FRAGILE DOES, NOT OtRCUUTE (QorneU Httiueraitg ffiibrarg Mlfaca, Mew ^nrb "TVie IXu.'YWo'r' Cornell University Library BV825 .S65 Short historY,,,of Chrtetian ^t^^^^^ "y olin 3 1924 032 340 535 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032340535 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN THEOPHAGY A SHORT HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN THEOPHAGY BY PRESERVED SMITH, Ph.D. CHICAGO LONDON THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. 1922 Copyright, 1922 The Open Court Publishing Company Chicago (:Prru Printed in the United States of America All Rights Reserved THE TORCH PRESS CEDAR RAPIDS IOWA TO MY SISTER WINIFRED SMITH with Gratitude and Admiration PREFACE On December 27, 191 5, I read, by request, be- fore the American Society of Church History, at its annual meeting in New York, a paper on "The Evolution of Luther's Doctrine of the Eucharist." In that paper originated the present study; for, with the understanding of the sacramentarian con- troversies of the Reformation, came the clear per- ception that the dogma of the sacrifice of the mass, repudiated by nearly all the Reformers, and the dogma of the Real Presence, repudiated by some of them, were in reality far more ancient than medieval scholasticism ; that they were, in fact, the teachings of the primitive church, and that, push- ing our inquiry ever further back, they had been derived by her from a pre-Christian, and from a very remote, antiquity. The idea of the god sacrificed to himself, that his flesh might be eaten by worshippers thus assured of partaking of his divinity, arose at the dawn of religion, was revived by the mystic cults of the Greeks, and from them was borrowed by Paul and implanted, along with the myth of the dying and rising Savior God, deep in the soil of the early church. Though for- eign to Jesus, whose beautiful, ethical, and almost purely Jewish thought shines on us in its genuine 8 PREFACE form only in the document known to scholars as Q — the source of the sayings reported by Matthew and Luke but not found in the other gospels — these doctrines appealed so strongly to the mentality of the early Gentile Christians, that they were rapidly adopted and became fixed in the ritual and creed of the church. The subsequent history of the eucharist is chief- ly the record of attempts to rationalize a doctrine that, after the first three or four centuries of the vulgar era, no longer seemed natural. In transub- stantiation, in consubstantiation, in the various ex- planations of the modes of the real presence evolved by the Reformers, we see but so many ef- forts on the part of reason to grasp the mystery of the words : "This is my body." As, in the contro- versies following Luther's revolt, the matter re- ceived the most thorough discussion that it ever received, the period of the Reformation bulks large in the present work. After the sixteenth century, little that was new or important was said upon the subject. The Zwinglian theory that the bread and wine were mere symbols was silently adopted by most Protestants, by all, indeed, except a small band who consciously clung to whatever was an- cient and impressive in ritual and to the "credo quia absurdum" in doctrine. Both among Christians and rationalists the matter ceased to attract attention. There have, indeed, been a few modern his- tories of the eucharist by believers, but secular his- PREFACE 9 torians have been content to let the subject drop as not worth study. In this they have been wrong; for, as Franz Cumont says in the introduction to his Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans, the history of man's errors and failures is often as instructive as the history of his successes. The present study will be accepted, I hope, as a purely objective history in the field of comparative religion, written by one who has no propaganda to spread, and no cause to serve save that of know- ledge for its own sake. Though the manuscript was complete by the end of 191 5, publication was postponed forvarious rea- sons. After keeping the manuscript for nearly a year, during which the brochure had the advantage of being read and occasionally corrected by several learned theologians — to whom I now tender my thanks — The Society of Church History returned it with the statement that they would publish part of it, but the whole was too long for their biennial volume. As I preferred to have it all published together, I sent it to Dr. Paul Carus who, with kind alacrity, promised to bring out the whole in book form as soon as peace was signed with Germany. The first two sections were given to the public in the Monist of April, 19 18, but the rush of business due to the war, and the sad inter- ruption caused by Dr. Carus's death, have post- poned the publication of the whole until the pres- ent. In the meantime, I have continued to study lo PREFACE the subject and have revised the manuscript in the light of the most recent research. For assistance in reading the proof I am indebted to my wife. Preserved Smith Cambridge August 27, 1 92 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE BiBLTOGRAPHY 1 3 I. Praeparatio Evangelica ... 23 II. Paul and his Symmystae ... 43 III. Transubstantiation . . . . 78 IV. CONSUBSTANTIATION 95 V. Luther 99 VI. Carlstadt 122 VII. ZWINGLI AND OeCOLAMPADIUS . . 137 VIII. SCHWENCKFELD . ' 1 64 IX. BucER 167 X. Melanchthon 183 XI. Calvin 190 XII. The British Reformers .... 202 XIII. The Last Phase . . . . .212 BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Abbadie : "Chemical change in the Eucharist, in four letters show- ing the relation of faith to sense. Translated by J. W. Hamersly. London. 