THE AMERICAN PUBLIC LIBRARY iiiii iillilliiiiilliiliiiy'. z. 13 7 f BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrg HI. Sage 1S91 ^.2...^..-y Y./7.. /r/.vr/''A:.. 6896-1 Date Due _?EP_1_0 Yi Ml. ^3*- vt ^ -DLC in JUL £2,t»y*0 2670 .874°""" ""'""-slty Library ^MiSiite.'ia.i'.yblic librar oiin 3 1924 031 036 118 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031036118 THE AMERICAN PUBLIC LIBRARY THE AMERICAN PUBLIC LIBRARY BY ARTHUR E. BOSTWIck, Ph.D. LIBEAEIAN ST. LOUIS PUBLIC LIBEAEY; LATE LIBEAEIAN NEW YOEK FEEE CIECULATING LIBEAEY AND BROOKLYN PUBLIC LIBEAEY, AND CHIEF OF THE CIECULATION DEPAETMENT NEW YOEK PUBLIC LIBEAEY; PEESIDENT AMEEI- CAN LIBEAEY ASSOCIATION, 1907-1908 ILLUSTRATED M; ^ NEW YORK AND LONDON D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - 1910 COPVKIGHT, 1910, BT D. APPLETON AND COMPANY PREFACE This book is intended for the general reader, espe- cially for him who is unfamiliar with the general devel- opment of the public library in this country; for the librarian, who will see in it little that is new, but pos- sibly a grouping of facts and a mode of treatment that may be suggestive, or at least interesting ; for the young library assistant, to whom it may be of help in assimi- lating the unfamiliar facts and methods that are daily thrust upon her ; and for the student in library school or training class, who will find in it not an exhaustive treatise on library economy, but rather a bird's-eye view of the subject. Facts, methods, and figures have not been avoided, but there has been no attempt to make them complete; rather has it been sought to present them as accessories to a readable account of the general aims and tendencies of American library work. It is hoped in particular that the book may make critics of our public libraries, at home and abroad, realize what these institutions are trying to do, and how far they have succeeded in doing it. CONTENTS CHAPTER I THE MODERN LIBRARY IDEA PAGES American ideas — Criticism of them by British librarians — Some comparisons with trade . .... 1-4 CHAPTER II LIBRARY GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED ST.ATES Types of libraries — Libraries of long ago — History of modern featm'es .... . . 5-18 CHAPTER III THE LIBRARY AND THE STATE Meaning of "PubUc" Library — Library and City — Boards of Trustees — ^Funds — Propriety of public support — Library commissions — ^Federal relations — Library postage — The Library and the law . ... 19-33 CHAPTER IV THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC Regulations — Applications — Registration — Guarantors — Actual users — Open shelves — Restriction of number of books drawn — Charging systems — Reserve system — Fines — Pay -duplicates — Foreign books — Negroes — Disinfec- tion of books — Hours — Loan desk — Floor duty 34-55 vii CONTENTS CHAPTER V READING AND REFERENCE ROOMS PAGES What is "reference"? — Reference questions — Compilation — Investigation — Reading-room use — Newspaper rooms — Maps — Prints — Manuscripts — Documents — Historical and genealogical material — Music — Avoidance of duplication ^Inter-library loans . . 56-75 CHAPTER VI THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD History of children's work — Types of work in children's rooms — Guidance of reading — Picture bulletins — Exhibitions — Story hours — Objections — -Discipline — Pledges and "leagues" . . 76-94 CHAPTER VII THE LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL School libraries — School work in libraries — Model school col- lections — Sunday schools — Text-books — Selective educa- tion ... 95-107 CHAPTER VIII TRAVELING LIBRARIES Two types — Statistics — Home libraries — Rural libraries . 108-116 CHAPTER IX THE LIBRARY FOR THE BUSINESS MAN AND THE MECHANIC Classes of reading — Special libraries — Technology collec- tions . . 117-124 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER X THE SELECTION OF BOOKS PAGES Desires and needs of the community — Fiction — Percentages — Lists — Censorship — Book appropriations ^ Duplicates and replacements .... . . 125-136 CHAPTER XI THE PURCHASE OF BOOKS • Book ordering — Checking of bills — Second-hand and subscrip- tion books — Sets — Out-of-print books — Editions — Prices and discounts — Importation — Copyright . 137-151 CHAPTER XII CLASSIFICATION Bases — Schemes — Notations — Chief systems; decimal, ex- pansive — Author marks — Shelf location . . 152-167 CHAPTER XIII CATALOGUING Types — Accession records — Shelf lists — Inventories — Diction- ary catalogue — Subject headings — Analyticals — ^Alphabet- ization — Rules — Annotations — Card catalogues — ^The sheaf catalogue — Loose leaves — Printed catalogues — Ready- made cards . . 168-191 CHAPTER XIV THE LIBRAEY STAFF Division of duties — Hours — Holidays — Vacations — Salaries — Women as assistants — ^Promotions and grades — Exami- nations — Staff rooms — Staff meetings — Codes of rules — Staff newspapers . . ... 193-205 ix CONTENTS CHAPTER XV LIBRARY PHILANTHROPY PAGES Gifts and growth — Unwise donations — Carnegie gifts — Con- tinued need of donations ... . . 206-214 CHAPTER XVI THE LIBRARY AS A PRODUCER Publications of libraries — Bulletins, handbooks, reports . 215-219 CHAPTER XVII BINDING AND REPAIRING Time as an element of cost — Strong initial binding — Points of weakness — Materials — Rebinding — Replacement — Dis- carding — Mending .... ... 220-232 CHAPTER XVIII BRANCHES AND STATIONS Branches — Delivery stations — Deposit stations — Degrees of centralization — Some comparisons — Distribution of branch- es over territory — Local centers — Central registration — Union catalogues — Interbranch loans .... 233-252 CHAPTER XIX STATISTICS, REPORTS, ETC. Statistics a form of accounts — ^Financial, library, and prop- erty statistics^-Comparability of data — Questionnaires — Reports — Use of data 253-269 CHAPTER XX LIBRARY BUILDINGS Functions of the architect — Competitions — Plans and speci- fications — Bids — Sites — Rooms and departments — Stacks CONTENTS PAOE8 — Special collections — Open shelf — "Butterfly'' type — Assembly rooms — Carriers — Janitor's quarters — " Roof gardens " — Windows — Fireproofing — Floors — Clean- ing — Furniture — Charging desks — Shelving — Heating —Lighting 270-302 CHAPTER XXI THE LIBRARY AS A MUSEUM Cooperation — ^Exhibitions — Prints — Mural decoration . 303-315 CHAPTER XXII LIBRARIES FOR THE BLIND Styles of tjrpe — Comparisons — Cost — Publishers — Type- writers — Shelving — Circulation by mail . . . 316-329 CHAPTER XXIII TRAINING FOR LIBRARIANSHIP Is it a profession? — Library schools, summer schools and training classes — Conditions of employment — Selective functions of training 330-341 CHAPTER XXIV ORGANIZATIONS OF LIBRARIANS National, state, and local bodies— The A. L. A.— The A. L. I. 342-355 APPENDIX List of American Public Libraries circulating over 100,000 yearly — Places and attendance of A. L. A. conferences — State Library Commissions — State Library Associations — Library clubs — Library schools — Some books and articles on American public libraries and their work (classified) 359-376 INDEX 379-394 xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FuLir-PAGE Illustrations facino PAGK Children's reading room, Flatbush Branch, Brooklyn Public Library . 12 Charging desk, children's department, Seward Park Branch, New York Public Library . . . 12 The story hour, Webster Branch, New York Public Library 88 TraveUng library in a farmer's home in Wisconsin . . 114 Rural free delivery of books from the Washington County Li- brary, Hagerstown, Md. ... 114 Bates Hall (reading room), Boston Public Library 200 Reading room, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C 200 Free access shelves in branch of New York Public LilJrary 276 The stack room, Ottendorfer Branch, New York Public Library 276 Old closed-shelf system, formerly used in Branches of the New York Public Library .292 Open-shelf system, with delivery desk looking toward general reading and reference rooms. East Orange (N.J.) Library 292 Roof reading room, St. Gabriel's Park Branch, New York Public Library, showing system of lighting . 300 First floor, St. Gabriel's Park Branch, showing system of light- ing . . . 300 Books for the blind. New York Public Library 324 Illustrations in Text 35 AppUcation for privilege of drawing books. New York Public Library . ... - . Application for privilege of drawing books, St. Louis Public Library 36 Borrower's card. New York Public Library 44 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAOB Borrower's card used in St. Louis Public Library . 45 Special borrower's card, New York Public Library ... 47 Triplicate book-order slip used in the New York Public Li- brary .139 Shelf card and shelt-hst sheets . 172 Catalogiie card, typewritten . . 186 Catalogue card, written . . 187 Catalogue card, printed . . 188 Time sheet ... 194 Distribution of pubUc library branches in Manhattan and the Bronx . . . 235 Union shelf-list cards ... . 249 Ground plan of main floor. East Liberty Branch, Carnegie Li- brary of Pittsburgh, Pa. 279 Ground plan of basement floor, Carroll Park Branch, Brooklyn Pubhc Library, New York . . 280 First-floor plan of Flatbush Branch, Brooklyn Public Library, New York . 281 First-floor plan Marshalltown, Iowa, Library . . 282 Ground plan of main floor. Port Richmond Branch, New York PubUc Library, Staten Island . 283 Position of electric-light outlets in St. Gabriel's Park Branch, New York Public Library . . 298 Tactile print alphabets for the bUnd . . 320 THE AMERICAN PUBLIC LIBRARY OHAPTEK I THE MODERN LIBRARY IDEA )" I'OGETHEB with the recent great multiplication of popular libraries in the United States — partly as a cause of it; partly, too, as a result of it — ^has arisen a new conception of the library's aims and duties. As nearly as it is possible to express this in a few words, it may be described by saying that the library is now re- quired to be an active, not merely a passive, force; it not only guards and preserves its books, but it makes them accessible to those who want them and it tries to see that those who need them realize that need and act accordingly. The oldest libraries were storehouses, first and foremost ; as their privileges were extended to larger numbers of persons, they tried more and more to aid their readers ; they classified their books, arranged them systematically, catalogued them. But not until very re- cent years did the library begin to conceive of its duties as extending to the entire community, instead of being limited to those who voluntarily entered its doors. The modern public library believes that it should find a reader for every book on its shelves and provide a book for every reader in its community, and that, it should in all cases bring book and reader together. I This is the 1 "^ THE MODERN LIBRARY IDEA meaning of the great multiplication of facilities in the modern library — the lending of books for home use, free access to shelves, cheerful and homelike library build- ings, rooms for children, cooperation with schools, inter- library loans, longer hours of opening, more useful cata- logues and lists, the extension of branch-library systems and of traveling and home libraries, coordination of work through lectures and exhibits — the thousand and one activities that distinguish the modern library from its more passive predecessor. This broadening of the library idea and the conse- quent ramification of the functions of the library in so many different directions has not taken place without opposition, nor is it accepted to-day, even by all libra- rians. It has found its greatest exemplification in the United States because we are little hampered by tradi- tion and^anxious to try experiments. It might have been expected that some of the experiments would be rash or even grotesque. Scarcely a line of library extension has not been followed too far or given one or another odd twist by some one, but in the main the growth has been healthy and has followed directions of proved advan- tage to the public. In every one of these directions ob- jectors have arisen to reprove or decry; some of the greatest steps in advance, like that of open access to shelves, were at the outset advocated by a small minor- ity. The new ideas have had to win their way, but dem- onstrated usefulness has quickly broken down opposition and has led to general adoption. Above all, the modern library ideas owe their success to the very fact that their advocates have been active men; those who dislike them are passive, but passive opposition, while it may keep one or two libraries con- 2 servative or " old-fashioned " here and there, has no leaven in it. Possibly the " old-fashioned librarian " has not made himself heard and felt suificiently; there can be no sane progress without steady and reasoned op- position, and our library ideas have perhaps run a little wild occasionally. Of late the most violent opposition to the modern library idea has been on the part of some members of the profession in England, who have con- demned with heat what they characterize as American library ' ' tomfoolery ' ' and extravagance. Their charges appear, on analysis, to be based on the assumption that it is not the business of the library to deal with that part of the community that does not voluntarily come to it. This is the old library idea pure and simple ; it is per- fectly clear-cut and understandable, perhaps more so than the new idea. An extension, like the overflow of a river, is often somewhat irregular and undefined at its boundaries. The clearer and more compact theory of library function naturally appeals to our British cousins. But the modern, or perhaps they would prefer to say the American, library idea is simply tantamount to a confession that the library, as a distributor, must obey the laws that all distributors must obey, if they are to suc- ceed, in the largest sense. Other distributors search out these laws and comply with them, because they are pecuniarily interested; the librarian, having no direct pecuniary interest in increased output, naturally real- izes his position a little later; yet he must ultimately realize it and act upon it. £Now the successful distributor through trade is pre- cisely he who does not sit down and wait for customers. He takes the whole community as a group of possible clients ; he tries to suit the tastes of each and to create a 3 3 THE MODERN LIBRARY IDEA demand for his goods where it does not exist. The libra- rian must do likewise if he desires to distribute his goods as widely and as effectively as possible, and if he believes in the modern library idea, he does so desire. Such a comparison as this, of the work of a library with ordinary trade, is highly distasteful to many per- sons, but this is a case where the children of this world are wiser in their generation than the children of light. The comparison of library work with trade holds, of course, only in so far as both are systems of distribu- tion. The laws of hydraulics, which govern the distribu- tion of a liquid through pipes, hold for a poisonous fluid as well as a nutritious one ; similarly, the laws of distri- bution of a collection of objects to a group of persons hold, whether those objects be books or cakes of soap, whether the distributors be paid salaries by the public or receive money a few cents at a time from individual purchasers. J In the following pages an attempt is made to describe faithfully, in some detail, the work of American libra- ries; and as the modern library idea is so largely the American idea, the reader may judge whether recent extensions of the function of the public library are or are not to the public advantage. CHAPTER II LIBRARY GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES The American public library, as at present consti- tuted, is the outgrowth of an essentially modem move- ment ; but this had its earlier beginnings and manifesta- tions. In Prof. Herbert B. Adams's report on " Public Libraries and Popular Education," prepared for the Regents of the New York State University (Albany, 1900), the author specifies nineteen " original library types," of which possibly the following may be consid- ered to embody in some respects one or more functions of the modern public library : (1) The church or parish libraries established in many of the colonies, especially in the South, by Rev. Dr. Thomas Bray, founder and secretary of the Society for the Propagation of the Oospel, early in the eighteenth century. To Maryland alone Dr. Bray sent thirty par- ish libraries, embracing 2,545 books. Dr. Bray accepted in 1696 an appointment from the Bishop of London as commissary of ecclesiastical affairs in Maryland on the express condition that he should be aided in the pro- vision of these parochial libraries for his missionaries, and in a pamphlet issued in London in 1697 he an- nounced his intention of extending his scheme " for the supply of all the English colonies in America there- with." In 1698 one of Dr. Bray's libraries was placed 5 LIBRARY GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT in New York for Trinity Parish. Although these libra- ries were primarily for the use of the clergy, they were open to the public, and seem to have antedated the town libraries of New England by more than a century. (2) Town libraries, of which the first is said to have been opened in Salisbury, Conn., in 1803. Similar to these, and in many cases much more flourishing, were school-district libraries, which are not to be confused with school libraries. The school district was selected as a smaller and more convenient unit than the town, and the sehoolhouse furnished a place to keep the books, which were, however, mostly for adults. School-district libra- ries were authorized by law in New York in 1835. (3) Subscription libraries. These are " public " in the sense that they are open to all on the same condi- tions, without discrimination. The cooperative or joint- stock type is represented by the Philadelphia Library Company, founded by Benjamin Franklin. The " Mer- cantile " type, represented by the libraries of that name in New York, Boston, and St. Louis, arose about 1820, originating in the desire to furnish good reading for the younger employees of business houses. In some of these libraries any person who can certify that he is employed on a salary is still charged a lower annual subscription than other borrowers. The American libraries accessible as means of liter- ary culture a century or more ago were, all told, as given by Horace E. Scudder in his monograph on " Public Li- braries a Hundred Years Ago," one in Philadelphia, two or three small ones in Pennsylvania, one in Charles- ton, one in New York, one in Newport, one in Provi- dence, one in Portland, one in Salem, one in Leominster, one in Hingham, and the " revolving library " of Kit- 6 LIBRARIES OF LONG AGO tery and York, Me., apparently so called because it was contained in a revolving case. There were also the col- lege libraries, which, as often at the present day, were used not only by officers and students, but also by the educated men of the community. The nearest approach in Revolutionary days to what we call a free public library was, according to Mr. Scudder, the Philadelphia Library, which, although, as we have seen, it was a joint- stock affair, gave large liberty of consultation to non- stockholders. It is estimated by Messrs. Warren and Clark, editors of the volume on " Public Libraries in the United States " issued by the United States Bureau of Education in 1876, that the number of books con- tained in all the " public " libraries of the country in the year 1800, including book clubs, social libraries, and so on, was not more than 80,000, or about one volume to seventy inhabitants. The editors elsewhere in the same report state their conclusions that between 1775 and 1800 there were established in the United States 30 libra- ries, which at the time of writing numbered 242,171 vol- umes ; between 1800 and 1825, 179 libraries, with 2,056,- 113 volumes ; between 1825 and 1850, 551 libraries, with 2,807,218 volumes, and between 1850 and 1875, 22,040 libraries, with 5,481,068. These figures, it must be remem- bered, apply to these libraries or their successors in 1875 ; the writers could obtain no statistics on the num- ber of volumes in each group at the end of its own twenty-five-year period. The joint-stock form of library is in its simplest form a book club, as in the so-called ' ' social libraries ' ' of Massachusetts, the subscription being the purchase of a share or the payment of a life membership, sometimes with an annual subscription. In some cases, however, be- 7 LIBRARY GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT sides this payment for the privileges of the club or li- brary, an additional sum was required for each book withdrawn, and in numerous instances the use of the newer or more desirable books was " auctioned oflE " to the highest bidder. This method of distributing books was in vogue in Connecticut at least as late as 1880. TThe really progressive free public library belongs to thelatter half of the nineteenth century. Before that time the idea of a collection of books for the use of an entire community, supported by that community from the proceeds of a tax, can scarcely be said to have ex- isted. The town library at Salisbury, Conn., named above, was established in 1803 by a bequest, but the town is said to have supported it for some time, although it is not now in existence. Possibly the oldest existing library of the kind is the one at Peterborough, N. H., which has been maintained by public taxation ever since its founda- tion in 1833j7Legislative authorization for the establish- ment and maintenance of public libraries by municipali- ties dates from 1848, when the Massachusetts General Court, largely through the pioneer work of Josiah Quincy, empowered the city of Boston to raise $5,000 yearly to support a public library. Under this act the present Boston Public Library was opened in 1854. The act was extended to all towns in the state in 1851. Simi- lar laws were enacted by New Hampshire in 1849, by Maine in 1854, by Vermont in 1865, and by Ohio in 1867; and they are now quite common throughout the Union. |Really active progress along the lines of the " mod- ern library idea " dates from the formation of the American Library Association in 1876. The rise of this 8 OPEN ACCESS organization and its work are considered more in detail in another chapter. The chief' distinctively " modern " features of Amer- ican public libraries, besides public support, are freedom of access to shelves, work with children, cooperation with schools, branch libraries, traveling libraries, and so- called " library advertising " — the effort to make the library and its work known in the community and to induce people to use it. While all these features are treated in other chapters, it may be well to group here such facts as are known about their origin. Open access, of course, has always been common in small popular libraries, but was until recently consid- ered by most libraries impracticable for larger institu- tions. In the Pawtucket (R. I.) Free Library the shelves were open as early as 1879. In a discussion of free access in the Conference of Librarians held in Lon- don, October 2-5, 1877, at which many Americans were present, the majority of those who spoke, including Dr. Melvil Dewey, condemned it, although there were some notable exceptions, English and American. The first re- corded discussion on the subject in the American Li- brary Association was in 1888. Only partial free access was approved by most of those who spoke in favor of the open shelf, but there was a notable exception, Miss Mar- tha F. Nelson, who reported that the public library at Trenton, N. J., had for some time opened its shelves freely to the public. The leaven, in fact, had been work- ing for some time, although in a symposium arranged by The Library Journal in 1890 absolutely free access was neither reported nor advocated by any of the par- ticipants, who included some of the best-known Ameri- can librariansTlln an address before the Massachusetts -J 9 LIBRARY GROWTH AND DEVELOPjNIENT Library Club in 1891, however, Thomas Wentworth Hig- ginson lauded the open-access library as the " free library of the future," and mentioned as large libraries that were carrying it out successfully those of Cleveland and Columbus, Ohio, and the Boston AthensEum. The last named, however, was not a free library. The Cleve- land Public Library seems to have been the first in which open access was introduced on a really large scale. The plan was introduced at the beginning of April, 1890, and in the following year Mr. Brett re- ported at the San Francisco Conference of the American Library Association that it had been successful, and that his circulation had been increased by it. At the same conference Dr. Herbert Putnam, then librarian of the Minneapolis Public Library, described his experience with open access, which as yet was not granted to every- one at all times, and described it somewhat cautiously in his title as " a possible function of branch libraries." " Whatever the perplexities of detail, freedom of ac- cess," he said in conclusion, " cannot long be refused." At the Lake Placid Conference of 1894 Dr. Steiner, of Baltimore, presented the results of an investigation in which 135 libraries in English-speaking communities had been interrogated and 105 had responded. He re- ported that nearly all libraries granted free access to a few reference books and many to nearly all such books. Most libraries restricted access to certain classes of books and some to certain hours. Of the libraries that allowed access to the circulating books, " the general verdict is against access to fiction and juvenile books." Six libra- ries that had tried free access reported abandonment, and Cleveland was the only large library reporting ' ' un- restricted access of all persons, to all books, at all 10 CHILDREN'S ROOMS times " — in other words, free access as at present under- stood. From this time forward, however, the open-shelf system rapidly gained in adherents. The opening in 1895 of the Free Library of Philadelphia, in which ac- cess was from the outset entirely free, gave it great im- petus. In regard to the next feature that has been named as distinctively modern, namely, work with children, its recent character may be seen from the fact that the voluminous Government report on ' ' Public Libraries in the United States," issued in 1876, has in its index of thirteen closely printed double-column pages not a single entry under " child " or " children." The index to The Library Journal for 1876-97, containing 130 pages, has 38 such entries, but only 22 are previous to 1897, and none at all previous to 1887. A children's library was established in New York City in 1885 at the initiative of Miss Emily S. Hana- way, principal of the primary department of Grammar School No. 28. In a paper read in 1887 at the Columbia Library School Miss Hanaway says that the idea came to her in the summer of 1885 during a meeting of the National Association of Teachers. " A thought," she writes, "as if some one had leaned over my shoulder and suggested it, came suddenly into my mind : ' Why not give the children reading rooms? ' " She asked Prof. E. E. White if the plan were feasible, and he re- plied, "Yes; but it is gigantic." Nevertheless, the library was started in the autumn, with a few hundred books, at 243 Ninth Avenue, and after being closed for the summer of 1886, was reopened in February, 1887, at 436 West Twenty-fifth Street. Thence it was removed temporarily to Columbia College, and in April, 1888, to 11 LIBRARY GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT the third floor of the George Bruce Library, then a new branch of the New York Free Circulating system, whose children's room it thus practically became. In the fol- lowing December, however, the trustees asked it to va- cate, on the ground that the children created a disturb- ance by passing through the two lower floors to reach the third. This is specially interesting because at pres- ent nearly all the children's rooms of the New York Public Library, having each a circulation of 500 to 800 daily, are on upper floors, and the children who use them pass through part of the lower floor to reach the stairs. The children's library was then removed to the third floor of 1554 Broadway, and the last public record of its activities was an appeal for aid. But nearly two years earlier, and but a short time after its inception, in the autumn of 1886, a separate library for children was opened as a branch of the Aguilar Free Library at 624 Fifth Street, New York City, and this maintained its existence for years, being finally continued as the chil- dren's room of the Avenue C Branch (now the Tomp- kins Square Branch of the New York Public Library). In a paper by Miss Mary W. Plummer {Library Jour- nal, November, 1897) the separation of children from the adult users of a library by means of a room of their own is stated to have originated with the Brookline Pub- lic Library, which opened its children's reading room in 1890; yet this is antedated by several years, as noted above, by the children's library on the third floor of the Bruce Branch, in New York. A list of libraries giving special attention to chil- dren's needs was published by Dr. Melvil Dewey in Public Libraries (June, 1896). From this it appears that at that date separate rooms for children had been 12 Cheldren's Reading R'>oii, Flatbush Branch, Bbooki,tn Plbuc LiBBAHT. Charging Desk, Chiij)ben's Department, Sewakd Park Branch, Xew York Public T.tbrabt. CHILDREN'S ROOMS opened and were being maintained by the Cambridge, Boston, and Brookline public libraries, and substitutes for such rooms, such as corners, alcoves, or tables, by the Buffalo, Cleveland, Lowell, Medford, and Pawtucket libraries. Rooms had been planned for the Pratt Insti- tute, Providence, Detroit, Pittsburgh, Osterhout of Wilkes- barre, and Lynn, Mass., libraries. An article by Miss Mary E. Dousman, of the Milwaukee Public Library, published in The Library Journal (September, 1896), mentions also children's departments in the public libra- ries of Milwaukee, Denver, Detroit, New Haven, Omaha, Seattle, and San Francisco. It was not long after this that a separate children's room became a component part of every properly constructed and operated public li- brary. The first discussion of children's work in the American Library Association took place at the Phila- delphia Conference of 1897, and was largely taken up with arguments on the relative merits of separate chil- dren's libraries and children's rooms. In the article by Miss Plummer, cited above, which contains many inter- esting historical facts, it is recorded that of fifteen chil- dren's departments from which she had collected statis- tics, eleven circulated books from the children's room, while in the remaining four there were collections of sev- eral hundred volumes not to be taken from the room. The number of volumes shelved ranged from 300 to 20,000 ; the daily circulation from 65 to 35. At present, only twelve years later than this, the New York Public Library has in its children's rooms nearly 150,000 vol- umes, with a yearly circulation of 2,200,000. Other his- torical facts regarding the establishment of children's rooms may be found in the chapter on work with chil- dren. 13 LIBRARY GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT As regards cooperation with schools, it is probable that the essential relationships of schools and libraries have been recognized for a very long time. School libra- ries and libraries in school buildings are old in this coun- try, as we have seen. Yet systematic effort in public libraries to work hand in hand with the teacher is com- paratively recent. An address was delivered before the teachers of Quincy, Mass., in 1876, by Charles Francis Adams on " The Use which Could Be Made of the Pub- lic Library of the Town in Connection with the School System in General, and More Particularly with the High and Upper-grade Grammar Schools." This ad- dress was termed by C. A. Cutter at the time " the fullest discussion yet published of a question . . . that is only just beginning to attract the attention it de- serves." Mr. Adams's treatment of the subject is suffi- ciently up to date to satisfy the most advanced library of to-day, thirty years after the delivery of the address. The Quincy library had just adopted a new rule under which deposits of books could be sent to schools. Mr. Adams points out that this is the opportunity to make the library ' ' a more living element ' ' in the town school system, and he urges teachers to call on the library for the books that they need. " "When you begin to call," he says, " we shall know exactly what to buy; and then, at last, we could arrange in printed bulletins the courses of reading which your experience would point out as best. From that time both schools and library would begin to do their full work together, and the last would become what it ought to be, the natural complement of the first — the People's College." At the conference of the American Library Association held in Boston in 1879 numerous papers on the general subject of the read- 14 BRANCHES ing of school children were presented, among them one by W. E. Poster, of Providence, on " The School and the Library: Their Mutual Relation," in which he sug- gests and urges modem methods of cooperation, but gives no instances of libraries where these methods are being carried out. Some years after this must have elapsed before formal and recognized cooperation be- tween library and school became common. The Library Journal (April, 1897) published a symposium in which several dates are given. According to this, the Worces- ter (Mass.) Public Library began this work in 1879, Cleveland in 1884, and Detroit in 1887. The first spe- cial department established to take charge of this kind of cooperation was created in the New York Public Li- brary in 1906. The first free public branch library in the United States is stated in The Library Journal (April, 1877) to have been the East B munieipanj owned or sapported institntioiis. It is s>:nietimes required that the money be expended for books, in whiefa case the titles must nsoallj be ap- proved by the eoounission. Among other actiTities carried on under the saper- vision of s^eh emnmissMHis are the management of sys- tenis of traveling libraries, the collection and dissemi- nation of information regarding the Ubraries of the srate. the eneonragement of library extension by means of paid organizers, the maintenance of s<:h>:Ls. dasses. or " institutes " for library instmetion, the publication of lists of books and other library aids, often in the form of a bulletin sent regularly to all libraries in the state, and the regular inspection of all libraries, with a rep«:'rt on their condition. The numbers of such commisEioais have takoi a very soioDs view of their duties and powers, and it may be expected that state influence over library growth and work will increase in the future. A " Leagae of Li- brary CommisEdons ' ' has been formed, which is affili- ated with the American Idbrary Ass-xiation and m€^ts with it annual]^, besides bidding other meetings sepa- ratdy. The members of the state commissions, includ- ing usually the state librarian, are professional li- brarians, prominent educators, literary men, or library tmstees and other business men interested in the woifc Indic&tirns of the inereasang influence of the state in library matters are not wantii^. Such, for instanc-e. 15 the efiort to enlarge the unit of library administration by the creation of systems of county libraries, which has been made in CaKfomia, and the suc-c-rss of s-rme iso lated attempts in this direction, as in the nei^ibcrhooii of Hagerstown, Md., with its library bock-wagco, or 27 THE LIBRARY AND THE STATE traveling branch. Another is the bill, introduced into the Ohio legislature in the autumn of 1908, to license library assistants on examination, in the same way that teachers are now generally licensed by the states. This bill had the active support of the Ohio Library Associ- ation, and although it did not pass, it may prove to be the first step in a series of transformations thiit shall profoundly alter the status of public libraries and their staffs. One of the earliest and most useful functions of a state commission was the distribution of books through- out the state in the form of traveling libraries. Travel- ing libraries are also operated by other than state agen- cies and are discussed in another chapter; but it may be noted that in the State of Kansas, the management of these traveling collections of books is the sole function of the state commission, whose official title, indeed, is the " Traveling Library Commission." Instead of regarding with jealousy the assumption by the state of powers like these, librarians generally welcome the increase of systematic work fostered by state aid and control. They are active everywhere in efforts to establish state commissions, where sucli do not exist, and the opponents of their efforts are usually per- sons unfamiliar with the modern library movement, or politicians who see in such action no benefit to them- selves. In some cases, where legislatures have refused to enact a proper state library law, state library asso- ciations, voluntary bodies of librarians, have agreed to initiate and carry on, at their own expense, some of the activities usually supervised and financed by the state. This increasing exercise of state library control is especially interesting at a time when, in political mat- 28 FEDEEAL RELATIONS ters, the influence of the state seems to be shrinking while that of the Federal Government has been swelling — has indeed, according to some, been swollen almost beyond its constitutional limits. In the case of libraries, save alone for the activities of the Library of Congress, those of the general- government have been almost van- ishingly small. Certain libraries, to be sure, are desig- nated by the members of Congress in their districts as depositaries of public documents, and the Superin- tendent of documents has endeavored, of late years, to establish closer relations with these and other libraries, that such documents may be more efficiently preserved and used. Under the present law, however, a member of Congress may arbitrarily and suddenly change any one of his designated depositaries; and this has some- times been done quite to the public disadvantage and without apparent remedy. The Bureau of Education, upon occasion, has collected and published valuable statistics of libraries. The chief bond, however, be- tween the Government at Washington and libraries throughout the country is the Library of Congress, un- der the broad interpretation of the laws regulating its work, made by Dr. Putnam, the present librarian, who has endeavored to make the institution in fact what it should be in name — the National Library. The library now prints catalogue cards for all cur- rent deposits under the copyright law — ^that is, for all American copyrighted publications — as well as for se- lected foreign purchases and some of the most important books already on the shelves. It duplicates' these cards freely and sells them at cost, as public documents, to all libraries that desire to use them, thus acting as a great central cataloguing bureau for the whole country. It 29 THE LIBRARY AND THE STATE also occasionally prints and distributes works of national importance, such as the American Library Association catalogue of best books, which would otherwise probably not see the light. These activities, together with its lib- eral policy of inter-library loans and the willingness of its staff to give library information, have brought it into very close touch with the libraries of the various states. Besides the laws that directly affect libraries, there are others, both state and Federal, that do so indirectly. In the case of Federal statutes, libraries are specially in- terested in those that regulate the tariff, copyright, and postage. The connection of the tariff and copyright with the maintenance of libraries is treated in Chapter XI, but it may be noted that the interest of librarians in the copyright question has been officially recognized by the Federal Government by asking the American Li- brary Association to take part, through delegates, in the Copyright Conference of 1906-7, called by the Librarian of Congress at the suggestion of the congressional com- mittees having the matter in charge, to formulate a com- prehensive copyright law. The bill as thus framed and subsequently modified became a law in 1909. Vigorous attempts have been made to have the privi- leges of second-class postage extended to library books, with the idea that inter-library loans and also a mail- order use of free libraries would thereby be fostered. Thus far these efforts have met with no success, largely through the feeling that the Post Office is already trans- mitting too much bulky mail matter at a loss. Books for the blind are now sent free to or from libraries, al- though, owing to the limitation of weight observed in the carrier service and the inordinate bulk of most of these books, they cannot be delivered at the homes of those 30 LIBRARY POSTAGE who need them. This limitation robs the free-postage privilege of much of its value for short-distance users, as it is in many eases as easy to reach the nearest library as the nearest post office or station ; but it is a boon to blind persons who live at great distances from collections of books in raised characters. Of 1'2.S19 books for the blind circulated by the Xew York Public Library in 190S, 8,55S were sent free by mail. Were the postatre on library books generally reduced, probably the mechanism of library distribution would undergo a change resembling that indicated by the above figures in the case of books for the blind. This would mean not only a radical change of library methods, but also an enormous burden on the local mail service. Whether this would be whoUy to the public advantage may be doubted, but there is no doubt of the advisability of reduced postage for long-distance inter-library loans, and if this can be managed without entailing the troubles just indicated it will doubtless be granted. Existing postal regulations exclude from the mails certain library forms that have passed through them from time immemorial without causing question, and that still continue to do so in a majority of cases. The Post Office Department passes only on specific cases that have been brought to its attention, but its decisions have been adverse to the libraries when made. The law that is held to be violated is that forbidding the transmission of duns on postal cards, as being libelous. A debtor may be reminded of his debt in private or by sealed letter, but not in public or on a postal card. Nor may a threat be so conveyed : hence the usual form of notice remind- ing a delinquent borrower that he has incurred a fine or informing him that a fine will be imposed in case of non- 31 THE LIBRARY AND THE STATE return of a book, may be excluded from the mails, and has been so excluded by the authorities when their at- tention has been called to it. In such cases a form sim- ply calling the delinquent's attention to the rules of the library as printed on the book pocket, on a book plate, or elsewhere, has been approved by the postal authorities as legal. As regards the ordinary laws of the state, it is probable that libraries often unconsciously contravene them, and are allowed to continue to do so, simply be- cause no one cares to interfere. In a case that occurred a few years ago, the regulations of a library whose con- nection with its municipality was close were declared by the city's legal adviser to be totally inoperative because they had not been enacted by the municipal legislative body. Steps, of course, were taken to have them so en- acted at once, but fines incurred previous to this enact- ment were duly charged and paid, although a protest would doubtless have been sustained had it been made. This state of things may now exist in other municipalities. Again, the legal responsibility of guarantors has never been exactly defined. Doubtless they could be sued at law for books damaged or not returned by their proteges, and this possibility is often used to frighten them into payment; but suit for such small amounts would hardly be brought by the library. Legal questions may also arise frequently with rela- tion to the enforcement of discipline — for instance, the ejection of a reader who is deemed to be disorderly, and his subsequent claim that it was accomplished with un- due violence; or the exclusion of readers from library privileges on account of noncompliance with some regu- lation. It is certainly well for a librarian to be familiar with his legal rights and duties in such cases, so that 32 THE LIBRARY AND THE LAW he may act quickly and decisively. In ease the matter goes so far as an arrest, either for disorder or for theft or mutilation of books, it is also necessary for him to have some elementary knowledge of the rules of evi- dence. Many a vandal has escaped punishment for lack of evidence which library assistants have been in a posi- tion to obtain, and which they have failed to obtain sim- ply through ignorance. A magistrate will usually hold a person for trial only when there is evidence or, at any rate, prospect of obtaining evidence that will induce a jury to convict. Some magistrates also, for reasons that are not very clear, appear to exercise special leniency in tlu' ease of offenders against libraries. A man who takes books from the shelves and succeeds in getting them into the stro(>t before he is caught is released at once when he pleads that he intended to have them charged, but foi'i;ot to do so. Another, detected by a custodian when removing valuable plates from a book, is allowed to go free bt'cause the witness did not see him in the precise aet of detaching the leaves. Of course, as the trustees of valuable property, both in real estate and securities, the library authorities may lu'come involved in litigation of almost all kinds. It may be even necessary for the trustees to obtain special logislation to override the conditions of bequests when sui'h have become burdensome through unforeseen con- tingencies, or to enable consolidation with other bodies, to the public advantage. The board of trustees of a large library freqiiently includes a law committee among its standing committees to take care of such business as this. The conditions of such legal business, however, are in no wise different from those affecting other cor- porations and need no special treatment here. 33 CHAPTEE IV THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC If the modern public library has any reason for being, and particularly if it has any reason for demand- ing public support, this lies in its continued usefulness to the public. Such usefulness is the goal at which it must aim, and the test by which each of its methods and results must be judged. Ease and smoothness of admin- istration, though highly desirable, is so wholly because it may further public service or lessen public expense; and any regulation that makes for a smoother running of the library machinery while it lessens the amount of good that the public can get from the library, or the speed or ease with which that good may be obtained, is a bad regulation. There have been many such regulations in libraries, but they are being eliminated. Where they remain it is due usually to a legitimate difference of opinion on the score of their public usefulness. The ordinary library regulations, which often appear to the individual user unduly restrictive, are so only because it is necessary by their means to guard the interests of the public as a whole. It may, for instance, be to the interest of the individual user that he should take out an unlimited number of books and keep them for an indefinite time; but the rights of other users require that both number and time should be restricted. 34 REGISTRATION At the outset the prospective user of the library is called upon to show that he is a proper person to take out books. What this means depends somewhat on the regulations of the library. If its use is restricted to resi- Nq — — an lnhablV>ntof the aty of NewrYorkt Residing .■!■'■> ' •^•■' ...-. OccupnUon — r- — ■>-..-. Grade ~ -■' hereby apply for the right to use the New York Public Library, cTMuhlenbarg Branch, 309 West 13rd Street, and promise to obey all its ml;;;, and tf/w iaanpdi»t^ ooUoe at tho Ubrarj) ofuijl ohaxige of residence, Riikrat»«Monr, Keiierence's Name- PuslnessAddresa- Buainesa-' Application for Privilege op Drawing Books, New York Public Library. dents, he must show that he is a resident; if to persons above a certain age, that he possesses this age. If a cer- tificate of character or a guaranty against loss of books is required, this must be given. A blank form of appli- 4 35 THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC cation, of proper size to be conveniently filed, is fur- nished by the library, and in case time is required to obtain the necessary information or certification, and to verify it, this period of time must, of course, elapse before books can be drawn. This is a hardship in many eases, and the tendency is to cut down requirements for use as far as possible. Guaranty is generally useful only because it implies a certification of character; as tMi* A^ucATioB mitn at nLunttUT wiiin. ako AfMovcB. acroiii miid is isaucs. _ rio (Do not writ* here.) J,'jthe undersigned, 4pply ior a reader t card in the St. Louis Public (Free) Ubra7, „ . ( am a resident of the city. CNOM OUT WHAT set* 1 . ... ■/ I < am .a taxpayer m the city MOTAsvLT. I figyg^ permanent employment in the city. and hereby agree to.comply with all tlia :rulas and regulations of the Ubrary^ to make good any loss or injury sustained' by it through issuing a'card entitling me to draw books,,and TO GIVE IMMEDIATE NOTICE OF CHANGE OF RESIDENCE. " Name 0" I"**) ' Residence . . Occupation . . , — Place of Buslneis- , , Application tor Privilege of Drawing Books, St. Louis Public Library. for the actual payment by guarantors for lost books, it is practically a voluntary matter, almost impossible of enforcement. Where it has been retained, as in some large cities, this is largely for its value as a moral obli- gation. Some libraries even drop the requirement of a character certificate on any good evidence that appli- cant is a responsible person, the presence of his name in a city directory being generally accepted. Other libra- ries that have retained the requirement of guaranty in 36 ACTUAL USERS its extreme form may allow the freest exception where an applicant is known to the librarian personally or by reputation. There is little danger now that a man or woman of national reputation will be required to obtain a certificate of character from the corner grocer before being privileged to draw books, as used to happen not in- frequently in the earlier and stricter days. Of course, requirements of this kind will be less in a small place where the users are all known to the librarian ; and in a rural community the ceremony of application need be scarcely more than the signing of the name on a blank, form, which, when filed, becomes part of the official list of users. In many libraries a second list is kept, the units in one being filed alphabetically and in the other chronologically — ^that is, by the serial numbers assigned to them as accepted. The chronological entry may be in a registration book. When the serial numbers are used for charging, the advantages of such a list are obvious. A library is often asked, and sometimes required to report officially, about its " actual number of users." This phrase requires definition. A line of some sort must be drawn between those who have permanently ceased to use the library and those who intend to use it again. A man who returned his book yesterday and who intends to take out another to-morrow is surely an ' ' actual " or " present ' ' user as truly as he who is now charged with a book. As it is impossible to ascer- tain when a former borrower intends to take out his next book, or whether he will carry out that intention, a time limit must be assigned, and this is necessarily arbi- trary. Usually the time is as great as a year — ^that is, a person who drew out a book as recently as 364 days ago is still counted as an actual user, whereas if the last 37 THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC book was charged 366 days ago his use is regarded as lapsed. Instead of counting the actual borrowing of a book, however, as the sole evidence of use, it is customary to require renewal of the application at regular intervals — say one to three years — and to count all persons who hold cards as " actual " users of the library. "When re- newal is not made at the proper time, this is taken as evidence that the user intends to take out no more books. This is all very arbitrary, and the statistics of different .libraries vary so much that they are hardly comparable, it is probably safe to assume that the number of books out at any one moment is roughly proportional to the number of present users, but so few libraries report on this that, here again, there is no basis for comparison. Having been properly registered, the intending user receives an evidence of the fact — usually a card — and proceeds to select his book. At this point we find all lending libraries divided into two classes — " closed- shelf " and " open-shelf," or " free-access " libraries. Practically all small and moderate-sized American libra- ries are now ' ' open-shelf, ' ' which means that the user is allowed to go personally to the shelves and select his book, whereas in a " closed-shelf " library he makes the selection by consulting a catalogue, fills out a " call slip," and presents it at the desk to an attendant, who gets the book. The compromise by which the user, though not admitted to the shelves, has access to an " indicator," which shows whether each volume is in or out, and also serves as a mechanism for charging it, is not used in the United States, though familiar in Eng- lish public libraries. Open access, though a suspected and doubted experiment fifteen years ago, is now prac- 38 OPEN SHELF tically iiniversal in America in all but large city libra- ries, and even in these it is usual to find an open-shelf room containing many thousands of volumes. The advantage of open access to the user scarcely needs mention or analysis. The objections are two : first, increased opportunity for theft, and, second, increased handling, which wears out the books more quickly and disarranges them on the shelves, requiring rearrange- ment at more or less frequent intervals. The latter ob- jection is entirely from the " ease-of-administration " standpoint, and may be passed over, in accordance with the general principle enunciated at the beginning of this chapter. So far as the former objection (increase of theft) is of this character, it, too, may be neglected ; but it is urged that to give to the public opportunity for undetected theft is to demoralize it. That such oppor- tiinitv e:dsts is shown by the advantage that is taken of it. From a paper on the subject by Miss Isabel Ely Lord, librarian of the Pratt Institute Free Library, Brooklyn, X. T., read at the 1908 conference of the American Library Association, it appears that losses in cities of more than 300,000 inhabitants ranges, in open- shelf libraries, from 7 books in evei-y 10,000 circulated to 39 books for every 10,000 circulated. " The largest cities vary from 9 to 17 in every 10,000 circulated. In the closed-shelf libraries of this group the loss ranges from 1 to 9 volumes in every 10,000 circulated. " In cities between 100,000 to 300,000 the open-shelf libraries lose from S to 42 in every 10,000. Denver, in its period of open shelves, lost 134 volumes to every 10,000 — ... so far as I know, the largest propor- tionate loss sustained by any library. In the dosed-shelf libraries of the same group the loss ranges from 2 in 39 THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC every 100,000, which is the proud record of Fall River, to 53 in every 10,000 — a larger loss than that of any open-shelf library to-day, though not equaling that of Denver, as stated. " In the third group of cities, from 25,000 to 100,- 000, the open-shelf loss ranges from 6 to 48 in every 10,000. In the closed-shelf library of this group the loss, including that of the children's room, is 5 in every 10,000. " In the last group of small communities (under 25,000) the loss ranges from Pairhaven's statement that perhaps two books are definitely missing, but they expect to find them, through Gloversville's loss of two to every 100,000 circulated up to nine in every 10,000." It will be seen that there are losses even in closed- shelf libraries, but far too many in the majority of both types. It must be acknowledged that the point regarding increased opportunity given by free access for unde- tected theft, so far as it goes, is well taken. It is simply incumbent on the library authorities to decide whether the incitement to theft is so great as to outweigh the advantages of the plan to the public. This question, it would appear, has, in America at least, been generally decided in the negative; and in so deciding libraries have but followed the lead of other public institutions, such as parks, where abuse of free access to flowers and grass has not been deemed a sufficient reason for exclu- sion of the public. The losses must, of. course, be watched closely by means of accurate inventories, taken at unusually brief intervals, if necessary, and the ut- most effort must be made to detect and punish theft. 40 SPECIAL CARDS Where books of a special size, or a particular class, are taken, these require special watching, and it may become necessary to place them on closed shelves, either tempo- rarily or permanently. Having selected his book or books, the user is met by another restriction. He is allowed to draw only a limited number of books at one time. It is now quite common to allow two books at once, pro- vided only one is a work of fiction. In libraries where current periodicals are circulated, one of these may be allowed in addition. The allowance of two books, known as the " two-book system," originated in an effort to stimulate the circulation of nonflction, and previous to its general adoption, about 1895, restriction to a single book was quite customary. Where a work is in several volumes, many libraries allow these to be taken out together and counted as one. The issue of spe- cial cards, with an extension of both the numerical and time limits, is now frequently made to teachers or stu- dents. The holder may draw a considerable number of books (sometimes an unlimited number, subject to the librarian's discretion) and retain them for a much longer time than usual, for purposes of study. Another exception is now sometimes made in cases of persons leaving the city for vacation, who are allowed to draw a number df books (say eight or ten) at once and retain them not later than a specified date. Having chosen his books, subject to these restrictions, the user next presents them at the desk to be charged. This is a more or less elaborate process, according to the uses intended to be served by it. A charging system may be so planned as to give information, at any time, regarding all or part of the following facts : 41 THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC (1) The titles of the books withdrawn on a given day, with the card holder who drew each. (2) The books due on a given day, with the holder of each. (3) The whereabouts of a specified book. (4) The books in the possession of a specified holder, with the date on which each is due. The number of books drawn in one day must be known if record of the circulation is to be kept day by day, as is usual. If the circulation is to be reported by classes, the daily number given out in each class must also be known. The person who drew each book must be known, so that he may be traced if he fails to return the book when due. The books in a given person's posses- sion, with the dates of withdrawal, must be known by that person that he may return them when due. Knowledge of the whereabouts of a specified book is valuable in tracing that book, as at inventory. These items of information are obtainable in practically all charging systems, the only differences being that in some they require search, while in others they may be found at once, as in a dic- tionary or index. Charging systems now in general use in American public libraries are of four types : (1) The ledger system. (2) The one-card system. (3) The two-card system. (4) The Browne system. The ledger system, still used in old or small institu- tions, is the simplest and oldest of systems. Its mech- anism is almost nil, but it furnishes no ready answer to the questions specified above, except in case the circula- tion is extremely small, and then only after some search. In this system an account is opened with every user in 42 CHARGING SYSTEMS an ordinary ledger, and as he takes out a book the title and the date of withdrawal are written under hife name on the page assigned to him. When returned, the book is discharged by crossing off the entry and writing the date of return. This system gives directly the number of books in each holder's possession, with date of lending. To ob- tain the books given out, or due, on a given day, or the holder of a specified book, it would be necessary to run through the entire ledger, and this method of charging is not used when these items are frequently required. Instead of charging under the user's name, the book title or the date may be used as a heading, but without gain in elasticity. If each ledger page is replaced by a card, we have a simple one-card charging system. The cards may be filed by the date of withdrawal of the last book, in which case the titles withdrawn, or due, on a specified day are quickly accessible, without search. Abbreviations are usually employed — for the book, its accession number, or call number; for the user, his registration number. The full title of the book and the user's name and ad- dress may be found from these by reference to the proper lists. If all books are taken out for the same period, the arrangement of cards by date of withdrawal is at the same time an arrangement by the date due ; if not, a re- arrangement is necessary when the book becomes over- due. The package of cards, when first overdue, fur- nishes a list of persons to whom notices are to be sent. In a one-card system of this kind, if the cards are filed by date, the user, when he returns the book, must re- member the date when the book was taken out ; otherwise the record card can be found only by search. He must 43 THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC also know his registration number to avoid the necessity of looking it up in the list. If the cards are filed alpha- betically by names or numerically by registration num- bers, no act of memory is necessary, but the advantages over the ledger system are not great. NOT TRANSFERABLE. Good only until No. - Nairn — 1 Address . . .i - New York Public Library CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT MUHLENBERG BRANCH 209 West 23rd Street TUm Cird mut alw^ be pntnUd wha Uktng Ml, nMwfnc tiT rttvnlBg t book. Tht proper bolder !■ In ill ebata reapoulble for 'tooki dnwa b/ meuu of tbts Cord, and If IXJSt ona fraek mut cbpee, kfUr notte* bai been eiven of ita hWfbtfora It can be replaced. Booki majbe reoawed ^7 pQetal otrd bf fMng nonber or Dune of book, BBfflbor of card and date when book waa token out. KOnCE.— Borrowers nay tLke tvo books at tbe UBW tlBt^, provided that sot mors tb^n one of these •ball be a work of Actios, and that two Hcr l«oka ■ball not be taken. If,' B.-Prompt motiet tf cAanpe vfrfiidnn natt bt five*a!tktt/^nrf,»ndUiifiirdmM^b*tnrTtnitrtd mktm (Aa AoMar c aaa a a to ia • raafdaaL Cnnitnnlinnlil So.fM.1 _ __ 1 N.imA FICTION Lou«l I!.tiim«i Loud Iteunwd ' -— ■■ ' OTtlER WORKS j Borboweb's Card, New York Public Library. (Both sides.) In a two-card system one card (the " book card ") bears the title of the book and is devoted to a record of the persons who took it out and the dates of withdrawal. The other bears the card-holder's name and has a record of the books taken out, with date of withdrawal of each and date of return, or at least a record of return. When the book is on the shelf the book card is kept in it, in a U CHARGING SYSTEMS pocket provided for the purpose; when it is borrowed, after the proper entries have been made on both cards, the borrower's card is placed in the book pocket and carried away with the book by the borrower, while the book card is filed in the library, as described above. Thus both parties to the transaction have a record of it. The book may be discharged, on return, by crossing out /^ ST. LOUIS PUBLIC LIBRARY "\ CENTRAL UBRARV .BRANCH LIBRARIES All dspirtmenU g A. M. - 9 P. M. 10 A. M .9 P. M. Racing and Reterenco Roomi 9 A. M.-iq P. M Sundty a-Q P. M. CM Nn B Expires Ou« Retufnod 0U9 Returned Duft Returned \ J QIVC IMMEDIATE WOTICE OF CMaNOE OF RCaiDENCC Borrower's Card used in St. Louis Public Library. the record on the borrower's card, or the date of return may be entered on that card. In the type of two-card system known as the ' ' New- ark ' ' system from its use in the free library at Newark, N. J., an additional record of the date is made on a flap attached to the inside of the book (or on the pocket). This is to avoid the necessity of replacing the cards in the book at the time of discharging, which is often inad- visable in case of a rush. The cards may be replaced 45 THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC later, at leisure, the assistant being aided by the record on the slip. The Browne system, though not strictly a two-card system of charging, is a modification of such a system, and is regarded by many as an improvement. The bor- rower's card is replaced by a small pocket of heavy paper, bearing the borrower's name. The charging is performed by placing the book card in this pocket and filing both under the proper date. Members' pockets not in use are kept on file in the library, and" each mem- ber is usually given an identification check. The loose pocket has been used in other systems, in conjunction with both book cards and members' cards, the charging being effected by simply placing the borrower's card and that of the book to be charged to him in the pocket together. The Browne system simply consolidates the pocket and the borrower's card. Pocket systems of this kind succeed best in small libraries, where they are most popular. It will be noted that in all these systems of charg- ing, one item of information remains difficult to obtain — namely, the whereabouts of a given book. This may always be found, but only by search, though the labor of searching is reduced by filing the cards by call numbers under the date. This item, however, is not desired so fre- quently as the others, and it is properly subordinated. In charging the date, either the date of withdrawal or the date due may be used. The latter is simpler for the borrower, but if different classes of books may be held for different periods, as is often the case, a separate charging date is then required for each class, necessitat- ing the use of several stamps and making confusion easily possible. 46 RENEWALS The time for which books may be held is quite com- monly two weeks, generally with the privilege of renewal for another two weeks; but if the book be new or in special demand, the period may be reduced to one week and the privilege of renewal withheld. The length of 1 No. -Sp. s SPECIAL CARD New York Public Library. CircQlafing DepartmeDt, MUm.FlNBERG BRANCH, 209 West 23rd St., New York. BookB dnrged upon this card ma; be tetafn- ed for a period of thirty days, and may be reoewed aioiitlily upon request. If booka are retained longer than the apecified time one cent will be charged for each votame each day. Dnasnal demand for certain hooka may render Ihe reetriction of special privileges deeirable. 1 ! Speciai, Bobbower's Card, New York Public Library. (Both sides.) time that the book may be held is, of course, clearly indi- cated on the book in some conspicuous place, generally by a stamp. In some libraries the period of borrowing may be as short as three days, as with current period- icals ; and in some, special cards are issued to teachers or students on which books required for study may be held 47 THE LIBEARY AND THE PUBLIC for several months, unless recalled sooner in response to a demand. In the case of books desired by a borrower, but al- ready out, the library has two courses open to it. It may either require the borrower to take his chance of finding the book when it appears on the shelves after its return, or a waiting list of applicants for the book may be formed. The latter would seem the fairer plan, but many libraries object to it because thie book, on its return, must be held for a day or more while the next person on the list is notified that it awaits him. If sev- eral persons in succession fail to respond, as may hap- pen, the book thus lies unused for several days, while expectant readers are impatiently waiting for it. In spite of this objection the use of this " reserve system " is widespread, but in some libraries a certain number of duplicates are exempted from its rules and are placed on the shelves as soon as they are returned. The per- sons on the reserve list are commonly notified by postal card, for which it is customary to charge a fee, payable at the time of the reserve. This fee is wrongly regarded by some borrowers as a payment for the privilege of re- serve, and the system is sometimes regarded as objec- tionable for this reason ; but evidently the fee is no part of the system, which consists merely in the formation of a waiting list. In the case of persons who can call fre- quently at the library no postal notice is necessary, but where the borrower desires to be spared this trouble, it is proper that the library be put to no expense in send- ing the notification. The privilege of reserve is sometimes incorrectly ex- tended by some assistants to books actually on the shelves, which cannot be taken by some particular bor- 48 RESERVES AND FINES rower because he has out already as many books as the rules allow. The assistant removes the book from the shelf and holds it for the borrrower until one of the books charged on his card is returned. This is evidently the same as allowing the borrower to have out more than the required number of books, and is indefensible. Details of the reserve system differ widely in differ- ent libraries; in some, for instance, reserves are taken for new books not yet purchased; in some, again, the number of books that may be reserved for one person is limited, while in others there is no limit. The penalty for keeping a book overtime is com- monly a fine — generally one or two cents a day. This, like all fines, becomes often in effect a fee paid for a license to break the rules in this respect. Fines are often regarded by the users of public libraries, as they are by tourists in motor cars, as a necessary accompani- ment of what they are doing. It is certainly not desirable that this view should prevail, but the alternative would appear to be the substitution of some other penalty, like suspension from library privileges, with an accompany- ing loss of revenue, which in a large library would be considerable. In the New York Public Library, for in- stance, with a circulation of over 6,000,000 yearly, about $25,000 is annually received in this way alone. In a discussion on this subject following a paper read by the present writer at the Magnolia Conference of the American Library Association several different views of the library fine were developed. In opposition to the position taken here that it is, like other fines, a penalty for infraction of a rule, it was urged by some librarians that it is a compensation either for damage done to the individual who is deprived of the use of the 49 THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC book or to the library itself, which is deprived of the opportunity to benefit the community by lending it. Some librarians even seemed inclined to sympathize with the view that it is simply a monetary satisfaction to the community for an extended use of the book, and that the damage inflicted is offset by the fact that the fine en- ables the library to purchase additional books. The difficulty of keeping up with the popular de- mand for recent fiction, together with the feeling that public funds may not properly be used for this purpose, has led many libraries to adopt what has been called the " pay-duplicate system," or sometimes the " St. Louis plan," as it was first tried in the public library of that city. Besides the usual number of free duplicates in fiction, a collection of others is kept, for the use of which a fee is charged — either a few cents per day or so much per book. The money thus received is applied wholly to the maintenance and increase of the pay col- lection. The volumes, as the demand for them flags, are usually transferred to the free shelves. The objection has been made to this plan that it places a free public institution, supported by taxation, in the position of ask- ing a fee for part of what it offers to the public. The advocates of the system point out that the public obtains free as much as it otherwise would, the pay duplicates being over and above the usual stock, that the collection is self-supporting, and that the free collection finally benefits thereby. On the other hand, public money, al- though it does not buy the books in the pay collection, does go toward their housing, care, and distribution. The question is largely one of sentiment, and many per- sons feel that a free public institution should be chary of commercial relations with its users. Public opinion 50 FOREIGN BOOKS varies on the subject, and this should doubtless largely determine the adoption of such a system in a specified place. It has certainly been of great service in many cities, and is recommended in unqualified terms by many experienced librarians. The part to be played by a library's public in regu- lating the selection of books by their demands, and the advisability of providing books likely to be of value to specified classes in the community, are treated else- where in this book. It may be said here, however, that the public library should and does welcome the freest interchange of aid between library and public, the former advising the public regarding its reading and the latter, in turn, suggesting to the former what books should be purchased. A particular demand met in recent years is that of books in foreign languages. The demand for these comes from two classes of readers — ^those who do not speak the languages as their mother tongues, but read them solely for literary exercise or recreation, and those who read them as their mother literature. Languages read by the former class are chiefly German and French, and in a lesser degree Italian and Spanish. All these, of course, may also be read by the latter class, and in addi- tion we may have Swedish and Dano-Norwegian, Rus- sian, Polish and Bohemian, Hungarian, modern Greek, Lithuanian, Roumanian, and other tongues, all spoken and read by thousands of recent immigrants. The pub- lic library made no attempt to furnish books in such lan- guages as these until about ten years ago, and when a few institutions began the task they were condemned on the ground that they were keeping the immigrant from becoming Americanized. This opinion is no longer held. 5 si THE LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC Books in their native tongues are read usually by per- sons too old to become Americanized in a linguistic sense; their children attend school, and soon talk and read chiefly in English. Besides this, the increasing pro- vision of books in foreign languages, treating of Ameri- can history, customs, laws, and ideals, makes these tongues vehicles of Americanization rather than obsta- cles to that process. A somewhat different problem is presented by the colored population. Here the barrier is social, not lin- guistic, and it is recognized or felt in various ways. In the Northern States there is theoretically no discrimina- tion. Negroes are welcomed to the public library and are served like white users when they appear. In spite of this, however, the Negro in the North does not use the public library as much as would be expected. Negro assistants are unknown and the proportion of col- ored card holders is vanishingly small. It would seem that the race feels instinctively, whether with justice or not, that it is not wanted. So far, however, there has been no movement toward separate library accommoda- tion for Negroes in the North, and its first manifestation would doubtless meet with an indignant denial of its necessity. In the South separate accommodation for the colored people, if they are to be accommodated at all, is, of course, a postulate. The problem has been met in three ways — by tacit understanding that the Negroes are not to use the libraries (which, except in theory, is not very different from the Northern attitude) ; by the provision of separate branch buildings especially for colored peo- ple, convenient to their residence districts; and by sepa- rate accommodations in the same building or buildings 52 CONTAGION with the whites. The colored branch would seem the best solution, and it has worked excellently. It may ultimately be found desirable to adopt it in the North also, not on account of the feelings of the white popula- tion, but of the colored people themselves, who appar- ently will not use the ordinary libraries freely. Fear has often been expressed lest the free circula- tion of books should serve to disseminate disease. Tests have shown that this is possible, and experiments on dis- infection have not uniformly led to satisfactory results. While some experimenters report the entire destruction of disease germs between the leaves of a closed book by simple expesure, without opening, to formaldehyde gas, others assert that nothing short of live steam is effective. The use of this latter method necessitates removal of bindings — a process evidently unfitted for current li- brary use. Notwithstanding this, effort has been made by some small libraries to disinfect all books between return and reissue, the usual process being to place them overnight in a tight receptacle with a generator of for- maldehyde gas. This process, even if uniformly effect- ive, would hardly be possible in libraries giving out over a thousand books daily. A very recent French process, combining a thorough dusting with the use of dry heat, may possibly be more practical. The larger institutions have limited their efforts, except in case of epidemics, to ascertaining, where possible, the existence of contagious disease in the homes of persons holding library books, and then dealing with such books as may seem best, either by disinfection or destruction. The local board of health will always advise in such cases, and sometimes assumes responsibility for the treatment of the book. In cities where an attempt is made to take 53 THE LIBEARY AND THE PUBLIC a daily census of contagious diseases the library will, of course, benefit thereby. The facts that the origin of a case of contagious disease has rarely, if ever, been traced to a library book, and that the percentage of such cases among library assistants is less than among the popula- tion in general, indicate that there is little ground for alarm on this score. The hours during which an American public library is open for use depend largely on the funds available for its support, and hence may vary from a few hours a week up to twelve hours or more daily. Sunday open- ing is becoming more common, but the library is seldom open full time on this day, and in some ca^ues only the reading rooms are open, no books being circulated. Sun- day opening has been widely advocated on the ground that the working man is unable to visit the library on week days ; but experience has not shown that the Sun- day use of public libraries is by working people. Usu- ally the Sunday users are persons who might as well use the library on some other day, and, as Sunday opening entails additional expense, its value is certainly ques- tionable, and its adoption in any particular locality de- pends on the peculiar conditions there, and especially on the state of public sentiment. From the foregoing remarks on points of contact be- tween library and public it will be seen that many of these are localized at a single point — ^the loan desk. This point may be regarded as the heart of a public cir- culating library — the place where the book and its user come together into the closest touch with its custodians. Hence the great importance of work at the loan desk. The somewhat mechanical employment of charging books, important as it may be, is often looked down upon 54 LOAN DESK by young library assistants, who regard administrative or cataloguing work as of higher grade. No idea could be more mistaken. Every person employed in the library should be assigned to regular work at the charging desk, for it is here that the librarian can get into closest touch with the reading public. In open-shelf libraries, however, and therefore in the majority of American public libraries, the book and its user do not meet for the first time at the loan desk. Selection is made, not at a catalogue, but from among the books themselves, and guidance here is often needed and valued. It is therefore customary in many libra- ries to assign certain members of the staff to " floor duty, ' ' where they are free to watch those engaged in the selection of books and to offer aid where it appears to be needed. These two tasks — that of the desk assistant and the assistant on floor duty — are the most important in the library. To them all administrative, clerical, and special work is merely subsidiary, because a public library is a public distributor and these are the chief points of selection and distribution. CHAPTEE V READING A^fD REFERENCE ROOMS The reading of books within a library building may be done in almost any part of that building, but the name " reading room " is generally applied to a room set apart for the reading of books not to be taken for home use, or for periodicals, or for both. A reference room is a reading room designed especially for the so- called " reference use " of books and periodicals, and may or may not be the same room as the general read- ing room. A reading room not designed for reference use, and separate from the reference room, contains usually cur- rent newspapers and periodicals, generally nontechnical, and sometimes a small collection of books. Other books, when desired, are sent for from the stack or from the open circulation shelves. A reference room contains usually such books as are intended purely for reference, such as dictionaries and cyclopedias, which are never read through from page to page, as well as others that may be used for reference if desired and that are often so used, such as histories, or scientific or art books in several volumes. With a large collection more books are added that are not in- tended purely for reference. Obviously there is no book that may not be used for " reference." A reader who consults one of Anthony Hope's stories to ascertain the 56 WHAT IS " REFERENCE " ? name of a character or to refresh his memory in regard to some incident, without reading it consecutively, is using it as a reference book. The reference collection is therefore supplemented by loans from the main stock or from other collections, as desired. The reference collec- tion proper, or most of it, is now generally on open shelves, being obviously more usable thus. The reading rooms and reference rooms in a library may be com- bined in almost any conceivable way, or the lines be- tween them may be drawn in any one of various places. There may, for instance, be a separate room for newspa- per readers, or a separate department for periodicals, and separate reading rooms in connection with special collections, such as those on art, technology, or social sci- ence. In a very large library a huge reading room, con- taining many thousand books on open shelves, is gener- ally connected with the stack by a mechanical carrier, so that the whole collection is at the disposal of the student. Much serious investigation is carried on in rooms of this kind, and the work done in reading and reference rooms varies from this all the way down to the hasty skimming of a newspaper. As the man who is looking up some topic in history or science often requires the use of a considerable number of books for several consecutive days, large libraries may make provision for such use. In the older libraries ' ' alcove privileges ' ' were granted to accredited students, with the use of a table and per- mission to write thereon. In modern library buildings study rooms are often provided for the same purpose. The use of one of these is granted to an investigator for a specified period, and he is allowed to keep together a considerable collection of the books that he is using in the room. 57 READING AND REFERENCE ROOMS The simplest form of library reading room is doubt- less one of those sometimes carried on in connection with a delivery station, and may be regarded as the first step toward the transformation of such a station into a branch. Instead of locating the delivery station in a store, a room with a permanent custodian is provided, and is fur- nished with newspapers, periodicals, and even sometimes with a collection of books, not to be taken away. These may or may not include a small reference collection. If any of the stock is allowed to circulate, the place be- comes a true branch library, though a small one. In a true branch, or a small library, occupying one room only, that room may have all the functions of a reading and reference room. In many ways this close combination is an ideal one. The use of periodicals is an important part of most reference work, and the cur- rent and bound copies must both be accessible. This means duplication or a close relation between reference room and periodical reading room. Again, it is desir- able that a person using the reference books should have ready access also to the whole stock of books, which in a library as small as that of which we have been speaking means the books in the open-shelf circulation room. An arrangement whereby the reference reader sits in a room that contains, besides the reference books, the whole cir- culating stock, as well as the periodicals, including both current and bound numbers, is evidently most con- venient. But with a very slight increase of size this combination becomes impossible. The first step is usu- ally to remove either the reference readers or those who wish to read only newspapers and periodicals; in other words, to establish a separate periodical reading room or a separate reference room. In the former case the bound 58 WHAT IS " REFERENCE " 1 periodicals are sometimes left in the reference room, which necessitates the frequent sending of these to the reading room, and also the occasional sending of cur- rent issues from reading room to reference room, if du- plicates cannot be afforded. If it is the reference room that is separated, the inconveniences multiply; for, be- sides those above enumerated, the reference reader is re- moved from the main stock of books, and he either neglects to make use of these or else they must be fre- quently sent to and fro. If both reading and reference uses are removed from the circulation room and the two are combined at some remote place, the trouble with the periodicals is eliminated, but the other remains, and in addition such bound volumes of periodicals as are de- sired for circulation must be duplicated. These difficul- ties are minimized when reading, reference and circula- tion rooms can be located at adjacent points, as they may be with a library of moderate size having all or most of its rooms on one floor. In a very large library they are reduced to a minimum in other ways, as by duplication where necessary, by the use of mechanical carriers for quickly delivering books from the stack in any part of the building, and so on. Using " reference use " in its broadest sense, as sig- nifying the use of books in the library building as op- posed to home use through circulation, many of our older libraries are, or originally were, libraries for reference only. Such have now usually been supplemented by the establishment of separate public circulating libraries in the same city, or by the addition of circulation de- partments. The typical central building of a modern American public library has ample provision for both the reference and the home use of books, and generally 59 READING AND REFERENCE ROOMS there is no definite division between the circulating and the reference stock. Certain books, to be sure, may for convenience be shelved in the reference room, and are mostly such as would not ordinarily be required for home use, but there are usually no books, adapted for circulation, that may not be sent to the homes of the users if desired. In the case of certain older librarfes, however, that were established as reference collections and that have since taken on the work of circulating books for home use, a definite line of division must be drawn. In such libraries all books purchased from the income of certain funds must by the terms of the be- quests by which the funds were originally acquired re- main in the library building. After the establishment of a circulating department, especially if the principal circulation of books is carried on in a central building, where the chief reference collection is also located, the problem may be solved by purchasing from reference funds only such books as would properly be placed on the reference shelves. In some cases, however, great col- lections have been brought together before the library has begun to give out books for home use, and it may then contain many thousands of books suitable for circulation that may not leave the shelves except to be used within the building. This is, of course, an unfortunate situation, and there seems to be no way to remedy it. The reference use of books may be roughly classified into three divisions : the looking up of definite points to answer questions that have arisen in any one of various ways ; the combination, simplification, or systematization of previous material; and reading in connection with scientific investigation. 60 REFERENCE QUESTIONS The first kind of use has so multiplied since the ad- vent of the modern public library that to many librari- ans it practically exhausts the possibilities of a reference collection. A simple collection of reference books is one that will enable a person to answer such questions as " How high is Chimborazo? " " "Where and how large is Hankow? " and " How many vibrations per second produce high C? " A more extensive collection would enable one to ascertain, for instance, the best method of dyeing flax purple, the structure of the language used in the Andaman Islands, and the relation of Mendeleef's classification of the elements to previous attempts in the same direction. It cannot be denied that this use of the library as a sort of easily consulted universal cyclopedia is con- venient and useful for the general public. The only thing about it that appears to call for protest is the in- creasing feeling on the part of the consulting public that it is the librarian's business to obtain the desired infor- mation from the books where it may be found and fur- nish it to the inquirer in convenient and proper form for whatever use he may desire to make of it. In many cases it is good policy for the reference librarian to do a favor of this kind, especially if it involves no particular labor. Thus, if the editor of a local newspaper tele- phones to the library to ascertain whether the books available there give the height of a mountain that does not appear in the office gazetteer, it is almost as easy and much more courteous to look up the figures and tele- phone them back than simply to inform the editor that the information is in the library and is at the disposal of anyone that may be sent to obtain it. Agp,in, when a user of the library is in search of an elusive bit of inf or- 61 READING AND REFERENCE ROOMS mation he naturally seeks the help of the librarian, whose knowledge of the books is fresher and more comprehen- sive; and the librarian, if in doubt, will, of course, do considerable searching himself, while indicating to the inquirer other probable sources of the information de- sired. In such cases as these, and in others that may- occur to the reader, it is quite legitimate for a user of the library to ask the reference librarian or his assistants to give personal aid in looking up a point, or even to do the entire work of searching for it. Many library users, however, go much further than this, and call upon li- brary assistants to do work that is quite beyond the sphere of their duty — ^work that should be done by some one employed and paid by the searcher if he has not the time or the ability to perform it himself. Thus the libra- rian may be called upon to compile or copy family trees, to abstract long recipes or bits of narrative, or to pre- pare lists of dates or other numerical statistics. In ex- treme cases probably no librarian would hesitate to re- fuse, but the line between allowable and inadmissible work of this sort is drawn in different places at different libraries, and the persistent demands that are made on most reference libraries for ready-made answers to ques- tions of this kind are having their effect in making their policy more and more liberal in this respect. Probably the answering of busy men's queries over the telephone is coming to be recognized as a perfectly legitimate part of the reference library's work. It is doubtless good policy for the library so to admit it, as this serves to in- fluence public opinion and to establish its position in the community. Especially is it desirable for the library to go a little out of its way in this direction in a com- munity whose reading has been largely trivial and in- 62 BOOK COMPILATION consequential, and where the institution has been re- garded as chiefly of value to women and children. The answering of special questions, calling for defi- nite bits of information, is, however, neither the only nor the most important kind of work that may be done by the reference collection. A large collection of this sort is more or less rich in original sources — ^the narra- tives of travels, events, or scientific investigations by those who have experienced them or carried them on; letters, diaries, and documents; the proceedings of learned societies, and so on. These are not adapted, ex- cept in some eases, for continuous reading, and they are not consulted by the ordinary reader, or even known to him. The works that the ordinary reader does study or read, must, however, be prepared by their aid — ^text- books, treatises, histories, biographies, essays on popular science, history or description of mechanical invention, and so on. Sometimes these works may, in their turn, be used as sources; the data in a popular history or scien- tific treatise may be second or third hand, or even fur- ther removed from the original source, in which ease the chances of inaccuracy are, of course, much increased. The writers who perform this valuable and necessary work of systematization, combination, and simplification are, unfortunately, not all competent. Indeed, one may go so far as to say that complete competence is the ex- ception rather than the rule, unless the compilation cov- ers the narrow ground of a contracted specialty with which the compiler may be thoroughly familiar. The case where the writer of one of these books is personally familiar with all that he describes or narrates is much rarer than most readers suppose. A popular treatise on astronomy by an eminent astronomer touches upon scores 63 READING AND EEFERENCE ROOMS of topics outside of that astronomer's specialty — topics of which he personally knows scarcely more than he does of zoology or botany. Even such a special book, for in- stance, as ' ' The Sun, ' ' by Prof. C. A. Young, who made a study of the subject extending over nearly a lifetime of investigation, describes the results of much research that did not exactly fall within his particular field. All that we can ask of such a compiler or popularizer is a sufficient knowledge of his subject to enable him to se- lect and combine correctly the elements of the informa- tion that he desires to convey. When a compiler does not possess this knowledge, he is very apt to slip up. Much work of this sort is done for the daily papers, and the worker, being in a hurry, prefers to do his compiling at second hand, using popular works, cyclopedia arti- cles, and essays in reviews, in which the original material has already undergone a preliminary sifting and ar- rangement. Often such work amounts to no more than a reuniting in different form of some one previous com- pilation, such as a cyclopedia article ; and this may serve its purpose well enough. It is common opinion that the expert compiler of a valuable treatise from first-hand sources must go far afield for his data and consume many years in putting them together. This may or may not be true; but it is undoubtedly a fact that a sufficient assemblage of data is easier to find than intelligence and ability in combining and discussing them. Almost any good library contains undigested material that, in the hands of the proper per- son, is capable of yielding results of value to the world. Freeman, the historian, astonished some admirers by tell- ing them that he had, around the walls of his own study, all the volumes that he desired to consult in writing his 64 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION historical works, and that it was not necessary for him, as they had supposed, to visit constantly the great libra- ries in London, Paris, Vienna, and St. Petersburg. Many others had easy access to practically the same assemblage of books ; yet there is only one Freeman. "When the value of careful, intelligent, expert work of this kind is more generally realized it will be done better than it is. Readers will insist upon more read- able and more accurate work; publishers will cease to prize speed of execution above all else; writers will re- fuse to give to the public except of their best. The great mass of informational literature must be produced in this way, and the public library is its laboratory. Pos- sibly the library, by broadening its collections and mak- ing them bear more and more upon this valuable func- tion, instead of directing them wholly to the satisfaction of more or less desultory questioning, may hasten this happy day. The third use of a reference library, as an aid in investigation, is somewhat closely related to the second. As investigation in this country is usually carried on in connection with university work and by university pro- fessors or students, the public library, especially in smaller towns, is not so often called upon to perform this function, except when we interpret the word " in- vestigation " very widely. The man who decides to investigate, we will say, the properties of a new alloy, or some recently discovered phenomena that may be due to a new form of radiation, or — ^to go beyond the limits of physical science — some events in the life of a Revolutionary general that have been imperfectly cleared up, will want to know, first of all, whether the subject has been investigated, or dis- 65 READING AND REFERENCE ROOMS cussed, or even casually touched upon, by others. The literature that he finds may be so rich, so varied, and so complete that he will decide to give up his course of experiments altogether. Or, if he does not, their num- ber and kind and the way in which they are carried on may be determined by what he discovers in the existing literature of the subject. An investigation entered upon hastily and without a thorough preliminary study of this kind is likely to be quite wasted, and the existing amount of duplicate inventions and discoveries and of learned discussions not so well done as they have been done al- ready is sufficiently great to make the judicious grieve. It is the library alone that can furnish inventors, inves- tigators, and students of all kinds the opportunity to forestall this kind of wasteful effort. And since inves- tigation is more and more indulged in by the ordinary citizen, the public library should come as much as pos- sible to his aid. It is estimated that many thousands of persons are now at work on dirigible balloons or aero- planes. Doubtless a very large percentage of these are laboring with little preliminary study or knowledge, and will produce unworkable machines. Because of ignorant attempts of this kind, the United States Patent Office has been described by a great economist as the most melancholy place in the world — a museum of misdirected effort. If the public library does its duty, effort of this kind will be less in the future than in the past. How shall the use of the reading and reference rooms be regulated? This is a more difficult question in a small library or in one of moderate size than in a large one. It is obviously well to place as little hin- drance as may be in the way of the business man who runs in for a moment to glance at the dictionary or 66 READING-ROOM USB cyclopedia, to look at the city directory or the gazetteer, or to consult a time-table. To stop such a man in order that he may sign his name to something or account for himself in any way is little less than an outrage. On the other hand, a man who desires that a special study room be reserved for him, with a considerable collection of valuable books at his disposal for some time, should evidently be required to establish not only his responsi- bility, but his standing as a student or as a writer, be- fore such a privilege is granted him. Between these extremes lie many classes of so-called " reference " users. For the casual and hasty consulter of diction- aries, ete.^ a separate room, to which access is absolutely free, may be provided by the large libraries. The small libraries, however, often have reference books of all kinds in the same inclosure with the circulating collec- tion, and sometimes also with a general reading room. What shall such libraries do? To admit the public without formality means more or less confusion between card holders and noncard holders. Some cut the Gor- dian knot by admitting none but card holders, thus requiring the busy consulter of a cyclopedia to go through precisely the same formalities as if he desired to draw books for home use for himself and his family. Others use small identification tickets. Where there is a separate reading room for newspapers and periodicals it is often possible to admit the public freely, although some libraries require readers to enter names and ad- dresses in a book. In a reading room of this kind the library often has trouble in excluding the " tramp " element — rough and often dirty persons who come to lounge or rest, perhaps to sleep, rarely to read; and who often occupy seats to the exclusion of legitimate or 6 67 READING AND REFERENCE ROOMS actual readers. Such trouble may be mitigated by the issue of tickets. In libraries where the newspaper read- ing room is somewhat inaccessible there is little annoy- ance of this kind. Thus in most of the branch libraries in New York, where the reading room generally occu- pies the third story, it is almost entirely absent. Per- sons willing to climb to the third story are those who are genuinely desirous of reading. The rooms were thus located, however, not for this reason, but because the cost of land made a three-story structure necessary and the reading room seemed to be the best department to put at the top. In many libraries care is taken to place this room, especially when restricted to newspapers alone, in a place as accessible as possible from the street, and no effort is made to keep out tramps. The result is usually an objectionable room, which is regarded as a sort of necessary evil. This evil seems to have reached much larger proportions abroad than in American pub- lic libraries, and English librarians are seriously consid- ering the abolition of the newspaper room. Even in this country some libraries have ceased to subscribe to news- papers, on the ground that their presence attracts an undesirable element, and that their cheapness makes them accessible to almost everyone. It would seem a pity, however, to proceed to this extreme. The daily paper is certainly as legitimate and as useful a period- ical publication as those issued weekly, monthly, or quarterly. Its presence does not attract undesirable readers so much as the position and ready accessibility of the room in which it is generally kept. Although most readers buy one or two papers every day, a com- parison of half a dozen sheets in order to obtain, for in- stance, different accounts of the same event, is usually 68 MAPS possible only in a reading room. It is difficult also to obtain files elsewhere. A large library will generally keep these very freely for a short time, say a year from issue, and will bind and shelve permanently as many as it may, Even the smallest library should keep a file of one local paper for as long a time as it can. In a sys- tem of branches it is often possible for each branch to file some one paper, and thus to make, through an inter- branch loan system, a very large number of files access- ible to readers. In keeping files, preference may be given to papers, like the New York Tribune, which issue an annual index, although such an index is of almost as much value in searching other dailies as for the one to which it refers directly. Among special collections that are looked for in al- most all large and some small reference libraries are those of maps, prints, manuscripts, government docu- ments, historical and genealogical material, and music. Maps are useful in small libraries as well as large ones, and many of the best are to be found outside of atlases, which are usually related to the original surveys, somewhat as the compilations that we have been discuss- ing above are related to original research. A large part of the original documents in the present case consist of topographic maps of different countries issued by their various governments. Unfortunately, these are not on the same scale, and there is no reliable standard map of the entire civilized world. Various civilized states have now agreed to combine in the issue of a map of the world on the uniform scale of 1 to 1,000,000 (about sixteen miles to the inch), and such a map is in proc- ess of preparation. Maps should be kept and indexed, even by small libraries that are not making special col- 69 READING AND REFERENCE ROOMS lections. There "are very many ways of keeping them in order. Maps that are to be consulted freely by the public may, of course, be hung upon the wall or may be mounted on rollers in sets. Others may be cut into uniform pieces and kept in shallow drawers. None should be folded, as the map will soon become illegible not only at the fold, but for some distance on either side. The " dissected " map can easily be put together for purposes of consultation, and if likely to be used a good deal, the separate pieces may be mounted on heavy paper or on linen. Prints should be collected by all libraries. Their uses are treated at length in another chapter. Manu- scripts may form a considerable and valuable part of a large public collection. In a small public library it is better to include only those of local interest, and then only when there is no local historical society. Local archives will naturally be cared for by the municipality. In case, however, that the librarian sees valuable mate- rial going to destruction under the care of either or both of such bodies, he may plausibly offer to aet as their custodian, and may thereby save material of no lit- tle value. Manuscripts in faded ink may be photo- graphed while photography is still able to preserve something of their contents. Brittle papers, especially when folded, may be spread out and mended with trans- parent paper, or even protected on one or both sides with coarse gauze. Some may be best preserved in serapbooks with transparent leaves of tough onion-skin paper. In order tp preserve the contents of some such documents permanently it is often necessary to put them into print. This may be done by the library itself, in its bulletin or in a separate series of publications. In a 70 MUSIC small town library the local paper will often be glad to print material of this kind. Small libraries may also un- dertake to keep together much of the local historical and genealogical material, and the large public library often contains such material in general, sometimes in considerable amounts, even in duplication of the collec- tions of historical or genealogical societies in the same city. Such duplication is objectionable as leading to waste of energy in collecting and of space in preserving. Either the public library's collection should be turned over to the society on its consent to give the general public access to the whole, on the same terms that the library would do; or the latter institution should house and care for the entire collection, without transfer of ownership of the society's part of it. Music, in the average public library, is probably of more value as part of the circulating than of the refer- ence collection, yet the largest and best collections in the United States are held for use in the library, where they are of value to no one but the student. In libraries where music is circulated the demand for it is great, and it would seem that the library may be able to play a great part in the popularization of good music. The cir- culation of pianola rolls and of phonograph records has also been proposed, with the same end in view, and has even been tried experimentally in one or two places. It would seem, at any rate, as if a large reference collec- tion of music scores necessarily implied the presence in the library of a sound-proof room for the execution of musical numbers. Such a room should contain a piano, but users desiring to execute concerted pieces will nat- urally bring their instruments with them. Government documents are a bugbear to many libra- 71 READING AND REFERENCE ROOMS ries, especially to small institutions that have been made official depositaries and are obliged to receive and store tons of material that they cannot use. Possibly at some future time the depositary libraries will be limited to a few of the very large institutions, named definitely by act of Congress, so that the privilege cannot be taken away or bestowed at the caprice of a local representa- tive; and all libraries that conform to certain specified regulations will be furnished free, on demand, with all documents of a specified, kind and grade. At present we have certain libraries getting more than they want and others that are obliged to pay for what they can use. The large library will, of course, receive, shelve, and index everything published by our own Govern- ment, and will include, besides, much that can be ob- tained from foreign governments. All this will form part of the reference collection. The library of moder- ate size, not a depositary, is inclined to disregard all gov- ernment publications, which is a pity. The Government of the United States is the largest publisher in the world, and, like other publishers, it issues material of very different kinds — almost everything except fiction. It publishes readable biography, history, travel, science, and art. Unfortunately, this fact is concealed, in most cases, by the main title page, which states simply that the book is a report to some bureau chief, or is No. 4,114 of a series issued by a certain department. On a second title page we have the real title and the author 's name ; and it is this that should be used by the small library. Disregarding catalogue rules, such a library should con- ceal as faithfully as possible from its readers that a cer- tain interesting book is a government document. The revelation of this damning fact would probably insure 72 DOCUMENTS; DUPLICATION it permanent immunity from use. It should be cata- logued and shelved as if issued by any other publisher — a perfectly logical treatment, under these conditions — when it will doubtless be popular. If the book is pri- marily for reference it will go on the reference shelves ; otherwise, it should circulate. Much of what has been said applies also to state and municipal documents, ex- cept that small libraries will naturally make available more of the latter. A library that would have no use for the report of the Third Assistant Comptroller of the Treasury will find a place on its shelves for the an- nual reports of its local board of education, water commissioner, and so on. "Whether it keeps an entire set of all these will depejid largely on whether the town or city does so and how available to the public these are. We have spoken above of objectionable duplications in historical and genealogical material. The discussion of this subject may be carried much further. In towns where there is more than one library accessible to the public, these should reach as soon as possible some modus Vivendi that will prevent the useless duplication of any class of literature. This may usually be done by agreeing to specialize. For example, in Chicago such an agreement has been made by the Public Library, the John Crerar Library, and the Newberry Library. The Public Library specializes in general literature, the John Crerar in science, and the Newberry in history, economics, and so on. In pursuance of this policy, the Newberry Library has even transferred to the John Crerar its medical collection, which had reached a con- siderable size. Such action is evidently a long step toward the complete understanding between civic insti- 73 READING AND REFERENCE ROOMS tutions that is so much to be desired; and it deserves the highest commendation. . • In New York the consolidation of the large refer- ence collections in the Astor and Lenox libraries made specialization not only possible, but necessary between these two. All the books on genealogy and on music are now in the Lenox building, while the Astor has been made a general reference collection for scholars and for the ordinary man. Where valuable public or semipub- lic collections on special subjects exist elsewhere in the city the Public Library does not purchase additions in these subjects. It thus leaves law to the Bar Associa- tion Library, medicine to that of the Academy of Medi- cine, engineering to the library of the united engineer- ing societies, and architecture to Columbia University. Although such a policy scatters reference books rather widely, it is, as has been said, merely of the nature of a modus Vivendi. Where consolidation is possible, it may be better to have but one institution ; where it is not, it is certainly better that the existing institutions should divide the field of purchase and not waste their money in useless duplication. Another way in which library solidarity is now pro- moted is through interlibrary loans. Of what benefit the free interchange of books among the members of a branch-library system may be, we shaU see in another chapter. Such interchange is of even greater value be- tween large reference libraries, and it is taking place with increasing frequency. Through its means scholars and investigators are often saved long journeys to dis- tant parts of the country. If it should become still more common, it might make possible and desirable a division of the field of purchase, in certain directions, 74 INTERLIBRARY LOANS among libraries in the same region, similar to that which is taking place among libraries in the same city. That this may be, however, we must have cheap trans- mission of books by post, which is not yet, and may never be, an accomplished fact. CHAPTER VI THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD The recognition of the need of a special attitude of the library toward children is one of the features of the " modern library idea," and one that has been most criticised by " old-fashioned " librarians. Some of its manifestations in American public libraries are ridi- culed by our English critics as absurd and extravagant to the last degree. Prom the viewpoint that has been termed " old-fashioned " in this book — ^namely, the opinion that the facilities of a library are to be con- fined to those who care for them and who seek them vol- untarily — ^there is, of course, little place for children in any library. Children would not think of seeking a library unless some pains were taken to tell them of it and to show them how they might derive pleasure and profit from it. It is impossible, however, to maintain the " old-fashioned " attitude when once it is admitted that a library is part of our educational plant. As well might we open the schools only to those who seek them voluntarily. This attitude is defensible in the higher, but scarcely in primary education. In the training of children, guidance and control are necessary, and if they are to benefit by our libraries, their steps must be di- rected toward the institution and their use of it must be closely overseen. This fact became recognized in some American public libraries sooner than others, but before 76 HISTORY the year 1890 there seems to have been no systematic effort to provide library facilities especially for chil- dren. The necessity of these was realized in the Middle West before it became evident in the East, and the ad- vent of the children's room, in its present form, was also greatly hastened by the adoption of the open-shelf system. In some of the older libraries the existence of books written especially for children was not even rec- ognized ; adults were supplied with history, science, and fiction, while the boy or girl who desired to read a chil- dren's story was forced to borrow or buy. And pur- chase, owing to the slimness of children's purses, too often meant the " dime novel." Special effort to help the children appeared at first in at least four forms — the children's corner, the sepa- rate children's library, the children's reacling room, and the children's room as at present administered. When books for children were first introduced into closed-shelf libraries no special method of treatment was necessary. Children made out their call slips like the adults and presented them at the same desk. But as soon as the shelves were thrown open to the public, matters assumed a somewhat different shape. Juvenile fiction being clas- sified and shelved by itself, the children were somewhat segregated from the other users, but, as their nonfiction books were still shelved with those for adults, the juve- nile users were more or less scattered about the shelves, where they interfered to some extent with adult users of the library. Complaints led to the natural expedient of removing all children's books from the adult shelves and shelving them near the juvenile fiction, making a chil- dren's corner, where the younger, readers could be kept more or less by themselves. The next step was the pro- 77 THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD vision of a separate room, or at least of a separate read- ing room, for children. In some cases the experiment of separate children's libraries was tried. The old Fifth Street branch of the Aguilar Free Library, in New York, was such a library, but it, like most others of its kind, was merged in a branch library of the ordinary type when the separation of the children from the adults in such a library became sufficiently marked. The establishment of separate children's libraries seems to have been due, in some cases, to unwillingness to operate an open-shelf children's room in the same build- ing with a closed-shelf library for adults. Additional historical material regarding children's libraries will be found in Chapter II. It is interesting to see how the tendency to make of the children's department a prac- tically separate library, with its own books, circulation, catalogues, statistics, and staff, has gradually but surely made itself felt. In very many cases the separation has not yet become completely effective. Even where the department is in a room of its own, books may be charged and discharged at the main desk, or they may be charged in the children's room and dis- charged at the main desk. Some children's rooms have yet no separate catalogue, or even no sepa- rate shelf list of their books; in some all the activi- ties but registration are separate, and this is carried on at the main registration desk. In many rooms there is no separate staff, or at most a separate assistant in charge, the others being drafted from the main staff or taken in rotation from that staff. It need not be implied that incomplete separation is necessarily objectionable ; there may be good reasons for it. In a small building, especially that of a branch, 78 TYPES OF WORK where the children occupy one end and the adults the other, with the charging desk between them, this one desk may be quite sufficient for all purposes; and there may also be justification for any other of the arrange- ments noted above. Yet the tendency, as has been said, is undoubtedly toward separate administration in all particulars, and especially in large libraries it is easy to carry it out completely. Of course, the effort to remove the children to a place where they will cause no annoyance to the adults has been only one cause of their segregation, though it has been a potent one. In some cases it seemed the only alternative to loss of the entire adult circulation. The children drove out the grown people, as bad money drives out good — although perhaps the simile is inap- propriate. Children usually do not mind noise and crowding, whereas adults are apt to object to both; hence the inevitable result. Another potent factor has been closely connected M'ith the recognition of the library's educational func- tions. As soon as the desirability of supervising chil- dren's reading becomes evident, it is seen at once that this cannot be done effectively without separation and the care of persons trained to do just this kind of work. With separation has come more or less subdivision of activities. In general it may be said that, in a typical children's department of an American public library, some or all of the following kinds of work are carried on: (1) Controlled and guided circulation of books for home use; (2) use of books and periodicals as in an or- dinary reading room; (3) reference use of books, largely in connection with school work; (4) work with very 79 THE LIBKART AND THE CHILD young children, chiefly by means of picture books; (5) exhibitions, the display of illustrated bulletins, etc., always in connection with courses of reading; (6) story- telling to selected groups. Taking up these activities one by one, we meet first with the necessity of a careful selection of books for the children's room. Possibly no subject connected with the administration of the modern library has given rise to more controversy than this. Opinions with regard to it have varied all the way from that of him who would include everything that children like to read, provided only its moral tendency is not bad, to that of him who would exclude all that possesses no literary value. Re- garding the advisability of keeping out morally bad books there have, of course, been no two opinions, yet the line has been drawn in widely different places. Some would exclude, for instance, such books as " Tom Sawyer " and " Huckleberry Finn "; some object to favorite folk-tales that show a primitive callousness to human suffering or are told with what seems to be un- necessary coarseness ; some object to all stories of war — and so on. In fact, were the selector of children's books to exclude all to which anyone has made objection, few titles would be left. A wise middle course has been fol- lowed in most cases, and we have some excellent lists to serve as a basis for selection. If these may be criticised, it is probably from the standpoint of those who regret that they are not more often made out by men. It is doubtless a pity that the masculine point of view has not oftener been available in this kind of selection. The tendency, however, has been constantly toward greater refinement, sanity, and wholesomeness, toward natural- ness and simplicity of expression and away from sensa- 80 BOOK SELECTION tionalism, false views of life, vulgarity, and abnormality of all sorts. This tendency is doubtless due in part to feminine influence, and if it has in some eases gone, too far, no great harm is done. It must not be forgotten, however, that the library is only one channel through which the public obtains its reading matter. Librarians appear to think, at times, that their selection of books controls the public supply, whereas it may only drive the readers to other sources. If the exclusion of books of a given type from the children's room serves only to mag- nify the influence of books purchased or borrowed — more objectionable specimens of the same type — the ex- clusion, as a stroke of policy, evidently is not beyond criticism. The true method' of control is to operate on the desires of the reader. If the child's taste may be so cultivated that he will prefer the good to the bad, the natural to the exaggerated, the wholesome to the sensa- tional, the hoped-for result has been achieved. This is what is done by the properly administered children's room; the activities of the assistant who has such a room in charge are thus supplementary to those of the book selector. Neither can achieve her result without the other. The number of books on the shelves of the room is very important. No circulation responds more quickly to an increase in the stock than that of the children's room, and in a large city where the number of users of such a room is great it may be difBcult for the supply to keep up with the demand. In fact, the casual ob- server often makes the mistake of supposing that condi- tions are more satisfactory in a room where the shelves are well filled than in one where they are empty. The fact may be, and generally is, that in the former the 81 THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD selection is not well adapted to its constituency, with a resulting small use; while in the latter there is a much larger, but well-selected stock, so that the circulation is great, and books are taken out again as soon as they come in, so that none remain on the shelves. It cannot be pretended that this is a satisfactory state of affairs. Discipline, the quality of the reading, the development of a real interest in books, all go on better with plenty of books on the shelves ; but it is far preferable to the former. With regard to methods of guiding the child's read- ing, of adapting the book to the child and the child to the book, personal contact and advice is, of course, the most effective. The room should have a separate cata- logue, especially adapted for the use of the younger readers, as in the use of simplified subject headings; and the children should be taught its meaning and value, and encouraged to use it. Some effort should be made to ascertain the bent of mind and also the intellectual needs of the individual child. It has been charged that of books withdrawn from libraries for home use by chil- dren many are not read at all, and that only a small pro- portion of the remainder are read intelligently. Thero is more truth in this charge than most librarians care to admit, and the remedy lies in the employment of intelli- gent and effective assistance in the children's room. The disciplinary side of the Mork is also of great importance ; it is not necessary to keep the room so quiet as to make it distasteful to the users, but quite as much distaste will result from a lack of orderly administration. As- sistants who ' ' are fond of children ' ' are often the very worst persons to do work in a children's room. She whose influence is most felt, and felt in the best direc- 82 GUIDANCE OF READING tion, is she whose authority, while gentle, is recognized and obeyed. Home use, of course, is only one of the ways in which the books in a children's room are and should be used. In some places many children have no quiet place to read in their cramped homes, and it may be desirable to encourage these to read their books in the library. As in the adult reading room, certain periodicals are often kept for reading in the building and are not allowed to circulate. A children's reading room of this kind may, in a small library, be simply the space inclosed by the shelved walls; in a larger building it may be this or a separate space, in which ease it may be administered as a room within or without the charging desk. If the former, the only means of access will be from the circu- lating space. Readers will carry thither freely books from the shelves, and will charge these only when they wish to take them home, in which case they must evi- dently pass the charging desk to get out. In the latter case, there will be no access from the circulating space, but only from the lobby outside. No books from the circulating shelves may be read therein without first being charged to the holder at the desk, although some books, not for home use, may be shelved in the reading room. Both these plans have their advantages. Some authorities on children's rooms object to the use of any reading space that is not within the charging desk, be- lieving that its surveillance is difficult, but there are obvious advantages in providing a place that may be used by children whose books have already been charged, and such a space does not need surveillance, except for keeping order, or unless books are shelved in it. If there is a reference collection of any size for the children, 7 83 THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD especially if it is used in connection with their school work, it will preferably be placed within the 5esk, al- though it may go in an outer space if an attendant is always present to care for it. The fourth class of work listed above, namely, work with very young children, will also naturally be done in- side the desk. Before children were recognized as a sep- arate class to be dealt with by the library somewhat dif- ferently from adults, it was common for libraries to have an ' ' age limit ' ' — that is, cards were issued only to children above a specified age, usually ten to twelve years. The idea, of course, was that children below this age were not competent to take advantage of the facili- ties offered by the library. But with the introduction of children's rooms it was realized that no hard-and-fast line of this sort may be drawn with advantage. Many children of eight are able to read and profit by books, while many of thirteen are scarcely competent to do so. Besides this, if the library is to guide the child's read- ing, it is desirable that he should as early as possible fall into the habit of visiting the library, and should become accustomed to being governed somewhat by the librarian's advice in the choice of books. It is, of course, inexpedient to issue books for reading to chil- dren who cannot read, but if the library has good col- ored-picture books for circulation, very young children may properly hold cards. In the New York Public Li- brary every children's room has a carefully chosen col- lection of colored-picture books for young children, which is not allowed to circulate. Sometimes these are shown to the children only at stated intervals. They are selected with care for the excellence of the illustrations, which are by artists of merit, such as Boutet de Monvel, 84 PICTURE BULLETINS Walter Crane, and Howard Pyle. Besides this collec- tion, there are usually also picture books for circulation among those too young to read. Children very commonly bring with them to the li- brary their younger brothers and sisters. Sometimes these have been intrusted to their care, and they cannot leave them if they would. To see these little ones sit- ting disconsolately on benches in the lobby, looking with wistful eyes at the treasures in which they are not al- lowed to share, is a sight that should soften the heart of any library trustee so obdurate as to keep the " age limit " on his list of rules and regulations. Brains have no definite age limit; neither should the library. The display of pictures or illustrated objects in a children 's room may take place in several different ways. It may be freely granted, in the first place, that a chil- dren's room is neither an art gallery nor a museum, and that it may not properly be turned into either. At the same time pictures and objects may both stimulate the interest of children in certain subjects and direct their attention in desired directions. It may be laid down as a fairly hard-and-fast rule that all such exhibitions are best when temporary. This applies even to wall pic- tures for purely decorative purposes, which are specially treated in another chapter. The Japanese have the right idea ; too many pictures distract the mind, and the long continuance of any one of them in view dulls its effect. Our old friend the picture bulletin first demands at- tention. It has been condemned of late because its manufacture takes valuable time better spent in other work. There is no doubt that much time has been spent uselessly on picture bulletins. Unless the maker is an artist, attempts to produce art effects are apt to result 85 THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD somewhat sadly. The best bulletins are those that are simple and easily made. I have seen an exquisite bul- letin on laee, traced out with white ink on a background of black Bristol board. It must have occupied many days in the making, but an equally good effect could have been produced by simply pasting cheap lace on the board at an expense of a few cents in money and of a few minutes of time. These bulletins should be what their name implies — lists of books, with illustra- tions intended to draw attention to the lists. The illus- trations must be striking, so as to arrest the attention, but especial pains should be taken with the list itself and with the manner of its presentation. Bulletins arc frequently seen whose lists are illegible, or ill-consid- ered, or altogether absent, where great pains have been taken with the pictures. It must not be thought that artistic bulletins in whose production much time has been consumed, with a good result, are to be condemned per se. Such are sometimes made by volunteers of artistic ability and are well worth using. But it is rarely worth while for them to be made in library hours by an assistant. Both illustrated bulletins and collections of prints, whether to mark a particular event or anniversary or simply to stimulate general interest in some one line of reading, should be frequently replaced. In libraries having systems of branches such exhibitions may travel from branch to branch. The same is true of museum exhibits. Collections of random curiosities do little good. In small town libraries, in places where there is no local museum, permanent collections of local miner- als, insects, or birds may be installed to advantage if there is room for them, but generally temporary shows 86 EXHIBITIONS on some limited subject are best. These may be held in connection with exhibitions of pictures on the same sub- ject, and may be emphasized with story hours. Such exhibitions may be gathered in various ways, or may be borrowed whole from industrial concerns or from the larger museums, where such exist in the same city as the library. Loan collections of this kind have been sent to various branches of the New York Public Li- brary by the Museum of Natural History for several years. To illustrate the possibilities, special mention may be made of an Arctic exhibition lent by this insti- tution to several branches. This consisted of all sorts of real Eskimo utensils and articles of dress, with two artistically stuffed polar-bear cubs, a beautiful fur dress, and the actual sledge made by Lieutenant Peary for his " snow baby," together with many Arctic pho- tographs. At intervals Arctic stories (Northern ex- ploration and Eskimo legends) were told to selected groups of children, and one of the assistants, dressed in the fur suit, served as an additional ' ' exhibit. ' ' All this, it will be noted, comes pretty close to the kind of work that is characterized as absurd by our British friends. Yet the result was to arouse the greatest in- terest in the Arctic regions among the children in the neighborhood (mostly Irish and Italians), and the cir- culation of books on Arctic exploration became very large. Probably this result, which can scarcely fail to have a permanent educational effect in the localities where the exhibition was shown, could have been achieved in no other way. It will be observed that the actual book was not ob- truded in this case. It is quite true that such exhibi- tions have no reason for being unless they lead to the 87 THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD book; but they may lead to it more effectively if the connection is not forced. At lectures held by the Board of Education in New York City libraries the library in each case remains open for a half hour after the lec- ture, and the lecturer announces to his audience that books on the subject of the lecture may be obtained at its close. There can be no doubt that these lectures stimulate the circulation of books on their subjects and on others related to them; yet the immediate post-lec- ture circulation has been almost nil. Rarely are more than two or three volumes taken out in this way at any particular lecture, and sometimes weeks pass without the lending of a single one. The library should have a plentiful supply of books likely to be called for under the stimulus of an exhibition or a lecture; but to hand out the book directly is as apt to repel the spectator or hearer as it is to please or satisfy him. This is true also, of story -telling. The object of the story in a library is, of course, to stimulate interest in books, but it may do this in various ways without ad- vertising any particular book or seeming to force it upon the reader. A good story acts by creating a de- sire, and when this effect has once been produced noth- ing more is necessary but a supply of books that will satisfy the desire. Often a series of stories does noth- ing more than to create an atmosphere in which it is easier to guide the children to good books. Often such a series stimulates interest in a subject, or, again, in a new author, serving as an introduction to the works of some one with whom the children have been hitherto unfamiliar. The exact role of story-telling in a library has been the subject of much controversy; it is even considered 88 STORY HOURS by some authorities as a waste of time, if not entirely out of place. Doubtless stories, as they have been told in some libraries, merit these criticisms; yet there ap- pears to be no doubt that in the hands of competent persons and under proper direction they may be an efS- cient aid in carrying on the activities of the modern children's room. The selection of the group to which the story is to be told, and the choosing of the proper tales to be used with each group, are both of importance. The group should not be too large (twenty to forty), and its selec- tion thus becomes a matter of necessity. To make at- tendance a reward of merit for good behavior in the library, the absence of fines, etc., is not good policy. Neither is the plan of " first come, first served." The best way is for the librarian to pick out those children that, in her opinion, will most appreciate the story to be told and benefit by it. Evidently the members of a group will be nearly of an age and of about the same school grade. It will often be satisfactory to leave the selection to a teacher, especially if the cycle of stories to be told has any relationship to the school work. The success of a story hour depends more than any- thing else, of course, upon the personality and ability of the teller. Not everyone can tell a story, and belief in one's own gifts as a raconteur, either to adults or to children, is by no means an evidence of the possession of such gifts. Certain objections to the provision of separate quar- ters for children in libraries are legitimate and deserve consideration. The assertion that the whole movement is abnormal and a " fad " can scarcely be substanti- ated by citation of some foolish or trivial things that 89 THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD have been done in its name. We shall not mention this further, but go on to some of the real disadvantages of work with children as it is now carried on in American public libraries. First of all, anything that is done for the child, as a child, without explicit recognition of the fact that childhood is temporary and only a prep- aration for the permanent or adult stage requires very careful scrutiny. All who have dealt for years with children of the same age find it diificult to avoid think- ing of children as a race apart. The ripple near the stone in the stream looks steady and permanent, though it is made up at every instant of different particles of water flowing swiftly past. Are we forgetting, in our children's rooms, that the child of to-day is to be the man or woman of to-morrow? Do not literature for children and exhibitions and stories for children tend to prevent instead of to facilitate their passage to the adult stage? This is a serious question; but to under- stand it and appreciate its seriousness is to answer it satisfactorily. Doubtless the growing child will derive more benefit from an open-shelf adult library than from a children's room containing nothing but books for the very young; but it is quite possible to include in the collection for children those adult books that are most desirable for them to read. Judicious recogni- tion of the needs and desires of children who are pass- ing out of childhood is a desideratum in the children's room, and the modern library, it is safe to say, is pretty uniformly taking this into account. Again: Is there not too much supervision of the children in our libraries? Is it not better to leave the child to discover something for himself than always to point it out to him ? Now, there are no intellectual joys 90 OBJECTIONS equal to those of discovery. The boy or girl who stum- bles on one of the world 's masterpieces, without know- ing what anyone else thinks or has thought about it, and reading it, admires and loves it, will have that book throughout life as a peculiar intellectual posses- sion in a way that would have been impossible if some one had advised reading it and had described it as a masterpiece. Nay, the very fact that one is advised to read a book because one oiight to do so is apt to arouse the same feeling of repulsion that caused the Athenian citizen to vote for the banishment of Aristides just be- cause he had become so weary of hearing him always called " The Just." This, too, is a solid objection; but, like the other, it applies rather to ill-managed than to properly equipped rooms for children. In order to experience the joys of discovery it is not positively nec- essary that the discoverer should happen upon what he finds quite by accident. The friend who advises me to walk down a certain path, knowing that in an hour's time the glories of a sublime mountain view will burst suddenly upon me, has prepared for me a pleasure quite as exquisite as I should have experienced had I chosen my walk at haphazard. We may thus prepare literary surprises for our children ; and we should do so in our libraries if we are not to deprive them of the sweetest of intellectual joys. The well-managed chil- dren's room, with plenty of books on its shelves, will give its users the opportunity of " browsing " and of making discoveries of just this kind. Quite a different objection is sometimes heard from the teacher. The library, it is said, interferes with the work of the school by giving the child something besides his lesson to occupy his mind. Recreation, of course, is 91 THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD needed, but his recreation should be largely physical, while the library tempts the child to use his eyes in reading, and his mind in assimilating what he reads, at times when he should be playing outdoors. I have known a teacher to send an earnest request to a neigh- boring library to close its children's room at the noon hour for this reason. Now we have here a very cogent reason for close co- operation between library and school, but not one for discontinuing the use of the former by children who at- tend the latter. In the first place, children do need intellectual as well as physical recreation. These should be properly proportioned, but neither can be spared. For children of school age, the number of recreative books that may be withdrawn for reading in a given period may well be limited by the library, after consulta- tion with teacher and parent ; possibly also the length of time in which the school child may remain daily in the library building may be limited; but the idea that the proper use of a library will interfere in any way with the proper development of a child's mind through formal educative processes is not only an error, but a dangerous one. Perhaps this is the point to introduce the idea, which will possibly be new to some, that ' ' work in a children 's room " and " work with children " are not necessarily the same thing. A large library does a considerable part of its work with children outside of the rooms that it provides for this purpose. It sends out books to the schools and it provides collections for deposit stations. All of the former and a normal proportion of the latter are used by children. Children also have access to most of the books that are carried home by adults, and doubt- 92 DISCIPLINE less read many of them. What we do in our children's rooms, therefore, does not represent the sum total of the library's " work with children." It does, however, in- clude all that is done formally; and if the children's librarian does not lose sight of the two facts that the children have access to other library books than hers, and that many of them have access to books entirely out- side of the library and apart from its influence, she will do her work with more insight and will accomplish bet- ter results. Nothing, so far, has been said of the discipline of the room or of its methods; and it is just as well not to press this point. Discipline must, of course, be maintained, though it need not, and ought not, to be the discipline of the schoolroom. A certain amount of noise is inevitable, and is unobjectionable, provided it is " li- brary noise " — ^that is, noise due to activity connected with the charging and discharging of books, the selection of books from the shelves, or even the occasional ex- change of remarks and criticism — not the din of aim- less rambling about or of desultory conversation on outside topics. The danger that adult readers may be annoyed by this " library noise " is a good argument for placing the children's room on a separate floor or, at any rate, for surrounding it with sound-proof partitions. Probably the greatest aid to discipline in the library and to securing the proper care of the books at home is the instilling of a spirit of ownership and responsibility into the children. This may be done in numerous ways. One of the most effective is the plan of " self -registra- tion," by which the children themselves write their names on the pages of the registry book, under a simply worded pledge to keep the rules of the library and take 93 THE LIBRARY AND THE CHILD care of its property. This pledge is read over aloud by each child before signing, and the little formality often has a wonderful effect. Similar results have been sought, and often attained, by the formation of so-called ' ' library leagues, ' ' whose members sign a similar pledge and wear an appropriate badge. The formation of leagues, clubs, and societies among the children, however, needs careful supervision. Very successful boys' and girls' literary clubs have often been organized in con- nection with children's rooms, and have done much to arouse and sustain interest in good reading; but they need the sort of control that is effective rather than evi- dent, and no librarian who has not both the ability and the time to exercise this sort of guidance should try the experiment. **" As for the shape, position, and equipment of the chil- dren 's room, these will, of course, vary with the size of the library, the conditions under which it is working, and the theory on which it is administered, as indicated in various preceding sections of this chapter. The shelv- ing should be confined to the walls if possible; formality should be avoided and a homelike and cozy look culti- vated. A fireplace is an effective aid in this direction. In a small room an ordinary flat-top desk may be suffi- cient for the charging and discharging of books; in a large room operated on the plan of complete separation the adult charging desk may be duplicated, with all its appliances, including those for registration. Where the children are numerous and inclined to be unruly, the space within the desk may be separated from the lobby without by glass partitions sufficiently high to prevent the handing over of books. In many rooms this precau- tion is unnecessary. 94 CHAPTER VII THE LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL If the public library is an integral part of public education, its relations with the school must evidently be close. Too close an administrative connection, however, has not been beneficial to the library. In many towns the public library is a component part of the local edu- cational system, under the jurisdiction of the Board of Education. In some places this plan seems to have werijed well, but it has generally been found that when the control of a public library is vested in a body cre- ated originally for another purpose it is regarded as of secondary importance and its development is retarded. It is better that the library should have its own board of trustees, and that the two institutions should cooper- ate in the freest manner. Such mutual aid is, of course, founded on the fact that the educational work of both school and library is carried on largely by means of books. That of the school is formal, compulsory, and limited in time; that of the library is informal, volun- tary, and practically unlimited. It is greatly to the ad- vantage of the scholar, and of those informal processes of training that are going on constantly during life whether he wills it or not, that he should form the habit of consulting and using books outside of the school. When books are thought of merely as school implements their use is naturally abandoned when school days are over. 95 THE LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL Every educational institution should, of course, have a library of its own, for its own purposes. Every pri- mary and grammar class, as truly and properly as every great university, ought to have its collection of books. But if this collection be expanded to its widest possible limits, it will inevitably be found that duplication of the work of the public library is going on. Here arises the first necessity for an agreement between the two in- stitutions regarding the limits of their respective spheres. Libraries have generally looked upon the plan adopted in the city of Buffalo, N. Y., as most satisfactory. Here the school and classroom libraries are limited to books of reference used directly by pupils in the preparation of their lessons; and even these are selected under the supervision of the Public Library. For everything in the nature of supplementary reading the school depends wholly upon the library — either upon the stock on its own shelves or upon collections lent to the school or classroom for its use. This makes the school a library deposit station or point of distribution, so far as its own scholars are concerned. In some cities this Buffalo plan has been modified or adopted only partially or tempora- rily; but as a proper division of labor between school and library it is probably unsurpassed. Of course, the lending of collections of books or trav- eling libraries by library to school or class is only one of innumerable ways in which the library may give needed aid. In the New York Public Library a special depart- ment, under a supervisor of work with schools, has been organized to care for these activities, and perhaps they may best be set forth by a description of the work of this particular department. In the first place, the city is divided into districts for 96 SCHOOL DEPARTMENTS the purposes of the work, each district containing one branch library and a number of schools, varying from one to twenty-three, according to the size and location of the region. In each library the school work is assigned to a special assistant, whose business it is to become per- sonally acquainted with every teacher in the schools of her district. She visits these schools from time to time, and she is at the special disposal of teachers who visit the library, giving them such information and aid as they may require. To this ' ' school assistant ' ' the teachers are encouraged to look in all cases of dispute regarding library rules and whenever there is friction at a point of contact. In every public school, by special permission of the Board of Education, and in many private and corporate schools, is placed a library bulletin board, which is used exclusively for posting library information. It directs teachers and scholars to the nearest branch library, which they are advised to use ; states clearly the library rules, and defines the privileges offered to teachers and pupils, including the special teachers' card, on which an unlimited number of books for study may be drawn for six months. On it are posted from time to time special lists of books — either those sent out systematically from headquarters or those compiled by the school assistant for some particular class or teacher. Large cards, pre- pared in consultation with the teachers, bear the names of books recommended for reading in connection with the various courses to be given throughout the school term. Assistants in the library, selected for their ability to address an audience, speak at intervals, both before groups of teachers and at the regular school assemblies, explaining at both the functions and facilities of the 97 THE LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL Public Library and its readiness to aid both teacher and pupil, as far as its resources extend, and to enlarge those resources on demand, so far as possible. To this end teachers are encouraged to submit lists of books for pur- chase, including not only works for their own profesr sional use, but supplementary reading for their classes. A definite sum of money is set aside annually from the book appropriation for such purposes. Again, a spe- cialty is made of pedagogical periodicals not only in English, but in foreign languages, a very full set of these being located at certain branches and partial sets at all the others. Teachers are encouraged, if they show willingness to do so, to take library books into their lec- tures or recitations and show them to the pupils as part of the exercise. Teachers in the lower grades are asked to bring their classes into the nearest library at stated intervals, either for instruction on some subject, with the aid of books specially grouped to this end, or to see an exhibition of pictures or industrial objects, or, again, to be taught necessary things about the use of the library — ^the chief reference books and what may be learned from them, the classification and arrangement of volumes on the shelves, the value of the card catalogue, and so on. Children are allowed, and even urged, to prepare their lessons in the library, especially in parts of the city where their homes are not generally suited for study. A reference library of 50 to 800 volumes is installed in the children's room of each branch for this purpose. The presence of such a collection of books has a stimulating effect on the use of the library by children for study purposes, as Is clearly shown by the comparative statis- tics. 98 MODEL COLLECTION A measure of cooperatioo, not yet adopted in New York, but carried out with success in many places, is the collection and distribution of prints for school use. These are gathered from all possible sources whenever they seem to possess the slightest educational value. They are sorted by subjects and filed in accessible port- folios, or in large envelopes, so that the teacher who do sires a collection of pictures to illustrate a geography lesson on the Philippines, a talk on the turbine engine, or a recitation on the England of Elizabeth, has but to send to the public library for exactly what she wishes. In connection with school work, a model school col- lection of books is invaluable, and it should be arranged and classified, if possible, by school grades. In New York such a collection includes all books approved for school use by the Board of Education. The arrangement by grades greatly facilitates selection by teachers, and a collection of actual books that may be handled and ex- amined is preferable to a mere catalogue, although in the absence of such a collection graded lists may do good service. The books, of course, do not circulate, but re- main in the library building. Such a broad division of work as the educational has, of course, its points of contact with many other divisions, and these are treated differently in different libraries. Two especially overlap with it — ^the work of traveling libraries and that with children. In a small institution one department may well care for all three. Even in a large library, the school traveling libraries, or perhaps all of them, may be sent out under the care of the same officer who oversees work with schools; or, again, this work may be under the superintendence of the chil- dren's librarian. 