Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031274594 THE ESSENTIALS Medical Chemistby AND URINALYSIS. BY SAM E. WOODY, A. M., M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Pvblic Hygiene, and Clinical Lectwrer o^i Diseases of Children, in the Kentucky Scliool of Medicine, SeCOISTX) IEjX)ITIOIT, (REVISED AND ENLAKGED, WITH EIGHTY-PIVE ILLUSTRATIONS.) LOUJSVILJ>JE : John P. Mokton & Co., Pueushers. ® /l-z'g^yf CORNELL^ UNIVE.' 13 22 INOEGANIC CHEMISTRY. The student should learn these tables thoroughly, for with them he can easily know the formul* of all the principal inor- ganic and organic compounds. II. The Chlorine Group. Name. Deriyation of Name. Fluorine Fluor spar Ohlomne x^pk, green ... Bromine Bpa/tio^, stink Symbol. F CI... Br .. At. \Yi. . 19 . 35. T) . 80 .127 Iodine l^Srjc, violet I The members of this group are all univalent and much alike in their sources and physical and chemical properties. They differ in degree rather than in kind, forming a graded series. Hence we will consider them all together. Sources. Never free in nature. The princi- pal source of fluorine is fluor spar (CaF2), while compounds of chlorine, bromine, and iodine are abundant in sea and other salt waters. Preparation. Fluor- ine has probably never been isolated ; the oth- ers may be prepared Pig. 15. by removing the hydrogen from their hydrogen salts "(hydracids) by means of oxygen derived from manganese dioxide, thus : 4HCl-fMnO.=MnCl2+2H20+Cl2.* 4HBr-fMn02=MnBr2-f2H20-|-Br2. 4HI-|-Mn02=Mnl2+2H20+L. Physical Properties. Fluorine is not known in the free state, "Experiment. Into a flask standing in a cup of sand over a heater (Pig. 1.5) pour several ounces nl hydrochloric acid and half as much black oxide of manganese, and agitate. The gas passes out through the wash bottle, and, being heavier than air, collects in the tall cylinder, where its yellowish-green color makes it visible. INORGANIC CHEMISTEY. 28 but probably a colorless gas. Chlorine is a very irritating yellow- ish-green gas, two and a half times aa heavy as air, slightly soluble in water (three volumes), forming "Aqua chlori, U. S." Bromine is a red liquid, giving ofF red vapors of a disagreeable, irritating odor; very slightly soluble in water. Iodine is a solid, in bluish-gray scales, which, when warmed, give off violet vapors ; insoluble in water except by the interven- tion of an alkaline iodide ; * soluble in alcohol ; irritating, even caustic. Chemical Properties. Intensely elec- tro-negative ; great affinity for the metals, f especially hydrogen. J In negativeness, and consequently in af- finity for the metals, F is greatest, 01 next, Br next, and I least. Therefore, in compounds with the metals, F will displace CI, and CI will displace Br, and either F, CI, or Br will displace I.§ These elements destroy coloring mat- * '' ters and noxious effluvia in two ways: (1) by abstracting their hydrogen ; (2) by abstracting the hydrogen of water, setting free nascent oxygen, which oxidizes the matters in question. || Fig. 16. * Experiment. To some water iu a test-tube add a few scales oi iodine ; it does not dissolve. Now add a crystal of potassivirn iodide; it dissolves easily. t Experiment. Into a jar of chlorine introduce some copper or bronze foil, or sprinkle some powdered antimony. They inflame spontaneously. t Experiment, (a) Into a jar of chlorine lower a lighted candle. (Fig. 16.) The hydrogen of the tallow burns in the chlorine to form hydrochloric acid, and all the carbon is liberated as smoke. (6) Into a similar jar thrust a piece of paper dipped in warm turpentine. It inflames sxjontaneously and burns, evolving dense clouds of smoke. i Experiment. Take two large test-tubes half full of water. Into oue put a grain of potassium bromide, into the other potassium iodide ; add chlorine- water to each. The chlorine will liberate the bromine in one and the iodine in the other. This may be shown (a) by their color ; (&) by adding a few drops of carbon bisulphide or chloroform, which on agitation wiU gather all the free bromine and iodine, and be colored brown with the one and violet with the other; (c) add a few drops of starch- water, which will give brown with bromine and a deep blue with iodine. II Experiment, (tt) Into one bottle of chlorine gas introduce a piece of dry calico, into another a moist piece. The moist calico is rapidly bleached, while the dry is but slowly affected. (6) To a solution of indigo, cochineal, or some aniline color add chlorine-water. It is immediately decolorized. 24 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, Medical. Chlorine gas and bromine vapor are used for disin- fection. Inhaled they cause severe coryza and bronchitis. Taken into the stomach, bromine and iodine cause gastro-enteritis. The antidote is boiled starch. Locally bromine is used as an eschar- otic and iodine as a counter-irritant. Pharmaceutical. The following preparations are officinal : Tinctura lodi (3j-0j); and Liquor lodi Compositus (Lugol's Solu- tion) (Iodine gvi, potassium iodide ^ iss, and water Oj). The so-called colorless tincture of iodine is made by adding ammonia- Fig. 18. Lorameuiil Prtparation of Hri. water to the tincture until it is decolorized by converting the iodine into ammonium iodide. Tests. In the free state chlorine and bromine may be known by their bleaching, color, odor, etc. Iodine is recognized by the blue color it strikes with starch. Acids. All acids have, as their (positive) basylous radical, hydrogen, which may be replaced by metals to form salts. They may generally be recognized by a sour taste and the property of turning vegetable blues (e. g. litmus or purple cabbage) to reds. Acids whose acidulous (negative) radicals contain oxygen are INORGANIC CHEMISTEY. 25 called oxacids ; those containing uo oxygen, hydracids. The mem- bers of the chlorine group form both classes of acids. The hydracids of the chlorine group are as follows : H+r=HF— Hydrogen Fluoride— Hydrofluoric acid. H-fCl=HCl— Hydrogen Chloride — Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid. H+Br=HBr— Hydrogen Bromide— Hydrobromic acid. H-|-I=HI— Hydrogen Iodide— Hydriodic acid. Binary compounds — i. e. those of only two elements— are named by calling first the name of the positive and then that of the neg- ative radical, affixing to the latter the termination "ide." Fig. 19. Prepared by treating the appropriate salt with H2SO4, thus: CaF2+H2S04=CaS04+2HF. 2NaCl+ H3S04=]Sra2S04-f 2HC1 .* 2KBr+H2S04=K2S04+2HBr. 2KI+H2S04=K2S04+2HI. Physical Properties. Colorless, irritating gases ; sharp, sour taste; very soluble, water dissolving several hundred times its own volume, forming aqvxe known by the simple name of the acid ='■' Sxperiment. To prepare hydrochloric acid in the laboratory, put sev- eral oxtnces of common .salt and about twice as much sulphuric acid into a flask fitted as .shown in Fig. 19. Hydrochloric acid gas is disengaged and may be col- lected by displacement (like chlorine, Fig. 18), or over mercury. The solution of the gas (the ordinary form) is obtained by passing the gas through a series of Wolff bottles (as shown in the figure) containing cold water. 26 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. itself, thus : The so-called hydrochloric acid is a solution of the hydrochloric acid gas in water.* Chemical Properties. Strong acids; true acids even without water. Uses. HF attacks silicon energetically, hence is used to etch glass ; very poisonous, and burns made by it heal with diflBculty. HCl is very useful in the arts. Aqua regia, or nitro- muriatic acid, is a mixture of nitric and hy- drochloric acids. It is the only solvent of gold and platinum. The metals are attacked by the nascent chlorine evolved by the oxidation of the H of the HCl by the O of the HNO3. In medicine HCl is often prescribed as a tonic. SBr, like all bromides, is a sedative. HI, like all iodides, is an alterative. Tests. Fluoride+H2S04 — etches glass.i" Chloride-l-AgNOa — white precipitate, solu- ble in ammonia. Bromide-|-AgN03 — yellowish- white precip- itate, slightly soluble in ammonia. Fig. 21. lodide+AgNOs — yellow precipitate, insoluble in ammonia. If to a bromide or iodide some chlorine- water and starch paste Fig. 20. ''' Sxperimeut. Fill two cylinders, one with h ydrn^x-ii . tlie other with chlorine. Apply them mouth to mouth, and agitate until the gases are mixed. Hold their mouths to a flame (Fig. 20}, or expose to direct sunlight. They ex- plode with a shrill report, and are filled with hydrochloric acid furaes. Invert one cylinder over water; the gas is absorbed and the water rises to take its place. Into the other thrust a piece or moist blue litmus; it is reddened. t Experiment, f )ii a plate of glass coated with wax or copper-plate var- nish (six parts of mastic, one of asphalt, and one of wax dissolved in turpentine) dra^v a design with a i)oinled instrument. Invert over a lead disli supported as in Fig. 21, and warmed gently. Hydrofluoric acid gas is evolved and attacks the glass wherever the wax has been scratched ofT. Upon removing the wax the design is found permanently etched on the glass. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 27 be added, the bromine and iodine will be liberated, the bromine striking a brown and the latter a blue color with the starch. Oxacids are formed by oxides of non-metals combining with water. The elements of the chlorine group, being very negative, have but little affinity for oxygen. Iodine has most, bromine less, chlo- rine still less, and fluorine will not unite with oxygen at all. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine •each forms a series of oxides per- fectly analogous, so we will notice only those of one — chlorine. rig 22. The several oxides are distinguished by prefixes derived from the Greek numerals indicating the number of oxygen atoms in the formula, thus : CI2O — Chlorine Monoxide. CI2O. (?)— Chlorine Dioxide. CI2O3— Chlorine Trioxide. CI2O4 — Chlorine Tetroxide. CLOs — Chlorine Pentoxide. CI2O7 — Chlorine Heptoxide. Pjg .,M These oxides combining with water form the coEresponding acids, thus: Cl20+H2.0=2HCI0 — Hydrogen Hypochlorite — Hypochlorous acid. CI2O3+ H20 = 2 HCIO2 — Hydrogen Chlorite— Chlorous acid. CI2O5+H2O = 2 HCIO3 — Hydrogen Chlorate— Chloric acid. CI2O7+H2O = 2 HCIO4 — Hydrogen Perchlorate — Perchloric acid. Note. — The names of oxacids are derived from the negative dement other than oxygen, and to this certain affixes and prefixes are added to indicate the degree of oxidation. The one containing more oxygen lias'the affix '^-ic," teas oxygen, "-ous." If there is in tlie same series anotJier acid with more oxygen than the " -ic," it is given the prefix "per-;" if less than the ' ' -ous, ' ' the prefix ' ' hypo- ' ' (under) . Acids ending in "-ie" form salts ending in "-ate;" those ending in "-ous" form salts ending in "-ite" The foregoing chlorine adds illustrate this. All these oxides, as well as their corresponding acids, are easily decomposed, sometimes with explosion ; * hence much used '■' Experiment. Their oxi, phur. Used in the zj preparation of H^S. Scale Compounds OE Iron. These are ferric salts, mostly with organic acids. They do not crystallize readily, but are sold as thin scales. Made by evaporating their solutions to a syrupy consistence, poured upon plates, and when dry peeled off in scales. Often other bases, as potassium or am- monium, together with alkaloids, as quinine and strychnine, are incorporated in the compound. The following are officinal: Ferri citras, ferri et ammonii dtras, ferri et quinice citras, ferri et strychnice citras, ferri et ammonii tartras, ferri et potassii tartras, and ferri pyrophosphas. Fig. 62. INOEGANIC CHEMISTRY. 75 Physiological. Iron is a normal constituent of the body, es- pecially the blood corpuscles, where it performs an important function, as is shown by the great increase of blood corpuscles and of bodily vigor attending its administration. Many of its salts, especially the ferric salts of the mineral acids, are astrin- gent and hemostatic. Iron is eliminated by various organ.s, but is mainly discharged by the bowels as sulphide blackening the fseces. Testa for Iron. Ferrous salts are usually green; with NH_,H8 they give a black precipitate of FeS. Ferric Salts are usually red; they give a black precipitate with NH^HS; a black precipitate with tannic acid; and a blood- red with sulphocyanate of potassium. COCALT. Its chief ore is a compound with arsenic, sold un- der the name of cobalt orflystone, for poisoning flies. Its salts are used in preparing sympathetic ink, for when free from moisture they are deep blue, but almost colorless when moist. Writing done with a dilute solution of chloride of cobalt is invisible until warmed, when it becomes blue, the color disappearing when the paper is cooled or moistened. Test for Cobalt. It imparts a deep blue color to a bead of glass or borax melted in the blow-pipe flame. NICKEL. This is a hard, grayish-white metal that does not tarnish in the air. Used to electro-plate instruments made of metals more prone to corrode, and to make cheap coin. Mixed with brass, it forms German silver. VI. The Lead Group.* Tin (Stanmim) Sn 118 Lead {Plumbum) Pb 207 The members of this group are bivalent and quadrivalent. TIN. A blui.sh-white malleable metal, not corroded by air or water; hence used to form a protective coating for iron and copper. Tin-ware is usually sheet-iron coated by being dipped "This is really a continuation of the Carbon Group, tine metallic character increasing with the atomic weights: C— 12; Si=28; =73; Sn=118; Pb=207. The third member, corresponding to arsenic ol the Nitrogen Group, is yet un- discovered. 76 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. into molten tin. Tin alloyed with lead is easily dissolved, and may cause lead-poisoning. Tin-foil (thin laminse of tin) is used in wrapping to exclude air and moisture. Tin enters into the composition of a great many alloys. Powdered tin is sometimes used as an anthelmintic. Tin forms two classes of compounds ; the stannous, in which the atom is bivalent, and stannic, in which the atom is quadri- valent. These are of importance to the chemist, but of little interest to the physician. LEAD. Its principal ore is its sulphide (PbS), called galena. It is a soft, heavy, blue metal, very slowly acted upon by most substances ; hence used to make water-pipes and vessels that are exposed to corrosive liquids. Water containing nitrates or nitrites (from organic matter) dissolves lead slightly; but if it contains carbonates or sulphates, the lead is protected by an insoluble coating of lead carbonate or sulphate. Lead eaters into the composition of many alloys ; as pewter, solder, shot, type-metal, etc. The quadrivalent compounds of lead are of so little importance that the term plumbic is applied to the bivalent compounds. Lead Oxide — PbO — Litharge. A yellow substance, found na- tive; made artificially by heating lead in the air. It is by treat- ing this with the appropriate acid that most of the lead salts are prepared. When rubbed with oils it decomposes the glyceryllic ethers and combin-'s with the fatty acids to form lead soaps, one of which, the oleate, is lead plaster, emplasti-um plunibi, U. S. P. Lead Dioxide, or puce lead, is a dark brown powder, forming one of the constituents of red lead (PbjO^ or 2PbO PbO^). Prepared by treating red lead with nitric acid to dissolve out the PbO. Lead Nitrate— Pb2N03. Made: PbO+2HN03=Pb2N03+H,0. Ledoyen's disinfectant fluid is a solution of Pb2N03 (one dram to the ounce). It corrects fetid odors by neutralizing H^S and NH4HS. Lead Acetate— Pb(CjH30j2, or ThAc^— Sugar of Lead. Made: Pb0+2HAc=PbAc,+H,0. INORGANIC CHEMISTEY. 77 Used in medicine more than any other lead salt. Its solution will dissolve considerable quantities of PbO, forming the solu- tion of the mbacetate of lead, the liquor plumhi subacetatia, U. S. P., Goulard's extract. It is astringent, and, like all the lead salts, sedative. Much used as a topical application in erysipelas, acute eczema, and other skin affections; and diluted (lead-water), it is used in conjunctivitis and other mucous inflammations. The following insoluble salts may be made by precipitation from solutions of the preceding soluble ones : Lead Chloride— PbCl^. Made: Soluble lead salt added to a soluble chloride; e. g. PbiV;=+2HCl=PbCl,+2HAc. Slightly soluble in warm water, but in cold it is always precipitated from solutions of moderate strength ; hence classed with HgCl and AgCl as one of the three insoluble chlorides. Lead Sulphate — PbSO^. Forms as a white precipitate when- ever a solution of a lead salt is added to a sulphate solution, thus : PbAc,+ZnSO,=PbSO,+ZnAc,. Lead Cakbonate — PbCOj — White Lead. Made : PbAc,+Na,C03=PbC03+ 2NaAc. Commercially, it is made by some modification of the old Dutch method, which consists in covering bars of lead with the refuse of the wine-press and barn manure. The acetic fumes from the grape husks attack the lead, forming lead acetate, which is decomposed by the carbonic acid from the manure. The acetic acid thus liberated combines with another portion of lead, which is again precipitated by the carbonic acid, and thus the process continues until all the lead is consumed. Used for painting, but blackens when air contains H^S. Lead Sulphide — PbS — is formed as a black precipitate when- ever a lead solution is treated with a soluble sulphide, as H^S or NH.HS. Lead Iodide — Pbl^. A bright yellow precipitate on adding a soluble iodide to a lead solution ; as, PbAc,+2KI=2KAc+PbI,. Lead Cheomate — PbCr04. Made: PbAc,+K,CrO,=PbCrO,-|-2KAc. Under the name of chrome yellow it is used in painting. Of late it has been used to color food products. 78 mOEGAKlC CHEMISTRY. Testa for lead consist in forming precipitates of the foregoing insoluble compounds. Physiological. All the lead compounds are poisonous. Acute poisoning sometimes occurs from the ingestion of a single large dose of a soluble lead salt. The symptoms are those of gastric irritation. Treatment. Give MgSO^ to'form the insoluble PbSO^. The chronic form of lead intoxication, ^ain^er's colic, is purely poisonous,- and is produced by the continued absorption of mi- nute quantities of lead by the skin of those handling it, and by the lungs and stomachs of those living in painted apartments, or using food and drink from leaden vessels. There is impairment of digestion, constipation, blue line along the edge of the gums, colic, and paralysis, especially of the extensor muscles. Lead once absorbed is eliminated very slowly, having combined with the albuminoids, a combination which is rendered soluble by the administration of iodide of potassium. The treatment for chronic lead-poisoning is to give MgSO^, for the double purpose of overcoming the constipation and precipi- tating any lead remaining unabsorbed in the alimentary canal ; also KI to promote the elimination of that which is combined with the albuminoids. Alum is a favorite treatment, seeming to perform all accomplished by both the MgSO^ and KI. The para- lyzed muscles must be treated with electricity, so that when the lead is eliminated and the nerve influence returns, it may not find them degenerated past redemption. VII. The Copper Group. CoPPEE {Cuprum) Cu 63.4 Meecuey {Hydrargyrum). ..Tig 200 Each of these elements is univalent and bivalent, forming two classes of compounds, "ous" and "io." At ordinary temperatures they are acted upon but slowly by the non-oxidizing acids, as HjSO^ and HCl ; but HNO3 attacks them vigorously. COPPER is usually found combined with sulphur, etc., but . often in the metallic state, especially on the southern shores of Lake Superior. Being found free, it was among the first metals wrought by man, so the b«)nze preceded the iron age. Copper is a red malleable metal ; an excellent conductor of electricity. INOEGASlIC CHEMISTRY. 79 CuPRic Hvlvhate—CuSO^— Blue Vitriol, Blue Stone. Obtained as an incWental product from silver refineries, copper mines, etc. ; made experimentally by heating copper with strong H^SO^. Forms beautiful blue crystals, soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. If the crystals be heated they lose their water of crys- tallization and form a white powder, which becomes blue again upon the addition of water. Hence, used as a test for water in alcohol. Like other salts in which the acidulous radical predomi- nates, cupric sulphate is astringent and coagulates albumen. A prompt emetic, but not used as much as ZnSO^, because if, by chance, it be not all ejected from the stomach, a gastro-enteritis is liable to be set up. CuPEic Hydrate — Cu2H0 — is formed as a bluish-white pre- cipitate whenever a soluble copper salt is treated with a soluble hydrate, thus: CuS04+2KHO=K,SO,+Cu2HO. When heated, even under water, it decomposes — Cu2H0=Cu0+H,O. OuPElO Oxide— CuO — Black Oxide. Prepared by heating cop- per turnings in air. It gives up its oxygen easily, hence used as an oxidizer in organic analysis. Cuprous Oxide — Ou^O — Suboxide. Made by boiling the cupric oxide with an oxidizable substance, as glucose (copper tests for glucose), which is oxidized at the expense of the oxy- gen of the cupric oxide. The precipitate is first yellow (hy- drate), but soon becomes a bright red (oxide). CuPEic SuBACETATB OB OxYACETATE — sometimes called ver- digris (green-gray) — is made industrially by exposing plates of copper to the acetic fumes of grape husks, etc. It is apt to be formed whenever fruits containing acetic acid are placed in cop- per vessels. Tests. 1. Plating Test. Dip into the suspected solution a more electro-positive metal, as iron, and a plating of metallic copper will be deposited on the iron, an equivalent proportion of which takes the place of the copper in the solution. 2. Sulphur Test. Add H^S or NH^HS, and if copper be pres- ent a black precipitate (CuS) will be formed. 3. Ammonia Test. Add ahimonia, and if copper be present a deep blue ammonio-salt of copper will be formed. 80 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 4. Arsenic Test. To the ammonio-salt, described above, add an aqueous solution of Asfi^, and a green precipitate of arsenite of copper (paris green) will be thrown down. 5. Glucose Test. Add KHO, (CuSO,+2KHO=K,SO^+Cu2HO) and boil (Cu2HO=CuO+HjO), with a little glucose, and a yel- lowish-red precipitate (Ou^O) indicates copper. It will be seen from the two last reactions, above described, that a substance acted upon characteristically by a reagent is as good a test for the reagent as the reagent is for it — i. e. arsenic and glucose, being acted upon characteristically by copper, are as good tests for copper as copper is for them. Physiological. Canned fruits, pickles, etc., that have been col- ored green with copper, and food, especially if acid, that has been cooked or kept in copper vessels, are apt to give an acute gastro- enteritis. Chronic copper poisoning, so called, is perhaps always due to other substances, as lead or arsenic, and should be treated accordingly. Antidotes for acute copper poisoning: Encourage vomiting and give albumen (white of egg), which combines with the copper salt to form an insoluble albuminate; or iron filings, which will precipitate the copper in metallic state. MEECURY is the only metal liquid at ordinary temperatures, and resembles silver in appearance, hence the names hydrargy- rum (water silver) and quicksilver ^_— -»—- _^ !>,!»Or- ; ftftftcagg ^; o H P O b P rt « o -^ S W S g sas . n ^ •-< " « O M O 5 g £ g d *^ o fe -S :1 S w f^ B W 3 W ^ R > S i> f^ rt M "^ M W o 5.H W g H M M O O i^ W M Wfc, k^l tn << K^ s g w W o r. t^ H s w H ^ M O -< d Pt w S P--I a O ■3 -o (H ^ o 13 «2 C] ^ P ;i O s m ?5 o M ^ O rP p) ^ o o M pq Ed .^ P (U 2 o to 7^ M m a ^ -fl 1 a bij M ;>i "to PU M nJ h? m fi pi Tartrate. m GO CQXh-ti-it-iajCOCOtBcncDXc-f-iajCOMMCCc-COMCCe-.COOQCO Sulphite. Sulphide. Sulphate. Phosphate. Oxide. Oxalate. Nitrate. Iodide. Hydrate. Cyanide. Chromate. Citrate. Chloride. Carbonate. Arsenite. Arseniate. MOTi-(mwMCQi-(l-HMt-Hi-ii~()Hcs.|-(l-ll-IMI-(COMCQl-IMCDi-H m __ _ (O cQajiMMCQcococoaia:coaje-.i--icQcacoa3CQcococococQMi-(CQ -(aiMMI-IMI-ll-H)-(l-(l-HI-- h-l (S. l-( CO l-l M CQ l-( l-l l-< t-i M l-H M M M l-( M M M CO M CQ M M CQ iH MOQCOl-C-IMI-imMi-lCOCBe-i-d-^MMI-tMc-CDKHCQCOMMM cncQc-.ccaQcocQcocociQ7Jm!?--a3a2c»cocQf/}a!aicQoDcQ03CQai e-.ttll-(COi-iCQC01jQCO ^COMh-CJ.CQCCi-HMaiCOCOi-lCOMCQOQCn ^COl— (COMMCQMi-H'-fl-HV-Hi— ll/^MhHMe-l-ti— iCOc^OJh-ll-lCCc- c«COc«CQc-c-. COl-llHMc-.MMl-H(N.Maie"l-(c^-CDl-lcQe-c-.ODt-t l_jC0r-I'-i|-le-.03l-lc-.C0C0e^. c^IH03CQ03mM-CMMt"CQMC01HMMC^ CO 123 03 02 03 03 CC CO M m CO CQ =" GQ 02 OQ OO 03 CQ "=- CO CQ CO CO CO CD CQ q S 9 a •3 rt-a g §3 ._a ■aj <) <1 fq pq o u o O o |ii f=( ffl pj 3 3 H H [2; A< PM m cQ CO CD CO N OEGAT«fIO CHEMISTET. Formerly organic chemistry was defined as the chemistry of the compounds produced only by organized life. Gradually this definition has been abandoned, for with the increase of chemical knowledge many substances identical with the animal and vege- table products have of late years been made in the laboratory without the aid of the vital force, and probably, if their chemical constitution were fully understood, all animal and vegetable products could be duplicated artificially. However, chemistry has not, and probably never will, produce an organized body ; i. e., one having an anatomical cellular structure. It is a noticeable fact that every organic compound contains carbon. Hence, organic chemistry is now defined to be " the chem- istry of the carbon compounds," and the following pages may be considered a resumption of the study of that element. Though carbon forms compounds of infinite number and ex- treme complexity, it is with the aid of a very few other elements, viz., hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and occasionally sulphur, phos- phorus, and iron — sometimes others; but the larger number of even the artificial compounds contain only the above-named ele- ments. This is due to the fact that the carbon atoms possess in the highest degree the power of combining with each other and inter- changing valences, forming groups or chains around which the other elements are arranged. But for this power carbon could form only one saturated compound with hydrogen, CH^. Carbon being quadrivalent, the compounds C^H^ and CjHg would be unsatu- rated. Experiment, however, proves that they are saturated com- pounds. The explanation is that the carbon atoms combine with each other, mutually neutralizing one or more valences, thus: H H H H H H H-C— H; H— 6— C— H; H-C-C— C— H. i J- H H H H H H CH, CH, an. an. C3H3 C3H, C4H„ C,H3 CsH,, C5H., ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 91 It will be observed that these formulee have a common differ- ence of CH^. They are said to form a homologous series. When the carbon remains the same but the hydrogen differs by H^, the series is said to be isologous. In the following examples each vertical columa represents a homologous, each horizontal line an isologous series : C C5H3 etc. etc. etc. Without this arrangement in series, it would be impo.ssible to remember the composition of organic substances. Hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon with hydrogen. Of these CH^ is the type from which all the other members of this class may be regarded as derived in isologous or homologous series. Petroleum is a mixture of the homologous derivatives from the first (CH^) to about the sixteenth (C^^Ti^). These are separated by distilling the crude oil. Those having the smallest molecules, being lightest, pass over first, forming naphtha, benzine, etc. As the heat is increased the medium-weight compounds come over next, forming kerosene. The residuum consists of the heaviest carbohydrides, which can be distilled only by high heat, forming lubricating oil, vaseline, paraffine, etc. Kerosene is the one used for ordinary lamps. If it contains too much of the lighter products it is liable to give off vapors which, mixing with air, are explo- sive. In most States it is illegal to sell kerosene which gives off an inflammable vapor ("flashes") below 100° F. The Volatile Oils are a class of carbohydrides, all having the same formula, C„H,5. Though having very different chemical and physical properties, they are composed of the same elements in the same proportion. Such bodies are said to be isomeric {lao^, equal, /lepoc, part). Volatile oils are found in plants, especially the flowers, of which they are usually the odorous essences (hence called also essential oils). Obtained by distillation from flowers, etc. Very slightly soluble in water {aquce), but quite soluble in alcohol (spir- 92 ORGANIC CHEMISTEY. itus). A cologne is an alcoholic solution of an assortment of vol- atile oils. A large number of volatile oils are officinal ; as, anise, bergamot, cinnamon, lemon, orange, wintergreen, etc. Turpentine {oleum terebinthince, U. S. P.) may be taken as a type of the class. It is a thin, colorless liquid, a valuable solvent of oils and resins; absorbs oxygen and stores it up as ozone, gaining thereby oxidizing, antiseptic, and disinfectant properties. By the action of concentrated sulphuric acid, turpentine is changed into terebene (CjoHj^), a valuable remedy for bronchitis and flatulence. On exposure to the air the volatile oils oxidize with production of resins and camphors. Eesins are formed by the oxidation of volatile oils. Insol- uble in water; soluble in alcohol and ether; alkalies dissolve them, forming soapy mixtures. The officinal resin {redna, U. S. P.) is formed by the oxidation of turpentine as it exudes from the pine tree. In the natural state resins are usually mixed with other sub- stances. Mixed with volatile oils they form oko-resins and balsams, .e. g., benzoin, tolu, and balsam of Peru, and with gums, gum-resins, e. g., ammoniac myrrh and asafoetida. Camphors. Common camphor, obtained from the camphor laurel, is a white, crystalline, volatile solid of a peculiar pun- gent odor ; slightly soluble in water {aqua camphorce, U. S. P.), and freely soluble in alcohol and ether. Monobromated camphor, used in medicine as a sedative, is formed by substituting one atom of bromine for one of hydrogen in ordi- nary camphor. Menthol is a camphor-like body found in oil of peppermint, and possesses the odor of that plant. CAOUTCHOtrc, or India-rubber, and gutta-percha are inspissated juices of certain tropical trees. Caoutchouc is elastic; gutta- percha is not. Both are hardened (vulcanized) by combining with sulphur. They are unaffected by most chemicals and sol- vents. Chloroform is their best solvent. The Alcohol Eadicals, a homologous series of univalent basylous radicals, so called because they are the bases of the most important alcohols. Their compounds arc numerous, and enter largely into the materia medica. In the following table a few of these compounds are given : j ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 93 Eadicals. Alcohols. (Hydrates.) Oxides, Ethere. Examples of Com- pound Ethers. Alde- hydes. Acids. Nitrates. Sulphates. Methyl, CH3 Ethyl, " C2HS Propyl, C3H7 Butyl, C4H9 Amyl, C5H11 Hexyl, C6H13 etc. CH3HO C2H5IIO C3H7HO O4H9HO C5H11HO C6H13HO etc. (CH3)20 (C2PISI2O (C3H7)20 1C4H9)20 {C5Hii)20 (06Hi3)20 etc. CH3NO3 C2H5NO3 C3H7NO3 ('4H9NO3 C5H11NO3 C6H13NO3 etc. (CH3)2S04 C2H5)2S04 (C3H7)2S04 (C4H9)2S04 (CsHii)2S04 (C6Hi3)2S04 etc. CH2O C2H4O C3H6O C4H8O C5H10O C6H12O etc. CH202 C2H4O2 C3H602 C4H8O2 C5H10O2 C6H12O2 etc. In the formation of these compounds the starting point is not the radicals, but their hydrates, the alcohols. When an alcohol is oxidized with a limited supply of oxygen, two atoms of hydrogen are removed and no oxygen is added. This forms the aldehyde, thus: Methyl Methyl alcohol. aldehyde. CH3H0+0=CH,0+H,0. If there is a full oxidation, an atom of oxygen takes the place of the two atoms of hydrogen removed and forms the corresponding acid, as: Methyl tiloohol. Formic acid. CH3H0+0,=CHA+H,0. In the formation of aldehydes and acids the radical supplies part of the hydrogen removed and loses its identity. As part of the hydrogen in an acid forms the positive radical, it is written first; e. g. formic acid is written HCHOj, instead of CH^O^. The various other compounds of these radicals are called ethers; the oxides being called simple ethers, the others compound ethers. They are generally formed by treating the appropriate alcohol with the appropriate acid. Alcohols. The modern chemist accepts as alcohols many sub- stances that bear little resemblance to ordinary alcohol. Methylio Alcohol — CH3HO — Wood Naphtha, Wood Spirit, Wood