1867. Acta ber Disputation zu Flensburg, die sache des Hochwirdigen Sacraments betre£Fend, inj 1529 Jar des Donnerstag nach Quasi- modogeniti geschehen. Wittenberg. 1529. H. AcHELis: Das Christentum in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten. 2 V; 1912. Peter d'Ailly: Quaestiones magistri Petri de aylliaco super libros sententiarum. Paris. 1500. P. S. Allen: The Age of Erasmus. Oxford. 1914. P. S. Allen: Opus Epistolarum Erasmi. Oxford. 1904 ff. 3 vols. G. Anrich: Martin Bucer. Strassburg. 1914. Archiv fiir Reformationsgeschichte, cited as A. iJ, G. Archiv fiir Religionswissenschaft, cited as A. R. tV. J. M. Ashley: Eucharist Sermons by great preachers, edited by. 1873. The Bacchae, by Euripides, translated by G. Murray. 1910. B. W. Bacon : The Fourth Gospel in Research and Debate. 1910. Bancrafte: The Answer that the Preachers of the Gospel at Basile made for the defense of the true administration and use of the holy supper of our Lord agaynst the abomination of the Popyshe Masse. Translated out of the Latin into Englyshe by George Bancrafte. London. 1548. (Imperfect copy at Union Seminary). H. Barge: Aktenstucke zur Wittenberger Bewegung, Anfang 1522. 1912. H. Barge: Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt. 2 vols. 1905. W. Barlowe: a Dialoge describiirg the original ground of these Lutheran faccions and many of their abuses, Compyled by syr William Barlowe, chanon, late byshop of Bathe. 1553. R. Barnes: Fiirnemlich Aitickel der Christlichen kirchen . . . Erstlich in Latein durch D. Antonium aus Engelandt zusamen gebracht, newlich mit einer vorred Joan. Pomerani . . . verdeurscht. 1531. J. W. Baum: Capito und Butzer. Eberfeld. i860. W. Bauer: Das Leben Jestt im Zeitalter der neutestamentlichen Apocryphen. Tiibingen. 1909. 14 BIBLIOGRAPHY Beacon: Catechism, edited by Parker Society. H. Bell: Dr. Martin Luther's Colloquia Mensalia, or his last Divine Discourses at his Table, translated by Captain Henry Bell. London. 1652. G. A. van den Bergh van Eysinga: Radical Views about the New Testament. English translation. London. 1912. H. F. Bindseil: Lutheri Colloquia. 3 vols. Lemgoviae et Detmoldiae. 1863-6. Blaurer: Briefwechsel der Bruder A. und T. Blaurer, bearbeitet von T. Schiess. Frieburg i. Br. 3 vols. 1908 ff. Book of Common Prayer of the Protestant Episcopal Church. W. Bousset: Kyrios Christos. 1913. J. Bradford: Writings, edited by the Parker Society. 1846. Briefmappe. Reformationsgeschichtliche Studien und Texte, heraus- gegeben von J. Greving. Vol. i. 1912. M. Bruckner: Der Sterbende und auferstehendei Gottheiland. 1908. G. Buchwald: Ungendruckte Predigten Martin Luthers. 1905. Bullinger and Calvin : Two Epystles, one of Henry Bullinger . . . another of Johan Caluyne . . . whether it be lawful for a chrysten man to communicate or be partaker of the masse of the papysts, without offending God and hys neighbour or not. Lon- don. 1548. J. Calvin, see Corpus Reform atorum. J. Calvin: Institution de la Religion chrestienne, ed. A. Lefranc. 1911. J. Calvin: CEuvres choisies, publies par Its pasteurs de Geneve. 1909. J. EsTLiN Carpenter: Phases of Early Christianity.^ 1916. S. J. Case: The Evolution of Early Christianity. 1914. Catechism of the Council of Trent, translated by J. Donovan. 1829. C. Clemen: Primitive Christianity and its Non-Jewish Sources. 1912. J. Cochlaeus: Articuli CCCCC Martini Lutheri ex Sermonibus ejus Sex et Triginta, quibus singulatim responsum est a Joanne Cochlaeo. (Sine loco). 1526. R. Lee Cole: Love-Feasts. 1916. F. C. CoNYBEARE : "The Eucharist," article in E. B. F. C. Conybeare: Myth, Magic and Morals. 1909. Corpus Reformatorum. Vols. 1-28 contain the works of Melanchthon edited by Bretschneider and Bindseil, Halle, 1834 ff; vols. 29-87 contain the works of Calvin edited by Cunitz, Baum and Reuss, Brunswick, 1896 ff; vols. 88 ff contain Zwingli's works, edited by Egli, Finsler and W. Kohler, Berlin. 1905 ff. BIBLIOGRAPHY 15 T. Cranmer: Works and Remains, edited by Parker Society. 1842. Crosner: Ein Sermon vom Hochwirdigen heiligen Sacrament des leibs und bluts Christi, durch Alexium Crosner von Colditz auflE dem Schlos zu Dresden inn Meissen gepredigt. Wittenberg. 1531. F. Cumont: The Mysteries of Mithra, English translation. 1903. F. DiBELius: Das Abendmahl. 1911. A. Dietrich : Eine Mithrasliturgie.2 1910. E. Doumergue: Jean Calvin. 5 vols. 1899-1917. P. Drews: Disputationen Dr. Martin Luthers. 1895. Du Cange: Glossarium mediae et infimae Latinitatis, editio nova a L. Favre. 10 vols. Niort. 1883 £f. R. W. Emerson: The Lord's Supper. 1832. E. Emerton: Erasmus. 1900. Hieron. Kmser: Auff Luthers grewel wider die heiligen Stillmesz Antwort. 1525. Encyclopaedia Brittanica.^i 1910-11, cited as E. B. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by J. Hastings, 1908 ff, cited as E. R. E. Enders: Luther's Briefwechsel bearbeitet von E. L. Enders & al. 17 vols. 1884 £f. Erasmi Epistolae, London, 1642. D. Erasmi Opera omnia, ed. Clericus. Lugduni Batavorum. 1703 ff. 10 vols. Erlangen: Luthers sammtliche Werke, herausgegeben von Irraischer, Enders, Elsperger, Schmid und Schmidt. 100 vols. Erlangen. 1823 ff. Expositor. L. R. Farnell: Cults of the Greek States. Oxford. 1905. s vols. J. A. Faulkner: "Dies ist mein Leib." Reviej. vols. 1909 flF. J. K. Seidemann: Lauterbachs Tagebuch auf das Jahr 1538. 1872. J. T. Shotwell: A Study of the History of the Eucharist 1905. Preserved Smith: The Life and Letters of Martin Luther.^ 1914. Preserved Smith: The Age of the Reformation. 1920. Preserved Smith: "A new Light on the Relations of Peter and Paul." Hibbert Journal, July 1913. (Translated as "Une nou- velle Hypothese sur les relations de St. Pierre et de St. Paul," by S. Reinach, and published in the Bibliothique de Propagande, xi annee, Oct. 15, 1913.) Preserved Smith: "The Disciples of John and the Odes of Solomon," Monisi, April, 1915. Preserved Smith and H. P. Gallinger: Conversations with Luther; Selections from the Table Talk translated. 1915. Preserved Smith: "A Decade of Luther Research," Harvard Theo- logical Review, April, 1921. R. Smith: The Assertion and Defense of the Sacrament of the Altar. Compyled and made by mayster Richard Smith. 1546. H. von Soden: Griechisches Neues Testament. Handausgabe. 1913. J. H. Srawley: "The Eucharist: To the Reformation," article in E.R.E. R..Stahelin: Briefe aus der Reformationszeit. 1887. A. M. Stoddart: Paracelsus. 1911. D. Stone : History of the Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist. 2 vols. 1909. D. Stone: The Reserved Sacrament. 1917. Tabular View of the Variations in the Communion and Baptismal Offices of the Church of England 1549-62. 1842. J. Taylor: The Real Presence. (In Works ed. R. Heber, 1839, vol. 9 and 10). J. Taylor: The Worthy Communicant {ibid., vol. 15). Texte und Untersuchungen, cited as T. Sf V. Texts and Studies, cited as T. & S. Theologische Studien und Kritiken, cited as T. S. K. R. R. Tollington : Clement of Alexandria. 1914. E. Troeltsch: Protestantism and Progress. 1912. W. Tyndale: Treatises, ed. Parker Society, 18460. Vadianische Briefsammlung, ed. Arbenz und Wartmann, 7 vols., 1890 ff. BIBLIOGRAPHY 21 M. Valentine: Christian Theology. 2 vols. 1906. Venite Adoremus Bulletin, pub. semi-annually by the Dominican nuns of the Monastery of the Holy Name, 2824 Melrose Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio. O. Voct: Bugenhagens Briefwechsel. 1888. Williston Walker: John Calvin. 1906. P. Wafpler: Die Stellung Kursachsens und des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen zur Tauferbewegung. 1910. L. Waterman: The Primitive Tradition of the Eucharistic Body and Blood. 1919. H. Watt: "Eucharist in Reformation and Post-Reformation Times," article in E. R. E. J. Weiss: Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments neu iibersetzt 2 vols. 1906 f. Weimar: Luthers Werke, kritische Gesamtausgabe. Weimar, 1883 S. 60 vols. B. J. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort: The New Testament in the Orig- inal Greek. Small ed. 1895. W. L. M. de Wette: Luthers Briefe, 6 vols. 1828-56 (6th vol. by Seidemann). G. P. Wetter: Altchristliche Liturgien. Das Christliche Mysterium. Studie zur Geschichte des Abendmahls. 1921. J. Wyclif: De eucharistia tractatus maior, ed. J. Loserth. 1892. Zeitschrift fiir neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, cited as Z. N. T. W. Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte, cited as Z. K. G. F. Zimmermann : Die Abendmesse in Geschichte und Gegenwart. 1914. P. Zorn: Historia Eucharistiae Infantium. 1736. Zurich Letters, ed. Parker Society, 1846 ff. ZwiNGLl, see Corpus Reformatorum and Schuler und Schulthess. H. ZwiNGLi's Latin Works and Correspondence, ed. S. M. Jackson, vol. I, 1912. I. PRAEPARATIO EVANGELICA Those who have attended the celebration of a mass have witnessed the most ancient survival from a hoary antiquity. There, in the often beautiful church, in gorgeous vestments, with incense and chanted liturgy, the priest sacrifices a God to himself and distributes his flesh to be eaten by his worshippers. The Divine Son is offered to the Father as "a pure victim, a spotless victim, a holy victim," ^ and his holy body and blood become the food of the faithful. The teaching of the church is explicit on this point. The body eaten is the same as that once born of a virgin and now seated at the right hand of the Father ; the sacrifice of the mass is one and the same as that of the cross, and is so grateful and acceptable to God that it is a suitable return for all his benefits, will expiate sin, and ''turn the wrath of the offended Deity "from the severity of a just vengeance to the exercise of benignant clemency." ^ All this goes back to the time when man was just emerging from the animal ; it is the most striking of the many instances of the conservatism of religion. The further back we go historically the more religious do we find our ancestors; the story of progress has been one of constant secularization. But there was a pre- historic time when there was nothing that we would recognize as religion at all. Behind the savage culture ^ The Missal: Canon of the Mass. 2 Catechism of the Council of Trent, transl. by J. Donovan, 1829, pp. 156 ff. 24 CHRISTIAN THEOPHAGY that we know, when religion rules the tribes with a rod of iron, there must have been a period when the grand- sons of the ape were accumulating their theological ideas. Their first concept was not, apparently, that of personal gods, but that of a vast mystery; it was the weird or uncanny quality of certain things they did not understand. Along with this was the overmasterin|; power of tribal custom. They had the conservative instinct to the highest degree ; as children and savages and certain neurotics ' to-day, they felt an imperative need, the reason of which they could not explain, that things should be done in the ways to which they were accustomed. The real reasons, of course, lay deep in the laws of habit and imitation but, because they could not understand this, they gave their acts a myster- ious sanction, the taboo. It was in this, and the related idea of "mana," both of them founded in the sacred- ness, i.e., mysteriousness, weirdness, of certain objects and acts, that the germs of all religions lay. In the earliest stages the ape-men were unable to conceive of anything very personal and definite as god. Not only was the conception of a Being "without body, parts or passions" impossible to them, but even an anthropo- morphic god was too abstract. Nor was this period so remote as we sometimes think. Just as in Latin the word sacer, meaning both "sacred" and "accursed," retains the old connotation of "taboo," so in Greek 6ea 33a. ^^ Works, ed. Parker Soc, ii. 317. ^*Ibid.,i. 76. 25 Ibid., i. 29. ^8 Pollard: Political History of England 1547-1603, p. 51. 2T Archbishop Grindal, Remains, ed. Parker Soc, 195 ff. 2o8 CHRISTIAN THEOPHAGY believers a part of Christ,?^ and that the body was in a true sense spiritually eaten,^' and that, though the elements are merely signs, yet they really nourish the soul with Christ.*" All the English Reformers rejected the sacrifice of the mass, though they had no little ado to explain away the fact that "al the doctours wyth one accorde cal the sacrament so ernestly a sacrifice." They could not otherwise understand them than as meaning that the sacrament is a memorial of Christ's sacrifice. That it is really no sacrifice is proved by Christ's words at the passover, "I will no more eate of it henceforth tyll it be fulfylled in the kyngdom of god." " Christ's oblation on the cross was, in fact, "omni-sufficient." *^ In like manner' the "high mass" was declared to be a "low abomination," ^* and of course private masses were anathematized. In order to indicate their detes- tation of the Catholic doctrine, in Mary's reign some Protestants took a cat, shaved its head, dressed it like a priest, and hung it in a conspicuous place in London with a wafer in its mouth.^* The Thirty-nine Articles of Elizabeth, based on Ed- ward VI's Forty-two Articles, which in turn were largely drawn from the Wittenberg Articles of 1536, take a rather more conservative position than do most of the doctors just quoted. Article 28 reads: "The Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ ; and likewise the Cup of Blessing is a partaking 28 R. Hutchinson, Works, ed. Parker Soc, 209 ff. 29 Beacon: Catechism, ed. Parker Soc, 228 ff. 80 J. Jewel: Works, ed. Parker Soc, ii. 1121; J. Bradford, Writ- ings, ed. Parker Soc, 82 ff. siTyndale: Brief Declaration of the Sacraments. 32 Preface to the Two Epystles of Bullinger and Calvin, 1548. 33 J. Jewel: Works, ii. 625. ^* Diary of H. Machyn, ed. J. G. Nichols, 1848, p. 59. THE BRITISH REFORMERS 209 of the Blood of Christ." Transubstantiation is de- clared to be repugnant to Scripture and the occasion of many superstitions. The body of Christ is eaten only after a spiritual and heavenly manner. It is stated that the Sacrament is not, by Christ's ordinance, re- served, lifted up, or worshiped. As liturgy is the most unchanging portion of relig- ion, so the English Prayer Book keeps many of the old Catholic words, explained, at the time of its adoption, in a new sense. A prayer in the Communion Service speaks of "eating the flesh of thy dear Son Jesus Christ and drinking his blood in these holy mysteries." An oblation is made in the following words: "We do celebrate and make here before thy Divine Majesty, with these thy holy gifts, which we now offer unto thee, the memorial thy Son hath commanded." "Ac- cept this our sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving." "Here we offer and present unto thee, O Lord, our- selves, our souls and bodies, to be a reasonable, holy and living sacrifice unto thee." ^^ Taking the communion in the established church be- came the test of orthodoxy, and was accordingly en- joined by law. Even members of other bodies were compelled to do it occasionally. A very singular com- pliance with the law was allowed, in that the commun- ion was at times permitted to be vicarious, one man taking the bread and wine for another.** The divines of the Anglican Church continued to maintain the real presence, though they showed an in- creasing consciousness of its difficulties. Thus, Jeremy Taylor, In his tract on the Real Presence of Christ In ^^ Prayer Books: Communion. Practically the same in the editions of 1549, 1552, 1662, and in the Scotch Liturgy of 1637; Tabular View, p. 52. 8«Frere, for period 1536-75. 2IO CHRISTIAN THEOPHAGY the Sacrament, wrote : "It was happy for Christendom when she, in this article, maintained the same simplicity which she was always bound to do ; . . . that is, to believe the thing heartily and not to inquire cur- iously." While devoting most of his space to argu- ment against transubstantiation he asserts that "the symbols become changed into the body and blood of Christ, after a sacramental, that is, after a spiritual real manner." " The dissenting churches mostly followed the lead of Calvin in asserting a real presence. The revision of the Articles of Religion made by the Synod of West- minster — practically a Presbyterian body — in 1647, after declaring against the dogma of the sacrifice and against transubstantiation, says: "Worthy receiv- ers, outwardly partaking the visible elements in this sacrament, do then also inwardly by faith, really and indeed, yet not carnally nor corporeally, but spiritually, receive and through faith feed upon Christ crucified and all the benefits of his dea!th. The unworthy are said not to receive his body.^' The spirit of the Scotch Reformation, late and ex- treme, was that of Calvin, and its representative was John Knox. In 1555 he was in Scotland, after a so- journ at Geneva, preaching passionately against the mass. Four years later he had the satisfaction of seeing "the priests commanded, under pain of death, to desist from their blasphemous mass." ^^ In a decree 5^ In The Whole Works of Jeremy Taylor, ed. R. Heber, 1839, vols. 9 and 10. A tract entitled "The Worthy Communicant," on the benefits of the eucharist and the proper manner of receiving it, is found in volume 15. 3SSchaff: Creeds, 663 ff. 39 Knox to Anna Lock, June 23, 1559, Kidd, 698. Smith: The Age of the Reformation, 357 ff. THE BRITISH REFORMERS 211 of August 24, 1560, the Scotch Parliament abolished both papal jurisdiction and the mass, calling it "wickit Idolatrle" and providing that "na maner of person nor personis say Messe, nor yit heir Messe, nor be present thairat under the pane of confiscatioune of all thair gudis movable and unmovable and puneissing of thair bodeis at the discretioun of the magistrat." All officers are commanded to "tak diligent sute and In- quisitioun" to prevent it.*" In the Scots Confession of the same year it is said: "In the Supper richtlie used Christ Jesus is so joined with us, that hee becummis very nurishment and fude of our saules . . . We confesse and undoubtedlie beleeve that the faithful, in the richt use of the Lord's Table, do so eat the body and drinke the blude of the Lord Jesus that he remains in them and they in him: Yea, they are so maid flesh of his flesh and bone of his bones, that as the eternal Godhead has given to the flesh of Christ Jesus . . life and immortalitie, so dois Christ Jesus his flesh and blude eattin and drunkin be us, give us the same pre- rogatives." " One of the best established laws of heredity is that known as reversion to type; a certain individual, sprung from recently developed stock, shows the characteristics of remote ancestry. It al- most seems that the ancestry of the "unco pious" Pro- testants at times harked back to a remoter civilization thain that of the Catholics. The Calvinistic Scots' confession would have delighted Luther and Justin Martyr, and, mutato numine, the Thraclan mystes of Dionysus. « Kidd,- 702. " K. R. E., V. 560. XIII. THE LAST PHASE It is significant that Harnack's great History of Dogma closes with the age of the Reformation. Then at Augsburg, at Trent, at Geneva, and at Westminster, were fixed the official formulas of the faith of the main Christian bodies. These formulas have been rarely set aside or radically altered during the last three hun- dred years ; they may be interpreted in new ways, but they are not often revised. If we wish to find out what liberal Protestants or Catholic Modernists are thinking about the eucharist, we no longer find their opinions written large in confessions and public de- bates, but lurking in treatises on church history or on New Testament criticism. In these works we do in- deed discover that Christianity has become much ra- tionalized. The change, though silent, is so important that Ernest Troeltsch and Edward Moore, among others, are perfectly right in insisting that the greatest break in the continuity of historical Christianity came not in the sixteenth but in the eighteenth century. In this particular article of the eucharist it is safe to say that the large majority of Protestants are now Zwing- lians or pure rationalists. They not only hold the bread and wine to be mere symbols but they are unable to imagine how sensible people, and particularly how Jesus and Paul, Luther and Calvin, ever regarded them as anything else. But along with growing rationalism there has of THE LAST PHASE 213 late been in certain quarters a strong revival and inten- sification of sacramentalism ; a deliberate abnegation of reason in the mysteries of religion, and a deliberate cul- tivation of the primitive and irrational. In the Roman Catholic church the cult of the host has been plied with such zeal that Leo XIII foretold that the holy eucharist was destined to be the main object of devotion of the twentieth century; and that Pius X has done his utmost to fulfill this prophecy.^ I have before me the Venite Adoremus Bulletin published semi-annually by the Dominican nuns of the Covenant of the Holy Name, 2824 Melrose Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio, no. i, August I, 1916. This bulletin is published in the in- interest of an association for the purpose of adoring the Blessed Sacrament, which is perpetually exposed. That the association now has one thousand members is said to be "consoling proof that our Eucharistic Lord here in our midst is not without friends." "Striking examples of direct answers to prayer" are quoted, and a form of prayer prescribed in these words: "Our Lady of the Most Blessed Sacrament, pray for us," with three hundred days indulgence to the petitioner for each time that he utters it before the exposed host. The writers "know that the practice of exposition of the Blessed Sacrament is growing throughout the world." While there has been, of course, no change in the dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church on this point, some modification of them may be found in the creed of the Old Catholics who split from the main church after the Vatican Council of 187 1. In their opinion iNote by J. Rickaby, S. J., in his edition of The Spiritual Exer- cises of St. Ignatius Loyola, 1915, p. 84. 214 CHRISTIAN THEOPHAGY the body and blood are truly present and the mass, though not a sacrifice, has a sacrificial character as an enduring memorial of the death of Christ." The evolution of most Protestant bodies has been in a liberal direction. In the year 1720 the Protestant Jacques Abbadie subjected the consecrated bread and wine to a variety of tests to prove that they were really what they seemed to be and had undergone no chemical change. This work was translated, as doc- trine necessary to be preached, by an English evan- gelical in 1867.* Some theologians and philosophers have tried to find new justifications for the old ways of liturgy. Thus Leibnitz found in the Newtonian theory of grav- itation a support of Luther's doctrine of the real presence. If, he argued, the sun can attract a grain of sand on the earth, millions of miles away, thus act- ing at a distance, cannot Christ's body act at a distance on the bread, thus enabling us to partake of the Saviour's flesh and blood, even though they are far from us? * For a certain section of the Lutheran church the formula of Concord has done what the Council of Trent did for the Catholics ; it has bound their thought in a rigid mould. The latest orthodox Lutheran the- ologian, while rejecting the words "consubstantiation," "impanation," and "subpanation," and while regarding the mode of divine operation as an inscrutable mystery, accepts both the real presence and the ubiquity theory 2 Mirbt, 437. 3 J. Abbadie: Chemical Change in the Eucharist, translated by J. W^. Hamersly. 1867. *W. E. H. Lecky: History of England in the iSth Century, 1878, ii. 571. I have searched Leibnitz's works for the passage, but in vain. THE LAST PHASE 215 of Christ's body. Jesus is present everywhere, he says, "in the unity and entirety of his theanthropic person, and especially present when and where he wills to be." For the author the sacred food itself has the same old magic and the Supper is called "a means of applying redemption." ^ But while these views still obtain in the conserva- tive Lutheran circles, especially in America, there are branches of the same church, particularly In Germany, where the great Reformer's specific doctrines have fallen into what Grisar calls "automatic dissolution" (Selbstauflosung)." Many German theologians now feel that there was a contradiction between Luther's principles and many of the beliefs which he took over from the old church. Thus his appeal to the private judgment annihilates his later appeal to authority; his principle of justification by faith really destroys the sacramental theory which, illogically, he attempted to impose on his followers.'' If he denied transubstanti- ation he kept a miracle equally irrational; and he sup- ported his theory of the real presence with hypotheses which a modern theologian calls "Christological mon- strosities." * In fine, the advanced German Christian thought is now in favor of giving up the sacraments entirely, in the first place as repugnant to the teachings of science, and secondly as contradicting the funda- mental ideas of Protestantism, "the Word," and faith.^ Whereas in many Protestant sects the dogma of the real presence has been silently abandoned, in a few it 5 Valentine, ii, 335, 344, 3s6-f. 8 Grisar, ii, ^89 ft. ^ Harnack, iii, 868. ^Loofs, p. 920. 9 R. G. G.. i. 7%. 2i6 CHRISTIAN THEOPHAGY has been either officially repudiated or dropped from the creeds. The Socinians, in the Racovian Catechism of 1609, expressely rejected the Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvlnistic doctrines of the eucharist, and called the rite merely symbolic and memorial. The Quakers, in order to put the whole emphasis on faith, abolished the rite altogether. When Ralph Waldo Emerson proposed to do the same, on the ground that the ma- terial act was now a positive hindrance to piety, he found the Unitarians unable to follow him, and there- fore gave up the ministry.^^ But though they still celebrate the Supper, the Unitarians demand no article of faith on this or any other subject from their adher- ents, and other churches, such as the Baptists and Congregationalists,^^ seem to be completely silent on the question of the real presence, which is doubtless answered in the negative by nearly all of their mem- bers.^* The Christian Scientists, under the influence of the New England transcendalists, use no bread and wine In their communion, but teach: "Our bread is truth. Our cup Is the cross." ""^ In churches of the Anglican communion there is a large body of evangelical members who interpret the eucharist symbolically. Though this view still has some support among the theologians,^^ the trend of ^"Harnack: Dogmengeschichte, iii, 756 f. 11 £. R. E., V, 564. Confession of the Friends, 1675, Schaff: Creeds, iii, 797. ^2R. y/. Emerson: The Lord's Supper. A Sermon before the Second Church of Boston, September Q, 1832. ^3 A very short Congregational Creed, with no statement on this subject, was adopted about 1912. ^*The real presence is not mentioned in the New Hampshire Bap- tist Confession of 1833; SchaflF: Creeds, iii, 747. ^^^S. Mathews and S. B. Smith: Dictionary of Religion and Ethics, 1921, p. 89. 15 G. Hodges: Everman's Religion, i8i2, p. 247, writes: "The THE LAST PHASE 217 prelatical opinion is now strongly in the direction of sacramentalism and a "high" doctrine of the eucharTst or "mass." The Tractarian Movement of the Nine- teenth century started this re-action which, in so far as it concerned the eucharist was represented by a sermon by Edward Bouverie Pusey, on "The Presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist," preached in 1853. In order to defend his thesis of "a real, objective pres- ence," he published two other works, which had a con- siderable vogue and doubtless brought the church of England back to her sixteenth-century position.^^ In- deed, the late Frederic Temple, Archbishop of Canter- bury, in a Charge to his Clergy, delivered in 1898, stated that the Anglican theory of the real presence was hard to distinguish from the Lutheran doctrine of consubstantiation. This statement, according to Hens- ley Henson, now Bishop of Hereford, was received by the Anglican "Catholics," "in disgust of the sug- gestion that they stood In the matter of eucharistic doctrine with the protagonist of Protestantism." " So far has the high church doctrine gone that an episcopal clergyman recently told me that he thought no "Zwinglian" ought to be allowed to communicate in his church. The same priest elevated the "host," communicated alone, and spoke of "the sacrifice of the mass." More extraordinary than the re-action of the conservatives is the fact that the same sacramentalism has received some support In liberal quarters. Mrs. Humphrey Ward's novel, Richard Meynel, portrays sentence ('this is my body') is but a symbol, and for us a remote and difficult symbol, of participation and intimacy." 18 The Doctrine of the Real Presence, 1855. The Real Presence . . . the Doctrine of the Church of England, 1857. 17 J. C. Lambert, 277, note i. 21 8 CHRISTIAN THEOPHAGY a priest who combines high liturgical practices with ad- vanced liberal views. The best defense of this posi- tion that has come to my attention Is that given by Professor KIrsopp Lake.^* According to him the sac- raments should be taken not as assertions of historical truth, but as judgments of spiritual value. There are some men, he says, who go through life seeing nothing but the happenings; there are others who see through the events a deep inner meaning. The sacraments, it is said, express the great truths of the inner life in outward form. The error in this view, as Professor Lake pointed out, lies in the limitation of such values to a few things ; any experience In life might have such a value. More and more, the rationalist would add, men are finding the needs of their inner life supplied, and their value-judgments given, in poetry, in art, and in science, and less and less in the repetition of outworn survivals from a primeval state. ^8 In a lecture delivered' before the Harvard Divinity Summer School on Aug. 23, 1921. INDEX ABBADIE, J., 314 Abercius, 34 , , Actaeon, 36 Affelmann, J., 199 f Agape, 47 f, 59 f Agricola, J., 160 Ailly, Peter d', 96, 99, loi, 107 Aino, 28 Albert, Duke of Prussia, 170 Alcuin, 89 Aleander, 11 1 Alien W., 207 Ambrose, 80 f, 89, m Amsdorf, Nicliolas von, 146 Anabaptists, 164 Anglican Church, 216 f Apocalypse, 44, 59 Apostolic Church Order, 76 Apuleius, 4i( Aquinas, 84, 101, 107, 183 Arabs, religion of, 26 Aricia, 35 Aristotle, 79, loi f Armenia, 47 - . Asklepios, 41 Athens, 37 Attis, 33, 42, 47, 73 Augsburg, Diet of (1530), ri6, 168 f; Confession, 116 f, izi, 161 f, 185 £F; Interim, 186. Augustine, 81 f, 106 f, 156, 168 Australian religion, 27 Aztecs, 28 f Bacon, B. W., 69 Bacon, F., 86 Baden, Conference at, 153 Baptism, 34 Baptists, 21 6 Barnes, R., 202 Baronius, 89 Basle, Council of, 98 ; Conference at, 176 Baur, F. C, 58 Bede, 89 Beham, B., 129 Beham, S., 129 Bell, H., 206 f Berengar, 82 f Bern Disputation, 197 Bible, 84; exegesis of, 49, 53 Biel, G., 96 Billican, T., 129 f Blaurer, A., 169, 171, 175, 199 Blood, religious ideas about, 41 BohemiaipBrethren, 97 f, loi, 126, 177 Book of Common Prayer, 209 Bousset, W., 54 Boyneburg, 204 Brahmans, 29 Brenz, J., 147, 159 Brittany, 76, 94 Bucer, M., 167 fl; and Carlstadt, 128, 167; at Marburg, 159, 168; and Luther, 167 ff; and Oecol- ampadius, 169; and Melanch- thon, 169, 171, 179; tries to compromise, 173 ; reforms Col- ogne, 179 f; and Calvin, 191; in England, 205 Bugenhagen, J., 145 f, 164,. 196, Bullinger, H., 177, 179, 199, 205 Burn, 28 Caesarius of Heisterbach, 90 Cajetan, Cardinal, 118, 147 f Calvin, J., 190 ff; on Paul, 51; a| Ratisbon, 121 ; and Westphal, 186; and Melanchthon, 187, 192 ff ; tries to take middle position, 191 ff; and Bucer, 191; and Luther, 192 ff; and Zwingli, 190 ff; against Lutherans, 199; influence in England, 205 Campeggio, ii8 Canon Law, 84 Capito, W. F., 128, 131, 133, 144, 162, 176 Cams, P., 9 220 INDEX Carlstadt, A., controversy with Luther, 103, 113, 126 ff, 180; reforms Wittenberg, 122 ff ; de- , nies real presence, 126 ff; re- cants, 133; and Zwingli, 141 f Cheremiss, 27 Chios, 39 Christian, Prince of Norway, 164 Christianity, and Mithraism, 33 ; and Orphism, 40 f ; and the Mystaris, 43 ff, 51 ; early charges against, 55 ; Jewish, 58 ff Christopher, St., 73 Chrysostora, 51, 75, 80, 160 Cicero, 42 Clement of Alexandria, 72 f, 79 Clement of Rome, 56, 71 Cochlaeus, J., in f, ii6 Cologne, Synod of, 89 f ; Refor- mation of 179 f Congregationalists, 216 Consensus Tigurinus, 198 f Consubstantiation, 8, 95 ff, 99, 107, 207, 214 f Contarini, 121 Conybeare, F. C, 51, 56 Corpus Christi, Feast of, 37, 85 f, 146 Coverdale, M., 205 Crete, 36, 38 Cumont, F., 9 Cup, in communion, given to or withdrawn from the laity, 85 ff, 99; 108, in ff, 123 ff Cyprian, 44, 73 f, 156, 160 Cyril of Jerusalem, 73, 75, 80, 160 Damascus, 52, 59 Dante, 93 Delfino, 187 Delphi, 37 f Demeter, 37 Denmark, Frederic I., King of, 164 Didache, 60, 66 Didascalia, 74 Dionysus, 36 ff Docetae, 64 Durand, 95 ECK, J., Ii6f, 130, 147 Egypt, 31 f Eleusinian Mysteries, 37 Emerson, R. W., ai6 Emser, J., 116, 145 Ephesus, 46, 48, 59, 64 ff ETTiowtosi 45 f) '54 Erasmus, 91, 137 f, 148 ff Essenes, 48 Eucharist, history of the doctrine of, 8, passim Eugenius IV, Pope, 90 Euripides, 38 ff Eusebius of Caesarea, 74 Farel, W., 196 f Fasting, 28 First-fruits, 27 ff Fish, symbol of Christ, 33 f, 63 Fisher, J., 148 Flensburg, Disputation at, 164 Formula of Concord, 188 f Fox, E., 203 Frazer, Sir J. .G., 27 ff Frederic, Elector of Saxony, 123 ff Gardner, P., 51, 70 Geneva, 197 f Gerbel, N., 128, 131, 144, 153 Glaber, R., 91 , Gnostics, 44, 70, 79 God, primitive ideas of, 24 f Grail, 93 f Greek Catholic Church, ^3 Greek religion, 35 ff Gregory I the Great, Pope, 82 Gregory VII, Pope, 91 Gregory of Nyssa, 80, 90 Grisar, H., 215 Hagenau, Cokference at, 177 f Hamlet, 35 Haner, J., 154 ' Hansk, M.,98 Harnack, A. von, 85 f, 89, 100, 200, 212 Heath, N., 203 Hebrews, Epistle to the, 60 f, 139 Hedio, C, 153, 156, 159 Hegge, J., 164 Henry IV, Emperor, 87 Henry VII, Emperor, 92 INDEX 221 Henry VIII, King of England, I lo f , 202 ff Henson, H. H., 217 Hermas, Shepherd of, 60 Hermetic Literature, 57 Hetzer, L., 146 Hilarius, 156, 160 Hindoos, 29 f Hippolytus, 36 Hoen, see Honius Hoensbroech, Count, 30 f Hoffman, M., 164 Holtzmann, O., 60 Honius, C, 96, 103 n., 126, 141 Hooker, J., 206 Hooper, J., 205 Horn; 206 Horus, 54 Huguenots, 88 Huss, J., 97 Ignatius, 71 Incas, 28 Indians (American), 27 Innocent III, Pope, 87 Inquisition, 31 Irenaeus, 73, 79, 156, i6o Isis, 32, 41, 54 Italian Protestants, 179, 201 James, the Apostle, 62 James, epistle of, 45, 59 Jerome, 8i Jerusalem, 58 f Jesus, 7 f, 43 f, 92 Jewish religion, 44 f, 48 Jews believed to blaspheme host, 93 John the Apostle, 62 John the Baptist's Disciples, 46, 48, 59, 64 ff John, Gospel and Epistles of, 62 ff Jonas, J.j 116, 123 f, 178, 187 Jud, L., 141, 150, 170 Jude, Epistle of, 45, 48, 59 Jupiter, 34 Justin Martyr, 33, 71 f Karg, 188 Keller, M., 129 Knox, J., 210 f Krautwald, V., 165 Lake, K., 53, 218 Lateran Council, Fourth, 55, 83 f Leibnitz, G. W., 214 Licinius of Tours, 77 Lindsay, T. M., 181 Lithuania, 27 Loisy, A., 43, 6i Lombard, P., 146 Loofs, F., 189 Lucas von Prag, 103 n Lucian, 34 Luke, writings of, 45, 59, 61 ff, 76 Luther, M., 99-185; exegesis of, 26 n ; growing conservatism, 70 ; on etymology of mass, 89 ; op- poses Catholics, 99-121 ; contro- versy with Carlstadt, 126-136; does not appeal to reason, 99 f; his agonies, 104 ; faith, 106 ; controversy with Zwingli, 142 ff, 176 f; at Marburg, 158 ff; and Schwenckfeld, 165 f; and Bucer, 167 ff; Short Confession, 180; and Melanchthon, 183 ff; influ- ence in England, 202 ff Magic, 85, 89 ff Malas, 30 Malory, Sir T., 92 Mana, 24 f Marburg, Colloquy of, 158 ff, 168 Marcourt, A. de, 197 Margaret, Queen of Navarre, 201 Mark, Gospel of, 58, 61 ff Martyr, P., 186 Mary, images of, eaten, 30 f Mass, 23 ; sacrifice of, 23, 56 ff. 61, 99 ff, 108 ff, 120, 122, 138 f, 208; the word, 89, 139; as a good work, 99 €; private, 115 ff, 123 ff Matthew, Gospel of, 63 Maulbron, Debate at, 188 McGiffert, A. C, 195, 200 Melaine of Rennes, 77 Melanchthon, 113, 183 ff; on ety- mology of mass, 89 ; prefers Catholics to Zwinglians, 116, i84f; and Augsburg Confes- sion, 121 ; reforms Wittenberg, 222 INDEX -laaff, 183; and Carlstadt, 131; and Oecolampadius, 138, 171 f, 185; at Marburg, 1588; and Bucer, 169, 171 ; and Wittenberg Concord, 175; reforms Cologne, 179; and Luther, 181, 1838; on artolatry, 187; influence in England, 303 Milton, J., 207 Mithraism, 32 f, 72 Monophysite Church, 47 Moore, i. C, 212 Morone, 178 Munzer, T., 132 Murner, T., 109 Murray, Gilbert, 35, 39 Myconius, F., 204 Mystery Religions, 7, 31 ff, 366^, 51. 56 Neobulus, 173 Nigeria, 27 Nilus, 26 Nimes, 76 OcKAM, William of, 95 Odes of Solomon, 46, 64, 67 Oecolampadius, J., 137-163; and Luther, 131, 1428, 180; char- acter, 138; reforms, ' 141 ; and Carlstadt, 142; rejects real presence, 146 ff ; at Marburg. 159 ff; and Schwenckfeld, 165; and Bucer, 169; and Melanch- thon, 171 f, 185 Old Catholics, 213 f Orestes, 35 Origen, 46 Orphism, 36, 39 f Osiander, 51, 159 Osiris, 32, 54 Paraclesus, 151 Parsimonius, J., 199 Paul, the Apostle, originates the Eucharist, 7, 43 ff, 78 f ; on the first-fruits, 28 ; First Epistle to the Corinthians, 48 f; his vis- ions, 49 ff ; knew the Mysteries, 51 ff; 56 f; contests with the Jewish Christians, 58 ff; Epistle to the Collosians, 61 Paulicians, 74 Peebles, R. J., 77 n -Pellican, C, 151 Pentz, G., 129 Persia, 32 Peter, the Apostle, 58 Peter, Epistles of, 45, 47, 59 Philip the Evangelist, 76 Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, 15S, 171 Philo, 45, 67 f Phrygia, 33 Pico deila Mirandola, 96 Pirckheimer, W., 145, 149 f, 154 Pirke Aboth, 49 f Plato, 37 Pliny, 37, 72 Pluramer, A., .52 Plutarch, 38 Prophery, 31 Protestantism, 200 Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions, 57 Pusey, E. B., 217 "Q," A SOURCE OF THE GoSPELS OF Matthew and Luke, 8., 44 ff, 59 Quakers, 216 Radbert, 82 f, 90 Raphael Sanzio, 92 Ratisbon, Colloquy of, 121 Ratramnus, 82 f Real Presence, passim, 7; Paul, 55 f; Luther, 998; Carlstadt, 126 ff Reformation, 7 f, 102, 212 Reinach, S., 43 n., 49 n Reitzenstein, Ri, 51, 53 f Religion, primitive, 22 ff Reuchlinj 89 Rhegius, U., 129, i73 Robertson, A., 52 Rome, 33 ff Sacrament, 37, 40 f, 72 Sallustius, 47 Savonarola, G., -90 Schenck, 199 Schmalkaldic Articles, 119 Schmidt, C, 44 INDEX 223 Schnepf, 171 Schweitzer, A., 62 Schwenckfeld, C. von, 134, 164 ff, 180, 193 Scotus, Duns, 105, 154 Sex and religion, 25 f Siena, 30 Smith, William Benjamin, 52 Smith, William Robertson, 26 Smith, Winifred, 30 n Smythe, R., 205 Socinians, 216 Soden, H. Freiherr von, 63 Sparta, 31 Spengler, L., 129 Spenser, E., 206 Stephen of Bourbon, 90 Strauss, J., 146 Stubner, M. T., 183 Sturm, J., 158 Sweden, 27 Taboo,' 24 Taylor, J., 209 f Temple, F., 217 Tenedos, 39 Tertullian, 33, 48, 59, 63, 75, 194 Testaments of the Twelve Patri- archs, 57 Theophylact, 160 Thomas, Acts of, 70 f, 74 Thronaki, 74 Totemism, 25 if Tractarian Movement, 217 Transubstantiation, 8, 78 ff ; re- jected by Wyclif, 97; rejected by Luther, 106 f; rejected by Zwingli, 139; rejected by the English Reformers, 209 Trent, Council of, 43 n, 44 n, 85 ff, 186 f Troeltsch, E., 212 Tunstall, C, 204 Turner^ W., 206 Tyndale, W., 204 Ulrich, Duke of Wurttemberg, Unitarians^ 216 Valangin, 197 Valentine, M., 214 f Veddas, 30 Waldenses, 88 Ward, Mrs. H., 217 f Watt, J., 193 Wessel, J., 96 Westminster, Synod of, 2io Westphal, J., 186 Wittenberg Concord, 174 f Wolferinus, S., 178 Women in the early church, 75 ff Wrede, W., 51 Wiirttemberg Concord, 171 Wyclif, 45 f, 96 f, 107 Yorkshire, 27 Zadokites, 52 Zeus, 37 f Zurich, 170, 182 Zwilling, G., 122 f Zwingli, Ulrich, 137-163 ; on ety- mology of mass, 89 ; and Luther, 131, 170, 176 f, 180; character, 137; reforms, 138 ff; rejects real presence, 141 ff ; and Carl- stadt, 141 f ; at Marburg, 150 ff, 185; and Schwenckfeld, 166; and Bucer, 170; and Calvin, 190 ff Zwingli ans, 116 PHASED DETERfORATION