8 99 THE LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL A complaint often heard, from teachers is that the ex- cessive use of a public library by school children in term time interferes with their school duties. This complaint is often well founded, and it is met in many libraries, after a frank conference with the teachers on the needs of the situation, by limiting the use of the children's room, generally by a rule that in term time only two books, or perhaps one book, may be borrowed weekly. In some cases there has even been a demand that the children's room be closed at certain times; for instance, at the noon hour, when it is better for them to play in the open air than to read. The desirability of compli- ance with such a request seems doubtful. In what has been said it has been generally assumed that the schools with which the public library is to coop- erate are the public schools, and cooperation is thus sim- ply an alliance of two public bodies working toward the same end. But the same aid may be extended to and re- ceived from private schools, whether they are systems under corporate management, like the schools of the Chil- dren 's Aid Society in New York, or absolutely inde- pendent institutions. Privileges extended to teachers may even be given to teachers of languages or of music, for instance, who do not conduct schools, or even classes, but give only private lessons. It is hard to draw a line, and probably nothing is gained by so doing. It is only when private teachers desire to utilize library facilities in some way to advertise their classes, as is not infre- quently done, that it becomes a public duty to refuse. Regarding the advertisement of educational enterprises, as by the display of posters or the distribution of cards in the library, a rule with which no one can find fault is that all such concerns as offer their courses free to the 100 SUNDAY SCHOOLS public may properly be aided in this way, but that when a fee is charged, in whatever guise, no library publicity may be given, no matter how excellent the material nor how small the payment required, even if it be merely nominal. The line between " nothing " and " some- thing ' ' is easily drawn ; there is less logical justification for locating it anywhere between two ' ' somethings. ' ' A class of library that has been or, at any rate, should be greatly modified by the rise and extension of the free public circulating collection is the Sunday-school library. Originally a laudable effort to provide fit read- ing matter for young people who could get it nowhere else, it became, in many cases, owing to misdirected zeal, lack of good taste, and skillful exploitation by the pub- lishers of trivial or sentimental " goody-goody " books, a scorn and a byword. A " Sunday-school book " was, with most healthy-minded children, a thing to be avoided and with their elders an object of ridicule. Re- cent efforts at reform have taken very largely the shape of a substitution of good, wholesome reading, of no spe- cial religious east, for the books above mentioned. Li- braries thus reformed, however, are merely duplicating the work of the public circulating collection. In some cases clergymen or Sunday-school authorities, seeing this, have discontinued their libraries and directed the chil- dren to the nearest public library for their reading. Doubtless this is too radical a step. Other schools, re- taining their own collections, have supplemented them by traveling libraries from a public institution. There seems to be no reason, however, why Sunday schools should not do as secular schools should do — namely, retain a small specialized collection for the use of teachers and pupils in the preparation of their lessons, not primarily 101 THE LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL for circulation, and rely on the public library for all general and supplementary reading. The school would then maintain an attractive reading room fitted with biblical commentaries and expositories, versions in vari- ous languages for comparison by the older scholars, geographies of Bible lands and travels therein, encyclo- pedias and dictionaries of religion, and perhaps some general treatises on ethics and sociology, although possi- bly even these also should be left to the public library. In a small city various schools might combine to main- tain a room of this kind in the public library building. Closely connected with school work is the circu- lation of text-books from libraries. These are used by readers in at least three distinct ways : for general read- ing, as any other book might be used, especially text- books of history, literature, some branches of science, etc. ; by teachers in the course of their professional du- ties, either to inform themselves of others' work and methods or to facilitate broader preparation for a par- ticular recitation ; and by scholars for purposes of study, direct or supplementary, in the ordinary way. There seems to be a general feeling that the wholesale distribu- tion of text-books is something that the public library cannot undertake, and many libraries have practically excluded them from circulation. There seems, however, no objection to their use in certain specified ways. In the first place, any book that may be read continuously with pleasure and profit should be admitted wholly with- out reference to its character as a text-book. The school histories of John Piske, Prof. Shaler's books on geology, and Young's or Newcomb's astronomies come under this head. So far as the needs of teachers are concerned, there should be a text-book collection for reference use, 102 TEXT-BOOKS containing practically everything embodying distinctly different facts or methods of presenting them, with a reasonable number of selected duplicates for circulation on special cards only. The third class of users — the stu- dents themselves — is the one of which librarians are apt to complain. It consists in part of students in colleges and other institutions, where pupils are expected to fur- nish their own books, who prefer to save expense by using those of the library; in part of public-school pu- pils whose text-books are provided free of charge, but who have lost or injured them, and who take this method of avoiding the consequences of their carelessness; in part also of persons studying by themselves, possibly to prepare for civil-service or other public examinations. So far as school or college pupils are concerned, whether they are expected to furnish their own books or not, it is surely not the business of the public library to do so. With the " free lances " the case is somewhat different. Their number is not so great as that of the others, and there is some reason why the public library, in its educa- tional capacity, should give them some assistance in ob- taining an education that they would not otherwise secure. Text-books for this purpose should be such as are required or approved by the authorities in charge of the examinations for which users of the library desire, in general, to prepare. In libraries where loss from theft is large, text-books often form a considerable proportion of the volumes taken, and it may therefore be necessary to keep the text-book collection on closed shelves. In any case, bor- rowers of such books should be granted special cards, or some equivalent privilege, enabling them to keep the volumes as long as they are in use. Rather than to take 103 THE EIBRART AND THE SCPIOOL all this trouble, some libraries come to the pardonable conclusion that it is better to exclude text-books, as such, from circulation altogether. Although attempts to coordinate the work of library and school have been widespread, and although they have been very successful along certain lines and in special localities, it cannot be said that the movement as a whole has yet completely ^attained its aim. It has doubtless partaken too much of the nature of an effort on the part of librarians to induce teachers to recognize them as coworkers and to undertake certain additional work in the way of cooperation. Teachers, as a body, have not been particularly enthusiastic over the prospect thus held out, and have manifested little desire to meet the libraries halfway. Not that there has not been much appreciative work done. The National Education Association had for some years a library section, al- though this was discontinued in 1909 ; and the American Library Association still has its committee on coopera- tion with that body. Efforts to hold the annual meet- ings of the two associations in the same spot in some one year have so far met with no success. Joint local meet- ings of teachers and librarians have frequently been held, and have been productive of stimulated interest and good feeling. It may be doubted, however, whether the fact that the ultimate object of cooperation is the betterment of public education has been kept clearly enough before the minds of the two parties. Teachers have gladly learned of the readiness of libraries to fur- nish special books for themselves and their pupils, to offer facilities for the preparation of lessons, and to avoid interference with school tasks. They have wel- comed such aid with a pardonable feeling that it should 104 TEXT-BOOKS be accepted at the expense of as little added trouble and effort as possible. On the other hand, librarians anxious to extend the sphere and increase the usefulness of their new educational machinery, and seeing clearly how im- portant an alliance with the schools might be to them, have made all possible bids for it, and have regarded privileges offered to teachers as so many inducements to them to look kindly on the work of the library and to assist it in any possible way. There has, unfortunately, been reason in the past, if 'not in the present, for libra- rians to fear that the influence of teachers would be exerted against them. It is hardly a dozen years ago, for instance, that the Superintendent of Schools in New York City positively forbade his teachers to receive books for classroom use from the city libraries. Hap- pily there is little chance now that any school officer will go to such an extreme as this, but there is still too strong a feeling on the part of both teachers and librarians that cooperation is a game of give and take, and that it is legitimate to try to get as much and give as little as may be. "We seldom meet with a full and free recognition of the fact that the object is the adequate education of the individual — a process beginning in infancy and lasting until death — and that such mutual aid as is possible be- tween school and library should be directed intelligentlj^ and thoughtfully to this end, and only to this end. The courses in school and college should be laid out with the intent to fit scholars for the intelligent use of libraries during the years after they have left school ; and, on the other hand, librarians should study to make the use of their collections by children before and during school years directly contributory to the best use of their school privileges. This is the exception ; but it is an exception 105 THE LIBRAEY AND THE SCHOOL that is met more and more frequently, and that may at some fortunate future period become the rule. One educational role, somewhat neglected by the schools, the library seems eminently fitted to play — ^that of selector. A drawback to all school education is that the schools must treat their scholars in the mass, whereas each pupil separately differs from every other. The ad- vantage of friction with one's fellows, while the educa- tional process is going on, outweighs the disadvantage of this mass treatment, and it is little felt during the ear- lier stages of education. But as soon as an opportunity is given for divergence this takes place irregularly and unsystematically. Fitness for a given career may be the last thing that is considered in its selection; and even when the selector desires to consider it, he has no means of ascertaining whether or in what degree it exists. The student who gives up his formal education in grammar school may be eminently fitted for the university train- ing that does little or no good to the man who gets it. Professions and occupations are chosen by accident; everywhere we see round pegs in square holes and the reverse. In brief, selection is no small part of training, and although complete and perfect adaptation is, of course, impossible, it would seem that our educational processes might tend more evidently toward it than they do. Now the library, especially the open-shelf library, in- viting the user to roam about from theology to sports and from history to steam engineering, is a potent aid to selection. A single day spent between the medical and the legal shelves may be enough to indicate to the library user that his tastes, hitherto unsuspected, lie in one di- rection rather than the other; and to spare the world a 106 SELECTIVE EDUCATION poor physician or a worse attorney. Habitual use of a ■well-selected library before and during school education ■will reveal aptitudes in various directions, and •will en- able the student, especially if he has good advisers, to control the amount and direction of his formal educa- tion ■with vastly more surety than otherwise. CHAPTEK VIII TRAVELING LIBRARIES Teaveling libraries are simply collections of books sent to communities, associations, or individuals for cir- culation. They may be sent out by libraries to supple- ment their work, by a state to supply its rural districts, by some charitable association, or even by individuals. In a library that adopts this method of reaching those who cannot or will not use the ordinary sources of circu- lation, care is generally taken to see that the traveling col- lection is not used by anyone who could or would other- wise go to a branch library. Exceptions are collections on special subjects, sent to clubs or societies that desire them for study or discussion. Traveling libraries sent out by a state are usually managed by the state library commission, if there is one ; by the State Librarian, as in Virginia ; or sometimes by a special committee appointed for the purpose, as in Kansas. Traveling libraries sent out by associations are often of the home-library type, like those distributed in Boston by the Children's Aid Society. Occasionally a philanthropist, like State Senator Stout, of Wisconsin, has taken up the work at his own expense. It is much to be desired that work of this kind should be done systematically and without duplication; hence in a city the public library is the best institution to take charge of it. In some libraries a special stock of books, with a special force of trained assistants, is set 108 TWO TYPES apart for this work alone. Thus in New York the Trav- eling Library Office of the Public Library uses a stock of 50,000 books and employs seventeen assistants. It cir- culated 989,845 volumes in the year 1908, through 717 collections, stationed at schools, public and private; at fire-engine houses, factories, stores, Sunday schools, in rural communities, summer camps, settlements, hospitals, and so on. In making up collections of books to be thus sent there is choice of two methods. Either fixed collections may be fornied and rigidly kept together, being num- bered " Library 1," " Library 2," and so on, or the collections may be made up to order, there being no limit of number, either inferior or superior, and no collection, as a general thing, going to two places in the same form. The former, or fixed-library, plan is generally adopted where it would be impracticable to allow absolute free- dom of choice, as in sending out libraries over a whole state. The latter, or elastic, plan is the best where it is practicable, and is generally adopted by public libra- ries where the territory covered is not too great for those who desire collections to visit the center of distribution, talk with those in charge, and personally aid in picking out svich books as are wanted. In this latter, or " elas- tic," plan it is not intended, of course, to allow absolute freedom of choice. It is well to limit very strictly the amount of fiction circulated in this way, except in collec- tions sent to rural communities, where the proportion may be about the same that would be put on the shelves of a branch library, say about thirty per cent, such a collection being in lieu of a branch library and used in the same way. Time may, of course, be saved by mak- ing up certain libraries in advance for those who have 109 TRAVELING LIBRARIES neither the knowledge nor the desire to indicate a choice of special books, but who ask simply for "a few books on English history," " about fifty volumes of miscella- neous reading," " a library of trade literature," or the like. Still, however, if such persons are questioned somewhat closely, it will usually be possible to arrive at some conclusion regarding their real wants or needs — at any rate so far as the size of the collection is concerned. Fixed libraries are usually put up in standard sizes, containing about the same number of volumes. They are packed in cases so arranged that these may be used to display and keep the books, and are sometimes ac- companied with printed lists. Elastic libraries may be of any desired size, the capacity of the lending stock alone furnishing a limit. In the New York Public Li- brary the collections run from 10 to 600 volumes. The conditions of lending should be that some person shall be responsible for the books, and that an account of their use shall be kept and reported regularly in the manner required by the lending authorities. If the reports show that the collection is not sufficiently used, it should be withdrawn, no matter how small it may be, and placed where it will do better work. So long as it is well cir- culated, no matter how large it may be, there is no rea- son why those who are using it should not retain it, sub- ject, of course, to recall every year or so for examination and repair. As it is desirable to place the books in a traveling collection where they will do the most good, the requirement of a monthly report is very necessary, but it is in most cases difficult to obtain regularly. In certain cases library assistants may be sent to take the record, or to assist in working it out, but to do this regu- larly would require too large a force. In most cases the 110 STATISTICS books are in charge of amateurs, who cannot be directed and controlled as if they were employees. If no ac- count of circulation is desired, especially if the collec- tions are of the fixed type, the accounts of the traveling libraries are easily kept. The libraries are charged by number to the persons or institutions that have them and are checked off as they return. With the elastic sys- tem, especially where reports of use or circulation are re- quired, as they should be with this type of library, a more elaborate system of accounts is necessary, but even here it is sufficient to charge the individual books by re- taining the cards, and to furnish separate cards on which to record the issues. In rendering a report of the work done through trav- eling libraries some confusion may result. In reporting the use of an ordinary library it is possible to distin- guish very clea?ly between the use of books in the li- brary building and home use, and these are now usually given separately, although formerly many librarians lumped them together as " circulation " — a plan now generally condemned. But in the case of traveling col- lections the books go out twice — once from the library building or stock room and again from the place of de- posit. It has therefore been considered proper by some institutions to report as " circulation," together with ordinary home use, every use of a traveling-library book, whether at the actual home of the user or in the place of deposit. Thus, if a collection of books were sent to a club, and read, one after another, by different members of the club, the same record would be made as if each had taken it home, on the ground that such use is certainly not in the library building. On the other hand, some libraries count as " home use " only such 111 TRAVELING LIBRARIES books as are actually taken from the place of deposit to the homes of the users. All books used in the place of deposit itself are reported with books read in the library building, the place of deposit being regarded as analo- gous to a branch library. In some other localities no record at all is made of the use of traveling libraries, the only figures regarded as reliable being the number of books sent out and the length of time during which they are used. This is the plan pursued with the New Tork State traveling libraries. If reports of use can be ob- tained with any degree of accuracy, the second method outlined above would seem the logical and proper one. To omit all statistics of use would appear like a confes- sion of failure. An important variety of the traveling library is the " home library," which is simply a small collection of books sent to an individual, generally for distribution among members of a group of neighbors and friends. As originally planned, such a library was a phase' of neighborhood work with children in tenement-house dis- tricts. A library of, say, fifteen books is left in custody of some child, and about once a week a visitor meets the group at the custodian's house, exchanges the books, talks about them to the children, and engages in such other work as occurs to her. Evidently much depends here on the personality of the visitor. The work would seem, at first sight, well adapted to volunteers, but it is difficult to secure those whose discretion equals their zeal and who will work regularly for any length of time. Many institutions operating these libraries, accordingly, furnish their own visitors. One such may visit several groups in an afternoon, and may thus care for twenty to twenty-five libraries with weekly visits. In some 112 HOME LIBRARIES eases it is possible to omit the visits, or to make them only at every second or third meeting of the group. This is usually where the custodian of the books is an older boy or girl who is able to fulfill in some measure the duties of the visitor. Again, the uses of the home li- brary may be assimilated to those of an ordinary travel- ing library, or even to a collection of books taken out on a special card for study. Thus, a group of children using an ordinary miscellaneous home library may, as they grow older, become practically a study club, par- ticularly interested in some one subject, and preferring that their collection of books shall be increased in size and limited to that subject. Or, the group may dwin- dle, leaving only the leader, who has yet become so in- terested that it seems desirable to continue a small col- lection of books for his own use. In all these cases there is danger, of course, that the use of a home library may interfere with that of the library proper, especially of a near-by branch. This is a misfortune, as the good that a child will be apt to re- ceive from a well-equipped children's room, with a com- petent children's librarian, is incalculably greater than that obtained from the small collection, with its visitor calling perhaps every week or two. Where the child cannot visit a library, or where the home library can be made the means of leading a group of readers up to the use of a children's room, then, and then only, is it prop- erly employed. There is danger, especially where this work is under a separate manager or in charge of a separate department, that zeal to make the work of that department as large as possible may outrun discretion in this respect. This is true, not only of home libraries, but of other traveling collections as well. Cases have 113 TRAVELING LIBRARIES been known where members of a home-library group use a traveling library deposited at the school that they at- tend, and also hold cards at the nearest branch library. Here, of course, we have wasteful duplication of work. And if such duplication may occur between different departments of the same institution, it is still more likely to take place between the library and some other body that is sending out home libraries or traveling collec- tions in general. In this case, too, it is more difficult to stop the wasteful work. This clearly indicates the unde- sirability of doing any such work except in connection with a library. An exception may be made in favor of state traveling libraries, since these generally go to lo- calities without other library privileges; yet this is not always the case. Instances have been known where the users of a state collection had access also to a town library, with the resulting waste of effort that has already been described. A future lies before the traveling library as a useful adjunct of branch systems in cities having a very large territory to cover. In preparation for future expan- sion, many of our cities have annexed much contiguous territory in which the conditions are rural or semirural. Such annexation has been made the target of much cheap wit, but in most cases the rapid growth of the city has justified it. There must in all eases, however, be years in which the rural conditions will continue, and a sparsely scattered population must be cared for by the city public library. This population is often too remote to be able to use any existing branch library, and condi- tions that would warrant the establishment of new branches to supply them are not yet present. Under these circumstances the traveling library furnishes an 114 Traveling Libraby in a Farmer's Home in Wisconsin. Rural Free Delivery op Books from the Washington County Library, Hagerstown, Md. RURAL LIBRARIES excellent way out of the difficulty. The only problem is the selection of a place of deposit and a proper custo- dian. A schoolhouse is a natural center, but it is not a good place of deposit for a collection intended for the entire community, unless arrangements can be made to keep the building open after hours and during vacations. Even then many of the adults in the place will inevi- tably regard the collection as intended for children alone, and thus fail to take advantage of it. It often happens that the most enterprising person in the community, from the library standpoint, is the pastor of a church, who offers a home in his parish house for the collection. It may be that this is the best place for it, and that the community is such that all will use the books freely under these conditions. But such an offer requires careful preliminary study of the situation. Such a place of deposit may cause the library to be looked upon as denominational, and may help the one church where it is located without benefiting the com- munity at large. In particular. Catholics will rarely use a collection of books in a Protestant church, nor would Jews be apt to go to a church building at all for , such a purpose. In many cases a store, especially a drug store or a well-kept grocery, offers a solution. The proprietor is generally willing to give the books space on account of the resulting advertisement and because they attract people to his place. Sometimes he stipulates that he shall be allowed to announce the presence of the li- brary in his press notices, and if this is properly done there can be no objection to it. It may be, however, that, although he is willing to house the books, he has no time to care for them and to give them out. In this case, this part of the work may be done by volunteers. 9 115 TRAVELING LIBRARIES This distribution of collections of books over such a tract of rus in urbe requires work not unlike that of an organizer in connection with a state library commission. Two extremes are difficult to deal with: the community that does not realize the need of a public collection of books, is suspicious of the library 's motives and hesitates to cooperate in any way in establishing one or carrying it on, and the too-zealous community, which pushes the use of its collection chiefly to demonstrate to the library authorities its need of larger facilities — ^the desirability, for instance, of the place as a site for a branch library. The librarian in charge of the distribution of traveling collections over a region affected in all these different ways has need of ability and tact of a high order. CHAPTEK IX THE LIBRARY FOR THE BUSINESS MAN AND THE MECHANIC It has been charged that the public library is essen- tially a woman's institution; that it is used chiefly by women, and purchases chiefly those books that women like to read. Statistics to prove or disprove such an as- sertion as this are practically impossible to obtain. The card holders in a family are more often women than men, because the former have more leisure to make ap- plication and to draw books; but those who read these books may be the men of the family as well as the women. There is doubtless more or less justification in the charge, but the question must be approached in another way. For our present purposes the reading of books may be divided into three classes — reading for recreation, reading for study, and reading for information apart from study. Eeereational reading embraces almost all the use of fiction, with some of the other subdivisions of literature, and is indulged in more by women than by men. Reading for study is probably done about equally by men and women. Reading for information, apart from regular courses of study, when done by women is apt to be largely in history, biography, or travel. When done by men it may have direct bearing upon the reader's occupation, temporary or permanent; and as it 117 THE LIBRARY FOR THE BUSINESS MAN is this class of readers that the public library has been neglecting more or less, there is probably some basis for the charge that it has paid less attention to men than to women. More fairly stated, the American public library has not, until recently, realized that a large possible de- mand exists for reading bearing directly upon the daily occupations of its readers. And as the greater propor- tion of those having a regular wage-earning occupation are men, this lack has been felt more by men than by women. This is a case in which the makers of books have felt and responded to the demand much more quickly than have such distributors as public libraries. A considerable literature of the manufactures, of com- merce, and of the various trades has been in existence for some time. It is not wholly systematic ; for example, it is comparatively easy to gather a large collection of books on textile fibers and their manufacture into fab- rics, while the works on hat-making, for instance, . are limited to a very few titles. It is not easy to give rea- sons for differences like these; doubtless their causes lie in conditions peculiar to certain trades and manufac- tures and not easily ascertained or appreciated by out- siders. It must not be supposed, however, that demand for this kind of reading originates always, or even generally, in a desire to familiarize oneself with the literature of a trade or occupation. In many cases the very existence of such a literature is unknown to the worker, or if he knows it he cares nothing about it. The use of such books is generally at first only the most limited sort of reference use. A dealer in nuts wants to know whether peanuts may not be grown profitably in a Northern state ; a man who is thinking of moving to Colorado is 118 CLASSES OP READING anxious to obtain information of the industrial and commercial opportunities in that State; an engineer wants to find a remedy for a cylinder that is out of order ; a boy desires practical directions to make an aero- plane or a gliding boat. The satisfaction of these desires from books directs attention to the fact that a literature exists on the subject in which the reader is interested, whether it be vocation or avocation, and induces him to dip somewhat more deeply into it. Now, these demands existed long before there were books to satisfy them ; in fact, technical and trade liter- ature is largely an outgrowth of them. But it is only recently that a majority of the persons in whose minds these questions arise have known that there are books in which the answers may be found, and even now most of those who know of such books do not think of going to a public library for them. The trouble is that over the library and its public still hangs the idea, so hard to dis- sipate, that it is primarily the abode of pure literature and of scholarship in the older sense. One may, of course, obtain information in a library; but of what sort? In history, pure science, language, or art? Cer- tainly. About cabinet-making, " ad "-writing, sales- manship, or plumbing? In nine cases out of ten the seeker for data on these subjects does not think of the public library in such a connection. The man who wantg to know whether oil lamps were used in England in the time of Henry VIII, or to find the formula for air resistance to a falling body, or whether the Arabic language has a subjunctive mood, or the location of Da Vinci 's ' ' Last Supper, ' ' goes to the public library as if by instinct. He who wants to know how best to pack a piston, or some attractive ways of dressing a shop win- 119 THE LIBRARY FOR THE BUSINESS MAN dow, or how to box goods that are to be consigned to* Ecuador, does not generally consult a library; he goes to some one who he thinks may have special knowledge on the subject and gets or tries to get his information by word of mouth. In other words, the people who need commercial and trade literature are much in the posi- tion, as regards this literature, of the general public be- fore the invention of printing. If this is too strong a statement, it may at any rate be said that for them, so far as their special needs are concerned, the public library has had no existence. The American public library is beginning to awake to this state of affairs, and is trying to better it in vari- ous ways: first, by purchasing, for its general stock, a greater proportion of commercial, trade, and technolog- ical books ; secondly, by establishing, if the size and im- portance of the institution warrant it, a special com- mercial or technological collection, under the charge of an expert; thirdly, by endeavoring to let the persons to whom these books would appeal know of their presence in the library and of the readiness of the librarians to as- sist in their use and to add to their number when nec- essary. Besides this, there have sprung up in some large cities, largely as the result of the public library's fail- ure to do its duty in this respect, special libraries along these or similar lines. In a recent investigation made at the Newark Public Library it was discovered that there are at least thirty-five different kinds of these spe- cial libraries, and an association has now been formed to further their interests. The independent existence of some of these libraries is quite logical, but in too many cases their work could be done as well or better by the nearest public library. Instances of such special libra- 120 SPECIAL LIBRARIES ries are those of the Commercial Museum of Philadel- phia, the Insurance Societies of New York, the Mer- chants' associations of New York and Boston, of the Public Service Commission, New York, of the Provident Association of St. Louis, of the firm of Stone & Webster, Boston, and so on. These libraries, though mostly open to the public, are not public libraries in the broad sense, and are mentioned here simply to show that if the public library fails to do its duty completely, some independent institution will arise to supplement its" work. Large libraries having special collections for the use of mechanics, handicraft men, and business men have found it desirable to employ a custodian familiar with the books and with the subjects that they discuss. Smaller libraries, of course, can have neither separate collections nor special expert assistants, but it has been suggested that the staff of such libraries includes a man able to talk to the users of books of this sort and to un- derstand their needs and desires. The importance of sex is emphasized by some librarians in discussing this sub- ject. Mr. A. L. Bailey, librarian of the Wilmington (Del.) Institute, gives it as his experience that working- men will in general not ask questions of woman assist- ants, and that they sometimes even hesitate to enter a library where the assistants are all of this sex. This has been resented as a reflection on woman librarians, and others have stated that- their experience does not accord with Mr. Bailey's; but it is very natural that a man who enters a library to find out something about carpen- try, plumbing, or tinsmithing, and who is not accus- tomed to the use of collections of books, should desire to consult some one who has a slight acquaintance with these subjects. Now, women are not commonly carpen- 121 THE LIBRARY FOE THE BUSINESS MAN ters or plumbers ; hence the would-be user of the library looks around for a man, and, seeing none, departs. The bearing of sex on the matter is indirect. It is interest- ing in this connection to note that the large libraries that have established technological departments have placed them in charge of men, generally graduates in technology or engineering. In a review of the work of libraries with special classes of readers Mr. Harrison W. Graver, whose li- brary (the Carnegie, of Pittsburgh) has been notewor- thy among those possessing valuable and active techno- logical departments, notes ^ that the special trial of the technology librarian is not the actual selection of his books, which may be chosen by the use of numerous good reviews and lists, but the speed with which his collection becomes uselessly out of date. In five to ten years his books no longer represent actual practice, and to avoid this constant replacement is necessary. Mr. Graver also warns librarians against the sort of deadlock that has been noted elsewhere in this volume, which is by no means confined to technological work. A library pleads that it is not necessary for it to purchase technical and trade books because there is absolutely no demand for them. But this lack of demand is itself due to knowl- edge that the books in question are not to be found in the library. As well might the inventor of the telephone have argued that because there was no antecedent de- mand for such a device, it would be foolish to try to introduce it. In the technology department of the Providence Pub- lic Library, having a collection of about 11,000 volumes, ' Library Journal, 31, C. 72. 122 SPECIAL LIBRARIES a special effort is made to advertise the library's re- sources in this respect by notifying readers, on postals, of boolfs likely to be of interest to them, by sending lists to trade schools, and by printing them in the local papers. Among those who use this industrial section of the library, as reported by the custodian, Miss Ethel Garvin, are apprentices and machinists in the large ma- chine shops, workers in the cotton and woolen indus- tries, and those interested in the manufacture and appli- cation of gasoline engines. The idea, noted above, that American public libraries have catered to women rather than to men is presented forcibly in The Independent (June 15, 1905) by a writer who asserts that a library assistant would be shocked if a workman, with a soldering iron in hand, should come in and ask for a book. In some libraries doubtless this is so; yet Miss Garvin says: " In this library . . . the more workmen who come, the bet- ter. ... A man came in his overalls to get a certain gilt lettering for sign painting, and, after eagerly searching . . . until he found the exact letters, he apologized, saying, ' I was so anxious to get this that I came here right from the shop.' Of course, he was at once made to understand that no apology was needed." Miss Garvin justly adds that this feeling of indispen- sability is exactly what the library should wish to in- spire among workers. And, as already noted, it is a case of the busy versus the idle reader, not of men against women. The library " for the business man " should be also for the business woman — not alone for the woman who is a wage earner, but for the wife and mother. It is possible to conduct an applied-science depart- ment almost wholly on reference lines, as is done at 123 THE LIBRARY FOR THE BUSINESS MAN Pratt Institute Free Library, Brooklyn, N. Y., where the collection is intended not primarily for the trained worker, but rather for the student or the man of little experience. This library has made special effort to get information regarding its work before the labor unions by inducing a member of some one of these bodies to speak, whenever possible, before his union about what the members could find in the library. It should be noted, finally, that much of the best technical and trade literature is to be found in current catalogues. Every library desiring to cater to the worker should have a full supply of these. They are advertising matter, to be sure, but generally in the legitimate and best sense — brief illustrated statements of fact instead of highly colored fiction, intended to deceive. In this respect, though not free from fault, the manufacturer of machines and mechanical appliances is far ahead of many other kinds of producers, who need not be specified here. CHAPTEE X THE SELECTION OF BOOKS In selecting books for a public library, whether the original stock for a new collection or the current addi- tions to an old one, due regard must be paid to the char- acter of the community that it is to serve. Two factors must be considered — the community's desires and its needs. Of the former the community itself is sensible, and they are easily ascertained; of the latter it is often ignorant, and they can sometimes be found out only by skilled investigation. Neither factor may be dwelt on exclusively, to the neglect of the other. Thus, if the im- mediate demands of the community be disregarded as trivial or mistaken and the library be stocked wholly with books selected with a view to its improvement, then, even though this selection be skillfully made, the books may be let alone by the readers, and so fail to fulfill their functions. If, on the other hand, the selection be made wholly with regard to the community's present demands, the librarian may fall into the error of setting too low a standard. A middle course is best. The aver- age taste of the users of a public library is not as high as it might be ; this, however, is due, not to any debasing influence of the library, but to the fact that it attracts readers from classes whose taste needs improvement. The public school is teaching everyone to read ; the pub- lic library is furnishing reading matter. Between them 125 THE SELECTION OF BOOKS the ratio of habitual readers to nonreaders is becoming increasingly large. Owing to these influences many pub- lic-library readers betray the symptoms of intellectual youth — ^they are fond of narrative; they like simple words and ideas clearly expressed and easily appre- hended; their idea of humor is often somewhat primi- tive ; they have more regard for the substance of a book than for its manner; they like, above all, plenty of action; realism with them is a secondary consideration. All these are the characteristics of youth; instead of frowning upon them, the librarian must be prepared to humor them, to select books that satisfy such desires and are at the same time good literature. Especially is this true of his choice of narrative literature. It is a matter of grief to many librarians that their libraries circulate so high a percentage of fiction. This varies from forty up to eighty, according to conditions ; as a general thing, a library that circulates less than sixty per cent considers that it is doing fairly well. This high use of fiction, however, is due to several causes, most of which are in no way discreditable to the public library. In the first place, fiction is now the most readable form of narrative. This is not because it is fiction, but because its writers make a direct bid to entertain their readers and need not concern themselves with anything else. The writer of history, biography, or travel, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with the accuracy of his narrative ; to write entertainingly is a secondary aim with hjm, and is rarely attained, especially in the view of the class of readers with whom we are now dealing. This is a fault not of the librarian, but of the author. There would seem to be no valid reason why true narrative should not be made as interesting as fictitious narrative; that it is 126 FICTION not so is sufficiently attested by the preference of the public for romance. The reader here does not care in the least whether what he reads about really happened or not ; he is simply looking for entertainment. In the second place, the classes of books borrowed from public libraries do not necessarily represent the total reading of those who use these institutions. Read- ers may, and do, buy books of their own and also borrow from their friends. It is probable that those who do this prefer to own the more solid portion of their read- ing, going to the public library for the lighter and more ephemeral books. Possibly this may partly account for the fact that better books are often circulated by public libraries in the poorer than in the well-to-do quarters of cities. In three branch libraries on the lower East Side of New York the fiction percentage of circulation is, re- spectively, 48, 51, and 60; whereas in three libraries on the upper West Side the corresponding figures are 69, 70, and 71. This is usually regarded as showing a greater desire for useful information on the part of the poorer classes, but it may well be due, perhaps in large part, to the consideration just advanced. Again, the time actually occupied in reading serious books is much greater, proportionately, than the num- ber of books read. Thus, a man may read one volume of history, science, or philosophy and several novels, and yet have spent less than half his time with the fic- tion. That a report of reading by days instead of by books might considerably reduce the fiction percentage is shown by an actual trial of this method in the New York Free Circulating Library in 1896, where a percent- age of 30.2 in juvenile fiction, calculated from books cir- culated, fell to 23.2 when based on the length of time 127 THE SELECTION OF BOOKS during which the same books were retained by their readers. There is, however, one cause of large fiction percent- ages that may be laid directly at the door of the library, and that is its failure, in too many cases, to provide books for those who desire to read wholly for informa- tion about their daily occupations. The fact that such books are not provided causes many persons to regard the public library as an institution solely for women and children. Many librarians are now realizing their short- comings in this regard, and the result of their efforts to provide trade literature and the like is set forth in an- other chapter. Probably, also, there has been a tendency to confuse students' use with reference use, and so to exclude from circulation a very large number of serious books that should go to the homes of the users instead of being kept in the library. This fault, also, the up-to- date librarian is striving to correct. When all is said and done, however, a large part of the circulation of a public library will still be fiction, and so long as this is of good quality there is no reason for being ashamed of it. Fiction is the prevailing mode of literary expression to-day — ^the vehicle that a writer must use if he desires to convey his ideas to the maxi- mum number of readers, whether he has to promulgate a social theory or some new thoughts on municipal ad- ministration. Until this vehicle is changed, it must be fully recognized by the public library. Class percentages of circulation are very useful in telling the librarian of the wants or demands of his community. If this percentage, for a certain class, be compared with the percentage of books of the same class contained in the library, the result 128 AIDS IN SELECTION will often tell him whether he is supplying a de- mand or failing to do so. For instance, if he is circulating ten per cent* of history and has only six per cent on his shelves, his histories are overworked, and he needs more. To put the matter somewhat differently, suppose that in a library of 10,000 volumes, circulating 100,000 a year, there are 600 volumes of history, circu- lating 10,000 a year. The average circulation of each book in the library is 10 ; that of the history is 16f . An abnormal circulation per book, either in the library as a whole or in some one class is often regarded as meritori- ous; state commissions sometimes call the library with the highest rate the " banner " library of the state. Such a circulation is indeed interesting; it is creditable to the users of the library, but not to the library itself, for it shows simply that the supply has not kept pace with the demand. Who is to make selection of the books for a library ? The ultimate authority generally rests with a committee of the trustees ; sometimes with the board itself. But if the librarian knows his business, such action will be gen- erally very largely a ratification of his suggestions, or at least a modification of them in greater or less degree, ac- cording to the amount of confidence placed in his judg- ment. Of course, no one person can be omniscient, and the librarian must rely largely on information and ad- vice received from others in making his selections. The demands of the public he will learn from their requests at the desk, from the number and character of the re- serves, and from such statistical studies as that sug- gested above. Their unrealized needs he must under- stand partly from personal knowledge of them and of their environment, partly from the sort of intuition that 129 THE SELECTION OF BOOKS goes far toward making a librarian of the first class. The available material he knows by a close study of cur- rent catalogues and lists of all* kinds, and he evaluates it by comparison of reviews, by reports from readers, and from personal inspection. If he is in a place large enough to boast of a good bookseller, he may inspect many books on approval. Above all, he puts himself in touch with people who have special knowledge, each of some particular class of books — ^theology, medicine, sci- ence, sociology, history, or language. He refers to them titles or, better still, the books themselves for their opin- ions; and he encourages them to report titles in their special fields that they may meet in their own reading. It is usually not difficult to obtain the services of such experts gratis; the work that they do for the library is more than compensated by the opportunity that it af- fords to examine books that they might not otherwise see. The town is small indeed that does not contain at least a few persons of special knowledge who are avail- able as library advisers in book selection. In the way of lists, every librarian should have the Publishers' Weekly, which gives all current American and many English books; the Publishers' Trade-list Annual or the United States Catalogue, for books in print ; the Annual American Catalogue or the Cumulative Book Index, and the American Library Association book list of selected titles for small libraries, issued monthly. The Book Re- view Digest is also of great use. Libraries that import considerably should have at least the Publishers' Circu- lar (weekly) and the English Catalogue (annual). In the exercise of his duties in book selection it is unavoidable that the librarian should act in some degree as a censor of literature. It has been pointed out that 130 CENSORSHIP no library can buy every title that is published, and that we should discriminate by picking out what is best in- stead of by excluding what is bad. This may be granted ; but there will still remain a large number of books that would certainly have been bought but for some error in statement, morals, or taste that excludes them. To recognize such errors and to decide whether they are sufficient to exclude an otherwise desirable book surely constitutes censorship. The exclusion of nonfic- tion is generally on the score of incorrect statement or bad treatment of the subject; morality does not enter into consideration, except, perhaps, in certain descrip- tive works. In fiction, on the other hand, immorality and impropriety are frequent reasons for exclusion. There are few novels published that should not be read from cover to cover by some competent judge before ac- ceptance. The amount of labor incident to such an ex- amination is considerable. The eccentricity of library readers, whether official or voluntary, has sometimes been such as to call for public comment, and librarians and book committees should exercise their best discretion in the selection of such persons. The small proportion of money spent for books by public libraries is often commented upon by the press, and is sometimes a cause of complaint with boards of trustees themselves. Books being the library's stock in trade and the reason for its existence, it is assumed that the cost of housing and handling them should be com- paratively small. On the contrary, it largely exceeds the annual cost of the books themselves. In the year 1908 libraries reporting to the United States Bureau of Edu- cation expended $12,466,076, of which $2,987,425, or less than one fourth, was for books. 10 131 THE SELECTION OF BOOKS The reasons for this are various. In the first place,' it must be remembered that the cost, as stated, is that of housing and. handling not alone the current purchases for the year, which are all that appear in a table such as that given above, but also all the rest of the stock of books, representing often the accumulations of years. Thus, in the case of a small library that has spent dur- ing the year $4,000, of which $1,000 was expended for a thousand books and the rest for maintenance, this resi- due of $3,000 may have cared for and distributed not 1,000, but 10,000 volumes, in which case the " board bill " for each volume would be thirty cents a year. In ease each book has gone out ten times during the year, the cost of each loan is only three cents. More gener- ally, if all expenses be taken into account, this cost of circulation in American libraries rises to six, eight, or even ten cents an issue. It must be remembered that this cost of maintenance, to which objection is some- times made, and regarding which American libraries es- pecially are charged with extravagance, may be made large or small at will. If readers desire spacious and handsome buildings, frequent replacement and rebind- ing of books to keep the stock in good condition, brilliant light, proper heating and ventilation, skilled attendance, separate accommodation and care for children, and such auxiliaries as exhibitions and public lectures, they must pay the bill. The same is true of taxation for all kinds of public conveniences and improvements. If a town is to have good pavements, a plentiful supply of pure wa- ter, electric light, fine schools, and a competent fire and police service, its tax rate will be far higher than the rate in a place where these things are absent or of the second class. It is for the citizens to decide how much 132 COST OF BOOKS they can afford. In the case of libraries, the tendency with us has been to pay for an increased number of facilities and for the best quality of everyttiing ; and the bill is paid probably with less grumbling than that for other municipal improvements. As Miss Burstall re- marks in her recent book on American schools, we really believe in education and are willing to pay for it. When we grumble it is usually not at the price, but at our failure to get what we consider our money's worth. Again, when expenses are cut down, it is usually the outlay for books that must suffer, for most of the other library expenses are either fixed or highly inflexible. Such are the upkeep of the building, its lighting and heating, insurance, the salaries of the minimum number of assistants necessary to care for and oversee the work- ing space, etc. In the case of the library with an in- come of $4,000, cited above, if the town found it neces- sary to reduce this to $3,500, it is probable that the only way to meet this reduction would be by cutting the book appropriation in half. Unpopular as this step would prove, it would be preferred by the public to cut- ting the hours of opening, turning out part of the lights, or letting the building run down. As has been noted above, the more or less frequent re- placement of soiled and worn books is a considerable item of expense, and in this connection the purchase of duplicates, especially for circulation, must be consid- ered. The librarian must always decide how much of his annual outlay for books is to be set aside for these purposes. In regard to the discarding of worn-out or soiled books, the widest disparity of custom prevails. Some libraries allow books to remain on the shelves in disgraceful condition — either badly soiled, or torn, or 133 THE SELECTION OF BOOKS defaced ; while others are so particular that they remove books in fairly good condition, merely for a smudge or two or a microscopic tear. This difference is sometimes, but not always, the result of inequality of income. In some libraries, where an attempt is made to keep the stock in as nearly perfect condition as possible, the best of the books removed from the shelves are utilized by sending them to prisons or to hospitals, or to other places where they may be allowed to remain until com- pletely worn out. When a book is thus removed, the propriety of its re- placement should be at once considered. In a great majority of cases the decision can be made at once, so that the title, if the book is an only copy, may be re- moved at once from the catalogue or the volume may be reordered. It is often well to anticipate the removal of popular books by ordering duplicates in advance, so that the number on the shelves may be kept up. It is prob- able that librarians in too many cases replace books that have outlived their usefulness, either thoughtlessly and almost automatically or because they attach an exagger- ated importance to the retention of titles already in the catalogue. Out-of-date books, essays, travels, and fiction of merely temporary value, superseded text-books and treatises, should not be replaced. The other extreme must, of course, be avoided — namely, the failure to re- place good or standard works in order to spend more money on current publications of less value. In regard to duplication, customs also vary widely. It is probably the fairest method to base it in some way on demand. For instance, a new copy may be purchased for every ten names (we will say) on the reserve list, or for less in ease of nonfietion. Libraries that are able to 134 DUPLICATES use the pay-duplicate system for fiction often find that this system solves the greater part oi the problem for them. In case of branch systems, large duplication is often necessary. In the New York system of forty branches the number of volumes is about ten times the number of titles, indicating a corresponding average duplication. There may be, in the v?hole system, several hundred copies of one title. But, on the other hand, the operation of an interbranch loan system in such a net- work of libraries considerably reduces the number of copies in certain cases. Thus, if we consider forty libra- ries in forty separate towns, it would probably be neces- sary for each to purchase a copy of a recent expensive biography of a statesman or man of letters; whereas, if the forty were in one city, ten copies might be quite suf- ficient to supply the demand, these being freely ex- changed among the branches. A similarly free inter- library loan system would evidently make possible great economies in book purchase among the libraries of a region. The possibility of such free exchange appears to be largely conditioned on the reduction of postage on library books. If the purchase of duplicates has been properly pro- portioned to the demand, a library is not often left with unused duplicates on its hands. As the demand lessens, worn-out duplicates are not replaced, until finally the number of copies necessary to supply the permanent requirements of the library is reached, and these are, of course, replaced continually when necessary. In case of some books, the last copy may be allowed to drop out and the entry may be removed from the catalogues ; with others, such as perennially popular fiction — " David Copperfield " or " Uncle Tom's Cabin," for instance — 135 THE SELECTION OF BOOKS it may be necessary to keep hundreds of copies for lend- ing in a large library or system of branches. There are some books that may properly and profit- ably be duplicated far beyond whatever rule may have been adopted for general use in this regard. So many copies of these should be purchased that at least one is always on the shelves and that reserve lists for them are never necessary. Such are the popular standard poets — Longfellow, Tennyson, Browning — and much standard fiction — half a dozen of Dickens, as many of Scott; " Eomola," " Treasure Island," and so on. Every li- brary and every community will have its own list. There are always in great demand certain books of such merit that the public should not be compelled to wait for them. Of course, there is often a sudden and unusual de- mand for books of this character, as when " Iva:nhoe " or Goldsmith's " Deserted Village " is assigned as the subject of a school composition. In a branch system this may be met by a traveling collection, to be placed wher- ever it may be needed at the moment. CHAPTER XI THE PURCHASE OF BOOKS The purchase of books by a library may be said to include everything done after the selection of the title to be added, until the book itself is delivered to those responsible for its preparation for the shelves. This in- cludes operations incident to the ordering of the book and to its receipt. The ordering includes (1) the esti- mation of the price and the making of a proper memo- randum thereof; (2) the sending of the order to the bookseller, with retention of a memorandum. The re- ceipt includes (1) comparison of the actual book with the duplicate or memorandum of the order and (2) with the bill, making a cheek against the proper item; (3) en- tering in the book in pencil such data as may be neces- sary in accessioning it, such as the source and the price ; (4) comparing the estimated price with the actual cost as shown by the bill. If there are branch libraries among which the books are distributed, these processes must be more complicatted, as noted in the chapter on that subject. Taking up these items one by one, the estimation and recording of the price previous to sending the order are necessary chiefly because a variable time is to elapse before the receipt of the bill — ^sometimes several weeks, or even months, in case of importation — and it is desir- able to know just how far the library has gone toward 137 THE PURCHASE OF BOOKS using up the appropriation for books, or some definite fund or part thereof. In sending the order to the book- seller, the retained memorandum, which is kept on file until its release by the arrival of the book, may be an exact duplicate of the order, or may be made in some other way. In ordering books it should be stipulated that there should be a bill for each box or package, that the items should be arranged alphabetically by authors, and that the package be not too large. This facilitates checking. Comparison of actual costs with those esti- mated before purchase need not be made book for book, but only weekly or monthly, in bulk, to avoid too great a discrepancy. In these operations a slip may be used for each order, or a sheet for each set of orders, or a combination of the two. Slip or card systems have the advantage of easy arrangement and rearrangement and the disadvantage that a single slip may be easily mislaid or lost. A sam- ple system may be operated somewhat as follows : Each separate title comes to the department or person charged with ordering the books, written on an order slip, which has blanks for author, title, publisher, source of pur- chase, price, and the various dates of ordering, receipt, delivery to shelves, etc., and also for the name of the per- son recommending the purchase, remarks, the book com- mittee's stamp of approval, etc. After scrutinizing the slip to see that all necessary formalities have been ob- served, the order clerk estimates the probable cost and enters it in his memorandum book under the heading of the proper fund. It is better to place the list price on the slip, leaving it to the clerk to estimate the cost to the library from his knowledge of the condition of the mar- ket. Slips are then distributed by sources of purchase 138 - i 1 1 ii; • I nil i iin \ 1 1 1 PP If! H III lUll ! S IM 11 Ii I a, S 6 o 139 THE PURCHASE OP BOOKS and arranged alphabetically under these. Those for each source are copied on a separate order blank, which is mailed to the bookseller's address, the slips being stamped with the proper date and held on file as memo- randa of the order. On receipt of a package of books with bill, each book is compared with the latter, the cor- responding item being checked, and with the order slip, which is stamped with the date of receipt and then trans- ferred to a permanent alphabetical file, unless other dates are to be recorded upon it, such as those of cata- loguing and shelving, in which case it is sent on with the book. When comparison is being made with the bill, price and source are noted and penciled on a fly leaf of the book, to be erased after being used as data in accessioning. Slips remaining in the temporary file represent short orders, and their value should evidently correspond to that of the books ordered less the totals of bills received. Instead of keeping the slips on file, they may be sent to the bookseller as his order, and a memorandum of each order, on sheets, may be filed ; or, besides the temporary file of slips, a carbon or other copy of each order sheet may be kept ; or the slips may be made in duplicate, one set being sent to the bookseller as his order and the other retained. Order slips have been combined with catalogue or shelf-list cards, the permanent file consti- tuting the official catalogue or shelf list. As many as three slips may be written at once, the duplicate set being used as the basis of copy for a printed or mimeo- graphed bulletin of additions or as orders by title for the printed catalogue cards issued by the Congressional Library. In any case, the permanent file left after the receipt of the book should constitute a complete dated 140 BOOKSELLERS history of the order, enabling the librarian to ascertain at once, in case of need, who recommended a given book ; -who read it on approval, if it was so read ; when its purchase was authorized, when it was ordered, when received, and so on. These data are as important to a small library as to a large one, and orders should be re- corded methodically in this way, even if the librarian herself performs all the different operations indicated. In case more than one copy of a book is ordered at a time, the same slip may serve for all, the number being entered with the title. This is objectionable only in case the order cannot be filled all at once, when the receipt- ing of the slip involves trouble and there is risk of con- fusion. A separate slip may be made for each copy; but this involves much extra labor when the number of copies is considerable. In some libraries bills are now so made out and treated that when cheeked and preserved they constitute an accession record, obviating the necessity of keeping a separate accession-book. This and the use of order cards in a catalogue are merely examples of various ways in which the labors of the book-order and the catalogue departments may be lessened by combination. Such a combination is in successful operation in some libra- ries. As regards the source of purchase, there is much to be said in favor of a local bookseller, if he be a man of intelligence. Encouragement of such a man means the support of an expert to whom the librarian can turn for advice in many directions, and whose preservation may be worth some little additional expense. In case of large .purchases, it is well, as a matter of policy, to divide the library order between at least two firms. The reward of 141 THE PUECHASE OF BOOKS better service from one may be an increased proportion of the business and will serve as a stimulant to the other dealer. Secondhand books should be bought sparingly, if at all, for circulation. The reduction in price is seldom in proportion to the deterioration of the book, and such deterioration often does not appear on the surface. In case of a book not for circulation, to be little used, de- terioration may not count; the book may last indefi- nitely, even if it has been weakened by use. But in case of a book for circulation, which is to be freely handled, the practical value to the library depends on the number of issues that it will stand; and if a secondhand book will stand only five issues instead of fifty, it is obviously worth to the library only one tenth the price of a new book, and would be dear even at quarter price. This same consideration of the probable life of a book, as determined by the number of issues, must also determine whether the book is or is not to be placed in strong binding at the outset. So far as this is a binder's problem, it is treated in another chapter. So far as it involves the securing of the book in sheets, it is, how- ever, a problem of purchase. It is not an easy matter to secure the sheets, unless the book is to be ordered in large quantities. Binders who make a business of bind- ing up new books from the sheets for library use find it possible to make business arrangements with some pub- lishers to be supplied with a sufficient number of the sheets for their customers, before the day of publication, so that the book may be bound and delivered to the library as soon as it could be purchased in publisher's covers. Other publishers, however, still refuse abso- lutely to sell sheets, alleging that it does not pay to pick 142 SUBSCRIPTION BOOKS out and make up sets, and this necessitates buying their books in publishers ' covers, tearing these off, and rebind- ing, with the result that the books are not so strong as if bound directly from sheets. It is to be hoped that ere long unsewed assemblages of sheets will be recognized articles of commerce in the American book trade, so that purc^hasers may bind to suit their taste and to fit the usage that the book is to receive. Librarians are regarded by the agents for subscrip- tion books as fair game. Books sold in this way may be roughly divided into two classes — ^those that are too costly to be disposed of through the ordinary channels of trade, and those that are inferior in some way or priced higher than they ought to be, so that they cannot be sold in any way except through personal solicitation. In the first class are included expensive art books, edi- tions de luxe, good sets in costly bindings, etc., most of which are not needed by any library, although some are adapted for the larger institutions. The only works in this class that may be considered by the smaller libra- ries are certain reference works, such as dictionaries and cyclopedias, that are not issued otherwise than by sub- scription. Even these may often be bought in condition as new from secondhand dealers, to whom they have been sent by purchasers persuaded against their will by the silver-tongued agent. The second class of subscrip- tion books includes innumerable " sets," formed by re- printing standard works that may be classed together in some way, often with a well-known name, as that of editor, and brief copyrighted introductions; worthless reprints of out-of-date reference books, with scanty up- to-date additions ; and books of little value, compiled with a view to attracting a particular class of purchasers, as 143 THE PURCHASE OF BOOKS those of some one religious denomination, veterans of the Civil War, or mechanics unfamiliar with their own trade literature. The sensible librarian steers clear of all these, and either adopts the plan of not purchasing books from agents at all, or of never deciding or making a promise, written or verbal, in the agent's presence. Li- brarians of small libraries are often led, by their desire to be up to date, to replace their editions of standard reference books by later ones on the advice of agents. This should never be done without thorough examina- tion. The publishers of most good books of this kind cut the plates at intervals for brief additions and cor- rections, and impressions containing such changes are often represented by the agents as " new editions " or " the latest revision." On the other hand, a really new and enlarged edition or complete revision of such a work should always be purchased as soon as pos- sible. A New York club, through its library committee, re- ceived complaints from many members that its edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica was not up to date, and placed an order for a new set. The set owned by the club was in reality the latest edition, and the complain- ants had been misled by the condition of the binding. Fortunately the facts were discovered in time to prevent the expenditure of a considerable sum for a set of vol- umes that would have differed in no respect from the old ones except in their shiny clothing. This illustrates the importance of personal knowledge and of actual com- parison of editions in all cases of this kind. Auction sales of books are the source of many valu- able purchases for large libraries and are well worth being watched by small ones. Book auctioneers in large 144 OUT-OP-PRINT BOOKS cities will send their catalogues regularly on application and bids may be sent in by mail. In ease it is desired to bid regularly, however, it is well to put the matter into the hands of a trustworthy agent who will attend the sales personally and on whose judgment, in bidding, re- liance may be placed. In purchasing titles selected from lists, the librarian finds that many are out of print, either because the list is old or because the compiler has purposely included certain out-of-print books in his list, wishing to make it as complete as possible. The fact that books are out of print should always be noted in a list intended as a guide for purchase, but it is not generally so noted ; and the result is much annoyance, both to librarians and to dealers. A report that a work is "0. P." (out of print), however, does not always mean the same thing. If received from a bookseller, it may mean simply that the American editions are exhausted, and it may still be very easy to obtain the book by importation. If given by a publisher, it usually means simply that his own edi- tion is out of print ; the book may be easily available in a dozen other forms. If all editions are really exhausted, it may be that, owing to lack of demand, the book will never be reprinted, or it may be that the work is simply unavailable temporarily, another edition being in prep- aration. Books temporarily or recently out of print, and even some that have been long in this condition, may be picked up at secondhand or found by advertis- ing. This course seldom pays in a popular library for circulation, as the secondhand copy soon wears out and the search must be repeated, often at a brief in- terval. Publishers sometimes report a book " out of stock." 145 THE PURCHASE OF BOOKS This report differs little from " out of print," except that it may be taken to imply that there is an intention to reprint, or, at any rate, that there has been no de- cision not to do so ; whereas ' ' out of print ' ' means that there is no present intention of issuing another impres- sion. Libraries often find that there is a steady demand for out-of-print books, and yet publishers report that they have no evidence that reprinting would pay. In some cases this is doubtless bad judgment on the part of the publisher, the library demand being an evidence that there would be a similar demand for the reprinted work if placed on sale. In other cases, however, there may be no such probability, the library demand being simply due to library habit. Be this as it may, efforts on the part of librarians to induce publishers to reprint such books have not been generally successful. In a few cases where reprints have been made the sale has been small, even among libraries that have reported a desire to see the books reissued. "With some exceptions, there- fore, the conclusion may be justified that the publishers know their own business best in this regard. A New York bookseller, encouraged by the persistent library demand for a certain set of out-of-print books, made an arrangement with the London owners of the plates to print a small edition. The London publisher did as he agreed, and then arguing that the American order indicated a reviving American demand, issued an edition of his own, with which he proceeded at once to undersell the American dealer in his own market. This was financially profitable to libraries, but scarcely en- couraging to others who might have been thinking of imitating this venture. 146 EDITIONS In purchasing standard books, especially those on which copyright has expired, there is generally wide choice among editions, and the librarian must select that best adapted to his purpose. He may rely for this on such partial lists as those issued by the American Li- brary Association Committee on Book Buying and by Leroy Jeffers, of the New York Public Library, but such rapidly become out of date, and personal knowledge is necessary to make a judicious selection. What is needed is ordinarily strong paper, clear type of moderate size, a strong, black impression, sewing that will stand the strain of repeated handling, and a cover with stout joints. All this is very hard to find, as an original com- bination. The book, if it is to have the wear of circu- lation, will ordinarily have to be bound specially for that end, and all that the purchaser need look out for is paper that will stand such binding. These matters are considered in detail in the chapter on Binding. As re- gards type, much is used that is so small as to be abso- lutely unfit for a public library. Even where the type was originally legible, broken or worn letters often spoil the book, and there is no excuse for such a volume remaining on the market. As for illustrations, other things being equal, fiction is better without them. If there is no pictureless edition, one should be chosen where the pictures are not lightly fastened in with paste, ready to flutter out on the slightest provocation. In the case of a work of travel, full of interesting repro- ductions of original photographs, like many of the Arc- tic books of recent years, the edition that has these in their entirety should be sought. Some complete reprints of the text, especially English reprints of American books, or the reverse, leave out some or all of the pie- 11 147 THE PURCHASE OF BOOKS tures. In case the photographs are of no particular interest, or have been inserted merely as " padding," the pictureless edition may be preferred here also. In general, it may be said that the selection of proper editions for purchase has not received adequate attention among librarians. There is no royal road to success in it, and iew guideposts by the way. Some- times the lowest-priced book may be selected, regardless of its actual cheapness, reckoned from its cost per prob- able unit of issue. Sometimes the cost may be properly reckoned, but no account taken of faults, like unduly small type, that will render the book useless to most readers and injure the health of others; or, again, bad taste may be fostered by poor printing and worse pic- tures. Book prices in the United States are greatly affected by the existence of the American Publishers' Associa- tion, a body whose object is to maintain the price set upon the book by its publisher and to prevent price cut- ting and the giving of excessive discounts. The Associa- tion prescribes that when a book is published " net " the price shall be maintained for one year, the discount to booksellers and others being strictly limited during this period. For such books the discount to libraries is fixed at one third for fiction and one tenth for nonfie- tion. Formerly the members of the Association bound themselves to refuse to do business with booksellers cut- ting below these prices, or allowing any discount at all to the general public, but such agreement having been pro- nounced illegal by the courts, the Association now simply " recommends " this action to its members, the result being very much the same. It will be noted that the Association does not deter- 148 PUBLISHERS' ASSOCIATION mine prices or give any opinion as to what is a fair price, but merely endeavors to maintain whatever price may have been set upon a book by its publisher, it being assumed that the public will protect itself against extor- tion by refusal to purchase. Previous to the formation of the Association list prices of books -meant little or nothing. Everyone was able to obtain a discount on some pretext or other, and libraries could not infre- quently count on forty, fifty, or even sixty per cent off. To meet these cuts it was necessary to place the nominal or list price at a high figure, and it was generally antici- pated that the maintenance of list prices to the public, with reduced discounts to libraries, would be accompa- nied by a drop in the list price, so that the actual cost to the purchaser would not be much, if at all, increased. List prices, however, have been pretty well kept up, so that the ' ' net ' ' books, including most new current pub- lications, cost libraries more than they formerly did. To justify this, publishers point to the increased cost of pro- duction and to the higher royalties demanded by suc- cessful authors. As regards non-net books, including most of the standard works of literature, their price has not been greatly increased, and libraries making large purchases may obtain thirty-six to forty per cent dis- count, or even a little more. A free public library may, as a public educational institution, import dutiable books duty free. It may also, by provision of the Copyright Act, import classes of works whose entry into the country is prohibited ex- cept under certain restrictions, the only limitations being that pirated works may not be imported at all, and that books copyrighted both here and abroad may be brought in only one at a time. Effort has been made on various 149 THE PURCHASE OF BOOKS occasions to prohibit the importation of foreign copy- right editions of American copyright books, or at least of those originating in the United States, without per- mission of the American copyright owner; but this has been unsuccessful. No definition of " pirated " books appears in the act. Such are generally understood to be all works pro- duced without permission of the copyright owner; but in a strictly legal sense the term is probably limited to those so produced in violation of law. Thus, American copyright works reprinted in England or English copy- right works reprinted in America before there was any international copyright agreement were generally called " piratical," although quite within the legal rights of the reprinter. On the other hand, an English unauthor- ized reprint of an English copyright book is clearly piratical ; and yet, if the book has not secured American copyright, the law would probably not interfere with the importation of the reprint. Unauthorized reprints of books copyrighted in both countries, whether printed in one or the other country, are clearly forbidden intro- duction by the law. Books copyrighted in England, but not here, may, of course, be imported, as not subject to American copyright restriction. This fact and the per- mission, not yet withheld, to import, one at a time, the English editions of works copyrighted in both countries, together with the privilege of exemption from duty, often enable the librarian to save money and secure a better edition by purchasing abroad. This is not always the case, and a comparison of prices and editions is often necessary before deciding — an operation easier for a large library than a small one. Large libraries often have their purchasing agents in 150 IMPORTATIONS the chief book centers abroad, but the easiest way to im- port is to order directly from an American importing bookseller, who will attend to all the necessary formali- ties and charge a flat price of so much per shilling, franc, or mark. CHAPTEE XII CLASSIFICATION Classification has two objects — to aid the librarian and to aid the public. As the latter is the ultimate ob- ject of all library schemes and appliances, perhaps it would be better to say that the objects are to aid the librarian in helping the public and to aid the public in helping themselves. Classification — ^the grouping of the titles in some systematic way — does not, of course, neces- sarily imply the marking of the books in accordance with the scheme, or any corresponding arrangement on the shelves; but it has come to include both these, in so far at least as the main groupings of the classification are concerned. In some respects a class may exist merely for cataloguing purposes. It is, indeed, impossi- ble to place a book on the shelves in two classes, though it may logically belong to both; while it is, of course, easy to make as many entries for it as desired and to arrange these in as many groups as we wish. In order to realize the ways in which classification assists the reader, both directly and through the aid that it gives the librarian, let us suppose that the books are unclassi- fied and arranged on the shelves as they are added to the stock- — as a librarian would say, in the order of ac- cession numbers. This method of arrangement was in vogue in small libraries not many years ago, and may still be seen in some places. Its disadvantages are not 152 AID TO THE READER obtrusive so long as the number of volumes is small — not more than two or three hundred, perhaps. A glance suffices to run over the titles, and a frequent user of the library has them pretty well in mind without looking at them. But when the library grows much beyond this the arrangement is soon felt to be unwieldy. Something is needed to enable the user to see at a glance the re- sources of the library in a particular line, or to be able, when he fails to find a book for which he is looking, to turn at once to others on the same subject. If the shelves are closed, it is not necessary for his direct aid that there be a classified shelf arrangement — a grouping of the catalogue cards, or of titles in a printed list, is all that he needs. When he has selected his book the assist- ant finds it for him mechanically. Even with closed shelves, however, classified shelf arrangement is of great .aid to the assistant, whom it enables to answer questions regarding the available resources of the library with speed and ease. Especially is this the case in an Ameri- can library. Our catalogues inform the reader what books are owned by the library, but not whether a par- ticular book is in use or not. English libraries have indicators to show this, but we rely on the library as- sistant to give the information. The mere statement of this difficulty is in itself sufficient to show the advan- tages of free access to the shelves; and where this sys- tem prevails, as it now does, wholly or in part, in almost all American public libraries, a classified shelf arrange- ment is a necessity. Classification thus aids the open- shelf reader directly and the closed-shelf reader indi- rectly, through shelf arrangement, and both indirectly through the catalogue. The chief basis of the classification in a general pub- 153 CLASSIFICATION lie library should, of course, be the subject of the book — the thing that attracts and interests most readers. Clas- sification by authors may also be valuable ; we occasion- ally hear complaints because all the books by a writer who is at once novelist, poet, and essayist are not found together on the shelves. This author grouping, however, may always be found in the catalogue. It is convenient in some classes, as literature, where form is important, to subclassify by form — essays, novels, poetry. Special li- braries may, of course, classify on bases far different from these — the date of publication, for instance, as with incunabula; or the author's relationships, as when a club groups together books on all subjects by its own members. A public library is sometimes forced by cir- cumstances beyond its control to adopt, in certain spe- cial cases, a very artificial basis of grouping — size, for instance, as when limited height of shelves relegates folios to a shelf by themselves, regardless of subject or author, or when the convenience of pocket editions from the book thief's standpoint makes it desirable for the library to group them together on closed shelves, or at least under close observation. In spite of these deviations, however, " classifica- tion ' ' among librarians generally means the grouping of books or their titles by subject, and involves not only a logical scheme of arrangement, but also some plan of notation by which a brief and intelligible mark on the book will indicate its class and its proper place on the shelves. It may be said here, in passing, that this nota- tion, whatever it may be in theory, is rarely of direct practical aid to users of the library, except occasionally, in enabling them to replace books on the shelves prop- erly in libraries where the public is allowed to do this. 154 ALL PLANS ARTIFICIAL Despite directories and schemes on the fly leaves of printed catalogues, it is probably too much to expect the ordinary user of a library to attach significance to the notation of any system of classification. For the public there must be guides and subject headings in the cata- logue, section signs and shelf labels on the shelves. It makes considerable difference to a reader whether a given book be placed in one or another class, but very little whether that book be marked with one or another combination of letters or numerals. As regards the scheme of classification, in the first place it should be remembered that all grouping by classes is subjective rather than objective. Even if we group the red books and the yellow books together, re- spectively, it is first necessary that we should mentally abstract the color of the book from its other qualities. Then, when we have before us an assortment of graded orange tints connecting the two hues that we have chosen, it will be realized, in addition, that although it is absolutely necessary to draw a line somewhere between two classes, the location of that line must often be purely arbitrary. In fact, the classifiers of natural objects, who began their work before the classifiers of books, found out long ago the artificial character of all such schemes. They must take perforce the attitude of him who is about to cut up a beefsteak. It must be cut, and the pieces should be of convenient and regular size ; but the precise spot at which the knife should enter the meat is of secondary consequence. We must doubtless, for our own convenience and in the interests of science, draw a line between animals and plants; and when we encounter various types of inferior organisms seeming to be both or neither, it is of little importance where, 155 CLASSIFICATION among these, we draw the line, provided only it is at an easily identifiable place and that it is always drawn by everyone in the same place. The same is true of books. These often cluster thickly about the central regions that separate class from class, and many of them may be placed as well on one side of the line as on the other. Any two expert classifiers, taken at random, will be apt to differ regarding the best location of such titles in any scheme of classification. Hence, even in libraries that have adopted the same system and that are supposed to be " classified alike," the class numbers of the same books will often be found to differ widely. There is as yet not only no standard system, but no standard of ap- plication to the individual books under any one system ; nor can there be until all the books in all libraries are classified by one person. If all the libraries in the United States, for instance, should agree in the first place, upon some one plan of classification and, in the second place, upon acceptance of the class numbers as- signed by the Library of Congress, whatever these might be, we should then have uniformity of classification, in our own country at least. Such uniformity has been gained in systems of branch libraries, where the class numbers for all are assigned at cataloguing headquar- ters. Such systems often include numerous formerly independent libraries, with either schemes of classifica- tion of their own or the same scheme applied in differ- ent ways. It has been necessary in such eases to re- classify the books, involving also radical alterations in catalogue and shelf list and the remarking of the books. There has never been any doubt of the advisability or utility of doing this work, and it would be equally use- ful, if it could be done, for all the libraries in a state or 156 TYPES OP SYSTEMS in the whole country as for those in a single city. Nothing is wanting but authority, and probably this lack will never be made up. As a matter of fact, even when reclassification would be obviously advantageous, or is imperatively needed, the librarian of a large library shrinks from the task, involving as it does such a mass of detail and so many months of work. Many an inade- quate and outgrown system is retained not because it is best, but because of the labor involved in changing it. When books in libraries were first arranged in classes no one scheme was in general use, and almost every librarian formulated one of his own. Hence the older and larger American public libraries generally have their own systems of classification and notation. Of late years, owing to the publication of certain systems, with minute directions for their use, one or another of these is usually adopted in a new library, and some of the older and larger libraries are changing over to them, so that it has become possible, by giving outlines of these systems, to give an idea of the ways in which most of the public libraries of the United States group their books. Prof. Ernest C. Richardson, in his lectures on " Classi- fication " (New York, 1901), divides systems of classifi- cation into five classes: the philosophical, or scientific, which deals with the order of the sciences or of things in the abstract; the pedagogic, constructed for educational purposes ; the encyclopedic, similar to the preceding, but not so much in outline; the bibliographic, suited to the arrangement of book titles in a bibliography; and the bibliothetic, suited for the books on the shelves of a library. The first three he calls theoretic, the last two practical. Bibliographic classification, however, is more flexible than bibliothetic in not having to take account of 157 CLASSIFICATION the size, shape, and material of actual books, as the lat- ter is obliged to do. It is evidently only in bibliothetic classifications that we are interested here. In a useful scheme of classification the books must be arranged in classes or subclasses according to princi- ples somewhat such as follow: The arrangement must be (1) logical — that is, books about similar things must be grouped together; (2) geographical — ^that is, books belonging in some way to the same part of the world should go together; (3) chronological, both by subjects and books — ^that is, books on the same historical period and also books issued at the same time should be grouped; (4) alphabetical — that is, books whose au- thors' names begin with the same letter go together; and (5) linguistic — ^that is, by languages. It is obvious that only one of these arrangements can be the primary one, and that no two can occupy the same order of importance. For instance, the primary division cannot at the same time be logical and alpha- betical, for the former would group all chemistries to- gether, while the latter would require the books on this subject to be separated and grouped each with the books on other subjects whose authors' names begin with the same letter. Nor can it be at the same time logical and linguistic, for the former would put together histories in the English, French, and German languages, while the latter would segregate all French books, whether history, science, or fiction. We must then determine a primary principle of cleissification, then a secondary one, accord- ing to which we may divide the classes formed according to the primary principle; then a tertiary, for dividing the subclasses so formed, and so on. The order of these principles is not the same in all systems or in all libra- 158 PRINCIPLES OP ARRANGEMENT ries, and it may be necessary to depart from them in the same arrangement. The logical arrangement is the most natural and common primary arrangement in a public library. In many libraries, however, the linguistic ar- rangement precedes — ^that is, the German, French, Rus- sian, or Roumanian books are kept by themselves — a preferable arrangement where these books are intended to satisfy the wants of native readers of those tongues. The geographical arrangement is important for some purposes, but is never made the primary one in a public library. The same may be said of both the chronological arrangements. The chronological arrangement by books is recognized occasionally as a primary one by public libraries when they place recent works on a separate shelf, thus practically dividing the whole collection into two classes primarily — recent and nonrecent books. The alphabetic arrangement is, of course, very important in its place, and the general public is usually pleased by making it as prominent as possible. Some libraries for- merly recognized it as primary — that is, arranged all their books on the shelves alphabetically by authors' names, just as author cards are arranged in a catalogue. The New York State Library was once so arranged, but no good modern library adopts such a plan, although it might still be the best for a very small collection, say of three or four hundred books. The order in which the principles stated above are used for book classification in most American public libraries is, as given by Professor Richardson, as follows: (1) Logical, (2) geographical, (3) chronological by subjects, (4) alphabetical, (5) lin- guistic, (6) chronological by books. This means the di- vision of the books first into subject groups, history by itself, science by itself, and so on; the division of these 159 CLASSIFICATION groups (where possible or desirable) by countries (thus, French history would always be kept together, possibly also the geology of France) ; the splitting up of these subdivisions by the periods or epochs referred to (thus, the books on the French Revolution would be kept apart from those on the Second Empire) ; alphabetical ar- rangement by authors under these subdivisions; the seg- regation of foreign translations from the original works under the same author; and finally the statement of the year of publication. It must not be thought that this order is universal, or that it is ever adhered to rigidly throughout any whole system. In some cases one or more of the principles can- not be applied at all; for instance, although we may have books on the geology of France or Germany, we cannot have them on the chemistry of these countries separately, since chemical facts and laws are the same everywhere; thus the geographical principle cannot be applied uniformly to all the sciences, unless " French chemistry " be taken to mean chemistry as taught or formulated by French chemists. Again, there may be a difference of opinion among artists as to whether the geographical or the chronological principle should be allowed to take precedence in classifying art books; in other words, whether all books on French art should be grouped together and subdivided by periods, or whether the art of the Renaissance, for instance, should be grouped together and then subdivided by countries. Fortunately, though questions such as these cause sleepless nights and heartburnings among classifiers, they do not affect the general public greatly, and as the ob- ject of all classification is to make the books of a library more usable, we may say that they are not of primary 160 NOTATION importance. Among public libraries in general, uni- formity is more desirable than the adoption of any one particular system or order of principles ; and among spe- cial libraries the needs of each will naturally dictate changes in any standard scheme that might be adopted. Every classification, no matter in what way the above- stated principles are carried out, must have, as already stated, what is called a notation^that is, a short- hand system for denoting the various classes and subclasses — for use in marking the books and also their titles in catalogues, for charging them on the user's card, etc. The notation on each book should tell one who is familiar with it almost exactly what the book is — that is, to what classes and subclasses it belongs. The mnemonic element is thus of con- siderable importance, and some systems have adopted as a basis the initial letters of the names of classes. Ob- viously symbols should be used that are connected with some recognized notion of sequence, which means practi- cally that either numbers or letters of the alphabet should be employed. Many systems use both. A more complex notation may be valuable in a learned than in a popular library. As has already been said, the nota- tion in a public free-access library is for the use of the library assistants rather than that of the public. The number of subclasses in any class is limited by the num- ber of symbols in the sequence. There can thus be no more than ten with a numerical notation, while there may be as many as twenty-eight in an alphabetic nota- tion. These numbers might be increased by the addition of arbitrary signs or combinations. The practical appli- cation of this will be seen a little farther along when we come to speak of specific systems. 161 CLASSIFICATION What constitutes a good arrangement for book clas- sification ? According to Professor Richardson, it should be (1) natural, (2) minutely detailed, (3) with a notation providing for indefinite subdivision, (4) provided with an adequate index, and (5) in general use. It will be noted that many of these requisites depend on the labor that has been expended in devising and elaborating the system and its notation rather than on the inherent mer- its of the arrangement. The two systems most in use in this country are precisely those that have been thus elab- orated at the expense of years of painstaking labor on the part of their inventors ; and the greater attention to details of classification, that is admittedly a characteris- tic of American popular libraries, as compared with those in England, is an outcome of the greater amount of labor that has been expended here on the details of specific systems. The two systems of classification most in use in Amer- ican public libraries, especially those of medium size and those whose collections have been recently formed, are the Decimal of Melvil Dewey and the Expansive of Charles A. Cutter. These, in fact, are the only existing systems that are in any way rounded and complete. For practical use it is not sufficient to indicate the principles on which a system of classification is based and the man- ner in which its notation is formed ; the different classes and subclasses must actually be named, arranged, and notated, and this requires in itself a bulimy volume. In special libraries, where the books are largely in some one class or subclass, further subdivision, with an expanded notation, is often necessary. It would be a difficult and invidious task to compare the two systems named above. The Decimal system is 162 DECIMAL SYSTEM still more complete than the Expansive, is more fully in- dexed, and is in wider use. The Expansive is perhaps more logical at certain points and, as it uses a predomi- nant alphabetic notation, admits of a much larger num- ber of coordinate classes or subclasses. A decimal classification, as its name implies, divides the whole field of literature into ten classes, each of these into ten subclasses, and so on. Its notation, therefore, is simply the ordinary notation of arithmetic, consisting of whole numbers and decimal fractions. It may not at first be obvious why fractions are needed at all. This is because a figure in a definite place — the hundreds, for instance — ^must always stand for a definite class, and if we were to attempt to denote indefinite subdivision sim- ply by annexing other figures, the place of the primary class would be altered and its signification changed or rendered meaningless. The same object, of course, could be obtained by using a higher place for the primary classes, but this would necessitate the constant use of un- necessary zeros, making the notation very cumbersome. Fractions are therefore necessary. Dewey uses the hun- dreds place for his primary classification. Thus, 100 is the general class Philosophy, 160 the subclass Logic, and so on. In his classification devised especially for the Princeton University library Dr. Richardson uses the thousands place for his primary classes, and thus may push his subdivision one degree further without using fractions, at the expense, of course, of a little more cum- bersomeness. In a very simple system, two whole num- bers, or even one, might be sufficient. The Dewey sys- tem was begun in 1873, published in 1876, and reached its fourth edition in 1891. A fifth is now about to be issued. Probably it is used to-day by several thousand 12 163 CLASSIFICATION libraries — more than ever used a single system before — not only in this country, but in Europe, where its adop- tion by the Brussels Institute of Bibliography has aided much in giving it vogue. Its Brussels adopters have much enlarged its possibilities by combining the nota- tions of various classes to denote the relationships of the title classified. Besides its consistent use of the decimal plan, it makes also a peculiarly intelligent use of mne- monic devices, which aid in the quick understanding and translation into words of any particular combination of figures. The use of letters of the alphabet for notation, adopted in the Expansive System, has the advantage that, while the sequence of these letters is (or is sup- posed to be) universally known, the number of letters in a combination and the place of each in a group mean nothing. No use of zeros or any similar device is thus necessary. Subclasses may be denoted by affixing other letters to any extent without making the higher notations cumbersome or without any such device as the decimal point. At the same time the possible number of coordi- nate divisions is nearly three times as large as with the use of the nine digits and the zero. The Expansive Clas- sification was not published (except in a preliminary way) until 1891, and the sixth expansion was included in 1893. The seventh, including 10,000 subdivisions, has recently been issued. It is claimed by admirers of this system that it is especially logical and up to date in its nomenclature, and the scholarship displayed in its con- struction is of a high degree. It is probable that the fact that the combinations of letters in its notation mean nothing to the eye (which, as stated above, is really one of its advantages) has somewhat handicapped it in the 164 AUTHOR MARKS race for popularity. A number — 196, for example — in- dicates a certain place in a sequence even to him who knows nothing of the Dewey system, whereas Pxa is somewhat confusing and forbidding. Evidently either of these two systeips, and any one of numerous others, provides for classification as " close " as may be desired. The closer the classifica- tion the fewer books in the furthest subclass. Carried to its extreme, this would leave one title in each class; for it may probably be asserted that no two books are so exactly alike that they would defy attempts to place them in separate subclasses. This, of course, is seldom done practically, and in American libraries a " book number " is usually added to the " class number " to form the notation or " call number " for the individual book, thus distinguishing the different books in the same class. The Cutter '■ author marks," devised by C. A. Cutter, inventor of the Expansive Classification, are usu- ally employed. These are the initials of the author's name, followed sometimes by other distinguishing letters of the name and qualified by numbers. Thus books on birds, all having the Dewey class numbers 598.2, may be discriminated somewhat as follows : Abbott, C. C, Birdland echoes 598.2 A Miller, 0. T., Bird ways 598.2 M Musgrave, M. G., Birds and butterflies. .598.2 M19 Scott, W. B. D., Bird studies 598.2 S3 Wright, M. 0., Citizen bird 598.2 W5 Of late these author numbers, while retained for some classes, are being discarded in others, especially in individual biography and fiction, the books being ar- 165 CLASSIFICATION ranged in the former alphabetically by subject and in the latter by authors throughout the whole class. Books on the shelves should stand theoretically in the exact sequence indicated by their notation. The old " fixed location," in which every book always stood on the same shelf and bore a ' ' shelf number, ' ' is now gen- erally abandoned. Especially in a circulating library, a large proportion of the books are always in use, and this leaves too many empty spaces, which waste shelf room. The extreme of fixed location was once to be seen in cer- tain libraries that divided their shelves into compart- ments, each devoted to a single book. In the " relative location, ' ' now generally used, the individual book rarely shifts its place sufficiently to mislead the user, and the shelves may " accommodate " several thousand more books than they are actually capable of holding, owing to the fact that the number in use seldom varies by a great deal. When it does so vary, however, there may be trouble, as when circulation falls off in summer. At such times the shelves may become greatly overcrowded, and it may even be necessary to withdraw some books until the winter's increased use thins the shelves again. Allowance for such variation in use should properly be made in adjusting the size of circulating collections to shelf capacity. Practically, various considerations make it desirable to depart, in shelving books, from the strict sequence in- dicated by the notation. In the first place, the classes most used should be placed most conveniently. In an open-shelf library, for instance, a popular class should be located where there is plenty of room for those who are consulting the shelves, and where they will not block others' way. A little-used class, provided there is no 166 VARIATION IN LOCATION reason for pushing or encouraging its use, may be in an out-of-the-way corner. In a closed-shelf library the classes most in demand must be where the assistants can get at them readily. The desire of the librarian to in- crease the circulation of certain classes may also cause a departure from strict arrangement. Thus in some open- shelf libraries a so-called " ribbon" arrangement of fic- tion has been adopted, in which the fiction is placed on one shelf around the room, with nonfiction classes above and below it, the expectation being that many users who read only fiction will in this way be attracted to nonfic- tion books and begin to withdraw and read them. Many eccentricities of shelf arrangement are to be credited to such laudable aims as this. In some children's rooms the stories have been classified and shelved with the nonfic- tion; thus a historical tale of the French Revolution would be found with histories of that period. The sub- classification of adult fiction and its arrangement in cor- responding fashion on the shelves has been strongly ad- vocated by some librarians. In at least one library, books in the children's room are arranged by accession number, without classified order, so that the users will be more likely to select nonfiction. It may be postulated, however, that departure from classified order should be made on the shelves only from some compelling reason. Library users may surely be made to read good books in some other way than that by which rats are induced to take poison, namely, by mix- ing it with their daily food. Classification of fiction is an excellent thing, but it should be a bibliographical enterprise and should not affect shelf arrangement. CHAPTER XIII CATALOGUING It may be said of catalogues, as it was said of classi- fication in the last chapter, that they are solely for the aid of the public, either directly or through the assist- ance that they give to the librarian in his work. AH catalogues are lists of books, each of whose items de- scribes a book more or less fully. The item may contain just enough to identify the book, or it may include elab- orate descriptive matter, accompanied by critical annota- tions. The principle on which the items are arranged, and, in a lesser degree the fullness and style of the items, determines the kind of catalogue. At present three general types are used for different purposes in most American libraries — ^the accession catalogue, in which the books are entered chronologically in the or- der of their addition to the library; the shelf list, in which the order is that in which the books stand on the shelves; and the catalogue proper, in which the entries are, in general, alphabetical. Of these, the first two are solely for the use of the library assistants. The third is used equally by librarians and the public, and in large libraries there are copies or sets for both purposes. The accession catalogue corresponds to the day book of financial accounts. In it are written, with a more or less detailed description, for identification, the author and title of each book as acquired, each being assigned a 168 ACCESSION RECORD serial number, known as an accession number. This number is inseparable from the book while it lives, and dies with it. It represents the actual, material book, not the title; every separate volume of a series and every identical duplicate copy of a work has its own number, which is never changed and never given to any other book. Blank accession books, to be filled by entries of this sort, are sold in several forms, but in all only one line is allowed for each entry. The particulars generally given, besides serial number, author, and title, are pub- lisher's name, source, date, size, and edition with addi- tional space for remarks. These are not always filled out, especially in small libraries. The accession record is the original record of the books, and should be authoritative. It is used to ascer- tain certain facts about any particular book, such as the date on which it was added, its source, and its cost. In case of a loss, it tells what sum the loser must be charged ; in case of a fire, the insurance adjustment is made by its records. It is, to quote Dr. W. P. Poole (L. J., 3, p. 324), " a transcript (put into bibliographical form) of all the bills and invoices of books purchased; ... a chronological record of the growth of the library ; . . . a record of donations and donors; . . . and a rec- ord of the history of every book. ' ' For quickness of ref- erence, the accession number must be entered in the book itself in some uniform place (as the page following the title), and also on the shelf list. There has been of late a rather widespread movement against the use of the accession catalogue, at any rate in the form in which it is commonly found, and an effort to do away with it, either by substituting something else for it or by combining it with some other form of record. 169 CATALOGUING Thus we find some libraries using their original bills as an accession record and others experimenting more or less successfully with combined accession and order lists or accession and general catalogues. As early as 1878 Justin Winsor objected to the ac- cession catalogue as useless, and endeavored to substitute the shelf list for it — an unsatisfactory change, as pointed out by Dr. Poole, since the shelf list is constantly chang- ing. Piled order cards have been used as the accession record in the Library of Congress and bills, or invoices, in the Boston Public Library, the Springfield City Li- brary, and others. A plan for using a system of " tally cards ' ' in the shelf list instead of the accession book has been proposed by Mr. H. E. Bliss (L. J., 28, p. 711), and Mr. Drew B. Hall (L. J., 28, p. 830) has devised what he calls a " classified and condensed accession record " as an improvement over the usual plan. The feature to which objection is chiefly made is the necessity of a separate and more or less elaborate entry for each separate book. Thus in some libraries we find the custom of accessioning collections of pamphlets, or even series of boote, in one entry. This saves space, pro- vided the collection is already accompanied by its sepa- rate list of contents ; if not, as such a list must evidently be made and retained, it may as well be entered in the accession book as anywhere else. Other libraries that use many duplicates and purchase large numbers of these at once lament the waste of space involved in fill- ing page after page with ditto marks. Some of these objectors have adopted the practice of giving to a re- placement the same number as the volume that it re- places and letting the original accession entry stand. This fulfills some of the requirements of an accession 170 SHELF LIST entry, but not others, and is on the whole objectionable. For instance, if the new volume is precisely the same in all particulars as the discarded one (and it is only in such case that anyone advocates the plan here noted), the entry is correct so far as the author, title, and de- scription of the book are concerned. The date of acces- sion, however, is wrong, and this is important in compil- ing statistics of wear, etc. Again, the accession record should indicate the discarding of a volume and its re- placement with a new one; the record should show, at the end of the year, the total number discarded and the total of additions, and this is not done by the record alone unless every volume added, whether a new title, a duplicate, or a replacement, has a separate entry with its new accession number in serial order. The shelf list, as has been said, is a list of books in the order in which they are shelved. If all the books in the library are shelved by classes, it is also a class list; otherwise not. For instance, if adult books for circula- tion, children's books, and reference books are shelved separately, the shelf list will not be a class list, since the entries on history, for instance, will be found in three different places. The name " shelf list " is sometimes improperly given to a class list; for instance, the " union shelf list " often kept in systems of branch libraries is really a union class list. The order in which entries appear in it does not correspond with the order ' of books on any one set of shelves. The entries in a shelf list are brief — merely sufficient to identify the book, unless other features are incorporated with" it; as, for instance, when it is used as a classed catalogue. The list is used, in its capacity as a shelf list, chiefly for comparison with the books on the shelves, in taking in- 171 CATALOGUING ventory. As a class list, if it be such, it is useful in many other ways, which are sufBciently obvious. The inventory of books in a library is like the inven- tory of goods in any establishment or of articles in a man 's own house — simply a comparison of the actual ob- 1 " 1 " \ fflw* "^r^^^ T^_^^ r ■ ^iit^ _— . Shelf Card and Shelf-list Sheets. jects— in this case, books — with a list, to see whether there is agreement. In the case of goods, however, the inventory is simplified by the owner's ability to take much of it in gross; his list says " 100 boxes of Blank's soap," and he has merely to count them to perform his verification. Library lists do not say " 500 volumes of history." This 172 TAKING OP INVENTORY would not do, because all the books of history are not alike, as the boxes of soap are. The list used is the shelf list, just described, which is primarily made for this very purpose. If all the volumes were on the shelves, com- parison would be very simple ; but in an ordinary public library some are in the hands of readers at home, some are at the bindery or in process of mending, and so on. It is necessary, therefore, after ' ' reading the shelves, ' ' to search every place or record where trace may be found of books not on the shelves. If the shelf list is correct, the titles not found are those of books missing. A " missing " book may have been stolen from the shelves, or a reader may have taken it home without hav- ing it charged, either purposely or through negligence, or it may have been overlooked in one of the compari- sons referred to above, or it may have been misplaced or mislaid. Unless stolen or irrecoverably lost, it will turn up at some future time. Books found missing at inven- tory are listed in a book provided for the purpose, but are not usually reported missing until search has been made for them systematically during a specified num- ber of months. A majority of those missing at first will usually be found shortly ; and even after the report has been made — sometimes for several years afterwards — missing books will turn up more or less mysteriously. Every librarian has his own formula for taking inven- tory, but the object in each case is the same — to prevent omission of any precaution to detect the loss of books. In checking, some librarians use the shelf list itself, eras- ing check marks afterwards, but a better way is to do the actual work with a rough copy on sheets, the shelf list itself being kept as a standard. The order of proce- dure may be somewhat as follows; 173 CATALOGUING The shelves and shelf list are first examined to make sure that both are in proper order. The book num- ber is then read from the latter by one assistant while another looks for the book on the shelves. The book number, accession number, and copy number on the shelf list are compared with the record of them entered in the book, and if these do not correspond the book is removed for subsequent correction. When a book is missing, class number, book number, and copy number are entered on the inventory list. Besides the shelves, search is made in the circulation tray, among reserved books, on the mending shelves, among books to be discarded or ready for the binder, among cards for books in the bindery, and finally in shelves and cupboards in all parts of the library. Books still missing after such search should have their authors' titles and accession numbers as given on the shelf list compared with accession book and cata- logue for possible error. Inventory is taken usually once a year, and most li- brarians look forward to it much as the old-fashioned housekeeper looked forward to her annual " spring housecleaning. " It is possible to spread the inventory, like the cleaning, over the greater part of the year, thus mitigating its terrors and making it part of the regular routine work. This method involves the taking of an inventory of a certain class or classes every month. As the same class is always taken in the same month, pre- cisely one year elapses between inventories in each class. The disadvantage, of course, is that the results reported at the end of the year are not quite uniform ; thus, if the library year ends on December 31st, the class invento- ried in November will show more missing books than that in the previous February, owing to the shorter 174 GENERAL CATALOGUES elapsed period. The plan, however, has worked well in some large libraries. The general catalogue may be arranged in any one of various ways. If there is a single entry for each book, and these are arranged alphabetically by authors' names, it is an author catalogue. If they are arranged alphabetically by the chief word in the title, it is a title catalogue. If they are arranged in the order of classifi- cation, it is a classed catalogue, and differs from a class list only in the greater fullness of the entries. Classed catalogues, however, do not usually adhere to the strict order of a class list, the entries being often arranged in the alphabetical order of the authors' names within the most important classes. When so arranged, if the groups themselves are arranged in the alphabetical instead of the class order of their subject headings, we have a sub- ject catalogue. A classed catalogue with subject and author indexes is a useful form. Libraries formerly, and still to some extent, offered their users more than one of these forms of catalogue; for instance, separately arranged author, title, and sub- ject lists ; but the common practice now is to throw these together in one alphabetical order, forming a so-called dictionary catalogue. In such a catalogue, then, each book will be represented generally by not less than three entries — namely, an author entry, a title entry, and one or more subject entries. The first two are arranged in regular alphabetical order and the subject entries are ar- ranged each under its appropriate subject in the alpha- betical order of the author's name, the subject groups, each preceded by its separate subject heading, being ar- ranged in the alphabetical place of that heading among the author and title entries. This arrangement, though 175 CATALOGUING complex at first sight, has all the advantages of separate author, title, and subject lists, and is more easily con- sulted, since there is but one alphabet. It is a curious psychological fact that it has taken many years' experience to show experts that all sorts of entries may be thrown into one alphabetical order with- out sacrificing the independence of the separate collec- tions. Thus a man may have a file, including letters, memoranda, addresses, small pamphlets, clippings, etc., arranged in one alphabet. Thousands of persons have not yet grasped this simple truth and among them are our dictionary-makers, with their separate alphabets for ordinary words, proper names, familiar foreign words, and so on. In a dictionary catalogue much depends on the proper selection of subject headings. The author entries enable the consulter to ascertain whether the library con- tains a given book whose author he knows, and what other books by the same author are therein available. The title entries enable him to fimd whether the library contains a book whose author he has forgotten, but whose title he remembers. The subject entries often enable him to find a book whose author and title are both for- gotten, and also to ascertain what kind of a collection and how large the library contains on a given subject. Subject headings should therefore be such as the con- sulter would be apt to look for, and the more there are the easier the catalogue is to use. To duplicate cards under more than two or three headings, however, in- volves too much labor and swells the catalogue to too great proportions. Instead of duplicating, it is often sufflcient to make cross entries. The form of the head- ings will depend largely on the knowledge possessed by 176 ANALYTICALS the class of persons who are to use the catalogue; thus, in a catalogue for children, technical terms are best avoided. Instead of ' ' Botany ' ' and ' ' Zoology, ' ' for in- stance, the more familiar words " Plants " and " Ani- mals " may be used. In a catalogue to be used largely by persons who are looking for works on industrial sub- jects a much larger number of subject headings on this line would be used, and they would be more closely sub- divided than in an ordinary catalogue. In addition to these entries, so-called " analytieals " may be inserted ad libitum. These add to the catalogue an indexing feature, as they represent not books, but parts of books. Such entries are absolutely necessary to complete the catalogue and make it usable, in cases where important information on a subject is to be found in a book on another subject, or where several treatises are grouped together in one volume. They may be multi- plied so far that the catalogue practically includes an analytical index to every important work in the library ; their value is undoubted, and the only limitations are those of space and expense. In making a catalogue for the use of the public, the cataloguer should bear in mind that the object of the catalogue is to save the user time and trouble ; and every- thing should be directed to this end. For uniformity's sake, and to avoid confusion, cataloguers have adopted long and minute rules governing the form and style of entries in thousands of different cases. These rules tend to simplify the catalogue and make it easier to consult ; but whenever the cataloguer finds that any rule is acting to confuse rather than to aid the consulter, it should be broken without hesitation. A catalogue that is hard to use is ipso facto a bad catalogue, no matter how closely 177 CATALOGUING it adheres to rules. In order to consult a catalogue in- telligently, the user must have some idea of the princi- ples on which the catalogue is made, or at least he must understand the principal variations in the construction of catalogues, so that if he does not find what he wants in one place, he may seek it in another. It is true that the catalogue should be made on the simplest lines, and so that an uninstructed person may understand it; but no matter how simple it may be, some little knowledge will be necessary. In the first place, the user must understand the prin- ciples of alphabetic arrangement, or at least must know that more than one logical alphabetic order may be pos- sible in certain eases. Even the serial order of the let- ters of the alphabet is not known to everyone nowadays, since the word method of teaching reading has come into vogue. All children should learn the letters in the tra- ditional order, just as they learn to count, in order that they may be able to use dictionaries, catalogues, indexes, and directories with speed and certainty. Even those who have this order clearly in their memories do not al- ways understand what is meant by the alphabetic order of words, beyond arrangement by initial letters, and such persons are quite at sea in the presence of a large num- ber of alphabetic items. Beyond this there are certain special questions of arrangement whose solution must bo more or less arbitrary. It is now customary, for in- stance, to alphabetize abbreviations as if they were spelled out. For instance, St. John (as a surname) goes with the Sa's instead of with the St's. The obvious and sensible reason is that otherwise, if the first word were occasionally spelled out, the name would appear in two widely separated parts of the catalogue. So, too, Mac- 178 ALPHABETIZATION Pherson, McPherson, and M'Pherson are all the same name, and should appear together. Suppose, again, that we have combinations of letters forming, in some eases, a single long word and in others two or more short ones. The general usage is now to group together all the phrases that begin with the same word, even where oth- ers would properly intervene. Thus we should have the order Rat-catcher ) ( Rat-catcher Rat-skins v instead of ■) Rate-payer Rate-payer J [^ Rat-skins although the latter would be more strictly alphabetical. It is impossible to tell, of course, when one consults a strange catalogue, dictionary, or index, what method of arrangement has been followed in such case. Simply to know the rule as laid down in some code or text-book is not sufficient. One should understand the different pos- sible orders and test the catalogue to see which has been followed. The object of the cataloguer in every case, of course, has been to make his list easy to consult, and the varia- tions are due to differences of opinion with regard to the easiest and simplest arrangement. The same may be said with regard to other rules of arrangement and style as laid down in codes of cataloguing — variations are due to genuine difference of opinion about what will make the use of the catalogue easy for the consulter ; although sometimes it seems as if the opinion of the expert had been biased by desire for technical uniformity in his system. There is no space here to do more than indicate a few of the most important items regarding which cataloguers 13 179 CATALOGUING have made rules and some of the chief variations be- tween different systems of rules. A surprisingly large number of these deal with the form in which an author's name is to be entered. Authors frequently change their names — women by marriage, foreigners by assuming a title, anyone by dropping forenames or hyphenating two elements of the name. It matters little which name shall be used, but it does matter vitally that some one form shall be selected for use and adhered to ; otherwise an author's works will be entered in different parts of the same list. Of course, there will be cross references to the form adopted from all other forms, and therefore to save the trouble of turning pages uselessly the form adopted should be the one most familiar to users of the catalogue. Names beginning with a prefix cause much trouble, and rules for entering them are various. Where the name is foreign, the foreign usage is generally followed. In French the definite article is the only prefix regarded as part of the name; La Fontaine is so entered (under L), but de Lafayette does not go under D. When such names are Anglicized, however, the prefix is always re- garded as part of the name ; thus De Forest is entered under D. Many bearers of such English names, however, insist on the observance of the foreign rule, and confu- sion results. Professional titles are generally added only when distinctive; " Dr.," " Rev.," " Prof.," and the like are ignored. Sometimes this results in lack of clearness ; the titles that are dropped for uniformity 's sake may in cer- tain cases be as distinctive as the others. In case of authors bearing titles of nobility, some cat- aloguers enter always under the family name, referring 180 AUTHORS' NAMES from the title. This is the English rule. As the title is often very familiar, while the family name is ahnost un- known, this is often awkward, and the American rule allows entry under the title in such cases. Equally awk- ward is the inflexible English rule that princes of royal blood are to be entered under their forenames. The Duke of the Abruzzi is thus simply " Luigi " in a catalogue, and becomes unidentifiable. Married women are entered sometimes under their married names and sometimes un- der their maiden names. Hyphenated names may be given under either element. Pseudonyms or real names may be used. Many cataloguers have insisted on the in- sertion of full names, no matter how long disused. They have discovered, for instance, that Dickens's name was " Charles John Huff am Dickens," and he is paraded in many a catalogue under this style. The use of such a proceeding as this would seem absolutely undiseoverable. There is now a tendency toward common sense and the relaxation of rules for rules' sake. In the latest compilation of cataloguing rules, agreed upon jointly by committees of the American Library Association and the Library Association of the United King- dom, and known as the " Anglo-American rules," many changes in this direction may be observed. But usage differs in different countries; the most famil- iar form in one is relatively unfamiliar in another, and much fault is found even with this latest mentor, espe- cially by British librarians. If there were a library czar to prescribe uniform cataloguing rules for the world's libraries and to enforce them strictly, nothing but good would result, no matter how objectionable the rules might be in themselves. Other points on which rules are laid down, and re- 181 CATALOGUING garding which usage differs, are the entry of govern- ment or institutional publications, form of the place of publication (vernacular or English), the order of en- tries, etc. The items that may be included in a single entry of a catalogue may be seen from the following list given by James Duff Brown in the order that he favors : Author Title Edition Place of publication Date of publication Imprint particulars (for old and rare books only) Number of volumes, {v.) Size Series Illustrations (i., ill.) Portraits (ports.) Maps (ma.) Plans ipl.) Facsimiles (fac.) Diagrams (dia.) Tables (tab.) Genealogical charts (gen.) Music {mus.) Memoir (mem.) Glossary (glo.) Bibliography (lib.) For special books, there may also be noted bindings, superlibros, autographs of eminent owners, book plates, and the existence of printed bibliographical descriptions in other works. The abbreviations, in italics, used in making these 182 CARD CATALOGUES entries are annexed in parentheses. These vary consid- erably in different catalogues. The catalogue may also be indefinitely lengthened by the insertion of descriptive or critical annotations. The former, in general, are required in all entries that are not self-explanatory. To the author entry the dates of the author's birth and death are often systematically added. The value of critical annotations in an ordinary catalogue is in dispute. It has been pointed out that such catalogues now usually contain no guide to the reader to point out which books in the collection, on a given subject, are authoritative and which are discred- ited. In spite of this, however, it may be best to omit such information from the catalogue of a general public library. Authorities are seldom agreed on such matters, and it is not right that the cataloguer should set himself up as an expert on all the arts and sciences together. Even a credited quotation from an authority is ex parte. So far, nothing has been said regarding the mechan- ical construction of the catalogue. In modern catalogues ease of consultation, especially by several persons at a time, and the possibility of inserting new entries in their proper order at any time without interfering with the others, have been regarded as more important than the large duplication of copies, except in special instances. The general catalogue, therefore, is now almost uni- versally made on cards, with one or more cards to an entry and never more than one entry on a single card. These are filed in light trays arranged as drawers in a cabinet, and are kept in place by a rod running through holes in the lower edge of each card, and fastened or locked to the tray by one end. When a new entry is to be inserted, the rod is withdrawn and the new card sim- 183 CATALOGUING ply placed in its proper order. By making the trays small and light, as is now the custom, they may be re- moved for consultation, and any number of persons may use the catalogue at once, provided two do not desire to look at the same trayful of cards. Cards may be arranged otherwise than in trays. For instance, they may be lightly gummed to the leaves of one or more scrapbooks, so that their location may quickly be changed when a new card is to be inserted. This method is practically that still employed in the British Museum. The serapbook preferably consists of loose leaves in a binder, as in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, as it will occasionally be necessary to insert a leaf. Cards filed in a tray, or even in a serapbook, quickly soil with handling. In the Rudolph indexer, as used in the Newberry Library at Chicago, there is no handling; the cards are mounted on a device that is turned me- chanically under glass. But despite the advantages of methods of arrange- ment that enable users to retain their old habits of turn- ing the leaves of a book in consulting a catalogue, the method of filing cards in a tray is now used almost ex- clusively, and is on the whole the most satisfactory. If cards are not used at all, two other arrangements offer themselves. Either the entries are written, type- written, or printed in an ordinary book, in which case new entries cannot be inserted at all ; or they are written on loose leaves, with spaces between, so that new entries may be interlined, a leaf being entirely rewritten and replaced when necessary. The large printed catalogue in many volumes is a monumental enterprise, and quickly goes out of date. Usually the earlier volumes 184 BOOK CATALOGUES are far behind the times before the later ones are issued. Still, such catalogues are of undoubted use, especially for a standard collection not subject to great change, and large libraries still occasionally undertake them. Since the invention of the linotype machine it is possible for a library that issues a monthly list of additions to save the slugs and combine them later in a more com- prehensive list, or even in a general catalogue. This is done by the Boston Public Library in issuing its an- nual lists. The method of writing on loose leaves has found some favor, especially of recent years, in Europe, where a modification of it has been named the " sheaf cata- logue." In certain cases, where the eye must take in a large number of entries at once, as in examining the resources of a library under a single subject heading or under an author's name, an arrangement on a broad sheet, of course, makes the task easier. Such an arrange- ment is also more in accord with our acquired habit of reading from a large page rather than from many small ones. The advantages of card arrangement, however, are so great that American public libraries rarely use other devices, except occasionally for shelf lists, and al- most universally for the accession record, where entries are consecutive, and interpolation is therefore not re- quired. Entries may be made on catalogue cards in three different ways — written, typewritten, or printed. Writ- ten cards have much in their favor as compared with typewritten ones, especially the greater possibility of va- riation in lettering, and the consequent ability to em- phasize or differentiate in the entry by using different letters and different colored inks. The invention of the 185 CATALOGUING bicolored typewriter ribbon has done much to bring typewritten cards into favor. Manufacturers of type- writing machines are now paying special attention to s A141 c Colleges and Unlvereltlee. Comj ayre , Gabriel. Abelara It the origin & early history of I nlverslties. 1899. o Catalogue Cahd, Typewkitten. (Subject card.) this use of them, and almost any of the well-known makes may be employed in writing catalogue cards. Printed cards are best of all, as they combine abso- lute legibility with the possibility of placing the maxi- mum number "of words on a card. They can, however, be used only by large libraries, on account of expense, except in cases where cooperative cards are available. The cards printed by the Library of Congress are now purchasable at cost as public documents, and large num- bers of American libraries avail themselves of the privi- lege. These cards are printed for all current accessions, including, of course, all current American copyright books, and also for selected titles among the accessions of previous years, the intention being to make ultimately 186 PRINTED CARDS a complete printed card catalogue of the National Li- brary. A very large proportion of the cursent pur- chases of the ordinary small town or city library may therefore be catalogued in this way. There is some com- plaint that the cards are occasionally slow in appearing, so that libraries that desire to keep their catalogues strictly up to date cannot wait for them; but, on the other hand, the cards are often in the library's posses- sion before the corresponding books are on the market. Besides these cards, other printed cards are available. The United States Department of Agriculture has is- sued such cards for its publications for many years, and analytical cards are printed by the publishers of certain 8 2^4-- 0(kX^lrunju/ f?.ft..'3. ^cU)ecavrvje. . (jt/Cv£. S3\ ko^ > iCi^ «^ Rut. V.\. 1%. Catalogue Card, Written. (Author card.) works of reference, as well as by the American Library Association Publishing Board. If this goes on, the maker of a catalogue may be able before long to pur- chase all but a few of his cards ready-made. 187 CATALOGUING The hope that these ready-made cards might greatly reduce the labor and expense of cataloguing, however, has yet been realized only partially. In the first place, the classification used is generally different from that of the using library, so that the most difficult and expen- sive part of the cataloguer's work still remains to be done. Then the cards are usually issued in only one form — ^that of author card — and additions must be writ- [Harrison, Mrs. Amelia (Williams)) 1852-1903. Snow Bird and the Water Tiger and other American Indian tales, by Margaret Compton ^sevd.i With draw- ings by Walter Conant Greenongh. New York, Dodd, Mead and company, 1895. 5p. I., 201p. 16 pi. (incL col. front) 20"':' uius. t-p; 1. Indians of North America— Legends. 2. Folk-lore, Indian. /^ 6-21226 Library of Congress \ E98.F6H3 Catalogue Card, Printed. (Library of Congress.) ten or typewritten in order that they may serve as title or subject cards. Taking everything into consideration, it is probable that the advantages of such cards lie rather in the fuller forms of entry, the authoritative an- notations, and the greater legibility than in cheapness. Such cards are especially useful where extensive duplica- tion is necessary, as where a library has a large system of branches. In the New York Public Library, for in- stance, with its forty branches, the purchase of a book 188 READY-MADE CARDS requiring four cards to each catalogue would necessitate an order for 160 printed cards, provided it were to be placed in each branch. This would be an exceptional case, but orders for 50 to 100 duplicate cards are not unusual. If ready-made cards are not obtainable, print- ing, if possible, is, of course, the best mode of duplica- tion, since every duplicate is as legible as the original. Duplication by carbon, in the typewriter, is not avail- able, owing to the thickness of the cards. The multi- graph would give as legible duplicates as the printing press, but this form of duplicator rarely pays for less than 1,000 duplicates. Written and typewritten cards alike may be duplicated with some form of gelatine ma- chine, some of which give fairly good results. "When the various cards of a catalogue are produced in different ways, the result is lack of uniformity, to which some librarians object. Some cataloguers, whose libraries cannot go to the expense of printing all their cards uniformly, are having all typewritten or all writ- ten in the same style of library hand to secure uniform- ity. Lack of uniformity, however, provided all the cards are equally legible, does not interfere with the use- fulness of the catalogue, and the extra labor expended upon making them uniform is better employed in other ways. The introduction of the open-shelf system has had some important bearings on the arrangement and use of catalogues. If all the books in such an arrangement were to remain permanently shelved, they would theoret- ically serve as their own catalogue, except for cross ref- erence, which could well be introduced on dummies. But practically a catalogue is still needed. The case is similar to that of the alphabetical arrangement of arti- 189 CATALOGUING cles in an encyclopedia, which, it was formerly thought, made an index unnecessary. The material in each arti- cle, however, especially when it is at all comprehensive, requires indexing in itself, and hence all good encyclo- pedias now include an index volume, so that the alpha- betical arrangement of the articles themselves is no longer absolutely necessary, and has even been given up in one or two indexed works of reference, although re- tained in most of them. A cyclopedia with articles ar- ranged alphabetically or in some classified order may be compared to an open-shelf library; one without orderly arrangement of any kind, to a closed-shelf library, in which a catalogue is an absolute necessity. But just as no orderly arrangement of articles in a cyclopedia has made it possible to give up indexing it, so no accessible orderly arrangement of books on shelves has enabled li- brarians to discard the catalogue. Even if all books remained shelved, the necessity for cross references and analytical entries, as well as for many author and title entries, would make the retention of the catalogue im- perative. But in a circulating collection a large num- ber of books may be absent for months, and even in a reference collection a considerable part may be with- drawn for hours at a time. The books on the shelves, therefore, at no time represent the whole collection, and those that are absent are apt to be the most valuable to the user, since they are most in demand. To find out what the collection contains, the user must consult the catalogue. It is a fact, however, that as soon as access to a collection is made free the use of the catalogue at once falls off noticeably. In a closed-shelf library the cards in a card catalogue are so frequently handled that the edges become quickly soiled, and they require re- 190 OPEN SHELF AND CATALOGUE placement. The catalogue cards in an open-shelf library stay clean almost indefinitely. Furthermore, the crowd around the catalogue in a closed-shelf library and its absence in an open-shelf library tell their own tale. These contrasts are especially noticeable in a city library where some branches are conducted on the open-shelf and some on the closed-shelf principle. It seems clear, then, that the users of an open-shelf collection are con- tent, in general, to take the " left-overs " that they find on the shelves, without investigation of the library 's real resources. This should not be taken as an argument against free access, but rather as an intimation to the librarian and the cataloguer that special effort should be made in open-shelf libraries to encourage use of the cat- alogue and to make it as useful as possible. The user at the shelves should be continually reminded, perhaps by signs and, at any rate, by word of mouth, that the books most in demand on the subject in which he is in- terested are not likely to be found on the shelves, and that these, as well as valuable articles and chapters on the subject, can be discovered only by the use of the catalogue. The cataloguer should bear in mind that ana- lytical entries are especially valuable in an open-shelf library, and that time may be gained for making them by omitting much of the imprint and superfluous parts of the title that are particularly unnecessary in such a library on account of the accessibility of the books them- selves. CHAPTER XIV THE LIBRARY STAFF The duties of members of an ordinary library staff may be (1) administrative, (2) advisory or educational, (3) disciplinary, (4) clerical, or (5) connected with the actual distribution of the books, including their pur- chase and preparation. Administrative work is that of the librarian, and in large libraries of the heads of departments — of all, in short, who direct or oversee the work of others and settle upon matters of general policy. Advisory work is done more or less by all assistants who come into contact with the public, but especially by those at the desk or on floor duty, children's librarians, and reference librarians. Disciplinary work is also shared by assistants in general to some degree, but a larger share than the average falls to those on floor duty, to custodians of reading rooms, and to children's librarians. Clerical work involves keeping the statistical records, the bookkeeping of the library, the preparation of overdue postals, reserve postals, acknowledgment of gifts, ordering and distri- bution of supplies, and the like, and the writing of letters from dictation. There is little of it in a small library. The work connected with the purchase, prepa- ration, and distribution of books requires more time probably than all the other classes of work put together. It includes the selection of titles, the ordering of the 192 WORKING HOURS books, the checking of the bills, the various operations of cataloguing, the affixing of labels, pockets, and so on ; the writing of book cards; application work, including the receipt and filing of applications, registration, and the issuing of borrowers' cards; work connected with the charging and discharging of books at the desk, the as- sessment and collection of fines and damages; collation, mending, and selection for binding; and, finally, with- drawal from the shelves for discarding. All these oper- ations may be performed by the same person or persons, but in a large institution there are separate departments, or at least separate assistants, for (1) book ordering, (2) cataloguing and classification, (3) mending, bind- ing, and discarding. Work at the loan desk is also some- times assigned to a separate body of assistants. Not strictly library work, but very necessary to li- brary efficiency, is that of the building staff, which often consists of but one man, the janitor. In many libraries he lives, with his family, in the building and is con- stantly within call. Besides the ordinary duties of car- ing for the building, its safety and cleanliness, its light- ing and heating, he is sometimes charged with the care of grounds, where there are any, with messenger work, or with police functions. The working hours for each member of the staff in an American public library vary from six to eight daily. Most libraries are open more hours in a day than this, and the hours of work are adjusted either by employing a special evening force or by correspondingly increasing the regular staff and dividing the evening work among its members, or among part of them. In the latter case, each member may be required to work the same number of hours daily, but at different times of day, or the work- 193 THE LIBRARY STAFF ing hours of a given assistant may be longer on the days when evening work is assigned than on the others. It may even be possible to allow the greater part of a day or a whole day off every week, and still to keep up the required daily average. This latter system is gen- erally in favor among assistants where a special night force is not employed, but it is apt to be condemned by Time Sheet. head librarians. The former report that the weekly holi- day is -so advantageous from the standpoint of general health that the quality of their work is improved; the latter say that schedule-making is rendered doubly diffi- cult by the irregularity, that it is hard to concentrate the work of the force on those hours when it is most needed, and that the working hours are too long for good work on the longer days. As regards a separate evening force, it may be said in favor of the plan that it makes 194 HOLIDAYS possible an absolutely uniform daily schedule, which is much easier for administrators ; but, on the other hand, the transition between the day and night forces is ab- rupt, they do not work together, and the work is sep- arated arbitrarily into two daily sections, with more or less breach of continuity. Absolute uniformity of daily work, too, is not a desideratum with the working staff, most of whose members prefer variety and work better when they have it, especially when it involves a consid- erable rest period on some one day. A similar problem presents itself in the case of holidays. Legal holidays or their equivalent are generally allowed to the staff, even when the library is kept open for full hours, i A special force may be employed for such days, or holiday work throughout the year may be divided among the staff, those who work being given the time on some other day. The objections to the special force are of the same nature, though stronger, than those to a special evening force. Compulsory division of holiday labor works well enough on some holidays, such as Memorial Day or La- bor Day ; and when the library is closed on such days as Christmas and the Fourth of July this plan is probably the best. But all holidays are not equally desirable, and when a library is open on Christmas, an assistant would hardly feel compensated for working on that day by the knowledge that some other member of the staff had been forced to work on Labor Day. A successful plan, satis- factory to all, is to operate the library on all holidays, or at least on the important ones, with volunteers from the regular staff, and to increase the compensation for those days to such a degree as to make it worth while to vol- unteer. In the New York Public Library, whose Carne- gie buildings are open on all legal holidays, double extra 14 195 •THE LIBRARY STAFF pay is given for such days, calculated on the basis of the regular salary; and there has never been any trouble in securing the requisite number of volunteers. Most libraries allo.w a certain period yearly for ill- ness ; and in the case of old and valued assistants longer periods are sometimes excused, full salary being paid. The trouble about the allowance of a definite period is that an idea is apt to grow in the minds of the staff that they are expected to take this amount, and assistants re- main at home for indispositions so slight that they would otherwise be unnoticed. Heads of libraries are obliged to be on their guard against the spread of such an im- pression as this. Library vacations vary from two weeks to one month yearly, with salary — quite commonly the larger period. This is large, compared with commercial vacations, but small compared with the three months allowed the teacher, with whom the librarian, as an educator, insists upon being compared. Vacations are commonly taken in summer, when .the work is slack, generally in the months from June to September, inclusive. August is a favorite month, and if libraries could be universally closed at this time the assistants, if not the public, would be pleased. Leaves of absence, without salary, are granted with greater or less freedom in different institutions. The woman assistant is not generally robust, and she often needs an extra month to recuperate. It is often good policy to allow it in some cases where such a favor would not be thought of in a staff composed wholly of men. If granted to many persons at once, especially in the vaca- tion season, however, such leaves run the risk of seri- ously injuring the efficiency of the library. The libra- 196 SALARIES rian has then to choose between the chance of losing an assistant permanently from overwork or nervous breakdown and the certainty of crippling the work of his library by operating it' with inefficient sub- stitutes. This inability of many woman assistants to do the year's work without breaking down, even when a month's vacation is allowed, brings up the question of the employment of women .in libraries. A very large proportion of the assistants in American public libraries is now made up. of women, and even abroad, where their number was recently small, it is rapidly increasing. Li- brary work is generally regarded as a " genteel " em- ployment, peculiarly fitted for women. That it is so fitted no one will deny ; but it is not suited for any who are not in robust health. A certificate of ability to do continuous work is as necessary a preliminary to en- trance upon a library career as is the requisite education and technical training. The salaries paid to women assistants are not as high as those received by teachers of the same grade, nor are library- salaries in general up to the level of school sala- ries, with which they may be properly compared. It is difficult to decide upon corresponding grades in the two professions, but, sex for sex, it is safe to say that in a small town a school principal receives three times as much as the head of the public library, and assistants are paid in even a higher ratio, while in a large city the head of a school has a salary two to three times larger than that of a branch librarian. Library salaries are tending upward, but so are school salaries, and it will be a long time before the former overtake the latter. In estimating salaries it should be remembered also that 197 THE LIBRARY STAFF teachers work nine months of the year and librarians eleven months. Certainly, as things now are, although American library salaries are far higher than those paid for the same work in other countries, no one would be attracted to the library profession in this country on account of its financial emoluments alone. Only a few of the larger positions pay over $5,000 a year. Heads of departments in large libraries may receive $1,500 to $3,000, and chief librarians in the smaller cities about the same. Women who are the heads of town libraries, with three to six as- sistants, are paid $800 to $1,200; heads of city branch libraries about the same. Assistants of the higher grades receive $500 to $750; those of lower grades from $300 up. Special work, such as that with children, com- mands a somewhat higher rate of compensation. These rates have risen during twenty years past, but hardly more than the cost of living. In New York, public- library salaries, for example, have increased in that time from 50 to 100 per cent ; the average would be nearer the smaller figure — ^perhaps 60 per cent. The rate is so low in the lower grades as to preclude the employment of any but those living at home in the city where the library is situated. This is not conducive to the improvement of assistants in quality of work and in education, and, be- sides, it favors the employment of those who work not for self-support, but merely for pin money. This class, especially large among women workers, exercises a po- tent influence in keeping down the salaries of women, and its members, not being dependent on what they earn, are less often interested in their work and more apt to leave it on some slight pretext. Another respect in which library positions are still inferior from the stand- 198 PROMOTIONS point of compensation is that of pensions. Here and there the head of a library who has spent his life in its service is retired on a pension, but no library has a com- prehensive system such as those nov? common in other occupations. A general fund to be used for pensioning librarians, in the same way that the $15,000,000 Car- negie Foundation serves to pension college professors, is looked forward to by many librarians as a possibility, or at least an ideal, of the future, and a committee of the American Library Association is now collecting statistics with a view to facilitating the endowment of such a fund. Of course, there is nothing to prevent the forma- tion of a voluntary benefit association among the em- ployees of any library, either with or without the cooper- ation of the authorities, or the compulsory withdrawal of a certain percentage from each salary, to be held by the library for this purpose. But to set a system of this kind in operation a considerable sum is needed at the outset, even when the contributions oi' enforced percent- ages of the employees are sufficient to keep it going. This means the raising of an endowment fund, the as- sumption of liability by a municipality or other cor- porate body, or the stipulation that no pension shall be paid until the fund has grown to the required sum. This last plan involves contribution by many emploj^ees without hope of return, and is both unfair and imprac- ticable. In American public libraries increases of salary are made in various ways, which they share with other in- stitutions of all kinds. Salaries may be raised (1) for length of approved service, whether strictly by seniority, as in the army, or with some variation from the exact order; (2) by selection presumably, but not necessarily, 199 THE LIBRARY STAFF for merit; (3) for merit, as ascertained by a test of some sort. These criteria are often combined in one way or another. For instance, the force may be divided into grades, according to the kind of work required of them, a maximum and minimum of salary being prescribed for each grade. Within the grade increase of salary may be for good worK, or for length of service, or for both. Promotion from grade to grade may depend on the pas- sage of an examination, on satisfactory work in the pre- vious grade, and on personal qualifications. The num- ber in some grades will be limited by the necessities of the case, as, for instance, when a grade consists only of branch librarians. In such a case either of two plans may be followed. Those who have qualified for the class may be placed on an eligible list, and selection may be made from these to fill a vacancy, on its occurrence, either by seniority or according to personal qualifica- tions. Or, no one need be allowed to qualify until the vacancy occurs, when the test may be competitive or selection may be made at will from those who pass it for this occasion only. Libraries that have been placed un- der city civil-service rules are relieved from all responsi- bilities in this matter, but most librarians do not like this plan. Civil-service examiners rarely frame exami- nations to suit library requirements, and the selection and promotion of the library force is better cared for by its own trustees. As to examinations in general, it may be admitted that they are an imperfect method of ascertaining fit- ness. They have, however, the advantage of making it evident that all candidates are to be treated exactly alike, and, taken in connection with observation of work and personal qualifications, they are productive of satisfac- 200 Bates Hall (Reading Room), Boston Public Library. Reading Room, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. STAFF EOOMS tory results. The ordinary civil-service examination, as viewed by the comic paragrapher, has little to do with the duties of the position ; examiners are popularly sup- posed to question would-be policemen on Siberian geog- raphy, firemen on the theory of equations, and so on. There has been some justification in the past for such ideas, and library examinations should be kept strictly to the subject in hand, general education being ascertained by school certificates. Subjects that are eminently proper for examination, as knowledge of them is re- quired daily by the library assistant, are library econ- omy, literature, general information, statistics, and lan- guages. This subject is treated further in the chapter on Library Training. In all good library buildings special quarters are as- signed to the staff. The uses of these are various. They generally include cloakrooms; toilet accommodations; space for rest, especially in case of sudden indisposition ; and facilities for preparing and eating a light meal. Preferably the rooms should be all together, and in a small library most of them may be concentrated in one room, although some libraries prefer that the cloak- room, or lockers for wraps, should be in a different part of the building from the lunch and rest rooms. Facili- ties for lunch will naturally be more elaborate in large cities, where the distances interfere with taking lunch at home. Here there is often a separate room, or at least a separate alcove, for a kitchen, with sink, dresser, and gas stove. If there is to be any more use of the stove than the mere heating of water for tea, the kitchen should be separated from the rest of the staff quarters by a tight door, and should have an outside window. The rest room and room for eating lunch 201 THE LIBEARY STAFF may properly be combined. The quarters, with the pos- sible exception of the lockers for wraps, should be on an upper floor. When it is desirable to have them access- ible, they should be equally distant from all depart- ments, but some librarians prefer to have them in a somewhat remote part of the building. Libraries having both men and women on the force must, of course, pro- vide separate staff accommodations for them. In most American libraries meetings of the staff, en- tire or in part, are held either statedly or occasionally, on call of the librarian. The different kinds may be illustrated by those held in the New York Public Li- brary. Here the whole staff of the library is invited to meet the Director at stated intervals (at present, once in two months), .except in summer. These meetings are much like those of a library club. A programme is ar- ranged by a committee, which appoints a different chairman for each meeting ; and refreshments are served by an entertainment committee. According to the inter- est of the programme, the attendance may vary from fifty up to several hundred. Different evenings in the week are chosen for meeting, so that no assistant may be always prevented from attending by being on evening duty. A meeting of the librarians in charge of branches is held weekly, with certain exceptions. This has no so- cial features, nor is there any formal programme. The business consists in the discussion of current books, the examination of a certain number of these sent to the library on approval, the discussion of current points of library administration, and the giving out of notices by the heads of departments. No matter is decided by vote, although votes are sometimes taken to secure an expres- sion of opinion. In libraries where no branch system ex- 202 STAFF MEETINGS ists, and even in some where it does exist, a meeting of . the heads of offices or departments is often held for similar purposes and conducted in a similar way. Each head of a branch library is permitted to hold a meeting of her own staff at stated intervals, and most of them take advantage of this permission. The assistants generally sit about a table, and there is informal discus- sion of matters pertaining to the. branch. This type of " round-table " meeting is appropriate to any small library. Heads of departments meet with assistants engaged in their own line of work, for instruction in and discus- sion of methods. Thus the Supervisor of Children's Rooms meets with heads of children's rooms; the Super- visor of School "Work, with school assistants; the In- structor of the Training Class, with heads of libraries selected for practical work, and so on. These meetings probably represent all of the various types possible or desirable in any ordinary public li- brary. In some institutions such a meeting is dignified by some such name as that of " Library Council," and it is endowed with quasi-legislative functions. Such functions are, however, exercised merely by permission of the librarian, who may obviously follow the direc- tions of his council or not, as he likes. Its relations to him are advisory, like those of the President's Cabinet, and are not properly legislative, although they might, of course, be made so by action of the trustees. Advice from members of the staff is, or should be, an important factor in the administration of every library, and it should be taken both individually and collectively. A librarian may learn much and receive many valuable suggestions from a private conversation with a member 203 THE LIBRARY STAFF of his staff that would not be placed at his disposal in a general meeting. On the other hand, information may come to light and ideas may be thrown out in the give- and-take of informal discussion at a round-table meet- ing which would probably never make their appearance in any other way. In the course of time a body of custom, tradition, and minor rules and regulations grows up in a library. The action of members of the staff is guided by these, often unconsciously. It is a matter of opinion to what extent it is desirable to codify them, or even to commit them to writing. A certain amount of elasticity must exist in any such system, and any attempt to formulate a fixed code is apt to meet with failure. The exceptions will be more numerous than the rules, and changes or additions will be found necessary almost daily. The tendency toward rigidity or elasticity will depend largely on the librarian's turn of mind. One administrator may prefer to make an attempt at an extensive code of rules, another may be content with laying down general prin- ciples and noting a few applications, while a third may reject all formulation. Still another method is to re- quire reference to the librarian in all doubtful cases^a plan that is perhaps best in a small staff of inexperi- enced assistants. In a large library, and especially in one with a sys- tem of widely scattered branches, some means of com- munication between the librarian and~the members of his staff becomes a necessity. Notices may be given out at staff meetings, and written bulletins may be sent out or posted at intervals. One of the most effective ways of securing attention to these notices is to send them out collectively at stated intervals in the form of a written 204 STAFF NEWSPAPER or mimeographed " newspaper," in which may also be included a calendar of events and such local notes as may seem likely to interest the staff. Such a staff paper is now issued at several libraries, and in some cases it has assumed, more or less, the form of a general library paper. This should not be carried so far as to conceal the character of the paper as an official bulletin. Every member of the staff should be required to read it as soon as issued, and to consider the notices contained therein, so far as they apply, as personal orders. Ignorance of its contents should not be received as an excuse. CHAPTER XV LIBRARY PHILANTHROPY Peobably no public activity has received larger gifts from individual benefactors than the library. Such gifts have been so many and so large, especially during the past fifteen years, that they have been looked upon with disfavor by many persons, \\ ho believe that the growth of libraries has been stimulated abnormally by them. This is, however, a superficial view. That library growth and extension have been favored by such gifts is indu- bitable; but such growth has still been normal — the growth of a well-watered plant, not that of hothouse fruit. That this is so may be seen from a study of the distribution of library extension over the country. It has by no means been confined to places where large gifts have made it easy, but either the growth or its pre- liminary symptoms appear in thousands of regions that neither hope for nor expect such gifts. Again, in many places where gifts were available the community has preferred not to take advantage of them, but to establish its own library and provide it with a building entirely at public expense. Most of the larger library gifts, too, have been of such a nature that they require public co- operation, so that, in the long run, the private benefac- tion that is the nucleus of the library snowball is almost as nothing within the accreted mass of public contribu- tions that clings around it. This public aid has been 206 GIFTS THE RESULT OF CONDITIONS cheerfully given. It has, apparently, resulted from the general recognition of a fact to which public attention has been forcibly directed by the gift rather than from any kind of abnormal stimulation. The large benefac- tions of recent years have, in fact, been directed into the library channel by the donors' farseeing recognition of a public need rather than by any desire to establish in- stitutions without which the public could get on just as well. In fact, it is perhaps not too much to say that the present library plant of the United States, representing as it does many million dollars ' worth of gifts, as well as a still larger amount from public contribution, would have come into being, in some such fashion as at pres- ent, without a single gift, although not, of course, as soon as it has done. The elementary fact to which this recent multiplica- tion of library gifts has been a response, and which has made itself evident in many other fields than that of the library, is the great recent increase in the number of habitual readers — a necessary incident of the spread of popular education. In part, of course, this increase is itself due to the multiplication of popular libraries. The number of books available for popular reading and the number of persons qualified to read them are interde- pendent quantities, like the area and the temperature of ignition. Fire raises the temperature, and the raised tem- perature causes more material to take fire, so that the burning goes on " of itself." So readers demand books, and an available supply of books incites more persons to read. This process, too, like all educational processes, thus goes on "of itself " so long as there is any fuel; in other words, any human beings with brains. Given a number of intelligent men and women and means by 207 LIBRARY PHILANTHROPY which they may become acquainted with the results of human thought elsewhere in the world and at other times than their own, and libraries and readers — both in- creasing in number — follow as a matter of course. Li- brary donations, therefore, are due to man's desire to help his fellow-man, directed into one of the channels of least resistance. It does not follow, of course, that these donations have always been made in the most enlightened way. Probably the least wise are those under which buildings have been erected or libraries have been established with no provision for their support and maintenance. In such a case the library is generally a private memorial, and public support is difficult, under the circumstances, to procure for it. Such a memorial should be accompa- nied by a sufficient, endowment to keep it up properly; but as a gift of this kind is entirely removed from the public, which has no part, and therefore no interest, in the way in which it is qarried on, it is by no means the best form of library donation. Probably the best way to contribute money to a public library without removing the public from a share in its activities is the one that has been the object of the greatest number of attacks, namely, the one typified by the gifts of Mr. Andrew Car- negie. Mr. Carnegie's gifts have almost exclusively taken the form of buildings — ^not the essential part of a library, as has been frequently pointed out. These buildings, however, have not been erected and then left to take care of themselves, as in the cases referred to above, for the gifts are always made on the express con- dition that the municipality (in which the title is always vested) will execute a contract to support the institu- tion by a yearly grant of not less than one tenth of the 208 CARNEGIE GIFTS value of the gift. As a matter of fact, one tenth is gen- erally insufficient ; in exceptional cases a requirement of fifteen per cent has been included in the contract; and it has been suggested that -this might well be made a general rule. Ten per cent, however, is merely an in- ferior limit ; the city or town binds itself in any case to support the library properly ; and in all instances where it has been shown to the satisfaction of the authorities that ten per cent is insufficient, a larger appropriation has generally been forthcoming. In New York, for in- stance, where the average value of Carnegie branch buildings is $80,000, the average cost of maintenance is $12,000 — fifteen per cent instead of ten — ^but the city has not objected to the increased amount required. In St. Louis the two fifths mill tax levied by the city for library purposes brings in about $200,000, whereas the total amount contributed by Mr. Carnegie for buildings is $1,000,000. In fact, in making these gifts, the donor has seen to it that the institution so established or aided shall be permanent, and he has so arranged it that the part of the work assumed by the public shall be that which insures its continued and vital interest. Had the donor merely agreed to endow such libraries as should be provided with proper buildings by the municipality, the result, while financially the same, would have been practically inferior. As it is, the public is closely inter- ested in the way in which the library is administered, and may be moved, as in some recent cases,, to protest against what it considers an inefficient or out-of-date management, which would hardly be the case with an en- dowed institution. It is undoubtedly true that, in some instances, towns have accepted a gift from Mr. Carnegie where they 209 LIBRARY PHILANTHROPY could ill afford his conditions. This, of course, was bad judgment on their part. The conditions are always fully stated; moreover, they are always the same, have become widely known, and their operation in hundreds of eases is familiar to all who are interested sufficiently to look them up. More than one municipality, including several cities of considerable size, have refused offers from this donor because they considered his conditions onerous. In so doing they have been quite within their rights, and are more worthy of praise than if they had overburdened themselves by accepting the gift. It may be doubted, however, whether there may not be a better course in every case than outright rejection, except in cases where the town has decided upon a library, but prefers to establish it without outside aid. The position that a city or town needs no public library is an impos- sible one to take in this stage of the country's progress. The maintenance of such an educational factor is a proper charge against the annual budget, and it ought to be possible to calculate what sum may be appropri- ated yearly without making the tax rate burdensome. This sum may then be capitalized at ten per cent (if this is the proportion named in the conditions), and the donor may be notified that a gift of this size will be accepted. It is worth noting, however, that in some of the principal cases where large gifts, offered by Mr. Car- negie, have been refused, some consideration other than expense has had weight. Two such eases are Richmond, Va., and Albany, N. Y., which latter place rejected his offer in a popular election held for the purpose of con- sidering it. In Richmond it is said that hesitation over the race problem had much to do with the refusal, al- though this question, as noted elsewhere, has been at- 210 ANDREW CARNEGIE tacked and solved by other Southern cities; and in Albany the hostility of the labor element was a potent factor in the action that was taken. The gifts of Mr. Carnegie have made up such a large part of American library philanthropy that no excuse is necessary for going into them somewhat at length. An- drew Carnegie is a millionaire ironmaster, who was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, in 1835, and came to this country as a boy in 1845. Beginning as a telegraph messenger, he became finally the proprietor of a large iron-rolling mill, from which grew his immense control of the iron and steel industries. His donations to libra- ries now (January 1, 1910) amount to $53,473,153, dis- tributed among 2,094 institutions. Mr. Carnegie's in- terest in libraries dates from the time when, as a poor boy, he was benefited by access to one. He has publicly disclaimed the title of philanthropist, asserting that he is " no such foolish fellow." His gifts, as already noted, are made in such a way that the recipient must ulti- mately contribute a far larger amount than the donor, and that this contribution shall be continuous, insuring the recipient's direct financial interest in the efficient operation of the library. Such gifts have been regarded in all sorts of ways, some persons looking at them as no gifts at all and others as the only appropriate form of dtmation. Mr. Carnegie's donations have also been looked upon as prompted solely or largely by egotism and desire for self-advertisement. It should be noted that none of them have been accompanied by any stipulation or re- quest that the donor shall be commemorated in any way, or even that his name shall be inscribed on the building. The name " Carnegie libraries " is a popular one, and 15 211 LIBRARY PHILANTHROPY rarely official. Boards of trustees, of course, frequently and properly put up tablets or inscriptions to the effect that the library building was erected with funds given by Andrew Carnegie, but the donor has never en- couraged such a practice. In fact, his connection with the library has usually begun and ended with the sign- ing of an agreement by the city authorities and the set- ting apart of a sum from which the bills for erecting the structure are to be paid, up to the stipulated amount. Mr. Carnegie has certainly received ample advertise- ment from the public, but he has done nothing to favor it ; and it is rather difficult to see how a man could give away an amount equivalent to a dozen large fortunes without attracting some public notice. The whole business has been carried on very system- atically. It was to be expected that the donor would be overwhelmed with demands for aid in library construc- tion. These he has expected, and apparently welcomed. His intention seems to be to give aid wherever proof is forthcoming that it will be properly bestowed. He grants no interviews to applicants, but refers them all to his secretary, who receives and investigates all properly authenticated requests. At intervals — not so frequent as many persons suppose — Mr. Carnegie goes over the re- quests and decides what shall be done regarding them. Those who picture the great library giver as pondering by night and day over the locations of buildings or over architects' plans or methods of administration are far afield. Probably a day or two annually may sum up the time devoted by him personally to these huge benefac- tions, and it is fortunate for the library world that this is so. Mr. Carnegie presses the button that releases his stream of library millions; the trustees and librarians 212 GIFTS ALWAYS NEEDED that are most interested do the rest. The millionaire ironmaster is said to be proud of his ability to select and use men; he has certainly done so to the best effect in his library benefactions. It is doubtful whether any public library is in a po- sition to announce that it has no further need of gifts, no matter how generously it may be treated in the mat- ter of appropriations. There are always expenses that it is not legitimate or expedient to pay from the public funds and that are properly defrayable from the pro- ceeds of donations. The New York Public Library, an institution possessed of a large private income and re- ceiving besides an appropriation of over half a million dollars yearly from the city, sends out every year a printed request for gifts of money, which it expends for various purposes, chiefly for the decoration of branch libraries, potted plants, and the like. In addition, it has begun the formation of local committees of ladies, one for each branch library, to advise in all matters pertain- ing to the appearance of the branches, to raise funds, if possible, and to assist in spending them to advantage. There is always in every community a large reservoir of public spirit that may be drawn upon in this way, and that might be wasted if advantage were not taken of it. It may be turned to the advantage of the library in some such way as this, and the flow thus directed, though it may be but a trickle, will possibly determine a flood at some later time. Nothing is so undesirable as a general feeling in a locality that private generosity is out of place when bestowed on any institution supported chiefly by public taxation. A club, which is supported by dues levied on all the members, would never think for this reason of refusing the gift of a new house, or a fresh 213 LIBRARY PHILANTHROPY stock of books for its library, from some wealthy mem- ber,, nor would it turn back a loan exhibition of paint- ings or objects of historical interest. The same would be true of a church ; and it should also be true of a mu- nicipality. I recall no case, except in connection with some of Mr. Carnegie's and other similar offers, where a town has actually refused gifts or has officially an- nounced its reluctance to receive them ; but there is cer- tainly a widespread feeling on the part of citizens that when anything is supported from the public purse pri- vate effort to aid it may properly cease. This was very strikingly exemplified in New York when the various private corporations operating public circulating libraries in certain boroughs of that city united to form the Circulation Department of the New York Public Library. These corporations, though receiving small subsidies from the city, were supported very largely by annual membership fees, voluntary contributions, and the in- come from endowment by bequest or gift. After their consolidation with the Public Library the stated annual dues were, of course, discontinued, contributions by gift fell to about ten per cent of the former amount, and during the period since consolidation (1901) no addi- tions to the endowment fund have been received, except from bequests made prior to the consolidation. The cause of this discontinuance of private aid is undoubt- edly a feeling that the assurance of a definite income from the public funds renders it unnecessary. CHAPTEK XVI THE LIBRARY AS A PRODUCER In a Public Library branch in the city of New York a boy who had sought in vain for the book he wanted was told that the only remaining copy had worn out, and that it could not be replaced because it was out of print. " Well," he replied, unabashed, " can't you print it again? " That boy was ahead of the age, in library matters ; but the library may some day overtake him. Indeed, it is hard to see why a library already pos- sessing a fully equipped printing office should not buy the plates of some standard work of fiction which it is obliged to replace at a fairly uniforiji annual rate and strike off for itself a supply sufficient for a few years, sending the sheets to be put into strong binding, pre- cisely as it now does the sheets obtained (when it is able to get them) from the publisher. This is a possibility of the future. In the meantime some libraries are conduct- ing a fairly good publishing business, and many more are doing their own job printing; while librarians in co- operation, organized as the Publishing Board of the American Library Association, are issuing books of the greatest value to the work of libraries. The publications most commonly issued by libraries are periodicals, variously named, but most often called bulletins, and usually monthlies. These contain gener- ally the names of the board of trustees, rules and regu- 215 THE LIBRARY AS A PRODUCER lations, hours of opening, a classified list of additions made during the month, lists of books on special sub- jects, and sometimes library news of local, or even of general, interest. In addition, some libraries use their bulletins for the publication, from time to time, of man- uscript material in their possession that may be of inter- est to scholars,- or even to the general public — unpub- lished correspondence, diaries, papers of all kinds, and the like. Probably the use of such a publication as a catalogue of current additions is the most common and is most widely regarded as its chief function. If lino- type composition is used, the slugs may be saved and used again for a more comprehensive list, as noted in the chapter on Cataloguing. Some libraries that print their own catalogue cards make the bulletin entries in such shape that the slugs can be used at ,once for the cards. This is rather more expensive for the bulletin, but saves composition on the cards. In one case at least, that of the New York Pijblic Library, two such bulletins are published. The Bulletin of the New York Public Li- brary contains a monthly report of the library's activi- ties, given at some length ; long classified and annotated lists of some special collections or classes of books in the library, a brief list of noteworthy additions to the refer- ence department, and acknowledgments to donors. The Monthly List of Additions to the Circulation Depart- ment is an eight-page publication, devoted almost wholly to a broadly classified author list of additions, with very brief annotations, if any, supplemented occa- sionally by a short list on some special subject. The Bulletin is sent only to subscribers; the Monthly List is distributed free from the desk at branch libraries. Another common type of library publication is the 216 HANDBOOKS catalogue, entire or partial — nowadays more often the latter. As noted in the chapter on Cataloguing, com- plete printed catalogues are not often issued, but partial catalogues, finding lists, short bibliographies, lists of special collections, and the like, are becoming more fre- quent. Very nearly all libraries, large and small, issue an annual printed report, as noted in the chapter on Sta- tistics. This may be the briefest kind of a tabular state- ment, or it may contain a very large amount of descrip- tive text, often with illustrations. The readableness of this depends not only on the librarian's aim in preparing it, but also, of course, on his ability as a writer. Large libraries often publish handbooks or descrip- tive pamphlets, under one name or another, giving a brief historical sketch of the institution, a description of its building or buildings, its rules, the organization of its board and of its staff, and so on. These naturally vary in contents and in method of treatment. Sometimes it is thought best to distribute information of this kind over several small pamphlets instead of gathering it in one large one. Sometimes the rules and customs of the library in matters of detail are printed and issued in the same way for distribution among the members of the staff. For the handbook or its equivalent a small price is usually charged. As noted in the chapter on Reference Libraries, a very large proportion of what may be called the books of secondary information are compiled from sources found in libraries. Except in a few instances, however, librarians have not been the compilers of these, nor have the libraries themselves been their producers. There seems, however, to be no reason why a library contain- ing interesting material should not proceed to utilize it 217 THE LIBRARY AS A PRODUCER in this way instead of waiting for some casual outsider to do so. The occupant of a university chair is expected to spend much of his time in original research; and if he produces anything of value, the university publishes it. In like manner, we may see, in future, the librarian of a large library devoting some of his time, as a mat- ter of course, to compilation and authorship, using the materials in his own institution, with which he naturally is, or ought to be, more familiar than anyone else. When he produces something of permanent value, the library will publish it. In this way the public library may re- gain something of the regard for scholarship which it has inevitably lost by giving its attention so exclusively to popular administrative problems. Something of this sort is occasionally done even now. The publication of valuable manuscript material in li- brary magazines has already been mentioned. There is also the kind of work now being done by the Free Library of Newark, N. J., which is publishing, in parts, a complete description of the operation of its various de- partments, for the information and assistance of librari- ans in other institutions. Librarians themselves are fre- quently authors; they contribute freely to the technical periodical literature of their profession. Work in bibli- ography is also usually by them, although extensive and thorough work of this sort is not as common here as abroad, and is more commonly done in university or spe- cial libraries than in the public libraries that have devoted so much of their time to the organization and extension of popular service. Work in general literature is more apt to be that of retired librarians, or, if done during library service, it is performed out of library hours, and is not regarded as part of the legitimate task 218 LIBRARIANS AS AUTHORS of the librarian. Such works as Justin Winsor's " Nar- rative and Critical History," Larned's " History for Ready Reference," Poole's "Index" with Fletcher's continuations, the systems of classification of Dewey and Cutter, the " Library Reprints " of Dana and Kent, Koopman's " Mastery of Books," and many others, are testimony to the industry with which librarians have pursued this kind of work. There is one class of printing that it will pay a small library to do — namely, that of stock stationery, such as letterheads, envelopes, users' cards, pockets, book plates, and the like. No composition is needed for any of these, and, after the library has paid to have the proper elec- trotype plate made, all that is needed is a small hand press, which may be operated by unskilled labor. Much of this work might also be done with the multigraph. The type used with this machine is now usually in imi- tation of typewriting, but any desired form could be made and used with it. CHAPTER XVII BINDING. AND REPAIRING The annual cost of a thing that is in continual use, and that will ultimately be worn out by such use and require replacement, is made up of interest, expense of maintenance and repair, and the year's share of a fund for replacing the article when worn out. This is quite familiar in the case of machinery, but it has only recently been applied to books, because only in the mod- ern circulating library has the book been necessarily re- garded as a tool to be well used, worn out, and replaced. When this idea has impressed' itself sufficiently on the mind, we realize the necessity of putting all our discus- sions of the cost of books into the form of cost per unit of time or of service rather than that of initial outlay simply. The total cost of a volume is its initial cost plus all outlay for mending and rebinding until it is discarded as worn out. Its cost per year may be ob- tained by dividing this by the number of years of serv- ice, and the cost per issue by using as the divisor the total number of issues during this time. Interest on the original outlay should strictly be added, but as books are usually bought from income and are not regarded as a permanent investment, this may be omitted. Evidently, with the same initial outlay and the same cost of repair, the cost per year or per issue may be made less by pro- longing the life of the book or increasing the number of 220 COST OP A BOOK issues possible before it wears out ; and it will evidently pay to increase the initial outlay if by so doing the life of the book is more than proportionately increased. To know whether increased outlay will pay and, if so, to obtain effective results with it — these two things are the problems that the librarian must solve, so far as binding is concerned, in an active circulating library of the mod- ern type. The problem of annual cost is complicated by the fact that to make the book strong at the outset will often not only prolong its life, but will do away with rebinding during that life. Supposing, for simplicity's sake, that rebinding and mending are eliminated, making the annual cost of the book simply the initial outlay divided by the number of years of its life, evidently any increase in first cost will be justifiable that increases the life proportionately. Such increase in first cost is due to money put into bet- ter paper and stronger binding, especially stouter sewing and stronger joints. Such improvements, however, do not lengthen the book's life, or do not lengthen it pro- portionately to what they cost, when the inside of the book is short-lived for any reason, or when it is excep- tionally long-lived. Thus the best edition obtainable may be in very bad paper — so brittle or so flimsy that the best sewing and the most durable covers will not greatly retard its going to pieces ; or the short life of the interior may be due not to poor materials, but to excep- tionally hard wear, or to abuses in the handling of the book. Its users may be ignorant or careless, and the leaves may be soon so torn or soiled that it must be with- drawn from circulation, no matter how stout the sewing or how durable the leather. On the other hand, the book may be one that is to receive very little wear. It may 221 BINDING AND REPAIRING go out regularly but very infrequently — perhaps once a year — and its normal life may therefore be so long that a mere increase in the durability of binding would not greatly lengthen it. Between these two extremes lie the cases in which initial outlay for increased strength leads to a propor- tionately lengthened life, and is therefore economically justifiable — namely, those where the book is of good paper and is to have hard, steady, legitimate use from readers who understand how to handle it. The ideal in each case is, of course, to have the book and its binding wear out together, so that neither shall the former re- quire rebinding nor shall any remaining strength of the latter be wasted. The perfect adaptation of binding to book, so that the parts of both shall wear out like those of the " one-hoss shay," " All at once and nothing first, Just as bubbles do when they burst," is the problem to be solved. That it is capable only of approximate solution, except by accident, is evident, but its statement at least provides a star to which the libra- rian may hitch his wagon. The best calculations may be upset by intrusting the subject of these calculations for a brief period to an inquisitive infant or a playful puppy, or by dropping it in the mud or spilling ink over it. But supposing that the librarian is gifted with suffi- cient insight and foresight to determine exactly what outlay for initial strength will pay in each case, he must then rely on the binder to impart precisely the required degree, and here he meets another obstacle that has been very imperfectly dealt with. The amount and kind of 222 THE BINDER usage to which a book is subjected in the modern public library has not been realized by any binder until very re- cently; and even now it is understood by few. The artistic side of binding has been developed far more' than what may be called its engineering. Beautiful bindings have been many; strong commercial bindings, in the sense in which we must now speak of strength, are few. Still less have binders learned to grade the strength of their work so as to adapt it to the probable life of the inside of the book, as noted above. To begin with the publisher, it is to his interest to issue his edition all in the same form, and this form is governed by the use to which the book is to be put by the majority of purchas- ers, who are individual readers, not public libraries. The books are thus put together very lightly. Even where the" libraries desire to purchase in unbound sheets and have the binding done to suit them, the pub- lisher is often unwilling to sell in this form. There is nothing for it, then, but to buy in the publisher's cases and strengthen them in some way ; or tear the book apart and rebind strongly at once ; or put it into circulation as it is, rebinding when it falls apart. No one of these three alternatives is desirable. Publishers often profess their willingness to bind strongly a certain proportion of their issues for public-library use, and this is now done in an increasing number of cases, owing largely to the efforts of the Committee on Bookbinding appointed by the American Library Association. A very few binders have made an effort to arrange with certain publishers to deliver sheets to them in time to bind strongly before publication. There is at the present time, however, no one publisher from whom libraries may obtain, in strong binding, any of his publications that they may deem to 223 BINDING AND REPAIRING require it, and no one dealer or binder who is able to fur- nish all current books in this way. The problem is evi- dently complicated with that of the book trade. The dealer who is to engage to furnish any current publica- tion, bound strongly from the sheets, on the day of issue must be himself a binder competent to deal with the question or he must have very close relations with such a binder. Either because libraries in general have not realized the economy of strong binding or because deal- ers do not understand the advantages to them of being the first to take it up in different localities, it is still difficult to obtain just what is wanted, promptly and surely. The problem of " strong binding," which, as has been said above, means here the problem of so fastening a book together that it will not come apart under the unusual stress of use in a free public library, is, of course, one of machine binding. Libraries cannot afford to pay the prices that must be charged for good hand work. The points of special weakness are the sewing and the joint of the cover. When the binding of a library book gives out, the stitching comes apart, or the leaves tear away from the threads, or the cover-joint breaks. It is not intended here to discuss the merits of various methods of sewing and jointing, but it is neces- sary to point out that with the kinds of paper in modern use for book work it is impossible to adopt any one style of sewing. The method that would be the best for strong paper made of linen rags would not suit light, spongy paper of esparto grass or the brittle paper made of wood pulp ; nor, again, the paper heavily coated with an earthy glaze for taking the ink from the half-tone plates. The good binder, therefore, must make a special study 224 STRONG ORIGINAL BINDING of papers in current use, and must know at a glance what treatment is best for each. Separate from the question of strong binding, but even more necessary to consider when the readability of a book is to be re- garded, is the ease with which it opens, which depends almost entirely on the sewing. A book sewed strongly, but difficult to hold open, is hard to read, especially when held in one hand ; and the modern library, which aims to make reading easy for all, should not put such an obstacle as this in the way of its users. If the paper of a book is of such a nature that it can be held strongly together only by making the book hard to open, it is better in many cases — perhaps in the majority — to let considerations of strength go altogether. The library in this case is paying extra for the comfort of its readers. So far as the material of the cover is concerned, this (which is the first thing that the ordinary reader thinks of when he hears of " binding ") is of secondary im- portance where the book is to receive heavy wear and is soon to be worn out and replaced. In this case the main qualities that are to be looked to are reasonable durability and cleanliness — smoothness, so that dirt will not be caught or collected and waterproof quality of a degree sufficient to admit of moderate washing. Heavy but flexible leather, such as pigskin, for the backs and waterproof cloth for the sides fulfill these conditions. Binding of this kind may be had for about fifty cents for a 12mo volume; or for less, if full cloth be used, with some modification in the sewing. Those who can afford it will have the backs lettered in gilt, and the call number will be added in the same way. If necessary, however, the lettering may be put on in ink with a pen, using India ink for light-colored bindings and " white 225 BINDING AND REPAIRING ink," so called, for the dark ones. " Gold ink " is ef- fective but not durable. Cloth or paper labels, used by many libraries, are difficult to fasten firmly and show dirt plainly. A consideration that militates against strong bind- ings in many libraries, and that will have to be reckoned with more and more by binders in the future, is the fact that the appearance of books strongly bound from the sheets is apt to be rather unattractive. A study of colors in leathers and cloth, and the adoption of some simple forms of decoration, will do away largely with this ob- jection; and steps in this direction are now being taken by some binders. Objections of this kind are not so trivial as they may seem. Not only is the general ap- pearance of a library's shelves more cheerful and at- tractive when the colors and decoration of the bindings are varied tastefully, but especially in a children's room is it desirable to give a book character to the outward eye in this way. Many librarians thus grefer, especially in the case of books for children, to have the original bindings strengthened or reenforced in some way rather than to bind the original sheets strongly at the risk of the book's losing its individuality. This may be done by replacing the original case after resewing or, in some cases, by merely strengthening the joint. The warning given at the beginning of this chapter cannot be too strongly reiterated — namely, that whether the time and expense devoted to initial strong binding is to be an economy or a waste depends on the skill and judgment shown in selecting the books that are to re- ceive such treatment. In the ease of replacements, espe- cially of standard books in constant demand, a list of titles requiring strong initial binding should be pre- 226 STRONG ORIGINAL BINDING pared and the best editions for the purpose should be specified. Orders for replacements or duplicates may then be compared and checked up with this list before they are placed. With current publications the task is not so easy, and involves far more chance of mistake. It is, however, safe to say that popular fiction, or in gen- eral any book that would require replacement or re- binding if it were not put initially in strong binding, should receive the latter. Among the exceptions will be such books for children as will probably be needed in the original covers and most fiction duplicates that will last as long as the book's popularity. When twelve copies of a novel are bought, for instance, the prob- ability is that by the time they have worn out one or two will be sufficient to supply the demand, and only these need to be bound strongly at the outset. Cases where the binding depends on the quality of paper cannot no^ be determined in advance of publication. These could be taken into consideration if publishers, in advance no- tices, would clearly state the kind of paper to be used, the style and size of type, width of margins, manner of inserting illustrations, and other data that are of special value for the librarian's information. What has been said so far applies wholly to the orig- inal binding. But " binding," stated as an item in library expenses, generally refers to rebinding, the amount spent for original binding being reckoned as part of the cost of the book. This item of rebinding it should be the librarian's task to reduce as much as pos- sible. The fact that a book has to be rebound is gener- ally an indication that it should have been provided with a stronger initial binding. If it were possible to attain the ideal of perfect adaptation of initial binding to use, 16 227 BINDING AND REPAIRING rebinding might be abolished. As this is impossible, it must continue, but it should be reduced to a minimum. In many cases it is cheaper to replace than to rebind. The criterion, as in the case of strong original binding, is not the relative cost of rebinding and replacement, but the cost per issue as affected by one or the other. Sup- pose that a book, after twenty issues, is in need of re- binding, which makes it good for ten issues more. The book is thus good altogether for thirty issues, and if it is replaced with a new copy which is similarly treated, the two have sixty issues between them. Now, three copies, without rebinding, would have the same number of is- sues ; and if the cost of a copy would not be greater than that of the two rebindings, this plan would pay. The numbers given above have been chosen somewhat arbitrarily, and varying them will alter the conclusion.^ TPhus, if a good cheap edition may be had, replace- ment may be the wiser course in a case where it would ' This may be stated algebraically as follows: If A=first cost of book, N^number issues before rebinding, o=cost of rebinding, n=nuniber of issues after rebinding, then the condition for substituting replacement for rebinding is ( — )>(m)- IfA:N;:a:re the two tractions will be equal, and inequality will subsist in the desired sense if the cost of rebinding is increased or the number of issues after rebinding be decreased; or if (these remaining the same) the first cost be decreased or the corresponding number of issues be increased. In the case of initial strong binding, A is greatly increased but N is also generally in- creased more than proportionately, which explains why initial strong binding is usually an economy. To those who desire to use this formula in practice, it may be said that while A and a are de- terminate quantities, N and n are averages ascertained by a series 228 REBINDING be better to rebind if the only good edition were an ex- pensive one. Also, if a form of rebinding is available that will make the book good for a number of reissues far greater, proportionately to the cost, than the number of original issues, this may and should determine the course to be pursued. Nothing has been said of a second rebinding be- cause, although this is sometimes possible, it is rarely desirable. Of course, other considerations, just as in the case of original strong binding, may operate to influence the librarian's conclusion in regard to rebinding. Books are discarded for other reasons than. because the bind- ings are worn. If a book, for instance, is so soiled that it will probably have to be cast aside for that reason after two or three more issues, rebinding is evidently in- advisable, and the book* should be slightly repaired, if possible, or otherwise discarded at once. It has been assumed that immediate replacement at a fair price is possible — that is, that the book is in print. In general, it does not pay to include out-of-print books in the actively circulating stock. If the book is a valu- able copy for the reference shelves, or is kept for " mu- seum ' ' purposes, and is difficult or impossible to replace, it may then, of course, be necessary to spend compara- tively large sums in strengthening, protecting, and pre- serving it. In this discussion one other factor has not yet been taken into account — ^the time lost while the book is un- dergoing rebinding. Of course, if we consider only the of trials, the more the better. Those to whom this algebraic dis- cussion means little may at least understand from it that the de- termination of economies in binding, whether initial or rebinding, is a matter requiring both thought and calculation. 229 BINDING AND REPAIRING cost per issue of the individual book, there is no loss, no matter how long it lies idle, as the total number of ulti- mate issues will be the same. The loss appears, how- ever, if we consider the number of copies necessary to carry on the work of the library. If this number, we will say, is twenty in a given case, and if five copies are always in the binder's hands, the actual number of copies owned by the library must evidently be twenty- five. Possibly ten per cent of a library's stock must be rebound in the course of the year, or say 6,000 volumes in a stock of 60,000. If these are absent, on an average, four months each, the loss amounts to a permanent ab- straction of 2,000 of the library's most needed books, which must be replaced by. others if the efficiency of the library is to be maintained. If the average life of these books is ten years, and their cost during this period, in- cluding purchase, cataloguing, rebinding, etc., is $1.50 each — a low estimate — ^the time lost at the binder's is costing the library $300 yearly, the interest at five per cent of an investment of $6,000. If the binder keeps the books but one month each, this loss is only $75 a year; in other words, the binder's promptness is saving the library $225 a year. The more we look into the question the more it ap- pears desirable to abolish rebinding as far as possible and to reduce to a minimum the time occupied in per- forming the work on the necessary residue. The judgment required in selecting books from the stock for rebinding and discarding is very great. This task should be intrusted to an assistant of experience and, as far as possible, always to the same person. Especially in a branch system should this work be under compe- tent general supervision, otherwise the librarian may 230 DISCARDING find that he is discarding fairly usable books from one .branch and retaining in circulation at another vol- umes far more soiled or advanced in disintegration. Users of the library who pass from branch to branch will be quick to note and comment upon such discrepancies. Of course, the state of a library's finances must deter- mine the extent to which a book shall be allowed to go to pieces before it is rebound or discarded and the degree to which it shall be allowed to accumulate dirt before being adjudged too filthy for library use. There is a zone within which a book may be called ' ' worn out ' ' or " soiled," or the reverse, according to circumstances; but no matter how impecunious a library may be, it cannot afford to circulate books that are really dirty or falling to pieces. The use of dirty books is objectionable for other than sanitary reasons; it drives from the li- brary people who love cleanliness, and it renders inef- fective any action taken by the library toward improv- ing the care taken of its stock. It is useless, for in- stance, to insist on clean hands in a children's room, if a large proportion of the books are so soiled that a per- son with clean hands might properly object to handling them. So, also, it seems absurd to caution readers against tearing out one more piece from a volume whose leaves are hanging in tatters or against maltreating a binding that is already hanging by a single thread. Books not in good condition may often be mended in- stead of rebound. Much has been said of how to mend ; not enough, probably, on when to mend. In general, mending is desirable only when the book is not to be re- bound. When its initial binding is strong enough to last till the end, the repair will naturally be limited to mend- ing tears, removing dirt, or fastening in plates. "When 231 BINDING AND REPAIRING the book is in too bad condition to warrant rebinding, but not to6 bad to warrant repair— ra condition whose determination requires delicate judgment — almost any- thing may be done to it that suits the fancy of the mender, but elaborate work rarely pays, except with " museum " books. The sewing may be repaired, glue may be spread over the backs, joints may be reenforeed or replaced, and so on. Mending cannot be taught from a book; to be an expert mender, one must first thor- oughly understand the anatomy of the bound volume, must be quick to appreciate whether any mending at all will pay in a given case, and must then be able to know what to do to accomplish the desired result with the greatest speed and .strength. The mending should be intrusted to assistants who show aptitude for it ; but the person who selects the books to be mended and decides what shall be done to them is not necessarily the one who does the actual mending. Manual dexterity does not always accompany a keen eye and trained judgment. In the New York Public Library, library books for mending are selected in each branch by the same assist- ant and at the same time as those for rebinding and for discarding, and the selection is reviewed, and sometimes modified, by the Supervisor of Binding. An instructor of mending is a member of the library staff, and spends all her time in going from branch to branch, teaching the assistants the elements of book anatomy and how to apply them in the simplest kinds of repairing. CHAPTER XVIII BRANCHES AND STATIONS The need of supplementing the work of a library in a large city by subsidiary agencies scattered over its ter- ritory was felt early in library history. Such agencies are of three general types — the branch library, the dis- tributing station, and the delivery station. The branch li- brary is a complete library in itself, having its separate quarters, often a beautiful and convenient building; its own permanent stock of books, generally its own cata- logues, and sometimes its own separate list of registered borrowers. The distributing station has a stock of books, but not a permanent one, the books being sent out from a central point and exchanged for others when needed. The stock, in short, constitutes a traveling library, and stations of this sort are dealt with in detail in the chap- ter on Traveling Libraries. A delivery station is a place where orders may be left for books to be delivered later from a central stock. Evidently these plans may be combined in various ways. The branch library may serve as a delivery station for the central collection or for the combined stock of other branches (interbranch loan) ; an emergency demand in a branch may be met by a temporary deposit of books, making it a distrib- uting station so far as these are concerned ; a distributing or delivery station may have certain branch features, such as a small permanent collection, generally of refer- ence books, or a general reading room. 233 BRANCHES AND STATIONS Twenty years ago there was considerable difiference of opinion among librarians about these three kinds of distributing agencies, and certain libraries adopted some one of them as preferable, to the exclusion of others. Thus the public libraries in Chicago and Jersey City developed large systems of delivery stations; the Free Library of Philadelphia established a system of branches, and so on. Other libraries, like those of Boston and Pittsburgh, established both branches and delivery sta- tions. At present the true branch has come to be re- garded as preferable, except in special cases. Delivery stations are used only as adjuncts and where the circu- lation would not warrant the expense of a branch. Even here deposit stations, or traveling libraries, are now gen- erally used. That the public prefers branch libraries there can be no doubt. This may be seen in cases where they are combined with delivery stations, Eis they are wherever orders may be left at a branch for books from the central library or~ from other branches. In such cases the use of the branch collection greatly exceeds that of the other collections through the branch. For instance, in the New York Public Library, a branch cir- culating a thousand books a day from its own shelves may have perhaps ten daily calls for books in other branches. In other words, its use as a branch is 100 times as great as its delivery-station use. The discrep- ancy appears even greater if we eonipare the demand with the number of books available in the two cases. The forty branches of the New York Public Library con- tain a stock of about 600,000 books. If we suppose the branch cited above to contain 25,000 volumes, the daily branch circulation is four per cent, whereas the delivery circulation is less than -^ of 1 per cent. 234 BRANCHES AND STATIONS This preference of the reading public for books on the shelves was stated analogically by a New York jour- nalist, who remarked that a hungry man ' ' would rather have cold beef now than chicken to-morrow." It must be confessed, however, that in this case the delivery cir- culation is of higher quality than the other, representing in a greater proportion of cases the satisfaction of a defi- nite desire; and doubtless the delivery station will find its future place as a substitute or adjunct agency of dis- tribution. In some cities systems of branch libraries, instead of being planned as aids to the work of a central library, have arisen where no such library exists — branches with- out a parent stem. Such was the case in New York and in Brooklyn. In some instances branches serve regions so rural, or so far distant from the municipal center, that they take on the appearance and functions almost of independent local libraries rather than of adjuncts to the work of the main institution. Methods of adminis- tration in such a system of libraries will obviously differ according to the degree of centralization. Most admin- istrators will agree that each branch should be allowed a degree of independence, but no two would probably draw the line in the same place. At one extreme would be the perfectly centralized system where the headwork is all done at headquarters and the branch librarians are only assistants in charge, having no liberty of action and performing the details of their work by prescribed rule. Such branches would perform separately only such functions as were positively necessary to their use- fulness as libraries ; they would have, for instance, sepa- rate catalogues, but no separate accession records or reg- istration books. All administrative functions would be 236 CENTRALIZATION OR INDEPENDENCE? performed at the central oflSce, matters of policy would be arranged there down to the smallest detail, and the personnel of the staff would be decided upon there with- out consulting the local assistant in charge. At the other extreme we should have the practically- independent branch, operated as a separate library, ex- cept for a common board of trustees and executive offi- cer. Its librarian would appoint her own force, and all administrative functions would be performed in the branch, which might differ from all the other branches in its charging system, its classification, its system of regis- tration, and so on. These ideal extremes are cited for purposes of illus- tration only ; probably neither of them exists. The ordi- nary system of branches is centralized in some respects and independent in others. Most systems agree in cen- tralizing the purchase of books, staff training, cata- loguing (at least the headwork), and in prescribing uniformity in charging systems, book numbers, and such rules as affect the use of the books by the public. They generally allow independence to some extent in book selection, in branch discipline, and the selection of assist- ants, and in various points of local policy. The branch librarian is the local adviser of the librarian in chief, in matters affecting her locality. Points on which there is a general difference of usage, some libra- rians preferring centralization and uniformity, while others would allow independence and the exercise of local discretion, are accessioning, the mechanical copy- ing of catalogue cards, registration, and the issuing of borrowers' cards. The differences between the work of a system of branch libraries and that of a single independent library 237 BRANCHES AND STATIONS may perhaps be best treated by viewing them suc- cessively from three standpoints — that of the individual assistant, that of the central administrator, and that of the public. Prom the assistant 's point of view the differences are absent or slight in the lower grades and increase as she rises in the staff. To one of the lower assistants it makes very little difference whether the rules under which she works are laid down by the head of her immediate li- brary or are merely transmitted to her, through that head, from a central headquarters, more or less re- mote. To the head librarian, on the other hand, it makes a great deal of difference whether she is free to admin- ister her library as she thinks best, under her board of trustees, or whether she is forced to conform to rules and customs in common with a number of other similar libraries. If her library is a branch, her charging sys- tem, her rules regarding the public use of books, her registration system, and all the other administrative features that are to be uniform in all the branches, are settled upon for her and cannot be changed ; whereas, if she is at the head of a single independent institution, she may, theoretically at least, change or modify all these to suit herself. Practically, however, the difference is not so great as it seems. On assuming charge of an inde- pendent library its head often finds systems of classifica- tion, registration, charging, cataloguing, and so on, that do not accord with her ideas ; yet in most cases the labor of alteration would be so great that she is quite as much bound to retain them as if they were prescribed by a central office. Then, again, the head of an independent library is responsible to the board of trustees; in a branch, the responsibility is merely transferred to a sin- 238 SOME COMPARISONS gle officer. The branch librarian's books and supplies must be obtained by recommendation or requisition through the central office, and repairs to her building must be made in the same way. In all this there is apt to be more delay than where it may be done more di- rectly. The testimony of those who have served both as independent and as branch librarians, and especially of those whose libraries, formerly independent, have become parts of a branch system of consolidation, indicates that this loss of freedom, of individual responsibility and ini- tiative is considerable ; that it is felt as a drawback, and that the efficiency of the library is lessened thereby. Yet, in spite of this, such librarians will usually add that the compensating advantages are great enough to make up for this disadvantage — ^perhaps far to outweigh it. Such advantages are the fact that the library may place at the disposal of its users a very much larger stock of books, that the librarian has the cooperation of many sister institutions and the advice and aid of experts in many special lines of library work, that much of the mechanical work is assumed by the central office, leaving the branches freer to study and consult the needs of their users — in short, they embrace all the benefits that arise from cooperation, but that are rarely realized in their entirety unless the cooperation is systematized and under central direction and control. From the standpoint of the central administrator, the differences between operating a single library and a group of branches are even greater. His catalogue and shelf list, for instance, must bear, besides everything that would be necessary in the similar records of a sin- gle library, some indication of the branches in which the catalogued 'books are to be found. His accounts must be 239 BRANCHES AND STATIONS kept in such a way that the cost of operating each branch library may be separately ascertained, and to this end his bills must be so marked that it may be possible to divide the totals properly among the branches con- cerned. Take, for instance, the complications introduced into the one department of book purchase. For an inde- pendent library, the purchase of a given title having been duly authorized, it is necessary simply to order it, retaining a memorandum of the order; to compare the book, when received, with this memorandum and with the bill, marking them both to indicate receipt, and then to deliver the book to be catalogued, prepared, and shelved. In a branch system the ofSee must know before ordering the book for what branch it is intended; and on its re- ceipt it is not sufficient simply to check the correspond- ing item in the bill. The item must be marked with the name of the branch, so that the bill clerk may charge each branch with the fraction of the total that may be- long to it. The book itself must be marked with the name of the branch, and also, if it is to be accessioned at the branch, with certain data not shown by the book itself, as the source and price. After cataloguing, the book must be sent, with others, to the branch for which it is intended, and some evidence of its receipt must be returned to the central office and filed there. If a book is lost, it is difficult to fix the responsibility between the central office, the express messenger, and the receiving branch without a very elaborate system of dated re- ceipts, which may or may not be thought worth while. But in any case, the fact that a group of branches instead of a separate library is to be supplied multiplies the work at the book-order office very greatly; and there is a similar multiplication, due to the same causes, 240 SOME COMPARISONS in almost every department of central-office work. Again, it becomes necessary for the head of the system to determine, in the case of every rule or regulation that he may desire to make, of every custom that he may wish to alter, and of every innovation or improvement that he may consider necessary, whether this is of the kind that should apply uniformly throughout the sys- tem or whether it may be allowed to apply to certain branches and not to others. If the latter, he must decide to which it should apply ; if the former, he must inquire whether its inapplicability at some branches may not make its adoption generally undesirable. This informa- tion may generally be best obtained by conference with the heads of branches, at such a meeting as that de- scribed in the chapter on the Staff. Lastly, from the point of view of the public — that is, of those who use the library — ^the differences between a branch and an independent library are almost all in favor of the former. The user has all the privileges that he could have with the latter and others that he would not be likely to receive. He has access to the stock not of one library alone, but to the combined collections of the whole system. Larger resources in every way are at his disposal. The library is much more apt to buy a book that he desires, if it is to be thereby made available to the population of a large region than if it is to be added simply to a moderate collection for the use of a small number of people. Those who wish traveling li- braries or deposit collections can obtain them more readily and in greater mmibers. In fact, the user finds at his disposal many of the resources and advantages of a large library, with the accessibility, coziness, and in- formality of a small one. 241 BRANCHES AND STATIONS From another point of view altogether, if there is question of concentrating all the available expenditures upon one large central library instead of devoting a part of it to branches, there can no longer be any doubt of the better course to pursue, if it is desired to benefit the largest possible number of persons. Scholars who must study the entire literature of their subject, wher- ever it may be, will travel long distances to see a particu- lar book, even taking journeys to foreign countries for the purpose. For such, branch collections are neither necessary nor desirable. The ordinary reader, however, the man of fairly good education who reads for enter- tainment or for profit, will rarely go very far to get his book. His wife and his children will not go even as far as he will. To get and retain a hold upon such read- ers as this the collection must be brought closer to them, and this means that branch libraries must be placed at intervals throughout the city. We may now take up some of the special problems of branch systems. In the first place, is there any rule governing the arrangement of branches in a city — ^their number in proportion to population, their distance apart, etc.? Such arrangement depends not on one, but on many considerations. In many cases certain points have been foreordained as branch locations, as from the loca- tion in such a spot of a previously independent library that has been taken in as a branch. Two or three badly fixed points of this kind may throw a whole branch sys- tem ' ' out of kilter, ' ' and yet the best policy may dictate their retention. In general, the number of branches should be roughly proportional to population, and yet, where population is much congested, spacing by this rule alone may bring branches too close together, and it may 242 ARRANGEMENT OF BRANCHES be better to increase the capacity of a single branch than to multiply the number. The number of branches must also be roughly proportional to extent of territory ; yet in sparsely settled parts of the community to fol- low this rule alone would result in wasting the re- sources of a branch on too small a number of users. Here it would be better to care for the needs of the resi- dents by means of deposit collections, judiciously placed. The character of the locality must always have much influence in determining the location of a branch. A branch should always be located in the center of a group of users rather than on its edge. Sometimes the disposi- tion of such a group may be determined beforehand, sometimes not. Thus it is certainly bad policy to place a branch on the edge of an unpopulated region, as a sheet of water, a large park, or, generally speaking, a purely business district. It has been thought that busi- ness-districts, to which large numbers of persons resort daily either as buyers or as sellers, form the best loca- tions for branch libraries; but this has not generally proved to be the case. The persons who resort to such districts do so with a definite purpose in mind, and rarely have the desire or the time to visit a library. On the other hand, libraries in residence districts are always largely used. A branch library in New York, estab- lished in the busiest part of the shopping district, on Sixth Avenue, where hundreds of thousands of persons passed the door daily, had a small circulation. Moved west, on Twenty-third Street, still in a business district, but a little out of the rush, its circulation improved, and when it was moved again, farther west, to a residence district, where not one tenth as many persons passed the door, the circulation rose again perceptibly. Again, a 17 243 BRANCHES AND STATIONS down-town library past whose door factory workers surge twice a day has never been able to secure a large circu- lation, and, as far as has been ascertained, reaches few of these frequent passers-by ; while half a mile east, in a tenement-house region, another branch is well-nigh swamped by its crowd of users. It is possible to reach factory hands in their places of work, but only through traveling libraries and with the aid of their employers. Again, the attitude of the residents of a district toward the library, or toward reading in general, may be characteristic, and may determine the location or nonlocation of a branch among them. In general, racial characteristics are important; the Irish, for instance, do not care to read as much as Germans do. It is difficult to induce the Latin races, even those who are readers, to use a public library, while the Teutonic races seek out the library for themselves. The attitude of religious teachers may be important. In regions where the inhab- itants rely much upon the advice of their clergy, a prej- udice against the public library existing in the minds of the clergy may practically do away with the usefulness of a branch in the locality. Still again, most large cities, in the process of growth, have overtaken and swallowed up smaller centers, which still maintain for years, if not permanently, some of the characteristics of separate communities — a distinctive street system, perhaps; certain old landmarks, possibly post offices of their own, or railway stations, and above all a local pride that is stronger than any other influence in keeping up the atmosphere of separateness. Such lo- cal centers are of benefit rather than otherwise in a large city, for their existence fosters a healthy local pride, and this the presence of a library helps to maintain, 244 LOCAL CENTERS while, in turn, it gives the people interest in the library and aids in making it useful. Such centers in New York for instance, are Harlem, Yorkville, Greenwich Village, and, more remote, Tremont, Woodlawn, and Kingsbridge; in Brooklyn, Bay Ridge, Bushwick, Brownsville, and Flatbush; in Philadelphia, Frankford, Germantown, and Chestnut Hill. All such places are promising locations for branch libraries, which may ap- propriately be given the names of these old centers. Be- sides these, there are other localities, which, although not old foci of population, are recognized as set apart in some way or other, as by topography, residential char- acteristics, etc., and have usually been given some popu- lar local name. These, too, are often indicated as sites for branch libraries. Local demand should, of course, receive attention; but it is often misleading. A local movement for the establishment of a branch library may gain great headway and make much impression in a lo- cality where local feeling is strong and population small ; while in a densely populated district whose inhabitants are largely transients, with no traditions, the desire for a library may not crystallize so rapidly, although the need may be greater. I have known a branch library, established in a district where it had not been asked for, and where there was apparently no local interest in it, to develop at once a circulation of 30,000 a month, while in a semirural locality the inhabitants were clamoring loudly for a building and pointing with pride to a de- posit station circulating 300 monthly as an evidence of their needs and abilities. Some of the other special problems of branch-library administration have already been touched upon in the course of the present chapter. One or two more require 245 BRANCHES AND STATIONS brief mention. Is it desirable, for instance, to allow the same person to use more than one branch at a time? This question may be answered in several ways, of which the chief are as follows: (1) There may be no restric- tion; (2) each user may be restricted to one branch, or (3) each user may be allowed to use the branches indis- criminately, provided the total number of books that he holds at one time be not larger than that which he would be permitted to take from a single branch. The first plan is the simplest and easiest, but the re- sult is that those within reach of two or more branches may hold twice or thrice as many boolcs at once as those who can conveniently reach only one. The number of the former, may not, however, exceed a few per cent of the total users, and many libraries regard the injustice arising from such absence of restriction as a lesser evil than the labor and time consumed in restricting each user to one library. Some libraries announce openly that each citizen is allowed to hold cards in as many branches as he chooses, while others say nothing about the matter, but make no effort to detect or prevent such multiple card-holding. The second plan, that of strict limitation to one branch at a time, requires some sort of machinery to detect violation of the rule, although some libraries rely on the card-holder's personal statement, and content themselves with asking each applicant for library privi- leges whether he has had a borrower's card at another branch, and, if so, requiring him to present a formal request for transfer. If the card-holder's word be not regarded as sufficient, there must evidently be some place in which the names of users of all branches must be filed alphabetically, and each application must be compared 246 CENTRAL REGISTRATION with this file before it is granted. If all applications are made, and all cards issued, by the central library, such a file exists there as a matter of course. A user bent on deceiving the library may, of course, do so in this case by giving a false name, unless a strict guaranty system is adhered to. ■ The third plan is the most logical of all; but it al- most requires a central registration with central card issue. Bach card is then good at whatever branch it is presented, and no one person can hold more than one card, or draw by means of it more than the allowed number of books, whatever their source. For small branch systems this involves no special trouble ; but for large ones the central registration system involves some difiSeulties, especially with regard to the sending out of notices to delinquents. Either all branch notices must go out from the central ofSce, which involves delay, as the evidence of delinquency is necessarily on file at the branch, or else each branch must keep a duplicate ad- dress file. Most of the advantages of this third plan, however, may be gained without a central registration by retaining the branch issue of cards, but requiring each branch to honor the cards of all other branches. This means that delinquencies must be reported to the issuing branch, which has the delinquent's address, or that a special address file shall be kept at each branch for the users of other branches whose cards have been honored. This matter of delinquency, rather than the desir- ability of limiting the issue of books, is, after all, the chief reason for objecting to the holding of cards at more than one branch. Under this plan there is noth- ing to prevent a user's forfeiting the privileges of the library by debt or by nonreturn or maltreatment of 247 BRANCHES AND STATIONS books at a great number of branches successively, and this sometimes occurs. If it is to be prevented, a union black list must be kept at each branch. If this is to in- clude the names of all those who owe fines, however small, it becomes unwieldy and practically impossible to use. Such a list is practically limited to the names of notable delinquents, which means that the lesser sinners go scot-free and are allowed to move about from branch to branch as they like. The number and character of union catalogues is an- other problem of branch systems that admits of several solutions. Each branch needs its own card catalogue and its own shelf list, the former for the use of its read- ers and the latter for inventory. The central office needs a union catalogue and a union shelf list, both of which must bear record of the particular branches in which each book is contained. In addition, the shelf list may also indicate the number of copies in each branch. These data may be entered by means of numerals or ab- breviations indicating the branches, which may be writ- ten on the author cards in the union catalogue and on the shelf-list cards, or opposite each entry on a shelf-list sheet. The indication of the number of copies may be by means of a superior numeral attached to the branch abbreviation. On the card devised by Miss Theresa Hitehler for the union shelf list of the Brooklyn Public Library the back of the card is divided into squares, each of which represents a branch, and the number of copies therein is indicated by their accession numbers (see illustration). As the number of copies is shown by the branch shelf lists and is easily ascertained there- from when needed, it is not absolutely necessary to show it on the union list. 248 BRANCH CATALOGUES Accession records may be kept at the branches sepa- rately, or in separate branch books at the central library, 4p.h '.liaTfWnn 1g,H^.n>v1 JnV,«=f.n„ v.t. .1 U46 School compos it ioa. cl902. A. B. Ah. Br, Bu. Ca 111111 iiii: 5534: 8 .1 143261 ( 143262 143263 Ci>. 143264, E. F. c PT. N. P. s. Se, . Sr, Tp. W. 143266 T. Bs. L. R. Sh. M. 143265 943261^ Wn, Pi. ,0. c. MA. Union Shelf-list Cabds, Used in the Brooklyn Public Library. Both sides shown. or in one union list at the central library. The last plan is the simplest in some ways and avoids work when there 249 BRANCHES AND STATIONS is to be much transferring of books among branches, but it is also desirable to have the record in the branch where the books are kept. Choice of method will de- pend largely on whether centralization or branch inde- pendence is favored in the particular library in question. The same thing will determine also the place where the cataloguing is done. Complete centralization of the ■ wdrk necessitates a very large force, but comparatively few are required to keep up the necessary union lists, classify new books, and so mark them that they may be properly accessioned and catalogued at the branches. Such branch cataloguing may be done at odd moments, and its practice promotes familiarity with the books. One of the greatest advantages of a system of branches is lost unless there is some method by which users may make use of other branches — ^that is, may bor- row from the union stock as a whole. This necessitates a plan of some sort for interbranch loans. If every book likely to be in demand in this way can be transferred to the central library or duplicated therein, this reduces to a system for sending to the central library for books; but in a large, well-stocked branch system, especially where there has been specialization in purchase accord- ing to the needs of localities, there will always be books in branches that are not contained in the central library. A good interbranch loan system requires a union cata- logue, an assistant, in charge of the system, who has im- mediate access to this catalogue and may communicate with all branches by telephone, and a messenger who visits all branches daily. An inquiry at a branch for a book not contained in that branch is referred at once to the central catalogue. If it is not in the library, the inquirer is so informed and a note is made for possible 250 INTERBRANCH LOANS purchase. If it is, a reserve card is filed for it. If the book is not available at the central library, but is con- tained in one or more branches, the messenger as he goes his rounds takes with him a memorandum card, in a package of other cards, each of which bears the names of branches containing the book. The first branch where the book is on the shelves charges it to the inquiring branch and gives it to the messenger for delivery. If the book is out at all branches, a reserve card is filed at the last branch visited. Thus the book reaches the per- son who wants it, as soon as may be. The branch system has developed so rapidly and in- dividual branches have assumed so many of the features of independent libraries that users of such branches sometimes forget their limitations. It may happen that a person, accustomed to use a well-equipped central library in a small city, goes to a larger city where the central building is far away and there is a convenient branch. In such a case it is not infrequent to hear the branch library unfavorably compared with the institu- tion formerly used. Such comparisons are obviously most unfair. In the first place, the book stock in a branch is and should be limited. It is not a place for unlimited book storage; it should contain a small, live, usable collection, and transfer all else to the central stock. Its reference collection must necessarily be small and adapted to the use of the inquirer after every-day items of knowledge rather than to the student and inves- tigator. It will contain few, if any. Government docu- ments ; very limited collections in foreign literatures, un- less there is a foreign colony in the immediate vicinity ; practically no books on medicine, law, or technical sub- jects like the higher mathematics; no very large or ex- 251 BRANCHES AND STATIONS pensive books, such as costly art works. A city cannot and should not duplicate its central collection at a dozen or more points, and it is unreasonable to ask that it should go any further toward such duplication than may be done in a good usable collection of books for the ordi- nary local reader. CHAPTER XIX STATISTICS, REPORTS, ETC. No business can be properly carried on without a sys- tem of accounts. These may involve only money re- ceived and expended, but they may and should extend much further. In a mercantile business they should be such that the proprietor may know whether he has made or lost money on a particular consignment of goods, or whether a particular lot has deteriorated in the ware- house before being disposed of. The manufacturer should be able to tell whether a given lot of raw material worked up into finished articles that are above or below the average in appearance, facility of operation, or wear. The collection and tabulation of such data as these have come to be regarded as indispensable by shrewd business men; and large corporations do not hesitate to spend considerable sums in employing a force of experts and clerks especially to gather data of this kind and to tell what they mean. On the information thus obtained is based the whole conduct of the business. It is found that material from a certain source gives uniformly poor results ; this source is cut off, though offering an oppor- tunity to buy cheaply. A certain line of goods is found not to pay, or not to pay as well as another line that might be produced with the same machinery; processes are at once modified or the plant is set at work in -a dif- ferent direction. 253 STATISTICS, REPORTS, ETC. Information of this kind is gathered with either or both of two different purposes in view — to satisfy the legitimate curiosity of the person managing the business, or of some one who has .a right to know how it is going on, whether it is succeeding or failing and just what it is accomplishing; and, secondly,' to furnish a basis for improvements or changes, to indicate weak points and points of strength, so that the business may be reen- f orced along the former and extended along the latter. The information is handled somewhat differently, according to the use ^ that is to be made of it. If the former of the two uses just specified, it is thrown into the form of a tabular report, so that the person or persons to whom the report is submitted may be able to see with the least trouble just what is to be made plain with regard to the conduct of the business. If the lat- ter, a more detailed and analytical study is made of the data, which are compared and tested in all possible ways to reveal unsuspected facts. When something is thus brought to light that seems to call for further in- vestigation, additional data are collected; and processes, sources, machines, and operators are changed or shifted to ascertain the result of such action on the data that are being studied. In other words, the various operations of the business, whatever it may be, are treated precisely like the experimental part of a scientific investigation, and the data are discussed in a manner corresponding to the treatment of the measurements or other numerical data obtained in such an investigation. The administration of various institutions, all of which are trying to achieve satisfactory results through methods carried out by men, with or without the aid of machinery, is one and the same, in essentials. Success 254 PURPOSES OF STATISTICS and failure in all, whether their object is to make money for the proprietors or to perform a service for the pub- lie, are dependent on very similar factors. And if in large industrial concerns it has been found not only profitable but vital to collect data of all sorts and to dis- cuss and act upon them, then we may be sure that the administration of a public library may profitably do the same thing in its own sphere of activity. Libraries are accustomed to collect and publish va- ried statistics — more or less extensive and more or less detailed, according to the interests or habits of mind of the librarian or his board of trustees; but these are in general more in view of the first purpose specified above than for the second. They are, as signified by the name of the publication in which they usually appear, " re- ports ' ' — ^the placing before the trustees, before the pub- lic, whom they represent, and before the municipal au- thorities to whom they are immediately responsible, of certain data, to assure them that the funds of the library have been wisely administered and that its users have obtained from the expenditure of those funds as much and as effective service as they have a right to expect. Of the second kind of use mentioned above, there is probably not nearly so much as there ought to be. It is difficult to ascertain exactly how much, because investi- gations of this kind are intended to guide the adminis- trator, and not to be published. Occasionally some out- side body, representing citizens in another or a related capacity, undertakes a little investigation and compari- son of this kind on its own account ; and then the public is apt to hear of it. But how much intelligent study of library statistics goes on in librarians' offices, and how much modification or improvement in library methods 255 STATISTICS, REPORTS, ETC. . and material results from such study, is something that we shall never know. It appears to be certain, however, that large numbers of librarians, especially in small institutions or those of moderate size, look upon their statistics in the light of a necessary evil. They must be collected, b*eause some- thing of the kind is expected in the annual report, but they should be minimized, and, once in print, they should be dismissed from the mind. This attitude re- minds one of the rural workman who used a dull saw be- cause the amount of work before him gave him no time to stop and sharpen it ; the labor of collecting and tabu- lating statistics wearies the average librarian to such an extent that he is unwilling to use his results in a way that might lighten his entire labor or direct it into chan- nels of greater usefulness. Some of the simpler ways in which statistics may thus be treated will be indicated farther along in this chapter. The data usually collected by libraries fall under three heads — financial statistics,' or data regarding the receipt and expenditure of money; library statistics proper, or data about the books, their use and care ; and statistics of property, relating to buildings and their contents. Financial statistics are simply monetary accounts, and do not differ essentially in libraries from the book- keeping of any concern of equal size. A competent book- keeper, in other words, will learn as quickly how to keep the accounts of a library as he would how to keep those of any business with which he was at first somewhat unfa- miliar. Of course, however, the financial statistics touch upon those of the other classes in so many points that, especially where all three kinds are to be systematically 256 FINANCIAL studied, the bookkeeper will soon adapt his methods in such a way as to make such comparisons simpler. Thus, if the librarian wishes to know the proportion of fines to circulation in each of a dozen branch libraries, he must ascertain the receipts from this source and the number of books loaned, for the same period, in this par- ticular library. He may also wish to know the cost of binding per book bound, or as compared with the total stock, or with the circulation, either of his whole system or of certain branch libraries whose work he desires to compare. To illustrate the possibilities along this line, it may be stated that the finance department of a large city pos- sessing a system of branch libraries asked this question, " Is it not possible to standardize the appropriations for branch libraries so that, at least within certain limits, it may be possible to calculate at once, from certain statis- tics relating to a library, what its annual maintenance ought to cost ? " If a formula for this calculation could be constructed, it would doubtless simplify greatly the work of preparing estimates. An attempt has been oc- casionally made to do this, but the data taken into ac- count have been too few. Probably the most elementary is the proviso contained in the Carnegie agreements, that the minimum annual appropriation for the maintenance of a library shall be ten per cent of the sum expended in building and equipment. This has generally proved insufficient, and in some cases fifteen per cent has been substituted for ten in the Contract. Here it has been assumed that the cost of maintenance is roughly propor- tional to the cost of the building. Some of the other data that should be taken into account are the number of books, their circulation, the size of the building, its 257 STATISTICS, REPORTS, ETC. age, the hours of opening, and so on. Such data may be stated numerically. Others that cannot be so stated di- rectly, and yet enter into the problem, are the character of the population (whether careful of the books or not), the capability of the library force, the standard of con- dition of the books, etc.^ Of the library statistics proper — those relating to the books themselves — the most important are those involving the safety and state of preservation of the books and, next in order, those relating to the amount and kind of use that has been made of them. The safety of the books, the fact that they are still in. the pos- session of the library, instead of being lost or stolen, is ascertained by means of an inventory taken at stated periods in a way described in another chapter. The fig- ures thus ascertained — the number of volumes actually on the shelves, with a comparison of the figures with those of the year preceding, showing the number added, the number discarded, and the number missing during the year — may be considered as the fundamental data of library statistics. The facts that some libraries omit this periodical inventory altogether, considering the informa- tion gained as not worth the necessary labor, and that others perform the task in a somewhat perfunctory man- ner, are surely surprising. The books under a librari- ' The problem of constructing a formula embodying these data resembles that of representing algebraically a linear function of several variables, having given the values of the variables and that of the function in several instances. This is a well-known problem in the Method of Least Squares and is solved by the method of Indeterminate Coefficients. A number of instances equal to the number of the variables is required. This is mentioned here to show the somewhat complex mathematical relations that may ob- tain between the financial statistics and those of other kinds. 258 LIBRARY STATISTICS PROPER an's charge are not his own property; they are not even the personal property of the trustees. Often they are not even the property of the board as a body, but of the municipality. They are held in trust, and surely the first duty of their custodian, whatever else he may or may not do, is to ascertain and report whether they are all safe, and, if not, how many are missing and from what causes. Closely connected with these data, and of scarcely less importance, are data regarding the condition of the books. The public that reads in a library report of the tens or hundreds of thousands of books on the shelves, surely ought to be informed whether these are as new or in the last stages of dilapidation — soiled, worn, and torn. Yet library reports seldom give sufficient information on this subject. Of course, the precise condition of each vol- ume cannot be described, but at least the librarian should state how many of his books were discarded be- cause soiled or worn out during the last year, how many are likely to be so discarded during the current year, how many were rebound, how many are in need of rebinding, and how many were mended. Some general idea should also be given of the standard used in discarding — whether the library is obliged to keep in circulation books that are badly soiled and torn, or whether it can and does discard volumes for a very slight drop below the normal in these respects. In second order of importance I should place those statistics that probably the majority of librarians would put first — namely, statistics of the use of books. This includes a statement of the total number of times that the books have been used, either at home (" home use ") or in the library (" hall use "), given generally both by 18 259 STATISTICS, REPORTS, ETC. time (usually by months), and again by classes. Both these uses were formerly stated together as " circula- tion ' ' ; but this term is now properly limited to home use. The unit here is the combination of a book and its user — a change in the combination means a separate count. In the statistics gathered by inventory the book is the unit, no account at all being made of the user. In another class of statistics, which should still be grouped under those re- lating to " use of books," the user is the unit, and no account at all is made of the book. Under this head come the number of users, " live " or otherwise, with the increase for the year, sometimes given by months and sometimes classified by occupations or by locality; attendance at reading rooms or at lectures, and use of reference books where it is difficult or inadvisable to re- port each -separate use and each user's visit, is recorded as a unit. In reporting the use of books, it has been suggested that not the single use, of varying length, but retention for a specified time, say one day, should be regarded as the unit. Thus a use lasting four weeks would count fourteen times as much as one lasting only two days. This is difficult, and has been attempted only experi- mentally for short periods. It gives greater weight to the books that require a longer time to read, which gen- erally does greater justice to the use of nonfiction, but not necessarily so. For instance, one reader might well retain a novel four weeks, dipping into it at intervals, while another might keep out a work on mechanics only one day, having in that time read thoroughly a single chapter on a subject on which he required information. In reporting by classes, the classification adopted by the library for its shelves is not always followed, nor 260 PROPERTY STATISTICS should it be. The published report is for the informa- tion of the public, and it may be much more intelligible if classes are combined and subdivided in reporting. For instance, several classes may be reported together as Science, or some one class, such as Literature, may be subdivided. Fiction is usually reported separately, and Poetry may be so reported. All books circulated among children, at least when they are contained in children's rooms, are now usually reported separately, of whatever class they may be. Some class may be minutely subdi- vided for temporary collection of statistics thereon. Thus statistics of music scores circulated may be col- lected and reported on for a given year, books in foreign languages may be reported separately, or some such class as Science may be subdivided into Astronomy, Physics, Zoology, Botany, etc., for report during a specific pe- riod. An easy classification for permanent report and comparison, with temporary reports on special classes and subdivisions, probably serves to inform and interest the public in the best possible way. The third class of statistics is generally a stranger to library reports, and it is probably not insisted upon by boards of trustees as much as it should be. Every library should have an official list, verified at intervals by inventory, of all its property in the way of buildings and their contents — furniture, floor coverings, pictures, etc. It is even more necessary to inventory library sup- plies, since it is much easier to remove ink, paper, pen- cils, or paste without attracting notice than it would be to take a table or a chair. Yet probably few libraries take regular stock of any of these things, large or small. Like the books, they are municipal or corporate prop- erty, of which the librarian is the responsible custo- 261 STATISTICS, REPORTS, ETC. dian; and he should leave nothing undone to ascertain for himself, and to demonstrate to others, how faithfully he is keeping his trust. It should not be forgotten, either by those who col- lect and report these statistics, or by those who read them or use them, that they are of various degrees of exact- ness, and that those that are nearest to perfect accuracy do not attain it. In any kind of scientific measurement the limits of probable error are always mentioned to give an idea of the degree of accuracy. The less the probable error, the greater the accuracy. It is never stated that there can be no error and that the accuracy is exact; this would be simply ridiculous. The same holds good in library statistics. In the average report nothing at all is said of accuracy; the reader is left to conclude that all the data are exact, or at least that there is no difference in their report of exactness. This, as has been said above, is by no means the case. Probably there is the least chance of error in data that are obtained by counting tangible objects — books on the shelves or ready for the bindery, cards in the cir- culation tray, readers in a room. There may, however, be errors in mere counting; there are almost certain to be such where the number of objects counted is large. Enumeration becomes wearisome, and the counter makes a mistake, so that such counting should always be tested by repetition, which is often laborious or impossible. In some cases, also, the objects counted are not those to be really enumerated, but only their representatives. Thus when the circulation is ascertained by means of count- ing the cards in the tray, each card represents a book, and if through some mistake the number of cards in the tray is not equal to the number of books loaned on the 262 COMPARABILITY OP DATA day in question, no degree of accuracy in counting the cards will give the actual circulation. Again, it is easy or difficult to enumerate objects as they are at rest or in motion. To count 500 cards in a tray is comparatively simple; to count and classify a hundred persons in a reading room, when they are continually entering or leaving the room, may be well-nigh impossible. Still more difficult is it to note and record every use of a ref- erence book, and most libraries have given up trying to do this, believing that the inaccuracy of such a count would make the statistics valueless. Reference use of books, however, is one of the most valuable parts of a library's work, and it is inadvisable not to record and report it in some way. Probably the simplest and best is to count users, disregarding each separate use. The figure thus obtained is of the same degree of accuracy as the count of reading-room attendance, although neither is as high as that of books on the shelves or of volumes circulated. Still more disconcerting to the student of library statistics are those whose meaning is uncertain. Thus "cards now in use" or "live readers" may mean almost anything, in the absence of exact definition or explanation. The method of distinguishing between cards in use and not in use or between " live " and ' ' dead ' ' readers should always be stated. Anyone who has attempted to compare the statistics of different libraries, in an effort to arrive at some idea of the relative amounts of their work, has found his task difficult almost to the point of impossibility by rea- son of this vagueness and variability that runs through them all. Some items that he desires to compare are to- tally absent in certain reports; others are reported in such different ways that they are either not comparable 263 STATISTICS, REPOKTS, ETC. or become so only after a process like the reduction of English to metric measures. This lack of comparability has led to efforts, more or less sporadic, during ten years past to induce libraries to report the same items in the same way. So far, this has met with little success. Cer- tain of the stronger state library commissions have the matter in their own hands, so far as libraries in their own states are concerned. They announce, as is done, for instance, in the State of New York, that in order to receive the annual state appropriation a report must be rendered to the proper authorities in prescribed form. If every state had its commission, and if these commis- sions could agree on a standard form of statistical re- port, the problem would be solved, so far as American public libraries are concerned. But many states have no commissions, and some of these have only nominal authority and no way of enforcing it. Even those whose agreement would effect something have made no agreement. A national library commission, with power to give a small subsidy to all libraries complying with certain conditions, could bring about a reform; for it is astonishing what a librarian will do to secure an addi- tion of a few dollars to his library's income. Even action by the Library of Congress, in the way of recog- nizing, in the distribution of catalogue cards or other- wise, only those libraries complying with specified con- ditions, might bring about the desired result. All this, however, would require special legislation that is very unlikely to be obtained, and might even be adjudged unconstitutional. There appears to be nothing left, therefore, but moral suasion, and this the American Li- brary Association has attempted to exert. Its Commit- tee on Library Administration has formulated a scheme 264 THE QUESTIONNAIRE and directions for taking and reporting statistics, but so far so few libraries have paid any attention to it that it may be said to have effected nothing toward making our library statistics more comparable. The fact is that our libraries are still individualistic. Few of them have grasped the idea that uniformity or united action of any kind on the part of such institu- tions is desirable. So far as statistics are concerned, libraries in general evidently publish these solely for the information of their own trustees and their own pub- lie, except when bribed to do otherwise by the expecta- tion of state appropriations. They simply do not care whether their statistics are or are not comparable with those of other libraries. The result is that those who are studying library problems in a way necessitating the comparative use of statistics are obliged more and more to resort to the questionnaire — the printed or mimeo- graphed circular form, with its series of questions, per- haps thirty to fifty in number, which their busy brother and sister librarians are requested to answer. The very difficulty of giving any answer at all to many of these questions is an indication of the great variation in the kind of statistics kept and in the methods of recording them. Were the keeping of statistics standardized, a considerable percentage of the questions asked in this way might be omitted, except by those economical que- rists who prefer to have their labor performed by some one else. To expect a hard-working librarian to sit down and answer such questions as " What is the popu- lation of your city? " (an actual query widely circu- lated only a few months ago) is preposterous. Such questions as ".What is your total circulation? " and " How many branches have you? " may also be an- 265 STATISTICS, REPORTS, ETC. swered from the reports of all libraries, and deserve al- most as earnest protest as the one first quoted. Of course, there will always remain questions on special sub- jects which cannot be answered from printed reports, no matter how standardized, and which are intended to be used in a way that will give valuable aid to all librari- ans. It would be a great pity for such queries to be generally disregarded, but the originators of careless and trivial questionnaires are doing their best to bring this about. Even now some librarians are consigning questions to the wastebasket as a matter of general pol- icy, without examination ; and communications that eon- tain questions of the same grade as those quoted above should undoubtedly be so treated, no matter what course is. pursued with others. What should be included in the printed annual report that is now issued by all libraries of any size? If the library is under direct municipal con- trol, this is, in form, a report to the municipal au- thorities from the board of trustees, showing how the library appropriation has been spent and what the li- brary has to show for it. The activities of the library during the year are set forth both by statistical tables and by textual exposition, sometimes with illustrations. If the trustees are not directly responsible to the munici- pal authorities, as where the connection is merely by means of a contract, the form of the report is usually that of a communication from the librarian to his board. Even in the former case, this report of the librarian usually constitutes the major part of the document, that of the board to the city being often short and perfunc- tory — sometimes only a brief letter of transmittal. Re- ports of heads of departments, librarians of branch li- 266 LIBRARY REPORTS braries, etc., are often included, being sometimes given word for word, with signatures, and sometimes incor- porated in the text of the librarian's report, with or without acknowledgment of their source. The wide limit of variation in the statistical tables, their subject matter and arrangement, has already been noted. The variation in the text of the reports is as great, and even more striking to the average reader, who usually does not care to examine the tables at all. There would seem to be at least three types: (1) the perfunc- tory presentation of the library 's work simply in compli- ance with law or custom and without effort to make it interesting to anybody at all ; (2) presentation with the intention of making the library's work interesting to other librarians, without paying any attention to the general public; (3) presentation in a way to interest the general reader. It is reports of the first type that have given rise to the general opinion among librarians that library re- ports are deadly dull productions, to be carefully filed after a brief glance at the figures showing circulation for the year, volumes added, and perhaps a few others. Reports of the third class, or attempts at them, are in- creasing in number. Their issue is generally good pol- icy. The welfare of a library depends far more on its popularity than most librarians realize. Public opinion about the library and its work is often dependent largely on the experiences of users at the loan desk. About what the library is doing or trying to do in a large way — its field of usefulness, its aims, its limitations — few know or care; and if the general reader can be induced to inform himself about some of these things, nothing but good can result. It must be confessed, however, 267 STATISTICS, REPORTS, ETC. that the average citizen does not yet take up his local library report with the same interest that he manifests in the presence of the latest issue of his favorite maga- zine. As for reports of the second type, those interesting to librarians, these are increasing in number. Matters of interest to other workers are more intelligently se- lected than formerly and more clearly set forth. There has been progress, on the whole, all along the line; but there is plenty of room for more. The use of his own statistics by the librarian himself, along lines indicated earlier in this chapter, is, of course, not limited to those contained in the printed report. An idea of some of the simpler of these uses may be gained from the following statement : Begulation of Book Selection. — Comparison of pur- chases by classes with those of previous years and those of other libraries will often indicate undue expansion in certain directions and insufficient addition in others. Comparison of percentages of stock in the various classes with corresponding class percentages of circulation will show whether the library is keeping pace with popular demand along the different lines. Economy of Administration. — Comparison of cost of circulation per book circulated with that in other libra- ries, or among individual libraries in the same system, will often reveal unsuspected weaknesses in this respect. In making such comparison, all expenses may be in- cluded, or only such as are properly incident to circula- tion, excluding certain fixed charges. It does not make any material difference, provided the costs to be com- pared have been calculated on precisely the same basis. Comparison of pay rolls with circulation is also some- 268 USES OP STATISTICS times illuminating, although here, too, care must be taken to see that all other things are equal in the cases compared. Many similar comparisons will suggest them- selves; for instance, the cost of lighting, with total area of floor space or with the total cubic capacity of the building; the amount of fines collected^ with circula- tion, and so on. Use by Readers. — Comparison of the number of live cards with the total population in several libraries will show whether equal advantage is taken of library privi- leges, and may reveal some failure on the part of the librarian to make his library known to all classes and all localities in his city. Comparison of the number of live cards with the circulation will show to what extent card holders, on the average, are taking advantage of their privileges. Distribution of Readers. — A study of the residences of card holders as recorded in the registration book will often reveal an absence or a relatively small number of users in certain parts of the city. This may easily lead up to a discovery of the cause and to the adoption of means to remedy it. Residence may be indicated by dots on a map, and the grouping of readers to the num- ber of a thousand or over may thus be shown very strik- ingly. This might be continued almost indefinitely. Any librarian who is anxious to ascertain the weak spots in his library and strengthen his work at the points where this is needed may gain much valuable information by inquiries of this sort. CHAPTEK XX LIBRARY BUILDINGS The architect — one of the few artists the result of whose work is to combine beauty and utility — too often assumes that his art is demanding of him an impossi- bility. He is apt to turn out a useful structure without beauty or a beautiful one without utility. The proper combination is often difficult, it is true, but scarcely im- possible; else the architect would have no excuse for being. There are two distinctly wrong ways of going about the matter. One is for the owner to design a structure that will satisfy him from the standpoint of utility and then turn it over to the architect to be made beautiful. In this case it is little wonder that the ' ' architecture " is " stuck on ' ' — merely applique work, like trimming on a garment. The other wrong way is for the architect to design a beautiful structure and then turn it over to the owner to be adapted to his purposes as best it may. Such a structure is like a handsome woman whom, on acquaintance, we discover to be uned- ucated, incompetent, and silly — the beauty, though it still exists, is speedily forgotten. A building can be made both beautiful from the architect's standpoint and useful from that of the owner or occupant by constant consultation between them, by comparison of views at every point, and by intelligent compromise whenever this is found to be necessary. This sounds simple 270 LIBRARIAN AND ARCHITECT enough, but it postulates an ideal architect and an ideal owner. As neither exists, we have many imperfect buildings — objectionable from one side or the other. The old lady's request for " a very small Bible in very large type " used to be quoted as an example of stu- pidity asking for an impossibility. The joke has now lost its savor, for the invention of a thin but opaque paper has enabled the printer to produce exactly what she wanted. So in architecture, many an apparent im- passe may be surmounted if the persons concerned have the requisite good will and ingenuity. Often each in- sists that the Bible must be made large or the print small; reconciliation of the apparently irreconcilable is not considered for an instant. "When a library is to be erected, the consulting par- ties are the librarian and the architect. There is usually, quite properly, a building committee of the trustees; its functions and those of the whole board in the premises are analogous to those of the board and its committees in the administration of the library. It should lay down general principles, leaving the librarian and the architect to carry them out. Thus, if the trustees desire a wide, low structure instead of a high one, or if they wish the style of architecture to be Old Colonial, it is proper that they should indicate this to the architect. If they desire a more than usually capa- cious open-shelf room, or if they have decided that spe- cial attention shall be paid in the new building to tech- nology, it is right that they should so direct the librarian. But the working out of the details should be left to the librarian and the architect, the board reserving to itself the right, on final examination of the plans, to say whether its stipulations have been properly carried out. 271 LIBRARY BUILDINGS The worst possible eombination is that of board and architect, the librarian being ignored, or consulted only when it is too late to make changes. In particular a board that undertakes to plan and construct a building for a newly organized library before its librarian has been appointed is simply sowing trouble which it will reap later, in ample measure. Of course, the two consultants — librarian and archi- tect — must have something to start with. The librarian must know just what he wants in the new building, how many square feet he requires for each purpose and the approximate position that will be most satisfactory for each department. The architect has a mental image of the sort of building he will probably design, conditioned by the stipulations of the trustees, the size, shape, and location of the lot, and the amount to be expended. When these two sets of specifications are brought to- gether, the adjustment begins — the fitting of part to part, the advance here, the yielding there, the game of give and take that goes on until the final plans are evolved — plans that satisfy both sides, and yet are not precisely the same as those imaged at the outset by either. If there is to be an architectural competition, this plan cannot be followed exactly ; and the fact that it can- not be followed is a valid argument against competitions. It is necessary in some cases, however, that they be held. A general open competition, which is theoretically the best, means usually that none of the best architects compete; the time and expense of preparing plans are not sufficiently compensated by the small chance — per- haps one in twenty or thirty — of the final award. To remedy this, it is sometimes announced that the architect will be taken from a certain restricted number of com- 272 COMPETITION petitors, chosen by the jury from the open competition, each to receive a sum more than sufficient to pay for the plans. Or, if this is not enough to bring out the de- sired showing, certain eminent firms may be specially invited to compete, with the offer of a sufficient hono- rarium to induce them to accept. Some architects refuse to go into a competition, no matter what the terms may be — these, of course, will be barred out in any case. If, however, a competition is decided upon, the re- quirements that must be observed by all the competitors should be somewhat more definitely formulated than above described, and printed or typewritten for distribu- tion among them. There can evidently be no further consultation until the award has been pronounced and the architect selected, but the part played by the single architect may be partly taken here by a consulting architect or by the jury of award, who would naturally be consulted in the preparation of the specifications. In the case of a library for a small town, a competi- tion seems specially undesirable, the expense of holding it under proper conditions being unnecessarily large. Here particularly it is best to pick out a good architect and begin to work with him at once. A local architect is often desired, and if he is a competent man he may be better than one with a greater reputation but at a greater distance; the local man will take pride in de- signing a suitable structure for his own town; he will not be above devoting much of his time to the oversight of the work, and he will be at hand whenever he is wanted. There is much to be said in favor of placing a small building in the hands of an energetic young man with his reputation yet to make; the large firm will usually turn over such a building to an office subordi- 273 LIBRARY BUILDINGS nate. The only thing to be made sure — and this is all important — is that the architect is really competent — that he will not erect a building that will be a laughing- stock from the artistic standpoint or a continual source of annoyance to those who must use it. It is not so difficult, however, to ascertain competence; it may easily be done by consulting an expert. Trouble arises, not from difficulty of this sort, but from the confidence of librarian and board of trustees in their own ability to judge, when they do not possess it. When the preliminary plans have been settled upon, the architect prepares working drawings and specifica- tions on which bids are to be secured. These should not be left entirely to the architect, as is often the case ; the librarian should go over them carefully, insisting on ex- planations where he does not understand them; and he should read over the specifications in the same way. Not even this will give him a complete mental image of the building as it will appear when finished; dimen- sions, the shape of rooms, the relative positions of objects, the light, the coloring — all will be slightly un- familiar to him, no matter how familiar he may be with the plans. They are sometimes surprising even to the architect himself, but no pains should be spared to get at them as accurately as possible. Plans and specifications are now given out to con- tractors for bids, if the building is to be erected by eon- tract, which is the usual way. If it is a very large one, there may be more than one contract, the work being divided into foundation, superstructure, interior finish, plumbing and wiring, and so on. It is to be hoped that open bidding with compulsory selection of the lowest bidder is not necessary. This is not the best way to buy 274 BIDS anything. The theory is that it prevents dishonest deal- ing, hut the worst examples of fraud, peculation, and graft may be found under it. The best way is to invite several reputable firms to bid, and then select the lowest unless there is some good reason for doing otherwise. It may be cheapest in the end to take the highest bidder, if he be a man well known for probity and high quality of work. Of course, a high bid does not necessarily mean good work. Again, if it is desirable that the work be completed on time, a contractor's reputation for promptness and his ability to hold his subcontractors to their work should count in his favor. Time limits in contracts are of little value without penalty clauses, and such clauses have been sometimes held invalid by the courts, in the absence of offsetting bonus clauses for work finished before the limit of time. In any event, it is more satisfactory to select a good man who will do his work well and promptly than to rely on the law to hold a poor workman to the line. The same may be said of financial responsibility. The failure of a contractor in the midst of his work involves the owner in innumerable difficulties and much additional expense; and all chance of such an accident should be avoided by selecting a thoroughly solvent and responsible man. Many firms of architects have contractors with whom they are accus- tomed to work and whose methods, good qualities, and faults they know intimately. They will recommend these when the trustees are free to choose, and where all parties concerned are worthy of confidence there is much to be said in favor of accepting such a recommendation. The architect will, of course, oversee the work dur- ing its progress ; but here also the librarian, or some one else to represent the library, must keep a sharp look- 19 275 LIBRARY BUILDINGS out. There is still time and opportunity to make many small changes without expense, or even at a saving, and objectionable features may often be foreseen in the actual structure when they lay concealed in the plans. The best site for a library building, large or small, is one with light, and preferably with ground, on all sides, situated centrally in a residence or a retail business dis- trict. A site closely surrounded by high buildings, or in a purely business quarter, or close to an uninhabited region, as a river, a lake, a large park, or an extensive railway yard or warehouse district, is not generally good. The recent idea of a " civic center " around which monumental public buildings shall be grouped has some things to commend it, but it may be overdone. A good location for a city hall and a courthouse is not necessarily good also for a library ; it may be very bad. In general, situations that are " central " from a busi- ness standpoint are not so good for a library as those that are central from a residential standpoint. The same conditions apply as to a school; a lot opposite a schoolhouse is usually good for a branch library, and the neighborhood of a high school or college is appropriate for a central library. That a library should be a conspicuous, monumental structure seems to be now taken for granted. Too many architects, however, take their cue from the chief func- tion of the early libraries — that of storehouses for costly treasures. This, as we have seen, is not the keynote of the modern library. Too many library buildings look as if intended to keep people out instead of luring them in. One of the foremost American architects built a popu- lar branch library with heavy steel shutters on the rear windows and wrought-iron bars on the front ones. There 276 FuEE Access Shelves in Branch of New YoitK Public LlBRAEY. The Stack Room, Ottendorfer Branch, New York Public Library. STACKS were no treasures in it to be stolen; the designer was carried away by an idea — and, unfortunately, it was a wrong one. It is right that the building occupied by a modern library should give the impression of strength and dignity; but its strength should be that of a peo- ple's palace, not of a jail, nor even of a safe-deposit vault. A large library usually contains two distinct parts — a stack room, in which the books are stored, and reading rooms, where they are used. As a reaction from the older buildings, where the books were stored in alcoves around a reading room or a series of such, these two parts were at first made absolutely distinct and separate ; there was nothing but books in the stack, and no books anywhere else in the building. At present, although the stack room of a large library is still a thing apart, there are books elsewhere in the building, while in smaller buildings the stack may lose its individuality or alto- gether disappear. In its most distinctive and separate form the stack is in a wing of its own and contains nothing but tiers and rows of shelves. It is generally filled with a framework of steel, with floors of glass or marble slabs so near to- gether that a person standing on the floor can easily reach books on the upper shelf, between which and the ceiling there is no waste space. Aisles, also, are as nar- row as possible, so that the book-holding capacity of the stack may be a maximum. In this form, no one but employees is expected to use the stack; the books are carried by pages or by mechanical book carriers to the reading rooms. In some smaller buildings, designed with an exclusive stack room like this, the stack has been thrown open to the public on the adoption of the 277 LIBRARY BUILDINGS open-shelf system, and sometimes such a stack has been designed with the expectation that the public will use it, but it is not well adapted to open-shelf use. Super- vision of users is impossible in it. Most stack rooms are lighted by narrow windows, occupying all available space in the walls at the ends of the spaces between shelving. To be thus lighted, the stack room must be narrow; but since the introduction of the electric light many librarians have given up altogether the idea of using natural light in the stack, and are placing it in the interior of the building, reserving all the natural light for the reading rooms. Some librarians have always protested against storing the whole stock of books in one place, and have pre- ferred some such arrangement as that adopted by Dr. Poole for the Newberry Library, in Chicago — a series of separate rooms, each containing the part of the collec- tion relating to a given subject — sociology, or medicine, or physical science — and in charge of a custodian M'ho is an expert in the literature of that particular subject. This departmental idea was carried to its extreme by President Harper in the University of Chicago, which has departmental libraries in separate buildings. It has not been a favorite with public libraries, but these have adopted certain of its features, adding to the collection in the stack some special collections in separate rooms. Thus almost all public libraries too large to permit free access to all their books now have open-shelf circulation rooms, and sometimes large open-shelf collections for gen- eral reference use, as well as open-shelf children 's rooms. Larger librarias may have separate collections in eco- nomics, technology, architecture, or other special sub- jects, often in charge of expert custodians, and such col- 278 DEPARTMENTAL LIBRARIES lections as those of patents or of public documents may also be stored separately. Smaller libraries, especially branches, may discard the stack altogether, and, indeed, it has little place in a purely open-shelf library. In some such libraries, where a sort of stack is located di- rectly behind the charging desk, supervision is insured Ground Plan of Main Floor, East Liberty Branch, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, Pa. by placing the lines of shelving along radii of a circle whose center is the desk. Another plan is to use low shelving and to place it wherever on the floor may be most convenient. The most elementary form of small, open-shelf library consists of a single room with shelv- ing around the walls, the space within being occupied by a small charging desk and by tables and chairs for readers. In a somewhat larger form one end may be 279 LIBRARY BUILDINGS given up to children, and when the size is again in- creased we may have a central room, containing the' Gbound Plan of Basement Floor, Cakkoll Park Branch, Brooklyn Public Library, New York. charging desk, a book room in the rear, and open-shelf reading rooms for children and adults to right and left. This has been called the ' ' butterfly type, ' ' on account of its body and two wings. Further growth gives space for a librarian's office, a workroom, a staff retiring and lunch room, special study rooms, etc. In the basement are, naturally, storage or packing rooms, a boiler room, toilet rooms, and perhaps an assembly room. In a small 280 ASSEMBLY ROOMS building an assembly room is a nuisance, as it takes up space that could profitably be otherwise used; but it may be necessary to include it. In buildings of the " butterfly " type, having apsidal book rooms with ra- dial shelving, the space below such a room is of excel- lent shape for this purpose. Some effort has been made of late to utilize certain space alternately for meetings and for some other purpose. Thus in some Philadelphia First Floor Plan of Flatbtjsh Branch, Brooklyn Public Library, New York. branches the children's room, on the ground floor, may be transformed into an assembly room in about an hour's time by opening a large trapdoor into a storeroom be- 281 LIBRARY BUILDINGS neath and exchanging the tables and chairs for assembly- room benches. The books on the wall remain as they FntST Floor Plan, Makshalltown, Iowa, Library. are. In some New York branches periodical reading rooms may be used as assembly rooms in similar fashion, space for storage of chairs being provided on the same floor, immediately adjoining. In large buildings no such makeshifts are necessary. Such structures may contain several lecture rooms of different sizes, large suites of administrative offices, 282 STAIRS AND HALLS quarters for a library school or training class, rooms for museums of curiosities or objects of art, a bindery, a printing office, and so on. "Where there are several sto- ries, the large building will have its separate staircase hall, which is often ornate. Smaller buildings may have stairs in a separate hall or they may be in the library room itself, a measure that makes for economy of super- vision. The hallway often occupies the best part of the front of the building, and may be advantageously re- Geotjnd Plan op Main Floor, Port Richmond Branch, New York Public Library, Staten Island. placed by a small vestibule. Small branch buildings in crowded city locations where land is expensive may re- quire several stories, in which case the entrance and 283 LIBRARY BUILDINGS stairs are best located on one side. In such a building the children's room may occupy an entire floor — an ar- rangement not without its advantages. In large build- ings a very wide latitude is possible in arrangement, a few cardinal principles being kept in view. Thus, where mechanical carriers are vised, the relation of read- ing room to stack must be such as to make these easily operable. Carriers that turn corners are apt to get out of order. In some recent buildings the principal read- ing room is at the top of the structure, directly over the stack, which reduces all carriers to lifts, operating in a vertical straight line. Again, the administrative rooms must be in such sequence that a book may be re- ceived, catalogued, prepared, and shelved without jump- ing about from one part of the building to another; offices must be adjacent ; rooms to be frequented by stu- dents must have no features likely to attract sightseers, and so on. In all except very small buildings it is an advantage to include living quarters for the janitor and his family. Not only is it easier for the janitor to care for the library when he lives in it, but a better man may be secured for a smaller salary under these circumstances. The apartment should include living room, kitchen, bed- rooms, bathroom, and space for storage. It may be in the basement, but is better at the top of the building, in which case a hand lift for supplies should lead to it from near the service door. In crowded city districts it is often a good plan to place an open-air reading room on the roof. This re- quires a stronger roof, access by means of a stairway, proper lights, and an awning. It is also well to include a ' ' deckhouse ' ' with shelving to store books and papers 284 " EOOF GARDEN " in a shower. Boxes of flowers, etc., add gayety and serve to justify the name of " roof garden," popularly given to such reading rooms. The awning is hard to manage, and a heavy thundergust may demoralize it, if close lookout is not kept. In some places a permanent roof is preferred, but with- this the comfort of direct radiation upward must be foregone. Such a " roof gar- den ' ' is really only a top story with no sides. A library should have windows in abundance. In case wall shelving is to be used, the maximum space for this may be obtained only by raising the windows until the sills are above the line of the top shelf. This gives a shut-in appearance. Librarians who adopt it argue, with show of truth, that people do not, or should not, come to a library to look out of the windows, and that these apertures are only to admit light. There is no de- nying, however, that an occasional glimpse of tree or shrub, or even of a paved street, is a relief to the eye. This may be obtained by bringing some of the windows down lower, even if lowering them all would take up too much wall space. Low windows are advantageous from another standpoint also : they enable the passer-by to see what is going on within the library and often arouse his curiosity and attract him to enter. This, of course, can be the case only when the window sill is not more than four feet above the sidewalk. It is well not to place important rooms in the basement, but it is often neces- sary to locate an assembly room here, and in this case it is, of course, impracticable to place windows so near the sidewalk. It is also unnecessary where there are grounds around the building so that it becomes difficult to see in, no matter how low the windows may be. No method of opening and closing the windows of a 285 LIBRARY BUILDINGS library is quite satisfactory. The sashes may slide or turn on hinges or pivots. The box-frame sliding sash, balanced by weights, is most familiar to Americans and is most convenient in many respects, although architects do not like it. It is easy to make thoroughly weather- proof, but only half the window space can be opened at once — an objection in hot summer weather. The French casement window, with double-hinged sashes, is pictur- esque and may be opened to any desired degree, but it is almost impossible to make it weatherproof. The single pivoted sash, with pivots at top and bottom, is better in this respect, but stands at right angles to the plane of the window when wide open, which is awkward ; and it is heavy to manipulate. Windows with numerous small sashes pivoted at right and left are advocated by many architects. Where shades must be used, the sliding sash is most convenient. With French windows, the shade rollers must be fastened on the top of the sash itself, and the same is true of the large pivoted sash. In both these cases the shade swings open with the sash. With numer- ous small pivoted sashes, the shade roller may be placed, as usual, at the top of the casing, but the shade cannot be pulled down if the sashes are open far. With large windows it is often best to use two shades, the rollers being placed either at top and bottom or together across the center of the window. Stained glass is out of place in a library unless there are so many windows that the one with colored glass may be left out of the reckoning as an aperture to admit light. Shall the library be made fireproof? That depends on the value of its contents. A building to house treas- ures that no amount of money can replace cannot be in- 286 PIREPROOPING sured, properly speaking ; and no pains should be spared to make it as resistant to fire as possible. It must be remembered that no building can be fireproof in the sense that a sufficiently great heat immediately around it will not injure it and its contents, even if neither in- clude combustible material. The only safeguard is to leave so large a space about the building as to preclude the possibility of a high degree of heat immediately around it. A public park is thus a good location for a library of this kind. Some modern buildings have been provided with " water curtains " — devices for letting fall a continuous sheet of water from the cornice in case of fire outside ; but the efficiency of this device has been doubted. As for protection from fire arising from within, that may theoretically be attained by using no combustible substance in the building and its furniture and placing no combustible thing within it — an obvi- ously impossible condition in the case of a library. A building is ordinarily reckoned " fireproof " if as little wood as possible enters into any of its structural parts; if, in particular, its roof, walls, exterior and interior, stairs, and floors are all incombustible, being made of metal, brick, stone and concrete or plaster. In a smaller building, whose books are of such char- acter that they may easily be replaced in case of loss by fire, it may often be bad poliqy to expend the increased cost of fireproof construction, especially where a limited sum is available, as is generally the case. It may be better to put up an ordinary structure of greater size and usefulness than to build an inadequate and cramped fireproof edifice. For floors, a sheathing of soft wood, covered with linoleum, leaves little to be desired. In case of fireproof 287 LIBRAEY BUILDINGS floors, it has beep found that the wood sometimes rots under these conditions, being inclosed between two im- pervious layers. The linoleum may be laid directly on cement, or it may be discarded and a floor of hard wood may be used. Wood floors are good, though difficult to keep clean and in condition in a largely used library. In more expensive buildings, terrazo, marble blocks, or tiles will generally be found. These are easily cleaned, durable, and handsome, but generally more or less noisy. Rubber interlocking tiling is soft, attractive, and easily replaced in worn spots, but very expensive, and apt to give off an unpleasant odor when confined. There are various patent floorings, generally combinations of cements and sawdust, laid with a trowel, which give fairly good results, some of them combining the advan- tages of tile or terrazo with those of linoleum; but no trustworthy commercial standard has yet been reached. Those who desire to experiment with them have a chance of obtaining excellent results. Most libraries require some mechanical appliance for carrying books from floor to floor. The conveyors used in large stacks have already been mentioned. In smaller libraries, having two or more floors, some sort of a dumb- waiter will ordinarily be required. An ordinary waiter operated by hand is the cheapest, but very exhausting to the strength of those who operate it. The electric lifts are convenient, though expensive, and apt to get out of order, but there is nothing better at present. The liabil- ity to accident may be reduced by lessening the number of electric connections. As usually constructed, the lifts have on each floor a set of buttons numbered to corre- spond with the different floors. Pressing button No. 3, for instance, on any floor will send the car from wher- 288 ELECTRIC BOOK-LIFTS ever it may be to the third floor. In the simpler method each floor has but one button, pressing which brings the car to that floor. The car cannot be sent away from a floor; it must be summoned to the floor where it is needed. This involves communicating with the floor where it is to go, by speaking tube, telephone, or electric bell, but as the same communication would have been necessary to call attention to the fact that the car had been sent, no additional labor is involved. The number of connections, as is easily seen, is greatly reduced, and the liability to getting out of order is correspondingly decreased. The problem of keeping a building clean is great, and not always satisfactorily solved. Outside, the disre- spectful small boy uses the stone or brick work as a drawing board, and, although it is possible to remove the marks, they may be replaced in much less time than it takes to erase them. Scrubbing with metallic brushes and the use of the sandblast are the methods generally employed. Within, the most difficult part of a building to keep clean — floors always excepted — is the plastered wall. In most buildings this is covered with several coats of oil paint, which becomes dusty or grimy very soon, either from the deposition of floating particles or contact with soiled fingers. Where the latter is likely to occur, as along a staircase, a wainscoting or a dado of burlap, or even a strip of a darker color may be ef- fective. Deposition of dust from the air occurs first and most conspicuously where convection currents impinge against the walls, as around wall registers and over radiators. This may in part be prevented by placing hoods over all such. The selective deposition of the dust, by which, for instance, the pattern of the underlying 289 LIBRARY BUILDINGS metal lath is sometimes picked out on a plastered wall, suggests that the phenomenon may be molecular, and that possibly, by experiment, a combination of materials might be found that would repel the floating dust in- stead of attracting. Investigations on what physicists call " molecular bombardment " indicate also that dust is driven from heated air against a colder surface; whereas, if the air is cool and the surface warm, the dust is not deposited. The subject in its practical as- pects is worth study. It is possible to wash a painted wall so that it will look well, but the ordinary janitor only succeeds in making it look smeary. The labor is worth almost as much as that of applying one coat of paint. A wall will require repainting generally in three to five years, according to conditions. Inaccessible walls and ceilings may be covered with water paint, which produces quite as good an effect as the more costly oil paint and is as durable for inside work. It will not do, however, for surfaces that are within reach, as it easily rubs off. The invention of the vacuum cleaner has greatly sim- plified many of the cleaning problems of the library. By the use of nozzles of different shapes, many kinds of surfaces — hard walls or floors, soft rugs or fabrics, etc. — may be cleaned with it, and the dust is disposed of in a sanitary manner. Dust may even be taken from a standing row of books by a combination of blast and ex- haust — the former to raise the dust and the latter to re- move it, or by a combination of brush and exhaust nozzle, serving the same purpose. In a large library a special vacuum plant may be installed with pipe outlets at convenient points; in smaller structures the cleaner must rely on a traveling machine or 290 FURNITURE on some of the portable devices, worked either by an electric motor or by hand. The suction of some of these is deficient, and they should be carefully tested before selection. Some experience is essential to the satisfactory use of all. In any case, even if the small institution cannot afford vacuum cleaning, no method of removing dust should be allowed that throws it into the air. " Dustless " dusters and cloths may now be obtained that gather up the dust by adhesion, and may be easily cleansed by washing. These, of course, will work only on smooth surfaces. Library furniture may be divided into two classes — the fixed, which is practically part of the building, and is often specified in the general contract, and the mov- able, which is usually bought separately. The former usually includes the charging desk ; shelving, whether in the stack or along the walls; window seats or built-in benches, partial glass partitions, sash protection for stair- ways, etc. The latter are tables, chairs, movable benches, seats for assembly rooms, book trucks, signs, and labels, etc. The charging desk is the library's central point, the place at which its most vital activities go on, the point at which the librarian comes into touch with his public. It may happen that the position and size of this desk may determine in conspicuous particulars, the character of the whole building. Architects sometimes object to " building a library around a charging desk," but the failure to do so may result in a poor building. The size and position of the desk depend on the conditions under which a library is to be used. Varying with such condi- tions, the desk may be small, for a small institution with limited circulation, requiring the attendance of only one 30 291 LIBRARY BUILDINGS assistant at a time ; large, for a large and busy library ; high, for adults; low, for children; closed, where curi- osity might tempt the public to invade it; haying nar- rower or wider aisles at the sides as stricter control at the charging and discharging points is necessary. It may be in the front of the room, or in the center, or at other points, its location depending on the position of the entrance, on the light, on the necessity for a larger or smaller space in front, and so on. Both size and posi- tion may also depend, for instance, on whether a sepa- rate desk is to be used for registration. All these con- siderations are vitally bound up with the structural features of the building. If the latter is planned first, it will generally be found that the position of entrances, windows, columns, or other structural elements interfere with making the desk as large, or the aisles as narrow, or the position as far forward or as far back as the libra- rian desires. The position and size of the desk should therefore be among the data that are furnished to the architect to work to, at the outset. Charging desks are of two general types — the open- shelf and the closed-shelf. The closed-shelf desk is typ- ically a straight counter separating the public space from the stack room. The open-shelf counter, since all the library space is public in this case, surrounds, or nearly surrounds, a central area occupied by the assist- ants, generally only those who are doing desk work. This space and, accordingly, the shape of the counter may be of almost any form — ^rectangular, curved, or polygonal. The rectangular is the cheapest and sim- plest, although possibly the least beautiful. Except in very small libraries, it is desirable so to arrange the desk that all users shall pass close to it both on entering and 292 Old Closed-Shelf System, Formerly Used in Branches of THE New York Public Library. Open-Shelp System, with Delivery Desk Looking Toward General Reading and Reference Rooms, East Orange (N. J.) Library. CHARGING DESKS on leaving the library. The simplest arrangement is to charge the books on one side and discharge them at the other, railings on both sides forcing the borrowers to keep close to the desk. The front is then free, if desired, for registration work. The smaller the inclosed area the easier it is for assistants, within limits, to move about in it, and especially the easier it is for a single assistant, in case of necessity, to serve it. On the other hand, there is less room in a small desk for the necessary drawers, trays, cupboards, and shelving. As the librarian lays stress on one or the other of these considerations, the desk will be larger or smaller — ^within limits. Some librarians prefer to carry on much general library work inside the desk ; to provide room in it for assistants who sit at tables cataloguing, mending, or preparing new books for the shelves. This necessitates a very large desk, indeed. The reason for it is that the extra assist- ants are on hand precisely where they are needed in ease of a rush, but it is difficult to avoid an appearance of disorder at such a desk, and it is easy to provide a more secluded place within easy reach for carrying on work of this kind. Necessary features in almost all desks are a circula- tion tray, preferably covered when not in use (and at such times not projecting above the counter), removable' in separate, light sections ; an arrangement, on the charg- ing side, for dropping the book cards through slits into compartments in a drawer below, thus effecting a pre- liminary sorting; a cash drawer with easily operated locking device; trays for applications, in case the desk is to be used also for registration; and cupboards or shelving for storing such articles as need to be kept close at hand. A marble or slate mopboard is desirable, as the 293 LIBRARY BUILDINGS toes of persons standing at the desk are otherwise apt to inflict damage. Shelving in a large stack room is preferably metallic, with adjustable and readily removable shelves, and as few projections for catching dust as possible. The de- vice for holding the shelves should be absolutely simple. All complicated locking or releasing devices get out of order. Metal shelving of this kind, while appropriate for a stack room, is not as well fitted for wall shelving, which should be preferably of wood, not necessarily with adjustable shelves, though these are better. Sections should be not more than three feet wide to prevent sag- ging. A standard height is six feet (seven shelves) in the adult department and three and a half feet (four shelves) in the children's room. The depth is generally six to eight inches, or ten to fifteen where the shelf is for large reference books. Open-access shelving intended for large, thin books, like bound music scores, should be fixed and divided by thin vertical wooden partitions about four or five inches apart. It is better to back all wall shelving with wood, as if the books touch the painted wall they leave marks and are themselves soiled. If there is no wooden backing, the wall behind the shelves may be covered with burlap, or at least painted a darker shade than the rest of the room. In selecting movable furniture, it is always found difficult to match the trim and built-in objects, even if the furniture is made to order. It is best to have a sam- ple of wood finished to suit and then sawed in two — one piece for the building contractor and one for the furni- ture builder. It is not uncommon to see a library where the trim reveals two or three tints, the shelving as many more, and the tables and chairs still others. 294 HEATING The old style of long table seems now to be regarded by librarians as cumbersome. Small tables, some rectan- gular and some circular, to hold about six each, are liked best. For adults these may be thirty to thirty-two inches high; for children, twenty-five to twenty-eight. Chairs in all eases should be of height for use with the tables, and in the case of the low chairs for children an adult chair, with the legs shortened by sawing, should not be used. Two systems of heating are adapted to buildings like libraries — the so-called direct and indirect radiation. In both, despite the name, the heating is done chiefly by convection. In ' ' direct radiation ' ' the heater stands in the room or space to be heated; in indirect radiation it is in a separate space or chamber through which fresh air is passed, heated, and delivered where desired. The latter system furnishes ventilation also, and is much preferable on that account; but it is much more com- plicated and expensive than the former. The two are sometimes employed in conjunction. The terms are gen- erally used of systems where the heaters are coils of pipe or radiators through which steam or hot water is passed ; but they may well be extended to the case where the heater is a stove or its equivalent. An ordinary stove or gas radiator would then be classed as a " direct-radia- tion " system, and a hot-air furnace, whether heated by coal or by gas, as ' ' indirect radiation. ' ' As noted above, the only case where any considerable portion of the heat imparted is really radiant is where a very hot stove is the heater ; in both systems air becomes heated by direct contact with the heater and rises, giving place to a new supply. The principal difference between the two is that in " direct radiation " the air is heated over and over, 295 LIBRARY BUILDINGS while with ' ' indirect radiation ' ' a fresh supply is con- tinually introduced from without. A hot-air furnace, if properly fired and kept in repair, is a good and econom- ical source of heat, especially for a small building. Its drawbacks are the effects of wind pressure in altering the delivery from the various hot-air flues, and the diffi- culty of keeping the furnace gases out of these flues. Most libraries are now heated by hot water or steam, be- tween which there is little to choose. The two furnish different ranges of temperature, those of water being all below the boiling point and those of steam all above it. With hot water all radiators must be higher than the boiler, which often makes it hard to heat basements properly with it. As most small libraries use the direct-radiation sys- tem, the location of the radiators is an important ques- tion. They are in the way, wherever they are. From the heating standpoint, the place for them is under the windows, for they may thus be supplied with fresh air by opening the latter slightly, and also the interior air, chilled in winter by contact with the panes, is heated as it falls and prevented from flowing to the floor, where it would form a cold layer. Space under windows, how- ever is needed for shelving, or sometimes for window seats. Circular radiators in the middle of the room oc- cupy space needed for readers, although the loss may be minimized by placing them around pillars. Among re- cent experimental positions are beneath or behind wall shelving, in suspension on walls, and beneath or behind window seats. The first two methods require careful protection with nonconductors to keep the heat from in- juring the books. In these and other methods, where the coil or radiator is not exposed to view, there must, of 296 VENTILATION course, be openings below to admit the cooler air and above for the escape of the air after heating. In small buildings sufficient ventilation may be ob- tained through the windows and doors; ducts in the walls, opening into the rooms through registers, are not of much value. In large buildings there is generally provided also a system for forced ventilation by means of fans, operating usually in connection with the heat- ing system. In a small building heated mostly by direct radiation it is oft6n well for ventilating purposes to include two or three coils under the main floor, fed by fresh-air ducts. This may be done inexpensively, be- cause the main-floor ducts will naturally be located just under the basement ceiling, where there is usually no reason for concealing them. In lighting a library one or both of two general prin- ciples. may be relied upon — that of local lighting or that of general lighting. The former aims to throw the light only on those surfaces where it is needed; the latter strives to flood the space with light, so that, just as in daylight, there will be enough for all purposes without directing it especially anywhere. Speaking generally, the former method requires less light and is cheaper, but a multiplicity of fixtures must be used to hold the sources of light and reflectors in the necessary positions. It is difficult to make these beautiful, and their number creates a feeling of confusion. On the other hand, to flood a room with light so that there shall be sufficient everywhere for all purposes necessitates very bright sources and makes it certain that the intensity in some places shall be very much greater than necessary. Ex- perts are divided in opinion regarding the relative mer- its of general and local lighting, and in practice a com- 297 -47- li"- 76' El ^S 5i (S) - -o^^^^i^o- Booh -r-XDl (Exhibifhn frachs Delivery Desk .g._„S §^ U I M I Circu/orfing Dept ^ Reading fables iShel^es I I Position op Electric-lioht Outlets in St. Gabriel's Task Branch, New York Public Library. 298 LIGHTING bination of the two is often adopted. Either light is thrown just where it is wanted — on the tables, the open- shelf books, the desks, etc. — and a feeble general illu- mination is furnished in addition by suspended lights, or a general illumination of sufficient power to light up all but the most inaccessible points is supplied, and supple- mented by local light to reveal these. The most difficult place to light is the book shelf next the floor. In stacks where the general public does not have to be looked after, suspended lights, to be turned on or off as desired, are generally sufficient. One objection to fixed electric lights on reading tables, especially in children's rooms, is that they anchor the tables to the floor. Such fixtures should always be so arranged that the tables may easily be detached without calling in an electrician. By pro- viding a sufficient number of floor outlets, with flush plates to cover them, reasonable variety in the positions of the tables may be secured. Small rural libraries may have to rely upon lamps. For these the new acetylene lamps offer a brilliant light at no greater trouble than is required by kerosene, but at a somewhat greater expense. If electricity is avail- able, it should be used. The recently invented metallic jTi — Ceiling outlet, electric. n| — Floor outlet, extension. •^3 — ^Bracket outlet, electric. iB — Gas-outlet. y^ _ ^. ^. -Q —Wall outlet, shelf. i_s^l — ^Bracket outlet, combmation. p* 8 —Switch. — f1 — Baseboard receptacle. ^^ — Furniture outle*. :n: —Floor outlet* flush. Key to System of iLiiUMiNATioN. 299 LIBRARY BUILDINGS filament lamps offer a large choice in brilliancy and quality of light, although none has yet stood the test of time. The ordinary carbon-filament lamp is furnished by most companies free of charge, whereas the tungsten lamps, for instance, cost from sixty-five to seventy-five cents each. The tungsten light is very white and bright — a near approximation to daylight — and it is econom- ical in consumption of current; but the filament is brit- tle, and the lamp requires careful handling to avoid a large replacement bill. The Nernst lamp — an electric " Welsbach " — is effective and cheap, especially where brilliant units are wanted, but its glower, like the ordi- nary gas mantle, must be inspected constantly by ex- perts. In cities where the service is performed by the company at so much per light, the lamps may easily be kept in condition ; elsewhere, not. No matter what the source, if it is brilliant, it should not be placed where the reader's eye can look at it di- rectly. Especially is this true of the incandescent fila- ment itself. Either frosted bulbs should be used or the bulb should be hidden by a shade. The brilliant tungstens are often inclosed in globes. Ground glass should be used for frosting ; bulbs made partially opaque by the application of an outer coating are apt to turn brown or black. Where localized lighting is used, prismatic reflectors are of great aid in directing the light where it is wanted, with as little loss as possible. Thus, on a reading table, the whole of the light may be concentrated upon the page instead of wasting much of it on parts of the table where it is of no value. It is possible also to distribute light over the books on an ordinary seven-shelf wall case so that the titles on the lowest shelf shall be illuminated 300 ft :^mgmmaimWP i Roof Reading Room, St. Gabriel's Park Branch, New York Public Library. Showing system of lighting. First Floor, St. Gabriel's Park Branch. Showing system of lighting. LIGHTING with precisely the same intensity as those on the upper- most shelf, although five or six times farther from the source — a difference that would ordinarily entail a weakening of the intensity by a factor of 25 to 36. It should be borne in mind that brightness and dim- ness are relative terms. A surface — the printed page of a book or its lettered back — will appear bright or ob- scure as the eye moves toward it from a darker or lighter surface. In general illumination, with visible sources, it is very difficult to avoid looking at these directly, and immediately thereafter almost any surface will appear dark. In localized lighting, any expanse along which the eye is to travel must be lighted homogeneously. If lamps and reflectors are so arranged, for instance, that alternate sections of a wall case are slightly brighter than the others, the latter will appear dark to one who is examining the books, whereas the illumination would be satisfactory if the intensity along the whole case were the same, even if its average were considerably lower. This applies, of course, only to surfaces where the eye is to be used. Others may and should be darker, to enable the eye to rest occasionally. In too brilliant general illumination there is no place to serve in this way — everything is bright, and the eye soon tires. General illumination by reflection from the ceiling, the lamps themselves being invisible, is very attractive. It is being adopted in many public buildings, and ex- periments have been made with it in large libraries. It requires low ceilings if the reflected light is to be used for reading, and bright sources, such as tungstens, must be used. Reflection from the walls, of course, is an important feature in any system of lighting. A library with dark 301 LIBRAEY BUILDINGS walls and furniture will require a larger number of light sources of greater initial intensity for general il- lumination than one where the walls and fixtures are light in color. Tube systems of lighting, where the light is pro- duced by the passage of an electric current through vapor at low pressure, contained in glass tubing, are oc- casionally seen, and there is no reason why some of them should not be tried in libraries. The Cooper-Hewitt mercury light, where the vapor in the tube is that of mercury, is objectionable from its weird green-blue color, though very eifective and cheap. The McParlan- Moore system, which in its present form gives a slightly roseate or salmon-pink light, is more satisfactory in tint, but has so far not been employed in any library building. Other features of library buildings not noted in this chapter may be found in those on the Staff (staff rooms) and on Work with Children (children's rooms). CHAPTER XXI THE LIBRARY AS A MUSEUM The library is not the only institution that has felt the impulse toward more complete popularization, de- scribed earlier in this book as the " modern idea." It may be clearly seen, for instance, in the best modern museums. The up-to-date museum has been brushing the cobwebs from its specimens and from the brains of its custodians, and is as different from the traditional institution as the modem popular library is from the old-time musty collection of books. James Duff Brown '■ gives the following brief char- acterization of these out-of-date museums, which wiU be recognized as a faithful portrait: " No doubt in some localities can still be seen the old-fashioned, hotchpotch collection of miscellaneous lumber styled a museum, wherein a stuffed walrus jos- tles a suit of armor, and local fossils and meteorites are beautifully mixed up with birds' eggs, flint implements, and coins. Such collections require only an alligator and a canoe from Fiji on the walls to be perfect speci- mens of the Wardour- Street kind of museum. Happily this kind of omnium-gatherum museum is rapidly dying out." No one who is familiar with both library and mu- seum in their latest forms can doubt that there may and ' Library Economy, p. 400. 303 THE LIBRARY AS A MUSEUM should be the closest cooperation between them. No book is complete without illustrations, and the three- dimensional illustrations in the museum cases are vastly more effective than the two-dimensional pictures on the leaves of the book itself. That the educational use of museum specimens involves considering them as illustra- tions to some sort of text, instead of merely objects in- teresting in themselves, is shown by the elaboration that the labels have undergone in most of our best museums. They are no longer merely what their name indicates, but brief treatises, for which the attached specimens furnish the illustrations. Indeed, it has been said that a good museum is " a good collection of labels illus- trated by appropriate objects. ' ' The information on the best and largest label, however, must necessarily be brief, hence the necessity of references to works giving a fuller treatment of the subject. These references are often placed near the specimen cases and the books themselves are to be found in the museum's own li- brary — necessarily a limited collection, which needs to be supplemented by the larger resources of the neigh- boring public library. In like manner, the information given in the books on the library shelves is vastly illu- minated by reference to the specimens contained in the museum, although from the nature of the case specific references, as from specimens to books, are not needed here. This evidently close relationship between the library and the museum has led some cities to unite the two in- stitutions, or at least to house them in one building, either under a single board of trustees or with two re- lated boards. Although this plan has worked very well in some instances, it cannot be said that it has com- 304 MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES mended itself to the judgment either of library or of museum authorities. One or the other institution is apt to suffer from the connection^ — -not infrequently both do so. The relationship between the two is best not an ad- 'ministrative connection any more than that between library and school. Certain kinds of exhibitions may profitably be given in libraries — often as loans from the museum, but these are better temporary than permanent. They are often specially related to the work of the children's room, and are discussed further in the chapter on Work with Chil- dren. What has been said of museums applies in equal measure to art galleries. These are better kept in sepa- rate buildings and under separate management in large cities, although cooperating as closely as possible with the library in its general work. In small places where there is little money to spend it would be foolish, of course, to maintain a museum and an art gallery separately. Institutions of this kind pos- sessing any real value are seldom to be found at all in small towns, while the smallest may possess a collection of books that is worthy of being called a library. There is some excuse in such a case, therefore, for depositing a few specimens or a picture or two in the local library building. Great care, however, should be exercised in doing this. A general collection of any educational vaiue, either in art, or science, or' industry, is here aai impos- sibility. The only excuse for keeping pictures or mu- seum specimens must be that they possess local interest. It is quite possible, for instance, for a small village to own an interesting collection of the birds, or the insects, or the minerals found within its borders ; or a collection 305 THE LIBRARY AS A MUSEUM of portraits, whether paintings, prints, or photographs, of its prominent men ; or a set of miscellaneous souvenirs or memorials of some famous man who was born in the place or was otherwise identified with it. In places where the town authorities are not preserving with care its manuscript records, the library may offer to become a depositary for them and to keep them in repair, even copying them when they are in danger of becoming illeg- ible. In a small place the library may go as far in such directions as these as its resources warrant, and even without financial ability it may stimulate sufficient inter- est to secure volunteer helpers for all these purposes. In one division of museum work, however, the li- brary is obviously the proper, and indeed the only, place for display ; no other institution can take its place. This is when the specimens to be displayed are themselves books. Some noted libraries have been almost entirely book museums — their collections are not to be read,- but to be looked at — and all large libraries own considerable numbers of books that come under this category. Some of these may be displayed permanently under glass, while others are securely packed away, to be brought out from time to time for temporary exhibition. The exhi- bitions of books and prints thus held in the Lenox Branch of the New York Public Library, which as an independent institution was built largely as a book mu- seum, have come to take a prominent place among the attractions of the city, and receive as much notice in the press as is accorded to the production of a new piece at the Metropolitan Opera House. The qualities that may give a book interest for exhi- bition purposes are numerous. They generally have to do simply with the physical make-up of the book. Thus 306 BOOK EXHIBITIONS its binding may be particularly fine or a typical speci- men of the work of a great craftsman; its typography may be noteworthy; it may be very old; it may repre- sent some particular epoch or illustrate some particular method of interest in the history of printing ; it may in- clude some odd typographic error that has made it an object of interest to collectors; it may have belonged to some famous man or to some equally famous collection ; or it may be simply very rare, without possessing any other title to our regard. Such books have an adventitious value ; they may be worth many thousands of dollars each, but not spe- cifically as books — rather as specimens or as curiosities which happen to have the form of books. The great popular public library can rarely afford to spend money for them ; they come into its possession, if at all, usually as gifts, often from some wealthy collector who has gi-s-en years of his life and a large part of his fortune to gather them. They are then, of course, gratefully accepted and displayed in whatever way may seem most appropriate. Another way in which a library may be a book mu- seum, and on which even the popular library may profit- ably spend some money, is in the exposition, by proper museum methods, of current methods of bookmaking. It may thus go as far as its resources warrant toward in- cluding in its walls a complete industrial museum of the arts of paper-making, ink manufacture, press construc- tion and operation, typography and binding. Probably no library has yet gone as far as this, although some have devoted their attention to some part of the programme, such as typography or binding. It would seem that a permanent exhibition along this line would be much 21 307 THE LIBRARY AS A MUSEUM more appropriate to a library than a collection of min- erals or insects. Even the smallest local library may have books that are kept wholly or largely for their interest as curiosities. These, just as in the ease of the other museum specimens, should be preferably books of local interest — connected in some way with the history of the town or with some of its eminent citizens, as by authorship or ownership. The library of Bowdoin College maintains a separate room for editions and memorials of its great alumni Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry W. Longfellow. In like manner, it may be possible for a small town library to keep on exhibition books written or owned by some eminent native or citizen, with manuscript letters, por- traits, and other memorials. Works relating to the town or containing allusions to it, serapbooks of local history or of fugitive articles and verses by citizens of the town, bound local periodicals, local menus, programmes, posters, and the like, may all form part of such exhibi- tions and as time goes on will make the library a place of interest, apart from its store of current boolss. "Where there is a local historical society, of course it will do many of these things, and the public library need not duplicate them. A department of the public library that is increasing in interest, and that may be said to be partly art collec- tion, partly repository of useful information in picto- rial form, is the print department. In such a depart- ment, which may be possessed by the smallest library, any picture made by a reproductive process may find a place, provided it may be of use to those searching for any kind of information. Its value may be purely artis- tic, or it may have no artistic value at all. Some homely 308 PRINTS and ill-made woodcut may give a faithful idea of the style of house inhabited by Moldavian peasants in the seventeenth century or the costume of an infantryman in Frederick the Great's army, or it may be the only vievir extant of the city of Terre Haute, Ind., at a partic- ular period of its existence. The value of such prints which impart at a glance information that could not be given in pages of text, lies wholly in their proper clas- sification and availability. Anyone who takes the trouble to clip and sort pictures from current weekly and monthly magazines for a few years will have a col- lection that need not be despised, provided the collector has a quick eye for elements of possible usefulness. Costume, architecture, local customs, forms of animal and vegetable life, scenery — these are but a few of the elements that may give value even to a picture that was intended by the artist merely to amuse. Such collec- tions are of value to teachers, to newspaper men, to art- ists, illustrators, architects, and decorators, to scientific men and to the ordinary citizen who wants to look at a picture of some particular person, place, or object. Prints that are works of art may, of course, also possess this kind of practical value. The subject that we are discussing is closely con- nected with the use of objects and pictures for decora- tion in a library building. Probably no two persons have exactly the same ideas on this matter. Some have concluded that the walls of the library are better off without any pictorial decoration at all. This is a reac- tion from the old horror of leaving any portion of a wall bare. In our own houses the walls were first papered with some obtrusive pattern and then as many pictures as possible were hung over them — whether paintings, 309 THE LIBRARY AS A MUSEUM photographs, crayon portraits, steel engravings, etchings, or what not. The choice or combination of subjects was also disregarded — the aim was simply to hang on the wall as many pictures as possible. The managers of our art galleries cannot afford to gibe at this kind of thing. Does a sensitive person ever enter one ©f these institu- tions without shuddering at the disharmonies of color tones and the olla podrida of sensations that crowd upon him from the walls, where all sorts of subjects, treated in all sorts of manners, touch elbows one with another? Doubtless it is necessary to hang pictures in this way in a public gallery where wall space is limited, but the cause of public art education suffers thereby. Probably many a man who has made up his mind that he "doesn't like pictures," and cannot be dragged into an art mu- seum, has been confused and disgusted by what he has seen in some gallery. Very few people have the ability to make a mental abstraction of the one picture that they are studying, or trying to enjoy, in a gallery and to cause the surrounding ones to fade into nothingness. For most of us the Japanese idea of one picture at a time would be better in every way. In the school and the public library, at any rate, there is no necessity for such intimate jarring and jostling. - Pew and good pic- tures should be herein displayed. In favor of the ideas of those who would discard pictorial wall decoration al- together it may be said that large flat spaces of proper proportions, tinted in restful tones, have a quiet dignity that is coming more and more to be appreciated in archi- tecture. If pictures are hung in such spaces, the sizes of picture and space should be well proportioned. When " good " pictures are prescribed, it must not be sup- posed that expensive ones are intended. The era when 310 MURAL DECORATION all cheap pictures were bad has fortunately passed. In nature the best is often cheapest. As Lowell says: 'Tis only Heaven is given away, 'Tis only God may be had for the asking. The incomparable beauties of God's world, the forms and colors of a landscape — sky, clouds, the masses and tints of foliage; the rocky or green-clad hills; water, quiet or in motion, may be freely seen and enjoyed. The two most wonderfully beautiful things — fire and snow — are familiar to the poorest boy. The human face divine, with its manifold changes of expression, may be studied and enjoyed by all. Now these things, by mod- ern processes, may be inexpensively reproduced in pic- torial form so that they are within the reach of almost everyone. Photographs and the various kinds of photo reproduction abound. Where it is desirable to see them through an artist's eyes we have reproductions of the paintings of great masters, or, more at first hand, we have simple colored lithographs, " poster pictures," such as are now imported from Germany at low prices, but often of astonishing artistic excellence, combining beautiful masses of form and color so deftly as to sug- gest the wonders of landscape much more vividly than its exact photographic reproduction. In a large library, mural painting has come to be considered almost the only possible or appropri- ate method of wall decoration. He must indeed be bold who ventures to disregard the weight of emi- nent authority that attaches to this decision, but a modest suggestion may be made that it is a pity for famous artists to embody their deathless conceptions in 311 THE LIBRARY AS A MUSEUM a monumental building intended to stand while time en- dures, by painting them, in colors that will one day fade, on plaster walls that will one day crumble and crack away. For a public monument, intimate connection of decorative with structural features, sculpture, and per- haps mosaic, would seem to be " indicated, ' ' as the ther- apists say. For structures that are not monumental, however, there seems to be no reasonable objection to paintings on the walls. The trouble is that such paint- ings, "to be acceptable, must be by good artists, and that the unique work of a good artist is expensive. Nothing is more disheartening and humiliating than to see an ambitious attempt at mural decoration, with allegorical figures representing the Genius of Jonesville, and all the rest of it, in a perfectly good public library building, costing, say, $50,000. Such things, alas ! exist. A possible solution of the difficulty lies in a recent invention, or adaptation, made by Ralph T. "Willis, a mural painter, and James M. Hewlett, an architect, whereby, by the skilled and intelligent employment of paper stencils, used with paint sprayers or so-called " aerial brushes," it is possible to make quickly and cheaply a mural decoration, with landscape, buildings, or even figures, of as high grade of artistic excellence as is possible with any duplicate picture — say a litho- graph, an etching, or an engraving. When the stencils have once been made by the artist, the production of the actual picture may be intrusted to less-skilled hands, the two processes standing to each other in somewhat the same relation as the preparation of a lithograph stone or an etched plate and the printing of pictures from these. So much for sizes and processes. What shall be the 312 WALL PICTURES subjects of pictures used for wall decoration in libra- ries ? We may proceed on one or more of several plans. (1) We may select pictures solely on account of the artistic value either of themselves or their originals. We may, for instance, buy a beautiful photograph or photographic enlargement f Or reasons entirely apart from any interest that the subject may possess; or we may hang a reproduction of Raphael's " Sistine Madonna " or a view of the equestrian statue of General Colleone, not because we consider a religious subject appropriate or regard Colleone as a character that should be made prominent in American libraries, but solely because the originals are great works of art. For the same reason we may use a picture of the Coliseum at Rome or of the Parthenon. (2) We may choose pictures that we think the frequenters of the library will like — ^photo- graphs of favorite scenery, or of genre paintings such as inspire admiration in the average educated man or woman. (3) We may select our pictures wholly with a view to educational results, displaying photographs of historical paintings, of well-known works of art with which the educated person should be familiar, portraits of eminent writers, statesmen, discoverers, etc. (4) We may make our wall collection as local as possible — por- traits of local celebrities, views of local scenery or of buildings connected with local history, drawings or paintings by local artists, and so on. It 'is probable that a collection made with an eye to all of these plans will be most interesting and profitable. In the first place, it should be borne in mind that the ordinary man likes subject, not style; result, not the method of reaching it. One may be led to appreciate and love the art by interest in the subject; hence, for a 313 THE LIBRARY AS A MUSEUM popular educational institution, subject should not be neglected. There is plenty of great art whose subjects are interesting and more or less familiar. It is probable that of all those who gaze at the mural decorations of the Boston Public Library — probably the best-known wall paintings in the United States — the vast majority pass over Puvis de Chavannes's allegorical figures to fol- low with interest Abbey's " Holy Grail " frieze or Sar- gent's " Prophets " — paintings whose subjects mean something to them. If some one should find a resem- blance between the Puvis de Chavannes figures and some well-known public character, probably public in- terest in them would increase a hundredfold. The dis- covery by a Western writer, duly communicated to his home paper, that a figure in a European gallery was the image of a local politician of his state, probably inter- ested thousands of persons in the picture who would never have heard of it through its merit as a work of art. The moral of all this, which may not be sufficiently obvious, is that, since libraries are in part institutions for the education of the great public, and since the pub- lic is powerfully stimulated and interested by the sub- ject of a great picture, it is well for libraries to select for wall decoration pictures whose subjects will appeal to their users. He who looks long and often on a great picture whose subject interests him seldom fails, sooner or later, to appreciate that the art with which that sub- ject is presented is, after all, the factor that has held his attention and prevented him from tiring of the pic- ture. Finally, the librarian should remember that his li- brary, if filled with a few properly selected pictures, is, in effect, an art gallery, and will contribute to its users' 314 ART IN THE LIBRARY education in the appreciation of art — not, of course, by furnishing a complete series of historical examples, as a great collection would do, but by gradually forcing upon one and all the conviction that the way in which a thing is done may be that which makes it worth while. This is the cardinal principle of art — the fact that there is something in Bastien Le Page's " Joan of Arc," for example, that there is not in Smith's photograph of a girl standing under an apple tree. CHAPTEE XXII LIBRARIES FOR THE BLIND The public library has suffered much from the idea, still prevalent in some circles, that it is a charitable in- stitution. This idea lingers longer about some of its de- partments than about others, and it clings with especial persistence about its administration of collections of books for the use of the blind. Evidently a collection of this sort should no more be administered as a charity than should a collection for the use of any other class of persons — say teachers or mechanics. The blind have but one thing in common — ^their inability to use the one sense that has been chosen to serve as the vehicle of recorded ideas, as distinguished from those to which temporary expression is given in speech. It has thus become neces- sary to select another sense as such vehicle, and all teach- ers of the blind have agreed in fixing upon the sense of touch. The development of this sense for the purpose specified does not, however, create any special mental bond among blind persons, and we find among them all the different mental and moral types that may be dis- covered among the seeing. The treatment of the blind as a dependent class is now coming to be recognized as a mistake. The sooner they mingle with their seeing fellows, learn how to take care of themselves, and realize 316 STYLES OF TYPE that what success they may achieve must be in spite of their infirmity, not because of allowances that may be made for it, the better. A collection of books for the blind, therefore, should be subject to no more limitations than any other collec- tion. It should not be made with the idea that the blind desire one class of literature more than another, or that one style of type is better for them than another. Unfor- tunately, a collection cannot be broader than the available material, and the ideas of makers of books for the blind have not always been of the broadest. Some have ap- parently been possessed with the idea that as soon as a person loses his eyesight he begins at once to think of his latter end and of no other subject. Others have laid great stress on educational literature, and in general, until very recent years, there has been no efEort to sup- ply blind persons with light and cheerful reading mat- ter — a sort of which they certainly need as much as the seeing. Books for the blind were originally, and are still, largely issued by schools for the blind, which have been often under denominational control. Thus the librarian has been in rauch the same situation as if he were forced to make up his general library from the catalogues of the American Tract Society and the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge. The first and still the largest collections of books for the blind are those connected with these institutions, or with societies formed in connection with work of the same kind. Some of our public collections have sprung from these, and the result is a regrettable limitation, narrowing the spheres of their usefulness in some such way as a li- brary for the seeing would be narrowed if it were based 317 LIBRARIES FOR THE BLIND on an old Sunday-school library, or if it should attempt to supply a mixed English, French, and German popu- lation with French books only. The greatest limitation arises from the fact that methods of reading by touch have been independently originated in different parts of the world, or even in dif- ferent localities in the same country. Each of these has been developed with little regard for the others, and the result is that each has its special literature, its schools, its teachers, and its warm advocates. The public library, of course, cannot take sides. It must furnish its blind with books in the type systems that they are able to read, just as it must give its seeing readers books in all the languages that they understand. Owing to the prox- imity of some particular institution, it often happens that the majority of blind persons in and around a given town or city read one kind of type. The books for the blind in the public library of that city will nat- urally be largely in this style of type, whatever it may be ; but only for the same reason that most of the books in a French popular library would be in the French language. Books for the blind in American public libraries are chiefly in three-point systems — the Braille, New York Point, and American Braille — and in two-line systems — the Boston letter and the Moon type. Of the two gen- eral types of letter, the line type is the older — the first attempt to construct an alphabet for the blind being, as was natural, in the direction of large embossed Roman letters. Those who use this system have no new alpha- bet to learn (if they are seeing persons who have lost their eyesight) ; but recognition of the Roman letter by feeling the raised character is extremely difficult and, 318 STYLES OF TYPE with some persons, almost impossible. The full Roman or " Boston line " letter is now seldom used, its place being taken by an abbreviated and conventionalized al- phabet, based on the Roman, known as " Moon type," after its inventor, Dr. William Moon, of Brighton, an English teacher. The idea of devising for the blind an alphabet of entirely new characters, having nothing to do with Ro- man letters, originated with Louis Braille, a French- man. He constructed his letters of combinations of raised dots or points, which experience has shown are easily recognized and discriminated by touch. Any al- phabet constructed in this way is denominated a " point system," and most of the reading now done by blind persons is in such systems. The original Braille type, with modifications, is now used in England, France, and Germany, and in this country by persons who have learned to read it abroad or who desire to use European books or periodicals, and especially European music. It is generally called here " European Braille " to distin- guish it from the very considerable modification called " American Braille." New York Point is a point sys- tem having no resemblance to Braille, except in the fact that it is made up of groups of raised dots or points. It is so named because devised by the superintendent of the New York School for the Blind, Mr. William B. Wait. In this country New York Point was for many years the type most used by the blind ; but recently American Braille has been more and more employed and, its advo- cates believe, is about to take first place. An idea of the differences between these " point systems " may be obtained from the specimens on page 320. This . is not the place for a detailed comparison of the systems 319 fifoyS 'HiSi-.J »&io {It/ MOifi wonts ttsjosrt ». Line Letter. ( ; y^_y -O/^^AC l.-yTV -OnI/JAC K.J — 1 O-J '."-.jjoo^: s.^^o 3jv.ojrj; :»r<;LA/^ v-rvrA.-/ (or o«Jv. -lOjorj fi€)A^i'3:'^ s©i-r* ar nrjwji Very little more is all permitted yats tonnac I, tser tonnac I, em ot I cannot linger anywhere. My spirit gnitnuoc ruo dnoyeb deklaw reven house, mark me, in life my spirit ne stimil worran eht dnoyeb devor rev of our money changing hole, and weary Moon Type. abcdefghi jklm Original French Braille. abcdefghi jklm • • ••• ••••• •••• • •• • •• • ft • •• •• • • •• • • • • • • • American (Revised) Braille. a b c d e £ g h i j • •• •••••••• New York Point. Tactile Print Alphabets for the Blind. 320 COMPARISONS nor for a complete presentation of the claims of their various advocates. The New York Point is more expansible, since there is theoretically no limit to the horizontal extent of its let- ters. The advocates of Braille do not regard this as an ad- vantage, since a letter confined to two vertical rows of dots is, they assert, more easily and quickly recognized with the finger. New York Point takes up less room, and is the only system in which a complete dictionary of the English language has been published. In discussions of this subject not enough stress has been laid on the fact that systems of raised point may be used with either of two distinct ends in view — quick reading and instruc- tion in language. In the former case abbreviation may be- freely used, and there need be no capitals and only just enough punctuation to convey the meaning. In the latter there should be no abbreviations, and punctuation and capitalization should follow the accepted rules. In the case of persons who have become blind after receiv- ing their education the former method is best, but where primary education is being given to blind children through the medium of raised characters, the latter should obviously be employed. With this distinction in view it may be noted that all systems use abbreviation freely in most of their publications, and that New York Point is more often wanting in punctuation and capital- ization than i^ Braille, although not through the fault of the system, as it has means of conveying both. A hear- ing in 1909, given by the Board of Education of New York City, at which the advocates of both New York Point and American Braille presented the claims of their respective systems, resulted in the adoption of the latter in the public schools of the city. 321 LIBRARIES FOR THE BLIND Prom the librarian's point of view, what is needed is a general agreement — international if possible, but at least covering the whole United States — to adopt some one system — perhaps a new point system combining the satisfactory features of the chief existing systems. Agreement of this kind would be worth the throwing aside of all existing books for the blind and all the ma- chinery for making them. There is yet time to begin all over again in the right way. Unfortunately, there does not seem to be any prospect of such an agreement. The / advocates of the two chief point systems in this country see nothing but good in their own methods and only in- feriority in the others. Each hopes that the other will go to the wall and that its own type will become univer- sal. Meanwhile it is necessary for the public library to spend for the duplication of books in various types money that might better be used in extending its selec- tion of titles. It is probable, however, that, even if the point sys- tems should ultimately be unified, some line system like the Moon would still be required ; for persons who have become blind late in life, and whose finger tips are not sufficiently sensitive to recognize groups of points, gen- erally learn such a system with comparative ease, and it will thus be necessary to retain it, or something like it, for their use. It would not, however, be necessary to duplicate every work in this system, which would take an auxiliary or subsidiary place. One reason why a unified system of some kind is de- sirable is the very great size and cost of books in any em- bossed type. Thus a novel like Dickens 's ' ' David Cop- perfield " occupies six volumes, each 14 x 12 x 5 inches, in New York Point, and about as much space in the 322 COST other systems. The expense of printing one of these books, although now lessened by the use of stereotype plates, is still large, as the following table of prices shows : Thackeray, Henry Esmond, 3 vols $10.50 Shakespeare, King John 3.00 Schiller, Maria Stuart, 3 vols 9.00 Kipling, Day's Work, 2 vols Y.OO Scott, Kenilworth 4.00 Dickens, Tale of Two Cities, 3 vols... 10.50 Books made by hand present practically the same ap- pearance as those that are " printed " (embossed) from type or plates. Braille may be written on an ordinary typewriter adapted for the purpose; New York Point cannot be so written, owing to the fact that the letters are of different lengths ; but a simple machine called the " kleidograph, " having fewer keys than a typewriter, which are depressed in certain combinations, enables it to be written as quickly. Any point system may be pricked in paper with a stylus. Until recently the Moon type could not be made by hand, and it could thus be used only for printing, not for writing; but a machine of typewriter form for embossing the letters has just been put upon the market. These various methods of making books by hand are of great use to public libra- ries. The principal sources of books for the blind as used in this country are now as follows : New York Point. — American Printing House for the Blind, Louisville, Ky. Xavier Society, New York City. 22 323 LIBRARIES FOR THE BLIND American Braille. — Illinois School for the Blind, Jack- sonville, 111. Perkins Institution for the Blind, Boston, Mass. Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, Overbrook, Pa. European Braille. — British and Foreign Blind Associa- tion, 206 Portland Street, W., London. Royal Blind Asylum and School, W. Craigmillar, Edinburgh. Gardner's Trust for the Blind, 53 Victoria Street, "Westminster, S. W., London. Moon Type. — The Moon Society, 104 Queen's Road, Brighton, England. Taking all these sources into account, the librarian finds thsrt he cannot always get the books he wants or supply his readers with what they demand. He may supplement his stock or fill local needs by handmade or typewritten copies ; and a member of the staff, in a large library, may occupy much of her time in this way. A short story, of ordinary magazine length, makes a small volume, easy to handle, and is usually very acceptable to blind readers. Such well-known stories as the Sherlock Holmes series, Mary B. Wilkins's, and the Uncle Remus tales can be obtained in no other way. Books for the blind are handled by a public library in much the same way as those for the seeing. It is com- mon to have a separate department or suite of rooms for the purpose ; but this is not necessary ; in fact, those who insist that the blind should mingle with the seeing and 324 Books fob the Blind, New York Public Library. SHELVING be treated as much like them as possible should logically advocate giving out these books at the general charging desk. In many libraries the blind are provided with a separate open-shelf reading room, and sometimes stories are told or books are read aloud to them at stated inter- vals. Owing to the size and weight of the books, shelv- ing for them is necessarily of unusual depth and strength, and a very few books occupy a great deal of space. A common size for shelving is fifteen inches in depth and fifteen inches between shelves, in sections not more than three feet wide. Such shelves will hold about three or four volumes to the running foot, or an average of ten or twelve inches to a title. "Word for word, a book for the blind often occupies in cubic inches about eight times as much space as a book in ordinary ink type. A collection of such books requires the ordinary accession record, shelf list, and catalogue. These are for the use of the library. The catalogue, of course, may be used by seeing companions of the blind readers. For the readers themselves a list in embossed type, kept up to date by the addition of frequent supplements, should be made — a separate one for the users of each- kind of type, printed in the same system as the books listed. There would appear to be no reason why a card cata- logue in embossed letters would not be as useful to blind frequenters of a library as an ordinary card catalogue is to the seeing. Such catalogues are not common, but one in New York Point type was made, as an experi- ment, in the New York Public Library in 1907. It was used somewhat, but only to satisfy curiosity, and was never popular. In such a catalogue, in order that the embossed letters may be freely accessible to the finger tips, the bottom of the card (containing the hole for the 325 LIBRARIES FOR THE BLIND rod) must be treated as the top, and the face of the card, when it is filed in the tray, must be directed away from the user. In arranging the books on the shelves the first di- vision should be by type, taking precedence even of that by languages. Each type system for the blind has its musical notation, and much such music is circulated by libraries. For instance, in the circulating department of the New York Public Library, of 6,369 separate vol- umes or pamphlets, 2,975, or nearly half, are pieces of music. In books for the seeing the corresponding pro- portion is not more than one per cent. The blind are not infrequently accomplished musicians and learn sev- eral type systems especially in order to avail themselves of the musical resources of them all. This is particu- larly true of European Braille, in which a quantity of good music is issued. Some authorities lay stress on the necessity, or at least the value, of employing in a library for the blind a librarian who is herself blind. This reminds one of Dr. Johnson's nonsense line: " Who drives fat oxen must himself be fat." The person in charge of a collection of books for the blind needs the full use of her senses ; and although she should be able to read all the different systems of typog- raphy, she will be all the more valuable for ability to use her eyes also. The argument that a blind librarian is in greater sympathy with her readers seems to be a relic of the idea that the blind are separated or shut off in some way, mentally, from their fellows. Years of seg^ regation may, it is true, bring this about; but it is not 326 CIRCULATION desirable. A collection large enough to use several as- sistants may well include one blind person in the num- ber, but the sole custodian of a small collection should have the use of her eyesight. Owing to the small number of collections of books for the blind accessible to the public, many such libra- ries in the United States have thrown open their re- sources to readers in distant parts of the country. The New York Public Library, for example, sends books freely to all blind readers in the States of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut and, on special applica- tion, to readers in other parts of the country who can show that the books they desire are not available in their own neighborhoods. Books for the blind are carried free of charge through the mails to or from a library, but are subject to the usual limitation of weight, so far as carrier delivery is concerned. As most books for the blind are above this limit of weight, the recipient must call for them at the nearest post office or send there for them. Notwithstanding this limitation, an increasingly large proportion of the circulation of books for the blind is through the mails. The New York Public Library in 1908 circulated 12,819 books for the blind, of which no less than 8,558 were sent to their readers by post and returned to the library in the same way. Owing to this free mailing privilege, the establish- ment of a central collection of books for the blind has been advocated. From such a central institution books would go out by post to all parts of the country, and it would be larger and more complete than any existing library. The advantages of such a plan are manifest; but if carried out it would not take the place of existing collections. Free access to shelves is as valuable to a 327 LIBRARIES FOR THE BLIND blind reader as to one who has the use of his eyes, and there are still large numbers of blind persons who prize the privilege of personal selection of books at the library. The central collection would relieve local libraries of their long-distance mail orders, which they are now fill- ing temporarily and because there is no other agency to take them over; and in this way it would benefit them by leaving them more free to care for the needs of local . readers. The staff of some libraries for the blind includes a teacher whose duty it is to seek out uninstructed blind persons and teach them to read, if they desire to learn. Although such teaching is not strictly within the sphere of the public library (any more than it would be for a library containing French books to offer free tuition in French), it has been rendered necessary, or at least de- sirable, by the failure of the public educational authori- ties to furnish free instruction for the blind. Boards of education in the larger cities are now adding facilities for giving instruction of this kind, and the time may be near when this will be the rule rather than the excep- tion. Even then, however, we may expect that many libraries will decide to retain the services of an in- structor, for the reason that the mere offer of instruc- tion to a blind person by no means insures that advan- tage will be taken of it. When a person becomes blind late in life he usually despairs of ever being able to read embossed type. It is necessary to plead with him, to quote instances of men in his own circumstances who have learned, or even to bring such men to relate their own experiences, before he will consent to begin. And when the inevitable difficulties prompt him to give it all up, some one is needed at his side to encourage him, 328 INSTRUCTION to point out how much progress he has already made, and to keep him at his task. Such teachers have done much to let the light into lives that would otherwise have been dark; and the public library has been reach- ing out in so many unaccustomed directions that it can ill afford to drop the home teacher for the blind, where it is already availing itself of her services. CHAPTEE XXIII TRAINING FOR LIBRARIANSHIP Whether librarianship has yet arrived at the dignity of a profession is a moot point. There is no doubt, how- ever, that it belongs to that class of occupations that re- quire general culture, special training in theory, and practical experience, including skill in a certain number of manual operations. This, if it is a profession, classes it with medicine rather than with law. Of course, there is nothing in library work that compares with surgery in the degree of manual training required; but, on the other hand, such professions as the law or the Church require none at all. In librarianship, further, the man- ual operations, are largely restricted to the lower grades of work, a chief librarian being largely an administra- tor; while in surgery they become more important as the operator advances in experience and grows in repu- tation. Special training for librarianship was doubtless sug- gested by the work of such professional schools as those of law and medicine. The first formal course was or- ganized in the library of Columbia University, New York, by its librarian. Dr. Melvil Dewey, in 1887. Since that time such courses have multiplied greatly, and they may at the present time be divided into three classes: library schools, summer schools, and training classes. 330 LIBRARY SCHOOLS (1) Library schools may be affiliated either with a university or some other educational institution, or with a library. Thus the Pratt Institute school, in Brooklyn, is a department of Pratt Institute; the University of Illinois school, the Syracuse University school, the Simmons College school, in Boston; the Western Re- serve school, in Cleveland, are all parts of the institu- tions whose names they bear. On the other hand, the Southern Training School is an adjunct of the Carnegie Library at Atlanta, Ga. ; the Albany school, of the New York State Library ; the Pittsburgh school for children 's librarians, of the Carnegie Library in that city, and so on. Of course, it is desirable that any library school should be able to avail itself of a working library for training. Schools connected with colleges naturally use the college library for this purpose, but as the training thus afforded is not sufficiently general, such schools are often affiliated also with the nearest public library. The library of Pratt Institute not only serves the Institute students, but is also a free public library, open to all the people of Brooklyn. The Western Reserve school uses the Cleveland Public Library, the Syracuse school the public library of that city, and so on. (2) Summer schools require little preliminary ex- planation, their relation to the longer and more formal courses being precisely that of a university's summer schools to its regular sessions. They may be carried on by the faculty of a school, as at Albany, by a State commission, as in Iowa and Indiana, or by individual librarians; and their proper function is to provide in- struction for library assistants who have time only dur- ing their summer vacations to take a course of this kind. They are, of course, open to the charge of superficiality, 331 TRAINING FOR LIBRARIANSHIP which is objectionable only when it is mistaken for thor- oughness. An assistant who has spent six weeks at the Albany summer school may, for instance, describe her- self as ' ' trained at Albany. ' ' This is no fault of the school, however. (3) Training classes are local and special. Appren- tices were formerly — and are still sometimes — received into libraries individually and allowed to learn what they could in return for such assistance as they could give. The training class originated in an attempt to systematize this apprenticeship on the part of libraries having much of it to deal with. It may also be regarded as a means of training for the lower grades, while the library school trains for the higher. Taking up the three grades of instruction a little more in detail, let us, glance again at the library schools proper. At the outset, zeal in the establishment of schools far outran discretion. The story is told of two maiden ladies in the West, innocent of all knowledge of libraries, who went to the head of the public library in a near-by city an'd asked for a few minutes of his time to give them information of his work, as they were plan- ning to start a library school. This may be regarded as typifying one extreme. It would be difficult in brief space to give an idea of the curriculum of the best library schools, and still more so to attempt any comparison between them. Most of them issue pamphlets or circulars giving such informa- tion in detail. In the New York State school, which offers a two- year course for college graduates only, with the degree of B.L.S. (Bachelor of Library Science), the work of each year is divided into four parts — administrative, bib- 332 TRAINING CLASSES liographic, practical, and technical. The instruction is by lectures, class practice work, discussion, the giving of problems, and required reading. Each student is re- quired to form a collection of material on the various phases of library work and to submit before graduation an original bibliography, or reading list, representing at least two hundred hours of actual work. Some of these are of considerable value. The Pratt Institute school, which now offers a one- year course, though this has been occasionally supple- mented with an advanced course requiring a second year, admits students through an entrance examination of con- siderable difficulty. Its course is divided into adminis- trative, technical, bibliographic, literary, historical, and miscellaneous studies, with " laboratory work " in the library. These two courses are fairly typical. Of course, a statement on paper by no means enables one to judge of the standing or work of a school. The all- important thing is the ability and earnestness of the teaching staff and their numbers. Cases where one or two ambitious librarians have striven to conduct a gen- eral library school with a curriculum calling for half a dozen or more instructors are not inspiring. The training class, as has been said, is merely a group of library apprentices whose work has been uni- fied and systematized. This may best be done in a sys- tem of branch libraries where there is opportunity to give a variety of practical work. In a course of, say, nine months, three may be devoted entirely to the class- room, with its recitations and lectures, and six to prac- tical work, say two months at each of three selected . libraries. The librarian-in-charge of a library really serves as teacher of those who are under her charge, and 333 TEAINING FOR LIBRARIANSHIP hence such a class is, in a way, analogous to the precep- torial system in a college — at least, if properly carried out. It is advisable, therefore, to place apprentices only at libraries whose heads are likely to take a personal in- terest in them and not regard their presence simply as a bore. The kinds of work that should be given them to do are, of course, prescribed by the instructor at head- quarters; and they should meet the instructor at least once a week for a comparison of experiences and for lec- tures. Members of the library staff may be utilized as lecturers, and in a large library a teaching force of con- siderable strength may thus be organized. This is a good thing not only for the class, but for the .lecturers them- selves, as the necessity of putting their ideas and expe- riences of library work into words reacts upon them to their advantage. So long as the conditions of employment in libraries remain as they are now, there will probably continue to be room for the three kinds of training agencies that have been described. Possibly the school with its formal course, followed by the bestowal of a degree, may be restricted to college graduates, as is now the case in several instances. The training school would then be open to high-school graduates and the summer school to library assistants actually in employment. At present the number of library assistants having formal training is proportionately small. Graduates of library schools go at once into the higher grades, and the best soon take charge of small town or city libraries or of branches in some large system. Of 91 new appointments made in the circulating department of the New York Public Li- brary in the year ending July 1, 1908, including the staffs of all of branch libraries, 21 were library-school 334 CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT graduates, 39 were graduates of the library's own train- ing class, 7 had attended summer school, 15 had had practical experience in other libraries, without other training, and 9 were substitutes — otherwise, untrained. In a paper read before the American Library Association in 1902 the writer of this volume called attention to the fact that, although library schools aim to reach the same footing as regards training for the library profession that is occupied by our medical and law schools, this condition of affairs has not yet been reached. His con- elusions, at the time, were attacked, but he has seen no good reason to modify them, and they remain substan- tially true at the present time. They were, in brief, that library training is now in the same stage in which medi- cal and legal training were at the time when medical schools and law schools began to be established. Previ- ous to that time training had been chiefly by apprentice- ship. A graduate in medicine or in law thus occupied a conspicuous position, owing to the rarity of his kind, and he stepped at once into prominence in his profes- sion. To-day we are suffering from a plethora of agen- cies of legal and medical training, and, instead of as- suming at once a position where he can earn a compe- tence, the young medical or law student must work for years, sometimes for nothing, sometimes for a pittance, before he becomes self-supporting. There is no doubt that, although this is hard on the young doctors and lawyers, it is better for the public. It is unavoidable that young laborers in any profession should work up from inefficiency through experience to ability, but it is scarcely fair that the public should pay them full wages while they are gaining that experience. That library training is still in the earlier of the stages above de- 335 TRAINING FOR LIBRARIANSHIP scribed is due not so much now to the paucity of schools as to a temporary abnormality in the demand for gradu- ates, due to the expansion of library work in the United States — to a constant increase in the number of libraries and to growth of individual institutions, as well as to rise in the standards of librarianship. This state of things will not continue, and when it ceases we shall doubtless find that experience will be demanded as sup- plementary to training before remunerative employment — not the slight experience gained in a few weeks or months in connection with some course of training, but experience comparable to' that undergone by the young medical graduate in his hospital or the young lawyer in a law office. In the discussion to which allusion has been made above it was pointed out that the material rewards of the successful doctor or lawyer may be very great compared with those of the successful librarian, and that the former could therefore afford to wait longer for them. This is true, of course. The salary question has been discussed in Chaptar XIV, but it may be well here to take up one or two points that have especial bearing on library training. The successful lawyer earns far more than the best-paid librarian. And yet that lawyer, when he graduated from the law school, was esteemed to be worth almost nothing, until he had gained a few years' experience. Just how much, then, should a librarian, whom the public pays less at his best, be worth under the same circumstances? Rather less than more, it would seem. By the time that library training has reached the second, or more stable, period mentioned above, it is possible that the popular estimate of the economic worth of librarianship will also have risen, and with it the whole scale of salaries. The com- 336 SALARIES parison of a salaried position like a librarian's with the work of a doctor or lawyer who lives by fees is, per- haps, unjust. The closest comparison is with the teacher, who, like the librarian, now begins to earn a salary immediately upon graduation. A recent esti- mate makes it probable that for the first ten years of work the aggregate amount earned by teachers and by librarians is sensibly the same. Afterwards, however, the former earn much more, until, in some eases, they may receive several times as much as librarians of the same grade and length of service. This means that, while, on the whole, the value of teaching is rated (rightly or wrongly) by the public as much greater than that of librarianship, the early rewards of the latter are disproportionately great, which is the same conclusion that has already been reached. These thoughts are forced upon any librarian of a large library who is try- ing to raise his staff to the highest standard of efBcieney and to do it without overdrawing his salary appropria- tion. He is chagrined to find that he can employ so few graduates of library schools, and often to realize, when he has employed them, that he is paying for mere school training a salary that should be given only when expe- rience is offered in addition. It seems to be true that a library-school graduate more often expects to step at once into a place that should require experience than does a medical or legal, or even a normal-school gradu- ate. This is certainly not to depreciate the work or value of library schools. In them lies the hope of the library for the future. Even more important, however, than the training function of schools and classes is their selective function. The confidence that one may feel in employing a gradu- 337 TRAINING FOR LIBRARIANSHIP ate of a first-class library school arises not so much from a knowledge of the course of instruction through which he has passed as in the certainty that, were he not fit for employment, he would either have failed to gain an entrance to the school or would have dropped out before graduation. Similarly, the instruction given to appren- tices or members of a training class, important as it is, may be regarded as secondary to the sifting process through which they go during their apprenticeship. The first question that should be asked of a course of training for librarianship should be: Is it so framed as to exclude absolutely the unfit? And among the unfit should be included those unfitted for library work not only by lack of general or special education, or lack of ability to acquire it, but also by reason of lack of culti- vation, ill-temper, tendency toward disobedience, lazi- ness, want of tact, and so on. The second question should be : Is the course, or is the method of selection of those who are to take it, so made that not only will the unfit be excluded, but the fit will be attracted? Our methods of negative selection are much more advanced and more thorough than those of positive selection. And, indeed, it is vastly easier to shut out the unfit than to select and gather the fit. Exclusion, however, is of little value unless there is a saving remnant. A process that is of the highest value when applied to a mixture of good and bad is worse than useless when applied to a collection from which the good is altogether absent. Hence the great need of library training to-day (and it shared with all systems of training for occupations) is a feature that will attract those who are eminently fit to become librarians. At present, librarians are drawn largely from the body of those who chiefiy turn to teach- S88 SELECTION ing as a means of support ; and, as the salaries of teach- ers are higher, grade for grade, than those of librarians, there is danger that those who enter library work will consist for the most part of those who are " left over," in one way or another, from the teaching profession. When this danger is recognized, the remedy that is usu- ally proposed is an increase of library salaries up to the point where teaching will cease to be financially at- tractive. No one, certainly no librarian, would be likely to enter an objection here; but, after all, this proposal loses sight of the fact that compensation for different employments must always be different, and that any abnormal variations which are artificially prevented from adjusting themselves result to the disadvantage of the more highly paid occupations rather than to the others. For instance, if for any reason the wages of plumbers should increase threefold — say by unprece- dented activity in building — numbers of unfit and badly trained persons would doubtless be attracted to this em- ployment. The natural result would be a drop in wages, due to competition; but if they were artificially main- tained, perhaps by the endowment of some ill-advised philanthropist, the result would be a permanent fall in the average ability of plumbers. So the fact that the sal- aries of teachers are higher than those of librarians will attract to the teaching profession all those, both fit and unfit, who regard money as the primary object. Those who remain in the library profession will be, first, those who are unfit for teaching and, second, those whose emi- nent fitness for librarianship is so reflected in their love for it that they prefer to remain in it even at the lower rate of compensation. We desire to discourage the for- mer class and to attract and encourage the latter. It is m 339 TRAINING FOR LIBRARIANSHIP well to equalize compensation, if it can be done ; but this will certainly not bring about the desired result. What should be done is to make sure that all those who find it necessary to earn their own living by teaching, by li- brary work, or in some profession of similar grade, shall be thoroughly informed regarding librarianship ; the kind of work that is required in libraries, its privileges, and its advantages to an intelligent and cultured man or woman. That there is at present no such systematic effort to reach educated persons no one will probably deny — librarianship, in other words, is deficient in prop- aganda. And not only is there lack of information on these points, but there is much misinformation. There seems to be a general impression, as all librarians who have talked much with candidates for employment will tes- tify, that work in libraries is genteel, easy, and light, being specially fitted for the aged, the infirm, and for those whose unexpected accession to the ranks of the toilers renders hard labor distasteful to them. There is, it is true, another class of persons in whose view library work is largely a menial employment, and fitted for young women having such education and cultivation (but not ability) as would suffice to rank them as do- mestic servants. These may be extreme statements, but in one direc- tion or the other these forms of misapprehension are apt to tincture the ideas of the public about librarianship. They are favored by the fact that various kinds of libra- ries exist, both in quality and grade. There are still li- braries where the custodian may sit all day and read or write, being undisturbed by borrowers. There are oth- ers where the service is largely manual, and where any- 340 SELECTION one who can paste labels and place books on the shelves is accepted as an assistant. There is all the more reason for a well-considered -propaganda that shall teach the public to discriminate between the typical and the un- Tisual, between the good and the bad. CHAPTEK XXIV ORGANIZATIONS OF LIBRARIANS American librarians have organized in various ways for mutual aid, for the discussion of questions bearing on their work, and, incidentally, for social intercourse. Such organizations may be divided into four general classes. In the first class, and admittedly at the head, is the American Library Association, the general and na- tional organization. Next we have the state associations, varying in membership and importance and sometimes nonexistent. Thirdly, come the library clubs, usually covering a single city, but sometimes a large territory, as in the case of the Long Island Library Club in New York or the Bay Path Library Club in Massachusetts. Fourthly, we have organizations of special workers, either national or local, many of the former affiliated with the American Library Association. Such are the National Association of State Librarians, the League of Library Commissions, and the recently formed Special Libraries Association. Here, too, perhaps should be placed the American Library Institute, consisting, chiefly of the heads of libraries, whose organization and aims might place it in a class by itself. Besides these, there are organizations of the staffs of single libraries, and also temporary meetings, without permanent organ- ization, as in the case of library institutes, held for in- struction. 342 THE AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION In fact, these organizations are so numerous that some librarians have thought that their formation has been overdone. If an assistant should attend tha monthly meeting of her own staff, that of her local li- brary club, at the same interval, take several days off for the state meeting, and a week for that of the Ameri- can Library Association, besides going to the alumni meeting of her library school and an occasional insti- tute, she would have scant time left, it would appear, for her regular duties. This is, of course, an exaggera- tion, for an assistant rarely attends even the majority of these meetings, nor would her duties allow her to do so. Most libraries send one member of the staff to the annual meetings of the American Library Association, paying all of the delegate's expenses; some may send two or three such delegates. Many libraries give the time to attend any professional meeting, provided ab- sence does not mean trouble or expense to the library, but this limitation lessens attendance very much. The American Library Association was organized in Philadelphia on October 6, 1876, following a national conference of librarians held in connection with the Centennial Exposition of that year. This M'as not the earliest convention of the kind in this country. In 1853 a conference of eighty librarians and others interested in bibliography was held in New York, largely as a re- sult of the efforts of Prof. Charles C. Jewett, of the Smithsonian Institution, who was elected president of the conference. At the close of the sessions it was re- solved ' ' that this convention be regarded as prelimi- nary to the formation of a permanent librarians' asso- ciation." A committee was appointed to effect an organization, but there was no subsequent meeting until 343 ORGANIZATIONS OF LIBRARIANS twenty-three years later, when the Philadelphia confer- ence, mentioned above, met in response to a call signed by prominent librarians and adopted the first constitu- tion of the American Library Association, enrolling 103 members. The proceedings filled 101 pages of the Li- brary Journal, whose first number had just been issued, and which served as the Association 's official mouthpiece until the establishment of its own Bulletin in 1907. The organization of the Association attracted attention abroad, and the result was the assemblage of an interna- tional librarians' conference in London in 1877 and the founding of the Library Association of the United Kingdom. John Winter Jones, Librarian of the British Museum and president of the conference, said in his opening address : " The idea of holding a conference of librarians originated in America — in that country of energy and activity which has set the world so many good exam- ples." Since its organization in 1876 the Association has held yearly conferences, with the exception of the years 1878 and 1884. The attendance has varied from 32 in the Catskills, in 1888, to 1,018 at Magnolia, Mass., in 1902 being largely dependent on locality. A list of meeting places appears in the Appendix, from which it will be seen that the conferences have been held in widely separated places. Increase in the membership, which in 1908 had reached 1,907, has made necessary some changes in organization. As originally constituted, the Association had an elective Executive Board of five, from which the officers were chosen and which acted for the Association in the intervals between meetings. In 1893 a council of twenty members (afterwards increased 344 HEADQUARTERS to twenty-five), "to act as an Advisory Board," was constituted. Its members were first elected, four at a time, from eight nominees presented by the body itself; afterwards without any such restriction. The officers were chosen directly by the Association, and collectively (with the retiring president) constituted the Execu- tive Board. An unsuccessful effort was made in 1895 to take the election of officers from the Association. In 1909 the Executive Board was again made elective and the Council was greatly increased in numbers by adding to the twenty-five members chosen by the Association twenty-five elected by the Council itself, and as ex- officio members all members of the Executive Board, ex-presidents of the Association, and presidents of affili- ated societies. The secretary and treasurer were made appointive officers. The last change was in some meas- ure dependent on two events — the establishment of the American Library Institute, as explained elsewhere in this chapter, and the opening of permanent official head- quarters for the Association. After a discussion lasting for several years, such headquarters had been opened tentatively in Boston in 1906, in conjunction with the offices of the Publishing Board, and placed in charge of an executive officer. In 1908 they were temporarily discontinued, owing to lack of funds, and in 1909 an offer from the Chicago Public Library to place at the Association's disposal for this purpose space in its li- brary building was accepted. These quarters are now occupied, and are in charge of the Association's perma- nent secretary, who, under the revised constitution, is a salaried officer, appointed by the Executive Board. Headquarters are open daily from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., and all members of the Association are invited to use the 345 ORGANIZATIONS OF LIBRARIANS rooms and to have mail sent to them (No. 1 Washington Street) when visiting Chicago. Libraries are expected to use the offices as a bureau of information on any sub- ject and to refer to the collections there gathered, which include a collection of library plans and one of library appliances in general. The official headquarters is also the office of the Pub- lishing Board, one of the Association's most active and useful adjuncts. This was organized in 1886 as a sec- tion of the Association. In 1900 it was changed to a board of five members, appointed by the Executive Board, and in 1909 it was specified that at least one member should also be a member of the Executive Board. The board's work was greatly extended in 1902 by a donation of $100,000 from Andrew Carnegie, the income of which is to be used in preparing and publish- ing library aids. This and other smaller sums are held and administered by three elected trustees. The publi- cations of the board are sold, like those of any publish- ing house, largely to librarians. They include lists, guides, indexes, catalogues, " library tracts," and sev- eral series of printed catalogue cards. It also issues the American Library Association Booh List and the Ameri- can Library Association Bulletin, the Association's or- gan, established in 1907, one number of which includes the proceedings of the Association and another its an- nual handbook. The policy of organizing sections, which was begun in 1886, as above noted, was continued by the establishment of the College and Reference Section in 1889, the Trustees' Section in 1890, the Catalogue Sec- tion in 1900, the Children's Section in 1900, and the Training School Section in 1909. Affiliated societies, which resemble sections, except that they have an inde- 346 AFFILIATED SOCIETIES pendent organization, are the National Association of State Libraries (organized first as a section of the Asso- ciation in 1898), the League of Library Commissions, and the American Association of La,w Libraries. These meet with the Association, and their proceedings are published together with those of the larger body. In 1909 a committee was appointed to consider the whole subject of sections and affiliated societies, their pro- grammes, and general relations with the Association. At a conference of the Association there are three or four general sessions and two or three of each of the sections and affiliated societies, several of which may assemble at the same time in separate meeting places. Membership in the Association has always been open practically to everyone interested in library work. Ever since the formation of the body certain of its members have felt that such open membership was a mistake or, at any rate, required modification, and this feeling has been largely at the bottom of various attempts, success- ful and unsuccessful, to revise or amend the consti- tution — ^the establishment of a council, efforts to restrict the voting power of the members, and finally the forma- tion of the American Library Institute, as described farther on in this chapter. The annual conferences last usually about a week, and include social events of various kinds, besides the visual addresses, papers, and discussions. It has been felt of late years that the assembling of the Association annually in different parts of the country was hardly enough to make it truly national in scope and to inter- est librarians throughout the United States in its aims and work. It was accordingly planned to hold, besides the regular annual conference, district meetings in other 347 ORGANIZATIONS OP LIBRARIANS parts of the country. This decision has not been carried out, but as an alternative, beginning in 1907, the Asso- ciation has sent a delegate to represent it at numerous state meetings, especially in the Middle West. If mem- bership is to continue free to all, it should doubtless be as large as possible, and as wide an area as may be should be well represented in it. At present, membership includes three classes — indi- viduals, whether annual members or life members, and institutions. Individual members, paying annual dues of $2, receive the Bulletin free and enjoy special travel and hotel rates at conferences. Institutions as members, who pay $5 annually, receive also the American Library Association Book List, and may send to conferences del- egates with the privileges of individual members. Indi- vidual members may become life members, exempt from dues, on payment of $25. The state library associations have taken a greater or less part in library affairs within their respective states according to the ideas, ability, and energy of those who have organized and administered them. The New York Library Association was avowedly formed to do for the State what the New York (City) Library Club had been doing for the city — that is, to increase mutual intercourse among librarians by discussion and social meetings. Thus, although it is one of the largest of the State associations and its week-long annual confer- ences have become second in importance to no other except that of the American Library Association, being attended by many librarians from distant states, it has not taken the part of adviser of the State authorities in library matters so actively as have some of its younger Western sisters. In some states the state asso- 348 STATE ASSOCIATIONS ciations have entered into active campaigns for the en- actment of state library laws, for the creation of library commissions and the appointment of expert and efficient commissioners, for the requirement by law of licenses for librarians as well as for teachers, and so on. In New York the State library authorities, who existed be- fore the Association did, took an active part in forming it, and in its early years largely shaped its action. The Association began, several years ago, to hold library in- stitutes for the instruction and encouragement of libra- rians of small libraries in all parts of the State, and the management of these has now been taken over by the State, which has also, largely as an outcome of this action, appointed two official library organizers. Thus the State Association in New York was largely a result of a central State library authority. In New Jersey, for instance, precisely the opposite was the case. The State Association, when formed, was comparatively devoid of interest — a mere body for discussion. The State had no central library authority, and, although it had a library law, the State government took no particular interest in the libraries of the State. As soon as the State As- sociation began to make efforts in this direction, all this was changed. An efficient State library commission was created, traveling libraries were sent out to the rural districts, an organizer of noteworthy ability and suc- cess was appointed, a summer library class was estab- lished, and the libraries of the State now feel that they may depend upon the aid and counsel of the central State authorities when they need help. In some of the Western States more than this has been done and still more attempted. The library com- missions have become bodies of greater authority and im- 349 ORGANIZATIONS OF LIBRARIANS portance, and acts that would revolutionize the library- organization of the state have been introduced into the legislature and urged upon the attention of legislators by the associations as bodies and by their members indi- vidually. Success has not always attended these efforts. In Kansas, for instance, the creation of a State commis- sion and the appointment of a library organizer have for several years been pressed without avail. The State Association finally appointed an organizer on its own account, but, as it was without funds to pay for his services and as he was a busy librarian, he could natu- rally accomplish little. In Illinois a commission has just been appointed, but the law creating it is not at all such as had been urged by the State Association, and the librarians of the State have accepted it only as better than nothing. In other states still, where the state associations might perhaps have accomplished something by well-di- rected effort, this has not been made at all, or has been made feebly and ineffectively. In a few associations the organization is little more than nominal, and general interest is absent. In many states, where the library movement is in its infancy and libraries are few, no state associations have yet been formed. This is espe- cially the case in the South. Such states, of course, are in more need of efficient organizations of this kind than are communities where libraries abound and where their value and their claim on the public are generally recog- nized. Sometimes encouragement and aid from other state organizations have been effective in the inception of associations Of librarians in these states. So far as the functions of state associations have been deliberative and social, an important outcome of 350 BI-STATE AND TRI-STATE MEETINGS their activities has been the bi-state meeting. The ear- liest and still the most important of these, bidding fair to become a permanency among library gatherings, is the joint meeting of the New Jersey Library Associa- tion and the Pennsylvania Library Club (a State asso- ciation in everything but name) at Atlantic City, N. J. The New York (City) Library Club once joined in this meeting, and it was once held in Washington, D. C, in- stead of Atlantic City, but with these exceptions it has taken place annually, usually in the month of March, as noted above. Librarians from all parts of the Union attend, and its sessions last for two or three days. Not infrequently bodies of wider scope, such as the American Library Association Council, Executive Board, or Publishing Board, or the American Library Institute, find it convenient to meet at the same time and place. No other such permanent bi-state gathering takes place anywhere, but state associations in adjoining states have held occasional meetings of the sort, with mutual profit and enjoyment. A tri-state meeting (Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana) was held in Louisville in October, 1909. Experience has shown that the Atlantic City plan of meeting in one town and having but one head- quarters is best. The holding of sessions alternately in two neighboring border towns, each association having headquarters in its own state,' appeals to local state feel- ing, but hardly insures a quiet and satisfactory con- ference. The American Library Institute originated in a feel- ing on the part of many of the older librarians that the membership of the American Library Association had become too large and its organization too complex for 351 ORGANIZATIONS OF LIBRARIANS profitable informal discussion of matters of library in- terest, such as had been common in the early days of the Association. A smaller body, for deliberation only, con- sisting largely of the heads of libraries, seemed desir- able. Some persons had in mind a body that should compare with the Association somewhat as the National Academy of Sciences with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, or as the Royal societies of London and Edinburgh with the British Association. It was even proposed to form a Library Academy, but this somewhat ambitious title did not meet with general approval. The first outcome of this feeling was the formation of the American Library Association Council under the constitution of 1893. This body, however, had numer- ous legislative functions, and the performance of these, with the attendant discussion, almost completely masked its deliberative functions. It was still generally felt that the proposed small deliberative body should be closely connected in some way with the larger association, and opinion oscillated between the remodeling of the Coun- cil and the organization of a separate but affiliated body. Finally the American Library Institute was formed, the required connection with the American Library Associa- tion being obtained by making its nucleus the ex-presi- dents of that body. These chose additional Fellows, the Institute as thus formed voted for others, and the proc- ess went on until the full complement of Fellows was reached. The Institute as thus constituted has been bitterly op- posed by some librarians, who have asserted that its con- nection with the Association is wholly vague and loose. Under these circumstances, although all of the Fellows 352 THE AMERICAN LIBRARY INSTITUTE are members of the Association, discussion in its meet- ings of some of the Association's affairs has been re- sented. A considerable number of the Fellows have shared in these feelings and have felt that if the Coun- cil of the Association could be so changed as to corre- spond in membership and functions with the Institute, it would be better for the latter to go out of existence. Of the value of the smaller deliberative body and the interest of informal discussion in such a body, made up of the older and more experienced members of the pro- fession, there seems to be but one opinion among libra- rians. The alterations in the Council effected by the new American Library Association constitution in 1909 are the latest outcome of this feeling. They make the Coun- cil almost, though not quite, wholly a deliberative body and only partly an elective one. The ex-o£Scio members and those chosen by the Council itself outnumber those elected directly by the Association. The Institute, however, still maintains its organiza- tion, and it is too early to predict exactly what is to hap- pen to it. It may confidently be said, however, that, great as the value of a small and authoritative deliber- ative body among librarians, there is no need for two such bodies, and that one or the other will ultimately be extinguished in some way, whether by dissolution, mer- ger, or otherwise. Library clubs, drawing their membership from cities, towns, or neighborhoods, have become numerous in re- cent years. None of them is a purely social club, al- though most of them hold social meetings — receptions, dinners, and afternoon teas — and none of them has a separate clubhouse. They afford opportunities to the 353 ORGANIZATIONS OP LIBRARIANS librarians of a locality to become acquainted and to dis- cuss matters of professional interest ; and occasionally to listen to some outsider of ability and influence. In the State of New York a number of local clubs have been formed as the result of institutes held by the State. These clubs naturally vary widely in membership, influ- ence, and the value of what they are able to do. Some have undertaken and carried through valuable biblio- graphical or other work. The New York Library Club has published a descriptive list of the libraries of Greater New York — over 300 in number — ^with particu- lar reference to special collections of books. Private libraries are not included. Clubs might do more of this kind of work, but when it is remembered that it must.be carried out by busy librarians, as a labor of love, it is perhaps not to be wondered that it is only occasional. Meetings held by the organized staffs of large libra- ries may differ little from those of. library clubs. The programmes for discussion are often similar, and out- siders may be present by invitation. These gatherings are treated at greater length in the chapter on The Library Staff. Library institutes, as now conducted, occupy a posi- tion midway between the summer or other occasional training class and the meeting of neighborhood librari- ans for discussion. So far as there is instruction by outsiders, it is like a training class; so far as those in attendance discuss and advise together, it is like a meet- ing. Most institutes combine these features, and they may consist of only one or two sessions or of exercises lasting for a week, as was the case with an institute held recently by the Connecticut Public Library Committee. This differed but little, except in name, from such a 354 LIBRARY INSTITUTES summer training class as that held annually under the auspices of the New Jersey Library Commission. Insti- tutes are usually local, however; in their essence they are for those who have neither time nor money to go far for instruction or for conference. With the foregoing brief sketch of the various types of library organization, this account of American public libraries may fittingly close, for nothing is more charac- teristic of the modern idea in library work than the atti- tude toward it of those who are engaged in it, as evi- denced by their desire for frequent conference and com- parison of ideas. 24 APPENDIX APPENDIX o (-ft o 8 tH lO P5 ^ ^ o s 3 K? 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L. A. MEETINGS AND MEMBERS From the "Handbook oj the American Library Association" {Boston, July, '09) Date. 1876, Oct. 4-6 1877, Sept. 4-6 1877, Oct. 2-5 1878 1879, June 30-July 2 1880 1881, Feb. 9-12 1882, May 24-27 1883, Aug. 14-17.... 1884 1885, Sept. 8-11 1886, July 7-10 1887, Aug. 30-Sept. 2 1888, Sept. 25-28.... 1889, May 8-11 1890, Sept. 9-13 1891, Oct. 12-16 1892, May 16-21 1893, July 13-22 1894, Sept. 17-22. . . . 1895, Aug. 13-21.... 1896, Sept. 1-8 1897, June 21-25 1897, July 13-16 1898, July 5-9 1899, May 9-13 1900, June 6-12 1901, July 3-10 1902, June 14-20 1903, June 22-27 1904, Oct. 17-22 1905, July 4-8 1906, June 29-July 6. 1907, May 23-29 1908, June 22-27 1909, June 28-July 3. Place. Philadelphia New York London (international)., No meeting Boston No meeting Washington . . . Cincinnati Buffalo, N. Y No meeting Lake George, N. Y Milwaukee Thousand Islands, N. Y. Catskill Mts., N. Y St. Louis Fabyans (White Mts.) . . San Francisco Lakewood, Baltimore, Washington Chicago Lake Placid, N. Y Denver and Colorado Springs Cleveland Philadelphia London (international). Lakewood-on-Chautau- qua Atlanta, Ga Montreal, Canada Waukesha, Wis Boston and MagnoUa, Mass Niagara St. Louis Portland, Ore Narragansett Pier, R. I. Asheville, N. C Minnetonka, Minn Bretton Woods, N.H... 364 103 66 21 162 70 47 72 87 133 186 32 106 242 83 260 311 205 147 363 315 94 494 215 452 460 1018 684 577 359 891 478 658 620 Member- ehip Numbers in Order of Joining. 1- 70- 69 122 123- 197- 386- 398- 414- 455- 471- 477- 514- 595- 701- 726- 772- 885- 196 38i 397 413 454 470 476 513 594 700 725 771 884 939 940-1081 1082-1230 1231-1315 1316-1377 1378-1550 1551-1684 1685-1825 1826-1908 1909-2116 2117-2390 2391-2735 2736-2975 2976-3239 3240-3497 3498-3979 3980^325 4326^557 4558-4704 69 53 74 189 12 16 41 16 6 37 81 106 25 46 113 55 142 149 85 62 173 134 141 83 208 274 345 240 264 258 482 346 232 147 APPENDIX STATE LIBEAET COMMISSIONS, WITH OFFICIAL NAME OF COMMISSION OR BOAED AND TITLE OF EXECUTIVE OFFICEE Alabama — ^Department of Archives and History. Division of Library Extension : Directors. California State Library. Extension Department. Colorado State Board of Library Commissioners : President. Colorado Traveling Library Commission : President. Connecticut Free Public Library Committee: Secretary. Delaware Free Library Commission : Secretary. Georgia Library Commission: Secretary. Idaho State Library Commission: Secretary. Illinois Library Commission: Secretary. Indiana Public Library Commission: Secretary. Iowa Library Commission: Secretary.' Kansas Traveling Libraries Commission: Secretary. Maine Library Commission: Secretary. Maryland Public Library Commission: Secretary. Maryland State Library Commission: Secretary. Massachusetts Free Public Library Commission: Chairman. Michigan State Board of Library Commissioners : Secretary. Minnesota Public Library Commission: Secretary. Missouri Library Commission: Secretary. Nebraska Public Library Commission: Secretary. New Hampshire State Library Commission: Secretary. New Jersey Public Library Commission : Secretary. New York. Education Department. Educational Extension Division: Chief. North Carolina Library Commission : President. North Dakota State Library Commission: Director. Ohio Board of Library Commissioners : Secretary. Oregon Public Library Commission: Secretary. Pennsylvania Free Library Commission : Secretary. 365 APPENDIX Tennessee Free Library Oommission : Secretary. Texas Library and Historical Commission. Utah State Library Commission: Secretary. Vermont Free Library Commission : Secretary. Washington State Library Commission : Secretary. Wisconsin Free Library Commission: Secretary. STATE LIBEAKY ASSOCIATIONS The following States have library associations. Meet- ings are held annually and officers change from year to year. Letters to the secretary will generally be forwarded by the State Commission or by any large library in the State: Alabama California Colorado Connecticut District of Columbia Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Massachusetts (called a " Library Club ") Michigan Minnesota Missouri Montana Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Ontario (Canada) Oregon Pennsylvania (called " Key- stone State Library Asso- ciation ") Rhode Island South Dakota Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia Washington Wisconsin 366 APPENDIX LIBRARY CLUBS The membership covers usually a single city, but some- times a county or region, as indicated by the name. Officers change from year to year, but the secretary may generally be reached by addressing any public library in the region cov- ered by the club. Names of towns in parentheses are those of large places in the respective regions : Ann Arbor Library Club, Ann Arbor, Mich. Bay Path Library Club (Worcester, Mass.). Cape Cod Library Club (Wareham, Mass.). Central New York Library Club (Auburn, N. Y.). Chicago Library Club. Eastern Maine Library Club (Corinna, Me.). Fox River Valley Library Association (Appleton, Wis.). Highland Library Club (Port Jervis, N. Y.). Hudson River Library Club (Poughkeepsie, N. Y.). Indianapolis Library Club. Iowa City Library Club. Lake Country Library Club (Genesee, N. Y.). Library Club of Buffalo, Buffalo, N. Y. Long Island Library Club (Brooklyn, N. Y.). Mohawk Library Club (Mohawk VaUey, N. Y.). Monongahela Valley Library Association (Homestead, Pa.). Nashville Library Club, Nashville, Tenn. New York High School Librarians Association, N. Y. City. New York Library Club, N. Y. City. Clean District Library Club (Clean, N. Y.). Pennsylvania Library Club, Philadelphia, Pa. Southern Tier Library Club (Southern New York). Twin City Library Club (St. Paul, Minn.). Western Massachusetts Library Club (Holyoke, Mass.). 367 APPENDIX LIBEAEY SCHOOLS New York State library school, Albany, N. Y. J. L. Wyer, Jr., director; Frank K. Walter, vice-director. 188Y. Pratt institute school of library science, Brooklyn, N. Y. Mary W. Plummer, director. 1890. Drexel institute library school, Philadelphia. June E. Don- nelly, director. 1892. University of Illinois library school. Champaign, 111. P. L. Windsor, director. 1893. Simmons college library training school, Boston. Mary E. Eobbins, director. 1902. Western reserve university library school, Cleveland. Julia M. Whittlesey, director. 1904. Library training school of the Carnegie library of Atlanta, Ga. Julia T. Eankin, director. 1905. Wisconsin library school, Madison. Matthew S. Dudgeon, director. 1906. Indiana library school, Indianapolis. Merica Hoagland, di- rector. 1908. Syracuse university library school, Syracuse. Mary J. Sib- ley, director. 1908. The Carnegie library training school for children's librarians, Pittsburg. Frances J. Olcott, director; offers instruc- tion in its special field. SOME BOOKS AND AETICLES ON AMEEICAN PUBLIC LIBEAEIES AND THEIE WOEK This is not a bibliography, and makes no attempt at com- pleteness. Those who desire to follow the subjects treated in this book somewhat farther than the author's space has permitted him to pursue them, will, however, it is believed, find something of interest in each of the books and papers in the list. 368 APPENDIX The meaning of abbreviations is as follows: Lib. J., "Library Journal," New York; LiVy, "The Library," Lon- don ; Pub. Lib., " Public Libraries," Chicago. Art, Museums^ etc. Bain, J., " Lectures, Museums, Art Galleries, etc., in Con- nection with Libraries," Lib. J., 1893, p. 214. Bolton, H. C, " Art Decorations in Public Libraries," Lib. J., 1895, p. 386. DousMAN, Mary E., " Pictures and How to Use Them," Pub. Lib., Nov., 1899, p. 399. Museum and Library, Pub. Lib., Jan., 1903 (Museum number). Weitenkampf, p., " The Print Made Useful," Lib. J., 1905, p. 920. Associations and Clubs BosTWiCK, A. E., " Value of Associations," Lib. J., 1908, p. 3. " The First Conference of American Librarians " (1853), Lib. J., 1887, p. 526. Binding and Mending A. L. A. Committee on Binding; reports. See annual Pro- ceedings. "Binding for a Small Library" (A. L. A, Chicago, 1909). Chivers, C, " The Paper and Binding of Lending-library Books," Lib. J., 1909, p. 350. Nicholson, J. B., " What a Librarian Should Know About Binding," Lib. J., 1884, p. 102. PooLE, E. B., " Elements of Good Binding," Lib. J., 1892, Conf. No., p. 15. Book-Selection and Purchase BosTWicK, A. E., " How Librarians Choose Books," Ptib. Lib., April, 1903, p. 137. 369 APPENDIX Lord, I. E., " Notes on Book-buying for Libraries," Lib. J., 1907, pp. 3, 56. Palmer, W. M., " Kelationship of Publishers, Booksellers, and Librarians," Lib. J., 1901, Conf. No., p. 31. " Selection of Books ; a Symposium," Lib. J., 1894, Conf. No., pp. 24, 34, etc. Larned, J. N., " Selection of Books for a Public Library," Lib. J., 1895, p. 270. Branches and Stations BosTwiCK, A. E., "Branch Libraries," Li6. J., 1898, p. 14. " Branch Libraries ; a Symposium," Lib. J., 1902, Conf. No., p. 38. Cole, G. W., "Delivery Stations or Branch Libraries," Lib. J., 1892, p. 480. " How Can Central and Branch Work best be Co- ordinated? " Lib. J., 1898, Conf. No., p. 98. Buildings Fletcher, W. I., " Architects and Librarians ; an Irenicon," Lib. J., 1888, p. 338. Stansbury, a L., " Library Buildings from a Librarian's Standpoint," Pul. Lib., Nov., 1906, p. 495. Catalogues and Classification Billings, John S., " The Card Catalogue of a Great Public Library," Lib. J., 1901, p. 377. Brown, James Duff, " Manual of Library Classification and Shelf Arrangement," London, 1898. Bullock, E. D., " Practical Cataloguing," Pub. Lib., March, 1901, p. 134. Cutter, C. A., "Expansive Classification," 3d Ed., Boston, 1891. 370 APPENDIX Cutter, C. A., " The Dictionary Catalogue ; Why and How it is Made," Lib. J., 1890, p. 143. Dewey, Melvil, "Decimal Classification," 6th Ed., N. Y., 1899. Foster, W. E., " Classification from the Eeader's Point of View," Lib. J., 1890, Conf. No., p. 6. HiTCHLER, Theresa, " Cataloguing for Small Libraries," Boston, 1905. Iles, George, " Evaluation of Literature," Lib. J., Conf. No., p. 18. EiCHARDSOJf, E. C, " Classification, Theoretical and Prac- tical," N. Y., 1901. Stewart, J. D., " The Sheaf Catalogue," London, 1909. Thomson, O. E. H., " Classification of Fiction," Pub. Lib., Nov., 1903, p. 414. Children's Work Eastman, L. A., " The Children's Library League," Lib. J., 1897, Conf. No., p. 151. Hassler, Harriot E., " Common Sense and the Story Hour," Lib. J., 1905, Conf. No., p. 77. Moore, A. C, " Work of the Children's Librarian," Lib. J., 1903, p. 160. Olcott, Frances J., " Story- telling, Lectures, and Other Adjuncts of the Children's Eoom," Lib. J., 1900, Conf. No., p. 69. "Beading Eooms for Children" [a Symposium], Pub. Lib., April, 1897, p. 125. Circulation Work Brett, W. H., and others, " How We Eeserve Books," Lib. J., 1889, p. 401. Browne, N. E., "Library Fines," Lib. J., 1898, p. 185. Carr, H. J., " Eeport on Charging Systems," Lib. J., 1889, p. 203. 25 371 APPENDIX Crunden, r. M., "A Self-supporting Collection of Dupli- cate Books in Demand," Lib. J., 18Y9, p. 10. Draper, Susan A., "Literature for the Blind," Pub. Lib., April, 1904, p. 147. HiLi,, F. P., " Charging Systems," Lib. J., 1896, Conf. No., p. 51. LiNDERFELT, K. A., " Charging Systems," Lib. J., 1882, p. 178. Lord, L E., " Open Shelves," A. L. A. Proceedings, 1908. Montgomery, T. L., " Open Shelves " [reply to E. S. Will- cox, below]. Lib. J., 1900, p. 168. "Open Shelves; a Symposium," Lib. J., 1890, pp. 197, 229, 296. WiLLCOX, E. S., " Open Shelves " [unfavorable]. Lib. J., 1900, p. 113. "Registration of Borrowers" [a Symposium], Lib. J., 1890, pp. 37, 74. Libraries (American) in General Adams, H. B., " Public Libraries and Popular Education," Albany, 1900. " Being a Librarian, a Symposium," Lib. J., 1890, pp. 202, 231, 264, 294, 330. Brown, James Duff, "Manual of Library Economy," Lon- don, 1903. Carnegie, A., " The Library as a Field for Philanthropy," Lib. J., 1890, p. 42. Dana, J. C, " Library Primer," 3d Ed., Chicago, 1903. Dewey, Melvil, " Library Conditions in America in 1904," Pub. Lib., Oct., 1904, p. 363. Fairchild, S. C, " American Libraries ; a Method of Study and Interpretation," Lib. J., 1908, p. 43. Fletcher, W. I., " Public Libraries in America," Boston, 1894. Keogh, Andrew, " English and American Libraries ; a Com- parison," Pub. Lib., July, 1901, p. 388. 372 APPENDIX Morel, E., " Bibliotheques," 2 vols., Paris, 1909. [An in- dictment of Erencli libraries and comparisons with those of England and the United States.] Plummeb, Mary W., "Hints to Small Libraries," 3d Rev. Ed., N. Y., 1902. , " Public Libraries in the United States of Ainerica, Their History, Condition and Management," Special Eeport, Dep't of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washing- ton, 1876. Eathbone, J. A., " The Modern Library Movement," Puh. Lib., June, 1908, p. 197. . Sharp, K. L., " Librarianship as a Profession," Puh. Lib., 1898, p. 5. ToRREY, C. A., " State Supervision of Public Libraries," Pub. Lib., May, 1901, p. 271. Vincent, Geo. E., " The Library and the Social Memory," Pub. Lib., Dec, 1904, p. 479. Organization and Administration BosTwiCK, A. E., " Duties and Qualifications of Assistants in Open-shelf Libraries," Lib. J., 1900, Conf. No., p. 40. Crunden, F. M., " How Things Are Done in One American Library," Lib'y, new ser., vol. I., pp. 92, 147, 290, 384; vol. n.,-p. 20. "Function of Library Trustees," Lib. J., 1896, Conf. No., p. 32. Davis, M. L., and Eathbone, F. L., " Necessity of Staff Meetings," Lib. J., 1909, p. 299. Elliott, Julia, " Disadvantages of Library Government by School-boards," Pub. Lib., Dec, 1898, p. 407. Hill, F. P., " Organization and Management of a Library Staff," Lib. J., 1897, p. 381. James, M. S. E., '" American Women as Librarians," Lib'y, vol. 5, p. 270. 373 APPENDIX "Library Examinations and Methods of Appointment," Lib. J., 1901, p. 323. Lindsay, May B., " Changing from a Subscription Library to a Free Public Library," Lib. J., 1899, Conf. No., p. 73. SouLE, 0. C, " Trustees of Free Public Libraries," Lib. J., 1890, Conf. No., p. 19. Steabns, L. E., " How to Organize State Library Commis- sions," Lib. J., 1899, Conf. No., p. 16. Steiner, L. H., " Uniformity or Individuality in the Ad- ministration of Public Libraries," Lib. J., 1891, Conf. No., p. 57. Eeference Work Foster, W. E., " The Information Desk," Lib. J., 1894, p. 368. Hasse, a. E., " Building Up a Document Department," Pub. Lib., Feb., 1907, p. 48. " How to Keep Unbound Maps ; a Symposium," Lib. J., 1891, p. 72. Mawn, Margaret, " Government Documents," Puh. Lib., Nov., 1899, p. 405. Eanck, S. H., " Municipal Legislative Eeference Libraries," Lib. J., 1909, p. 345. " Eeference Work in Libraries " [a Symposium], Lib. J., 1891, p. 297. " Eeference Work With the General Public " [a Symposium], Pub. Lib., Feb., 1904, p. 55. " What We Do With Pamphlets " [a Symposium], Lib. J., 1889, pp. 433, 470. School Work Austin, Isabella, "What the School Needs from the Li- brary," Lib. J., 1909, p. 395. Elmendorf, H. L., "Public Library Books in Public Schools," Lib. J., 1900, p. 163. Ford, M. C, " The School Library Question in N. Y. City," Lib. J., 1905, p. 211. 374 APPENDIX Moore, A. C, "Library Visits to Public Schools," Lib. J., 1902, p. 181. " Public Libraries and Libraries in Schools " [a Symposium], Lib. J., 1909, p. 145. Eathbone, J. A., " Cooperation Between Libraries and Schools; an Historical Sketch," Lib. J., 1901, p. 187. " Schools and Libraries; a Symposium," Lib. J., 1897, p. 181. "Work Between Libraries and Schools; a Symposium," Lib. J., 1897, p. 181. Technical Collections Andrews, C. W., " Technical Collections in Public Li- braries," Lib. J., 1895, p. 6. Foster, W. E., " Use of a Library by Artisans," Lib. J., 1898, p. 188. Kroeger, Alice B., " Place of the Library in Technical Edu- cation," Lib. J., 1905, p. 393. "Library and the Workingman " [several articles]. Pub. Lib., March, 1908. Smith, T. L., " The Public Library and the Mechanic," Pub. Lib., Jan., 1910, p. 6. Stevens, E. F., "Industrial Literature and the Industrial Public," Lib. J., 1909, p. 95. Training A. L. A. Committee on Library Training ; annual reports in Proceedings. DoREN, E. C, " Special Training for Library Work," Pub. Lib., Jan., 1899, p. 3. Hasse, a. E., " Training of Library Employes," Lib. J., 1895, pp. 202, 239, 272, 303. Hazeltine, M. E., "Methods of Training in One Library School" [Wisconsin Lib. School], Lib. J., 1909, p. 253. "Library Schools and Training Classes; a Symposium," Lib. J., 1898, Conf. No., p. 59. 375 APPENDIX Moore, A. C., " Special Training for Children's Librarians," Puh. Lib., March, 1899, p. 99. Plummer, M. W., "Pros and Cons of Training for Li- brarianship," Pub. Lib., May, 1903, p. 208. TowNSEND, Eliza E., " Apprentice Work in the Small Public Library," Lib. J., 1909, p. 8. Traveling Libraries HuTCHiNS, F. A., " Traveling Libraries in Farming Com- munities," Lib. J., 1896, p. 171. Saokett, Gertrude, "Home Libraries and Reading Clubs," Lib. J., 1902, Conf. No., p. 72. " Traveling Libraries ; a Symposium," Pub. Lib., 1897, pp. 47-51, 54^55. INDEX Abbey, E. A., mural pictures by, in Boston, 314. Absence on leave, 196. Academy of Medicine library, N. Y., 74. Accession catalogue, 168. Accession record, on bill, 141. Accounts, library, 256. Acetylene lamps, 298. "Actual users," meaning of term, 37. Adams, Chas. Francis, address by, at Quincy, Mass., 14. Adams, Herbert B., book by, 372. report of, on Public Libraries, 5. Administration, A. L. A. com- mittee on, 264. list of books and articles on, 373. of independent library and branch compared, 239. regulated by statistics, 268. Administrative work of a staif, 192. Advertisements in libraries, 100. Affiliated societies (A. L. A.), 347. Age limit in libraries, 84. Aguilar Free Library, Avenue C Branch, 12. branch for children, 78. branch system, 16. children's library, 12. Albany, N. Y., Carnegie gift re- fused by, 210. Albany library school, 331, 332. Algebra, use of, in discussing rebinding, 228. Alphabetical arrangement in classification, 158. Alphabetization, principles of, 178. American Library Association, Book List of, 346. used in book selection, 130. Boston Conference of (1879), 14. Bulletin of, contents of, 346. established, 344. catalogue of, 30. cataloguing rules of, 181. Chautauqua Conference of, 16. chief library organization in Ui^ted States, 342. committee reports of, 369, 370, 375. committees of: committee on administra- tion, 264. 377 INDEX American Library Association — committees of : committee on bookbinding, 223. committee on cooperation with National Education Association, 104. committee on library admin- istration, 264. discussion of, on branches, 16. on children's work, 13. on fines, 49. on free access, 9, 10. on library training, 335. foi-mation of, 8. headquarters of, 345. Lake Placid Conference of, 10. list of editions by, 147. list of meetings of, and attend- ance, 364. Magnolia Conference of, 49. membership of, 348. Philadelphia Conference of, 13. Publishing Board of, 215. catalogue cards printed by, 187. San Francisco Conference of, 10. statistics of, on pensions, 199. American Library Institute, 342. history of, 351. American Printing House for the BUnd, 323. American Publishers' Associa- tion, 148. Americanization of foreigners, 52. Anglo - American cataloguing rules, 181. Analyticals, in catalogue, 177. Annotations in catalogues, 183. Annual American catalogue, used in book selection, 130. Application blank, New York, facsimile of, 35. St. Louis, facsimile of, 36. Apprentice classes, 332. Appropriations, classification of, 24. for library support, 23. standardization of, 257. Apsidal stack rooms, 279. Architect, functions of, 270. Arctic exhibit. New York Public Library, 87. Art galleries and libraries, 305. Art in libraries, list of books and articles on, 369. Assembly rooms in libraries, 280. Atlantic City, bi-state meeting at, 351. Auction, library distribution by, 8. purchase by, 144. Austin, Isabella, article by, 374. Authors, names of, in catalogue, 180. use of hbraries by, 63. Author catalogue, 175. Author marks for books, 165. Bailey, A. L., quoted, 121. Bain, J., article by, 369. Bar Association Library, N. Y., 74. Bay Ridge (Brooklyn) as library location, 245. Bibliographic classification, 157. Bibliotheque Nationale, cata- logue, 184. 378 INDEX Bibliothetio classification, 158. Bids for building contracts, 274. Billings, J. S., article by, 370. Bills as accession records, 141. Binding, 220. list of books and articles on, 369. strong original, 142, 221. Bi-state meetings, 351. Blind, alphabets for, illustra- tions of, 320. libraries for, 316. Bliss, H. E., "tally cards" de- vised by, for accession record, 170. Board of Health and the library, 53. Bolton, H. 0., article by, 369. Bookbinding, A. L. A. commit- tee on, 223. Book cards, 44. Book catalogues. 185. Book committees, 129. Book exhibitions, 306. "Book leagues," 94. Book numbers, 165. Book Review Digest, used in book selection, 130. Book selection and purchase, list of books and articles on, 369. Bookkeeping, library, 256. Bookseller, selection of, 141. Borrower's card. New York, fac- simile of, 44. St. Louis, facsimile of, 45. Boston, location of A. L. A. headquarters 345. traveling libraries in, 108. Boston Athenaeum, free access in, 10. Boston Conference of A. L. A., papers on schoolchildren's reading, 14. Boston line letter for blind, 318. Boston Public Library, 8, 19. annual lists issued by, 185. bills used in, for accession record, 170. branches of, 16. branches and stations of, 234. children's room in, 13. establishes first branch in United States, 15. mural decorations in, 314. Bostwick, A. E., articles by, 369, 373. comparison of branch systems by, 16. paper by, on fines, 49. Boutet de Monvel, 84. Bowdoin College Ubrary, 308. BraiUe, Louis, inventor of Braille type, 319. Braille system for blind, 318. Braille type, music in, 326. Branch libraries, 15, 233. history of, 15. Bray, Dr. Thomas, church U- braries established by, 5. Brett, W. H., article by, 371. report of, on free access, 10. British and Foreign Blind As- sociation, 324. British Museum catalogue, 184. Brookline Public Library, chil- dren's room in, 12, 13. Brooklyn, library sites in, 245. 379 INDEX Brooklyn Public Library, branches of, 236. Carroll Park Branch, plan of basement in, 280. Flatbush Branch, plan of, 281. shelf Ust of, 248. Brown, James Duff, books by, 370, 372. on museums, 303. order of catalogue entries given by, 182. Browne, Nina E., article by, 371. Browne charging system, 46. Brownsville (Brooklyn) as li- brary location, 245. Bruce Library, N. Y., first chil- dren's room in, 12. Brushes, metallic, for cleaning exteriors, 289. Brussels Institute of Bibliog- raphy, 164. Buffalo Pubhc Library, chil- dren's corner in, 13. is it "public"? 19. Buildings (libraries), 270. list of books and articles on, 370. unwise gifts for, 208. Bulletins, library periodicals, 215. illustrated, 85. in schools, 97. Bullock, E. D., article by, 370. Bureau of Education (United States), 29. Bush wick (Brooklyn) as library location, 245. Business man's library, 117. "Butterfly type" of library, 280. Cabinets for catalogues, 183. Cambridge Public Library, chil- dren's room in, 13. Carbon lamps, 300. Card catalogues, 183. Card charging sy.stems, 43. Cards, restriction of, to one branch, 246. Carnegie, Andrew, article by, 372. donation of, to A. L. A., 346. gifts of, 208. Carnegie Library, Atlanta, li- brary school at, 331. Carr, H. J., article by, 371. Carriers, mechanical, 59, 284. CarroU Park Branch, Brooklyn, basement plan of, 280. Catalogue, A. L. A., 30. general, 175. Catalogue cards, L. C, 29. Catalogues and classiBcation, list of books and articles on, 370. for the blind, 325. union, 248. Cataloguing, 168. Anglo-American rules for, 181. centralization in, 250. Censorship, 131. Centralization in branch systems, 236. in cataloguing, 250. Chairs, 295. Charging desks, 291. importance of, 54. Charging systems, 42. Chautauqua Conference, A. L. A., 16. Chestnut Hill (Philadelphia), as hbrary location, 245. 380 INDEX Chicago, Public Library, avoid- ance of duplication in, 73. delivery stations of, 16, 234. offer of, as A. L. A., head- quarters, 345. Chicago University Libraries, 278. Children, tables and chairs for, 295. Children's Aid Society, home li- braries of, 108. schools of, 100. Children's corners, 77. Children's library, first (New York), 11. Children's room, closed at noon, 100. combined with assembly room, 281. Children's rooms, history of, 11. objections to, 89. Children's work, 76. hst of books and articles on, 371. Chivers C, article by, 369. Chronological arrangement, 158. "Circulation" of traveling li- braries, meaning of word, 111. record of, 42. reported by time, 127. statistics of, 259. Circulation tray, 293. Circulation work, list of books and articles on, 371. Civic Centers, 276. Civil Service rules in libraries, 200. Class libraries, 96. Class list, distinguished from shelf hst, 171. Classed catalogue, 175. Classification, 152. for purposes of report, 261. Cleveland Public Library, 331. children's corner in, 13. free access in, 10. school work in, 15. Closed-shelf libraries, 38. children in, 77. Closed-shelf loan desk, 292. Closed shelves, for text-books, 103. Clubs, library, list of, 367. Codification of rules, customs, etc., 204. Cole, G. W., articles by, 370. on branches and stations, 16. Collections, in children's rooms, 86. separate, 278. Colonial libraries, 5. Columbia University, first li- brary school in, 330. Columbia University library. New York, 74. Columbus Public Library, free access in, 10. Commercial libraries, 120. Commercial Museum library, Philadelphia, 121. Commissions, library, 26. aided by State Associations, 349. list of, 365. Commission work, 28. Committees, local, for branches, 213. of library board, 22. 381 INDEX Competitions, architectural, 272. Compilation by librarians, sug- gested. 218. in libraries, 63. Condemnation of worn books, 134, 231. Conference, National of 1876, 343. Conferences of A. L. A. discussed, 344. See also American Library Association. Congressional Library, see Li- brary of Congress. Connecticut Public Library Com- mittee, institute held by, 354. Contract between city and U- brary, 21. Contractors for buildings, 275. Cooper-Hewitt hght, 302. Cooperation with schools, his- tory of, 14. CopjTight Act, importation clauses in, 149. Copyright Conference, 1906-7, 30. Copyright question, 30. Cost of a book, 221. of circulation, 132. Council of A. L. A., changes in, 345. County libraries, 27. Crane, Walter, illustrator, 85. Craver, Harrison W., on tech- nology libraries, 122. Cross entries in catalogue, 176. Crunden, F. M., articles by, 372, 373. Cumulative Book Index, used in book selection, 130. Cutter, C. A., as author, 219 article by, 371. inventor of Expansive Classi- fication, 162. on C. F. Adams's address, 14. "Cutter numbers.'' 165. Dana, J. C, as author, 219. book by, 372. Dates of charging, 46. Davis, M. L., article by, 373. Decimal classification (Dewey), 162. Decoration in Ubraries, 309. Dehvery stations, 233. history of, 16. Delinquency in library iise, 247. Denver Public Library, chil- dren's room in, 13. Departmental arrangement in libraries, 278. Depositary hbraries, 29, 72. Deposits in schools, 17. Detroit Public Library, chil- dren's room in, 13. school work in, 15. Dewey, Melvil, 9. article by, 372. as author, 219. first library school organized by, 330. inventor of Decimal Classifi- cation, 162. list of children's libraries pub- lished by, 12. Dictionary catalogue, 175. Direct-radiation heating, 295. Discarding, 231. Disciphne in children's rooms, 93. 382 INDEX Discipline in children's rooms, legal phases of, 32. Discounts on books, to libraries, 149. Disinfection of books, 53. Documents, in libraries, 71. Donations, 206. Donnelly, June R., director of library school, 368. Doren, E. C, article by, 375. Dousman, Mary E., articles by, 13, 369. Draper, S. A., article by, 372. Dudgeon, M. S., director of U- brary school, 368. DupUcation, avoidance of, 73. in Ubrary work, 114. of books, 133. Dust, accumulation and removal of, 289. East Boston Branch, Boston Public Library, first branch in United States, 15. East Liberty Branch, Pittsburgh, floor plan of, 279. East Orange, N. J., branches in, 16. East Side, New York, reading on, 127. Eastman, L. A., article by, 371. Editions, choice of, 147. new, of reference books, 144. Education, a lifelong process, 105. Bureau of, report of, 373. Educational influence of library, 25. Elmendorf, H. L., article by, 374. Emplojrment in libraries, con- ditions of, 334. Endowment, how controlled, 25. English catalogue, used in book selection, 130. English criticisms of American libraries, 3. Enoch Pratt Libraiy, branches of, 16. Eskimo stories at library, 87. Examinations for promotion, 200. Executive Board, A. L. A., 344. Exhibitions in children's rooms, 87. Expansive Classification (Cut- ter), 162. Expiration of guaranty, 38. Fairchild, S. C, article by, 372. Federal relations of Ubraries, 29. Fiction in libraries, 126. " ribbon " arrangement of, 167. Finances, library, 24. Financial statistics, 256. Fines for retention of books, 49. how disposed of, 24. Fireproof library buildings, 286. Fixed location, 166. Fixtures for lighting, 297. Flatbush (Brooklyn), as library location, 245. Flatbush Branch, Brooklyn, floor plan of, 281. Fletcher, W. I., article by, 370. as author, 219. book by, 372. Floor duty, 55. Floors in libraries, 287. 383 INDEX Ford, M. C, article by, 374. Foreign languages, books in, 51. Foster, W. E., articles by, 371, 374, 375. on the school and the library, 15. Frankford (Phila.), as library location, 245. Free access, see Open Shelf, 369. Fro.sted lamps, 300. Furnaces, 295. Furniture for libraries, 291. Gardner's Trust for the Blind (London), 324. Garv'in, Ethel, on trade books, 123. Genealogical material in libra- ries, 71. Geographical arrangement, 158. Germantown (Phila.), as li- brary location, 245. Gifts to libraries, 206. Government documents, 71. Greenwich Village (N. Y. City), as library location, 245. Guarantors, responsibility of, 32. Guaranty, conditions of, 36. Hall, Drew B., improved acces- sion record of, 170. "Hall use," statistics of, 259. Hanaway, Emily S., children's library opened by, 11. Handbooks to libraries, 217. Harlem (New York City), as library location, 245. Harper, W. R., plan of, for de- partmental libraries in University of Chicago,278. Hasse, A. R., articles by, 374, 375. Hassler, H. E., article by, 371. Hawthorne collection at Bow- doin, 308. Hazeltine, M. E., article by, 375. Headquarters of A. L. A., 345. Heating systems, 295. Hewlett, James M., mural proofs by, 312. Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 10. Hill, F. P., articles by, 372, 373. Historical material in libraries, 71. Hitchler, Theresa, book by, 371. inventor of form of union shelf list, 248. Hoagland Merica, director li- brary school, 368. Holidays, how treated, 195. Home libraries, 112. Home use of traveling libraries, 111. statistics of, 259. Hours of opening, 54. working, in a library, 193. Hutching, F. A., article by, 376. lies, George, article by, 371. Illinois, University of, library school, 331. Illinois School for the Blind, 324. Illumination, 297. Importation, duty-free, 149. Independent, The, quoted, 123. Indiana summer library school, 331. Indicators, 38. Indirect-radiation heating, 295. 384 INDEX Ink, use of, for lettering books, 225. In-print books, lists of, 130. Institutes, Library, 27, 354. Interbranch loan system, 250. InterUbrary loans, 74. saving by, 135. International conference of 1877, 344. International copyright, 150. Inventors, use of library by, 66. Inventory, 172, 258. formula for taking, 174. in free-access libraries, 40. Investigation, use of library in, 65. Iowa summer library school, 331. Iowa traveUng libraries, 17. Irish, as readers, 244. James, M. S. R., article by, 373. Janitors' quarters in hbraries, 284. Jeffers, Leroy, list of editions by, 147. Jersey City Public Library, de- livery station .system of, 16. deUvery stations of, 234. Jewett, Chas. C, president of Conference of 1853, 343. John Crerar Library, Chicago, avoidance of duplication in, 73. Jones, John Winter, president of London Conference, 1877, 344. Kansas, traveling libraries in, 108. Kansas, traveling library com- mission in, 28. Kent, Henry W., as author, 219. Keogh, Andrew, article by, 372. Kingsbridge (N. Y. City), as library location, 245. Kitchens for staff, 201. Kleidograph (N. Y. point type- writer), 323. Koopman, H. L., as author, 219. Kroeger, Alice B., article by, 375. Labels, museum, 304. Lake Placid Conference, A. L. A., 10. Larned, J. N., article by, 370. as author, 219. Latin races, as library users, 244. League of Library Commissions, 27, 342. "Leagues" for children, 94. Lectures, New York Public Li- brary, 88. Ledger charging systems, 42. Legislation on libraries, 8. Lenox Branch, New York ex- hibitions in, 306. Lettering of book-backs, 225. Librarian, relations of, with trustees, 22. Libraries, American, list of ar- ticles and books on, 372. circulating over 100,000 year- ly, list of, 359. Library Association of the United Kingdom, founded, 344. cataloguing rules of, 181. Library buildings, 270. Library Clubs, list of, 367. 385 INDEX Library Commissions, see Com- missions. "Library Council," 203. Library Journal, founding of, 344. "Children's rooms" in index to, 11. Library of Congress, 29. catalogue cards of, 186. substitute for accession record used in, 170. Library schools, 331. list of, 368. Licenses for librarians, 28. "Life "of a book, 142. Lifts, electric, for books, 288. Lighting, 297. Linderfelt, K. A., article by, 372. Lindsay, May B., article by, 374. Line systems for blind, 318. Linguistic arrangement, 158. Linoleum for floors, 288. Linotype, use of, in cataloguing, 185. Lists for book selection, 130. Loan desk, see Charging Desks. Local collections, 305. Location on shelves, 166. Logical arrangement, 158. London conference of librarians, 9. of 1877, 344. Longfellow collection at Bow- doin, 308. Lord, I. E., articles by, 370, 372. Louisville tri-state meeting, 351. Lowell Public Library, children's corner in, 13. Lynn Public Library, children's room in, 13. Magnolia Conference, A. L. A., 49. Mail circulation of blind books, 327. Maine library laws, 8. Manuscripts, 70. Maps in reference libraries, 69. Marshalltown, Iowa, Library, floor plan of, 282. Massachusetts Library Club, 10. Massachusetts library laws, 8. Mawn, M., article by, 374. Mechanics' library, 117. Medford Public Library, chil- dren's comer in, 13. Melbourne, Australia, traveling libraries, 17. Mending of books. 220, 231. list of articles and books on, 369. Menomonie, Wis., Public Li- brary, 17. Mercantile hbraries, 6. Merchants' Association libraries, New York and Boston, 121. Michigan traveling libraries, 17. Milwaukee Public Library, children's room in, 13. Minneapohs Public Library, free access in, 10. Missing books (inventory), 173. Mnemonic notations (classifica- tion), 161. Model school library, 99. Modern features, history of, 9. Modern library idea, 1. Montana travehng Hbraries, 17. Moon, Dr. William, type for blind, invented by, 319. 386 INDEX Moon Society, Brighton, Eng- land, 324. Moon system for blind, 318. Moore, A. C, articles by, 371, 375, 376. Moore Light, 302. Montgomery, T. L., article by, 372. Morel, E., book by, 373. Municipality, connection of, with library, 20. Mural decoration, 311. Museum, library as a, 303. of Natural History, New York, cooperation of, with New York Public Library, 87. and Ubrary, list of books and articles on, 369. Music for the blind, 326. in libraries, 71. shelving for, 294. Narrative in libraries, 126. National Association of State Librarians, 342. National Education Association, library section of, 104. Negroes in public libraries, 52. Nelson, Martha F., 9. • Nernst lamp, 300. Net books, 14S. New Hampshire library laws, 8. New Haven Public Library, children's room in, 13. New Jersey Library Associa- tion, 351. New Jersey summer class, 355. New York City, Am. Braille adopted by Board of Ed- ucation of, 321. New York City, conference of 1853 in, 343. list of libraries in, 354. New York Free Circulating Li- brary, branch system of, 16. children's room in, 12. report of reading in, by days, 127. travehng library department of, 17. New York Library Association, 348. New York Library Club, 348. pubhcations by, 354. New York Point, catalogue in, 325. system for bUnd, 318. New York PubUc Library, an- nual request of, for gifts, 213. bUnd catalogue of, 325. bUnd use of, outside of state, 327. book-order slip of, 139. books for very yoimg chil- dren in, 84. branch and station use of, compared, 234. branch reading rooms of, 68. children's rooms in, 12. number of volumes in, 13. combination reading and as- sembly rooms in, 282. duplication in, avoidance of, 74. in branches, 135. exhibitions in Lenox Branch of, 306. fines in, 49. 20 387 INDEX New York Public Library, holi- day force in, 195. instructor in mending in, 232. is it "public"? 19. maintenance of Carnegie branches of, 209. map of branches of, 235. model school collection in, 99. music for the blind in, 326. Port Richmond Branch, floor plan of, 283. publications of, 216. reading in, at East and West Side branches, 127. St. Gabriel's Park Branch, lighting diagram of, 299. salaries in, 198. school department of (first in United States), 15. Tompkins Square Branch, 12. training of employees in, 334. traveling libraries of, 18, 109. use of ready-made cards by, 188. New York School for the BUnd, 319. New York State, allotment in, to libraries, 24. conditions of state appropria- tion in, 264. definition of " pubhc Ubrary " in, 20. traveling libraries of, 17. New York State Library, early classification in, 159. New York State (Albany) library school, 331, 332. Newark charging system, 45. Newark (N. J.) Free Library, 120. Newark (N. J.) Free Library, pubUcations of, 218. Newberry Library, Chicago, ar- rangement of books in, 278. avoidance of dupUcation in, 73. catalogue of, 184. Newspaper for the staff, 205. Newspaper rooms, 58, 68. Nicholson, J. B., article by, 369. Notation of a classification, 154, 161. Ohio, libra- by, bill for licensing rians in, 28. library laws of, 8. Olcott, Frances J., article 371. director library school, 368. Omaha Public Library, chil- dren's room in, 13. One-card charging system, 43. Open shelf, history of, 9. influence of, on cataloguing, 189. Open-shelf hbraries, 38. classification in, 161. loan desks in, 292. rooms %n (buildings), 278. Ordering of books, 137- Organizations of librarians, 342. Organizers, 27. Osterhout Library, Wilkesbarre, Pa., children's room in, 13. Outlets, electric, 298-9. Out-of-print books, 145. Out-of-stock books, 145. Overbrook, Pa., Institute for Blind, 324. 388 INDEX Qxtord University, traveling libraries from, 17 Palmer, W. M., article by, 370. Pawtucket, R. I., Free Library, 9. children's corner in, 13. Pay-duplicate system, 20, 50, ' 135. Peary's "snow-baby" sled, at library, 87. Pensions for librarians, 199. Pennsylvania Library Club, 351. Percentages of circulation to stock, 129. comparison of, 128. of fiction, 126-7. Periodicals, reference use of, 38. Perkins Institution for the Blind, 324. Peterborough, N. H., library, 8. Philadelphia Conference, A. L. A., 343. discussion of children's work at, 13. Philadelphia, Free Library of, branch system of, 234. branches of, 16. combination children's and assembly room in, 281. free access in, 11. traveling libraries of, 18. library sites in, 245. Philadelphia Library Co., 6, 7. Philanthropy in the library, 206. Phonograph records in libraries, 71. Picture bulletins, 85. Pictures in children's rooms, 85. on hbrary walls, 309. Pianola rolls in libraries, 71. Pirated books, definitions of, 150. Pittsburgh, Carnegie Library of, branches and stations of, 234. children's room in, 13. plan of East Liberty Branch of, 279. technology department of, 122. Pittsburgh library school (chil- dren's work), 331. Plans for buildings, 274. Pledge signed in children's rooms, 94. Plummer, Mary W., article by, 376. on children's rooms, 12. book by, 373. director library school, 368. Pneumatic cleaners, 290. Pocket charging systems, 46. Point systems for blind, 318. Poole,' R. B., article by, 369. Poole, W. F., as author, 219. on accession book, 169. plan of, for Newberry Li- brary, 278. Port Richmond Branch, New York Public Library, floor plan of, 283. Postage, free for blind, 30. reduced for libraries, 30, 135. Poster pictures, German,"311. Pratt Institute Free Library, appUed science depart- ment of, 124. branches of, 16. children's room in, 13. 389 INDEX Pratt Institute Free Library, is it "public"? 19. Pratt Institute library school, 331, 333. Prefixes to names, in catalogue, 180. Prices, as affected by A. P. A., 148. Princeton classification, 163. Print departments, 70, 308. Prints, for schools, 99. Promotions, 199. Providence Public Library, children's room in, 13. technology department of, 122. Provident Association Library, St. Louis, 121. Public and the library, 34. Public Libraries, list of chil- dren's rooms in, 12. " Public " Library, definition of, 19. Public Service Commission li- brary, New York, 121. Public support for libraries, propriety of, 25. Publishers for the blind, list of, 323. Publishers' Association, 48. Publishers' Circular, used in book selection, 130. Publishers' Weekly, used in book selection, 130. Publishing Board of A. L. A., 346. Purchase of books, 137. in branch system, 240. Putnam, Herbert, on free access, 10. Putnam, Herbert, policy of, 29. Puvis de Chavannes, pictures by, in Boston, 314. Pyle, Howard, illustrator, 85. Questionnaires, 265. Questions asked in reference li- braries, 61. Quincy, Josiah, 8. Quincy, Mass., teacher's meet- ing in, 14. Quincy Public Library, school deposits in, 14. Radial stacks, 279. Radiators, 296. Ranck, S. H., article by, 374. Rankin, Julia T., director li- brary school, 368. Rathbone, J. A., articles by, 373, 375. Readers, distribution of, 269. enumeration of, 37. Reading, outside of libraries, 127. Reading rooms, 56. combined with assembly rooms (New York), 282. for children, 83. in Sunday schools, 102. open-air (roof gardens), 284. Rebinding of books, 227. Receipts, how treated, 24. Reference books, for children, 98. Reference rooms, 56. Reference work, list of books and articles on, 374. Reflection, lighting by, 301. 390 INDEX Registration, central, 247. in children's rooms, 93. of readers, 36. Relative location, on shelves, 166. Repairing books, 220. Replacement of books, 133. how treated on accession rec- ord, 171. or rebinding? 228. Reports, annual, 255. contents of, 266. of expenditures, 24. Reprinting by libraries, sug- gested, 215. of out-of-print books, 146. Reprints, unauthorized, 150. Reserve system, 48. "Revolving Library" at Kit- tery, Me., 6. "Ribbon" arrangement for fic- tion, 167. Richardson, E. C, book by, 371. on classification, 157. Princeton classification de- vised by, 163. Richmond, Va., Carnegie gift refused by, 210. Robbins, Mary E., director li- brary school, 368. Roof gardens on libraries, 284. Royal Blind Asylum, Edinburgh, 324. Rubber tile floors, 288. Rudolph Indexer, 184. Rules, codification of, 204. for cataloguing, 181. Sackett, Gertrude, article by, 376. St. Gabriel's Park Branch, New York, lighting diagram of, 299. St. Louis plan for duplicates, 20, 50, 135. St. Louis Public Library, fac- simile of application blank in, 36. of borrower's card in, 45. Salaries, 197, 336. Salisbury, Conn., library, 8. San Francisco Conference, A. L. A., 10. San Francisco Public Library, children's room in, 13. Sand blast for cleaning exteriors, 289. Schedule of working time, 195. School assistant, 97. School Departments in libraries, 96. School instruction in library, 98. School work, 95. history of, 14. list of articles and books on, 374. Scrapbook card catalogues, 184. Scudder, Horace E., volume on " PubUc Libraries One Hundred Years Ago," 6. Seaman's Friend Society, travel- ing libraries of, 17. Seattle Public Library, chil- dren's room in, 13. Second-hand books, 142. Sections, of A. L. A., 346. Selection, of books, 125. regulated by statistics, 268. of children's books, 80. 391 INDEX Selective education, 106. in library schools, 337. Self -registration by children, 93. Sets of volumes, 143. Sharp, K. L., article by, 373. Sheaf catalogue, 185. Sheets, unbound, purchase of, 142. Shelf arrangement, 153. Shelf list, 171. union, in branch system, 248. Shelf-list sheets, illustration of, 172. Shelving, 294. for blind books, 325. for music, 294. Sibley, Mary J., director library school, 368. Simmons College library school, 331. Sites for Ubraries, 276. Sixth Ave., N. Y., experience of branch on, 243. Smith, Goldwin, on public sup- port, 25. Smith, T. L., article by, 375. "Social Libraries" of Massachu- setts, 7. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 5. Soule, C. C, article by, 374. Southern states, negroes in li- braries in, 52. Special cards, 41. Special Libraries Association, 120, 342. Specifications, preliminary, for buildings, 272. Springfield City Library, bills for accession record in, 170. Stack room, 277. Staff of a library, 192. Staff meetings, 202. Staff rooms, 201. Stained glass in a library, 286. Stairs, location of, 284. Standards, duplication of, 135. Stansbury, A. L., article by, 370. State, library and, 19. State Commissions, see Com- missions. State Library Associations, 348. list of, 366. State traveling libraries, 108. Statistics, library, 253. of traveling libraries. 111. Stations, distributing and de- livery, 233. Steam heat, 295. Stearns, L. E., article by, 374. Steiner, B. C, on free access, 10. Steiner, L. H., article by, 374. Stencils for mural decoration, 312. Stevens, E. F., article by, 375. Stewart, J. D., book by, 371. Stone and Webster's Ubrary, Boston, 121, Story hours, 88. Stout, Hon. I. H., donor of trav- eling libraries, 17, 108. Study rooms, 57. Subject catalogue, 175. Subject headings, 176. Subscription books, 143. Subscription libraries, 6. Summer library schools, 331. Sunday use of libraries, 54. Sunday-school libraries, 101. 392 INDEX Supervision in children's rooms, 90. Supplementary reading, 96. Syracuse University library school, 331. Tables (furniture), 295. lighting of, 298. Tally cards for accession record, 170. Taxation, support of library by, 23. Teacher for blind, on library staff, 328. Teachers and librarians, joint meetings of, 104. objections to children's rooms by, 92. privileges of, 100. Technical collections, list of ar- ticles and books on, 375. Technical literature, 119. Technology departments, 120. Terrazzo, for floors, 288. Teutonic races, as library users, 244. Text-books, 102. Theft, in free-access libraries, 39. of text-books, 103. punishment of, 33. Thomson, O. R. H., article by, 371. Time during which books may be held, 47. Time sheet, illustration of, 194. Title catalogue, 175. Titles, personal, in catalogue, 180. Torrey,.C. A., article by, 373. Town libraries, history of, 6. Townsend, Eliza E., article by, 376. Trade, comparisons with, 3. Trade List Annual, used in book selection, 130. Trades, literature of, 118. Training for librarianship, 330. library, list of books and ar- ticles on, 375. Training classes, 332. Traveling libraries, 108. for schools, 96, 99. history of, 17. list of books and articles on, 376, maintained by states, 27. Traveling Library Commission, 28. Tremont (N. Y. City), as li- brary location, 245. Trenton, N. J., Public Library, 9. Tri-state meeting, 351. Trustees, duties of, 22. Tube lamps, 302. Tungsten lamps, 300. Twenty-third St., N. Y., expe- rience of branch on, 243. Two-book system, 41. Two-card charging systems, 44. Type systems for blind, 317. Typewriters, use of, in catalogu- ing, 185. for blind, 323. Union catalogues, in branch sys- tems, 248. Union shelf list, 171. U. S. catalogue, used in book selection, 130. 393 INDEX U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, catalogue cards issued by, 187. Vacation privilege, 41. Vacations, 196. Vicuum cleaners, 290. Ventilation, 297. Vermont library laws, 8. Vincent, Geo. E., article by, 373. Virginia, traveling libraries in, 108. Waite, Wm. R., inventor of N. Y. Point, 319. Walls, washed or repainted, 290. Walter, Frank K., vice-director library school, 368. Warren and Clark, volume on " PubHc Libraries " edited by, 7. Water-curtains, 287. Weitenkampf, F., article by, 369. West Side, N. Y., reading on, 127. Western Reserve hbrary school, 331. White, E. E., 11. Whittelsey, Julia M., director library school, 368. Willcox, E. S., article by, 372. WilUs, Ralph T., mural proofs by, 312. Wilmington, Del., Institute li- brary, 121. Windows in libraries, 285. Windsor, P. L., director library school, 368. Winsor, Justin, as author, 219. on accession book, 170. Wisconsin, travehng libraries in, 17, 108. Women as library assistants, 121. health of, 197. Women readers, favored by li- braries, 123. Woodlawn (N. Y. City), as li- brary location, 245. Worcester Public Library, school work in, 15. Wyer, J. I., director hbrary school, 368. Xavier Society, 323. YorkvUle (N. Y. City), as h- brary location, 245. a) THE END THE STORY OF THE WEST SERIES. Edited by RIPLEY HITCHCOCK. Illustrated, 12mo, cloth, $1.50. The Story of the Soldier. By General G. A. Forsyth, U. S. Army (retired). Illustrated by R. F. Zogbaum. The Story of the Railroad. By Cy Warman, Author of "The Express Messenger," etc. With Maps and many Illustrations by B. West Clinedinst and from photographs. The Story of the Cowboy. By E, Hough, Author of " The Singing Mouse Stories," etc. Illustrated by William L. Wells and C. M. Russell. "Mr. Hough is to be thanked for having written so excellent a book. The cow- boy story, as this author has told it, will be the cowboy's fitting eulogy. This vol- ume will be consulted in years to come as an authority on past conditions of the far West. For fine literary work the author is to be highly complimented. Here, cer- tainly, we have a choice piece of writing." — New York Times. 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Few important writers of Whitman's day on either side of the Atlantic but were discussed by him in the course of these conversations." — New York Times. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK, THE GREATEST LIVING ACTRESS. Memories of My Life. By Sarah Bernhardt. Profusely illustrated. 8vo. Ornamental cloth, $4.00 net ; postage 30 cents additional. The most famous of living actresses, Sarah Bern- hardt has lived life to the full as a builder and manager of theatres, author, painter and sculptor. She turned' her theatre into a hospital during the Siege of Paris. She played French classics in a tent in Texas. She wrote " Memories of My Life " with her own hand, and with her own inimitable verve. " Great is Bernhardt, and great is any true description of her life, for nothing more fascinatingly brilliant could have come from the mind of the most daring of fictionists. The autobiography is as interesting to those who care nothing for the theatre as to those devoted to it. " — Baltimore Sun. 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"Destined to take rank as one of the two or three most remarkable self-portrayals of a human life ever committed to posterity." — Franklin H. Giddings, LL.D., in the Independent. An Autobiography by Herbert Spencer. With Illustrations. Many of them from the Author's Own Drawings. Cloth, 8vo. Gilt Top. Two vols, in a box, $5.50 net. Postage, 40 cents additional. "It is rare, indeed, that a man who has so profoundly influenced the intellectual development of his age and generation has found time to record the history of his owu life. And this Mr. Spencer has done so simply, so frankly, and with such obvious truth, that it is not surprising that Huxley is reported as having said, after reading it in manuscript, that it reminded him of the 'Confessions' of Rousseau, freed from every objectionable taint." — New York Globe. " As interesting as fiction ? There never was a novel so interesting as Herbert Spencer s 'An Autobiography'." — New York Herald. " It is rich in suggestion and observation, of wide significance and appeal in the sincerity, the frankness, the lovableness of its human note." — New York Mail and Express. " The book, as a whole, makes Spencer's personality a reality for us, where heretofore it has been vaguer than his philosophical abstrac- tions."— ^ijA« White Chadwick in Current Literature. " In all the literature of its class there is nothing like it. It bears the same relationship to autobiographical productions as Boswell's ' Life of Johnson ' bears to biographies." — Philadelphia Press. " This book will always be of importance, for Herbert Spencer was a great and original thinker, and his system of philosophy has bent the thought of a generation, and will keep a position of commanding interest." — Joseph O'Connor in the New York Times " Planned and wrought for the purpose of tracing the events of his life and the growth of his opinions, his autobiography does more than that. 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