Alcohol, Pyroligneotis Spirit, Methyl Hydrate — does not exist in nature. Made by the destructive distillation of wood. The commercial article has a very disagreeable odor and taste from the presence of tarry matters, etc. ; but when pure methylic alcohol resembles ordinary alcohol in its properties and physio- logical action. It is not used in medicine, but is extensively 94 ORGANIC CHEMISTEY. employed in the arts as a solvent, as in the preparation of varnishes, etc. Methylated spirit is ordinary alcohol to which has been added one tenth part of commercial methylic alcohol to render it unfit for drinking, and thus relieve it of the heavy tax imposed upon alcoholic beverages. Ethylio Alcohol— C^HjHO—^iAjiZ Eydrate, Spirits of Wine, Vinic Alcohol, Alcohol. Alcohol does not exist in nature, but is produced in a number of reactions. Liquids containing it (wines, etc.) have been known from the remotest antiquity, and are ob- tained by allowing liquids containing glucose (grape sugar) to ferment. C,H„06=2C,H3HO + 200,. Ghicose. Alcohol. Carbon dioxide. The alcohol is then separated by distillation, for, being more volatile than the water, it passes over first. Commercial alcohol always contains water, and when pure or absolute alcohol is required, the commercial article is mixed with some substance which is very avid of water, as quicklime, and then again distilled. Alcohol is a light, colorless liquid, of a pleasant, pungent odor and burning taste. Has a great affinity for water, which prob- ably accounts for its preserving animal tissues and coagulating albumen. It is largely used in the arts and in pharmacy, principally as a solvent ; but also in the manufacture of various substances, as vinegar, chloral, chloroform, iodoform,* ether, etc.; and as a fuel when a hot and smokeless flame is needed ; and as a menstruum in the preparation of tinctures and spirits. Alcoholic solutions of fixed medicinal substances are called tinctures; those of volatile princijiles, spirits. Alcohol is employed in various forms and degrees of concen- tration. Absolute alcohol is rarely employed. Alcohol fortius, U. S. P., stronger alcohol, contains 92 per cent of alcohol. Alcohol, U. S. P., is the ordinary rectified spirit, and contains 85 per cent of alcohol. Alcohol dilutum, U. S. P., diluted alcohol, is made by mixing water and alcohol, equal parts. "Experiment. To test for alcohol In a sohition : Warm ; add a few scales of iodine, and then caustic potash until the color is discharged. On cooling yellow scales of iodoform are deposited. OEGANIC CHEMISTEY. 95 Spiritus frumenti, U. S. P., whisky, and spiritus vini gallid, U. S. P., brandy, are obtained by distillation; the former from fer- mented grain, and the latter from fermented grape juice. "They contain about 50 per cent of alcohol. They are colored by the addition of caramel (burnt sugar). Their flavor is due to small quantities of other alcohols produced in the fermentation, and to certain ethers formed from these alcohols, especially as the liquor "ages." A large class of alcoholic beverages are made by fermenting various liquids containing sugar or some substance capable of conversion into sugar. Beer, ale, and porter are infusions of malted grain, fermented and flavored with hops. They therefore contain the soluble con- stituents of the grain. Their alcoholic strength is about 5 per cent. Wines are prepared by allowing grape juice to ferment. The alcoholic strength of the different varieties varies from 10 to 25 per cent. Sherry (vinum ^erioum) and port [vinum rubrum) are the only ones ofiicinal. Cider is the fermented juice of the apple, prepared very much in the same way as wine is from grape juice, and contains about 5 per cent of alcohol. It is very prone to acetous fermentation and liable to produce colic and diarrhea. Alcohol, when concentrated, abstracts water from the tissues and coagulates their albuminoid constituents, and is a poison. In full doses (always best with food) it produces a sense of warmth in the stomach, general comfort and exhilaration, followed by incoherence of ideas and impairment of muscular co-ordination. Taken habitually, in any of its forms, it impairs the mental and moral force of its victim and produces in the various organs, especially the liver and kidneys, the degenerative changes char- acteristic of chronic alcoholism. It should never be taken in health, but as a medicine it is the most valuable of stimulants. In cases of acute poisoning by alcohol, the stomach and bladder should be evacuated, and the depression (coma) counteracted by strong coffee, the cold douche, and other stimulants. Amylic Alcohol— OjHjjHO — Amyl Hydrate, Fnsel Oil. This is a heavy liquid, soluble in alcohol but not in water, hence in- correctly called an oil. It is produced in the fermentation of grain and potatoes, and is the most deleterious impurity in com- mon whisky before it has undergone the refining process. 96 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. It has a penetrating, disagreeable odor, resembling that of mean whisky. Although not fragrant itself, its ethers, when dis- solved in ethylic alcohol, have the taste and odor of various fruits, and are used in the preparations of artificial fruit essences.* The other alcohols of this series are of no medical interest. Glycerylic Alcohol — C3H53HO — Glyceryl Hydrate, Glycer- ine. This is a sweet, viscid liquid, formed incidentally in the preparation of lead plaster, and in the manufacture of soap and candles. It is colorless and odorless, and neutral in reaction ; a solvent of a great many mineral and organic substances. It dis- solves freshly precipitated tannate of quinine (five grains to the ounce), and the solution is scarcely bitter. When glycerine is treated with strong nitric acid nitro-glyoerine, CjHjSNOj results, one of the most dangerous of explosives. Dynamite is a mixture of nitro-glycerine and sand. Glycerine is used in medicine mainly as a solvent and as a local application. Mannityl Ahcosoh—C^HgQH.O—Mannife. This is the prin- cipal ingredient in manna, a white, gummy substance exuding from certain trees. Mannite is a crystalline substance closely resembling glucose, except that it does not undergo the vinous fermentation, and does not respond to Trommer's or Fehling's tests. Ethers. The simple ethers (oxides) are the results of dehy- drating two molecules of alcohol by means of sulphuric acid ; the compound ethers are made by treating the appropriate alcohol with the appropriate acid. Ethyl 0's.mj!.—{C^^)fi— Sulphuric Ether, Ether. Ether is made by distilling a mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid;f hence the misnomer, sulphuric ether. A small quantity of sulphuric acid is capable of converting a large amount of alcohol into ether, for it is unaltered in the re- action ; in fact, the process might go on indefinitely but for the '•' Experiment. To a hall dram of fusel oil in a test-tube add some sodium or potassium acetate and a few drops of sulphuric acid. Warm the mixture, and the acetate of amyl (essence of pear) may be recognized by Its odor. t Experiment. Into a large test-tube pour alcohol and half as much sul- phuric acid; warm and note the odor of the ether evolved. Next adapt a cork with delivery tube, and slowly distill the ether into a cool test-tube. By adding more alcohol the operation may be repeated again and again. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 97 acid being so diluted witii the water derived from the alcohol, as to finally stop the reaction. The sulphuric acid is said to act by its mere presence, by catalysis; or, in other words, it acts because it acts, a- ready but feminine way of explaining many otherwise inexplicable chemical and physiological phenomena. The true rationale is as follows : aH5H0+H,S0,=C,H,HS0,+H,0, And then C,H5HSO,+aH3HO=(aH5),0+H,SO,. Ether is a colorless, very volatile liquid of a peculiar odor, called ethereal. It burns easily, and its vapor, mixed with air or oxygen, explodes when ignited;* so ether should never be used near, especially above, a flame. Ether is a valuable solvent, and, as it evaporates very rapidly, it is used to produce cold.f But its chief use in medicine is an anaesthetic. Being less liable to para- lyze the nerve centers, it is safer than chloroform. Ethyl Chloride — C^HjCl. Hydrochloric ether must not be confounded, with the so-called .chloric ether, which is an alcoholic solution of chloroform. Ethyl Bromide — C^HsBr — Hydrobromic Ether. A valuable anaesthetic, but not much used. Ethyl Nitrite — C^HgNO^ — Nitrous Ether. If nitric acid be treated with copper or starch it loses part of its oxygen, being converted into nitrous acid (HNOJ, which will unite with alco- hol, forming nitrous ether and water, thus: C,H5HO+HNO,=C,H3NO,+H,0. Nitrous ether is a yellowish liquid, of an apple-like odor and sweetish taste. It is used only diluted with alcohol, forming the spiritus cetheris nitrosi, U. S. P., commonly called sweet spirits of niter. Amyl Nitrite— CjHj.NO,. Made like ethyl nitrite, except that amylic alcohol is used. Nitrite of amyl is a volatile, oily liquid, of a peculiar odor, resembling that of bananas. It is given by inhalation, especially in epilepsy, for which purpose it is put up in glass bulbs holding about two drops. These are crushed and inhaled during the aura. * Experiment. Put a dram- oJ ether in a dish and apply a flame. The vapor, mixed with air, explodes; the rest burns rapidly. t Experiment. Set a test-tube of water in a beaker of ether. Blow air briskly through the ether; the water will freeze. 98 ORGANIC CHEMISTEY. Chloroform — Trichlormethane. Methyl, having only one free valence, must give up two atoms of its hydrogen in order to com- bine with three atoms of chlorine, making the formula of chlo- roform CHCI3. This is the most used of all the ethers. Chlo- roform is made by distilling a mixture of thlorinated lime, water, and ordinary alcohol. It is a colorless, volatile liquid, of a pleasant ethereal odor and sweet taste. It is heavier than water, and does not dissolve in it, but is soluble in alcohol and ether ; not easily ignited ; a good solvent for phosphorus, iodine. India-rubber, and the alkaloids. Chloroform is sometimes given by the stomach as a sedative, but most frequently administered by inhalation as an anaesthetic, for which purpose it should be of undoubted purity. Pure chloroform is not colored by an equal volume of pure sulphuric acid, nor should its specific gravity be below 1480. Toxicology. If chloroform be taken by the stomach, it being insoluble, is absorbed very slowly ; and its principal action is the local irritation of the mucous surfaces. Recovery has followed a dose of four ounces, and death has been caused by one dram taken into the stomach. The vapor acts more energetically, and seems to owe its potency for evil to its paralyzing influence on the nerve centers, especially those of the heart. So chloroform vapor should never be administered except by a capable physician, and well diluted with atmosphere. However, death has occurred from the inhalatieu of moderate quantities of chloroform properly diluted, and at the hands of careful physicians, arid the autopsy revealed no heart lesion. There is no chemical antidote for chloroform. When it has been swallowed, evacuate the stomach; when inhaled, lower the head, give fresh air, employ artificial respiration, and apply the induced current. The poison is usually recognized by its odor. Iodoform— CHI3— Made by the action of iodine and potash on alcohol ; yellow scales ; insoluble in water, and of a safiron-like odor, .which is the chief objection to its use. Light decomposes it, giv- ing it a violet color. Iodoform is used on ulcers, etc., as an anes- thetic, alterative, and antiseptic. Fixed Oils and Fats. These are. ethers— combinations of glyceryl (C3H5) with the fat acids, oleic, stearic, butyric, palmitic. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 99 etc. The natural fats are mixtures of these. Those contain- ing mostly oleate of glyceryl (olein) are liquid. Warm-blooded animals yield mostly solid, cold-blooded, liquid fats. Drying oils are such as absorb oxygen from the air and become resinous, e. g. ■ linseed. Many fats partially decompose on exposure, producing free acid, and become rancid. The fixed oils are insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. The compounds of the fatty acids with metallic radicals are called soaps. Soaps are made by the saponification of a fat with a caustic alkali. For example : Stearine. Sodium stearate. Glycerine. (C3H3)(C.8H330,)3-f3NaHO=3Naa3H330,-fC3H3(HO), All the soaps are insoluble, except those of the alkali metals (K, Na, NH^, etc.). This explains the curd, soap precipitates in hard waters. Lead soap (lead plaster) is officinal. When soap dis-. solves in cold water, it decomposes into an acid salt which makes the soapsuds and a small quantity of free alkali which does the cleaning. Aldehydes. An unimportant class. They constitute the first step in the oxidation of alcohols into acids, viz., the removal of hydrogen (hence the name). Since nothing has taken the place of the hydrogen removed, they are unsaturated and very prone to change, especially to take on oxygen and form the acids. Ethyl Aldehyde, acetic aldehyde, or simply aldehyde* {G^fi), is a colorless, volatile, acid liquid of a pungent odor. One of its modifications, called paraldehyde, is used as a hypnotic, which unlike morphine is followed by no unpleasant effects, except a pungent odor to the breath. Dose, 3ss-3j. Chloral. If chlorine displace three atoms of hydrogen in ethyl aldehyde, it forms tri-chlor-aldehyde or chloral (C^HCljO), a colorless, heavy liquid. With a molecule of water this forms a white crystalline solid, called chloral hydrate, having a pungent but agreeable odor and taste. Warmed with an alkali it decom- poses, thus : Chloral. Sod. formate. Chloroform. C,HCl30-t-NaH0=NaCH0, -f CHCI3. * Experiment. To a little bichromate and sulphuric acid mixture in a test-tube add a little alcohol ; or hold a hot glass rod in a beaker containing a little ether. The peculiar pungent odor is that of aldehyde. 100 OEGANIC CHEMISTRY. Liebriech thought this reaction would occur in the warm alkaline blood and the sedative action of chloroform be obtained. Though mistaken in this, he found chloral hydrate a valuable hypnotic. • The chloral habit is difficult to cure. In overdoses chloral is a poison, and cases are multiplying as its powers become better known. No chemical antidote. Evacuate the stomach, give stim- ulants, and maintain the respiration and bodily warmth. Organic Acids. These are regarded by chemists as the nat- ural results of the oxidation of alcohols. But as most of them were discovered before their relation to the alcohols were known, their names often have no connection with those of the alcohols. We take up only the most important. Acetic Acid — HC^HjO^. This is the acid of vinegar. Formed in a great many reactions, but made mainly by the destructive distillation of wood, or by the oxidation of ordinary alcohol. If wine, cider, or other alcoholic liquors be exposed to the air, a fungus {micoderma aceti) forms on the surface and acts as an oxygen carrier, and the alcohol is converted into acetic acid, thus: C,HsHO+0,=HC,H30,+H,0. A more rapid process is to pass the alcohol through barrels filled with beech shavings. Acetic acid is a colorless liquid, of a pungent, sour taste and smell. When free from water (glacial) it crystallizes at temper- atures below 60° F. Acetic acid in dilute solution (vinegar) is much used for domestic purposes. For medicinal use the crude vinegar is purified by distillation, forming acidum aceticum di- lutum, U. 8. P. As all the acetates are soluble, their best test is to add a strong acid and recognize the acetic acid set free by its odor. Benzoic Acid exists in many balsams and gum-resins. When benzoin is heated benzoic acid sublimes in silky needles of a pleas- ant balsamic odor. Or, if the urine of herbivorous animals be boiled with hydrochloric acid, the hippuric acid is converted into benzoic acid. But the acid obtained from this source may be known by its urinous odor. Carbazotic or Picric Acid is a yellow substance, of a bitter taste, made by the action of nitric acid on carbolic acid. Used in the arts as a yellow dye. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 101 Oakbolic Acid— CeHjHO— PAenyZ Alcohol, Phenol. This is an alcohol, the hydrate of phenyl, a radical of the aromatic series. Called an acid because it combines with bases and forms bodies resembling salts called carbolates or phenates. Carbolic acid is formed in a number of reactions, but the com- mercial article is obtained exclusively from coal tar. It has a strong, disagreeable odor; occurs as white crystals, which melt on the addition of a small quantity of water; reddens by age ; slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in glycerine, the solu- tion being soluble in water ; stains skin and mucous membranes white by coagulating their albumen; and is a corrosive poison. Albumen is its best antidote. Carbolic acid is a powerful antiseptic and disinfectant. Ap- plied locally it is astringent, sedative, and even anaesthetic. Besoroin — (Ce,H^2H0). Closely related to phenol, but a stronger antiseptic and much less poisonous. It occurs in soluble, color- less, odorless crystals of a sweetish taste. It is given as an anti- zymotic in diseases attended with, fermentative changes and in the specific fevers. Creosote is a complex mixture obtained from wood tar ; closely allied to carbolic acid in its properties and uses, but may be read- ily distinguished from it by being insoluble in glycerine. Citric Acid exists in the juices of many fruits, especially the lemon. Forms colorless crystals which are very soluble, and pos- sess a sour taste. Many of its salts are used in medicine. Formic Acid — HCHO^ — is the oxidation product of methylic alcohol. It was formerly obtained from the red ant {formica rufa), but now made artificially. It exists in stinging nettle, pine needles, etc., and also in the stings of most insects. Gallic Acid. When galls are moistened and exposed to the action of the atmosphere, the tannic acid they contain is con- verted into gallic acid. It resembles tannic acid, but may be distinguished by its not precipitating a solution of gelatin. Lactic Acid (lactis, of milk). This is the acid of sour milk, where it is formed by the fermentation of the sugar of milk through the agency of the casein. It is also formed.in the body by the decomposition of glucose, thus : C,H,,0,-2H,C3H,03. It is a syrupy liquid, of a very sour taste. H 102 OEGANIC CHEMISTRY. Malic Acid [malum, an apple) exists in many fruits, as ap- ples, cherries, etc., and very abundantly in garden rhubarb. Oxalic Acid — H^C^O^. The acid and its salts are found in many plants, especially the sorrel (oxalis) grasses. In certain pathological conditions it is formed in the body and eliminated in the urine as calcium oxalate. It is made in large quantities by the action of nitric acid on sugar, or of alkalies on saw-dust. Oxalic acid closely resembles Epsom salts, for which it is some- times taken by mistake. It is a powerful irritant poison. Being cheap and largely" used for removing ink stains, cleaning copper, etc., poisoning by oxalic acid is by no means rare. Its best anti- dote is chalk, or some other compound of calcium, with which it forms a very insoluble compound. Test. Calcium chloride gives a white precipitate, insoluble in acetic, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. Pyeogallic Acid sublimes as white, feathery crystals when gallic acid is heated. Used in gas analysis to absorb oxygen, as a_deoxidizer in photography, and as a hair dye. Test. A blue color with ferrous, and a red with ferric salts. Salicylic Acid. Formerly prepared from salicin, but now made by a patented process from carbolic acid. A very pure acid may be obtained from oil of wintergreen, which consists mainly of methyl salicylate. This, treated with potassium hydrate, forms methyl hydrate (methyl alcohol) and potassium salicylate; and if to this hydrochloric acid be added, potassium chloride will be formed, and salicylic acid will fall in a mass of silky, white crystals. Salicylic acid is scarcely soluble in cold water, hence the_ salicylate of sodium is usually prescribed, which is not only more soluble, but less irritating to mucous membranes. Test. Intense violet with a ferric salt. Succinic Acid was first obtained from amber {suecinum), but is now made by fermenting malic acid. Tannic Acid, or Tannin. This is the active principle of the vegetable astringents; usually obtained from oak galls; a green- ish or brownish powder, very soluble in water, of a rough, as- tringent taste. It precipitates solutions of salts of the alkaloids and most metals. It precipitates gelatin and other albuminoid substances, a fact that explains the process of tanning raw hides. With ferric^solutions tannin gives a black precipitate (black ink). ORGANIC. CHEMISTRY. 103 Taetaeic Aciv—UfiJIfi^, or H^f. Tartrates exist in the juices of many fruits. Grape juice contains much acid tartrate of potassium (KHT), which, being very insoluble in an alcoholic menstruum, is precipitated on the sides of the cask whenever the wine ferments. This forms argol, the principal source of tartaric acid. Tartaric acid forms colorless crystals, very soluble, and of a sharp, agreeable, sour taste. Valerianic Acid — HCjHgOj. This substance was first ob- tained from valerian root; but now it is made artificially by oxidizing amylic alcohol by means of sulphuric acid and po- tassium bichromate. Valerianic acid is a colorless liquid, pos- sessing the disagreeable odor of valerian. The Carbohydrates. These substances are closely related to the alcohols, and by some classed as such. They are so named because they contain carbon (six or twelve atoms)j and the hy- drogen and oxygen they contain are in the exact proportion to form water. They constitute the bulk of plants. They are di- vided into three groups : 1. Amyloses (CgHioOj), which include cellulin, starch, dex- trin, glycogen, gums, etc. 2. Saccharoses (C^JI^fl^J, including cane sugar, milk su- gar, etc. 3. Glucoses (C^H^fi^), such as grape sugar (glucose), fruit sugar, etc. Although the members of each of these groups differ widely in their physical and chemical properties, still they consist of the same elements in exactly the same proportions and have the same formula. Such bodies are said to be isomeric. AMYLOSES— (CfiHioOj). Cellulin — Cellulose, Lignin — forms the cell-walls and tissues of plants. Woody fiber, cotton, linen, and unsized paper are almost pure cellulin. Dissolves only in a solution of cupric oxide in ammonia. Acids precipitate it as a white mass, which, mixed with camphor and compressed, is cellu- loid. Unsized paper dipped into moderately strong sulphuric acid, washed and dried, has its fibers agglutinated, loses its poros- ity, becomes very tough, and is sold as artificial parchment for dialyzers, diplomas, etc. Nitro-cellulose, or Oun Cotton, a powerful explosive, is cotton 104 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. that has been dipped into a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, and then- washed and dried. Its solution in ether is collodion. The flexible collodion contains a little turpentine and castor oil ; the styptic collodion contains twenty per cent tannin. Starch — Amylum — the most important member of the carbo- hydrates, and a valuable food; found in the roots, stems, and seeds of all plants. Starch is a white powder, consisting of granules, formed of con- centric layers, like an onion. These granules have all a sim- ilar appearance. Yet those from different kinds of plants differ enough to enable one, by microscopic examination, to determine the source of any starch. (Fig. 64.) When starch is boiled the granules swell and burst, cast- ing the starch into the water, forming mucilage of starch, which is used for laundrying and for surgical dressings. Starch is a very valuable food. The best test for starch is iodine, with which it forms a blue. Heat dis- charges the blue, but it returns on cooling. Dextrin — British Oum — is the gum used on postage stamps, etc. It may bo made from starch in various ways, one of which is by heating it to 300° F. It is very soluble, and gives no blue with iodine. Glycogen — (Oenerator of Olucose) — is found in the animal economy, especially in the liver. Like dextrin, it is a derivative of starch, but differs from it in being soluble, and giving only a wine-color with iodine. It seems to be the form in which the carbohydrates are stored up, to be used by the system as neces- sity arises. Gdms are a class of substances soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. A type of the class is gum Arabic. Fig. 64. (a) potato, (6) corn, (c) bean starch. SACCHAEOSES — 0„H,,0„. Cane SvaA-R^Eeet Sugar, Su- crose. Very abundant in the sugar-cane, sugar-maple, beet-root, ORGANIC CHEMISTEY. 105 etc. It is the most soluble, perfectly crystallizable, and sweetest of the sugars, and the one most used for domestic purposes. Its aqueous solution is called simple syrup (syrupus 'simplex). Milk Sugae, as its name implies, occurs in milk; harder, less soluble, and less sweet than cane-sugar. Used in the trituration of medicines. GLUCOSES— CsH^O^. Glucose— G^r-ope Sugar, Diabetic Su- gar. Found associated with other sugars in most plants, especially in the grape; but the source of most interest to the physician is the animal economy. This is the sugar of diabetic urine, and the ability to detect it with ease and certainty in such conditions is a necessity to the practitioner of the present day. Glucose is not so sweet nor so soluble and crystallizable as cane- sugar. Having great affinity for oxygen it is a valuable reducing agent, and on this property most ^'s- 65. of its tests depend. Boiled with a dilute mineral acid or allowed to remain under the influence of certain animal and vegetable ferments,* warm and moist, the amyloses and saccharoses are * Ferments. These are certain nitrogenous bodies, animal and vegetable, whicb by some means not clearly understood cause many organic compounds to decompose with the production of other and simpler substances, the ferments themselves being unaffected. Ferments are of two classes: 1. The unorganized, or soluble ferments. Among these are : (o) Diastase, or maliin, formed from the gluten and serving to convert the starch of the seed into glucose. Malt, which is sprouted barley, contains it in abundance, and is used to convert meal (starch) into glucose for ferraeutation in the manufacture of alcoholic liquors, and in medicine as a digestive agent. The ptyalin of saliva and a pancreatic ferment act like diastase. (6) Pepsin, of the gastric juice, and (c) Trypsin, of the pancreatic fluid, both of which serve to convert the albumi- noids into peptones ; the one in acid, and the other in alkaline solution. 2. Organized Ferments. When their spores are carried by the atmosphere or otherwise into a suitable, fermentable liquid, and kept warm {QS° to lOS*^ F.), these ferments grow and proliferate with great rapidity, inducing fermentative changes in a few hours. The most important of these ferments are: (a) Yeast (torula cerevisiai), shown in Fig. 65. This converts glucose into alcohol and car- bon dioxide (vinous fermentation). (6) Acetic acid ferment (mycoderma aceti), 106 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. converted into glucose. The reaction consists in the addition of HjO to the molecule, thus : C,H„03+H,0=C,H„0,- C.A,0„+H,0=2C,H„0,. starch. Water. Glucose. Cane Sugar. Water. Glucose. When starch and cane-sugar are eaten the digestive ferments (pancreatin and ptyalin) convert them into glucose. The fer- ment (diastase), developed in a germinating seed, converts the starch into glucose, which is readily assimilated by the sprout- ing plant. Glucose is so easily made by boiling cellulin, but more es- pecially starches, with sulphuric acid, that it has become a com- mon adulterant or substitute for cane sugar, especially syrup. This would be harmless but for the fact that the cheap acid used is apt to be contaminated with lead, arsenic, etc. Grlucosides. This class includes a large number of bodies, mostly of vegetable origin, which, though different in other re- spects, possess one common property, viz: When acted upon by a ferment or a dilute acid they decompose, producing, among other things, glucose. Their chemical constitution is not defi- nitely known, but probably they are ethers of glucose. In the natural state they are generally associated -with an albuminoid body capable of acting as a ferment, and gradually decomposing them with the production of glucose. This explains why some fruits (e. g. a persimmon) on ripening lose their rough, astringent taste and become sweet. The tannin {tannic acid) is converted into glucose. It also explains why a mustard poultice made with hot water is inert. The ferment is coagulated and the glucoside {myronic acid) does not decompose. The glucosides of greatest medical importance are: Amygdalin (bitter almonds), cathartic acid (senna), colocynthin, digitalin, commonly called " mother of vinegar," grows on solutions containing alcohol, which it helps to oxidize into acetic acid, (c) Thrush fungus {oidium albicans) grows within the mouths of Ill-kept children. It induces a slight alcoholic fer- mentation, (d) Lactu: and Butyric ferments go together, the one preceding and the other closely following. These fermentations occur in intestinal indiges- tion, and the gas evolved produces flatulent colic. Putre/action (the spontaneous decomposition of nitrogenous organized hodies) is accompanied, if not caused, by micro-organisms, usually bacteria. Decay, on the other hand, is the gradual decomposition of organic bodies by " the slow action of oxygen, and does not depend on living organisms. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 107 elaterin, glycerrhizin (licorice), indicau (source of indigo-blue), jalapin, myronic acid (mustard), santonin, tannin, etc. Their names terminate with the syllable "-ira." Nitrogenous Bodies. Many of these (the proteids, etc.), are described in physiology, and need not be treated here. Bodies of the Ammonia Type. Taking the molecule of ammonia, NH3, as a basis, and by substituting for one or more atoms of its hydrogen one or more organic radicals or combina- tions of radicals, we can obtain a large number of interesting and important substances, known as amines, etc. For example : fH (C,H, rC,H, fCH, (C,H, N^H; N H '; N^H ; N ^ CH ; N^H (H (h [h [CH3 (aH30, Ammonia. Ethylamjne. Phenylamine. Trimethylamine. Acetanilide. Like ammonia, these bodies are alkaline and combine with acids to form salts, appropriating instead of displacing their hydrogen, e. g. NHj+HCl^NH^Cl, ammonium chloride or ammonia hy- drochloride; in like manner NH,(C,H5)+H01=NH,(C,H5)HC1, ethylamine hydrochloride. There is perhaps no other field in chemistry so promising to the discoverer of therapeutic agents. Numerous and important as these substances are, we can men- tion only a few. Aniline (Phenylamine) is a colorless liquid, but its com- • r CeH pounds (the -aniline dyes) are coloring matters of great N •< H brilliancy.* They are sometimes contaminated with l-H arsenic used in their manufacture. Trimethylamine is sometimes confounded with propylamine. ' CH I*' is a colorless, volatile alkaloid, with an ammoniacal, CH3 fishy odor. It is found in many animal and vegetable ( CH3 substances, but obtained from pickled herring. The hydrochloride is the salt used. Dose, ten to fifteen grains. Antifebrin (acetanilide). This is a derivative of aniline in f C H which the acetic radical is made to displace an atom N -I H of hydrogen. A crystalline, odorless, solid, slightly ( OjHjOjjjoluble in warm water, very soluble in alcohol. In * Experiment. Dissolve a few drops of aniline in water in two test-tubes. To one add solution of chlorinated lime— a purple color is produced; to the other add some sulphuric acid and potassium chromate mixture — a blue color appears. N^ ( 108 OEGANIC CHEMISTEY. doses of five to ten grains, repeated every two or three hours, it is an antipyretic and sedative. It is said not to affect the healthy temperature, but to rapidly lower a fever. Antipyeinb, a derivative of the artificial alkaloid, chinoline, is a white crystalline powder, soluble in water and alcohol, of a slight tarry taste and odor. The hydrochloride is the salt used. In doses of ten to fifteen grains it is a valuable antipyretic and anodyne. Urea belongs to this class, but is described further on in con- nection with the urine. Alkaloids (alkali-like). These bodies are mostly of vegetable origin and bear a close analogy to the preceding, for they are ammonia substitution compounds, alkaline in reaction, and com- bine with acids to form salts. Of late years chemists have made substances very similar to, if not identical with, some of the nat- ural alkaloids ; and the time seems not far distant when our most costly alkaloids will be made cheaply by artificial means. In plants alkaloids are not found free, but combined with some veg- etable acid forming a salt. Their salts (except tannates) are usu- ally soluble and intensely bitter ; the free alkaloids being much less soluble, are much less bitter. Those alkaloids (as conine and nicotine) that contain no oxygen are liquid; but the great ma- jority of them are white powders. Alkaloids are so seldom prescribed in the free state that when the simple name of an alkaloid is written in a prescription the druggist puts up its most common salt. The names of alkaloids end in "-irae," and are derived from the names of the plants in which they exist or from some characteristic property. The intense effect alkaloids exert on the animal organism makes them generally the active principles of the drugs in which they are found.* But the active principle of a drug is » Pboximate and Ultimate Principles. Most organic bodies in their nat- ural state are mixtures of several different substances ; e. g. common resin is a mixture of two or three hydrocarbons, butter of four or five fats, opium and cinchona of several dozen compounds, while brain matter is of such com- plex composition that no satisfactory analysis has ever been made. These substances that naturally exist, mixed together to form a body, are called its proximate principles. The separation of these unaltered from the body and from each other is called proximate analysis. In this, different methods must be devised for different substances. For example: Take a piece of vegetable OEGANIC CHEMISTRY. 109 not always an alkaloid. The alkaloids include the majority of our most potent remedies and powerful poisons. Tannin is a common antidote, but most important is the prompt evacuation of the stomach and the intelligent use of physiological antago- nists. The alkaloids, even those of medical interest, are so numerous that to give each separate consideration would cover a great por- tion of the materia medica. We can mention but a few of the most important. Opium Alkaloids — Morphine (Morpheus, the God of Sleep), Codeine, Narcotine, etc. — exist in the plant combined with me- conic acid. The red color this acid gives with Fe^Ole is the best test for opium. Morphine gives a dirty blue with Fe^Cl^. Apo- morphine is made by heating morphine and hydrochloric acid to SOOT. It is an emetic. Cinchona Alkaloids — Quinine, Quinidine, Quinoidine, Quini- cine, Cinchonine, Cinchonidine, Cinchoxiicine, etc. The sulphate and bisulphate are the salts generally used. Test for Quinine. Add chlorine water, shake, and then add aq. ammonise ; a green coloration is produced. Nux Vomica Alkaloids — Strychnine and Brudne. Violent poisons. Tests. Strychnine dissolved in sulphuric acid and treated with potassium bichromate forms a purple. Brucine treated with nitric acid gives a deep red. tissue containing woody fiber, starch, sugar, resin, and volatile oil. The oil is removed by a gentle heat; the resin is dissolved out by alcohol; the sugar by cold water, and the starch by boiling in water, leaving the woody fiber. The Ullimate Principles of a body are the elements (carbon, hydrogen, etc.) oi which it is composed, and the recognition and measuring of these is vUimale analysis. This, while requiring careful manipulation, is simple in principle. The body is burned with a full supply of oxygen, converting the carbon into CO2 and the hydrogen into H2O. These are collected and weighed, and the quantities of carbon and hydrogen in them are calculated. The amount of oxygen, if any, is determined by subtracting the sum of the carbon and hy- drogen from the weight of the original body. For example: 46 grains of alcohol (C, H and O) burned completely makes: 88 grains of CO2 equivalent to 24 grains of C. 54 grains of H2O equivalent to 6 grains of H. 46 grains alcohol, minus 30 grains (24+6), = 16 grains of O. The less common elements, chlorine, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., are determined by special methods. 110 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. Liquid Alkaloids— Mcoiine from tobacco, and Conine from hemlock — contain no oxygen. Virulent poisons. Cocaine, from coca leaves, is a valuable local anaesthetic; much used in minor surgery. The hydrochloride is the salt used. Ptomaines (jrra/za, a corpse). This name is given to certain alkaloids formed in animal and some vegetable bodies during putrefaction, and in some pathological conditions during life. Their chemical properties and physiological actions are similar to those of the vegetable alkaloids. Some of thfem are extremely poisonous. The severe gastro-intestinal irritation and toxic symptoms often following the eating of spoiled meat are due to ptomaines. Eecent investigators have succeeded in separat- ing from pysemic fluids a definite alkaloid, and called it septidne. Our knowledge of the ptomaines is as yet very unsatisfactory. THE UEIl^E, The urine is a fluid secreted continuously by the kidneys, and is the chief means by which the nitrogenous waste of the body is discharged. A specimen, to be representative, should be a portion of the whole twenty-four hours' urine, for con- siderable variation in composition and prop- erties may occur during the day. Especially is this true of traces of albumen and sugar. When this is impracticable, that passed before breakfast is generally preferable, because far- thest from a meal. When significant variations == during the day are suspected, several specimens ^^- may be taken at different hours. For micro- scopical examination a few ounces of the urine j,j gg in a stoppered vial, or better still, in a cov- ered conical glass (Fig. 66) are set aside for several hours until the sediment has settled to the bottom and can be examined. Physical Peoperties. Normal urine is a tranqiarent, aqueous fluid, of a ■pale yellow color, characteristia odor, add reaction, and a specific gravity of 1020 when passed in the average quantity of about forty-five fluid ounces in the twenty-four hours. This description is to be taken with much allowance, for very wide variations occur even in health. With these variations the student must become thoroughly familiar before he is capable of interpreting a speci- men. Therefore the physical properties will be considered more particularly. Quantity. In health this depends upon (a) the amount of water ingested, and (6) its vicarious elimination by the skin, lungs, and bowels. Pathologically it is increased in diabetes, also in hys- terical conditions associated with convulsions and high arterial pressure, and after the administration of diuretics. Transparency. Normal urine is not always transparent, nor is transparent always normal. Some degree of opacity may be due 112 THE URINE. to : (a) Mucus, with some entangled epithelial cells, which may be observed in many specimens of healthy urine, especially of fe- males, because of the larger area of mucous surface in that sex. (6) Urates (of Na, K, Ca, and Mg), which often form a precipitate in urine, especially when allowed to stand over night in a cold room. The test for this sediment is heat, which quickly dissi- pates it. (o) Earthy phospates (of Ca and Mg), which may give an opacity to normal urine, especially if it is alkaline or even weakly acid. The test for this sediment is the addition of a few- drops of any acid which promptly clears it up, while heat would only increase it. (d) Fungi (bacteria, penicillia, sarcinae, etc.), especially in decomposing urine. A urine may be abnormally opaque from- the above causes, or from the presence of blood or pus. When due to blood or pus the opacity is increased by heat or acids because of the pre- cipitation of albumen always present in liquor sanguinis and liquor puris, Fluidity. Healthy urine is never otherwise than an aqueous fluid, flowing and dripping with ease ; but in certain diseased con- ditions, abnormal quantities of mucus, or the presence of pus or fat, especially if the urine be allowed to decompose and become very alkaline, may give rise to viscidity. Color. Healthy variations in color depend mainly upon the amount of water and the consequent degree of concentration or dilution of the solid constituents. Aside from abnormal degrees of the above, pathological variations in color may be the result of (a) an increase or diminution of the normal coloring matters, as in fevers, etc. ; (6) the presence of abnormal substances, as biliary and blood coloring matters. Moreover, the urine may be colored after the administration of certain drugs, as senna, santonin, rhu- barb, prickly pear, etc. Odor. When freshly passed, urine has, in addition to its char- acteristic odor, an aromatic fragrance due to certain volatile ethers. Alkaline urine has an ammoniacal odor, unless the alka- linity be due to fixed alkali, when the smell is fainty and sicken- ing, like that of horses' urine. Diabetic urine exhales a sweetish smell. In certain forms of dyspepsia and liver trouble the odor of the urine is almost pathognomonic. Medicines and certain articles of food often impart a peculiar odor, as turpentine the THE URINE. 113 odor of violets, and asparagus and cauliflower a rank, disgusting smell. Reaction. Normally the urine of the whole twenty-four hours will average an acid reaction ; but great variations occur during the day. Before meals it will have a high degree of acidity, but after eating becomes nearly neutral, or even alkaline. This is due to the ingestion of food which is largely alkaline and to the abstraction of acidulous principles from the blood to form acid- gastric juice. It has also been observed that urine passed on ris- ing in the morning is especially acid. This is probably due to the fact that during sleep less carbonic acid is exhaled from the lungs and less perspiration (acid) given off by the skin. The reaction of the urine is important to the physician, as it may favor or prevent the formation of sediments and concretions or irritation of the kidneys and bladder. The acidity of urine is due, not to free acid, but to acid sodium phosphate (NaH^PO^) occurring in consequence of carbon- ic, uric, and hippuric acids, seizing on to a portion of the sodium of the basic phosphate. An acid fermentation, attended with decom- position of mucus and coloring matters and a production of acetic and lactic acids, some- times occurs in urine that has stood for some time at a moderate tem- perature. After a while, more quickly in warm Fig. 67. Alialine fermentation. weather, the alialine fermentation begins, caused by the develop- ment of the micrococcus ureee. (Pasteur.) The urea is converted into ammonium carbonate, thus : CH,N,0+2H,0=(NH,),C03. This gives the urine an ammoniacal odor and alkaline reaction, and it becomes opaque from the precipitation of urate of ammo- nium and the earthy phosphates and the development of bacteria. 114 THE URINE. Pus and blood, or vessels tainted with urine previously fermented, greatly hasten this change. Specific Gravity. Though the average specific gravity is 1020, it exhibits, even in health, great variations, the extremes being 1002 after copious use of water and diuretics, and 1040 after ab- stinence from fluid and the elimination of water through other means, as profuse perspiration or copious diarrhea. The amount of solids varying but little in health, fluctuations in specific grav- ity are due mainly to variations in the amount of water, and, as long as the inverse proportion between specific gravity and volume of urine is preserved, variations need cause no alarm. Specific gravity is usually measured by an instrument called-a hydrometer or urinometer (Fig. 68), which is a hollow glass fioat, weighted with mercury and having a long, gradu- ated neck. The graduation begins above at 1000, because the heavier the urine the less deeply will the instrument sink and the further the neck will protrude from the surface. It is well to test a new urinometer by immersiing it in water at 60° F. (15.5° C), into Avhich it should sink to or 1000 on the scale. Urinometers are usually provided with a cylinder or jar, as shown in the figure, but a large test-tube will answer. This is about three fourths filled ; the urinometer is then introduced, and when still, the specific gravity is read ofl: The cylinder or test-tube should not be too nar- row, lest the urinometer be attracted to aud catch against the sides, and not rise as high or sink as low as it should. The fluid being "■■■ attracted up around the stem, the reading should be made not along the line c d, as in the diagram, but a b, which represents the true level of the liquid. We may approximate the amount of solids in any urine by doubling the last two figures of the specific gravity, which will give the per cent. Thus, if a urine be of spe- cific gravity 1020, doubling the last two figures gives .040, or 4 per cent. If the daily volume be fifty ounces, 4 per cent of this is two ounces, which will represent the quantity of solids passed daily. Fig. 68. 40 THE UEINE. 115 Chemical Constituents. The average composition of a thou- sand parts of urine is about as follows : Water 950.00 Urea 26.20 Kreatine and kreatinine 80 Urates of sodium and potassium 1.45 Hippurates of sodium and potassium 70 Mucus and coloring matters 35 Phosphates of sodium and potassium 3.75 Phos.phates of calcium and magnesium ... .90 Chlorides of sodium and potassium 12.55 Sulphates of sodium and potassium 3.30 1000.00 Pathologically there may be present also albumen, glucose, blood, bile, etc., besides various sediments. Ubea — CH^NjO. This is the most constant and abundant organic constituent of the urine, and, being the main nitroge- Fig. f (o> Urea ; (&) hexagonal plates ; and (e) smaller scales, or rhombic plates of urea nitrate. nous excretion of the body, it is the index of nitrogenous waste, whether of food or tissue. Its average amount is about one ounce per I 116 THE DEINE. Urea crystallizes in colorless prisms, very soluble in water, and behaves like an alkaloid, combining readily with nitric and oxalic acids to form salts. Both of these salts may be precipi- tated in colorless plates from concentrated urine by adding nitric or oxalic acid. (Fig. 69, e.) In the course of many diseases it is important to estimate the amount of urea excreted day by day. A rough estimate may be based on the specific gravity. For, since urea is the largest solid ingredient in urine, it follows that if sugar be absent, albumen in small amount or removed, and the amount of chlorides normal, variations in specific gravity must be due mainly to variations in amount of urea. The exact methods most generally employed consist in decom- posing the urine, by means of chlorinated soda, into nitrogen and carbon dioxide, and measuring either the volume of gas evolved or the specific gravity lost by the decomposition. Davy's Method. A graduated tube closed at one end is one third filled with mercury. A measured quantity of the urine (a dram or half dram, according to capacity of tube) is then added, and the tube is next filled to the brim with liquor sod. chloratse. Closing the opening with the thumb, the tube is inverted over a strong solution of common salt in a dish. (Fig. 70.) The mercury runs out and the salt water rises to take its place, while the urine and soda mixture, being lighter, remain in the upper part of the tube. Here the gas from the decomposing urea collects. The decomposition is complete in three or four hours, when the amount of the gas may be read oflf by the gradu- ations upon the tube, every cubic inch representing .64 grain (or 1 cubic centi- meter reptesenting 2.5 milligrams) of urea. Fowler's Method, based on the loss of specific gravity, is easier of application. The specific gravity of the urine is carefully de- termined as well as that of the liq. sodse chloratse (U. S. P.) to be used. One volume of the urine is mixed with exactly seven volumes of the liq. sod. chl. and set aside for two hours, or until Fig. 70. THE UEINE. 117 effervescence ceases. The specific gravity is again taken. As the reaction begins immediately on mixing the fluids, the specific gravity of the mixture must be calculated. This is done by add- ing to the specifirc gravity of the urine seven times that of the liq. sod. chl. and dividing the sum by eight. Each degree of difference in specific gravity of the mixture before and after the decomposition represents three and a half grains of urea to the fluid ounce of the day's urine. Example: Ounces. Quantity of urine in twenty-four hours 46 Sp. gr. of the urine 1020 Sp. gr. liq. sod. chloratBe 1042 (Calculated) Sp. gr. mixture (I0i.2.>i7 -n o2 = ). 1039.2-f- (Actual) Sp. gr. mixture after reaction 1036.2 1039.2—1036.2=3; 3X3^=10 J grs. of urea to the ounce of urine; 10^X46=483 grs. of urea passed in twenty-four hours. Kreatine and Kreatinine, substances closely allied to urea, exist in urine in such small amounts as to be of no practical signifi- cance, and need only to be mentioned in this connection. Uric Acid is found in the urine of carnivora: in that of her- bivora it is largely replaced by an analogous substance — hippuric acid. Gout is characterized by an increased production of uric Fig. 71. Uric Acid. Fig. 72. Uric Acid. acid, and the so-called "chalk-stone" deposit in joints during that disease is sodium urate. Free uric acid is so very insoluble that whenever it exists in urine it is always a precipitate. It ap- I 118 THE UEINE. pears as minute reddish grains, which under the microscope are seen to be modifications of rhombic crystals, always stained with the coloring matter of the urine. They often deviate widely from the typical rhomb, as is shown in Figs. 71 and 72, but an experi- enced eye will readily recognize them. Normally, uric acid, as soon as formed, unites with the alkaline bases to form urates. These are very soluble in warm water, but more sparingly so in cold. Therefore a urine, though clear when freshly passed and warm, may exhibit a copious precipitate upon becoming cold, as on a winter night. This pre- cipitate is easily recognized by its dissolving upon warming. Urates of sodium and mague- j slum generally appear under the - / microscope as amorphous pow- ders in moss -like aggregations, but occasionally as bundles of small needles, as shown in Fig. 73. The urate of ammonium, a „. _ „ „ , , „ , . result of the alkaline fermenta- Fig. 73. Urates. Oxalate of Calcium. . , tion, occurs as opaque, brown spherules, smooth or with spiculae like a thorn-apple. (Fig. 67.) The acid urates are less soluble than the normal, and often pre- cipitate when the urine is very acid or when an acid is added, as in the nitrie-acid test for albumen. The murexid test for uric acid and the urates is one of great beauty. Place some of the sediment in a porcelain dish, add a drop or two of nitric acid, and carefully evaporate almost to dry- ness. If a few drops of ammonia be added, it assumes a beautiful purple color. Coloring Matters. Our unsatisfactory knowledge of these substances and their clinical significance is to be regretted, since some of them possess an importance next to albumen and sugar. The existence of at least two distinct substances have been dem- onstrated : 1. Urobilin (urohcematin), derived from the coloring matter of the bile, and hence indirectly from the coloring matter of the blood. THE URINE. 119 2. Uro-indican (uroxanihin), a substaDce closely related to, if not identical with, the glucoside indican, and, like that substance, it is capable of conversion into indigo-blue. To estimate the coloring matters, put some urine in a beaker and render it strongly acid with nitric or hydrochloric acid. Let it stand six hours for the pigments to be liberated. Then note the depth of color by transmitted light. Phosphates. The phosphates are derived mainly from the food, but to some extent also from oxidation of phosphorized tissues : 1. Earthy Phosphates (Ca and Mg). Being soluble only in acid solutions, the earthy phosphates are precipitated when the urine is made or becomes alkaline. Furthermore, being less sol- uble in warm than cold urine, heat often precipitates them, as in the heat test for albumen. Deposits of calcium and magnesium phosphates are generally amorphous, and may be distinguished from the amorphous urates, (a) by absence of color and not gath- ering in mossy forms ; (6) by a drop of acetic acid added to the sediment on a glass slide un- der the microscope — phosphates dissolve, while urates gradu- ally lose their base and assume i^ ^'^i!^S''"'^S^ \l the characteristic forms of uric acid. In ammoniacal urine (al- kaline fermentation) the am- monio-magnesian phosphate \ \J^^ ^*' /j ffj \jrj^ (MgNH^PO^), the so-called ~ triple phosphate, is formed and deposited in large prismatic, ^^ ^^ Triple Phosphate, coffin-lid crystals; sometimes, also, in ragged stellate or arborescent crystals, resembling those of snow. (Fig. 74.) In cases of cystitis this may occur within the bladder; hence other calculi often have one or more white layers of the mixed phosphates. 2. Alkaline Phosphates. These constitute the greater portion of the phosphates, and are made up mainly of acid sodium phosphate, with traces of potassium phosphate. Being very soluble, they never form a precipitate. 120 'the urine. Magnesian Test. The phosphates are best detected and esti- mated by precipitation with a solution composed of magnesium sulphate, ammonium chloride, and aq. ammonise, each one part, and water eight parts. If the precipitate be thick and creamy, the phosphates are abnormally increased ; if it be milky, they are normal, and if translucent, diminished. Chlorides. These consist almost entirely of sodium chloride, the quantity depending mainly on what is taken in with the food. However, the chlorides are diminished or even disappear from the urine in many fevers, especially in pneumonia, much being elimi- nated by the sputa. Their reappearance in the urifie is often the earliest indication of convalescence. Hence their detection and estimation are important. Silver-Nitrate Test. First add a few drops of nitric acid to pre- vent the precipitation of the phosphates. Then, on. adding silver nitrate solution, only the chlorides will fall as a white precipitate of chloride of silver. If the precipitate be in curdy masses the chlorides are not diminished ; if only a milkiness be produced, they are greatly diminished; and, if no cloudiness, they are en- tirely absent. , Sulphates. These consist mainly of sodium sulphate, with a little of the potassium salt. They are derived principally from the food, and in small amount from oxidation of albuminoid sul; phurized tissues, especially in fevers. They are detected and estimated by precipitation with barium chloride or nitrate, first adding a little nitric or hydrochloric acid to hold the phosphates in solution. If the precipitate be creamy the sulphates are in- creased; if milky, normal, and if translucent, diminished. Albumen. Under this head are included various proteid sub- stances which, not being osmotic, appear in urine only in patho- logical conditions and functional disturbances. Many of the specific fevers, as pneumonia, typhoid, and diphtheria, produce albuminuria. Albuminous urine is apt to be of diminished trans- parency from presence of tube casts, fat granules, epithelial cells, etc., and filtering is often necessary before applying the tests. Meat Test. A test-tube is one third filled with the suspected urine and held in the flame of a spirit lamp, or over the chimney of an ordinary lamp, until it boils. If an opacity occurs it must be either albumen or earthy phosphates. If earthy phosphates, it THE UEINE. 121 clears up on addition of nitric acid, but if albumen, it is slightly increased. NUric-Add Teat. This consists in underlaying the urine with nitric acid. Take a test-tube one fourth full, and, holding it aslant, gently pour in an equal volume of the acid, allowing it to trickle down the inside of the tube and pass beneath the urine. Or the acid may be put in first and the urine added afterward. An opacity at the junction of the two liquids is either albumen or the urates. If urates, it clears up on heating, but if albumen, it is permanent. Either the' heat or nitric-acid test, singly, is unsatisfactory, but both performed together are conclusive. However, the following sources of error should be borne in mind : (a) If the urine be very alkaline and the amount of albumen small, heat will cause no opacity; (6) if only a drop or two of nitric acid be added, it may hold a small quantity of albumen in solution ; (c) urea may be precipitated from a concentrated urine by nitric acid, but heat dissolves it; (i) decomposed urates containing ammonium car- bonate effervesce on addition of an acid; (e) often after taking turpentine, copaiba, etc., nitric acid precipitates resin in yellow- ish flakes, redissolved on addition of alcohol. Other Teats. Many other substances, as alcohol and certain acids and mineral salts, coagulate albumen and are used as tests for that substance. But they are less used, less convenient, and no more accurate and conclusive than the two already given. Among them may be mentioned (a) picric acid, (6) potassio- mercuric iodide (KI 50 grs. — HgCl, 21 grs.), (c) sodium tung- state, {d) potassium ferrocyanide. These added in saturated solution form white clouds with albumen, provided the urine is first acidulated with citric acid. Strips of filter paper steeped in these chemicals and dried, or pellets, are sometimes carried for use at the bedside. Quantitative Estimation. It is often very important that we should be able to compare the quantity of albumen in the urine from day to day. The accurate method is by precipitation with acetic acid and boiling, separation by filtration, drying, and weighing by delicate balances, the filter having been previously weighed. But as this involves too much time for the busy prac- titioner, we must use an approximative method. The easiest way 122 THE UEINE. is to precipitate the albumen by heat and nitric acid, set it aside for twelve hours or until next visit, and then note the proportion of volume occupied by the precipitate — one fourth, one eighth, a trace, etc. Sugar (Glucose). It has been proven (Dr. Pavy, 1879) that healthy urine contains traces of glucose, but quantities of clinical significance, and appreciable by the ordinary tests, are present only in glycosuria or diabetes, a pathological condition associated with some disturbance of the glycogenic function of the liver. High specific gravity in a urine pale and copious, suggests sugar. Before testing, albumen, if present, should be removed by boiling and filtration. Fermentation Test. Two vials— one for comparison, the other for fermentation — are partly filled with the urine. Into one is put a bit of baker's yeast about the size of a pea. Both vials are loosely plugged with some pervious material, as cotton, and set aside where they will keep warm (60° or 70° F.) until next day or next visit. If sugar be present, fermentation will occur in the vial treated with yeast and CO^ bubbles |Up and passes off through the cotton plug, and on taking the specific gravity of each, there will be a difference due to the loss of sugar in the vial fermented. Alkali Test. Boil the urine with liquor potassae or sodse, and if glucose be present it will be oxidized and form a molasses-like coloration, the depth of which indicates the amount of sugar present. On adding nitric acid a molasses-like odor is devel- oped and the coloration discharged. Alkali-Copper Test. This depends on the power glucose has of reducing the cupric to the cuprous oxide. There are several methods of performing this test: (1) Trammer's. A drop or two of a weak (about 1 to 30) solution of cupric sulphate is added to an inch of urine in a test-tube, and then an equal bulk of liquor potassae or sodse. Immediately there falls, in addition to the earthy phosphates, a bluish precipitate. If sugar is present, this precipitate dissolves on agitation, forming a blue solution, which, on boiling, depos- its a yellow, orange, or red precipitate of cuprous oxide. (See p. 79.) (2) Fehling's. This differs from Trommer's in the addition of tartaric acid or some tartrate to dissolve the blue precipitate. THE URINE. 123 Furthermore, the ingredients are in definite proportion, so as to make the solution available for quantitative analysis. Below are given the two formulse in general use, one in the French and the other in the English measures: Fehllng's Solution. Pavy's Solution. Cupric Sulphate 34.64 grams. 320 grains. Potassium Tartrate 173.20 grams. 640 grains. Caustic Potash 80.00 grams. 1280 grains. Water 1 liter. 20 ounces. On standing a long time this solution is apt to spoil, the tar- taric acid being converted into racemic acid, which, like glucose, will deoxidize the cupric oxide. Hence, it is best to make the solution in two separate parts, the cupric sulphate with one half the water and the tartrate and caustic potash with the other half. For use, mix equal parts, forming Fehling's solution fresh. A convenient amount should be put in a test-tube and boiled alone for a few seconds. If it remains clear it is good, and the urine may then be added gradually. Either immediately, or when the heat is reapplied, if sugar be present the reddish precipitate will appear. Heat should not be applied longer than a minute, for prolonged boiling can cause the reduction of the copper oxide by various other organic substances found in urine. (3) Haines' differs from Fehling's in that glycerine is used instead of the tartrate, and the solution does not spoil. Alkali-Bismuth Test. (1) To some urine in a test-tube add a pinch of bismuth subnitrate and then an equal volume of liquor potassse. Boil about two minutes. If sugar be present, the bis- muth will be reduced and deposited as a black metallic mirror on the sides and bottom of the tube. (2) A bismuth test solution corresponding to Fehling's is made by warming a scruple each of bismuth subnitrate and tartaric acid in two ounces of water, and adding liquor potassse till a clear solution is obtained. This boiled with a urine containing glucose gives the black bismuth precipita:te. The elements of the foregoing tests put up in pellets and tablets, while more convenient, are less reliable and spoil sooner than the solution. Picric-Acid Test. This is an extremely delicate test for glu- cose, and has the practical advantage of being as good a test for 124 THE UEINE. albumen. To the suspected urine add an equal volume of a sat- urated solution of picric acid. A cloudy precipitate indicates albumen. Next add a few drop.s of liquor potassse and warm gently. A deep red color indicates sugar, though a lighter colora- tion may occur in urine free from glucose. Quantitative — (1) Fermentation. Each degree of specific grav- ity lost in fermenting represents one grain of sugar to the ounce of the twenty-four hours' urine. (2) Fehling'a. Two hundred minims of the solution is decolorized by one grain of sugar.Yi^Two hundred minims (grains) of the test solu- tion are measured dS into a small flask, diluted with twice its bulk of water, and gently boiled. (Fig. 75.) A graduated burette (also shown in figure) is then filled to zero with the urine. To the boil- ing test solution the urine is added drop by drop till the blue color is discharged. By the graduations on the burette the quantity of urine added is easily read. As that represents one grain of sugar, the amount of sugar in the entire urine is easily calculated. Blood gives to urine a smoky hue, or even a dark brown color. Hsematuria (blood in urine) may occur as the result of (a) some disease or injury in the geuito- urinary tract, as acute nephritis, calculus, parasites, can- cer, wounds, etc. ; (6) a depraved condition of the blood, as in scurvy, purpura, and eruptive fevers; (c) a disturbance of the renal circulation, as in mental emotions, malarial paroxysms, and cardiac obstructions. If the urine be acid, the blood corpuscles retain their shape for several days and are easily recognized by the microscope. They appear as amber-colored, biconcave disks, either single or laid in rows, like piles of coin. Owing to the biconcavity of the cor- puscles their centers and peripheries alternate in brightness and shadow, as the object-glass is made to approach or recede. Their color and smaller size also serve to distinguish them from pus cor- puscles. In doubtful cases a minute drop of blood, taken from THE UEINE. 125 the finger with a needle, may be used for comparison. After urine containing blood has stood for some time, the corpuscles lose their regular outline and be- come shriveled and angular. (See a in figure.) If the cor- puscles be disintegrated and dissolved we must teit for hlood- coloring matters. The spectroscope offers the best means for their detection, but as physicians are seldom provided with that instrument, the following is the test : Place the urine in a test-tube and shake up with equal volumes of tincture of guiacum and Fig. 76. Blood Corpuscles. ozonized ether or old oil of turpentine. If blood-coloring mat- ters are present, the precipitated resin is blue, instead of a dirty greenish yellow. Bile. Urine containing bile is yellow, froths on shaking, and a rag dipped in it and dried is permanently yellow. 1. Test for Bile-coloring Matters* Underlay the urine with yellow nitric acid or a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids ; or the urine and acid may be placed adjacent on a white plate. In either method there occurs, at the junction of the liquids, a play of colors, green being prominent and characteristic. 2. Test for Bile Acids. Add a few grains of cane sugar or glucose to the urine and underlay it with sulphuric acid. At the junction of the; liquid a reddish-purple color appears. As other substances than the bile acids may produce this reaction, we must, in cases of doubt, evaporate the urine to dryness, extract with alcohol, precipitate with ether, and redissolve iu distilled water, and then apply the test as above. Leucin and Tyrosin occur only in bile urine, for they attend destructive liver disease, especially acute, yellow atrophy and * Bilirubin oxidizes so easily that icteric urine often gives only the green coloration, or, if kept long, fails to respond at all. Hence, if fresh icteric urine can not be obtained and bile urine must be prepared for demonstration, fresh bile from a recently killed animal, and not the inspissated, must be used. 126 THE UEINE. phosphorus - poisoning. They form yellowish crystalline deposits (Fig. 77) — leucin as spherules, with concentric strise, and tyrosin as sheaf-like bun- dles of fine nee- dles. Calcium Ox- alate occurs in extremely small amounts in nor- mal urine, but more abundantly in the so-called oxalic diathesis and in certain forms of dyspep- sia, or after eat- ing rhubarb or other things con- taining it. If per- Pig. 77. Leucin Spherules and Tyrosin Needles. sistentlv present it may form a (mulberry) calculus. It occurs in both acid and alkaline urine, and always as a light delicate precipitate, which under high powers is seen to consist of small, brilliant octahedral crystals, but sometimes dumb- Fig. 78. bells. (Fig. 73.) In certain aspects the smaller octahedra appear as squares crossed by two bright diagonal lines. Carbonate of Calcium is a very rare deposit in human, but abundant in the urine of cattle. It occurs in small spher- ules, sometimes coalescing; acetic acid dissolves it with ef- fervescence. HiPPURIO Acid {Horse -uric Acid) largely replaces uric acid Carbonate of Calcium. Hippuric Acid, in the urine of herbivorous animals, and to some extent in that of man, especially after a vegetable diet. It occurs in pointed, THE UEINE. 127 four-sided prisms and acicular crystals, insoluble in acetic acid but soluble in alcohol. (Fij,'. 78.) Fat in such quantities as to float on the urine generally comes from the introduction of a catheter or from foreign admixture. Fig. 79. Pat Globules. Fig. 80. Pus Corpuscles. Fatty degeneration of kidney, or leakage of a lymph vessel, or the opening of an abscess into the urinary tract may cause fat in the urine. It occurs as minute, highly refracting globules of various sizes (see a in Fig. 79), but sometimes, especially in chylous urine, in more intimate emulsion (as at 6), the globules appearing under the microscope as mere specks. Fat may be recognized by its dissolving on addition of ether. Cystin is a rare urinary sediment, a yellowish deposit of hexagonal plates (Fig. 81), not dissolved by heat or acetic acid '^' ' ^^ '"' but readily by ammonia. It is a highly sulphurized body whose formation in the system is obscure. It sometimes forms calculi. Mucus AND Pus. Mucus is a normal constituent of urine. It is a transparent fluid, and would be invisible but for the mu- cus corpuscles, epithelium, and other sediments entangled in it. 128 THE DEINE. Though closely related to albumen, mucin is coagulated by acetic acid and not by heat. Mucus is increased by irritation of the urinary tract, hut as inflammation supervenes albumen appears and the urine is purulent. The mucus and pus corpuscles pre- sent the same appearance under the microscope as other leuco- cytes, viz., rounded, colorless, very granular cells, a little larger than red blood corpuscles. (Fig. 80.) If the urine be greatly di- luted, or, better, treated with acetic acid, the cells swell up, lose their granular appearance, become transparent, and show their nuclei (a in Fig. 80). The pus cell oftener than the mucus cor- puscle has more than one nucleus. Pus may be distinguished from mucus : (1) It is always attended with albumen ; (2) (Donne's test) treated with an alkali it forms a gelatinous mass. / 6 Fig. 82. (a) Epithelium ftom the human urethra; (6) vagina; (c) prostate; (d)Cowper's glands; (e)Llttre's glands; (/) lemale urethra; (s)hladder. Epithelium in the urine may come from any part of the genito- urinary tract. The accompanying cut shows the typical forms of cells coming from various situations. It is generally impossible to locate the origin of an epithelial cell beyond the vagina and bladder, for their distinctive differences, but slight at THE UEINE. 129 best, are rendered still fainter by maceration in the urine. Renal epithelium comes from .the uriniferous tubules, and are rounded and granular, and, unlike pus cells, they show their nuclei without acetic acid. They are usually associated with albumen and tube casts (Fig. 83), and therefore point to kidney disease. Tube Casts. In hemorrhage from or inflammation of the kidney the urine usually contains microscopic casts or moulds of the uriniferous tubules formed by exudation into the tubule of coagulable material, which afterward contracts, becomes loose, and is washed out with the urine. As they imbed and bring away epithelial cells, granular matter, fat globules, blood discs, etc., they are a valuable index to the condition of the tubules. (1) Epithelial casts (see upper portion of figure) are those bear- ing renal epithelium. They indicate desquamative nephritis. Fig. 83. Epithelial Cells and Tube Casts. Fig. 84. Spermatozoa. (2) Hyaline casts (shown in left-hand part of figure) are transparent and comparatively free from entangled material. They come from tubules whose epithelium is sound and adherent or from those bereft of epithelium. In the latter case they are more solid in appearance {waocy casts) and indicate serious nephritis. (3) Gran- ular casts are opaque from presence of granular debris. (4) Fatty casts (see larger cast in figure) are such as carry oil globules, either free or contained in epithelial cells. They are proof of fatty degeneration of the kidney. (5) Blood casts contain blood cor- puscles, and show that the hematuria is of renal origin. Spermatozoa occur in urine as a result of spermatorrhea, 130 THE UEINE. nocturnal emissions, or coitus. They are liable to escape observa- tion, for they subside slowly, and are very small and transparent. Under a high power they are seen to consist of a small oval cell with a tail-like prolongation. Their tadpole-like appearance is shown in Fig. 84. They are motionless in urine, and remain for days unaltered. Micro-organisms. Urine being a solution of organic mat- ters becomes as soon as voided a ready medium for the growth of the lower forms of life, the germs of which get in from the air or unclean vessels. Besides various others we may men- tion : (1) Yeast fungus (shown on page 105) is seen during its sporule stage as transparent oval cells, sometimes arranging themselves in branches. It grows only in saccharine urine, though spores closely resembling it are seen in acid urine con- taining neither sugar or albumen. (2) Sarcina is a fungus sel- dom found in urine but more frequently in matters vomited during certain diseases of the stomach. The cells are arranged in cubes, resembling bales bound with cross-bands. The sarcinae shown at a in figure are from the urine, those at b from vomited matters. 1. Bacteria (little rods). This is the general term given to the minute moving organisms invariably present in putrefy- ing animal and vegetable mat- rig. 85. Sarcina Ventriculi. ter. They consist of simple cells filled with a colorless fluid and presenting several varieties of form : (a) Micrococci appear- ing as trembling points, distinguished from other particles by their progressive motion ; (ft) Hods about the length of the di- ameter of blood discs, sometimes at rest, but usually vibrating across the field; (c) Vibriones, consisting of several rods joined together and moving with greater rapidity ; and (d) Zooglece, ag- gregations of bacteria held together by gelatinous material and resembling masses of amorphous urates or phosphates. These various forms are shown in Fig. 67, page 113. Bacteria not only THE URINE. 131 canse decomposition outside, but may set it up in urine while yet within. the bladder, provided they be introduced from without. This may be done by dirty catheters and sounds, or they may work their way down the urethra in the pus of a gleet. The ammoniacal fermentation thus set up soon induces cystitis. Extraneous bodies, such as hair, wool, or fragments of feathers, are often found in urinary deposits, and ludicrous mistakes have been made by observers not on their guard for such casual ad- mixtures. Sediments. The chemical examination of unorganized urinary sediments is generally an easy matter, for they usually consist of urates, phosphates, calcium oxalate, or uric acid. Warm the sed- iment with the supernatant urine, it dissolves — urates. If not, warm with acetic acid, it dissolvies — phosphates. If not, warm with hydrochloric acid, it dissolves — calcium oxalate. If not, it is uric acid, which maybe confirmed by the murexid test. Urinaey Calculi. Urinary calculi {calculus, a pebble) are composed of urinary sediments which have gathered around some nucleus (usually calcium oxalate or uric-acid crystals, or some foreign body) within the bladder, and being slowly deposited, par- ticle upon particle and layer upon layer, the concretion becomes as hard as stone. The concretion often consists of successive layers of different sediments deposited during varying conditions of the urine. The qualitative analysis of calculi is easy. Saw the stone through the middle and see whether it be composed of the same material throughout or of successive layers of difl'erent sediments. If the former, take the sawdust; if the latter, chip off a specimen from a single layer. But this should be pulverized very fine (for it is dissolved much less readily than fresh sediments), and then test by means of heat acetic and hydrochloric acids, just as other sediments. The following method is easier in practice : I. Heat to redness on a piece of platinum foil. If no residue, see II; if a residue, see III. II. To a fresh portion apply the murexid test. If it responds it is ammonium urate or uric acid; if it does not respond it is cystin or xanthin, see IV. III. To the residue, when cool, add hydrochloric acid. If it 132 THE UEDJE. effervesces it is an oxalate or urate, which may be determined by the murexid test; if it does not effervesce it is a, phosphate. IV. Dissolve some of the powder in nitric acid. If the solu- tion isjyellow it is xanthin; if dark brown it is cystin. 1 gram = 15.434 grains. 1 cubic centimeter = 0.061 cubic inch = 0.27 3. 1 liter = 61 cubic inches = 33.8 g. l^millimeter =j\ inch. J INDEX. Acetanilide, . . Acid, acetic, . . antimonic, . autimonious, arsenious, benzoic, . - . boric or boraeic, butyric, carbazotic, carbolic, . . carbonic, . . . cathartic, . clilorie, . . . chlorous, . chromic, citric, . . . cyanic, . . formic, gallic, . nippuric, hydriodic, . hydro bromic, . hydrochloric, . hydrocyanic, . . hydroferricyanic, hydroferrocyanic, hydrofluoric, . hydrosulphuric, hypochlorous,. . hyponitrous, . lithic (see uric), malic, . meconic, . muriatic, . myronic, nitric, nitroliydrochloric, . nitromuriatic, . nitrous, . oleic orthophosphoric, . oxalic, palmitic, perchloric, phosphoric, . . picric, prussic, . pyrogallic, . . pyrophosphoric, salicylic, silicic, sodium phosphate, . stearic,- succinic, . . sulphocyanic. PAGE. 107 . . 100 47 . 47 43 100 . 49 98 . 100 101 51 108 27 27 , . 70 101 55 . 101 101 126 25 25 25 55 55 55 25 30 27 37 117 102 109 25 106 . 39 20,72 26, Tl . 38 . 98 42 102 98 27 42 . 100 . 55 . 102 . 42 102 56 . 119 . 98 . 102 55 Acid, sulphovinlc, . sulphuric, sulphurous, . aulphydric tannic, . ... tartaric, uric, valerianic, Acid salts Acids, definition of, fatty , . . organic, Acidulous radicals, . Analytical table, . Affinity, chemical, . . Air, ... Albumen, Alcohol, amylic, . ethylic, . glycerylic, mannityl, . . methylic phenylic, . . poisoning by, . radicals, vinic, .' wood, . . ... Aldehydes, . Ale Algaroth, powder of, . Alkalies, metals of the, . Allialine earths metals. Alkaloids, artificial, . . liquid, natural, . , of cinchona, . of nux vomica, . of opium, . Alloys, AUotropic forms. Aluminium, bronze, . chloride, silicates, sulphate, Alums, . . Amalgams, Amber, . Amides, Amines, . Ammonia, derivatives, . . Ammoniac, .... Ammoniated mercury, PAGE. . . 97 33 . . 32 . . 30 . . 102 . 103 . . 117 108 58 24 . . 98 . 100 21 88 19 .35 120 94 95 94 96 96 93 101 95 92 94 93 99 95 47 57 62 107 110 108 109 . 109 . 109 . 56 41, 49 67 67 . 67 . 68 67 . 67 56, 80 102 . 107 107 . 36 . 107 92 . 82 (133) 134 INDEX. PAGE. Ammouio-chloride of mercury, 82 -citrate of iron, ... 74 -ferric alum, . .68 -magneslan phosphate, . 66, 119 -nitrate of silver, . 47) -sulphate of copper, . . 45 -tartrate of Iron, 74 Ammonium, . . . 60 amalgam, ... ... 60 carbonate, . . .61, 113 derivatives, . 82 hydrate, ... 61 hydrosulphide, . 61 nitrate, . 38 nitrite, ... 3.5 sulphydrate, . . 61 Amygdalin, . 55, 106 Amyl, acetate, ... 96 hydrate, ... 95 nitrite, ... . 97 Amylic alcohol, 95 Amyloses, ... 103 Amylum, ... 104 Analysis, 16 acidulous radicals, . . 87 definition of, . . 16 metallic radicals, ..... 87 proximate and ultimate, . 108 Aniline, 107 Antidote, definition of, . . 44 Antidotes to acids, . 66 alkalies, . . . . 62 alkaloids, . 109 antimony, . 48 arsenic, ... 44 barium, ... 63 carbolic acid, . 101 copper. . 80 cyanides, . 55 lead, . . 78 mercury, . 83 oxalic acid, . 102 silver 85 sulphuric acid, . 34 Antifebrin .107 Antimonious chloride, . 47 hydride, . 47 oxychloride, . . 47 oxide, . . .47 sulphide, .■ 48 .Vntimoniuretted hydrogen, . 47 Antimony, 47 Antimony and potassium tartrate, 47 Antimonyl, ... 47 Antipyrine, . . . . .108 Antiseptics, . 36 Antizymotics, . . . 36 Babbitt's metal, 47 Bacteria 130 Baking powders, . 59 Balsams, .* . 92 Barium 63 Barium chromate, . 67 ■ Basylous radicals, 21 Beer, .... . . 95 Beet sugar, . . 104 Bengal light, ... . 63 Benzine, . Benzoin, . . Bichromates, . . Bile in urine, . . . Bilirubin, ... Bismuth, ammonio-citrate, . . . nitrate, . . -. . oxynitrate, . . . . subcarbonate, subnitrate, . Bismuthyl, . . Black lead Black oxide of manganese. Bleaching, 18, Bleaching powder, . Blood casts, . Blood in urine, . Blue ointment, . Blue pill, . . Eluestone, Blue vitriol, Boroglyceride, Boron, Brandy, . Brass, . . Brimstone, Britannia, British gum, . . . Bromides, tests for, Bromine, .' Bromum Bronze, aluminium. Butter of antimony, Butyl, . Cadmium, . Cjesium, CaWium, . carbonate, chloride, hydrate, oxalate, . oxide, . . phosphate, . sulphate, . . Calculi, urinary. Calomel, CoXx., .... Calx chlorata, Camphor, monobromated, . Camphors, Cane sugar, . Caoutchouc, Caramel, ...... Carbohydrates, . Carbon, . . dioxide, . disulphide, . . . monoxide, Catalysis, . . . Caustic ammonia, Caustic potash, . Cellulin, Celluloid, . . Cellulose Centimeter, cubic, . . . Cerium 23, PAGE. 91 92 70 125 125 48 48 4« , . JS . 48 48 47 49 . . 71 , 32, 65 64 . 129 .■ 124 81 81 79 . 79 . 49 49, 67 95 6S 29 47 104 26 22 47 93 63, 126 . 64 (■).'., 126 64 l:il ,V2 64 6.1 92 104 92 9.'i 103 49 . 51 . 31 . 51 , 20, 97 61 59 103 103 . 103 132 . 68 INDEX. 135 Chalk, Charcoal Chemical action. . Chemical affinity, philosophy (;hemistry, deflnition of, . inorganic organic, . . . Chiuoliue, . Choke damp, Chloral, ... . . . Chloralum, ... '. Chloride of lime, . Chlorides in urine, . Chlorides, tests for. Chlorinated lime. Chlorine, ... . . Chlorine oxides. Chloroform, <.Ihromates Chrome yellow, . . Chromium Chromium trioxide, . . Cider Cinchona alkaloids, Cinchonicine, . . Ciuchonidine, . . . Cinchonine, . Cinnabar, . . . Citrine ointment, . . . Classification of elements, . Clay, . Coal, . . . . . Cobalt, Cocaine, Codeine, . Coin, . . Collodion, . Colocynthin, . Cologne, Coloring matters, urinary, Combining weights. Combustion, . . , , Compounds, Conine, Copper, ammonio-sulphate; black oxide, group, . suboxide, . Copperas, Corrosive sublimate, . Cotton, Creasote, . . . Creia preparaia, Crystallization, water of, . Cupric hydrate, . oxide, " . . • subacetate, . sulphate, . Cyanates Cyanides, compound Cyanogen, Cystin, . . Decantation, Decay Deflagrating spoon, Deliquescent, . PAGE. 63 50 5 . 19 5, 18 5 , , 10 90 108 51 99 . 67 64 . 120 26 64 22 27 . 98 70 77 70 70 95 109 109 109 109 83 81 10 . 56 50 75 110 . 109 84, 85 r 104 106 92 118 8 . 13 6 110 . 45 79 78 79 73 82 . 103 101 63 16 79 79 . . 79 79 .55 55 54 . . 127 59, 64 106 . 13 . . 16 Deodorizers, . . . Deposits, urinary, Dextrin Diabetic urine, . Dialyzed iron. Dialysis, Diamond, Diastase, . . . Didymium, . Diffusion,. . ... Digitalin, . . .... Disinfectants Disinfectants, Distillation, Donng's test ... Donovan's solution. Draught in rooms, . Drnmmond light. Dynamite, Earths, metals of the, . Earthy phosphates, . . Effer\'escence, Efflorescent, Elaterin, . Electrolysis Electro positive and negative. Elements classification of Emplastrum,plmribit . Epithelial casts. Epithelium, Epsom salts," Equations, . Erbium, . . , . . . Essential oils, . . Etching, . . ... Ether, . chloric, . . . hydrobromic, . . hydrochloric, . . . . nitrous, ozonized, . . . . . . sulphuric Ethers, compound, . . . simple, Ethyl bromide, chloride, hydrate, nitrate, . oxide Ethylic alcohol. Evaporation, . . Extraneous bodies in urine, Fatty casts, . . Fats Febling's test, . . Fermentation acid, alkaline, . . Ferments, . . Ferri citras et ammonii citras, et ammonii tartras, etpotassii iartras, ct quinix citras, - H strichnix citras, Ferric chloride. PAGE. 36 . . 131 . . 104 . . 122 . 73 73 . 49 . 105 67 53 106 . . 23 17 12S 43 54 . 12 . . 96 . . 67 112, 119 .52 . 16 107 18 18 7 . . 10 . . 76 . . 129 128 66 9 67 91 26 96 97 . 97 97 . 97 125 . . 96 93, 96 93, 96 . 97 97 94 97 . 96 94 6 131 . 129 98, 127 122 . 113 . . lis . . 105 74 74 74 74 74 74 74 72 ise INDEX. PAGE. PAGE. Ferric hydrate, . . 73 Hydrargyria nitrate, . . 74 oxidum rabrum, . S2 sulphate, . . 73 oxidum fiavum, . Ki Ferricyanogen, . . . 55 mbsidphae fiavus, 82 Ferrocyanogen, . . 55 Hydrargyrimi, . . . 78 Ferrum redactum, . . 72 Hydrohromic ether. 97 Ferrous chloride, . . . . . 72 Hydrocarbons, . . . 91 hydrate, .... 73 Hydrochloric ether, 97 iodide, . 74 Hydrogen, 11 sulphate, 73 dioxide, IS sulphide, . 74 oxide, . 15 Filtration, 64 peroxide, . 15 Fixed oils . 98 sulphide, . . 30 Flint . . 66 "Hypo-" . . . 27 I'lowers ol sulphur. 29 Hyposulphites, . 32 Fluorides, tests for, . . 26 ••-Ide," . . 25 Fluorine, . 22 "-Ic," . . . . . 20, 27 Fluorspar,. . 22 Ignis fatuu?. 41 Fluxes, . '. '. 72 India rubber, . . . . 92 Flystone, . ... 75 Indican, . . 107, 119 Formulae, .... 9 Ink, black, . . 102 Fowler's solution, . . 43 indelible, . . . 85 Fractional distillation, . . . 17 sympathetic, . . . . . 75 Fruit essences, artiiicial, . 96 Insolubility, influence of, . 2(1 Fungi,. . . . . . 112 Insoluble chlorides. 81 Fusel oil, 95 Introduction, . . 5 Galena ... 76 Iodide of starch, 25 Galls, oak . . 102 Iodine,. . . .22 Galvanized iron, . . . 68 Iodides, tests for. . . 26 Gas, definition of, . 6 Iridium, . S6 Gas, illuminating. .51 Iodoform, . .• . 9S German silver, . . . 75 Iron, 71 Glass, . . . . 56 by hydrogen, . 72 Glucose, . . 105,122 group. 70 Glucosides, . . 106 reduced .... 72 Glycerine, . . . . . 96 salts (see ferrous and ferric), . 71 Glyeerrhizin, . . 107 scale compounds of ... 74 96 Isomerism, 91, 103 Glycerylio alcohol, . 96 "-Ite," . 27 Glycogen, . . . 104 Jalapin, . . Javelle water, 107 Gold . . 85 . . 60 Goulard's extract, . . . . 77 Kalium, . . . 57 Gram . 132 Kaolin, . . 68 Granular casts . . 129 Kerosene, 91 Grape sugar. 105 Kreatine, . . . 117 Graphite . 49 Kreatinine, 117 Gravity, specific, . Gray powder, . . 6 Labarraque's solution Lana phuosophica. 60 80 69 Green Are, . 63 Lanthanum, . . 67 Green vitriol, . . 73 Laughing gas. . . :1^ Guiacum, tincture, 125 Xoc sulphuris, . 29 Gum resins, . 92 Lead, . . 1*> Gums, . . 104 acetate, . 76 Gun cotton, 103 carbonate. 77 Gutta-percha, 92 chloride. Gypsum 65 chroma te. 77 Haines' test. . 123 group, 75 Hard water, 16,65 oxide, 76 Hartshorn 37 plaster, . 7li Homologous series, . . . 91 puce, . 76 Hyaline casts. 129 red, .... 71) Hydracids, ... 25 subacetate, . ... 77 Hydrargyria sugar of, sulphate 76 chloridiim mite, . 82 . . 77 cumcreta . . 80 sulphide, . 77 iodidv/m, ntbrum, . . 81 water, . . . .... 77 vodidum viride, . . . 81 white 77 INDEX. Viil PAGE. PAGE. Leucin, . ... 125 Mercurous nitrate. 81 Lignln 10.3 oxide, . . . 82 Lime (see calcium), ... 64 sulphate, . . . . . 81 kilns, . . . . 64 sulphide, . . . ... 83 water, . Limestone 64 . . 63 Mercury acid nitrate. .... 80 81 Limestone, magnesian. ... 65 ammoniated, . . . 82 Linen, . . . . . . 103 bichloride, . . 89 Linseed oil . . . 99 biuiodide. SI Liquid, definition of, . . .6 black oxide. 82 Liquor aci^i arseniosi, . . . . . 43 green iodide, 81 arsenii et hydrargyri iodidi, . . 43 mild chloride. 82 calcis, ... 64 oleate 83 definition of, . 61, 75 proto-iodide, 81 Jerri ehloridi, . . . .73 red iodide, . 81 ferrl nitratis, . . . 74 red oxide, . ... 82 fern terstilphatis, . . 73 yellow oxide, . . . 82 hydrargyn niiratis, Kl Metals 10,56 iodi compositue, . 24 Methyl hydrate. 93 magnesii dtratin, 66 Methylated spirit. . . 94 potassx .17 Methylic alcohol, . 93 potassii arsenitu, 43 Metric measures, . . . 132 pluiribi svbacetati^, 77 Micoderma aceti, 100, 105 subsulphatis, 73 Micrococci, . . . 130 Liter 132 Micro-organisms, . . 130 Litharge, . 76 Milk of magnesia. ... 66 Lithium, . . 62 Milk of sulphur, . 29 Litmus, . . . 24, 62 Milk sugar, . 105 Lixivlation, . .-)S Millimeter, . . . . 132 Lubricating oil, . . . . . yi 24 .'^i olecules, . _ . h Lugol's solution, . Monobromated camphor, 92 Lunar caustic. .S4 Monsel's solution. 7-3 Luster, metallic, .10 Morphine Mother of vinegar, . 109 Lye, . . .'iR . . 106 Magnesia . 66 Mucilage of starch, . 104 Magnesian fluid, . . 42, 120 Mucus 112, Vi- Magnesian limestone, . 65 Mulberry calculus, . la; Magnesium, . . 65 Murexld test, . . 118 carbonate. 66 Myrrh, . . . 92 • citrate . 66 Naphtha, . 91 hydrate. . .-. 66 Narcotine, . . . 109 oxide, . 66 Nascent state, . 20 sulphate, . . . 66 Natrium . . . . .57, 60 Malt 105 Negative radicals. 21 Manganates, . , . . . 71 Neutralization, . . 01 Manganese, . ... 71 Nickle, . 7.5 dioxide 12, 22, 71 Nicotine .' ' 110 Manganous sulphate, . . 71 Nitrates, test for . 40 sulphide 71 Nitric oxide, . ... 38 Manna, . . . . . 96 Nitrite of amyl, . 97 Mannite, .... ... 96 Nitrites, 38 Mannityl alcohol. . . 90 Nitro-cellulose, . 103 Marble, . 0.3 Nitrogen, . 34 Marsh's test. 40 dioxide. 38 Matter, ... ,"i hydride. 36 Measures 132 monoxide, 38 Meerschaum, . . . . Om oxides, . . 37 Menthol . . 92 pentoxide, . . 39 Mercurial ointment, . . . . . .SI tetroxide, . . . . . 39 Mercuric ammonium chloride . N- trioxide 38 chloride, S2 Nitrogenous bodies. 107 cyanide. . . .i4 Nitro-glycerine, 96 nitrate, . . . . 81 Nitrous ether. .97 oxide, . . . 82 Nitrous oxide. . . . . .38 sulphide . . .S3 Non-metals, .... 10, 11 Mercurous chloride, . . 82 Nux-vomica alkaloids, . . 109 iodide, . ... 81 Oidiurn albicans, 106 V6S INDEX. PAGE. Potassium — PAGE. Oil, fusel, ... . . . 9.5 hydrate 59 Oil of vitriol, 33 hypochlorite, . iodate -59 Oils, essential, . . . 91 59 fixed, . . . 98, 127 manganate,. . 71 volatile, 91 permanganate, . 71 Oleo-resins .... 92 red ehromate. ■ 70 Oleum tcrebinthinx, . . 92 sodium tartrate. .59 Opium alkaloids, . . . 109 sulpho-cyanate, . . .55 Organic chemistry, . . . 90 Potato starch, . . 1(14 Organized bodies, ... 90 Powder of Alearoth, . Precedence of afiinities. 47 Orpiment, "-Ous," . 43 . 19 20, 27 Precipitated chalk. . . . . 63 Oxacids, 25 Principles, proximate and ulti- Oxalate of lime. 65, 120 mate, . . . . . . 108 Oxidation, .... 13 Propylamine, . . . 107 Oxide, definition of. . . 13 Propyl, 93 Oxidizing agents. . . 13 Proximate analysis. . 108 Oxygen, •■ 12 principles . 108 Oxygenated water, . . Oxyhydrogen flame, . 13 Prussiate of potash, red, . 55 12 yellow 55 Ozone . 14 Ptomaines, ... . . 110 Ozonized ether, . 125 Ptyaliu, . 105 Painters' colic, . 7.S Ptyalism, . . . . 83 Pancreatin, . 105 Pus in urine, . . 112, 127 Paper, . . . 103 Putrefaction, ... . . 106 Parafflne, . . 91 Pyroligneous spirit, . . 93 Paraldehyde, .... 99 Quevenne's iron, . . . . . 72 Parchment, artificial, . 103 Quick lime, . 64 Paris green. 4.5 Quicksilver, 80 Pearl ash, 5R Quinicine, . 109 Pearl white, . . .... 4.S Quinidine, 109 Pepsin, . . . "Per-" .... . 105 Quinine, . ... 109 . 27 Quinoidiue, .'.... 109 Peru, balsam of 92 Radicals, definition of, . . 18 Petroleum, . . 91 Ijasylous, . 21 Pewter, . . 48,76 negative, . 21 Phenol, .... . 101 positive, . 21 Phenyl alcohol. 101 the alcohol, . . . 92 Phenylamine, . . . 107 Kaucidity of fats, . 99 Phosphates in urine, . . 119 Ratsbane, 43 Phosphine 41 Realgar, . . . Red fire, 43 l^hosphoretted hydrogen, . . 41 63 Phosphorus, 40 Red prussiate of potash, . .... 55 hydride. 41 Reduced iron, . . ■. . 72 oxides, . . 41 Reinseh's test. . 45 peutoxide, . . 42 Resina, 92 Pdula hydrargyri. . 81 Resins, . 92 Plaster of Paris. 65 Resorcin, . ..101 Platinic chloride. 60, 86 Respiration, . . 13 Platinum, 86 Rochelle salt, . .59 Plumbago, . 49 Rook crystal, . 56 Plumbum, ....... 76 Roll sulphur, . . 29 Poisoning by chloroform. 98 Rosin (see resin), . 9'> Porcelain, . 68 Rubidium, . 57 Porter, . 95 Saccharoses, . . . 104 Port wine, . !I5 Salivation, . ... . . . .S3 Potassium, ... 57 Salt, common. "5 acid carbonate, . 5S Sal volatile, 61 bromide, . 59 Samarium 07 bicarbonate, . .38 Sand 56 bichromate, 70 Santonin, . . . 107 bitartrate, . .58 Sarcina, .... 130 carbonate. . 58 Saturnine, colic. 78 chlorate, . 12, 28 Saturnum, 76 ehromate, 70 Scale compounds of iron, . . 71 ferricyanide, 55 Scandium, ... (17 ferrocyanide, . ,55 Scheele's green. ■15 INDEX. 139 Sediments, urinary, PAGE. 131 Sulphur Mum, PAGE. 29 Selenium, 28 precipitaium. 29 Sewer gas, . • . . 30 suUimatum 29 Sherry wine, . 9.') trioxide, 32 Silicic oxide, . Silicon .56 Sulphuretted hydrogen, . . . SO • - . .'ill Sulphuric ether 96 Silver, action of light on, .s.) Supporter of combustion,. . Symbols 13 ammonio-nitrate. 4.-| 8 arsenite. 45 ... m ... . .S4 Synthesis, 16 bromide, chloride. Surmma calcH lactophosphatis, . seCUxcomp., 65 . 47 cyanide . . 84 ... 84 sitnplcx, 105 iodide, . . Table, analytical, for metals, . analytical, for neg. radicals. 87 nitrate, . . ?4 . 88 oxide, . . 84 of elements, 7 german, 75 of solubilities, . 89 group .... 84 of valences, ... . 21 Slaked lime, . 64 Tannin, 102 Soaps, . . . 65,99 Tartar, cream of, . . 58 Soapstone, . . . 66, 05 emetic . 47 Soda-water, . . . 52 Tellurium 28 Sodio-ammonium, 60 Temperature, influence of, . Terebene 19 92 Sodium, . . . 60 Tersulphate of iron, . . 73 • hypochlorite, . 60 Tests, acidity, .... 24 hyposulphite, . . ; 32 acidulous radicals, . HS salicylate, - . . . . ,102 alcohol 94 Solid, definition of. 6 alkali mptals 62 Soluble glass, . . . .56 alkaline earth metals, 67 Solution, nature of. 15 alkalinity,. . 61 Specific gravity, 6 ammonia Spectroscope, . 125 ammonium salts, . . 62 Spermatozoa, . . . . 129 antimony,. . . 4,s Spirit, methylated. . 94 arsenic, . . . 45 pyroligneous, . . . 93 barium, . . . 63 Spirits, . 61, 94 bile, . 125 of wine 94 bismuth. 49 Spiritus sstheris nitro Si, . .97 blood, . . 125 ammonue, 61 boron,. . . 4H frumenti, 95 bromides, . . 26 mni gaUid, . , 515 bromine. 24 Stannic salts, . . : . 7'' brucine,. , 109 Stannous salts, . . . 76 cadmium, . 69 Stannum, . . . 75 calcium, . 67 Starch, . ; 104 carbonates, . . 52 Steel 72 carbon dioxide. . 52 Stereotyping metal 48 chlorides, 12, 21; Stibine, . . . 47 chlorine, . ... 24 Stibium . . 47 chloroform, . . 98 Strontium, 63 cobalt 75 Strychnine, . . . 109 coloring matters, urinary. 119 Styptic collodion . . 104 copper. 79 Sublimation, . . . 17, 45 cyanides, . 55 Sublimed sulphur. 29 fats, . . . 127 Sucrose, . . 104 fluorides, . 26 Sugar, beet, . . 104 fluorine, . . ... 24 cane, . . . 104 gallic acid, . . hard water, ... 101 diabetic. 105, 122 16 grape,. 105, 122 hydrocyanic acid, . . 55 in urine. . . 122 hydrogen sulphide . 31 milk 105 iodides, . . ... 26 of lead, . . 76 iodine, . 24 Sulphates, tests for. .... 34 iron ... 75 Sulphites 32 lead, . ... . 78 Sulphocyanates, 55 •lithium 62 Sulphur, 28 magnesium, . . . . . 67 dioxide, . . . . . 32 manganese, 71 140 INDEX. PAGE. PAGE. Tests, Marsh's, . . ... 46 Urine, color, . . . 112 meconic acid, . . . 109 coloring matters, . . . 118 mercury, .... 83 fluidity . 112 metallic radicals, . 87 normal, . . 111 morphine, . . 109 odor, . 112 nickel, . . 75 opacity, . . 112 nitrates, . . . 40 quantity, . 111 nitric acid . 40 reaction, ... 113 organic matter in water, 17 specific gravity, . . 114 oxalic acid, . . 102 transparency, . . 111 oxygen. 13,38 Urinometer,. . 114 ozone, . . 14 Urohllln, . . . . 118 phosphates, . . 120 Urohsematin, . . . 118 phosphorus,. . . 41 Uroindican, . . . . 119 potassium, . •, • • • . 60 Uroxanthin, 119 pus . 18, 128 Valence, . . 20 pyrogallic acid, . . 102 Valerian, . . . 103 quinine, . . Eeinsch's, . . . 109 Vaseline, . . . . . . . 91 . 45 Ventilation, . . . . . 52 salicylic acid, . . 102 Verdigris, . . . 79 silver, . . 85 Vermilion, . . 83 sodium, . . 60 ' Vibrvmes, . . . 130 strychnine, . 109 Vinegar, 100 strontium, . 63 Vinwmruhrum, . . 95 sugar, ... sulphates, . . . 122 Xerieumr. . 95 . 34, 121 Vitriol Wue,. . . . 79 sulphuric acid, . . . 34 green, . . . . . 73 tannic acid, , . 102 oil of, . 33 urates. 118 white, . . 69 urea, . . 116 Volatile oils ... 91 uric acid, . . . . . 118 Volatility, Influence of, . 19 urinary calculi,. . 131 Vulcanized rubher 92 urinary sediments, . 131 Water,. . . 15 water in alcohol, . 79 hard, . 16,65 zinc,. . 69 impure, . . 16 Thrush, . . . 106 mineral. 16 Tin, 75 natural, 16 Tinct. ferri chlnridi, . . 73 of crystallization. 10 iodi, ... . . 24 oxygenated, . 18 Tinctures, 61,94 Waxy casts, ... 129 Tohi 92 Weights, atomic, . comhiuing, . . . 8 Toxicology of arsenic. 43 8 Trichloraldehyde, 99 specific, . 6 Trichlormethane, . . 98 White arsenic. . . 43 Trimethylamine, . . 107 lead, ... . . 77 Triple phosphate,. . 119 precipitate, . vitriol, 82 Trommer's test, . . 122 69 Tube casts, . . , 129 Whlskv 'l.'i Turpentine, ... 92 "Willo' the wisp," 41 Turpeth mineral, . . 82 Wines, ... or. Type metal, . . . 47 Wood alcohol, 9o Tyrosin 125 naptha, . . 93 Ultimate analysis, . 108 spirit, . . . . .93 principles _. 108 Woody fiber . 103 Utiguentum hydrargyH, . 81 Xanthin, . . . ... 131 nitratis . . 81 Yeast fungus 105, 130 "Urates, . . 112, 118 Yellow prusslate of potas 1, . 55 Urea 108, 11.1 Ytterbium, . 67 nitrate 115 Yttrium, . . 67 quantitative analysis, . . . 116 Zinc, . . . 68 Uric acid 117 carbonate, . 69 Urinary calculi,. . 131 chloride, . . 69 sediments 131 oxide, . 69 Urine 111 sulphate, . 69 acid fermentation, . . 113 sulphide, . ... white, . . ... 69 alkaline fermentation, . 113 69 chemical constituente, . . . . 115 Zofiglese, .... 130