BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrg W, Sage 1S9X :^.i.g£?^.g^.MG '3 hot. P\.-2.0%-10°\ LONDON HBADBURT, AONEW, & CO., PRISTERS, WHJTEFRIARS. PREFACE. Ntjmeeous inquiries made on matters connected with, our Iron and Coal Industries led me in the year 1874 to pre- pare a series of articles on iron for the "Mining Journal." These articles were favourably received, and I was strongly urged from various quarters at home and abroad to publish the information in a more extended form. It had previously occurred to me that, although much valuable information existed on these subjects, it was too widely diffused to be practically useful. My aim, therefore, has been to condense all available information, and to introduce into this volume such details relating to our coal, iron and steel industries as were available. These may be briefly enumerated as follows — the coal-fields, their extent and area, the principal coal seams and ironstone measures, the production and distri- bution of the coal and ironstone; the variations in prices, the population employed under and above ground, and considerations as to the probable duration of the coal' deposits. In carrying this out, the early history of the rise and VI PREFACE. progress of pig-iron manufactiu-e has been traced since the year 1740, each iron-making district being separately- considered, and the production recorded. The quantities of coal and iron ore used in this important manufaetiu'e have been gi^-en, and the returns bearing upon economy in the use of coal in the smelting operations of the blast furnace have been carefully collected and stated. Lists of all the Tvorks engaged in the manufacture of steel by the Bessemer, Siemens, Siemens-Martins, and Thomas- Gilchrist processes have been included. I have spared no labour in consulting every authority within reach, and I believe much valuable matter — throwing considerable light upon the manufacture of pig- iron towards the end of the last and beginning of the present century — has been obtained. Amongst others the annual Eeports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines, the Eeports of the Eoyal Coal Commission in 1870, and the select Committee of the House of Commons in 1873, appointed to inquire into the "Cause of the dearness of Coal," have furnished much information. The consumption of fuel in the manufacture of pig-iron was first ascertained for the latter Committee, and has since then been published regularly in the annual vohime of the " Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom." Having referred to the principal soiu'ces from Avhich the details have been derived, it remains for me to express my obligations to all who have aided me in my labom\ To the ofiicers of the Geological Survey I owe many PllEFACE. VU obligations, particularly Mr. Franli Eutley, P.G.S.. wlio kindly favoured me with, the introductory chapter on " The Mineralogical Character of the principal Iron Ores." To my colleague Mr. James B. Jordan, I am indebted for the map to illustrate the coal and iron districts of the United, Kingdom. To the proprietors of the " Mining Journal," who courteously placed' at my disposal my early papers published in that journal ; and to many gentlemen whose names appear in the text as having rendered valuable assistance, I respectfully tender my sincere thanks. NOTE. It may he desirable to state, that throughout the first part of this volume the statistics referring to the "production of coal," have been derived from two sources of information. One of these sources is the series of "Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom," issued annually from the Mining Record Office ; the other the " Eeports of H.M. Inspectors op Coal Mines." In considering the production of the several coal-fields, the " Mineral Statistics " have been used, inasmuch as the scries extends over a longer period, and gives annual returns continuously since the year 1854j. In computing the probable duration of our coalfields, the same authority has been taken as a basis of calcula- tion. With regard- to the population employed in our coal-fields, and its relation to the amount of coal raised, and the average p)'>'oduce per man, the " Eeports of H.M. Inspectors op Mines," cmn- mencing with the year 1864, have been adopted, as relating more especially, to these matters. E. M. CONTENTS. PART I. COAL INDUSTRIES. CHAPTER I. PACK DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. Early History of the Coal-field— Extent, Area, and Geological Features of Coal- field — Varieties of Coal and Analyses — Production and Distribution of Coal by Railway and Sea — Prices and Cost of Production — Population employed in Coal Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field 1 CHAPTER 11. YORKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field — Shefiield, Leeds, and Bai-nsley, &c., districts — Principal Coal Seams — Analyses of Coals — Barrow Silkstone Colliery near Barnsley — Production of Coal and Distribution by Railway — Price of Coal and cost of Production — Population employed in Coal and Iron- stone Mining since 187.S — Resources and probable Dui'ation of Coal-field (including Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire) .... 32 CHAPTER III. CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORELAND COAL-FIELDS. Description of Cumberland Coal-field — Strata and Coal Seams in Whitehaven and Workington Districts — Analysis of Coal — Prices, Production, and Distribution by Railway, Coastwise, and Exported — Population employed in Coal Mining — Resources and Probable Duration of Coal-field — ^West- moreland Cosil-field — Population Employed and Coal Raised . . . 59 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. General Description of Coal-field— Principal Coal Seams Wigan and Burnley Districts — Analyses and Prodnotion of Coal — Deep Pits at Kosebridge Collieries, Wigan, and Ashton Moss, near Manchester — Pemberton Colliery, General An-angements — Coal Washing Apparatus — Distribution of Coal — Bridgewater Navigation — Sent Coastwise and Exported — Population employed in Coal Mining — Price of Coal and Cost of Pro- duction — Kesources of Coal-field, and probable Duration .... 68 CHAPTER v. CHESHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field and Principal Seams — Analyses, Production, and Distribution of Coal — Population Employed in Coal Mining — Resources of Coal-field and probable Duration 92 CHAPTER VI. DERBYSHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field and Succession of Strata at Kilburne and Shipley Collieries — Analyses, Production, and Distribution of Coal — Prices of Coal — Population Employed in Coal and Ironstone Mining — (Resources and Duration, included in the Great Coal-field of York, Derby, and Notts) CHAPTER X. SHROPSHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field, and Section of Strata at Coalbrookdale — Analyses, Production, and Distribution of Coal — Prices and Cost of Production — Population employed in Coal and Iron Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field . . 132 CHAPTER XI. NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field, its Extent, Area, and Succession of Strata — Coal Seams and Ironstone Measures — Cheadle Coal-field — Analyses, Produc- tion, and Distribution of Coal — Quantities Consumed in Ironworks, Potteries, Brick-works, &c. — Price of Coal and Cost of Production — Population Employed in Coal and Ironstone Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field 140 CHAPTER XII. SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AND "WORCESTERSHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field — South Staffordshire Mines Drainage Association, its Objects — Analyses, Production of Coal-field, and of the Ai-ca under the Mines Drainage Act — Yield of Coal Seams per Acre — Distribuiton of Coal — Prices and Cost of Production — Population employed above and below Ground — Average Output per Man — Resources and [irobable Dui-a- tion of Coal-field 153 CHAPTER XIII. NORTH WALES: ANGLESEA, FLINTSHIRE, AND DENBIGHSHIRE COAL-FIELDS. Description of the Anglesea, Denbigh, and Flint Coal-fields and Succession of Strata — Analyses, Pi-oduction and Distribution of Coal — Population employed in Coal Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-fields 172 XU CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. SOUTH WALES: PEMBROKESHIRE, GLAMORGANSHIRE, CAERMAE- THENSHIRE, BRECKNOCKSHIRE, AND MONMOUTHSHIRE COAL- FIELD. PAOB Description of Coal-field, including its extension through the Counties of Pembroke, Glamorgan, Caermarthen, Brecon, and Monmouthshire — The Thickness of Strata and Seams of workable Coals— Analyses of the several varieties of Coal, Anthracitic and Bituminous — Coke manufacture at Ebbv7 Vale— The Copp(5e Process— The Besseges Process as carried out in France— Production of Coal-field— Parish Returns- Deep Winning at the Harris Navigation Pit — Bute Docks — Distribution of Coal Coastwise to Foreign Countries and by Railway — Prices and Cost of Production — Resources and probable Duiution of Coal-field 188 CHAPTER XV. GLOUCESTERSHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field — Section of Strata — Area of Woods and Plantations in Forest, and Ancient Rights of Miners — