered the development of Europe, and, to a certain extent, preserved its very existence, and, there- fore, it deserves the gratitude of mankind. It is very easy to decry, to indict, to arraign, but it is extremely dif&cult to prove. In the following pages, we shall try to substantiate CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 613 our foregoing assertions; and in this rapid glance over the institutions of the middle ages, we will, we hope, be en- abled to show that even those ages of " darkness," as they are sometimes called, show the presence of a large number of those goodly rays of light which only emanate from an enlightened state of society, and which tend to promote the welfare of man. We will try to show that, the church government of the middle ages did not arise from the ignorance of the people, but that it had its roots in the pressure of circumstances, which was stronger than the wis- dom of a single man. We will try to show, that although literature and science were not cultivated to such an ex- tent as they are at present, they still had a vigorous life within the walls of many convents. We will speak of the tranquil life of those Burghers who were the inhabitants of cities, and the pleasant, if narrow life of the peasantry. We will also speak of the poetry, of the music and art, of the commerce and industry of those bygone times ; and, in so-doing, we hope to impress our readers with the con- viction, that the middle ages, though inferior to our own time, had attractions and advantages of their own, show- ing that mankind never ceases in its career of progress. We need not treat of the many wars and battles, of the personal history of the innumerable princes, kings, and emperors, who ruled in the middle ages. We wish, on the contrary, to learn of the different institutions of domestic and public life, showing the manners and customs of pri- vate people, the way they earned their money, the man- ner in which they lived, their different professions, trades, and careers, and many other details of the home life of the people. All have heard more or less of feudalism. Probably no one factor enters so largely into the peculiar feature of 614 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. the culture of the middle ages as feudalism. It is there- fore extremely necessary to come to an understanding on that point. We must not maite the mistake of supposing that feudalism was simply an invention of the middle ages ; on the contrary its roots are to be found in the con- stitution of tribal society. Two sets of factors seem to Feudal Castle in Rouen. have united to bring it about. We have already had occa- sion to remark how, as civilization advances, the land on which a primitive tribe settled became the basis of classi- fication ; and how the gens survived in the mark, ge- meinde, commune, or parish-^ or, to speak in general terms, in agricultural communities, 1 Vol. II. p. 173. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 615 We have also seen that this agricultural community was the land-holding body. All the joint-families forming the community had equal rights in the land, which at periodical times was divided among them. Liberty and equality, however, require for their preservation the exer- cise of sleepless vigilance." In the great majority of cases and in most countries, the agricultural communities did not sufliciently guard against the growing power of their village chiefs. The office was allowed to become heredi- tary; originally possessing no more right to the land than any other joint-family belonging to the community, they gradually were allowed to exercise property rights over the best portions of it, which finally was extended to the waste portions, and ended in the exercise of a sort of qual- ified ownership over all of the mark, or commune. By qualified ownership we mean that the original right of property was considered as belonging to the "lord" (for such the once elected chief had now become), and the original owners performed 'various acts acknowledging his supremacy. - In this way, there was steadily growing up in all the Aryan lands of Europe privileged ranks and classes. Then came the Teutonic conquest of the "Western Empire. It is easy enough to see that when the conquered territory was divided the more powerful chiefs would receive grants of territory of great extent. "The cultivators of his land would either be persons settled on it by himself, or they would be vanquished provincials who had no rights which he did not choose to recognize or concede."^ Here, then, would be a community built upon the model of the old Teutonic village community but of materials so plastic that it assumed a strangely different aspect. 1 Maiue: "Agricultural Communities." 616 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. As the conquered provinces were Roman provinces, where the Roman civil law had held full sway, and as that law gave great precision to all the relations of life, it is not surprising that feudalism assumed a thoroughly sys- tematic form, having all the relations defined and specified. Neither is it strange that the "lord" emerges with greatly increased powers. This systematized form of feudalism now reacted on Europe, and thus, in the course of centuries, there grew up the state of society we designate as feudal- ism. Accounting for feudalism in this way, we perceive at once the significance of many terms. Practically it, tended to widen the chasm between the privileged classes and the masses of the people. Recog- nizing in a dim way the old relation of tribes-men and chief, it still sought to enforce the duties of each class — the former, the duty of obedience and military service ; the latter of protection. As in the former state of society only after many formalities were strangers admitted to the tribe, so only by many formalities was land conveyed. in fief. Feudalism finally became a wonderfully artificial form of government, resting down upon the land of the kingdom as a basis. Theoretically the ownership of all the land of the kingdom was vested in the crown. The most of it was granted out to a limited number of power- ful leaders. Each of these proceeded to divide his terri- tory in a similar way, thus there was a regular gradation of authority from the king to the lowest holder of a fief. With each subdivision there was created the relation of lord and vassal, with the duties we have outlined above. Hence we can see how society in the middle ages was molded by the institution of feudalism. And we can see how necessary it is for us to make a study of it. Resting upon land as a basis, we can see bow, in law, feudalism came CULT URE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 617 simply to mean a tenure of land. The land granted was a Jief, the holder of it was a feudary, the service by which it was held was feudal. We can also see why medieval law was largely taken up with defining the rights and duties of lords and vassals. In all cases of feudal tenure, there was a contract of support and fidelity. Whatever obligations this relation laid upon a vassal, corresponding duties of protection were imposed upon the lord. If these were transgressed on either side, the one forfeited his land, the other his right over it. Nor were motives of self interest alone appealed to. The associations founded upon ancient custom and friendly attachment ; the impulse of gratitude and honor; the dread of infamy ; the sanctions of religion, were all em- ployed to strengthen these ties, and to render them as power- ful as those of nature, excelling those of political society. The ceremonies used in conferring a fief were princi- pally three — homage, fealty, and investiture. The first was a solemn and significant expression of the submission and devotedness of the vassal toward his lord. In per- forming homage, his head was uncovered, his belt ungirt, his sword and spurs removed. Kneelinghe placed his hands between those of the lord and promised to become his man from thenceforward to serve him with life and limb and worldly honor, faithfully and loyally, in consider- ation of the . lands which he held under him. None but the lord in person could accept homage, which was com- monly concluded by a kiss. An oath of fealty was indis- pensible in every transferrence of a fief, but the ceremony was less peculiar than that of homage and it might be re- ceived by proxy. It was taken by ecclesiastics, but not, by minors. Irf language, it differed little from the form of homage. 618 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Investiture, or the actual conveyance of feudal lands, was of two kinds, proper and improper. The first was an actual putting in possession upon the ground, either by the lord or his deputy, which is called in J^^nglish law livery of seizin. The second was symbolical, and consisted in the delivery of a turf, a stone, a wand, a branch, or whatever else might have been made usual by the caprices of local custom. Let us now inquire as to the duties of the vassal. These can not be exactly defined. The general statement i">, that it was military service, and that, in its very nature, was uncertain. It was a breach of faith to divulge the lord's counsel, to conceal from him the machinations of others, to injure his person or fortune, or to violate the sanctity of his roof or the honor of his family. In battle the vassal was bound to lend his horse to his lord when dis- mounted, to adhere to his side while fighting, and to go into captivity as a hostage for him when taken. It was a question, agitated among feudal lawyers, whether a vassal was bound to fight with his lord against his own kindred ; more important still was the question, whether he must do so against the king. In the works of those who wrote when the feudal system was declining or who were anxious to maintain the royal authority, this is commonly decided in the negative. There was a form of homage, prevalent in Normandy and some other countries, containing a reser- vation of allegiance due to the sovereign.^ A law of Fred- erick Barbarossa enjoins that, in their oath of fealty to an inferior lord, the vassal's duty to the Emperor should be expressly reserved, but it was not so during the height of the feudal system in France. The vassals of Henry the second and Richard the first never hesitated to adhere to 1 Coke on Littleton, sec. Ixxxv. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 619 them against the sovereign, nor do they appear to have incurred any blame on that account. Even as late as the age of St. Louis, it is laid down in his "Establishments" that ' ' '" .jm I l..f storming a Fortified Town in the Middle Ages. if injustice be done by the king to one of his vassals, the latter might summon his own attendants under penalty of forfeiting their fiefs to assist him in obtaining redress by 620 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. arms. The count of Britany, Pierre de Dreux, practically asserted this feudal right during the minority of St Louis. In a public instrument, he announces to the world that, having met with repeated injuries from the regent and denial of justice, he had let the king know that he no longer considered himself as his vassal, but renounced his homage and defied him A measure of military service was generally settled by some usage. Forty days was the usual term, during which the tenant of a knight's fief was bound to be in the field at his own expense. In the kingdom of Jerusalem, feudal service extended to a year. It is obvious that this was founded on the peculiar circumstances of that state. Service of castle-guard, which was common in the north of England, was performed without limitation of time. The usual term of forty days was extended by St Louis to sixty except when the charter of infeudation expressed a shorter period, but the length of service diminished with the quan- tity of land. For half a knight's fief, but twenty days were due; forthe eighth part, but five; and, when this was changed into a pecuniary assessment, the same proportion was ob- served. Men past sixty years of age, public magistrates, and, of course, women were free from personal service, but were obliged to send their substitutes. A failure in the discharge of their duties produced forfeiture of the fief, but it was usual for the lord to inflict a fine, known in England by the name of escuage. Thus in Philip the third's expedition against the Count de Foix, in 1274, barons were assessed for non-attendance at a hundred sous a day for the expenses which they had oc- casioned, and fifty sous as a fine to the king ; bannerets had twenty sous for expenses and ten as a fine. Knights and squires in the same proportion, but barons and ban- GVlTtjre of the middle ages. 621 nerets were bound to pay an additional assessment for every knight and squire of their vassals whom they ought to have brought with them into the field. The regulations as to place of service were le^ uniform than those in re- gard to time. In some places the vassal was not bound to go beyond the lord's territory further than he could retrace in the same day. Other customs compelled him to follow his chief upon all his expeditions. We can see that the tendency would be for the lord to increase his power every way he could, and turn every incident of this relation to his advantage. In this way there arose what are known as feudal incidents. We must notice some of these exactions. When an heir succeeded to a fief he paid the lord a sum of money known as relief. Feudal lawyers have explained reliefs in the following manner. Fiefs, whether depending upon the crown or its vassals, were not originally granted in absolute ownership, but were renewed from time to time. Upon the death of the posessor, a sum would naturally be ofifered by the heir on receiving a further investiture of the fief. But another explanation, and one equally as plausible, is to suppose that reliefs arose from the inclination of the strong to oppress the feeble. When a feudal tenant died, the lord, taking advantage of his own strength and the confusion of the family, would seize the estate. Against this violence, the heir could in general have no recourse but a compromise.^ Reliefs and other 1 The literature of feudalism in general is enormous, but the really Instructive works are few. Medieval institutions difTered so essentially from our modern form of life that but few historians were able to con- ceive a just, clear, and comprehensive idea of them. Among them are Roth: "Beneflcialwesen," of" which work p. 205-422 relate to "feudal incidents," Stubbs on "Constitutional History of England," Vol.1, p. 552 and Vol. II. on feudalism. Waits' great work on "German Con- stitution," Vol. 7, 8, 9. 622 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. feudal incidents are said to have been established in France about the latter part of the tenth century, and they certainly appear in the famous edict of Conrad, the Salic, in 1037, which recognizes the usage of reliefs and escuage to the lord upon a change of tenancy. By the law of St. Louis, in 1245, the lord was entitled to enter upon the land if the heir could not pay the relief and posses them for a year. Closely connected with reliefs were the fines paid to the lord upon the alienation of his vassals, and indeed we frequently find themcalled by the same name. The spirit of feudal tenure (dimly recalling the old tribal relation) established so intimate a connection between the parties that it could be dissolved only by mutual consent. If the lord transferred his rights, the tenant was to make known his concurrence,- and this ceremony was long kept up in England under the name of attornment. The assent of the lord to the disposal by the vassal of his fief was still more essential and more difficult to be obtained. He had received his fief, it was supposed, for reasons peculiar to himself or to his family, at least his heart and arm were bound to his superior and his services were not to be exchanged for some other unknown man, who might be unable or unwilling to render them. A law of Lothair II. in Italy, forbids alienation of fiefs without the lord's con- sent. This prohibition is repeated in the laws of Fred- erick I., and a similar enactment was made by Roger, King of Sicily. By the law of France, the lord was en- titled, upon an alienation made by his tenant, either to redeem the fief,' by paying the money, or to claim a certain part of the value by way of fine upon a change of tenancy. Many causes might arise by which the fiefs would re- CULTUBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 623 vert to the grantor. This might follow from the failure of heirs. Then again the fiefs were often taken from their holders as a punishment for some offense. Various causes are laid down in the decrees of Jerusalem whereby the vassal forfeits his land for a year, for his life ,or forever. Under rapacious kings, such as the Nornaan line in Eng- land, absolute forfeiture came to prevail and a new doc- trine was introduced — ^the corruption of blood for acts of felony. In such a case the heir could never establish his claim to the fief, it reverted absolutely to the lord. Another class of powers enjoyed by the lords was technically known as aids. These were in the nature of tribute exacted for various occasions. They depended a great deal on local custom and were often extorted un- reasonably. Several are men- tioned as existing in France, such as an aid for the lord's expedition to the Holy Land, for marrying his sister or eldest son, etc. This and other aids, occasionally ex- acted by the lords, were felt as a severe grievance, and by Magna Charta, funda- mental documents of the En- glish constitution, three only were retained — to make the lord's oldest son a knight, to marry his eldest daughter, and to redeem his person from prison. Aids are deserving of attention since they were 37 Suit of Armor. 624 THE MEDIEVAL WOlttl). 4he beginnings of taxation. They answered this purpose for a long while until the necessities and covetous policy of kings substituted for them more durable and onerous burdens. In England and in Normandy (which either led the way or adopted all these English institutions) the lord claimed the right of guardianship of his tenant during minority. He not only had the care of his person but he received the profits of the" estate. This privilege seems to have been enjoyed by the lord in some parts of Ger- many, but in France, the custody of the land was en- trusted to the next heir, that of the person to the nearest kindred of the blood who could not inherit.^ From gross abuse of this custom in England, there arose what was known as the right of guardianship in chivalry, the temporary possession of the lands being assigned to stran- gers. We will mention but one other exaction of the lord — that is the right of marriage. He could tender a hus- band to his female wards while under age, who could not reject him without forfeiting the value of marriage, that is, as much as any one would give to the guardian for such an alliance. This was afterwards extended to male wards, and became a very lucrative source of extor- tion for the crown, as well as for lords. This custom seems to have had the same extent as that of wardship. It is found in the ancient books of Germany, but not of France. The kings, however, and even inferior lords of that country, required their consent to be solicited for the marriage of their vassals' daughters. Several proofs of this occur in the history of France, and the same prerogative existed in Germany, Sicily, and England. We have been somewhat full in this matter, but the institutions of feudalism exer- 1 Sir John Forteseue: "De Laudibus Legnum Angl." chap. xvi. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE ACfES. 625 cised such, a very great influence on the culture of themicU die ages, that it is very necessary to understand the rights and duties which this relation created. We must notice its great influence in defining the classes of society. The possessors of beneficiary estates were in many cases the direct descendants of old tribal ofl&cials, and in all cases they were rich and influential leadei's. They were inti- mately connected with the crown, and assisted in the ex- ercise of justice and in the royal councils. Their sons in- Chairs of the Middle Ages. herited this eminence, and so, whether engaged in public afi^airs or living with magnificence and hospitality at home, they naturally drew to themselves popular estima- tion. The dukes and counts, who had changed from chiefs and leaders into lords over the provinces entrusted to them, were at the head of this noble class, and, in imita- tion of them, their own vassals, as well as those of the crown and even rich owners of absolute, or as it was called allodal property/ assumed titles from their towns or 1 We must understand that at no time was all the land in the king- dom held by feudal tenure of a superior. 626 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. castles, and thus arose a number of petty counts, barons, and viscounts. This distinct class of nobility grew apace with the feudal tenures. For the military tenant, however poor, was subject to no tribute but service in the field and such incidents and exactions as we have noticed above. He was the companion of his lord in the sports and feast- in gs of his castle, the peer of his court. When he fought on horseback, he was clad in the coat of mail, while the commonalty, if summoned at all to war, came on foot with no armor of defence.^ As everything in the habits of society conspired with that prejudice, which, in " spite of inor;;l philosophers, will constantly raise the profession of arms above all others, it was a natural consequence that a new species of aristocracy, founded upon the mixed con- siderations of birth, tenure, and occupation, sprang out of the feudal system. Every posessor of a fief was a gentle- mnn, though he owned but a few acres of land and fur- nished his slender contributions towards the equipments of a knight. Not all of the upper class were distinguished by actual holding of land. So, to distinguish them in this case from the common mass, two schemes were devised; namely, the adoption of sir-names and of armorial bearings. The first is commonly referred to the time when the nobility began to add the names of the estates to their own, or hav- ing in any way acquired a distinctive name of transmit- ting it to their posterity. As to armorial bearings, how- ever, there is no doubt that similar emblems were, from time immemorial, used in war and peace.** But the gen- eral introduction of such bearings as hereditary distinct- 1 Hallara: "View of the Middle Ages," chap. 2. part 2nd. 2 JSven in tribal society each gens had its totem mark. CULTUBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 627 ions has been attributed sometimes to tournaments where- in the champions were distinguished by fanciful devices, sometimes to the crusades where the multitude of all, nations and languages stood in need of some visible token to denote the banners of their respective chiefs. In fact, the peculiar symbols of heraldry point to both these sour- ces and have been borrowed in part from each other. Hereditary arms were, perhaps, scarcely used by private families before the beginning of the thirteenth century. From that time, however, they became very general. When privileges of birth were thus rendered capable of direct proof, they were increased in value, and thus a line was gradually drawn between the high-born and the ignoble classes, which finally became almost as broad as that which separates liberty from servitude.^ All offices of trade and power, except those appertaining to the legal profession, were confined to the former class. A Ple- beian could not possess a fief. Such at least was the origi- nal strictness, but as the aristocratic element grew weaker, an indulgence was extended to heirs and afterward to pur- chasers. They were elevated to the ^anks of the nobility by the acquisition of an estate or at least by holding it for three generations. A gentleman in medieval France or Germany, could not exercise any trade without losing the advantages of his rank. A few exceptions were made, at least in the former country, in favor of some liberal arts and of foreign commerce ; but in nothing did the feudal haughtiness of birth show itself more than in the 1 The historical doctrine of armoria^l bearings and heraldry in gen- eral has recently been re-investigated by cool and cautious scholars. A number of them, led by Planche, Boutell, Seton, Nichols, and Lower, have set aside all the fabulous pretensions and baseless assertions of the earlier writers, have sifted the old evidence, and adduced much that is Hew. 628 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. disgrace which attended unequal marriages. No children could inherit a fief held immediately of the empire, unless both their parents belonged to the higher class of nobility. In France, the offspring of a gentleman by a Plebeian mother was reputed noble for purposes of inheritance and of exemption from tribute, but he could not be received into any order of chivalry, though capable of simple knighthood. Many instances occur where letters of no- bility were granted to give them official rank. For several purposes it was necessary to prove four, eight, sixteen, or a greater number of quarters, that is, of coats worn by the paternal and maternal ancestors ; the same practice still subsists in G-ermany, in Austria-Hungary, and in some other countries of Europe. It appears, therefore, that the original nobility of the continent of Europe did not derive their rank from royal concessions. But the kings of France, before the end of- the thirteenth century, began to assume a privilege of creating nobles by their own authority and without regard to the holding of land. Philip the Hardy, in 1271, was the first French king who granted letters of nobility. In the reign of Philip the Fair and his children, they grad- ually became frequent. This of course effected a change in the character of nobility. The privileges originally connected with ancient lineage and extensive domains, became common to the low-born creatures of a court, and consequently lost part of their title to respect. The law- yers pretended that nobility could not exist without a royal concession, and in return for their teachings, they were made official noblemen by the exercise of royal power.* The institutions of chivalry, as we will see, also gave rise to a vast increase of gentlemen ; knighthood, on 1 Reeves: "History of English Law," Vol. II. p. 354. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 631 whomsoever conferred by the sovereign, being a sufficient passport to noble privileges. It was usual, however, to grant previous letters of nobility to a Plebeian for whom the honor of knighthood was designed. Turning our attention now to this nobility, we learn that there were varying classes. Those in France who held lands immediately depending upon the crown, what- ever titles they might bear, were included in the order of barons. These were originally the peers of the king's court. They possessed the higher territorial jurisdiction, and had the right of carrying their own banner into the field. To these corresponded the vavasores majores and capitanei of the German Empire. In a subordinate class, were the vassals of this high nobility. The chatelains in France belonged to the order of vavasores^ as they held only secondary fiefs ; but having fortified houses from which they derived their name and possessing ampler rights of territorial justice, they rose above the level of their fellows in the scale of tenure. It will be needless to dwell upon the condition of the inferior clergy, whether secular or professed. The prelates and abbots, however, it must be understood, were feudal nobles. They swore fealty for their lands to the king or their superiors, received the homage of their vassals, en- joyed the same immunities, exercised the same jurisdic- tion, maintained the same authority as the lay lords among whom they dwelt. Military service does not ap- pear to have been reserved in the beneficiary grants made to cathedrals and monasteries. When other vassals of the crown were called upon to repay the bounty of their sovereign by personal attendance in war, the ecclesiastical tenants were included within the scope of this feudal duty, which duty in general they were not reluctant to fulfill. 632 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Charlemagne, the great emperor of Grermany, exempted or rather prohibited them from personal service. The practice, however, prevailed in succeeding ages. Both in national and private warfare, we find very frequent men- tion of martial prelates.^ We have many instan- ces of their accompany- ing the army though not mixed in the con- flict, and even the parish priests headed the mili- tia of their villages. But not- withstanding the war-like disposition of some ecclesiastics, their general inability to protect the estates of their churches against rapacious neighbors, suggested a new species of feudal relation and tenure. The rich ab- bot elected an advocate whose business it was to defend his interests both in secular courts and, if necessary, in the field. King Pepin and Emperor Charlemagne are styled advocates of the Roman Church. This, indeed, was on a Bedstead of the Middle Ages. 1 Que of tbe latest instances, probably, of a fighting bishop is Jean OULTTJBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 633 magnificent scale, but in ordinary practice, the advocate of the monastery was some neighboring lord, who in return for his protection possessed many lucrative privileges and very frequently considerable estates by way of fief from his ecclesiastical clients. The classes below the gentry may be divided into freemen and villeins. Of the first were the inhabitants of chartered towns, citizens and burghers, of whom more will be said presently. As to those who dwelt in the country, we can have no difiiculty in recognizing, as far as England is concerned, the socagers, that is tenants who held land not by military service but by some other cer- tain tenure, and a numerous body of tenants for a term of years or for life, who formed that ancient basis of the strength of England, the yeomanry. But in other coun- tries freemen were not so clearly distinguished. In French records and law-books of feudal times, all besides the gentry are generally confounded under the name of villeins or hommes de paste. This shows the slight estimation in which all persons of ignoble birth were considered, for undoubtedly there existed a great many proprietors of land and others as free though not as privileged as the nobility. In the south of France and especially in the Provence, the number of freemen is said to have been greater than in the parts on the right bank of the Loire where the feudal tenures were almost universal. The villeins of feudal times form an interesting class of people. They seem to be the descendants of the conquered population, and thus had very few rights. The characteristic distinction of a villein was his ob- ligation to remain upon his lord's estate. He was not only precluded from selling the lands upon which he dwelt, Montaigu, archbishop of Sens, who was killed at Agincourt, in 1415. 634 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. but his person was bound, and the lord might reclaim him at any time by suit in the court of justice if he ventured to stray. But equally liable to this confinement, there were two classes of villeins, whose condition was exceed- ingly different. In England, at least from the reign of Henry II., one only, and that an inferior species, ex- isted, incapable of property and destitute of redress except against the most outrageous injuries. The lord could seize whatever they acquired or inherited, or convey a part of their land to a stranger. Their tenure bound them to what were called villein services, ignoble in every na-- ture and indeterminate in every degree ; the felling of timber, the carrying on of manual labor, the repairing of roads for their lord who seems to have possessed an equally unbounded right over their labor and its fruits. In France and Germany, persons in this abject state seem to have been called serfs, and distinguished from villeins, who were only bound to fixed payments and du- ties in respect of their lord, though as' it seems without any legal redress if injured by him. "The third estate of man," iLys Beaumanoir, "is that of such as are not free and these are not all of one condition, for some are so subject to their lord that he may take all they have alive or dead, and imprison him whenever he pleases, being accountable to no one but Grod, while others are treated more gently from whom the lord can take nothing but customary pay- ments, though at their death all they have escheats to him."-^ Under every denomination of servitude, the child- ren followed their mother's condition, except in England, where the father's state determined that of the child. The number of people in bondage, as well as the 1 Compare the articles "Villanus" and "Servus," inDvjcange's "Dic- tionary of Medieval Terms.'' CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 635 different degrees of slavery, is one of the most striking features of the middle ages, and in no country of Europe do we see a greater variety of such people than in Ger- many. In Germany there was a countless array of people subject to the dominion and sovereignty of others in a variety of ways. The condition of each class being de- termined by a separate set of laws, each modified by different customs, and each having a different mode of King going to a Tournament. freeing the bondsman from his bondage. This peculiar aspect of servitude lasted up to very recent times ; and, even at the present day, there is a decided state of bon- dage in many parts of Russia ; bondage of territory, that is, where the bondsman is not permitted to leave a cer- tain territory ; bondage of community, where the bonds- man is not allowed to join any other but his community ; bondage of labor ; and finally bondage of person.^ 1 The most vivid picture of German serfdom and servitude is given in Just. Moeger's "Patriotische Pbantasien." 636 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. As society advanced in Europe, tlie manumission of slaves grew more frequent. By the indulgence of custom in some places, or perhaps by original convention, villeins might possess property and thus purchase their own re' demption. Even where they had no legal title to prop- erty, it was accounted inhuman to divest them of their little possessions. Their poverty was perhaps not less in- tolerable, upon the whole, than that of the modern peas- antry in most countries of Europe. It was only in re- spect of his lord, it must be remembered, that the villeins, at least in England and in France, were without rights. A villein might. inherit, purchase, sue in the courts of law, though as a defendant in a real action, or suit wherein land was claimed, he might shelter himself under the plea of villeinage. The peasants of this condition were sometimes made use of in war and rewarded with enfranchisement, especially in Italy where the cities and petty states had often occasion to defend themselves with their whole population, and in peace the industry of free laborers must have been found more productive and better directed. Hence the eleventh and twelfth centuries see the number of slaves in Italy begin to decrease. Early in the fifteenth century, a writer, quoted by the learned Italian scholar Muratori, speaks of them as no longer ex- isting. A considerable part of the peasants in some parts of Germany had acquired their liberty before the close of the thirteenth century. In other parts, as well as in all the northern and eastern regions of Europe, they re- mained in a sort of villeinage till very recently. Some very few instances of predial servitude have been dis- covered in England so late as the time of Elizabeth, and perhaps they existed even later. When we stop and review the ground over which we CULTTIBE OF TSE MIDDLB AGES. 637 have now gone, we see much that is very different from what we are accustomed to. "We are not, however, to suppose that a simple and sufficient explanation of all this is to be found in the ignorance of the people. Let us only keep firmly in mind the constitution of tribal society. Let us consider the effect of the conquest of the Western Empire of Rome by the warlike Teutonic tribes. Their tribal customs were now brought in contact with the government and laws of Rome. They had under them a large number of subject people. It is then, perhaps, not strange that the institutions of feudalism took root and grew with such a luxuriant growth, giving rise as a consequence to the orders of nobility and drawing a wide line of separation between the gentry and the common people. In the further consideration of our subject, we must not forget that the lords repesented in many cases the old tribal chiefs, while the people under them represented either the old tribe or some constituent portion of it. Hence it is not strange to find them in the enjoyment of many privileges which in a vague sense proceed on the theory that each part of a tribe was independent in its own affairs. There are, first of all, duties of a Judicial nature. These were exercised by the owners of fiefs in different de- grees. In France they were divided into the high, the middle, and the low jurisdiction. The first species alone conveyed the power of life and death ; it was inherent in the baron and the castellan and sometimes enjoyed by a simple vavassor. The holders of the lower jurisdictions were not competent to judge in capital cases, and consequent- ly were forced to send such criminals to the court of the superior. But in some places, a thief taken in the act taight be punished with death by a lord who had only the low jurisdiction. 638 THM MEDIEVAL WORLD. In England this privilege was known by the uncouth ievm.^ oilnfangthef SiXid. Outfangthef. The high jurisdic- tion, however, was not very common in England except in the chartered towns. But the lord was bound to follow cus- tom and precedents as much as was the old chief. And customs put a check in many respects on this right. Ec- clesiastical lords, who were prohibited from inflicting capi- tal punishment and were supposed to be unacquainted with Englisli Medieval Costumes. the law followed in civil courts or unable to enforce it, had an officer by name of advocate or vidame, whose tenure of office was often feudal and hereditary. The bailiff's, provosts, and seneschals of lay lords were similar minis- ters, though not in general of so prominent a right in their offices, or of sUch eminent station as the advocates of monasteries. It seems to have been an established maxim, at least in later times, that the lord could not sit jiersonally in judgment, but must entrust that function to his bailiffs OVLTtiBE OP THE MIDDLE AGES. 639 and vassals.^ According to. the feudal rules, the lord's vassals or peers of his court were to assist him in all his proceedings.^ The presence of these assessors was so essential to all territorial jurisdiction that no lord, to what- ever rights of justice his fief might entitle him, was quali- fied to exercise them unless he had at least two vassals to sit as peers in his court. In these courts cases were de- cided, not by the technicalities of law as it is written down in the books of professional sages, but by the dictations of common sense and natural feeling. Whenever a case was doubtful and especially where a crime not capable of clear proof was charged, the issue was decided by a combat and thus the last and final decision of the case was entrusted, as they supposed, unto God.* The nobleman fought on horseback with all his arms of attack and defense. The Plebeian on foot with his club and target. The same were the weapons of the champions to whom women and ecclesiastics were per- mitted to entrust their rights. If the combat was inten- tended to settle a mere pecuniary question, or a civil law- suit, the vanquished party of course forfeited his claim and paid a fine. If he fought by proxy, the champion was liable to have his hands struck off, a regulation necessary, perhaps, to obviate the corruption of hired defenders. Even the judge himself, whose decision seemed to imply foul play, could be challenged by one of the parties, and this means of correcting the decisions of judges was re- sorted to very frequently. Such was the judicial system 1 Hallam: "View of the Middle Ages," chiap. 2. part 2nd. 2 Notice here tlie plain traces of tribal society. No chief in tribal society presumed to act without his council. 3 The best statement and estimation of the judicial combat will be found in Montesquieu's celebrated work, ''Esprit des Lois," bk. 28. chap. 24, 25, 26, 27. 640 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. of Continental Medieval Europe and especially of France when St. Louis erected that great code which bears the name of his Establishments. The rules of civil and criminal proceedings, as well as the principals of legal decisions, are there laid down with much detail, but that incomparable prince, unable to over- throw the judicial combat, confined himself to discouraging it by the example of a wiser jurisprudence. It was abolished throughout the royal domain. The bailifi^ who rendered justice to the king's immediate subjects, were bound to follow his own laws. He not only appealed from their sentence in his own court of peers, but listened to all complaints with a kind of patriarchal simplicity. "Many times," says the chronicler Joinville, "I have seen the good saint, after hearing mass in the summer season, lay himself at the foot of an oak in the wood of Vincennes, and make us all sit around him. When those who came and spoke to him without let of any officer, and he would ask aloud if there were any persons who had suits, and when they appeared, would bid two of his bailiffs deter- mine their cause upon the spot." In passing judgment on the men of the middle ages for this custom, we must remember that trial by ordeals and by battle are as old as humanity itself. Savage nations universally employ them. Trial by battle, such as here described, proceeded on the assumption that Grod would grant the victory only to the one who had the best right. The last trial by battle in a civil case in England occurred in the reign of Elizabeth.^ Customs such as these are often referred to as evidence of the dense igno- rance of the middle ages. Let us not forget that though we indeed find such customs in existence, they are gen- 1 Gilchrist: "Origin and History of Ordeals, "London, 1821, p. 30. GVLTV&E OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 641 erally in the act of disappearance. The barbarous prac- tice of duelling, which still survives, takes its rise by a similar train of reasoning. We have dwelt to a considerable extent on feudalism, and have shown how, in every department of medieval life, it exerted an almost controlling influence. As it took many years for it to come to its full development, so its passing away was equally slow. In almost every part of Europe, its effects are felt to this day. One of the most powerful causes of its downfall was the institution of free cities and boroughs. The earliest charters of a community granted to towns in France have been commonly referred to the time of Louis VI., though it is not improbable that some cities in the south had a municipal government by custom, if not by grant, at an early period. Noyon, St. Quentin, Laon, Amiens appear to have been the first that re- ceived emancipation at the hand of this prince. The chief towns in the royal domain were successively admitted to the same privileges during the reigns of Louis VI., Louis VII., and Philip Augustus. This example was gradually followed by the peers and other barons, so that by the end of the thirteenth century the custom had pre- vailed over all France. It was the gradual rise of these free cities which un- dermined feudalism. This shows us their great impor- tance. It has been sometimes asserted that the crusades had a great influence in the rise of city communities. If this notion were true, this result would have repaid Eu- rope for the crimes and miseries which attended the cru- sades, but it is very much exaggerated.^ The cities of Italy obtained their internal liberties by gradual encroach- ments and by the concessions of the Franconian Emperors. > Cf. Stubbs' ■' Constitutional History of England," p. 503, 623. 38 642 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Those upon the Rhine owed many of their privileges'to the same monarchies whose cause they had espoused in the rebellions of Germany. In France the charters granted by Louis the Fat, could hardly be connected with the first crusade, in which the crown had taken no part, and were lorig prior to the second. It was not until fifty years afterwards that the barons imitated his example by granting charters to their vassals, and these do not appear to have been particularly related to any of the crusades. Punishing Offenders. The establishment of chartered towns in France has been ascribed to deliberate policy. " Louis the Grros," says the historian Robertson, "in order to create some power that might counterbalance those potent A^assals who controlled or gave law to the crown, first adopted the plan of con- ferring new privileges on the towns situated within his domain." But Hallam ascribes this measure to the pe- cuniary exigencies of both the king and his barons, for he says, they sold their concessions to the towns at the GULTUBE OF THE MIDDLE AQ-ES. 643 highest price. Some cities, however, were indebted for success to their own courage and love of liberty. Op- pressed by the exactions of their superiors, they had re- course to arms and united themselves in a common league confirmed by oath for the sake of redress. One of these associations took place at Mans as early as 1067, and, though it did not secure any charter of privileges, this combination is a proof of the spirit to which ultimately the superior classes were obliged to submit. The privileges which the towns of France derived from their charters were very extensive. They were made ca- pable of possessing common property and authorized to use a common seal as a symbol of their incorporation. The more oppressive and ignominious tokens of subjection, such as the fine paid to the lord for permission to marry their children, were abolished. Their payments of rent or tribute were limited both in amount and as to the actions for which they might be demanded. Some obtained an exemption from assisting their lord in war. Others were only bound to follow him when he personally com- manded, and almost all limited their services to one, or at the utmost, very few days. If they were persuaded to extend this consideration, it was, like that of feudal at- tendance, at the c'ost of their superior. Their customs as to succession and other matters of private, right were reduced to certainty and, for the most part, laid down in the charter of incorporation. The most valuable privilege which the chartered towns obtained was that of exemp- tion from the jurisdiction of the royal as well as of terri- torial judges. They were subject to magistrates elected by themselves though, in some places, the lord participa- ted in this choice. They were empowered to make spec- ial rules, or as we call them "by-laws," such as did not 644 TSE MEDIEVAL WOULD. contravene the provisions of their charter or the ordinances of the king/ The middle ages were not only the- age of feudalism, but they were also the "age of chivalry." Chivalry and knighthood not only exerted a great influence on the life of medieval times, but became an essential part of the literature of romance and song, and thus continued to be felt even after they had been crowded out of the sterner relations of life. In treating of chivalry we are not treating of some mere sentimental institution of medieval times, but of one that was very real and practical, and eminently suitable to the wants of a time that had as yet only dimly felt the influence of those causes which were to give rise to the hurried, scientific, practical life of the present. Our words knight and knighthood signified, originally, a boy or youth, but before the middle of the twelfth century, they had acquired the meaning, which they still retain in the French word Chevalier. Concern- ing the origin of knighthood or chivalry nothing beyond more or less probable conjecture is possible. It is known, however, that the medieval knights were in no way de- rived from the knights or equites of Rome, the knights of King Arthur's round table, or the Paladins of Charle- magne. Some of the greatest scholars, like John Selden and DuCange, concur in tracing the ceremony of dubbing in knighthood to the ceremony, common amongst the Goths and the Franks, of adoption by arms. By means of a solemn investiture with warlike weapons, the parties par- ticipating in this ceremony thenceforth acquired the arti- ficial character of father and son, not as in the Roman practice of adoption for any purpose of succession or in- i Hallam, "Views," ch. 2. p. 2. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 645 heritance, but in a purely honorable and complimentary manner. The Crusades had a great deal to do in the es- tablishment of knighthood and chivalry. Vast armies were then set on foot, in which feudal rights and obliga- tions had no place. But it was observed by the leaders, ' that the volunteers who flocked to the standards of the various commanders were even more efficient as soldiers than the vassals whom they had hitherto commanded. It was thus shown that pay, the love of enterprise, and the prospect of plunder were quite as useful for the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together, as the ten- ure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty. Moreover, the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers of an expedition to Palestine were experienced veterans, ready to hire to the highest bidder and well worth the wages they received. It was probably owing to the crusades, that the church took the profession of arms under her protection, and, from that time, the ceremonies of initiation into it assumed a religious as well as a mar- tial character. Nor v/as this by any means a merely gratuitous pat- ronage of blood-shed on her part. In the ages of faith and chivalry, magic and sorcery were the terrors alike of the pious and the brave, and the blessings of the priests on the warrior's weapons and armor were always re- garded as the surest safe-guard against the influence of hostile spells and enchantments.^ To distinguished soldiers of the cross, the honors and benefits of knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they did not possess a sufficient property qualification, of which they had, in fact, deprived themselves in order to procure their equip- ments for the war. Thus the conception of knighthood as J gtubbg' Const. Hist., II. p. 270. Grose;' "Military Antiqu. I. p.. 60, 646 TSE MEDIEVAL WOULD. something wholly distinct from and independent of feudal- ism, both as a social condition and a personal dignity, was formed, and rapidly gained ground. It was then, that the analogy was first detected, which was afterward more fully developed, between the order of knighthood and the order of priesthood. Then followed the union of mona- chism and chivalry, effected by the establishment of the religious orders, of whieh the Knights Templars and the Knights Hospitalers were the most eminent examples. In their indifference to the distinctions of race and nationality, these orders accommodated themselves to the spirit which by that time had become characteristic of chivalry, which was already regarded, like the church, as an universal institution, comprising and knitting together the whole warrior caste of Christendom into one great frater- nity, irrespective alike of feudal subordination or territo- rial boundaries. Somewhat later the adoption of hered- itary sir-names and armorial bearings, as we have already pointed out, marked the existence of a large class, who, though considered noble, were, either from the subdivision of fiefs or from the effects of the custom of primogeniture, not possessed of sufficient property to support them as their rank required. To them only two callings were gen- erally open, that of the church-man and that of the sol- dier ; and the latter, as a rule, possessed greater attraction than the former at that time ot much license and little learning. Hence, the favorite expedient for a man of birth, though not of fortune, was to attach himself to some prince or magnate, in whose military service he was sure of an adequate maintenance, and might hope for even a rich reward in the shape of booty or ransom.^ 1 Saint Palaye: "Memoires sur I'aneieime Chevalier," Vol. I. p. 363, 364- CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 647 From a very early stage in the development of chiv- alry we meet with the singular institution of brotherhood in arms, and, from it, the ultimate origin, if not of the religious fraternities, at any rate of the military com- panionship is generally derived.-^ By this institution, a relation was created between two or more knights by vol- untary agreement, which was regarded as more intimate than those founded on the relationship of blood. Broth- ers in arms were supposed to be partners in all things save the af- fections of their lady loves. They shared in every danger and every success, and each was expected to vindicate the honor of the other as promptly and zealousy as his own. Their engagements usually lasted through life, but sometimes only for a specified period or during the continuance of speci- fied circumstances. Romance and traditions speak of strange rites, the mingling and even drinking of blood, as having in the remote ages marked the beginning of these martial and fraternal asso- Knight Templar. ciations.^ But in later times, they were generally made known by a formal exchanged of weapons and armor. In warfare, it was customary for knights, who were thus allied, to appear in similar armor having the same badges so that their enemies might not know with which of them they were in conflict, and that their friends might 1 Du Cange: "Dissertation sur Joinville," xxi. aDuCange: "Dissertation sur Joinville, " xxi. 648 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. not accord more applause to one than to another for his prowess in the field. It seems likely enough, therefore, that when the Crusades had commenced the process of transforming feudalism into chivalry, bodies of men, free indeed from monastic obligations, united by engagements of fidelity, wearing a common uniform or livery, and naming themselves after some special symbol or some patron saint of their adoption, were in existence. Such bodies raised by, or placed under the command of, a sovereign or grand master, regulated by statutes and enriched by ecclesias- tical endowments, would -have been exactly similar to the order of the "Grolden Fleece" in Burgundy, and similar orders in later times. The knight who had " won his spurs" was more highly regarded than the knight who succeeded to them as an incident of his feudal tenure. In the eye of the law they were equal. But it was the first, and not the second who was welcomed in court and camp, and who was invi- ted to the "round tables." Thus it became the ambition of every aspirant to knighthood to gain it by his exploits rather than to claim it merely as his right by virtue of his position and estate, no one, however, could be legitimately created a knight who was not a gentleman of "name and arms," that is, who was not at least descended from grand- parents, who were, on both sides, entitled to armorial bearings, and this condition is embodied in the statutes of every body of knighthood, religious or military, which can trace its origin to a period when chivalry, was a social institution.® We are now fairly launched into the consideration of the various orders of chivalry. In this it is necessary for 1 Du Cange: "Dissertations sur Joinville," xxi. a Nicholas: "Britigji Orders of Knighthood," Vol. I. pt. v. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 649 US to remember wherein they differed from the orders of nobility of feudalism. When the system became fully developed, knighthood proper was generally preceded by two preparatory stages, in which the candidate was suc- sessively a /fl^^ and then a squire. In the ordinary course of a chivalrous education, the successive conditions of page and squire were passed through in boyhood and youth, and the condition of knighthood was reached in early manhood. In fact, every feudal court and castle was A Tournament a school, in which the sons of the sovereign and his vassals, or of the feudary and his vassals, generally together with those of some of their allies or friends, were reared in the principles and habituated to the customs and observances of chivalry. Although princes and great personages were rarely actual pages or squires, the moral and physical dis- cipline, through which they passed was not, in any impor- tant particular, different from that to which candidates of a lower standing were subjected.* ' Sainte Palaye : "Memoires sur I'aucienae CbevaUer," Vol. I. p. 36. 650 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. The page, or as he was more anciently and more cor- rectly called the " valet" or "damoiseau," commenced his service and instruction when he was between seven and eight years old, and continued in the same for seven or eight years longer. He acted as the constant personal attendant of his master and mistress. He waited on them in their hall and accompanied them in the chase, served the lady in her bower, and followed the lord to the camp From the chaplain and his mistress and her demoiselles, he learned the rudiments of religion, of rectitude, and of love. From his master and his squires, the page acquired the elements of military exercise, to cast a spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured tread of a soldier. From his master and his huntsmen and fal- coners, he learned the mysteries of the woods and rivers^ or in other words, the rules and practices of hunting and hawking. When he was between fifteen and sixteen he became a squire, but no sudden or great alteration was made in his mode of life. He continued to wait at dinner with the pages, although in a manner more dignified, accord- ing to the notions of the age. He not only served but carved and helped the dishes, proffered the first or princi- pal cup of wine to his master and his guests, and carried to them the basin, ewer, or napkin when they washed their hands before and after meat. He assisted in clearing the hall for dancing or minstrelsy, and laid the tables for chess or draughts, and he also shared in the pastimes, for which he had made preparation. He brought his master the vin de coucher (the wine for the night), and made his early refection ready for him in the morning, but his mili- tary exercises and athletic sports occupied an always in- creasing portion of the day. He accustomed himself to SUPERSTITION OF THE DARK AG CVLTUBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 655 ride the '' great horse," to tilt at the quintain, to wield the battle-ax, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and to bear the weight and overcome the embarrassments of armor. He inured himself to the vicissitudes of heat and cold, and voluntarily suffered the pangs or inconveniences of hunger and thirst, fatigue and sleeplessness. It was then, too, that he chose his lady-love, whom he was ex- pected to regard with an adoration at once earnest, respect- ful, and the more meritorious if concealed. When it was considered that he had made sufficient advancement in his military accomplishments, he took his sword to the priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to him.^ Afterwards, he either remained with his early master, relegating most, of his domestic duties to his younger companions, or he entered the service of some valliant and adventurous lord or knight of his own selec- tion. He now became a squire of the body, and truly an armiger or scutifer, for he bore' the shield and armor of his leader to the field, and, what was a task of no small difficulty and hazard, assisted him to don his armor and mount his horse. It was his duty also to display and guard in battle the banner of the' baron or banneret or the pennon of the knight. He raised his master from the ground, if he were unhorsed, and supplied him with a horse if his was disabled or killed. He received and kept prisoners if any were taken. He fought by his master's side if he were unequally matched, attempted to rescue him if captured, bore him to a place of safety if wounded, and buried him honorably when dead. After he had worthily and bravely borne himself for six or seven years as a squire, the time came when it was 1 Sainte Pelaye, "Memoires," Vol. I. p. 2, 656 TKE MEDIEVAL WOULD. fitting that he should be made a knight. Two modes of conferring k^ighthood appear to have prevailed from a very early period in all countries where chivalry was known, one being much more ceremonious than the other. In both the essential portion seems to have consisted of the embrace and the blow on the shoulders, with the utterance of solemn Knighthood. words.^ In times of peace the ancient custom was to confer the dignity with many ceremonial observances. We must remember that chivalry was largely influenced by the 1 This was technically known as the accolade. Squires were anxious to have this given only by some distinguished knight. A romantic re- lationship was supposed to accrue from it between the parties, CULTUBE OF TSE MIDDLE A&ES. 657 church, consequently the cerenaonies were, to a certain ex- tent, of a religious nature. It will give us a good idea of life and times in the middle ages to glance at these cere- monies. The process of inauguration was commenced in the evening by placing the candidate under the care of "two esquires of honor, grave and well seen in courtship, and also nurtured in the feats of chivalry, who were to be governors in all things relating to him". Under their direction, to begin with, a barber shaved him and cut his hair. He was then conducted by them to his appointed chamber, hung within and without with linen and covered with rich clothes, where a bath was prepared, into which, after they had undressed him, he entered. While be was in the bath two "ancient and grave knights"attended him "to inform, in- struct, and counsel him, touching the order and feats of chivalry," and when they had fulfilled their mission, they poured some of the water of the bath over his shoulders, signing the left shoulder with the cross, and retired. He was then taken from the bath and put into a plain bed with- out hangings, in which he remained until his body was dry, when the two esquires put on him a white shirt and a robe of russet with long sleeves, having a hood like that of a hermit. Then the two knights returned and led him to the chapel, the enquires going before them sporting and dancing with the minstrels making melody and when they had been served with wines and spices went away, leaving only the candidate, the esquires, the priest, the chandler, and the watch, who kept the vigil of arms until sunrise, or man- aged to pass the night "in bestowing himself in prayers". At day-break he confessed to the priest, heard matins, and communicated in the mass, offering a taper and a piece of 658 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. money stuck in it as near the lighted end as possible, the first "to the honor of Grod", and the second "to the honor of the person who made him a knight". Afterwards he was taken back to his chamber and remained in bed until the knights, esquires, and minstrels went to him and aroused him. The knights then dressed him in distinctive garments and mounting their horses rode with him to the hall where Procession in the 15th Century. the candidate was to receive knighthood. His future squire was to ride before him bare-headed, bearing his sword by the point in its scabbard, with his spurs hanging from its hilt. When everything was prepared, the prince or sub- ject who was to knight him came into the hall, and, the candidate's sword and spurs having been presented to CVLTVBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 659 him, he held the right spur to the "most noble and gentle knight" present, and directed him to fasten it on the can- didate's right heel, which he accordingly did, kneeling on one knee and putting the candidate's right foot on his knee, signing the candidate's knee with the cross. In like manner, by another "noble and gentle knight" the left spur was fastened to his left heel. Then he, who was to create the knight, took the sword and girt him with it, and, embracing him, he lifted his right hand and smote him on the neck or shoulder, saying, "Be thou a good knight," and kissed him. When this was done, they all went to the chapel with much music, and the new knight laying his right hand on the altar, promised to support and defend the church, and, ungirting his sword, offered it on the altar.^ Of necessity, these ceremonies could not be gone through with in times of war. In such cases all that was necessary was the accolade. Some rather amusing in- stances of this occur in the annals, which illustrate knightly punctiliousness. A knight was disgraced if he surrendered himself prisoner to one not a knight, such misfortunes sometimes occurred. At times when such a calamity was impending, the fighters suspended hostilities long enough to allow the vanquished knight time enough to bestow the honor of knighthood upon his successful antagonist. He could then surrender himself without disgrace, for his foe was now a "noble knight." In course of time the cere- monial form dropped out of common usage. Knights were divided into two classes, knight ban- 1 Most of these ceremonies were of more or less religious signifi- cance. Thus the bath is significant of purity of soul. The bed of the rest he was hereafter to enjoy in Paradise, the red over-garment showed his resolution to shed his blood for the church if necessary. Mills : "His- tory of Chivalry," Vol. I. p. 49. 660 TBE MEDIEVAL WOULD. nerets and knight bachelors. The only distinction between them would appear in time of battle. The knight banneret was entitled to carry his own banner and had under his com- mand a more or less extensive body of men. All knights whether bachelors or bannerets were escorted by their squires. Every knight was entitled to bear a./>ennon, and every squire a pencel. All these flags were of a con- venient size to be carried on a lance. They were distin- guished by their form. The banner was cut square, the pennon was pointed or forked at its extremity, the pencel ended in a single tail or streamer.^ The tournament was the great feature of chivalry. They were the military games of the age ; they were cour- teous battles between two parties of mailed warriors. All of Europe delighted in these contests. The weapons with which they fought were generally so prepared that but a small amount of danger was to be feared from them. , At times the tournaments assumed an international character; heralds announced at foreign courts the intentions of their sovereigns to hold a tournament at a designated time and place, and invited "all those who valued their knighthood and respected dames and maidens to repair to the ap- pointed city and prove their chivalry." In Grermany the country was divided off in four districts in which tourna- ments were held by rotation. Safe conducts were allowed to foreign knights who wished to come to a trial of skill with the knights of the country. All, however, were not allowed to engage in the contest. "None could tourney who had blasphemed Grod, or offended the ladies," or in general who failed in any knightly duties. The place where a tournament was held was duly prepared. It was known as the list. It was 1 Grose: "Mil. Ant." Vol. II. p. 256. CULTURE OP THE MIDDLE AGES. 661 decorated witli all the wealth of feudal times. "Besides the gorgeous arrays of heraldic insignia were the chani- pions' tents; the galleries, which were made to contain the proud and joyous spectators, were covered with tapestry, representing chivalry both in its amorous and warlike guises ; on one side the knight with his bright faulchion smiting away hosts of foes, and on the other kneeling at the feet of beauty." On the day of the tournament the knights were con- ducted with many cer- eraonies to the place of combat. Their arms were duly examined, and then they were arranged in order. All being in readi- ness the heralds cried "Laissez Al/er." The cords which divided the two parties were immediately slack- ened, and the cava- Entrance to the Tournament. Hers, dressing their spears to their rests and commending themselves to their mistresses, dashed to the encounter while the trumpets sounded the beautiful point of chivalry for every man to do his "devoir." One encounter did not decide the matter, the fight continued. Heralds watched the encounter and noted points in honor of this or that knight. Thus if one knight succeeded in breaking his spear on the helmet of an opposing knight it counted him 662 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. ten points, etc. The contest came to an end when the lord of the tournament dropped his warder, thereupon the banners were folded and the amusements ended. Feasting and merry-making followed the contest. The knights, gaily attired, repaired to the festival hall, each accompanied by "a lady bright." The most distinguished knights took their place near the raised upper end of the lonff table An Apothecary's Shop, in Olden Times. The minstrels struck up their music. Her- alds presented to the ladies those knights who had espec- ially distinguished themselves. The "queen of beauty and love" presented the prizes. Thanks were rendered to visiting knights from foreign countries. Dancing closed the festivities for the day.' 1 This account ia extracted from Mills: "History of Chivalry," Vol. I. p. 259 et seq. dJLTVRli OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 663 A y-oung knight, who had just been raised to the dig- nity of knighthood, generally set out in search of adven- tures. He was known as a knight-errant. His object w^as to gain experience in all knightly exercises. When two such wandering knights met they must needs have a personal set-to to determine which was the more skillful. Such contests were i^xvn^^ jousts. Sometimes one knight- errant would station himself at some place where he would be sure to find some one with whom to joust; at the ford of a river, or where four roads met. They furthermore made diligent inquiry for adventures, and at prominent places they would post up a notice where they could be found. In short, they were " spoiling for a fight," and took all manner of ways to be accoramo- •dated.^ Although simple knighthood has gone out of use on the continent of Europe, there are innumerable grand crosses, commanderies, and companions of a forpaidable assortment of orders in almost every part of the world, from that of the Grolden Fleece of Spain and Austria to those of St. Charles of the pigmy republic of Monaco, and of King Kamehameha of the Sandwich Islands. But with tl^e exception of the orders of Golden Fleece, founded by Philip II., duke of Burgundy, in 1429, and of the Annun- ciation founded by Charles III., duke of Savoy, in 1518, none of the military, as distinguished from the religious orders of knighthood, have any actual historical connec- tion with chivalry. In England there are seven orders of knighthood — theGrarter, the Thistle, St. Patrick, the Bath, the Star of India, St. Michael and St. G-eorge, and the Indian Empire. By the end of the fourteenth century, the order of knighthood, as an order formally and par- 1 Cutts: "Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages," p. 353 e< seg. 664 TB:E MumEVAL WOULD. ticularly dedicated to the service of "Grod and the ladies" and bound by solemn and express engagements to vindi- cate justice, to avenge wrong, and to defend the weak, unprotected, and oppressed, had disappeared. It was with such professed objects however, that chiv- alry manifested itself during the early and more vigorous stages of its development, and played its part among the School in Olden Times. chief and certainly among the most remarkable of those in- fluences that molded the form and directed the course of western civilization in medieval times. The common off- spring of feudalism and the church, it derived its resources and its sanctions from each of its parents in turn and stood forth at once the spiritual representative of the one, and the temporal representative of the other. Whatever may have been its inherent vices and defects, it is at any CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 665 rate, indisputable that it embodied some of tlie noblest sentiments and engendered many of the worthy actions of contemporary mankind. It animated poetry and it created romance and her- aldry; it determined individual affairs, modified the policy of states, and generally inspired the energies while it con- trolled the defense of all those nations which were then, as they now ^re, the most enlightened as well as the most powerful in the world. Battles were commenced with religious celebrations, and armies esteemed themselves happy if they marched beneath a consecrated standard. Even in the field, and while engaged in mortal conflict. Christian knights enjoyed the duties and courtesies of their order and, if they were taken prisoner, they could count on consideration from their captors and on their freedom, when they naid^their stipulated ransom. Moreover, when they took prisoners they could release them on parole to raise their ransoms, confident that they would return to captivity if the ransom could not be raised. It is indeed from the custom of chivalry that the best and most humane portions of the laws of war, in so far as actual combatants are concerned, have their origin. It is not an altogether easy task to form a just esti- mation of chivalry. At the present day we are inclined to ridicule many of the ideas of chivalry, but all Europe was swayed by them, and it is necessary for us to weigh them well. The virtues it professed to teach were in many cases excellent. They included valor, loyalty, cour- tesy, and munificence. Valor was of course the primary , qualification of a knight, but loyalty, which implied the strictest fidelity to all his engagements, to his sovereign, his lady-love, and his friends and foes alike, was only second to it in importance. Courtesy meant iiot only cer- 666 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. emonious politeness, but also spontaneous modesty of car- riage, self-denial, and careful respect for the feelings of others. Munificence meant a disdain for money, readi- ness to relieve want and reward services* hospitality, and liberality in all things. "We know enough of human na- ture to know that no discipline or watchfulness would suc- ceed in making every member of an association live fully Execution in the Middle Ages. up to the ideas here set forth. It is not strange if some understood courtesy to consist of courtly acts to equals or superiors, but arrogant haughtiness to inferiors, or that extravagance was masqueraded as munificence. We all know there is such a thing even at the present day as being extremely polite, courtly, chivalrous, and all that sort of thing, and yet destitute of all the better traits of character, This was so during the age of chivalry. Still CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 667 these blemishes are inherent in human nature, and not in the institution of chivalry. Probably in no one respect is the weakness of chiv- alry more apparent than in the relation between the sexes. One of the first duties of knighthood was to protect the weak, this of course included ladies. It is not per- haps strange that devotion to ladies became one of the great hobbies of chivalry. To have some lady-love was the sine qua non of page, squire, and knight. This ro- mantic notion was carried to a ridiculous extent. The idea derived rfrom romantic literature that the principal duty of knights was to roam around rescuing unfortu- nate females from all sorts of predicaments is, of course, ^■b exaggeration. But still it remains true, that quite a large portion of all knightly exertions was undertaken to please some lady-love. This love was not of the Platonic kind either. So it is not strange that, although at no .period were women held in greater outward respect by "swaen, it is probably equally true that at no period did 'more license in the association of the sexes prevail. Before going farther it may be well to form a mental picture of life during the middle ages, viewed in the mellow light of feudalism and chivalry. The country was some- what wild ; the forests were unsubdued over large sections ; and there were quite large tracts of unclosed land. The towns were surrounded by walls having here and there lofty towers. The streets were narrow. The villages consisted of a group of cottages scattered round a wide green, with a village cross in the middle and a may-pole beside it. Castles crowned the hills, manor houses surrounded by wide moats were to be found in the valleys, and hermit- ages stood by lonely and dangerous fords. There were but few roads, except here and there in the old Roman 668 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. provinces, in other sections of the country they were more like green lanes with a narrow beaten track in the middle. Well trodden bridle paths led from village to village. Strange and picturesque sights were to be seen; The young knight full of ambition to make himself a name, and to win favor in the sight of his lady-love, rode along accompanied by his squire, anxious to find some adventure to distinguish himself, or to meet with another like-minded knight with whom to cross his lance. The feudal lord with his armed retainers was to be seen riding forth from his castle, and hunting parties scoured the woods. The gentlemen would ride by in silks and velvets, in plumed hat and enameled belt, attended by his servants. The minstrel, in gay coat, sang snatches of lays as he wan- dered along from hall to castle. The more stately group of knights and squires hurrying along were on their way to attend some tournament. It was a wild land the people were rude, the times lawless, but every mile had its pictures for the artist, and every day offered its chance for adventure.' Every one has heard of the Crusades. Probably no one set of causes contributed more to emphasize all the in- stitutions of the middle ages than did the Crusades. They built up the Catholic Church; they contributed largely to the establishment of chivalry, though, as we shall" see one of their final results was the breaking up of feudalism. The Crusades were a series of wars, undertaken professedly for the purpose of delivering the holy land from the domin- ion of the infidel, and so named from the cross worn as a badge by those who devoted themselves to the enterprise. These wars, it was held, were rendered necessary not only 1 Consult Cutis: "Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages," Lon- don, 1872' p. 353. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 669 by the profanation involved in the fact of Mohammedan rule over the country which had been the cradle and birth-place of Christianity, but by the insults and injuries constantly inflicted on Christian pilgrims. From age to age, the belief had been growing that no work could conduce more to the soul's health, than a visit to the holy places of Palestine. In proportion to the rap- idity with which this belief had spread over the Christian Hall in House of a Lord. world, a feeling of vehement indignation was awakened by the likelihood, if not certainty, that the Saracen conqueror would put his ban on the performance of that which was deemed to be an act of the highest Christian duty. The recitals of the Wrongs perpetrated on Christian pilgrims, went far towards fanning into flame the feelings which the popes had hitherto failed to awaken in sufficient strength. The idea of an armed host, which should inflict summary 670 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. vengeance upon the oppressors of tlie Christians, had al- ready dawned on the mind of the great Hildebrand, G-regory the Seventh. It had been urged by his successor, Victor the Third, but neither had struck the right chord. Such enterprises can never be set in motion with any solid results, except when the flood-tide of popular feeling gives its own weight to the sanction of religious authority. At that time, there appeared a poor, withered-looking monk, by the name of Peter the Hermit', with the stature and ungainliness of a dwarf. Emaciated by the aus- terities of his self imposed discipline, this man, who had forsaken his wife and abandoned his military standard, had returned from the holy land with his heart on fire, not so much from the memory of the hardships which he had himself undergone, as for the cruelties and tortures which he hatl seen inflicted on his fellow Christians. Armed with the special blessing of Pope Urban the Second, he mounted his ass and, with bare head and feet, carrying a huge crucifix, traversed the G-erman lands rousing every- where the incontroUable indignation, which devoured his own soul His vehemence carried all before him, none the less, perhaps, because he bade them remember, that no sins were too heinous to be washed away hj the water of the Jordan, no evil habits too deadly to be condoned by the one good work which would make them champions of the cross.-^ Pope Urban however and his counselors knew well that, before the fatal die could be prudently cast, a serious task lay before them. The system of feudalism, as we have tried to show, substituted personal ascendency for the do- minion of a central, general law; and, wherever the personal bond failed, their resort was inevitably to private war. 1 Micbaud ; Hist, des Crojsades, I. 433. CTJLTVBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 671 The practice of such wars had become virtually an organ- ized trade, and if a large proportion of the population should be drawn away to fight against the infidels in Palestine, those who remained at home would be without defense. Such wars were therefore formally condemned. The women and the clergy, merchants and husbandmen were placed under the special protection of the church, and the truce of God Avas solemnly confirmed. The Firsf Proof, Of the thousands who hastened to put on the badge, the great number were animated probably by the most disinterested motives, while some had their eyes fixed on the results of more politic calculations. For the multi- tude at large, there was the paramount attraction of an enterprise, which was put before them as a new mode of salvation, that enabled the layman without laying aside his habits of wild license, to reach a height of perfection 672 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLjO. scarcely to be attained by the austere monk or tbe most devoted priest. Nay, more, the assumption of the cross set the debtor free from his creditor so long as he wore the sacred badge ; opened the prison door for the malefac- tor, annulled the jurisdiction of the lord over the burgher or peasant ; and enabled the priest and the monk to es- cape from the monotony of the parish and the cloister. It might be thought that these privileges would tell hard on the creditors, the capitalists, and the usurers, but these reaped the most solid benefits. The princes who bound themselves by the vow must provide equipments for themselves and their followers, and carry with them sums of money sufficient for their needs. These sums must be raised by loan or mortgage; and, as all wished to get horsed, arms, and money, in exchange for lands, the for- mer became inordinately dear, the latter absurdly cheap. Thus the real gain lay on the side of the merchant and the trader or of the land owner who was prudent enough to add to his own domains by availing himself of the ne- cessities of his neighbors.^ All this, however, had been effected by the authority and sanction of the Holy See, which had taken under its protection the dominion of all crusading princes. It was for the pope to decide whether those who had taken the vow should setoff at once, whether some time of grace should be allowed, or whether the vows should be remit- ted altogether. The pope became, therefore, possessed of a dispensing power, which placed him above all other sovereigns. His gains, moreover, were immediate. The Crusades tended to merge the smaller into larger fiefs, which again were absorbed into the royal domain, thus largely promoting that growth of the sovereign power, 1 WUken; "Gegcbichte dej- Kreuzzuge, I. S47-468, CVLtlitlll OP TME MIDDLE AGES. 673 that in the end, broke up the feudal system. These results belonged to the distant future, but the pope was enabled, rather he was constrained, to send his legates into every land, both to enlist soldiers under the standard of the cross, and to collect money for their support. He became, thus, at once the administrator of vast revenues, that were raised partly by subsides and im- posed as a necessary obligation on the clergy, and in part by the voluntary contributions of the laity. With the pope, the ecclesiastical body generally acquired enormous power. The lands of the church, though money might be borrowed upon them, could not be alienated, but it was only in comparatively few instances that it was necessary to burden them at all. The monastic houses might send some of their members to the Holy Land, the rest remained at home and became mortgagees or trustees of the estates belonging to the crusaders. If these died without heirs, the guardians became the absolute owners ; and of those who returned, not a few withdrew into a cloister, and en- dowed with their worldly goods the last place of resort they had chosen.^ The narrative of the Crusades brings out with sufficient clearness, both their causes and their consequences. While the popular impulse which led to them could not issue any vigorous action without the sanc- tion of religion, the mere authority even of the popes was powerless to set Latin Christendom in motion until popu- lar indignation bad reached the fever heat. In reading the history of the crusades, the details of which can not, by the general character of this work form a part of the present chapter, we are able to watch the effects of enterprises in changing the face, not only of the East, but of the West, securing to the popes, the exact- 1 G. W.'Cox: ''Crusades." 674 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. ion and administration of vast revenues and of a dispen- sing power still more momentous in its issue, strengthen- ing and extending royal authority by the absorption of fiefs, but for the moment increasing in incomparably lar- ger measure the wealth and influence of the clergy. We can seethe introduction of feudal principles into Jerusalem and Constantinople, and can likewise mark the effects that followed the substitution of the laws of Jerusalem for the code of Rome. The story shows us, that the con- tact of western with eastern Christendom brought about, in some respects, results precisely opposite to those which were anticipated from it, and that the establishment of the Latin Empire of Constantinople^ rendered hopeless that union of the churches which Pope Innocent III. had re- garded as its certain fruit. But if the Crusades thus disappointed the expectations of their promoters, they achieved some results, the bene- fits of which have been felt froni that day to the present. They failed indeed to establish the permanent dominion of Latin Christendom, but they prolonged for nearly four centuries the life of the Eastern Empire, and by so doing, they arrested the time of Mohammedan conquests in the East. They saved the Italian, perhaps even the more northern lands of Europe from a tyranny, which has blas- ted the fairest regions of the earth, and if they added fuel to the flame of theological hatred between the Grreek and Latin churches, if they intensifie'd'the feeling of suspicion and dislike between the western and the eastern Chris- tians, they yet opened the way ibv an interchange of thought and learning, that had its result in the revival of letter^ and in the religious reformation that followed that revival. If again of their leaders, some showed 1 Above p. 358. CULTUBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 675 themselves men of cruelty and insatiable greed, there were others who, like Tancred, approached the ideal of the knightly chivalry of a later generation, and others again whose self-sacrificing charity and heroic patience furnish The First Printing Press. an example for all time. The ulterior results of the Cru- sades were the breaking of the feudal system, the abolition of serfdom, the supremacy of a common law over the in- dependent jurisdiction of chiefs, and if for the time they led to deeds of iniquity which it would be monstrous even 676 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. to palliate, it must yet be admitted, that, in their influence on later ages, the evil has been assuredly outweighed by the good.^ It is necessary for us to study the Catholic Church of the middle ages. The influence and power of the Catho- lic church during these ages were so great, its impress on the history of the times was so incisive, that the period in question is sometimes known as the age of church rule. Our siibject calls for no analysis of the doctrines of the church, but we simply want to know the nature of its power, and the character of its influence. We must not forget that the possession of land was a great source of power especially in the earlier portion of the middle ages. Though the especial domain of the church was in matters spiritual, still it has always been anxious to possess secu- lar power. We find therefore the church in the middle ages gaining control of as much land as possible. The church, as an organized body, never received any territorial endowments by law, but the voluntary gifts of princes as well as their subjects supplied the place of the legal provision. Large private estatfes, or, as they were called, patrimonies, not only in their own, but even in distant countries, sustained the dignity of the principal sees of the bishops and especially that of Rome. Many churches possessed seven or eight thousand mansi, mean- ing so many little landed estates. A church with but two thousand of these mansi was not esteemed especially rich. It must be remarked that much land was wild and uncul- tivated. Monasteries acquired legitimate riches by the culture of such tracts and by the prudent management of their revenues, which were less exposed to the ordinary 1 Tn the general estimation of the Crusa'iies, we have followed the opinion and the text of Sir. G. Cox's "Crusades," THE ALCHEMIST. CULTUBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 679 means of dissipation than those of laymen. Their wealth, continually accumulating, enabled them to become the regular purchasers of landed estates. Especially was this the case in the times of the Crusades, when the fiefs of the nobility were constantly in the market for sale or mortgage. If the possessions of ecclesiastical communities had all been as fairly earned, we could not complain, but other May Festival in the Middle Ages. sources of this wealth were less pure.^ Those who entered a monastery frequently put their whole estates into the common stock, and even the children of rich parents were expected to make a donation of land on assuming the cowl. Some gave their property to the church before en- tering on military expeditions ; gifts were made by some 1 Hallam. "Middle Ages," ch. vii. 40 680 TitE MEDIEVAL WORLD.^ to take effect after their lives, and many bequests were made by individuals on their death-beds. Even these lega- cies to charitable purposes, the administration of which was generally given to the clergy, were frequently ap- plied to their own benefit. They failed not, above all, to inculcate upon a wealthy sinner that no atonement could be so acceptable to heaven as liberal presents to its earth- ly delegates. To die without' allotting a portion of worldly wealth to pious orders was accounted almost like suicide, or the refusal of the last sacraments, and hence intestacy passed for a sort of fraud upon the church, which she punished by taking the administration of the deceased into her own hands. This, however, was peculiar to England and seems to have been the case there only between the reigns of Henry III. and Edward III. The church lands enjoyed an immunity from taxes, though not, as we have remarked above in general, from military service when held by feudal tenure. This being the case, we can understand how lay-proprietors acquired the custom of granting their estates to the church, but receiving the same back as a fief or lease. Such lands were now exempted from public burdens since they were church lands. Sometimes the monks misused their knowledge of writing for the purpose of forging charters in their favor, which might easily impose upon an a^e in which but comparatively few persons could write and the more so, since it has acquired a peculiar science to detect ■ these frauds in modern times. ^ As an additional source of revenue and in imitation of a Jewish law, the pay- ment of tithes was recommended or enjoined. Yet there were many obstacles to the clergy in their acquisition of opulence. There was a return wave of 1 Hallam, 1. c. dtj-LttJRE 6P THt! MIDDLE AGES. 681 violence that set sometimes very strongly against them. In times of barbarous violence, nothing can thoroughly compensate for the inferiority of physical strength and prowess. The ecclesiastical history of the- middle ages presents one long continuation of fraud against robbery^ of acquisitions, made by the church through such means as we have just mentioned, torn from her in turn by law- less power. Those very men, who, in the hour of sickness House of a Rich Burgher of the IBth Century. and impending death, showered the gifts of expiatory de- votion upon her altars, passed the sunshine of their lives in sacrilegious plunder. Notwithstanding the frequent instances of extreme reverence for religious institutions among the nobility, we should be deceived in supposing this to be their general character. Rapacity, not less than that of the abbots, was commonly united with a daring fierceness that the abbots could not resist. In every coun- try we find continual lamentation over the plunder of eccle- siastical possessions. Charles Martel is reproached with 682 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. having given the first notorious example of such spoliation. If it had not been for the draw-backs, the clergy must, one must imagine, have almost acquired the exclusive jDroperty of the soil. I'hey did enjoy nearly one-half of England and, in some countries of Europe, a still greater proportion.' The great a,ge of monasteries in England was the reigns of Henry I., Stephen, and Henry II. The revenue of the English church in 1337 amounted to over seven hundred thousand marks per annum. Auiong the causes which served to increase the power of the church, was the right and power of excommunica- tion, in an age of superstition this became a weapon of great power. Whatever opinions may be entertained as to its religious efficacy, excommunication was originally nothing more in appearance than an exercise of a right which every society claims, namely, the expulsion of re- fractory members from its body. No direct temporal dis- advantages attended this jDenalty for several ages ; but, as it was the most severe of spiritual censures and tended to exclude the object of it not only from a participation in just rights but, in a considerable degree, from the intercourse of Christian society, it was used sparingly and only upon the gravest occasions. Gradually, as the church became more powerful and more imperious, excommunications wei-e issued upon every provocation, rather as a weapon af ec- clesiastical warfare than with any regard to its original intention. Very soon, others than spiritual penalties were added to the consequences of excommunication. By the common law of England, for instance, an ex- communicated person was incapable of being a witness, or of bringing an action, and he might be detained in prison 1 Turner: "History of England," Vol. III. p. 45. MacPherson: "Annals of Commerce." CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 683 until he obtained absolution.^ By the Establishments of St. Louis, his estate or person might be attached by the magistrate. These actual penalties were attended by marks of abhorrence and ignominy, still more calcu- lated to make an impression on ordinary minds. They were to be shunned, like men infected with leprosy, by their servants, their friends, and their families. Two at- tendants only, if we trace a current - history, remained with Robert, king of France, who on account of an irreg- ular marriage was put under this ban by Gregory V., and these threw all the meats which had passed his table into the fire. Indeed, the mere intercourse with a pre- scribed person incurred what is called the lesser ex-com- munication, or prevention of the sacraments, and required penance and absolution. . In some cases a bier was set be- fore the door of the ex-communicated individual and stones thrown at his windows. Everywhere the excommunica- ted were debarred regular sepulcher.^ But ex-communication which attacked only one and perhaps a hardened sinner was not always efficacious, so the church had recourse to a more comprehensive punishment. For the offense bf a nobleman, she put a county — for that of a prince, his entire kingdom, under an interdict or sus- pension of religious offices. No stretch of her power was perhaps so cruel as this. During an interdict, the churches were closed, the bells silent, and dead unburied; no rites hut those of baptism and extreme unction were performed. The penalty fell upon those who had neither protectioij nor could have prevented the offense; and the offense was often hut a private dispute in which the pride of a pope or bishop had been wounded. This was the main-spring of 1 "Coke on Littleton" [Thorne. ed.] Vol. III. p. 390 et aeq. 2 Du Cange, sub voce : Imblocatus. - 684 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. the machinery that the clergy set in motion, the lever by which they moved the world. It might he said, that, from the moment these interdicts and ex-communications were tried, the power of the church existed only by sufferance. IS'or was the validity of such denunciations supposed to de- Treatment of Heretics in the Middle Ages. pend upon their justice. The iraposer, indeed, of an unjust ex-communication was guilty of a sin, but the parties sub- jected to it had no remedy but submission. After Pope Gregory VII., however, as the spirit of ecclesiastical usur- pation became more violent, there grew up by degrees an opposite feeling in the laity, which ripened into an aliena- tion of sentiment from the church. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 685 The great reformer, and in fact the founder of the as- cendency of the church, in the middle ages was Pope Grregory YII., or as he was called before being elected to the Holy See, Hildebrand. He was at once the most. am- bitious, the most energetic, and the greatest master of ex- ternal as well as of internal politics. Previous to his time, the position of the church, although always regarded with awe and respect, was in the very best case, one of equal might and power with the influence of kings and sovereigns. It was the ambition of Gregory VII. to raise and increase the power of the church, so as to be not the equal, but the superior of all secular princes. This, the object of his life, he began to realize long before he was elected to the papal dignity. Already under his imme- diate predecessors, he was the main spring of the actions emanating from Rome. With great boldness he advised the pope to regard the emperors of G-ermany, as well as the kings of France, as his spiritual vassals, and instead of waiting for the confirmation and approval of the em- peror, to ignore it totally. When Gregory ascended the Papal See, he carried his aggressive politics against the German Emperor, Henry IV., to an extreme, as we have already outlined.^ It is a difficult task to come to an impartial judgment on the merits or demerits of the Catholic church during the middle ages. In modern times, the position and power of the Roman church is apparently far from equaling its power during the middle ages. But this statement must be taken with many allowances, for, at present as well as in former times, the Catholic church commands an almost unbounded influence; still, admitting its truth, this state- ment ought not lead us into too harsh a judgment of the . Above p. 37a. 686 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. people of other centuries. Many, at present, think that the power of the church is deleterious to the general advance of mankind and that it ought to be curbed and controlled by the arm of secular power. During the middle ages the influence of the church was felt in almost eyery de- partment of public and private life. It may well be, Book Making in the Middle Ages. then, that its influence, in some degree at least, was of undue dimensions; but on the other hand, we must not forget that strictly political and secular powers are also encroaching and aggressive. They, too, thrust themselves upon almost every department of private and domestic ]ife, They deprive us of a considerable part of our CXJLTVBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. G87 time, and exact very heavy tributes in the way of taxation. Especially is this true of Europe where the bearing and influence of the state on pretty nearly every individual is more annoying and troublesome than the interference of the church in the middle ages. Thus nearly every Eu- ropean is subject to three years military service, and to all varieties of exactions as well as having to bear the , burden of frequent and unreasonable taxes. Now intel- lectual and spiritual power, not being inferior to secular and political power, there really is very little reason to exaggerate the bad influence of the one and extol the good work of the other. Power, after all, is power, and inter- ference remains interference, whether it comes from a pope or from a king. These considerations must give us pause when about to launch out in some denunciations against the church in the middle agss. The church num- bered hundreds of thousands of members, and it is but a matter of course that in a corporation consisting of such a numerous membership, persons guilty of all kinds of misdemeanors, vices, and even crimes, creep in. A heavy indictment has been drawn against the church in the matter of mental liberty and scientific advance. The case seems to be well made out, but it is well to see what can be said on the side of the accused. Under the name of scholasticism we generally comprise the philoso- phy and science of the middle ages. Many writers in our times delight in running down and decrying the efforts of medieval thinkers, but a closer study of their works generally ends with an admiration of the writers and an acknowledgment of their talent, industry, and persever- ance. Several of them, like Duns Scotus Erigena, Alber- tus Magnus, St. Thomas of Aquina, William of Cham- peaux, Occam, and others are justly distinguished, and a 688 THE MEDIE VAL WORLD. deeper study of their works has disclosed to us many a mine of happy and rich thoughts. The works of St. Thomas of Aquina may be fairly considered the treasury of knowledge of those times, embracing, as they do, the whole circle of sciences cultivated in the middle ages.^ i> s? street Shows in the Middle Ages. All these thinkers were under the immediate influ- ence of the church, even members of the same; but this did not prevent them from broaching the profoundest problems and giving expression to thoughts of lasting 1 Compare the works of Stoecker on Scholasticism, and especially the suggestive ^vork of Ponchet oq the progress of natural science during the middle ages. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLH AGES. 689 value. We must not forget, either, that the church en- joined on several of its orders the obligation of copying the ancient manuscripts of Roman and Greek writers ; and it is only by the industry and patience of those medie- val monks that we can still enjoy the productions of clas- sical writers. All our knowledge of G-reece and Rome has been preserved by the monks, more especially by the Benedictines. In the field of history, too, we extract from their dreary tomes considerable information, not only as to ancient Greece and Rome but of the history and insti- tutions of medieval times. But on the other hand, there is a sad story to tell. We must remember, however, that similar results would attend the establishment of any church, clothed with political power, among a people who had not yet attained a stage of great intellectual ad- vance. When Christianity came into power under Con- stantino, there commenced that sad conflict between science and religion which ended some centuries later, when the church had become thoroughly established, by the subver- tion of science to bigotry and superstition. Thus the church which should have been the power to free men's minds from the oppressive weight of ignorance, but riv- eted their fetters more strongly. It is extremely probable that, had there been no organized church clothed with the power to enforce its decrees, there would have been no "dark ages," but given the foregoing the latter result fol- lowed. The church was not the cause of the superstition and ignorance of the dark ages, but the oppressive weight of ecclesiastical power put an end for many dreary cen- turies to further advance in knowledge. In conclusion of our view of the middle ages, we shall devote some attention to the commercial activities of those times. From about the middle of the fourteenth 690 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. century, we find evidence of a continuous and rapid m- crease in wealth. Thus in 1363, Picard, who had been lord mayor some years before, entertained Edward 111., the Black Prince, the kings of France, Scotland, and Cyprus, with many of the nobility, at his own house and Attack on a Caravan. presented them with handsome gifts. Philipot, another eminent citizen in Richard II.'s time, when the trading of England was considerably annoyed by privateers, hired one thousand armed men and dispatched them to sea, where they took fifteen Spanish vessels with their prizes. We find Richard obtaining a great deal from private CVLtVRJS OP run MIDDLE AGES- 691 merchants and trading towns. In 1379, he got five thou- sand pounds sterling from London, a thousand marks from Bristol, and in proportion from smaller places. In 1386, London gave four thousand pounds sterling more and ten thousand marks in 1377. The latter sum was obtained also for the coronation of Henry VI. nor were the contributions of individuals contemptible, considering the high value of money. Hinde, a citizen of London, loaned Henry IV. two thousand pounds sterling, and Whittington, one half of that sum.^ A commercial intercourse between the northern and southern regions of Europe sprang up about the early part of the fourteenth century. The Italian merchants seldom undertook voyages perilous in themselves, but rendered more formidable by imaginary difficulties sup- posed to attend an expedition beyond the Straits of Her- cules, as the Straits of Gibraltar were then called, be- fore the magnet was discovered, its properties understood, and navigation raised to a science. The English, accus- tomed to their own rough seas, were always more intrepid and probably more skillful navigators, but it was extremely rare even in the fifteenth century for an English trading- vessel to appear in the Mediterranean. Yet a famous military armament, destined for the crusade of Richard 'I., had displayed, at a very early time, the seamanship of the English. In the reign of Henry VL, England carried on a pretty extensive traffic with the countries around the Mediterranean, for whose commodities she exchanged her wool and cloth. The city republics of Venice and Amalfi kept up the commercial intercourse of Christendom with the Saracen countries before the first crusade. Scarcely known before the end of the sixth, Almalfi ran a brilliant I Hallam: "View of the Middle Ages," chap. ix. 692 THU MEDIEVAL WOULD. career as a free and trading republic untii the middle of the twelfth century when the Normans reduced her by force of arms. But the decline of Amalfi was counter- balanced by the elevation of Pisa, Genoa, and Venice in in the twelfth and ensuing ages. These three Italian Republics enjoyed immunities in the Christian principali- ties of Syria, possessing separate quarters in many cities where they were governed by their own laws and mag- istrates.' The introduction of a silk manufactory at Palermo, by Richard Guiscard in 1148, gave perhaps the earliest impulse to the industry of Italy. The Genoese, at about the same date, plundered two Moorish cities of Spain, from which they derived the same art. In the next age, this became a staple manufacture of the Lombard and Tuscan Republics, and the cultivation of mulberries was enforced by their laws. Woolen stuffs, though the trade was per- haps less conspicuous than that of Flanders, and though many of the coarser kinds were imported from thence, en- gaged a multitude of workmen in Italy and the south of France. Among the trading companies, into which the middle ranks were distributed, those concerned in silk and woolen manufacture were always numerous and hon- orable.^ It is perhaps impossible to ascertain the epoch when the polarity of the magnet became first known in Europe. The common opinion which ascribes its discovery to a citizen of Amalfi, in the fourteenth century, is undoubt- edly erroneous. The French, as well as the Italians, claimed the discovery as their own, but whether it was due to either of these nations or rather learned from their 1 Muratorl, Dissertationes, xxx. 2 DecandoHe, ''Domestic Plants," Silk. OVLTUBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 693 intercourse with the Saracens is not easily to be ascer- tained. When the use of the magnet became more estab- lished, it naturally inspired a more fearless spirit of ad- venture. It was not, as has been mentioned, till the beginning of the fourteenth century, that the Grenoese and other nations around that inland sea steered into the Atlantic Ocean toward England and Flanders. In spite street Scene in the Middle Ages. of numerous obstacles, such as the general uncertainty of law and maritime piracy, the merchants of different coun- tries became so opulent as to almost rival the ancient nobility. The trading companies possessed either a pos- itive or a virtual monopoly, and held the keys of those eastern regions, for the luxuries of which the' progressive 694 TSS MEDIEVAL WOULD. refinement of manners produced an increasing demand. It is not easy to determine the average rate of profit, but we know that the interest of money was very high throughout the middle ages. At Verona in 1228, it was fixed by law at twelve and a half per cent ; at Medina in 1270, it seems to have been as high as twenty per cent. The Republic of Genoa, towards the end of the Carpenter Shop in Olden Times. fourteenth century, when Italy had grown wealthy, paid only from seven to ten per cent to her creditors ; but in France and England, the rate was more oppressive. An ordinance of Philip the Fair, in 1311, allowed twenty per cent after the first year of the loan. Under Henry III., the debtor paid ten per cent every two months, but this could not possibly have been the general practice. This was not merely owing to scarcity of money, but to the discouragement which a strange prejudice opposed to one CULTUBE OF THE MIDDLE A GES. 695 of the most useful and legitimate branches of commerce. Usury or lending money for profit was treated as a crime by the theologians of the middle ages. Though this opinion has been overthrown, traces of it still remain in the legislation of some modern countries. This trade in money, and indeed a great part of inland trade in general, had originally fallen to the Jews, who were noted for their usury as early as the sixth century. The earliest bank of deposit, instituted for the accom- modation of private merchants, is said to have been that of Barcelona in 1401. The banks of Verona and Genoa were of a different description. Although the former of these two has the advantage of greater antiquity, having been formed in the twelfth century, yet its early history is not so clear as that of Genoa, nor its political importance so remarkable. During the wars of the fourteenth cen- tury, Genoa had borrowed large sums of private citizens, to whom the revenues of the city were pledged for repay- ment. As a security, at least for their interest, the' sub- scribers to the loans were permitted to receive the produce of the taxes by their own collectors, paying the excess into the treasury. The number and distinct classes of these subscribers, becoming at last inconvenient, they were formed, about the year 1407, into a single corpora- tion, called the "Bank of St. George," which was from that time, the sole national creditor and mortgagee. The government of this was entrusted to eight protectors. It sooii became almost .independent of the state. Every ifiember, on his admission, swore to maintain the privileges of the bank which were confirmed by the pope and even by the empire. The bank interposed its advice in every measure of government and generally, as is admitted, to the public advantage. It equipped armaments at its own 41 696 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. expense, one of which subdued the island of Corsica.-^ The increasing wealth of Europe, whether derived from internal improvement or foreign commerce, dis- played itself in more extensive consumption and greater refinements of domestic life; but these effects were, for a long time, very gradual. It is not till the latter part of the thii^teenth century, that a more rapid imjoulse appears to have been given to society. A writer about the era thirteen hundred describes the manners of the Italians as follows: "In those times," he says, "the manners of the Italians were rude. A man and his wife ate off the same plate, there were no wooden-handled knives nor more than one or "two drinking cups in the house. Can- dles of wax or tallow were unknown. A servant held a torch during the sujjper. The clothes of men were of leather unlined, scarcely any gold or silver was seen on their dress. The common people ate jfiesh but three times a week and kept their cold meat for supper. Many did not drink wine in summer. A small stock of rye seemed riches. The portions of women were small. Their dress even after marriage was simple. The pride of man was to be well provided with arms and horses. That of the nobility, to have lofty towers, of which all the cities of Italy were full. But now," he adds, "frugality has been changed for sumptuousness, everything exquisite is sought after in di-ess, gold, silver, pearls, silks, and rich furs. Foreign wines and rich meats are required, hence usury, rapine, tyranny, fraud, etc."^ No chapter of national manners would illustrate so well, if duly executed, the progress of social life as that dedicated to domestic architecture. The fashions of dress 1 Hallam: "Middle Ages," ch. ix. S Eicobaldi, quoted in Muratori: "Dissertationes, xxxvi." CULTURE OF TSE MIDDLE ACfES. 697 and of amusements are generally capricious and irreduci- ble to rule, but every change in the dwellings of mankind, from the rudest wooden cabin to the stately residence, was dictated by some principle of convenience, neatness, com- fort, or magnificence. Both France and England do not appear to have made great progress in domestic architec- Feudal Castle at Bouen. ture during the middle ages. Except fortified castles, we do not find any considerable dwellings mentioned before the reign of Charles YII. of France. Occasionally a rich merchant possessed a magnificent house in Paris or in some of the neighboring cities. Even in Italy, where from the size of her cities and social refinements of her inhabitants, greater elegance and splendor in building were 698 . TSE MEDIEVAL WOULD. justly to be expected, the domestic architecture of the middle ages did not attain any perfection. In several towns, the houses were covered with thatch, and suffered consequently from destructive fires. The two most essential improvements in architecture during this period, one of which had been missed by the sagacity of Greece and Rome, were chimneys and glass windows. Nothing, apparently, can be more simple than the former, yet the wisdom of ancient times had been content to let the smoke escajie by an opening in the center of the roof.^ About the middle of the fourteenth century, the use of chimneys is distinctly mentioned in England and Italy, but they are found in several of the English castles, which bear a much older date. Glass is said to have been em- ployed in the domestic architecture of France before the fourteenth century, and its introduction into England was probably not earlier IS'or indeed did it come into general use during the period of the middle ages. Glazed windows were considered as movable furniture and probably bore a high price. When the earls of Northumberland, as late as the reign of Elizabeth, left Alnwick Castle, win- dows were taken out of their frames and carefully laid by. But if the domestic buildings of the fifteenth century would not seem very spacious or convenient at present, far less would this generation be content with their internal ac- commodations. A gentleman's house, containing three or four beds, was extraordinarily well provided. Few prob- ably had more than two. The walls were commonly bare. It is unnecessary to add that neither luxuries of books nor pictures could have found a place among furni- ture. Silver plate was very rare and hardly used for the table. 1 Beckmann: "Geschichte der Erflndungen," III. p. 110. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 699 • Few things are capable of giving us a more distinct idea of the economical condition of a period of time than the general market prices of things. In the reign of Henry III. and Edward I. in other words, before 1300, the ordinary price of a quarter of wheat appears to have been about four shillings, and that of barley and oats in proportion. A sheep at a shilling was considered high.^ An ox might be procured for ten or twelve. The value of cattle is of course dependent upon their breed and condi- tion, and we have no early account of butcher's meat. In order to bring the prices of the thirteenth century to a level with those of the present day, we can hardly take a less multiple than about thirty for animal food and eighteen or twenty for rye. Combining the two and set- ting the comparative dearness of cloth against the cheap- ness of fuel and many other articles, we may perhaps consider any given sum under Henry III. and Edward I. as equivalent in general command over commodities to about twenty-four or twenty-five times their nominal value at present. Accustomed to judge of feudal and chivalrous ages by works of fiction or by historians who embellish their writings with accounts of occasional festivals and tournaments and are sometimes inattentive enough to transfer the manners of the seventeenth to the fourteenth century, we are not at all aware of the usual simplicity with which the gentry lived under Edward I. or even Henry VI. They drank little wine, although they gen- erally made up for that in the way of drinking beer. They had no foreign luxuries ; they rarely or never kept male servants except for husbandry. Their horses as we may guess by the price, were indiiferent. They seldom traveled beyond their country and even their hospitality 1 English Shilling. 700 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. must have been greatly limited if the value of estates was really no greater than we find it in many surveys. An income of ten or twenty pounds sterling was reckoned a competent estate for a gentleman. At least the lord of a single manor would seldom have enjoyed more. A knight, who possessed one hundred and fifty pounds sterling per annum, passed for extremely rich, yet this was not equal in command over commodities to four thousand pounds sterling at present. But this income was comparatively free from taxation; and in addition to the money, the lord had the,disposal of quite an array of villeins. Sir John Fortescue speaks of five pounds a year as a fair living for a yeoman, a class of whom he is not at all inclined to diminish the importance. Still one class of laborers seem to have been better paid in the reigns of Edward III. or Henry VI. than at present. In the fourteenth century, a harvest man had four pence a day which enabled him in a week to buy a comb of wheat, but to buy a comb of wheat a man must now work six or eight days. So under Henry YI., if meat was at a farthing and a half a pound, a laborer, earning three pence a day or eighteen pence in a week, could buy a bushel of wheat at six shillings the quarter, and twenty-four pounds of meat for his family. A laborer, at present earning twelve shillings a week, can buy only half a bushel of wheat at eighty shillings the quarter and twelve pounds of meat at seven pence.^ It would be great historical injustice in treating of the institutions of the middle ages, to neglect the great and far-reaching influence of a people, who, by their intense interest in everything connected with civilization and by their intimate connection with medieval Europe, claim 1 NichoU's "Illustrations," and Hallam. CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 701 our attention, if not our gratitude. We mean the people following the Mohammedan creed and more espec- ially the Arabians of the middle ages. Their vast em- pire founded on the valor and military system of Moham- med soon turned to a cultivation of science and philosophy, which did not fail to bear fruit and be of great conse- quence both to the country where it was produced and the countries of Europe to which it was carried by the zeal and thirst for knowledge of some Christian thinkers. The Arabians, with an energy and a genius but rarely equalled, devoted their attention to philosophical and scientific studies; and many of their caliphs, like Al Manzur and the still more celebrated Haroun-al-Raschid, were eager to attract to their courts the astronomers and math- ematicians of the empire. The Arabians, highly prized the great and useful literature of the Grreeks, and did not hesitate to avail themselves of the works of Aristotle, Plato, and the later school of Alexandria. They translated the works of those Greek thinkers into the classical language of Arabia; and, more than this, they unceasingly endeavored and fre- quently succeeded, in reforming and improving on their teachers. The great names of Averroes and Avicenna are immortal luminaries in the history of philosophy. The mathematical works of Mohammed ben Mousa enriched the science of higher arithnaetic with the solution of equations of the second degree. They were equally felicitous in their study of the human body, and Arabian physicians and doctors had a reputation all over the then known world. Frederick II., the enlightened and ingen- ious emperor of Grermany, had them as his constant companions, delighting in the conversation of those learned men, who at that time combined both the classical knowl- 702 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. edge of Grreece and the newly acquired treasures of facts and ideas, found and propounded by Arabian thinkers. The bloom and blossom of Arabian civilization cen- tered in Spain ; and it was to that land, where the Arabians long held a beneficent sway over two-thirds of the country, that many a zealous scholar of Europe re- paired in order to acquire information which, at that time, he could not procure elsewhere. Greber, or as he is better known,* Pope Sylvester II., was an immediate scholar of the Arabians in Spain; and it was to their instruction that he owed his remarkable skill in the theory and practice of mathematical science. Roger Bacon, the great wonder and marvel of English science in the middle ages, took a considerable part of his knowledge, his theorems, and inventions from a diligent study of the works of Ara- bian philosophers ; and thus we may fairly state that the Arabian civilization, if it did not exercise an influence similar to that of Grreek or Roman civilization, was indeed not very inferior in its consequences, having roused the spirit of self-reflection and a bolder investigation into the problems of nature and of the human mind. ' Many of the commonest words in our science still bear the signs of Arabian influence; and some of the noblest sciences, as for instance, algebra, retain the Arabian notation without alteration. We must now draw to a conclusion this picture of life and times of the middle ages. Of necessity we could only touch on the main points, numberless points of minor importance having to be passed over in silence. In the last three chapters we have tried to outline the develop- ment of Aryan culture forming a counterpart to the three closing chapters of Part I., treating of the political devel- opment, Taken together, we can now understand the CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 703 "Medieval World " in culture. It has simply to do with Europe, as the Ancient World had to do with Asia and the Nile Valley. And what completeness does it give to the view to regard Europe as the home land of the Aryans, and the Aryans of Asia as simply emigrants who wandered so far to the Orient as to loose their way back. And we hope it now becomes clear that when we talk about great eras in culture, we must make altogether dif- ferent divisions than those ordinarily employed by the historians. The medieval world in culture does not at all correspond to the medieval world in history. It has ref- erence solely to the Aryans. Aryan culture has known no backward movement. The culture of to-day is simply the development of medieval culture. We have how watched the gradual unfolding of Europe, and have drawn near to the dawning of modern times. There is some- thing in this ever widening sweep of Aryan culture, which we have traced from its source in G-reece until it has em- braced all Europe, that ought to give room to the cheer- ing belief that the Aryan people will long continue to press on in the pursuit of knowledge. Loosing ourselves in revery, we may dream of the time when Aryan lan- guage, religion, and culture shall embrace the whole world in its folds.^ 1 The three preceding chapters on ancient Greece, Rome, and the Middle Ages, covering, as they do, an immense field of investigatioQ and the vast expanse of over two thousand five hundred years, did not admit of a more elaborate treatment of special points. Accordingly the author of these three essays considered it his main duty to direct the reader's attention to the leading features only, and to adduce the neces- sary arguments and illustrations in order to facilitate a clear and co- herent insight into the real and specific character of Greek, Boman, and Medieval Civilization. Such a succinct picture of the past times, however, while on the one hand, it necessitates a greater amount of reasoning and generalization, does, on the other hand, lessen the bulk of mere facts, with the exception 704 THE MEDIE VAL WOULD. of those, the certainty of which has long been established, and continue to form the undisturbed common property of scholars. Many of the facts proffered in the preceding three essays, but more especially in the essay on Roman civilization, [such as those concerning the dress, the meals, the buildings, the races of the Romans] have been taken from standard reference books, like Pauly's Realencyclopaedie des Klass- ischen Alterthums ; Saglio and -Daremberg's [unfinished] Dictionnaire des Antiquites Romaines; Smith's Dictionary of Roman Antiquities, and others. It being the literary custom to use small portions [in dis- tinction to whole articles] of these and similar useful compilations freely, the present general acknowledgment will suffice as an index of some of the sources used in the preparation of the said essays. The essential and leading ideas and conceptions of the preceding essays, however, and particularly those of the essays on Rome [e. g. the discussion of the city- state, the position of women, of house-sons, of slaves, the purport of Roman games, the causes of the unique greatness of Rome, etc] have been evolved by an independent study of the original sources, [chiefly, Livy, Dionysius H., Cicero, Polyblus) together with the best works of the moderns [mainly, Niebuhr, Schwegler, Mommsen, Lange, Sir. C. Lewis, etc.] It was, consequently, thought not feasible to crowd the pages with quotations, which, by the very nature of the subject, would have been far too minute and numerous for any other than a strictly pro- fessional work, the short space allotted to the subject being a final apol- ogy for the omission of direct quotations from the Roman, historians. < W < W AH YAN RELIGION. 707 ARYAH RELIGION. Introduction— Mythology— Origin of Myths— Eclipse Myths— Nature Myths— The Myth of the Dawn— Aryan Mythology— The Sky God- Aryans of Asia — The Vedic Age — Brahmanism — Rise of Philosophy — The Sankhya System — The Yoga Branch — The Vedai^a School — The Doctrine of Illusion — Iswara — Mazdeism, Origin of — Mazdean Lit- erature — Dualism — Ahura Mazda — The Ameshospands — Develop- ment of Mazdeism — Zrvan Akarana — Peculiarity of Greek Devel- opment — The Tonic School of Philosophy — Pythagoras — Socrates — Plato— The "World of Ideas" — Comparison with Hindoo Thought — World-Soul — Contact between Aryan Thought and Judaism — Angels — Satan — Primitive Feast — Greek Mysteries — The Eleusinian Myth — Nationality of Buddha — Initiation into Brahmanism— Organization of his Order — The Laymen — Sayings of Buddha — Initiation into the Order — Political Development of Buddhism — Esoteric Buddhism — The "Tathagatha,"The "Great Vehicle" Movement— Buddhaghosa— The Legendary Buddha— Spread of Buddhism— General Conclu- HAVE still before us a most import- ant field of research, to whicli we must now turn our attention, this is the re- ligious development of the Aryan peo- ple. Her4 as elsewhere Aryan genius is preceptible. It will be found in the sequel that two very important systems of Oriental relig- ion date from Aryan foundation, one taking its rise in India and one in Persia. Tracing this influence to the "West, we find two slightly diverging systems of philoso- 708 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. phy, one taking its rise in Grreece finally culminating in the philosophy of Plato ; and one, originating in the conflict between Aryan and Semitic thought — especially Judaism — ultimately giving rise to the various Gnostic sects, the relations between which and Christianity, it will be the object of a future chapter to unravel. An immense field is here disclosed to view, each and every topic mentioned is deserving of a volume by itself. Hence it is evident that we can only give an outline of all. Still this will prove interesting, and will show, as nothing else will, certain peculiarities of Aryan thought. They were the first people to seriously grapple with, and attempt the solution of, certain great problems — such as the nature of the first cause, the origin of the soul, of matter, of evil — problems which still tax the ingenuity of theolo- gians of our own times. So we will attempt to come to an understanding on this rather diffuse subject. But let us observe well our surroundings. We have in another place gone over the ground of "Primitive Re- ligion.'^ We need have no doubt that the various Aryan tribes of Europe went through at least the preliminary stages of this development before any extensive migra- tion from their common home. History opens for each great section of the Aryan race when it was in the last stage of this growth, that of polytheistic Nature Worship. It is therefore necessary to gain a slight understanding of Aryan mythology, especially as we wish to show how primitive mythological conceptions continue to exert an influence long after the people have advanced to higher grades of culture. Now mythology happens to' be one of those topics, that have so recently been made the subject of scientific I This Series, Vol. II. ch. y. ARYAN RELIGION. 709 study, that they are still far from being settled fields. Prob- ably, as is true of many another branch of science, at an early stage of its history, its enthusiastic expounders claimed for it more than it could perform, and appealed to its authority where it had no jurisdiction. On the other hand, some resist its plainest teachings and, refusing the assistance it proffers them, find themselves still in- volved in doubt, or stubbornly cling to conclusions which they should have been willing to abandon a long time ago. A reluctance to change established views may be as pro- lific of error as an overweening desire to embrace theo- ries simply because they are new. If we would really understand this subject, some general remarks must be made. Only of late years have explorers considered it worth their while to take into account the stories and tales of savage and but partially civilized people. Now that this subject has been noticed the following statements are found to be tr&e. Nearly all tribes of men have collec- tions of stories that profess to explain all natural phe- nomena, or are accounts of the doings of supernatural beings, or of beasts gifted with supernatural power. These stories pass on into barbaric life, in which stage they are mainly accounts of the actions of supernatural beings. Advancing intelligence either clothes these stories with a religious garb, making them accounts of the actions of their gods,- or adopts the principal actors in ^hem as their own natural heroes and the time of their occurrence as their golden age. To the above statement, we must add, that these stages Are not sharply defined, but are found variously commin- gled among tho same people, at the same time ; and, fur- ther, incidents of the original stories, lost sight of in gen- 710 TSE MEDIEVAL WOULD. eral, are continually re-appearing as survivals in the folk- lore of the people. Now, mythology proper, at least as ordinarily understood, concerns only the religious and heroic stage of these stories, where they are mainly the accounts of the doings of gods, goddesses, and supernatural beings. But for our purpose it is better to glance at the whole story field as just laid down. Death of Hercules. We must recall some points of savage philosophy. We have learned that, at a certain stage, savages come upon the conception that objects have souls, and that this conception extends in the stage of Fetichism to embrace all natural phenomena.^ It is evident, that when people in this stage of development attempt to give any expla- 1 This Series Vol. II. p. 310 et seq. ARYAN HELIQIOK. 711, nation of what is going on about them, the explanation will be colored by such belief. To illustrate, what more natural than that rude people should see in water spouts great flying dragons and serpents.?^ How else could such phenomena be described by savages, imbued with the savage theory just spoken of? So, quite naturally indeed, the sand pillars of the desert are explained to be the flight of demons.^ Now we want to dwell on this point, because herd is a state of mind that will most unquestionably give rise to a great host of mythic stories. Everything, to primitive man, is endowed with individuality and life. Sun, moon, and stars, the winds, clouds, storms, rivers, are present to their minds as animate bodies, living much such a life as mortals do. It is manifest that such a stage of thought will give rise to a great number of mythic conceptions. We can further see how true it is that all people, in the progress of development must come to such a stage of thought. It is sure to arise, when once the savage idea of souls has gained ground. Everything that happens will inevitably be explained in terms denoting the action of living beings. Further still, primitive man will fall back on the same line of reasoning to explain some of the most common occurrences.' Let us illustrate this. At times the rays of the sun shining through the clouds present the appearance of great ropes hanging down from the sun. Savages, believ- ing the sun to be alive, seek to explain this appearance. 1 Tyler: "Primitive Culture," Vol I. p-. 264-5. 2 Ibid. ' A number of scholars seem to think that primitive man could not well distinguish between the living and the not living (Sayce: "Science of Language," Vol. II. p. 264) but this theory seems to rest upon a poor foundation. (See Spencer: "Principles of Sociology.") To our mind this mystic stage arises, like Fetichism, from the savage doctrine of souls. That conception has first to be formed. [ Vide Vol. II. ch. v.] 712 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Thus have arisen in different localities the myths of the sun catcher. The Polynesian tribes tell how Maui and his brothers, thinking that the sun went too fast, plaited ropes and formed a noose, and then journeyed to the East; "very far to the eastward, and came to the very edge of the place out of which the sun rises." Then they^'spread the noose and prepared to catch the sun. At length the sun rises. "He rises up, his head passes through the-- noose, and it takes in more and more of his body, until his fore paws pass through ; then are pulled tight the ropes." Maui then rushed upon him, bearing in his hand an enchanted weapon. "Alas the sun screams aloud ; he roars ; Maui strikes him fiercely Avith many blows ; they hold him for a long time ; at last they let him go ; and then weak from wounds the sun crept slowly along his course."' Now this story is not based on any poetical metaphor. Savages are doing just what scientific men are doing to-day, explaining as best they can in accordance with their phil- osophy what they see around them. On island after island different versions of this myth occur, and some say that Maui wisely refused to take off the ropes, so that he might constantly hold the sun in check. The natives say that you can still see the ropes attached to the sun when he rises and sets. Civilized children exclaim " the sun is drawing water," in such instances the Polynesian islanders would say " behold the ropes of Maui."^ To show how true it is, that given the same phenom- ena to explain, men in the same stage of enlightenment will reason the same way, we need only point out that sub- stantially similar myths existed among our Indian tribes."* 1 Grey: "Polynesian Mythology," London, 1885, p. 35-8. 2 Tyler: Early History of Mankind," p. 352. AltYAN RELIGION. 713 Sometimes as an accident, and sometimes on purpose, the sun is represented as caught in a snare, set by some wonderful hunter. In the American stories, however, the animals liberate the sun. In one story, the mole, burrow- ing underground, at length sets the sun free, his eyes are, however, put out by the intense light, and ever since moles have been blind.'^ It is quite in keeping with this old mythic idea that the Incas of Peru reasoned about the sun. "He is like a tethered beast who makes a daily round under the eye of a master."* And it is certainly in- teresting to observe that this conception lingers on in European folk-lore where the sun is spoken of as if it were tethered and delayed by bands.^ Thus mythic conceptions, such as here shown, arise quite naturally, and have a wide range both in space and time. It will be found that such conceptions underlie the ideas everywhere entertained by partially civilized tribes of eclipses. The sun and moon are considered as alive, but at times, from some mysterious cause, they seem to be disappearing with their light and warmth. What more natural than the explanation given of some monster seek- ing to devour them. The sun and moon are in never ceasing motion across the vaults of heaven, they are. sup- posed to be in flight to avoid some monster— wolf, dog, or dragon — who seems to have overtaken his prey at the moment of eclipse, and would doubtless finish them, were he not scared away by the eflforts made by the natives in their behalf.* Many North American Indian tribes gave the dogs a sound whipping during the eclipses, because the "big 1 Ibid. 351. 2 Brinton: "Myths of the New World," p. 55. 8 Grimm: ''Teutonic Mythology," Vol. II. p. 745. liondon, 1883, < Ibid. 705. 42 714 THE Medieval woblD. dog" was swallowing the moon and the sun, and by whip- ping the little dogs he might be induced to desist.^ So the tribes in South America thought the moon was hunted across the sky by huge dogs, who caught and tore her during an eclipse, and so to scare them away, the Indians would set up a great noise and shoot their arrows athwart the sky.^ So of the Moors in Africa. "When the sun eclipse was at its highest, we saw the people running Assembly of the GEods on Mt. Olympus. about as if mad, and firing their rifles at the sun, to frighten the monster who, they supposed, was wishing to devour the orb of day . . . The women banged copper vessels together, making such a din that it was heard leagues away."* 1 Brinton: "Mytjis," p. 137. 2 Tyler: "Culture," Vol. I. p. 296. 3 Grimm: "Teutonic Mythology," Vol. II. p. 707. ARYAN BELIQION. 715 All the civilized nation's show that they passed through the same belief. A Mongolian myth tells us of a demon * who pursues both the sun and the moon, whenever he comes to hand-grips with one of them an eclipse occurs.^ The Chinese still speak of the sun and moon as being •'devoured" during an eclipse, and a great dragon is the monster doing the mischief. iN'early all of the population in Northern Asia have the same opinion. And every- where with gongs and bells, rude music and prayers, it is to be driven away. The Finns in Europe hav£ a similar belief. The Esthonians say the sun or moon is being "eaten," and until recently sought to hinder this process by conjuring spells.^ All Aryan nations passed through this stage of belief. "To this day, the Hindoos believe that a giant lays hold of the luminaries, and tries to swallow them."^ "The Romans flung fire-brands into the air and blew trumpets and clanged brazen pots and pans." As late as the seven- teenth century, people of Celtic descent were observed during an eclipse "to run about beating kettles and pans thinking their clamor and vexations available to the assis- tance of the higher orbs."* And not very long ago alma- nacs still represented eclipses by two dragons holding the sun and moon in their mouths.' Now we have only just touched on the immense field of nature myths, we will, however, pass it by since, at present, all we wish to do is to make clear what we mean by the mythic stage of thought, and illustrate how natur- ally such stories might originate. As we have seen illus- trated in the case of the sun-catcher, men everywhere are given to explain what they see around them. Certainly 1 Ibid. 2 Ibid. s ibid. * Tyler, Op. cit. p. SOI. ^ Grimm, 1. e. note i. 716 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. from a very low stage of society on, man has been a theo- rizer. The primitive theories, however, are very crude. The point to be observed is, that these crude theories, ex- plained in such terms that all understood them, very often indeed find embodiment in some story, and thus are l^ept alive as myths. We have now tried to make clear that a myth is in its origin an explanation. It is not an alle- gory, nor a poetical metaphor,-but it is an effort on the part of primitive man to explain what he sees around him. They are the first theories of primitive science.^ But we have been considering myths in their primitive stage. To explain their far reaching effects in the field of religion and history, we must reflect on the changes produced by time on the language in which they first find expression. For the original meaning of the words is lost sight of, partly because of changes constantly going forward in the language itself, and partly because advancing intelligence exposes the absurdity in the original explanation. So the real meaning in the old story is forgotten, all that remains is the shell. We have now seen that myths are simply portions of the j)hilosophy of the childhood age of mankind, often clothed in a new meaning, but not always. It is evident that all people who have achieved civilization have passed through such an age, and that barbarous people are even now in a mythical age. It is further evident that myths must embrace every department of science. We will have not only mythical religion but mythical philoso- phy and history as well. But the fact is, religious myths have had the most enduring life. We can all see the reason for this. Such myths would be handed down, while others would speedily be forgotten. Attempts would be 1 On this point see Fisli: "Myths and Myth Makers," p. 21 ASTAJSr RELIGION. 71 7 made to reconcile them with the beliefs and sciences of a new generation. It is instructive to notice the philoso- phers of the age of Socrates and Plato trying to explain Grrecian mythology. We can furthermore see why it is, that nature myths — myths of the earth, sky, sun, stars, night, dawn, etc. — should be just the ones that would thus survive when others had been forgotten. Many illustrations of- this statement could be given, we will limit ourselves to but one, the Dawn. What is that j*oseateglow which lightens up the eastern sky shortly bqfore the sun ajppears ? The Australian tribes say that the sun is a woman. "Every night she descends among the dead, who stand in double lines to greet her and let her pass. She has a lover among the dead, who has pre- sented her with a red kangaroo skin, and in this she ap- pears at her rising,"' Strange conception, truly, but quite on a par with our Aryan progenitors, with whom the dawn was a red cow f and the sun was her calf.^ From this singular story as a starting point, we follow the con- ception into the poetry of the Vedas where TJshas (the Dawn) "opens the darkness as a cow her stall;" she is then represented as "full of wisdom, rich in everything;" in short, she is the author of all the good that day-light brings,'* From this we understand the wonderful impor- tange of cows in all the religious observances of the Hin- doos,^ and the Farsees, and let us not forget the great effi- cacy of the ashes of a red heifer among the Israelites." Let us constantly keep the foregoing in mind. Inci- dents of mythic story so altered that we can perhaps 1 Lang: "Myth, Ritual, and Religion,'.' Vol. II. p. 129. 2 "Zoological Mythology," Vol. I. p. 50. ^ ibid. 51. * Keary : "Outline of Primitive Belief," p. 146-7, 5 Vid? Williaijis; "Modern Hindooi^nj." ^ Num. Xix. 718 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. scarcely detect them are floating around the world, always ready to attach themselves to the names and memories of national heroes. The history of great kings, such as Cyrus the great and, Charlemagne, is encrusted with mythical incidents;-^ and especially around the memories of great reformers and founders of new religions, such as G-autama and Zoroaster, will such mythic stories gather. Now let us attempt to learn more particularly of Aryan mythology. We have seen that as a people enter on the stage of Polytheism, the heavens and the earth, as two of the greater fetiches, take rank as two of the more powerful gods of the new pantheon. Powers are ascribed to them and hymns in their favor are sung. The Polynesian Islanders called the over-arching' heaven Rangi, and sup- posed he was the father of all life. A most interesting story is told of the separation of Rangi and Papa, the earth.^ Among these Islanders the myth was yet in the first stage. The meaning of the words was very plain to all. It is hard for primitive man to form nouns with gen- eral significance. It is easier for them to give names for different aspects of the sky, such as Night sky, Day sky, Noon sky, than it is to form a general conception of Sky. Hence it is that among rude people, such as the primitive Aryans, we meet with the names of several im- portant deities, each of which traces itself back to some aspect of the sky ; each had developed from the fetich worship of the first stage. Thus among the Teutonic tribes, we meet with Zio, which seems to have been the day sky. As we pass away from Grermany,.we continually meet with this ancient divinity under new names. Amono- 1 risk: "Myths and Myth Makers," p. 114 note and p. 199. 2 Grrey: "Polynesian Mythology." ARYAN RELIGION. 719 the Greeks, we meet with Zeus ; among the Romans, with Jupiter ; among the Slaves, with Svaroga ; and among the Indians', with Dyaus} Now let us observe the steps by which the fetich sky has emerged into the polytheistic god. The day sky was Diana, given a personal name. This was not a metaphor, nor a poetical fancy, for all nouns are personal. Time passes 1 F«c?e Darmesteter: "Contemporary Review." As to traces of fetich worship among the Aryans consult Keary : "Primitive Belief," p. 53. 720 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. on and the Aryans commence their victorious migrations. Language and philosophy both change. The scattered people forget the original meaning of the name of their god. He becomes simply a mythical figure. Many little incidents that were natural and true of the day sky are still told of the god, but now there is no reason in their application. They pass on into meaningless stories. But the various Aryan people, a s they continue on their way from the homeland, enter on new conditions o f life and surround- ings, or from the workings of many other causes, other personifications be- came more promi- nent than. the day sky, though this is not true of all the Aryans. Among the IndianSjYaruna, the night sky, usurped the supremacy, only to be in turn van- quished by Indra, the god of storms. In Germany, ddhinn, originally the god of the stormy atmosphere, became in course of time, the great god of all Teutonic people.^ Now it is not necessary for our present purpose to give a detailed 1 Cox: "Mythology of the Aryan Nations." Apollo. ABYAN BELIOION 721 account of Aryan mythology. It is sufficient to remark that, approximately in the manner here pointed out, all Aryan people, when history first dawns upon them, were in the possession of a rich and varied mythology. The ex- planations and child-like theories of the primitive Aryans, retained by the conservatism so natural to all religions, now found a place in the songs, descriptive of their gods, and the meaningless, absurd, or immoral stories told of the loves, lives, and adventures of their gods and god- desses. Leaving the other branches of the Aryans, we will turn our attention to the Aryans of Asia, who are of es- pecial interest to us in our present inquiry. We have be- fore pointed out that the Aryans of Asia, as far as our present inquiry is concerned, consist of two closely, related people \ the Iranians and the Indians. But at the time to which we now direct our inquiry, these two branches had not yet made their appearance. The people were, as yet, united. This was the Vedic age of the Aryans. We have already had occasion to refer to this expression, and have perhaps said all that is necessary on the various di- visions of this mass of literature.^ Now a vast amount of study has of late years been devoted to this mass of literature, in order to gain there- from a knowledge of the religious conceptions of the Asiat- ic Aryans when we first gain an historical knowledge of them. Let us pause to note a singular idea prevalent 1 For further information on the Vedas consult Lang: "Myth, Ritual, and Eeligion," Vol. I. ch. vii. Williams: "Religious Thought in India," ch. i. Kaegi: "RigVeda," p. 4 ei «eg'. An excellent description is contained in Colebrook's "Essays," ch. i. Earth: "Religions of India," ch. i; The following volumes of the "Sacred Books of the East" are, of course, all important: Vols. I., II., VIII., XII. and XV. The introduc- tory parts in all of these volumes give us light on this question . See also above p. 154, 722 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. among some authors. It has been supposed that the knowledge thus obtained would be that of ih.Q primitive religious state of the Aryans, and considerable has been said about the childlike simplicity and innocence of the same. Thus says Geiger: " We have in these hymns the picture of an original, primitive life of mankind."^ To this, Kaegi adds that these hymns present us "religious conceptions from the earliest beginnings.""^ Similar ex- pressions could be quoted from such men as Whitney and Max Muller.^ Yet a moment's consideration will show us that this is the wrong view. Instead of being a primitive stage of thought, it is really a most advanced stage. Many cen- turies had doubtless passed away since the Aryan migra- tions began. They must have slowly passed through the various stages of ancestor and fetich worship and were in an advanced stage of polytheistic nature worship. Plain traces of these stages exist. Neither was the state of society "primitive." The family was fully organized.* ''The ranks of society were as clearly defined as in Ho- meric Grreece."^ Kings are frequently mentioned, poets and priests abound. The people were settled in villages, various trades were practiced ; in short, society may be said to have arrived at the very verge of civilization.® The very language in .which the songs were written was already old and decrepid, long past the bloom of youth.'' All this shows us how greatly we err when we regard the religion of the Vedic period as a primitive religion. Let us bear in mind the following eminently just observa- 1 Kaegi: "Rig Veda," p. 26. 2 Ibid. 3 Lange: "Myth, Ritual and Religion," Vol. I. p. 119. i Kaegi: "Rig- Veda," p. 14. 5 Lang, Op. eit. p. 220, 6 Ibid. 223. t Sayce; "Science of Ijanguage," Vol. II. p. 138 et seq. ARYAN RELIGION. 723 tion of Lang. "In the Yedas, we have the views of the Rishis only, that is, of sacred poets on their way to becom- ing a sacred caste. Necessarily, they no more represent the popular creeds than the psalmists and prophets, with their lofty monotheistic morality, represent the popular creeds of Israel."^ But in reality the Vedas do show us one of the most interesting stages of religious develop- ment. Advancing intelligence of the people in general had now begun to perceive, in a diA way, the weakness of their popular creed. They were feeling about for something to take its place. In such a stage of thought, the more intel- lectual class of people. — the poets and priests — would take great liberties with the old mythology. The older myths and legends were in part explained away ; here omitted altogether, and there softened down. Such crude concep- tions of the Dawn as a red cow were replaced by long- poems on the goodness, wisdom, and beauty of Ushas (the Dawn). In short, the many hued mantle of poetry was flung over the ancient mythology, concealing here and- there its crudeness, and throwing an altogether different light on what remained. As we stated, in the first or Vedic stage, the Aryans of India are not supposed to have separated into the two great streams of the , Asiatic Aryans ; the Iranians and "the Indians. But this separation soon began to take place. One stream of the advancing Aryans set towards the West, and one debouched on the plains of -Tipper India. Tracing the fortunes of this eastern branch, we find them coming in contact with members of the Yellow Race— the Dravidians. The effect, on the development of religion, was two-fold. We have already traced this 1 Myth, Ritual and Eeligion," Vol. II. p. 133, 724 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. influence in the development of the religious caste.'' The Brahmans now became the body of people who are con- cerned with religion. The mass of the people were now released from all care in such matters. They had only to follow the directions of the Brahmans, We need only reflect that the great mass of people change their religious opinions only with extreme slowness. Primitive Worship among the Germans- In the case of the Indians, the Brahmans had simply to formulate the slowly crystallizing beliefs of the popular creed, which though little affected by the Vedic movement, had finally begun to advance out of the simply primitive stage of belief.^ This creed and belief is known to us as Brahmanism, and is perhaps the first attempt at a philo- 1 Above p. 165, g This Series Vol, JI. ch. jv, ASYAN BELIGION. 725 sophical system of religion of which anything is known, though it is extremely crude, and overlaid with all sorts of myths of the older period.^ The Brahman caste was undoubtedly considerably influenced by the beliefs of the Turanian Dravidians, and incorporated, to some extent, their myths with their own.^ Let us consider a little farther this priestly caste of the Brahmans. Such a body of men was largely released from the material cares of life. They formed the learned body of the people, and would undoubtedly ponder over the various problems of philosophy and religion. But the conclusions they might come to among themselves, would not necessarily be communicated to the people at large, simply because they were by no means fitted to re- ceive them. Here then we find ground for the division of religious doctrines into exoteric and esoteric doctrines. The former being the doctrines publicly taught and expounded; the latter, the secret beliefs of the priestly and learned class. We need only remark, that while in the earlier ages of the world, the distinction between these two classes of knowledge was very great,^ yet the tendency has con- stantly been for this distinction to disappear ; this because the mass of the people have steadily become more and 1 We use the word "Philosophical" as opposed to the mere develop- ment of mythology. An exception may come in, in the case of Egypt, but iu examining Egyptian religion we failed to find much philosophy, but did observe a great deal of mythology. The Persian system of relig- ion may be, and probably is, equally as old. We need simply remark ia this place that no Semitic system of religion was based on philosophy. Let no one take offense at this statement, for religion is not a matter of philosophy but of faith. 2 Will not this explain Earth's statements of a trace of some sort of connection between Babylon and India? ("Religions of India," p, xviii) as well as Bunsen's rather labored hypothesis in "Angel Messiah." See also "Bible Folk-Lore," London, 1884, p. 4, for further particulars on this point, 3 Every system of ancient philosophy was more or less esotric or secret, known in its fullness only to the initiated. 726 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. more enlightened. Still it has never entirely disappeared, and even to this day, how frequently is the remark made in reference to some particular article of belief, that, how- ever true it may be, the world is not yet ready for it. Kow we think it will be brought out in the sequel that the esoteric knowledge of the ancient Brahmans, slowly spreading to the west, exerted a tremendous influ- ence on the development of religious philosophy, an influ- ence which is felt to-day in every part of the civilized world. But for the present let us return to the considera- tion of Brahmanism. In accordance with what we have but just pointed out, Brahmanism itself must be studied under two heads; Ritual ^nd Philosophy. Fortunately the ritual, or public worship of Brahmanism, need not detain us long. In Brahmanism, all worship may be summed up in one word. Sacrifice} Here we see an extraordinary development of one set of ideas properly belonging to' primitive religion. Sacri- fice begins with offerings of food to the other-selves of dead kinsmen and friends.^ When ancestor worship has become well developed its observation of course becomes of more importance. Now, sacrifices are offered for the purpose of propitiating the household gods. The general course of development, as morality more and more attaches itself to religion,^ is, first, for the idea to arise that the ob- ject offered in sacrifice must be something valued by the giver, something requiring ^^^-sacrifice on his part.^ Only in a developed stage does the idea arise that to obtain the 1 Oldenberg: "Buddha," p. 19, London, 1882. Williams: "Religious Thought," p. 24. a Tyler: "PrimitiveCulture," "Vol II. p. 340. This Series, Vol. II. p. 742. Spencer: "Sociology," 3 This Series, Vol. II. p. 288. i Tyler, 1. c. p. 359, ARYAN EELmiOl^. ' 727 wished for good, the moral duties must be cultivated as well as sacrificial offerings made. In Brahmanism the development was still in almost the first stage.^ There were united to this, however, several conceptions belonging to a very low scale of cul- ture, ideas that can be traced directly to savage philoso- phy. That is the magical efficacy of sacrifice. If sacri- fices be only accompanied by the right ceremonies ; if the appropriate prayers and ceremonies be offered by the appropriate person, they are all powerful. Everything that happens is to be explained as the result of some ceremo- nial arrangement.^ Already in the Vedas we see the be- •ginning of this state of mind.^ Of course, we can see that, when the Brahman caste with its peculiar rights had developed itself, they would foster this tendency. They only, know how to perform the sacrifice, so as to compel the wished for good. Save in this enormous extension of sacrifice there was not much change in the standing of the older Vedic gods.* Let us now turn to a more interesting part of our subject, Philosophical Brahmanism. Now the Brahman priesthood cared little for what we might call Dogmatic Theology.' In questions of rites and ceremonies, they claimed to be the sole authorities. But the most diverse opinions were allowed provided they professed to rest on the Vedas. Furthermore, when it came to the matters of speculation, the Brahman class did not always contain in its ranks the keenest thinkers. Members of the Ksha- tyra caste often led them in this matter.," 1 Earth: "Religions of India," p. 49.Above p. IIY. 2 Earth, Op cit p 48; Williams: "Religious Thought," p 23. 3 Lang: "Myth, Ritual and Religion," Vol. I. p. 224. Oldenberg: "^Buddha," p. 19. • * Earth, Op. cit. p. 41. 6 Earth, Op. cit. p. 46. « Earth, Op. cit. p. 65. Above p. 171. 728 ' THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. It seems to us, at present at least, impossible to trace the steps by which the Hindoos emerged from mythology into philosophy.^ We have seen that even in primitive religion, the conception arises of one supreme Grod back of all the rest.^ In the Vedic hymns this feeling often finds expression,^ but then the people had not settled down on any one god as the supreme God. Or rather the people were in that stage of thought when any of the gods to whom sacrifice is directed becomes, for the time being, the Supreme One.* But a time finally came when these "meditative Aryans", taking these old hymns as their stand-point, at- tempted to build up philosophical systems, they were thus- employed perhaps as early as ten centuries b. c.,^ and their theories found expression in the Upanishads or the theolog- ical portion of the Vedas.^ It is a difiicult task to extract from these Upanishads the various systems of Philosophy,^ but we may with profit refer to the more prominent ones. The study will convince us that whether the investigator 1 There are those who will deny that philosophy proper belongs to any of the Hindoo systems (See Schwegler: "History of Philosophy," and Williams : "Religious Thought," p. 26,) since the whole object of their research was to free the soul from the necessity of rebirth. This ia certainly a very fine point to raise. Whatever object the Hindoos had in view, they did certainly enunciate various theories as to the uni- verse, the soul, and the nature of deity, which they sought to support by a train of reasoning. This, however childish the theories may be, is a system of philosophy. The object of the Greek philosophy, we are told, was to disengage the soul from all animal passions, that it may rise above sensible objects to the contemplation of the world of intelli- gence. [Colebrooli's "Essays, "p. 155.] This, as contrasted with the Hindoo object, islargely a "distinction without a difference." 2 This Series Vol. II. p. 346. 8 Rig- Veda, x. 120 127., Muller's translation, are examples of this feeling. 4 Earth, Op. cit. p. 29. This is the stage of thought denominated by Max Muller, "Henotheism." "Origin and Growth of Religion," p. 260. SBarthop. cit. p. 67. Oldenberg: "Buddha,"p.l8. Williams: "Relig- ious Thought," p. 20 ; but this same authorin "Indian Wisdom, "assumes 500 E c. 6 Above p. 160. i Cf. Barth, p. 61. AJtYA:N^ BBLmiON. 729 be a Hindoo, European, or American, if prepared for his work, he comes to conclusions substantially the same. This we would indeed expect to be the result since men every- where are confronted by the same problems and have only the same elements whereby to effect, their solution. Mars. As we have seen, the older mythology taught that the over-arching heaven and the fruitful earth were the prolific father and mother of all th-ings, consequently also of man. As man advanced in intelligence, it seems to have been assumed that his body was indeed of the earth, earth- ly, but that his spiritual part was of heavenly descent. 730 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. The problems presenting themselves for solution were the nature of the relation between these two parts, the nature and destiny of the spiritual part, and how to free it from its entanglement with matter.^ Incidentally attaching to these there were other problems pressing forward for a solution; one of which speedily became of very great importance, that was the Origin of EviJ. It was comparatively easy to account for good, but whence came evil ?^ The slowly developing philosophy of the Brahmans began to cast itself into formal systems, one of the first was the Sankhya system; The meaning of this word is the exercise of reason or judgment.^ As expanded by the ancient commentators, it signifies "the discovery of the soul by means of right discrimination".* Not a bad title for a system of philosophy. The reputed founder of the school was Capila, but around this personage, if such an one exis- ted, have gathered innumerable myths^ and he is generally considered as of divine origin." The idea underlying this philosophy is,that true and perfect knowledge will free men from all evil. Then follows a dissertation on the means of attaining knowledge, such as comparison, inference, tradi- tion, etc. On this part we need not linger. The most important statements of their philosophy then follow. 1 E veryreligion known to tbe world, that reaches aphilosophical stage, on its esoteric side at least, has had to grapple with and attempt a solu- tion of these problems. On their exoteric side, however, they are either passed by, rites and ceremonies forming the whole of religion, or some formulated article of belief, drawn from sources considered by the follow- ers of the religion in question as inspired, solve all doubts and answer all inquiries. Perhaps this is the better way, since the field of religion is not science but faith. 'i Dean Mansell makes the two great problems of heathen philosophy to be "the problem of absolute existence, and the problem of the Origin of Evil." ("Gnostic Heresies" p. 11) 3 Colebrook'3 "Essays," p. 144. * Ibid. Of. William's definition of synthetic enumeration. "Indian Wisdom," p. 91. ^ Above p. 718. 6 Colebrook's "Essays," p. 145. Williams; Indian Wisdom," p. 89, note 1. ARYAN BELlCflON. 731 It is in general very difficult to set forth the details of a philosophical system in a way, at all interesting. It is, however, so necessary for a further understanding of our subject, that we must make an attempt to understand these old thinkers. As for the world of matter, they said it was eternal, and was the producer of all things. They figured it as an eternal, productive germ, and designated it by a feminine noun, Prakriii, the mother of all things, quite in keeping with the old mythology. But this germ, though one, indivisible, and all that sort of thing, is a trinity, a union of three qualities, each equal to the other, a perfect equipoise existing between them. These are the three Gunas, or cords, which bind the soul. The first comprising all of good, the second of evil, the third of indilference.-' This philosophy also declares that the spiritual part of man is eternal ; not only that it will be eternal in the future, but has been in the past. This principle is des- ignated by a masculine noun Purusha. But though there is only one productive germ, spirits are innumerable, each separate and independent from the others, and each has existed from all eternity. Whether this system originally admitted the existence of one supreme soul, one superior tc? all. the others, is doubtful.** But certainly from the very earliest times some philosophers of this school taught the existence of such a supreme soul, Iswara, the ruler of the world.' But this supreme ruler is so far removed from other souls that he takes no interest in them. 1 The Gunas are : 1 Sattva, equivalent to purity, goodness, etc. 2 Rajas, " passion, activity, etc. 3 Tamas, " darkness, indifference, etc. Vide Williams: "Religious Thought," p. 31; Colebrook's "Essays," p. 157. 3 The majority of authorities seem to favor the negative view ; Earth : "Religion of India,'! p. 70; Williams: "Religious Thought," p. 33. 3 Colebrook's "Essays," p. 154; "Indian Wisdom," p. 98. This is 732 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. The relation .between these two eternal principles they consider to be as follows. The female principle, Prakriti, desires union with the male principle, Purusha. No creation takes place unless such union occurs. Here comes in the fatal entanglement of the soul with matter. The part played by the soul is simply that of a passive onlooker, still it is finally ensnared by the wiles of Prak- riti. He joins himself with her and a phenomenal world and an intelligent being is produced.' But in this act of creation the perfect equipoise of the three qualities — good- ness, evil, indifference — in Prakriti is disturbed. The soul is bound to matter more strongly by one cord than another. Hence we have all classes of beings ; good, bad, and indif- ferent.^ Now, in order to keep clearly in mind the main points, that is how this system answered the problems outlined above,^ we will pass by some points in the system, and hurry on to the final question, how was the soul to be set free from its entanglements with matter? Death would not do it, for death was simply the destruction of one gross, material body and there were several other bodies inter- vening between that and the soul.* Besides, until the soul was fully informed in this matter, it must transmi- grate from body to body, in each life enjoying the rewards, or suffering the penalties for deeds done in a former body. But when the great principles of this philosophy are truly the theory of the Yoga branch of the Sankhya philosophy; cf. Cole- brook'a remarks, p. 159, i Notice the singular conclusion, there are as many phenomenal worlds and creations as there are individual beings, consequently the phenomenal world is not a real one. 2 Let us understand that not all of these intelligent beings are human beings; some, as gods and demons, are superior to man; and some, as quadrupeds, are inferior. Colebrook's "Essays," p. 157. 3 Page 730. * Colebrook, p. 155. GERMAN FUNERAL SACRIFICE. ARYAN BELIQION. 735 perceived, then will the imprisoned soul learn that it is radically distinct from matter. "Possessed of this self- knowledge, soul contemplates at ease nature, thereby de- barred from prolific change."^ Now, before passing on to other topics, let us reflect for a moment on this system. It taught dualism f the . eternity of matter and spirit; all the evil of life arose from the soul yielding to the enticement of matter ; the way of escape was the attainment of true knowledge by which the soul might perceive the errors of his ways, so to speak. We must notice also, the prevalence of old mythological ideas §ide by side with ideas advanced for that age. Quite in keeping with the old mythology, and with all the phe- nomena they saw around them, they accounted for all that existed by the union of a male and a female principle.^ A slight change of name will however show that after all this system is not foolish. Suppose that instead of Prakriti and Purusha, we talk about matter and force, we are at once on grounds familiar to modern materialists. We must also speak of one sect of the Sankhya j)hi- loijophers, the Yoga branch. The founder of this branch distinctly afl&rmed the existence of a supreme soul ; Ca- pila, the founder of the Sankhya systems being, to say the least, silent on that point. From such a belief, hdw'ever, other results followed. Now the object sought, was not simply to free the sonl from entanglement with matter, but further to attain union with Iswara, the supreme. To 1 Ibid. 164. * We would naturally expect dualism to precede monotheism. How- ever Barth remarks that in the first instance this system was not dual- Istic; "Eeligions of India," p. 70. 2 Almost all, if not all, religions seem to have passed this stage of -belief. (Fisde Inman: "Ancient Faiths;" Westropp and Wake: "An- ' cient Symbol Wx)rship.") To this day in all partsof India temples are dedicated %o the male and female principle?. 736 TSE MEDIEVAL WORLD. further this end, minute rules of conduct were laid down, following which it was claimed that such union could be obtained even in this life. This union bestowed on the practitioner certain very great powers, such as clarvoy- ance, clairaudience, levitation of the body ; or the soul was thought able even to leave the body and travel abroad and, at its will, return to its bodily domicile. The belief that such powers are attainable to man is not confined to this sect, but is very prevalent in India. In older times it amounted to a belief in magic and sor- cery. A well informed writer at the present day will cer- tainly be chary about expressing an opinion. The remarks made on a former page^ in regard to Shamanism apply with intensified force here. Many years are spent in the severest training, with one object in view: the development of psychic force. The apparently well vouched for results sometimes obtained are beyond any explanation we can give at present.^ The fact is the modern world has been carried away in the pursuit of practical science. Only just within the last few years has it consented to investi- gate the unknown power of the human mind. But brief and as superficial as has been the examination, we begin to see that a new world of knowledge is awaiting explora- tion. Many years must yet pass by before a just verdict can be rendered in this instance.' Perhaps it is not necessary for us to discuss at length ' another system of Hindoo dualistic philosophy analogous to the Sankhya system.* "We will therefore turn at once to ' 1 Vol. II. p. 329. 2 Vide "Indian Wisdom," p. 106. 3 "We would advise the reader to examine the reports of the various ^Psychical societies, and he will speedily see how very limited is our knowledge on this subject, and realize the truth of Hamlet's remark. "Hamlet," Act I. Scene 5. i This is the Nyaya and its modification Vaiseshica ( Vide Cole- AH YAN BELIQION. 737 the most important school of Indian philosophy theVe- danta. This school apparently started from as crude con- ceptions as the former •} the position they finally attained surpassed them. According to this school, there is but one eternal essence— pure spirit. This was called sometimes At- man (spirit), or Param-atman (supreme spirit), or Brahma.^ As to the spiritual part of man, each individual spirit {/iv-Ai- man) was a part of, or identical with, the supreme Atman, just as sparks are thrown out by a furnace fire. But not only was the spiritual part of man derived from the supreme spirit, but the material part, as well as the material universe, wag derived from the same source. The At- man, in short, was the univ.erse.^ Indian writers made many at- tempts to explain their under- Juno. standing of this statement. "He is," say they, "the ethe- brook's "Essays," ch. vii.) These systems taught with singular fullness the "Atomical Theory. " Their analysis would prove a surprise to those who imagine that all philosophy originated with the Greeks. "We here find a fore statement of much of Greek philosophy. The doctrine of Epicurus as regards "atoms," the Aristotelian "categories," and the views of the Platonic school as regards "substance" are here stated. Indeed some of the ideas of these philosophers will bear comparison with the theories of modern chemists and physicists. [Fids /'Indian Wisdom."] 1 Earth : "Religions of India," p. 72. ■2 The word Brahma [final a short] is neuter and must not be con- founded Brahma [final a long] masculine, the active or creative form, of Iswara. 3 Oldenberg thinks that the older texts imply that a chaotic some- thing exists independent of the Atman; "Buddha," p. 40, 738 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. rial element from which all things proceed, and to which all return." "He is the light which shines in heaven, and in all places high and low, everywhere throughout the world, and within the human person." "He is the intelli- gent self, immortal, undecaying, and" happy."^ Speaking of the external Avorld, they say he is both creator and creation, actor and act.^ Such was the Vedanta philosophy in its first stage. It was pure pantheism. Instead of two eternal essences, as in the Sankhya system, it admitted but one, spirit, which was regarded as both the material and efficient cause of all that exists. But time passed on and other problems pressed forward ; new ideas were engrafted on the older system, and we have a philosophy not so strik- ingly different from the Sankhya. These new ideas seem to have arisen from an attempt to answer the remaining problem, what is the relation between the two parts of man? What is the bond which holds them together? Admitting that the material world was likewise derived from Brahma, what sort of a world was it? In answer to these queries we have the doctrine of illusion, such a fa- vorite theory among later Indian scholars, but which is not found in the older Upanishads.^ It is extremely difficult to come at the reasonings un- derlying the language of the Hindoo writers on this sub- ject. Looking around them, they of course j)erceived all sorts of material objects; but the very keynote of their faith was that all was Brahma. Why was not such a trnth apparent at once? It must be because their intellectual power was not sufficient to penetrate the disguise. In other 1 Colebrook's "Essay," p. 217. 2 Jacobs: "Hindoo Pantheon," for a good analysis of Brahma, 3 On this point see Colebrook's "Essays," p. 242, Barth, Op. cit. p. 75. ARYAN RELIGION. 739 words, it was owing to the power of A-vidya^ that is igno- rance. The appearance of things naust be merely illusory. The phenomenal world, all that we see around us, can have no more real existence, than the things we see in a dream. But how did this phenomenal world get started? Of course it all comes from the supreme spirit, but how from pure spirit can come the impure, illusory matter ? In answer to this question, Hindoo theologians took ref- uge in an explanation which we shall meet with again and again in Oriental theology. The supreme god was con- sidered as too elevated a character to concern himself in creation. He therefore by the power of illusion, created Iswara, the ruler of the world. But, notice, Iswara, is himself a trinity ; for he is dominated by the three gunas, of whicli we made mention some pages back.^ It is Iswara that creates all things; but he and all his creations are illusions. Each human soul believes itself living an individual existence. This is simply illusion. This belief, however, is the bond, connecting spirit and matter As long as such belief is held, so long will the soul be subject to the power of illusion, and be prevented from his final union with Brahma. He must learn the great truth that the Atman is all; that he himself is the Atman ; he must come by deep meditation to believe that "I am (all) existence.^ Here for the present, we will leave the Aryans of India. All have doubtless noticed one point. In primi- tive religion we had to observe that morality was not con- 1 "Indian Wisdom," p. 118. 2 See above p. 731 and note. • Dominated by Sattva, he is Vishnu the preserver. " Rajas '' Bralima the creator. •' Sam as " Rudra the destroyer. 3 This last forniula is of very great importance in the esoteric religion yf 740 t:::: zshdieval womld. nected with religion at first. So when philosophy began, not much attention was paid to morality. The way of escape from evil was not by exercising morality, but in the acquisition of correct knowledge. "Eot action but belief was what was wanted. It is true that many painful as- cetic rites are deemed efficacious, but only because they are an aid to the acquisition of knowledge. For the time being we Avill leave the eastern branch of the Aryans and turn to the consideration of the western or . Iranian branch.-' At what time in the distant past, Aryan tribes .com- menced to spread over the plains of Iran, we can not, per- haps, decide with certainty. We are probably safe should we say that as early as 2000 B. c. the movement destined to Aryanize the country bordering on the kingdom of As- syria had begun. Fifteen centuries went by, with only occasional scattered historical references of this move- ment; then the veil is suddenly w^ithdrawn, and we find the whole country stretching away to the east from the Tigris river in the possession of Aryan tribes more or less pure in ethnology. The westward-wandering Aryan tribes, who in that primitive long-ago defiled through the dreary passes of the Hindoo Koosh mountains and began the long ¥ut grad- the Orient. Its meaning is involved in the mystic A-U-M of India. It is the "Nuk pu Nuk,'' engraved in the roll of the dead and put in the Egyp- tian tombs. This same formula is also signified by the three letters i-a-o of Semitic belief, which co-alesce into lao, the mythic name of God among them. Indeed this is expressly said to be the meaning of the .in- effable name of God among the Hebrews [Exodus ii. 14 ] Consult Hig- gins: "Anacalypsis," p. 454 ei «eg'. Stanly: "Future Religion of the World," p. 260 note 2, p. 304. i From the necessities of the case we have had to be as brief as pos- sible in presenting the two principal philosophical creeds of India. In addition to the authorities here quoted we would especially refer to "Hindoo Philosophy," by Ram Chandra Rose, AJRYAJfT RELIGION. 741 ually spreading conquest of Iran, carried with then the mythology and superstition that was an heritage from the pre-Yedic age; per- haps, even, the songs of the Yeda were sung by their priests. But as the centuries went by a great change was effected. A system of religion gradually grew up which attracted con- siderable attention in the ancient world, and undoubtedly ex- erted a great influ- ence on the develop- ment of the relig- ious thoughts and beliefs of the civil- ized world of to-day. Let us then try to acquire clear ideas about this system. It has received A^arious names, but of late years the Minerva. name of Mazdeism has been most commonly applied to it ^ As preliminary let us observe the two principal elements, the uniting of which formed the religion in question. The first is the beliefs brought by the first Aryan invaders 1 Their names are Dualism, Zoroastrianism, and Fire-Worship; Darmesteter ; "Zend-Avesta," Vol, I. p. 1, 742 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. from the Asiatic center of Aryan dispersion. That they brought with them the mythology and songs of the Aryans of the early Yedic age is now not doubted. The name of their supreme god was derived from the Vedic title of Asura Mazdka "lord of high knowledge," the name of one of the spiritual attributes of Yaruna,^ and in many other cases we could show equally plain traces of this original union. ^ It was formerly supposed that this west- ern movement of the Iranians was in the nature of a schism.^ But this is probably the reverse of the truth, the religions became changed because the people sep- arated.* With the mythology and culture of the early Vedic age, then, the invading tribes entered Iran. They of course found the country fully inhabited and many centu- ries of slow fusion went by before the new religion was fully developed. All this time they were subject to the influence- of the mythology and practices of the various tribes that they gradually conquered and assimilated. Here then was the second principal element in the devel- opment of Mazdeism, and it is necessary to inquire more particularly on this point. It has been abundantly shown that the tribes in Elam and Media before the appearance of the Aryans 1 Darmesteter Ibid. p. Iviii. 2 King: "Gnostic Remains/' p. 31. Geiger: "Civilization of the Eastern Iranians," p. xxvi. Max. Muller: "Zend-Avesta," p. 83. "Isis Unveiled," Vol. II. p. 143. Mills: "Pahlavi Texts," Pt. I. p. Ixxi. "Sacred Books of the East," Vol. V. 3 Bleek: "Avesta," p. x. * Mills: "Zend-Avesta," p. xxxvii. "Sacred Books of the East," Vol. XXXI. Yasna, xxxii., apparently describes a conflict between two sec- tions. But it was perhaps a conflict between Mjigism and the first relig- joug conceptions of the IrauJan?, ASYAJSr RELiaiON. 743 were Turanians. Like all Turanian people they had a rich mythology. But more important still was the organ- ization of their priesthood. We have had occasion to re- fer to the importance of this observation several times.^ Wiij >■ r' /'•• .i'~-'^^-4ff?\ rv^^'|f^ Temple at Benares. It tends steadily to the formation of a powerful priestly body. Their priests were the Magi, a, very much respec- ted and greatly feared and consequently a very powerful » Above p. 165. 744 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. body of men. Theyfoi-med a close corporation, throughly organized and well disciplined. During these centuries of fusion the Aryan tribes had been in general the conquerors; but as far as their religious culture is concerned, they gradually passed under the con- trol of the Magi. Advanced to power by the half Turan- ian Cyrus,-^ we see them defeated in their attempt to grasp supreme power under the leadership of the false Smerdis, yet they doubtless increased in power under the Achaeme- nian kings. Stationary under the Greek rule, they re- vived under the Parthian supremacy, and triumphed with Ardeshir, the Sassanian.^ Under the reign of this latter king, Mazdeism entered on its final stage. It is to the presence of this priestly body, influenced by ideas derived from Babylon and Assyria, that is to say by Semitic in- fluence, that we are to ascribe a large part of what we find strange in Mazdeism. There was once a vast mass of literature expounding the doctrines of Mazdeism, only fragments of which remain, and these fragments are of greatly different ages.^ No doubt the Grathas are very ancient. It is by contrasting the statements in the various manuscripts that we make out the gradual development of Mazdeism. Every great religion that has moved the world is centered around an individual. A great dispute has been waged as to whether Zoroaster, the great prophet of Mazdeism, be an historical 1 Xeii. Cyrop. viii. 1-3. * We have already had ocasion to mention this rise and fall. Above p. 103. 3 The Avesta (Revelation) constitutes the oldest collection. Com- mentaries on the Avesta, composed in the Pahlavi dialect (of Sassanian times) form the Zend. The Bundahis (Original Creation) is a collection of mythological fragments existing only in the Pahlavi dialect. Of the Avesta, again, the Oathas of unknown antiquity form the oldest portion, the Yaana and Visperad are supposed to be more modern, and the Ven- didad, the last in order of time. AnYAlf MBLIOION. 745 personage or not.^ The most eminent scholars come to directly opposite conclusions on this point.** We must re- member that there is the utmost diversity of opinion as to when he flourished and where he was born.^ Now it seems that the name of the chief priest of the Magi in ancient times, was the same as' the name of this traditional person- age.* This may explain the matter, for we may regard the name Zoroaster as that of an official and not of a person.^ It is a very difficult task to give within the limits of a few pages an outline of this religion. If in the Vedas we are presented with songs in which the older mythology is about vanishing in poetry, we are more forcibly struck with the almost complete loss of this mythology in the Avesta writings. In the very oldest or Gathic period, an extraor- dinary stage of development had been reached. Of course many superstitious customs still held sway ; but, running through it all, was an under-current of spiritual meaning which has excited the admiration of nearly all investigators. All nature seemed to the poets of the Gathas to teach the doctrine of Dualism. "We have cold and heat, light and darkness, and so also good and evil. Among the Ind- ians we have seen the final gathering of all the good into Spirit, and all the evil into Matter. The Iranians, on the other hand, found the presence of good and evil in every- 1 Above p. 100. 2 Mills, in his "Introduction to the GathaSj" ("Sacred Books," Vol. XXXI.) comes to the conclusion, that he was an historical personage, "Atoiling prophet." Darmesteter in "Introduction to the Vendidad," (Vol. IV.) concludes he was a mythical personage, "A storm god." 3 Above p. 101. * Prof. Wilder in his edition of Payne Knight's "Ancient Art," p. 53. Cf etymology given in "Isis Unveiled," Vol.- II. p. 141. 5 Vide also Yasna xxviii. The prayer is for needed spiritual help for Zoroaster and us. It would seem that this us refers to the Magian priesthood in general. Cf. Mill's note on this " Sacred Books," Vol. XXXI. p. 21. 746 TSE MEDIEVAL WORLD. thing-in spirit as well as in matter. They therefore con- Druid Sacrifice. ceived-that all forms of life and all forms of creation, are AnYAlT HELIGION. 747 the results of the combined action of two principles, forces, or tendencies independent of each other, one working for good and one for evil. Hence there is good and evil in everything — supernatural beings, men, animals and plants, and material things. These two principles are named simply a Better principle and a Worse one.^ The practical consequence of this belief was a divi- sion of everything between these two principles. All supernatural powers made their choice, and were exercis- ing their powers, either on the side of the Better Way or the Worse one. The great duty of man in this life was to choose the Better Way "as to thought, as to word, and as to deed." The animal world was divided as they were supposed to have been most influenced by the one principle or the other. All animals in any way helpful to man were of course most influenced by the Better principle. We are then presented with two opposing courts in the super- natural world. At the head of each there was placed a supreme ruler, under whom were arranged the various orders of gods and genii. At the head of the forces of the Better Way, was placed Ahura Mazda as leader, and the most powerful god as pointed out above. This god was far more ancient than the doctrines of Dualism. He is derived from Varuna, the all embracing sky. He is usually described as possessed of all the attributes of Deity., He is wise, holy, just, and benign. But at the same time other expressions occur showing that after all he was simply the most powerful 1 Yasna xxx. 3. Yasna xlv. 2. It is scarcely correct to speak of these principles as "personal beings." It was no doubt hard for these old poets to express their meaning. They had to use nouns of a more or less personal significance. Vide "Sacred Books," Vol. XXXI. p. 2.5 and p. 125, note 2. A fair statement of this article of their creed would be that they recognized two opposing tendencies in every thing. 44 748 TS^ MEDIEVAL WoAL3. god, not tlie all powerful one. In time of trouble lie offered up a sacrifice to Vayu^ and begged bis belp and protection,^ and likewise to the goddess Anabita,* he offered sacrifice and presented gifts, and begged her as- sistance in bringing up the holy Zoroaster.* He too recognizes that but part of himself, his fravashi,^ was im- mortal. In fact the Iranian conception of him was, that he was simply " the greatest, the best, the fairest of all beings."^ He seems to owe much of hisgreat power to his knowledge of magical formulae, with one of these he con- founded the evil one.'' Though in the Grathas he is called the " Great Creator," it is none the less true that all creations are simply the union of the two principles.* Under the leadership of Ahura Mazda are ranged subordinate deities. Chaldean mythology knew of " seven gods of the vast heavens, seven gods of the great earth, seven gods of the igneous spheres."' It is not surprising to learn of six superior gods (forming with Ahura Mazda, a group of seven), who as- sisted Ahura Mazda in his government ; his cabinet, so to speak, each one taking a special department under his care ; we must remember that the Grathas were instructions for the priests, and hence we need not be surprised to notice how refined become some of these older concep- 1 The God of the Atmosphere. 2 Earn Yast, I.-3. 3 Goddess of Water. 4 Aban Yast, v. Fargard, xix. 14. 5 Ibid. 6 Yasna xix. 15. 7 Bundahisi. 21. 8 Ahura Mazda is generaUy represented as the good principle him- self. Yet in Yasna xxx. he is distinctly represented as choosing the good principle; and, if we are to judge from language, all spiritual beings (including the pre-existing souls of men,)are already in existence. They are represented as choosing which to follow. Probably as being at the head of good order, Ahura Mazda became confounded with the good principle itself. 9 Lenormant: " Chaldean Magic," p. 17.' AM r Air BELtQtON. 749 tions. In the Gathas these seven are the Ameshospands} Though they are regarded as persons they are at the same time the attributes or messengers of Ahura Mazda.^ As in general the crude conceptions must have preceded the refined, we feel confident that the Ameshospands formed the great gods of Iranian mythology, though the effort was to refine them away to mere attributes of the deity. This effort however failed, they remained distinct beings.^ Clear traces of the former presence of polytheism in the worship of the Iranians may be traced in other direc- tions. Even in the age of the A vestas, prayers were to be said to numerous gods and goddesses ; to Atar (%e)., the son of Ahura Mazda ;^ to Mithra, the " Lord of wide pastures," who came ultimately to mean the sun f to Ardri Anahita, the goddess of water,^ as well as to the sun and the moon.' As in Chaldea we find the months named after Chaldean gods,^ so in Persia, each month was orginally named after one of the gods of the old pantheon.' Each day of the month was placed under the protection of one of the old deities, and a special prayer was appropriated to each.^" Nor is the list yet exhausted, but enough has now been set forth to show the clear traces of a former polytheism. Let us simply notice, that here as elsewhere, there was probably quite a difference between the views of the priestly class and the masses of the people. We have so far been dealing with the forces that choose the Better "Way, under the leadership of Ahura 1 Yasna xxix. 7-9. From -whence comes theAmshospands of litera- ture. 2 "Sacred Books" Vol. XXVI. Introduction p. xviii and xxiv. here, for instance two Ameshospands are represented as persons. 3 Many other such passages could be quoted. 4 Atas Nyasia. 6 MihirNyasis. 6 Aban Nyasis. ' KorshedNyasis. Vide, the "Nyasis" in "Sacred Books," Vol. XXII. 8 "Records of the Past," Vol. I. p. 165. 9 Oeiger: "Civilizations of the Eastern Iranians," p. 142 et seq. 10 These prayers form the collections of the Yasts. 750 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Mazda. Opposed to these there was a similar array de- voted to the Worse Way. At the head of the forces of evil was Angra Mainyu. We cannot point back to some one god of the older mythology as the source of the conception of Angra Mainyu. The conception of him arose from the necessities of the theory, there must be some opposing leader to Ahura Mazda^ He is, so to speak, the negative projection of Ahura Mazda,^ and the organi- zation of the forces of evil was modeled on exactly the same lines as those of the good. The six Ameshospands were confronted by six greater demons who formed the grand council of Angra Mainyu. In short to every force of good was opposed a corresponding evil force.^ We have now presented an outline of Mazdeism in its earlier stages. As time passed on, changes took place. Ahura Mazda, as head of the forces of good, became gradu- ally confused with the good principle, and ended by being considered as identical with it. The case is similar with regard to Angra Mainyu, except that probably he never assumed a well defined form before the foregoing stage had been taken by Ahura Mazda, and consequently he was al- ways considered the evil principle.* But another change still is in progress. The priestly idea of Dualism, that good and evil were united in the creation of all things, was probably too refined for the masses.^ The popular idea 1 Mainyu means spiritual power. Spenta Mainyu meant the best spirit (Yasna xxxiv. 2; xxxli. 16) and often means simply the spirit of Ahura Mazda (Yasna xxx. 3), in the same way as we talk of God, and God's spirit. Angra Mainyu was the evil spiritual power ; in Yasna xxx. it is simply called the Worse Way. 2 "Sacred Books," Vol. IV. 3 It may be interesting to note that Chaldean mythology knew of "Seven demons of the Igneous spheres," the opponents of the seven great gods. 4 Strictly speaking, it was not Ahura "Mazda, but his spirit, Spenta Mainyu, that was considered the good principle. Vide Geiger; Op. cit., p. Iviii. 6 This is the doctrine in Yasna xxx. ABYAN RELIGION. 751 was embodied in the later writings of the Vendidad/ and especially in the mythological collection of the Bundahis, written in the Pahlavi dialect, and belonging probably to Sassanian times.' The popular conception was, that, Ahura Mazda created all good things, while Angra Mainyu, for spite, so to speak, creates the bad. For every good place that Ahura Mazda creates, Angra Mainyu creates §ome specific evil. Ahura Mazda creates the good animals, but Angra Mainyu diffused over the earth the nox- ious creatures, such as snakes and scorpions. He caused blight to fall on vegetation,^ and mingled smoke and dark- ness with fire.^ Avarice, want, pain, hunger, disease, and lust were some of the sins he set in motion. ° A state of mind advanced enough to conceive of two first principles, one evil and one good, would take note of the further question, whether this conflct was to be eternal. Humanity, weary with striving, longs for rest. Indian philosophy looked forward to union with Brahma as the final goal. The Iranian prophets looked forward to the final triumph of Ahura Mazda over the wicked one,^ and popular fancy dreamed of the happy paradise of Yima, where the rivers flow between ever green banks bearing never failing food and every kind of tree of the greatest, best, and finest kinds on earth, but no sin or sorrow was to enter there.'' But these blessings were to be the reward only of those who were pure in word, in thought, and in deed. It is in the Bundahis that the six Ameshospands 1 Cf. Fargard i. 2 Here notice how true it is, that in sacred writings, the first writing of the priestly class is by no means a fair representative of popular opinion. We have pointed out how true that was in the Vedas, have observed it true in the sacred writing of the Hebrews, and here we find it among the Iranians. . 3 "Bundahis," iii. 16. ■» Ibid. 24. 6 Ibid 17. 6 Yasna xxx. 8. ^ Fargard ii. 26-28. 752 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. became six archangels and the other gods became angelic powers. Each, taking an active part in the work of crea- tion. One inquiry yet remains before us in this secondary stage of Mazdeism, and that is what was the relation of soul to matter. They taught the pre-existence of the souls of men, not Until after creation was completed do they enter bodies.^ They thought that in order for the soul to enjoy happiness of the best mental state, which was their comprehensive definition of heaven,^ it must meet and overcome the powers of evil. Ahura Mazda is represented as giving these pre-existing souls the choice of either re- maining as they were, spiritual creations,^ and be always furnished with a protector, or to assume material bodies, meet and conquer temptations, and then enjoy an im- mortality of happiness with him.* If we stop to survey the ground over which we have now gone, we can see how widely Mazdeism departs from the Indian philosophy. These differences, we think, come largely from Semitic sources. It is no less certain, as we shall soon show, that this systematized belief reacted on, and greatly influenced, the religion of Israel. But for the present, let us notice still a third stage of Mazdeism where we seem to have before us the influence of later Indian thought. Dualism, after all, is unsatisfactory, the world desires to get back to a First Cause. We have seen how, in the first stage, Mazdeism taught the existence of two, co-equal, co-eternal powers ; how, in the second stage, Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu were considered to be these two 1 Yasna xxx. 7. 2 Yasna xxx, 4. 3 Yasna xxx. 7. 4 Bundahls, ii. 9-10. It may be of interest to remark that in Bunda- his we have the doctrine of the resurection of the dead taught with great fulness of detail, (chap, xxx.) the final judgment is also described, and we find the fiaal restoration of the wicked to the joys of heaven is taught. ARYAN RELIGION. 753 first principles. But now the equality between them is destroyed since Ahura' Mazda was to conquer in the end. In many ways, he is represented as the superior of Angra Mainyu.^ This was in the direction of monotheism. The step was finally taken, but not in Avesta times,** and Mazdeism taught the existence of one Supreme God. Both Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu were held to be created beings derived from one eternal essence Zrvan Akarana "Time without bounds." We do not gather this, however, from Persian sources, but rather from late Greek .writers.^ Thus this doctrine was subsequent to the advent of Christianity, and may have been ..influenced from that source.* But on investigation, the doctrine in question is seen to bear more resemblance to Indian philosophy. And probably the current began to set towards monotheism long before the downfall of Mazdeism.' Analogous to the Vedantic system of philosophy, Zrvan Akarana, like Brahma, while the Supreme God, is far removed from all wordly affairs. Like Brahma, he hands over all the work of creation to the two subordinate gods (Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu), which he had produced by emanations from himself. The doctrine of 1 This comes out very plainly in Bundahis, i. Ahura Mazda is re- presented as omniscient, Angra Mainyu as "backward in knowledge," imposed upon through ignorance, and quite overcome by the spells of Ahura Mazda. 2 See West: "Pahlavi Texts," "Sacred Books," Vol. V. p. Ixx. 3 On the "Boundless Time" question consult Wilson: "Parsi Re- ligion," p. 123 etseq; King; "Gnostic Remains," p. 29 et seq: (Of. Han- sel: "Gnostic Heresies," p. 40): " Sacred Books," Vol. IV. p. Ixxxii. Vol. V. p. Ixx. Johnson: "Oriental Religions," Persia, p. QSetseq. ^ In its first beginnings it antedates Christianity. It was known to Aristotle, and as early as the third century "Boundless Time" had been transformed into a legendary hero, "Sacred Books," Vol. IV. p. Ixxxij, note 3. 5 "Sacred Books," Vol. IV., p. IxxxviiJ. 754 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. emanation, which is an Indian doctrine to start with and not a Semitic one/ is further reduced to a system, by teach- ing that by emanation from Ahura Mazda come the Ameshospands, and indeed all the spiritual forces under his lead.^ It is needless in this connection to point out the similarity between Ahura Mazda and Iswara on the one hand and Angra Mainyu and Avidya on the other. Ica^-jr. Temple of the Pan Hellenic Zeus at Aegina. Here we will for the present drop the ancient Persians and devote our attention to the Greeks. As every one 1 It is at any rate true that the doctrine of emanation is held by all orthodox sects in India. (Barth: "Religions of India," p. 69. Williams: "Indian Wisdom," p. xxvi.) but is unknown in the first stages of Greek thought, (Aristotle "Metap." 1-3.) Pythagoras, who taught this, de- rived his philosophy from the Orient. The Jewish Kabalah taught this, but its source was in all likelihood India or Persia. a King; "Gnostic Bemains," ABYAN BELIOION. 755 knows, the Grreeks had a fully developed system of my- thology. They had brought with them from the primi- tive home the greater gods of theii" pantheon. They had also welcomed some of the mythical divinities of the neighboring people in Asia. The G-reeks had in the course of many centuries advanced through the various stages of primitive religion. We must notice one point in this con- nection, since on it depends much that is peculiar among the Grreeks. There was no strongly organized priesthood among them. Nothing even remotely approaching the Brahman caste in India, or the Magian priesthood among the Persians. Each house-father conducted the worship of his household, and tribal officers attended to similar duties for the tribe.^ Important results follow from the foregoing. No col- lection of priestly writings, corresponding to the Vedas and Avestas, was made which the masses of the people were required to accept as infallible, inspired oracles; as a con- sequence, there was much greater freedom of intellectual life. Neither was there a religion of forms and ceremonies which the people were expected to follow. All this con- tributed in no small degree to the great excellence of the Greeks in literature, science, and art. In Grreece, no system of religion, accordingly, took its rise. But their keen intellect, not fetteredby the restraints just mentioned, had of course considered the problems which come to all men,^ and had in several ways attempted to answer the same. We want to examine some of these answers. The seventh century b. c. was one of considerable im- i This was the Aryan custom. Remember that both the Iranians and Indians, who had an organized priesthood, had also in each case conquered and incorporated in their ranlis well advanced Turanian people. The Pruids of Western Europe are a result of the same procedure. Above p. 730. 756 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. portance to Aryan Europe. Psammetichus,pharaoh of Egypt, threw open the ports of that country (670 B. c), and abandoned the policy of isolation that had been pur- sued for ages. This must have given a great stimulus to the commercial and intellectual life, and this caused a wonder- ful expansion of the intellectual horizon of the Grreeks. This century also witnessed the growing power dt "the Aryans in Asia. The tribes that were to overthrow Semitic power were growing into one homogenious whole under the head of Media and Persia. This cause, no less than the former, conduced to the expanse of the Greek intellect. It is not strange then that, as this century drew to a close, we should find evidence of a general scepticism among the educated classes in Grreece regarding the mythology still held in reverence by the masses of the people. It would not do to be too bold in openly denouncing it, but day by day the misty forms of the Olympian gods grew fainter, while philosophical speculations grew clearer. The vari- ous opinions of Greek thinkers finally assumed systematic shapes, and we are presented with what are called schools of philosophy. We must remember that no one school was peculiar to any one time. Representatives of the various schools of thought were to be found at all times. We have already had occasion to mention the views of some of the Greek philosophers. We here need only to show their position in the scale of Aryan culture. At the earliest time, we find divergent views held, and it is interesting to take a general survey of the field. The Ionic school taught that matter was the one eternal principle. Even the gods took their origin from thence. They differed, as we have seen, as to what form of matter it was, that was the elementary substance. While one said it was water, another called it air, These ABYAN RELIGION. 757 older philosophers do not seem to have concerned them- selves very much with the spiritual part of man. Every- thing sprang from the material element assumed as the primary one.^ But alongside of this reasoning we see another line of thought. Anaximander^ was not willing to adopt any one concrete substance as his element, he falls back on an abstract speculation — The Infinite, meaning thereby, perhaps, primal matter. This idea of the Infinite was closely akin to the Py- thagorean philosophy.^ After all researches there yet re- main considerable mystery in regard to this last named school. In many ways, we detect an Oriental influence.* He formed a society resembling in many respects similar societies in India. Only after a long novitiate were mem- bers admitted to full membership. The life in this society was largely ascetic. They believed the body a prison for the soul. They believed in transmigration of the soul; a pure and holy life was the only escape from this evil.^ All this betrays an unmistakable Indian influence. We must also reflect that at this time the Orphic and Bacchic mysteries spread throughout Grreece,* and there is a strong probability that these spread into Greece from India.'' We may therefore be sure, that the real doctrine of the Py- thagoreans was a secret one, to be divulged only to the in- itiates. Hence perhaps, the great uncertainty in regard to it.^ It is evident from what we have just stated that 1 Such is the general view of writers on this subject. Mahan: "His- tory of Philosophy," argues the contrary view for Thales. 2 Anaximander is not always classed as an Ionic philosopher. Lewis: "History of Philosophy," Vol. I. p. 13. 3 Cf. Lewis, I.e. 4 Mahan: "History of Philosophy," p. 187. 6 Cf. Schwegeler: p. 14. 6 Zeller: "Greek Philosophy," Vol. II., p. 497. 'i Taylor: "Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries-" Wilder's edition, P . XX. note, also p. 125. note. 8 Above p. 488. 758 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. the Pythagorean school was an exotic in G-reece, still it exerted a great influence on Grreek thought.^ In the third school of Grreek philosophy, the Eleatic, we see the current of Greek thought setting steadily to- wards Pantheism. The "Being" of Parmenides is strik- ingly similar to Brahma of the Hindoos. He, equally with them, denied the reality of the phenomenal world ; but, like them, he was obliged to attempt a practical ex- planation of it. The pure "Being" was sometimes united with an opposite influence. For instance if we call Being light, it was at times united with darkness ; or if we designated it h e a t , it was at times united with cold; or if we call the former rare, the latter was dense. What is this but Brahma united with illusion?^ In the teachings of Heraclitus, the obscure, Pan- theism is also taught.^ We have already pointed out how he attempted to surmount the difficulty, sure to rise in every system of Pantheism, of ac- Pythagoras. counting for the phenomenal world.^ Here notice the distinction between the Ionic and Eleatic philosophers. They both sought for somejDue principle or element from whence all was derived. The first school found such an element in some form of matter; the second school found it in some formal cause. The maxim of the Eleatics was that "All comes from one," this 1 BuQsen ("Angel Messiah," p. 67 et seq.) writes to show that Pythagoras was a Buddhist. Cf . etymology p. 75. aZeller: "Greek Philosophy," Vol.11, p. 593. s Zeller, Vol. 11, p. 46. i Above p. 491, ARYAiT BELiGlON: 759 was but another statement of the Hindoo maxim that "the Atman is Universe." But if both the schools so far discussed taught Monism, we find philosophers in Greece who taught a Dualism. They recognized the reality of the world of matter, but to explain the many problems, they had to conceive of the co- working of a second incorporal element. Anaxagoras (500 B. c.) thought that matter had always existed in the shape of an infinite number of elements; but these elements are not the atoms of later thought, but compound molecules which by coalescing form sensible bodies. For instance elementary • molecules of flesh were conceived to exist which united to form the flesh of a body, so of all other bodies, suet as stone, bone, and wood.-^ But the movement of these molecules was effected by an eternally existing In- telligence — in short, by mind or spirit. This is the great merit of his philosophy, still, as Anaxagoras reasoned, the great office of this intelligence was simply to energize mat- ter, and thus his conception was far short of the conception of an intelligent ruler of the universe.^ Diogenes of Apo- lonia (460 B.c.),triedto combine the doctrine of Anaxagoras with Ionian philosophy. Others again, impressed with the doctrines of Anaxagoras concerning the infinity of the molecules, but rejecting his ideas as to intelligence, intro- duced the Atomistic philosophy; the great leader of this school was Democritus (460 b. c.) They too believed in the eternity of matter. It existed in an infinite number of atoms, but the combination of these atoms was effected by 1 Lewis, Vol. I. p. 87. Zeller, Vol. 11. p. 332. 2 On this important point, compare Lewis: "History of Pliilosophy," Vol. I. p. 76. Zeller: "History of Greek Philosophy," Vol. II. p. 344, et seq. Schwegler, Op. cit. p. 29. The contrary view is maintained by Mahan: "A Critical History of Philosophy," p. 186 et seq. Some (Mahan) have supposed that Anaxagoras derived his ideas from the Jews. This is generally given up. Cf. Zeller, Vol. I, p. 37 et seq. 760 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. necessity, not by chance as it is sometimes represented, but by inexorable laws inherent in matter.^ Empedocles (440 B. c.) with his four elements^ shows us the Grreek intellect striving to get back to unity ; for the many of Democritus, he returns to four elements, united by love, disassociated by hate. We are now down to the age of Socrates. Taking a general view of G-reek thought as far as we have gone, we notice that the tendency is in the direction of either materialism or pantheism. We need npt be surprised to note that some of the acute thinkers of Greece were fast drifting towards scepticism. This re- sult was inevitable. Philosophy was talking learnedly about tl^ "Being" and the "Becoming," and showing how the common notions, respecting time, space, motion, etc.,^ were all in er- ror, denying in fact the reality of the phenomenal world. As a natural con- sequence, a reaction was sure to occur; and we find those subtle disputants, the Sophists, furnishing the arguments to Socrates. convince the people that nothing really could be known, and that there was no real criterion of virtue. It was at this stage that Socrates appeared. An account of his life has already been given.^ Now the great value of Socrates' teachings was not in any philosophical scheme which he supported, for he had no philosophy. But he did teach a new method of seai'ch. He did insist on a clearing up of thought. He wanted to inow what people 1 Zeller, Vol. II. p. 237. 8 Above p. 491. 2 Above p. 492. * Above p. 493. AltYAJSt RELlGIOi^. 761 meant when they used the learned phrases of philosophy; and by a most skillful cross-examination showed them the weakness of the definition given, and attempted to asssist them to form clearer ideas. He insisted on the practice of morals, and ex- emplified it in his own life. So- crates thus made a great impres- sion on Greek thought, heightened by his tragic death. The historian Xenophon wrote an account of his life.^ After his death, several Xenoplion. schools attempted to follow out what they conceived to be, his doctrines. The doctrine of the Cynics, of which the churlish Diogenes was a member, was rather a perversion than a development of the Socratic movement. Plato, the disciple of Socrates, marks such an important epoch in Grreek philosophy that- we must enlarge to some extent on the ac- count of him already given. ^ After the death of Socrates, Plato spent some years in travel and study, and acqaint- ed himself with the philosophical views of the principal philoso- Diogenes. phic schools of that time. In this way, he became ac.- 1 Memorabilia. 8 Above p. 497. 76S TitB MEDIMVAL WOULD. g[uainted with the views of the Eleatic school, and with Pythagoreanism. Tradition relates that he traveled in Egypt} When he returned to Athens, he established a school known as the Academy, and here he taught his doctrines, in which we find elements taken from all the older systems. If the Pythagoreans had esoteric doctrines different from their exoteric teachings, we might reasonably look for such a distinction in the teachings of the older Academy. It is admitted that a great deal of ^confusion exists as to what Plato's philosophy was.^ Scarcely one of the really im- portant points of his theory has been left so clearly stated that all agree on what he taught.^ It is supposed by some writers that Plato was purposely obscure on these points. He only wished to be understood by initiates.* This view, however, is hot favored by the best scholars.^ The central point of Plato's teaching was the "World of Ideas." Socrates had insisted on the necessity of clear general concepts. For instance if arguing in reference to a horse, he did not want to know about some particular horse — this black one, or that red one, big or little, old or young — but a clear definition of horse in general. The imr portance of this will be at once apparent when we reflect how much scientific advance to day depends on this very process. Now Plato and his school, strange as it may seem to us, called such general terms as this ideas, and 1 Vide Zeller: "The Older Academy," p. 23 note. 2 Vide Lewis : "History of Pliilosophy," Vol. I. p. 205, et seq. ■i Pros. Mahan ("Critical History of Philosophy," p. 236; states five points which "all authorities admit Plato did hold and teach," yet the most of them are questioned. i Vide "Isis Unveiled." Vol. II. p. 39 Zeller: "Older Academy " p 87. 5 Ibid. And yet as an initiate in the Greek Mysteries,some doctrines he either would not mention at all, or else cloak them in obscure language. ahyajst bbliqion. 763 imagined them to have a separate independent existence. Every sensible thing we see around us — trees, stones, ani- mals, material objects such as houses, bedsteads, etc. — has its living idea in the shadowy "world of ideas." Probably with our utmost endeavors, we could not fully understand Plato's reasoning on this point. We have pointed out the Hindoo conception of Brahma, the only real existence, and all this phenomenal world is only an illus- Plato, sion, and have also pointed out that the "Being" of Parmen- ides corresponds to this idea among the Greeks. Now among the Eleatics generally, this pure Being was unity, one eternal essence. Plato's "world of ideas", taken col- lectively, corresponds exactly to this thought Or we may say that instead of one eternal essence, he conceived of an infinite number of such essences. The Hindoos said that the material world was simply 45 764. THE MEDIUVAL wo^lb. Brahma conjoined with illusion. The Platonists said that sensible things are formed by the participation of the eter- nally pre-existing ideas with — matter. But when we seek further to know what this matter is, we find language em- ployed that seems to come to about the Indian meaning. It is the no-being, the non-existent \ it is to be apprehended neither by thought, nor by perception ; it is the empty} It does not become clear what is meant by the word par- ticipation.^ Ideas are, in short, the only true existence. Things only really exist in proportion as they participate in the idea. From the foregoing it is seen to be hard to show wherein he diifers from the Hindoo theory of things, save that they held to but one essence, he to an infinite number* But we are not yet through with this singular theory of ideas. They were not only really existing things, but they were powers, he regarded them as living, active, in- telligible, and reasonable? In short, ideas are supernatural powers, gods in other words. And now notice ; the supreme idea of all, that is the idea of good, becomes the Supreme Grod. As this is the highest and noblest concept that can be found, it is not strange that it should be considered as the SujDreme Grod.* If this view be correct we can see at once that Plato's monotheism was not of a very high order.'' 1. other views of course exist, we must refer toZeller: "Thie Older Aeademy". Alleyne and Goodwin's translation, London, 1876. p. 293 et seq. See also Schwegler: "Hist, of Philosophy," Sterling's translation. New York, 1885. For opposite view see Mahan, Op. cit. p. 236. 2 Zeller, Op. cit. p. 235. Ueberwig, "Hist, of Phil", p. 116. 8 Ueberwig, Op. cit. Zeller, Op. cit. p. 267. 1 In Timaeus, the Demiurge, who shapes all things for good, is the "Idea of Good," Ueberwig, p. 116. 6 Vide Zeller: "The Older Academy," p. 279 et seq., especially note 181. Also Schwegler, Op. cit. p. 81. "We must understand however that the "Ideaof God" is the highest generalization possible. It is the idea of ideas; Lewis: "Greek Philosphy," Vol.11. 259. Ferrier : "Lectures oa AH Yam beli&ion: 765 Plato's ideas as to the soul are equally strange. There is first of all a "world-soul" filling all space. This soul is intermediate between the ideas and the things. It partakes of the nature of both.^ Human souls consist of three parts — the cogitative, courageous, and appetitive souls.^ There seems to be some confusion in the writings at- tributed to Plato whether these three souls were equally ■ united in pre-existing life, and whether all united were im- mortal.' But at least the highest soul of man was im- mortal, and indeed had existed as part of the world-soul from past eternity. It is well known that Plato also taught the transmigration of souls. Plato's methods of work were more valuable than his results. Both Socrates and Plato by insisting on the necessity of forming clear opinions of subjects dis- cussed performed a most invaluable ser- vice for men. We need not longer dwell on Grreek philosophy. The work of Aris- totle has been sufficiently mentioned.* In the schools of Epicurus andZeno the Stoic, we see the pendulum once more swinging towards scepticism. Such a result was to Epicurus. be expected. Plato's philosophy could no more satisfy them than the preceding systems. In order to give completeness to our present review. We must glance now at the conflict between Aryan and Semitic thought. We must recall to mind that, near the Greek Philosophy," Vol. I. p. 344. The opposite line of thought may be found in Mahan : "Hist, of Phil." p. 251. 1 Zeller, Op. cit., p. 341 et seq. Ueberwig, p. 123. 2 The appetitive soul Is possessed by plants, the appetitive and cour- ageous souls by animals, but only man has all three souls. 3 Zeller, Op. eit. p. 389. et seq. * Above p. 499. 766 THE MEHmyAL WORLD. beginning of the sixth century B. c, the kingdom of Judea was destroyed and the principal people taken captive to Babylon. When Aryan power supervened in Western Asia, these captives were permitted to return to Jerusa- lem. Some of them did so, and as we have seen Judaism, as a fully organized church, was then instituted. But we know that a very large number of Jews remained near Babylon, and in that section were located the principal literary institutions of the Jews.^ From the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus to the era of the Seleucidae, or for two centuries, Jerusalem remained tributary to Persia. It was a time of internal peace and quiet. It would be more than singular, then, if the religious beliefs of the Jews were not modified by Persian in- fluence. And it may well be, that the religion of Persia was modified in its turn by that of the Jews. Perhaps to this period is to be traced the gradual rise of the belief that both Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu were subordinate to Zrvan Akarana. Those of our scholars who think that the Pen- tateuch of the old Testament was a late production,' point out many striking passages in the ritual of the Israelites and the Persians, The numerous regulations in regard to the fire on Yaveh's altar are parallelled by similar rules in reference to the fire of Ahura Mazda,^ and other equally striking quotations could be given. It may be, however, , that we have here to do with customs which arose quite independently of each other. 1 ilinr;: "Gnostic Remains," p. 32. 2 See Vol. II. p. 748, note, • "Bible Folk-Lore," p. 144, et sag. Zeno. ARYAN HELIGION. 767 But passing by that for the present, there is one point'on which it is quite generally admitted that Mazdeism made itself felt. Mazdeizm taught the existence of fully organized spiritual kingdoms of good and evil. Now it is not necessary to say that these ideas were for the first time introduced into Jewish thought, but it is true that the ideas of the Jews as to angels and devils were cleared up by this contact, and they even used some of the terms em- ployed by the Persians. In the writings of Ezekiel, and especially in Zechariah, angels play an important part. The seven ameshospands are supposed to make their ap- pearance in the latter writer.^ The book of Daniel shows a further advance in this direction. There, for the first time, names are given to angels, such as Grabriel or Michael;^ and they are divided into classes, such as "Watchers."^ But this influence shows itself still more strongly in the organization of the forces of evil. It is quite generally agreed that Satan is the Jewish version of Angra Mainyu. In this last statement we do not mean to say that the idea of Satan was unknown to the older writers, but his char- acter there is altogether different from his character after the Captivity. In Job, for instance, he is still a servant of Yaveh and undertakes to carry out Yaveh's will.'* Another important point must not be overlooked. There was at Babylon a college of Magi. There were three grades of these priests. According to the Bible, Daniel, a Jew, was placed at the head of this college.' This priestly organization w.as not lost on the Jews. The great 1 Zech. iii. 9; iv. 2-10. Vide on this point Kuenen: "Eeligion of Israel," Vol. III. p. 38. 2 Dan viii. 16; xl. 21; x. 13-21; xii. 1. 8 Dan iv. 13. 4 Job i. 6. Vide Kuenen: "Religion of Israel," Vol. III. p. 39! Ewald: "History of Israel," Vol. V=p. 184. Cf. "Bible Folk-Lore, " p. 143. 6 Dan. M. 48, 768 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Synagogue, as founded by Ezra, appears to have been of a similar nature -^ the three grades of scholars — Rab, Rabbi, and Rabboni — corresponding to the three grades of Magi.^ The sect of the Pharisees _may possibly be traced back to this same period. Some have suggested that their name was derived from Pkaris, that is ''Per- sian."^ In short, the ecclesiastical machinery of the Jewish state shows the impress of Persian influence. One result was the gradual formation of a body of secret or esoteric traditions, which ultimately developed into the Kabalah, to which we will refer later. Now, in order to further understand our subject, it is necessary for us to stop talking about the sayings of the philosophers and turn to consider the state of affairs among the masses of the people. In no country, not even in ancient Grreece, were the masses of the people, philosophiz- ing or finding comfort in creeds. Let us then see how the old mythical conceptions of the people gradually changed with time. Let us notice the tendency of advancing cul- ture to attach to the festival gatherings of primitive times more and more religious and philosophical meaning. And here we must lament that lack of space prevents our dwelling on many important details, a full understanding of which would solve many knotty points in the history of the development of religion. Even the lowest races of men delight in festival 1 Kuenen: "Eeligion of Israel," Vol. III. p. 4. 2 Buasen: "Angel Messiah," p. 84. 3 King remarks that this etymology "has something to commend it." ("Gnostic Bemains,"p.33.)Bunsen suggests thatthismay be the source of the nanae. For this he is fiercely assailed by Kuenen as one who has forfeited all claims to be heard in the matter. ( Hibbert Lectures," 1882, p. 235.) This sweeping criticism is, to say the least, utterly uncalled for. It is an immaterial point in Bunsen's arguments, and he nowhere doe^ Bjore than suggest its possibility. ASYAJSr RELIGION. 769 gatherings. The Australians have their corroborree y^\,Qxe scenes of wild license sometimes occur. And generally all men have their feast days. Advancing intelligence tends to regulate these feasts and to make them significant. When a people enter on the agricultural life, the feasts are generally significant of some stage of agriculture; the feast of sowing, of in-gathering, etc. But as men advance, the Festival of the Pan -Hellenic Zeus atAegina. great drama of the year enforces itself upon their atten- tion, and we find feasts in celebration of the return of spring or the advent of winter. Feasts of this nature are well nigh immortal. The Christian world still celebrates the spring festival, Easter. The priesthood, from the most savage people up, has taken advantage of these feasts fo further the cause of re- 770 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. ligion as much as possible. They have tried to make them significant of important events or epochs in their re- ligious history. We need only refer to the importance of feasts among the Jews where, for instance, the spring festi- val was made significant of their departure from Egypt; or to the Christian world generally, which has eagerly adopted Easter and Christmas as representatives of tht birth and resurrection of Christ. We have spoken of esoteric and exoteric knowledge. The principle of human nature which gave rise to this di- vision of knowledge is as old as humanity itself. Among the Australians, certain ceremonies are gone through with when the boys are initiated into the ranks of men, the nature of these rites must be kept a profound secret from children and women.^ Advancing higher we find the sav- age priesthood making use of this tendency also. The people are divided into various grades ; initiation from one into the next higher is generally attended with many ceremonies; with each advance the candidate gains "more light." Mr. Orpen's Bushman guide was induced to ex- plain things as far as he knew, but he soon reached the limit of his knowledge, what lay beyond was known only to men of "another dance."^ In a similar way Lieutenant Cushing found among our Zuni Indians secret societies, with several grades of membership, each grade being an advance on the one be- low it in religious knowledge. In short, this principle is world wide. Advancing intelligence in general does not do away with this means of conveying religious knowledge, but simply changes the nature of the information given. It is only necessary to remark that the Orient is now, and iVide "Kamilaroi and Kurnai." 2 Lang: "Myth, Ritual.and Religion," Vol. II. p. 12. ARYAN RELIGION. 771 probably has been since some centuries before the Christian Era, honeycombed with these secret religious societies, where they never gained such prominency as in Grreece. Let us remark further that the highest knowledge taught to the highest grades of the initiates must have been substan- tially the same everywhere, simply because the problems and means of solution were everywhere the same. We need not be surprised, then, to find that amongst some people, the festival occasions just mentioned were made to subserve this principle also. This introduces us to what are known as the Mysteries which played such an important part in ancient Greece ; which, surviving into Christian times, excited the wrathful notices of church writers. We have pointed out the absence of a strong priestly body in Grreece, but have also observed the tendency of the Grreek mind to ponder over the many problems of religion. We have observed Pythagoras forming one of the societies to which we just referred; doubtless long before his time there had been somewhat similar associations, certain it is that the "mysteries" delighted the Greeks. Probably that tendency of the human mind which finds comfort in some formal creed (which was denied to the Greeks) found here some satisfaction. Each little town in Greece probably had its local mysteries,^ but as time passed on and Athens grew in importance, Eleusis in Attica became the place of the celebration of the Eleusinian Mysteries, the life of which long outlasted Greece itself, since they were not crushed out till the dawn of the fourth century of our era,' when the emperor finally abolished them. Without going too much into detail we must give the outline of the myth which formed the base or exotericpart of this mystery; the story which furnished the drama, i,Keary: "Primitive Belief," p. 222. 2 Ibid 232, 772 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. which, was enacted at each recurrent festi- val. The chief per- sonages of this story are Jupiter, Demeter, and their child Per- sephone. Perseph- one was so very beautiful that her mother hid her in a house built on pur- pose by the Cyclops. But Pluto had al- ready caught sight of the maiden , and wished her for his wife. Jupiter was willing and instructed ft Venus, Diana, and Pallas to entice Per- sephone to go walk- ing when her mother was worshiping. Although warned by her mother not to leave the house, the maiden consents. This was Pluto's chance, and bursting through the earth he carried away the hap- less maiden shriek- ing in his golden J/^'-^ ^ ~^f^ JAGANNATH TEMPLE. ABYAJSr BELIGION. 775 chariot. The grief stricken mother returns and com- mences a frantic search for her daughter. Helios (the sun) at length informs her of her daughter's fate. There- upon Demeter, in anger, quits Olympus. Then the earth was no longer fruitful, nothing grew, and animals .ceased to bear young. This course speedily brought Jupiter to his senses, and he sent by Hermes an imperative command to Pluto to release Persephone. Pluto did not dare to dis- obey, but with cunning malice he induced Persephone to eat a pomegranate seed. The effect was, that, though she was returned to her mother, still for one third of each year she was irresistably impelled to join her husband, Pluto, in the gloomy under-world.^ Thus much for the story. It may strike some as diffi- cult to see what religious in- struction could be conveyed by it. Probably at first it was simply a nature story, a drama of the year. Perseph- one representing the new year, the four months, during which the earth bore no fruit, being the Winter. This may have been the first stage.^ Pluto and Persephone. But when philosophy began to flourish in Greece, and men began to talk about spirit and matter and the bond between them, a new meaning was read into all these did ceremonies. The tendency in this direction would be hastened by the introduction of Dionysiac and Bacchic rites from India, and the .spread of Pythagorean- 1 VideKeary: "Primitive Belief," p. '22Aetseq. Also Taylor: "Eleu- sinian and Bacchic Mysteries," p. 87 et seq. 2 This is the vJ?"W of Keary, vide "Outlines of Primitive Belief, " 776 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. ism/ Finally, ^bout the time of Plato, it is supposed by some that a complete change had been effected in the meaning of the old drama. According to this view, Jupiter and Demeter (heaven and earth) represent spirit and matter. Persephone their daughter is the soul. Pluto represents the body which imprisons the soul. The attendants of Persephone are all symbolical — Venus representing desire; Diana, the natural soul; and Minerva, the intellectual or courageous soul.^ At- tended by these, the immortal soul wanders forth to gather flowers, that is she becomes ensnared by the delusive at- tractions of sensible form, and thus is taken captive by matter (the body). Other details need not be given. It suffices to say that, in this manner, some think the philoso- phy of Greece was taught.^ The Athenians were greatly devoted to this mystery play. If a person neglected initiation into it, he was deemed atheistical (as in the case of Socrates). Before initiation into the great mysteries they had fii'st to be admitted into the lesser mysteries at Agra by a pro- cess of purification. They were then called vtystae, and took an oath of secrecy and received preparatory in- structions. A year later the candidate might receive ad- mission into the greater mysteries. The feast extended over nine days which we will not describe in detail. At the final initiation, the vows of secrecy were renewed, and the candidates were conducted in darkness by the hierophant, or interpreter, to the sacred inclosure. From two tablets of stone were read, by the interpreter, Hhe commandments now binding upon them. The candidates were conducted 1 Seeabovepage757andnote.— 2 Abovepage 765. 3 See Taylor, Op. cit. * The two tablets of stone arePeteroma, the interpreter in all Oriental countries was Peter. Let us recall that, in the temples of old Chal- dea, were to bo found the two stone tablets, also recall the tablets of Jew- ASYAN RELIGION. Ill into the lighted interior; where they learned the secret meaning of the rites. But what they there beheld and heard were secrets of the deepest order. Such candidates were now epoptae, or seers. But it seems that to some of the interior mysteries only a very limited number obtained initiation. This hurried ac- count must suffice for Greek Mysteries. In other countries, mys- tery plays do not seem to have been so fully acted out, but let us remember the Ori- ent was full of secret societies, all fash- ioned on about the same model. And thus we see how as time passed on, and the ideas of the people in regard to soul and matter, God and man, grew clearer, there were gradually being formed two great di- di visions of the people, the one more enlight- Demeter. ened than the other. We can further see how, wher- ever the priestly body was strongly developed, the ten- dency would be to confine this higher knowledge, wisdom, ish law, and we begin to catch an idea of the antiquity of some of these rites. Did Christ have any reference to this oflfice of interpreter in Mathewxvi. 18? 778 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. or gnosis, to their ranks. Now let us trace the first great revolt against this system, the rise of the first religious system world-wide in its aims. More than one writer have traced out for us the many points of similarity between the mythology of the early Indians and the Teutonic tribes of Europe.^ Maintaining, as we have, the European origin of the Aryans, some points in this resemblance are of especial interest. For many centuries, the Asiatic Aryans had been cut off from com- munication with Europe. While the Indians had been developing the system of Brahmanism, the beliefs of the Europeans were also changing. As pointed out above, Odhinn had become a great god of the Teutonic people. The Druids in Western Europe also made their appear- ance, and we catch sight of religious mysteries. Near the close of the seventh century b. c, we have seen the Scyths crowding into Asia. By their inroads, the great empire of the Assyrians became so weakened that it fell before the assaults of the Medes and Persians.''' Tradition has followed these Scyths into Western Asia. There seems to be also plain traces of their eastern wanderings. About the dawn of the sixth century, they invaded India from from the north.^ Amongst their tribes was the Sa,kya.* Coming thus late from Europe, they probably knew of the later development of European mythology, and brought with them European customs. Amongst these was the building of chambered tumuli over the remains of eminent men,^ and assembling there to worship his ghost. Their priests, probably organized to some extent like the Druids, were possessed of a secret 1 Keary: "Outliues of Primitive Belief." 2This Series Vol. II. p. 798. 3 BuDsen: "Angel Messiah," p. 15. 4 Vide Beal in J. R. A. S., for 1882, p. 39. This Series Vol. I. p. 201. ARYAN RELIGION. 779 tradition which they brought with them "from beyond," and they probably had some idea of the worship of Od- hinn. About the middle of the sixth century B.C., Gautama (who was' destined to become the head of the greatest religious movement the world has yet seen^), a member of the Sakya tribe, was born. Tradition has it, that he was the son of the ruling chief. A short sketch of his life has already been given.* Judging the man by the results of his life, we can only conclude that he was one of those rare souls but few, the equals of which, have appeared in the history of the world. He was evidently a natural leader among men, his personal character must have been high and pure, he must have deeply pondered over the question of how to elevate his fellow men, he must have felt a deep compas- sion for the woes of humanity. The result of all this was, that he left such a profound impress on the people of his age that time has heightened the glory of his renown, rather than allowed it to fade away. But around that name and history, myths have been exceptionally busy, as we will point out. As we have seen, his tribe had but recently been brought into contact with Hindoo life and thought. When Gautama appeared on the scene he seems to have been impressed with Hindoo philosophy. He determined to devote himself to it, to master its deepest secrets Aban- doning his kindred, we. next hear of him in the vicinity of Vaisali, near Patna, about one hundred miles south of his former home on the flanks of the Himalaya.* 1 Rhys Davids: "Buddhism," p. 6. At present Christians of all de- nominations, including the Greek Church, are only ab.out three-flftha as numerous as the Buddhists. » Above p. 171. 3 This step constitutes the "Great Renuciation" of the Buddhists. Aa to the question of the location of Buddha's home, see Oldenberg : "Bud- dha," 95. 780 TitJB MEMBVAL WORLD. Here he went through the severe training of a Brahman ascetic.^ He chose his spiritual teacher, his Guru.^ By him, he Avas doubtless made acquainted with the secrets of esoteric Brahmanism. Under the direction of his Gruru, he doubtless went through the usual steps to obtain that statue of Buddha, blissful state of mind known as Yoga? The meaning of the J Hence the origin of the name Sakya-Muui. That is Sakya Ascetic Beal: ''Romance History," p. 152. 2 This teacher was Alara Kalama ("Birth Stories," p. 89.) He chose another teacher, Uddaka, later. 8 The trance state sometimes brought about by strong religious excite- ment 13 z\, feeble imitation of Yoga. ARYAN RELIGION. 781 mystery treatises, the sacredly guarded Upanishads,' was explained to liim. On his part, Grautama must have faith- fully observed the many hard and puerile duties of a dis- ciple.'' As the result of all this, he became Brahmacharin, a seeker of Brahma. In order to complete his training as a Brahmacharin, he crossed the Granges into the province of Magadha, and there for six long years he practiced the terrible austerities of the Yogis. His sanctity became noised abroad "as when the sound of a great bell is heard in the sky."' Five disciples- choose him as master, and rendered him all man- ner of service.* These six years of Grautama's life is known as the "Grreat Struggle." So far, Gautama's career had not differed from hundreds of other Hindoo ascetics. But now we come to the first great feature of Gautama's system of religion. At the present day, no one is called upon to deny that Gautama and other men of his character experience, as a reward for their acts, inward peace and joy. How can it be otherwise when they have spent years in obtaining com- plete mastery over self? But in India, at the time of Buddha and since, this knowledge was confined only to the ranks of the initiates into higher Brahmanism. Others could gain this knowledge in the same way they had. It was a personal matter, the knowledge they had acquired was to be kept secrect. And so they were content to pass their lives in dreamy meditation. Buddhist history relates the effort it cost Gautama to overcome this fatal tendency.^ But his better nature triumphed, and he determined to preach his doctrines to all "who have ears to hear," and 1 Lillie: "Buddha," p. 103. 2 Vide Williams : "Hindooism," chapter iii. a "Birth Stories," p. 91. * Ibid. 90. ^ Mahavagga, i. 5, 46 782 TUB MEDIEVAL WORLD. who would "send forth faith to meet it."^ In other words, he was about to make public the esoteric knowledge of the past; he was going to try and induce the world to accept his teachings. In carrying out this decision, the practical talents of Gautama became apparent. "He invented the missionary He invented the preacher. He forged an apparatus of pro- pagandism, that has never been surpassed."^ Like other great inventors, his ingenuity consisted in making a new use of existing materials. From the very earliest times, the life of the ascetic had been a very common one in India. In the old collections of Sacred Laws of the Hin- doos, we find regulations for their lives. They are re- quired to live chastely, not to amass any store, they must enter a village only to beg, must not stay two nights in the same village, their clothes are to consist of old rags which they shall have washed, etc.^ Nor did these ascetics always live a solitary life. One whose reputed sanctity was great would attract many followers. We have just seen that Grautama, himself, was attended by five disciples during his great struggle. And, if we may credit recent investigators, one as- sociation of these ascetics had already become very large and numerous, and was well organized; the texts of its faith and its customs in general being not greatly different from those finally adopted by Gautama. That sect still exists in India to-day under the name of Jains} Out of such materials, Gautama gradually perfected his plans, which 1 "Mahavagga, i.5,12. 2 Lillie: "Popular Life of Buddha," p. 286. 3 Gautama's Institutes, III. ii. 2-1. "Sacred Books," Vol. II. * On the Jains, consult Oldenberg; "Buddha," p. 66-77. Bunsen: "Angel Messiah," p. 12. Colebrook's "Essays," ch. xii. See also Thomas : " Early Faith of Asoca " in J. R. A. 8. for 1877. Cf. with the fore- going, Barth : " Religions of India," p. 140 et seq. ABYAN RELIGION. 783 were for the establishment on earth of the "Kingdom of Righteousness."^ By his followers, Gautama soon came to be called by another title, and by that he is principally known to-day. He was called Buddha, the enlightened one.^ One great trouble in following up the outline from this point is to determine what was the primitive custom. We know with some certainty what the method of procedure finally came to be. We can not be so sure of its first stages. Buddha first took steps to gather around him a band of disciples. The five mendicants, who had served him during his six years' struggle, were his first adherents. Others joined their ranks, and Buddha, before any great length of time, found himself at the head of sixty-one dis- ciples.^ Buddha adopted for the government of this order substantially the same laws as to dress and mode of life governing other ascetic bands. But we now come to the first great improvement, which shows the originality of Buddha. Heretofore, discipleship was a personal matter in India. A band of disciples would gather around a leader. His personality held them together, at his death the association was broken up. But Buddha gathered his sixty-one disciples about him and sent them forth to preach his doctrines. "Let not two of you go the same way" was his first command. It was a strange mission that these homeless, begging monks started forth to perform. They were to preach the necessity of living a "perfect and pure life of holiness."* But this was not all, if they found other like minded ascetics willing to embrace Buddha's doctrines, they were to be at once initiated into the order, without 1 Davids: "Birth Stories", p. 111. 3 More than one investigation has pointed out the resemblance be- tween Buddha and Woden (Odhinn). Cf. Lillie: "Buddha and Early Buddhism," p. 230, et aeq. 8 Mahavagga 1. 10. 4 Mahavagga i. 11, 1. 784 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. journeying to where Buddha himself might be staying.^ A very simple innovation, this, but thereby was set in motion the lever destined to largely influence the Oriental world. Another important point was, that this "proselyt- ing" was not solely to re-inforce the ranks of Buddhist monks, but an effort was made to reach and influence the masses of the people. This was largely a new departure.^ Laymen, who did not feel inclined to abandon the world, were received into a sort of church membership, they formed the Upasaka (adherent) class. A large share of Buddha's preaching was directed solely to this class. So, from the very earliest period, they make their appearance.* Few and simple were the positive rules they were to fol- low.* But they were urged to walk in the "Noble Path," and to pay due attention to the monks, who, on their part, were expected to "instruct them in religious truths, clear up their doubts, and point the way to heaven."- Buddha is supposed to have lived for more than forty years after establishing his order ; and is supposed before his death to have seen it already grown rich and powerful. Although the Buddhist literature of Ceylon professes to give quite full particulars of this important period, it is strongly argued, that we really know but little of it, that in all probability Buddhism spread first as a secret society, and that not until all India was filled with adher- ents of this new religion, about the time of Asoca, was it openly promulgated.® We can not settle this point; but if 1 Mahavagga i. 12, 1. ^ Tliis statement must be made with due al- lowance for ignorance regarding the nature and extent of the Jainist movement. 3 Kullavagga, v. 20. 4 Oldenberg: "Buddha," p. 383 note. ^ "Admonition of Sigala." Childers in "Contemporary Review," Feb. 1876. 6 Lillie: "Buddha and Early Buddhism," p. 131. "Popular Life of Budda," p. 142. ABYAN BELIGION. 785 we recall the great number and influence of mystic socie- ties in the Orient, it would not be at all strange if Bud- dhism grew first as a secret society.^ Buddliist Temple— China. We must now inquire more particularly as to the doc- trines taught by Buddha, When he made his appearance 1 Secret in the sense that a formal initation was undergone when joining the ranks; their proceedings were more or less in secret; the lay- men who gave in their adherence were not necessarily known ; and the government of the order was more or less secret. 786 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. in India, we must remember that the common masses of the people were grossly superstitious. The Brahman priest- hood had usurped the right to perform all religious offices. The educated classes were either passing their lives as as- cetics or waging endless disputes as to the nature of Brahma, the Atman, the power of Illusion, etc. What Buddha de- sired to do was to substitute some practical morality for this superstition and too subtle metaphysics. All meta- physical discussions were therefore discouraged. What he wanted was actions not words. What he wanted was "no questioning about existence or non-existence, about eternity or non-eternity." He wanted the "boundless and illimitable realized but not talked about. "^ He accordingly empasized the every-day duties of morality. His discourses to the laity were almost entirely taken up with them. If it were deemed advisable, whole pages could now be quoted with beautiful sayings that are recorded as com- ing from Buddha's lips. Space forbids, however, and we will only give a general idea of his teachings.^ He aimed to awaken spiritual life in his hearers. He taught, that all manner of impure thoughts and unworthy actions pro- duced pain; ^ if not in this world, then in the next.* He gave practical discourses on such subjects as "Earnest- ness," which, he says, is "the path of immortality;"^ on "Thought," which, when "well guarded brings happiness."® Thedutyof "happiness" was pointed out. "Letus, livehap- pily not hating those who hate us" Vas his desire. Thesinof "anger" was commented upon. He advised: "Let a man overcome anger by love, let him overcome evil by good.^ 1 Beal: "Romance History," p, 175. Vide "Sabbasva Sutta," 9. 2 We would especially mention the following: "Sacred Books " Vols. X. and XI. Beal: "Dhammapada." Rockhill: "Udanavarga." 3 Dhammapada. i 1 * Ibid. 17. s Ibid. 21. 6 Ibid. 36. 7 Ibid. 197. e ibid. 223. ARYAN MELIOION. 787 He insisted on the necessity of personal action. His last recorded words are "work out your salvation with dilligence."^ In another place, he exclaimed "you, your- self must make an effort."^ He condemned the idea that bloody sacrifices could atone for sin. He asked: "Having a body defiled with blood will the shedding of blood restore it to purity."^ He condemned asceticism of all kinds. He wanted his followers to follow the "Middle Path," between the two extremes, which are a life given over to pleas- ure, and a life of self mortification;* and in all things, he insisted on upright conduct. "Great is the fruit, great the advantage of earnest contemplation, when set round with upright conduct.'"^ "Grood works receive a man who has done good and has gone froin this world to the other, as kinsmen receive a friend on his return."^ It is a melancholy fact, that it is not truth that conquers the world but organization. Buddha clearly realized this, and forwith trained and disciplined his monks and estab- |lished his order. A large part of Buddhist writings are concerned with rules for the regulation and guidance of the monks. There were two stages of initiation into the order, the Pabbajja and the Upasampada. Entry into the first grade might be as garly as fifteen years,'' provided the parents gave their consent, ® or, in special circumstances, even younger.' They could not be received into full membership before the age of twenty.^" It required a chapter of at least ten monks to confer the Upasampada initiation.^^ While, in general, this order was open to every one, yet certain classes were excluded, as soldiers, 1 Maha-Parinibbana Sutta, vi. 10. 2 Dhammapada, 276. 3 Beal: "Romance History," p. 159. 4 Mahavagga, i 17. ^ Maba-Parinibbana Sutta i. 12. 6 Dhammapada 220. '< Mahavagga i . 50. 8 Ibid i. 54. » Ibid. 61. 10 Ibid. 1. 49, 6. - " Ibid- i- 32, 2, 788 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. those afflicted with diseases, criminals, debtors, slaves, etc. Admitted into the order, the new member had to choose a spiritual leader, and remain for ten years under his instruction.' The rules for their conduct were numer- Angcor-Wat, Buddliist Temple— Siam. ous and minute. Twice in each month, the monks in any given district, which was duly determined by bounds, were expected to meet and hold religious services. There was a sort of open confessional. The list of offences was gone J JVIahavaggai. 25, ARYAN RELiaiON. 789 over; and, if any monk had transgressed, then was the time to make it known. This part of their work was se- cret, but we also read that the people went there in order to hear the Dhamma.^ This word means the precepts of Buddha.^ So it would seem as if we here have something in the nature of ethical discourses to the people.^ It is not necessary for us to speak albout the order of nuns. Let us study the growth and political development of Buddhism. While he lived, Buddha was the head of the order. The books of the southern Buddhists, from which we have been quoting, and which we will consider more at large soon, represent the order as being left with- out a head on Buddha's death.* It is supposed that, for a time at least, those first disciples and companions of Buddha exercised a nominal authority.^ We will soon show that, by the middle of the third century B. c, there was an offi- cial head to the Buddhist church, his title was "the priest of all the world". ^ Perhaps for a long time before this, there had been some such an officer as this in existence.' The real history of Buddhism does not begin until the middle of the third century b. o. Buddhist histories give us glowing accounts of the rapid spread of Buddhism. Wherever Buddha went, thousands were converted and monasteries were provided in abundance by the thankful zeal of newly converted kings and princes. Within a few 1 Mahavagga ii. 2. 2 Muller, Introduction to the "Dhammapada," p. xlv. 3 This is opposed by Dr. Oldenberg : "Buddha," p. 371, note ; also p. 384. *• Oldenberg: "Buddha," p. 341, note. 5 ibid. 342. 6 Liilie: "Buddhism in Christendom," p. 215. 1 The "Mahawanse," a sacred historical book of Ceylon, certainly implies that there were various grades of priests from the start. It speaks oftheWff A priest who was about to unfrock some of the subordinates, immedialety after the death of Buddha. It speaks of grand priests, of cAJe/ priests, and of priests of high degree. What do all these expressions mean if there was no gradation of authority ? 790 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. months of his death/ a council of five hundred monks is said to have been held to settle the articles of faith; a hun- dred years later, a second council is recorded. These ac- counts can scarcely be called historical.^ Back_ of the third century b. c, we have only the uncertain light of tradition to guide us. Before that date, writing was not common in India. It was* used only for imperial proclamations etc.^ We hear considerable about the wonderful memories of the Indian priests, and how faithfully traditions are Bas Belief- Aogcor'Wat. 1 The date of Buddha's death varies widely. Muller gives 477, B. c. Rhys Davids, 412, B. c. WestergaM 368-70, B. C. Kern, 388, b. c. The Southern Buddhists assume 543, b. c. Vide "Sacred Books,'' Vol. X. p. XXXV. 2 Tiele: "History of Religion," p. 139. Lillie "Popular Life," ch. xiii. 3 Taylor: "The Alphabet, "Vol. II. p. 356. et seq. also chapter x. It was considered almost a desecration to put religious hooks in writing. (Rhys Davids : "Buddhist Suttas," p. xxii.) Although the knowledge of writing is mentioned in the earliest books of Ceylon, yet the Sacred Books them.selves were not reduced to writing before the first century B.C. Oldenberg: "Vinaya Texts," Intrgduction, p. s:^xiii. et seq. ARYAN BELIGION. 791 handed down by them. But nothing is more certain than that three or four centuries of oral transmission will give us anything but a faithful account of primitive times. The tendency is inevitable for recent events, customs, and man- ners to be transferred to early times. We can, then, only surmise that Buddhism grew with considerable rapidity, silently, perhaps secretly, until the era of Asoca. That king was converted to Buddhism and forthwith made it the state religion. Basking in the sunshine of royal favor, it is not surprising that Buddhism lost someAvhat of its early purity, nor is it strange that the reaction should carry it in the direction of superstition and mysticism. Then it is, that we begin to hear of the "Priest of all the world," the head of the Buddhist church; then it was, that Buddha was iBade a veritable god, and the worship of saint3 became established; then it was, that the slowly enveloping myths suddenly shot up into a luxuriant growth and so completely hid the historical Bud- dha from sight that we'can hardly be sure of any details respecting his life. This was the "G-olden Age" of Buddhism. The Achary (high priest) of Magadha grew in power and in- fluence. Later the great monastery of JSTalanda became his head quarters. His person was esteemed so sacred that even his name was not to be pronounced. Whoever was admitted to the high honor of an interview with him was expected to fall prostrate before him and kiss bis feet. Such a system as this implies a well graded hierarchy. When, in subsequent years, Buddhism was crushed out of India, the achary of ISTalanda took refuge in Thibet, and is probably represented by the "Grrand Lama." Other- wise it would be difficult to explain why China and Japan, which derived their Buddhism from India, should acknowl- 792 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. edge tlie authority of this Thibetan Pontiff.^ Many writ- ers have traced out the resemblance between the hierarchy of the Thibetan church and the position of the Grrand Lama, and the hierarchy of the Catholic church and the position of the Pope.^ The Catholic missionary Hue observed to his aston- ishment among the Buddhists of Thibet "the cross, the mitre, the dalmaic, and the chasuble — that the superior lamas carry with them when traveling or performing some ceremony out of the temple — the choral service, the exorcisms, the censers supported by five chains and made to open and shut, the blessings which the Lamas bestow on the faithful — laying their hand upon the head of the sup- plicant — the rosary, the practice of ecclesiastical celibacy, of spiritual retreats, the worship of saints, fasts, processions, holy water, litanies, and many other details of ceremonial which are in use among the Buddhists precisely as in our own church."^ The Catholic bishop Bigandet speaks also of this state of affairs in Thibet and of the hierarchy in Burmah.* What they are describing is but the final form of the order and religion of Grautama and, when we reflect on the conservatism of religion, we will doubtless agree that in all essential points it is not materially differ- ent from the same cult in the palmy days of King Asoca, We must now turn to the consideration of the de- velopment of doctrine in Buddhism. Many centuries have elapsed since Buddha sent forth his sixty-one disciples. His followers have now separated into two great di- visions; one theistic, and the other atheistic. Considerable 1 Vide Lillie: "Popular Life of Buddha," p. 183, by same author, ''Buddhism in Christendom," p. 227. 2 Vide "Hibbert Lectures," 1881, p. 192. 3 "Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet," Vol. II. p. 15. 4 "Life Of Buddab," Vol.11, p. 261. ABYAN RELIQION. 793 dispute has arisen of late years as to the priority of these schools and which better repres^ents primitive Buddhism. It seems to us that here, as in many other cases, the truth lies between two extremes. Buddha, as a Brahmacarin, was thoroughly posted in Indian Wisdom. But his mis- sion was to sharply emphasize the necessity of morality. This colors all his sayings. In his discourses with the young Brahmans, he does not at all undertake to overthrow their ideas as to Brahma, but does insist that the way to union with him consisted in the discharge of moral duties and in purity of life. On their part, the Brahmans recognized that he was simply a reformer. They exclaim that he " sets up that whiph is thrown down. . . .points out the right road to hira who has goue astray."^ Buddha is described as being well versed in the "way of Brahma." He talks about the "world of Brahma," and the "Brahma heaven."^ As St. Paul many year's later points out the difference between a Jew outwardly and a Jew inwardly, between circumcision of the heart and cir- cumcision of the flesh;^ so Buddha points out to the young Brahmans the distinction between a Brahman, who was one outwardly, and one inwardly.* It seems to us there- fore reasonable to agree with many scholars that Buddha meant simply to reform the Hindooism of his day.^ He would therefore not attack its philosophy, and it is more than probable that he accepted and taught, at least to the higher order of his monks, the estoric doctrines of higher Brahmanism. But as remarked he wanted to emphasize the moral 1 Tevigga Sutta. ^ Birth Stories. 3 Romans ii. 28-29. * Tevigga Sutta, i. 25 etc. 6 This is now not questioned. See, for instance, Kuenen: "Hibbert Lectures," 1882, p. 256. 794 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. side of life. He well enough knew the fatal tendency of Brahmanical life. He therefore condemned metaphysical discussion. He utterly repudiated the idea that purity could come by philosophical views.-' In one of the writings of the Southern Buddhist, a disciple comes to Buddha and requests him to clear up his doubts as to whether man is immortal or not. Buddha explained to him that knowledge on this and similar points "did not conduce to a life of holiness," and hence he refused to express himself.* It is not strange, then, that, as time passed on, confused and even contradictory opinions arose as to what were the be- liefs and teachings of Buddha. When Buddhism entered on its "Grolden Age" under Asoca, it would be passing strange if it had retained its primitive simplicity. Judging from various symbols en- graved on the ancient topes in India,^ especially at Sanchi,* at that time the Buddhists worshiped first a trinity,^ con- sisting of Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha. These terms, indeed, earlier had a very literal meaning. The candidate for initiation into the order of monks had to proclaim three times that he took refuge in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha, meaning thereby Buddha, the law, and the order.® This was called "taking refuge in the holy triad." For all we know to the contrary, there may have been an esoteric meaning given to these phrases from the start. But it is certainly not singular that such a meaning came to be ap- plied to them in after times. Neither is it strange that, in the esoteric meaning so applied, we find simply a statement of Indian philosophy. 1 Parayanavagga 8. 2 Oldenberg: "Buddha," p. 276. 3 The Tri-Ratna, found engraved on monuments wherever Buddhism went. Vide, Pincott: "The Tri-Ratna" iu J. R. A. S. 1887. * Above p. 176. 5 Cunningham: "The Bhilsa Topes," p. 351. 6 Mahavagga i. 12, 4. AMYAIT REtmiON. 795 Briefly expressed then we may say that Buddhism ap- pears to have at that time believed in the existence of one infinite, eternal essence Aditi-buddha, (Supreme Buddha) corresponding to Brahma. It denied the reality of the phe- nomenal world. ^ Aditi-buddha in conjunction with Dahm- ma (the infinite mother of all), produced Sangka, the crea- tor, analogous to Iswara.* Judging from the ritual (which changes much slower than the literature) , from their repre- sentation of heaven (still extant in their sculptures), they further held that the highest destiny of the spiritual part of man was to be reunited with Aditi-buddha ; but this was a lot attainable only by the Buddhas ; other people, if worthy, enjoy a life of immortality in one of the lower heavens. Let us recall that from a train of superstitious notions seven was a sacred number generally throughout the Ori- ent. As there were seven great gods- in the Chaldea, seven ameshospands in Persia, seven holy rishis in the Vedas, so Gautama was said to have been the seventh Buddha. Each Buddha was held to be an emanation from the supreme Buddha, (Aditi-buddha), Dhamma was the mother of each, so each was a god-man, consenting to descend from the highest heaven, Tusita, and pass a life. on earth for the good of men." Such a being is also called a Tathagatha, meaning, perhaps, the coming one or the one who "was to come." Buddha explained to inquiring Brahmans that "from time to time a Tathagatha is born into the world," his mission being to "make known the higher life, in all its purity and in all its perfectness."^ 1 Oldenberg: "Buddha," p. 238. 2 Fide Lillie: "Buddha and Early Buddhism"ch. ii: "Popular Life of Buddha," p. 249 et seq. Hodgson in J. R. A. 8. for 1835. Cunning- bam, Op. cit. 3 "Tevigga Sutta," i. 46. As for this definition, see Bunsen: "Angel 796 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. The ritual of all Buddhist countries contain references to the worship of these past Buddhas.^ Once when Bud- dha was preaching, an apparition appeared in the sky. It was the throne of one of the Buddhas of the past, and from it proceeded words of praise for the Tathagatha's preaching.^ At the Stupa of Bharhut, Greneral Cunning- ham found carvings representing the thrones and holy trees of each of the great Buddhas of the past.' From the foregoing, we can perhaps form an idea of the Buddhism of the first period, by which we mean from the reign of Asoca down to about the commencement of the Christian Era. We see the theological side, held in abey- ance by Buddha himself, finally winning a large share of attention. We see the order he had established growing in power and organization. Ancestor worship, which ap- peals so strongly to the feelings of primitive men, had also won recognition. Saint worship had sprung up. Seven Buddhas were worshiped instead .of one. Relics of the great Buddha, or of the eminent saints, were priceless relics. It is not considered improbable that religious wars were undertaken to get possession of such treasures.* About the commencement of the Christian Era, we come to the first great innovation largely due to a Hindoo sect, the Tantrikas. This sect were great believers in the powers of magic. There were no gods, or rather their own adepts were possessed of greater power. They affirmed that everything arises from nothing. Though they made Messiah," p. 18. For criticism on the same, see Kellogg: "Light of Asia, etc." p. 107. Admitting with Dr. Kellogg that the meaning is "thus come," still taliing this in connection with the statement in the Sutta"that from time to time, "such beings are expected to become "thus come," what is so out of the way w^ith Bunseu's definition? 1 Lillie: "Popular Life of Buddha,-' p. 231, 217. 2 Baddharma-Pundurika, xi. s Lillie in J. E. A. 8. for 1882. 4 Ferguson: "Tree and Serpent Worship," p. Ixxxviii. (Sanchi.) ARYAN BELIGION. 797 use of such terms as Maker, they considered them as mere words. ^ The nature of their knov/ledge they guarded with the utmost secrecy. " But this continued to grow and to exercise more and more influence in India. After some centuries of conflict, Buddhism took up with some of their ideas.^ A council, assembled by the Turanian King Kaniska Buddhist Temple, Island of Java. (a. d. 10), first promulgated these new views.^ The follow- ers of this new Buddhism were known as the followers of this GreatVehicle. According to the Chinese Traveler Hwen Thsang, the primitive Buddhists (^Little Vehicle) called this movement (in reference to its Atheism) the "carriage which drives to the great no-wh ere; "they further said that it differed in nothing from the Tantrikas' philosophy.* 1 Lillie:- "Buddhism in Christendom," p. 217. 2 Cunningham- "Bhilsa Topes," p. 158. s Ferguson : "Tree and Serpent Worship," p. 64. 4 Ijillie: "Populor Life of Buddha," p. 177. 47 798 THE MEDIEVAL WOULD. Dr. Lillie further shows that though this doctrine was at first opposed by the acharya of Magadha, yet he finally accepted it. Another change had been going forward, which received the support of the new movement. The belief had grown up, that several Buddhas had appeared in the past, and also that from time to time they would appear in the future. Those who will appear in the future are called Bodhi-satwas. The idea finally arose that the one destined to next appear was now enjoying a life of bliss in the highest heaven, Tusita. They gave it a pretty name, Maitreya, kindness. This was to be . the future Buddha to rule the world. The next step was to worship this future Buddha. How early this movement arose we do not know, but the Great Vehicle movement took it up. The Chinese Pilgrim Fa Hian expressly states that the disciples of the Little Vehicle (primitive Budd- hists) worshiped the Buddhas of the past, but those of the Great Vehicle worshiped the Bodhi-satwas.' This same traveller, who was in India about the beginning of the fifth century of our era, found Buddhist monks and monasteries in great numbers, belonging to both vehicles from Cabul to Magadha.^ Hweng Thsang, two centuries later, found both vehicles in Magadha; Ceylon must have been a stronghold of the Great Vehicle movement, since Thsang left on record that there were ten thousand monks, followers of that ve- hicle on that island; ^ in general, the Great Vehicle must have been in the majority. Hweng Thsang himself presided at the council summoned by King Siladitya to settle the vehicle question. This council suppressed the Little Vehicle. By this victory, those doctrines and ideas 1 Lillie: "Popular Life," p. 174. 2 Rhys Davids: "Buddhism," p. 143. 3 Lillie: ''Buddhism in Christendom," p. 218. Rhys Davids also shows that the worship of Maitreya existed there. ("Buddhism," p. 201.) ARYAN RELiaiON. 799 in Buddhism which give it the appearance of atheism, so strongly commented on by some/ were rendered a perma- nent feature.^ It is now necessary to glance at the development of Buddhist sacred literature. It is probable that many of the I'ules for the government of the order and ritual go back to a very early period. This is the part that was repeated at the fast days. Tradition doubtless clung tenaciously to the reputed sayings of Buddha. It is none the less true that the tendency would be for these collections of stories to grow with time. Asoca carved on the Bairat rock a list of seven tractates which he orders the Buddhist^ to recite in the temples. Besides these nothing else was to be recited. Some of these tracts can now be found buried up in the accumulation of later literature.^ We may suppose that when the alphabet was fairly introduced such legends, histories, and d^trinal books would commence to grow. So, by the time thi| it was considered allowable to put the sacred literature into writing, it had grown to be quite vo- luminous. A.bpujt the beginning of the fifth century of our era, a young Brahman joined theBuddhist monastery at Nalanda. From his eloquence he was named Buddha-ghosa One day he was informed that in the island of Ceylon there was a commentary on their sacred texts, written in the Singalese language.* He accordingly went thither for 1 Kellogg: "The Light of Asia etc." p. 176 et seq. "^ Those who are acquainted with the discussion on Buddhism will see that we have come to the conclusions set forth by Dr. Lillie in his various works on Buddha and Buddhism, and opposed to Ehys Davids. We can not go into details further. But it seems to us that Dr Lillie amply sus- tains his views. See especially the newmaterial in "Buddhism in Chris- tendom," p. 220, and "Popular Life," chapter xvi. "The Hibbert Lec- tures" for 1881 gives Rhys Davids' views. 3 Lillie: "Popular Life,"p. 208 et seq. t Muller: "Sacred Books," Vol. X. p. xxii. 800 THE MEDIEVAL WOBLD. the purpose of translating this back into Pali. Now Bud- dhaghosa, as a monk from Nalanda, was a follower of the Great Vehicle, this was also the orthodox faith in Ceylon. Ho had been but recently converted from Brahmanism. We of course cannot tell what school of philosophy he em- braced before his conversion to Buddhism. It is at least possible that he belonged to some of the materialistic schools.^ It is admitted that he was an able and ambitious man. He has been compared to Hildebrand.^ It is extreme- ly probably, therefore, that in his new translation he would insist on giving prominence to his own personal views. The importance of this becomes at once apparent when we realize the great influence heexerted on southernBuddhism.' Not only his commentary is employed, but, we are told, that all of the Buddhist pitakas are derived from Ceylon.* They were doubtless all subject to his influence. All these facts must be borne in mind by those who insist that the books of the southern Buddhists give us the truest ideas of primitive Buddhism. On the contrary, as they exist now, they give us Buddhagohsa's version of the teachings of the "Great Vehicle". In man}'- ways. Dr. Lillie thinks he can show that Buddhaghosa's version departed from the primitive teach- ings. It is difficult to account for the ritual and some of the symbols of Ceylon if Buddhism there has always been of the type described in the writings of Buddhaghosa. For instance, the worship of the seven Buddhas is covered up 1 For instance the Charvacas, who were influential at an early day. They denied the existence of a soul, or of a life after death. They had confused ideas that the personal traits of character might go to another body after death. Colebrook's "Essays," p. 259-60. 2 Ferguson: "Tree and Serpent Worship," p. 65. 8 The Buddhists of Burmah, for instance, owe their scriptures to him Bigandet: "Buddha," Vol. II. p. 134 note. 1 "Buddhist Suttas," p. xxii, ARYAN MELiaiON. 801 by a story about a charm. Yet ritual and incidental no- tices in the writings show that such a worship did really exist; In the Chinese Dhammapada, certain expressions occur regarding the heaven of Brahma. Buddhaghosa omits those passages, yet in other parts of his writings, clear ref- erences to them exist, showing that they must have existed in the account before Buddhaghosa. It is quite probable that he deliberately interpolated suttas before him so as to make them either teach his doctrines or else to make them contradictory.^ One more phase of Buddha and his life must now be treated. Around such a character as Buddha, who had succeeded in establishing a religion which by the third cen- tury B. c. was embraced by hundreds of millions of people, would speedily gather innumerable myths and legends. Nor is it at all singular that the old sun myths would once more gather around him as a center.^ We can understand how, as his religion grew and the old formula of initia- tion (Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha) grew into an expres- sion for the trinity, Buddha himself would become deified, at least worshiped as the last of the seven Buddhas. And this last idea, taken in connection with the doc- trine of Bodhisatwa, the coming Buddha, would lead to the belief of his angelic life before his birth. Hence the legend, begins with him as the anointed angel, waiting in the Tusita heaven for the hour to fully arrive; and here we be- 1 For instance the BrahmajalaSutta. Dr. Davids quotes from it to show that the Buddhists deny, "in a complete and categorical manner," that there is any soul or any existence after death. ("Buddhism," p. 99) In the same Sutta is a passage, which Dr Davids strangely forgets to quote, which does teach, "in a complete and categorical manner," just the contrary, viz., that there are souls, and that existence continues after death. ("Popular Life" p. 223). 2 A French scholar has written a book to show that Buddha was an altogether mythical personage. "A sun God" ("La Legeude du BoucJ- "dha.") 802 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. gin to notice the sun myth. He was born on Christmas/ because, at this time, ancient myths in many nations be- lieved the sun of the new year to be born.^ As a pre-exist- ing angel, of. course his earth life began by a miraculous concejition.-' His mother, though married to King Sudd- hodana of the Sakya tribe, was still a virgin. In a dream, she was made aware of the happy destiny in store for her, and angels informed the good king of the nature of the child to be born to him. The queen was on a journey, when Pushya, "the king of the stars," showed by its position that the hour had come. In an Indian grove under a Sala tree, which bent its branches down to conceal her, amid many signs and wonders, the heavenly child was born. Four Brahmans received the child on a golden net, four great kings of the cosmos were present to render him homage, flowers and other offerings were presented to him, and above immortal spirits sang his praise. The holy nature of the child attract- ed great attention. A holy ascetic, dwelling afar, perceived by his magic power that a Buddha had been born, and he hurried to the city of Kapilavastu to see him. He took the child in his arms but wept to think he would not live to see his glory. When sent to school, he dumfounded the teachers by his miraculous knowledge. No matter how difficult the question he could answer. Quite in the manner here pointed out there grew up a romantic life of Buddha. Every important event of his life was set off with some incident testifying to his supernatural character. These accounts must have early commenced 1 Burisen: "Angel Messiah," p. 23. 2 Lillie: "Buddha and Early Buddhism," p. 22. 3 In Egypt, India, Greece, in fact in the ancient world generally, every Individual, who attained any prominence, was considered the son of some god or goddess, A R YA N BELlalON. 803 to grow. Judging from tlie carved sculptures at the Sanchi Tope, as well as at Amrivati, the legends must have as- sumed a systematic shape as early as three centuries b. c; though until they were finally reduced to writing, they would be subject to changes and new arrangements.^ We have now only sjoace for a few remarks concern- ing the sjDread of Buddhism. In a general way, it is known how it spread ovet Eastern Asia, and even out on the islands off the coast. The Island of Java, for instance, was overrun with Buddhist missionaries at an extremely early date. Abbe Hue tells us that the fourth class of Lamas in Thibet are known as the "Wandering Lamas". Their w life is devoted to wandering and preaching their doctrines. They visit every country at all accessible to them. They climb mountains, ford rivers, cross deserts, and brave all dangers. We need not doubt that we have- in these wan- deringLamas fair representatives of the first monks that Buddha sent forth to preach Dhamma. His command was to preach his doctrine to all without exception. He was obeyed. His ragged missionaries traveled far and wide. Only of late years are we learning how far they did go, carrying with them the doctrines of the king- dom of righteousness. Some eminently respectable author- ities think they penetrated to America. We have not space to investigate this subject. We need only remark that some of the carvings found in Central America and Yucatan are easy to explain on this hypothesis.^ But the i Beal ("Romantic Legend") gives these legends and many more. We have given quite enough to show their general character. Most any of the lives of Buddha contain incidents of these legends. Most of the in- cidents we have here referred to are represented in the Amrivati carv- ings (250 B. C. Ferguson: "Tree and Serpent Worship"). It would be well to compare what Dr. Kellogg has to say on this point, "The Light of Asia etc." p. 109. 2 Consult Vining: "An Inglorious Columbus;" also Lillie: 'Buddha 804 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. east was not the only direction of travel. They went west as well. We have referred to the connection between the name of Woden and Buddha. Long ago that quite emi- nent scholar, Godfrey Higgins, wrote a book to show that the Druids were in reality a sect of Buddhist monks. ^ More recently, Prof. Holmboe has marshalled a strong array of facts to. show that Buddhist monks must haA^e reached Norway.^ Prof. Muller refers to the existence oi'' Buddhism in Russia and Sweden.' The celebrated Round Tower in Ireland, dating from pre-Christian times, is* thought by some to be a Buddhist monument.^ Here we will bring this chapter to a close. We are now down to a most interesting point in the history of re- ligion ; to the conflict between Greek Philosophy, Jewish Mysticism, Orthodox Judaism, and the doctrines of Budd- ha. Out of the conflict, their emerge the numerous Gnostic sects; and finally, when the hour was fully come, Christianity was given to the world. But this must be reserved for a future chapter. and Early Buddhism," chapter iv. Some of the carvings to which we aUude are the following (This Series Vol. I. p. 570 et seq.) : The Statue at Copan, Stone Tablet at Palenque, Statue from Palenque, the Beau Relief at Palenque, Two Headed Monument from Uxmal, The Seated Figure over, the Doorway at Uxmal, etc. 1 "The Celtic Druids," London, 1829, 2 "Traces de Buddhisme en Norvege." 3 "From Vining", Op. cit. 4 Lundy: "Monumental Chjistianity," p. 265. 108 THE MEDIEVAL WORLD. Of course, any power, that aspired to a very extended sway, must sooner or later, come in contact with Babylon. The glorious reign of Nebuchadnezzar had passed into history before Cyrus had commenced to extend the boun- daries of his empire. The successors of Nebuchadnezzar were not by any means his equal ; and it was probably apparent that the star of Babylonia was as rapidly sinking to final extinction, as it had risen to its meridian height. When such a state of affairs exists, there is always a discontented party ; and when Cyrus was planning the downfall of Babylonian power, he seems to have intrigued with the discontented party in Babylon. His intrigues were successful ; and when, after his conquests over the various Aryan powers in Asia Minor, his forces appeared before Babylon, the city gates were open to him, and, almost without opposition, his soldiers entered the city. And thus Persian supremacy supervened in Western Asia. They now wielded the power once held by Assyria. The whole history of the conquest of Babylon is recorded on a terra cotta cylinder only recently discovered, so that we have historical evidence of this period in Persian history.^ From this, we learn that there was no long siege of Babylon. Cyrus appears as the ally of a disaffected ele- ment. His success is claimed as an evidence of favor from the gods of Babylon. Cyrus acknowledges himself, as the servant of Bel and Merodach. He showed a great deal of tact in not antagonizing the religious culture in Babylon. This kindness was even extended to the Jewish captives. With his consent, a portion of them, as an or- ganized church, went back to their ruined city, Jerusa- lem, and there established Judaism.^ Cyrus ruled until ' Budge: "Babylonian Life and History," p. 78. 2 Vol. II. p. 761. THE ASIATIC ARYANS. 109 529 B. c, and it is not positively known when or how be died. There is a plain marble tomb of ancient date stand- ing on the plain of Mergab, which has for centuries been called the " Tomb of Cyrus." It is claimed that it bears the inscription : "0, man, I am Cyrus who won domin- ion for the Persians, and was king of Asia. Grrudge not this monument to me."^ Recent researches have proved that this tomb can be none other than that of a female ; and while the natives claim that it is the tomb of Solo- So-calleci Tomb of Cyrus. raon's mother, Dr. Oppert asserts that it is the tomb of " Kassandana, the beloved wife of Cyrus, and the mother of Cambyses."^ Cambyses succeeded his father as ruling chief- tain without any manifest opposition, though one of his first acts was to put his brother, Smerdis, to death. Cambyses spent his short reign in extending, the rule of Persia over the states of Western Asia, an4 especially Egypt. In this he was successful. It is related of him 1 "Story of Persia," p. 97. 2 Records of the Past," Vol. VII. p. 89 also Vol. IX. p.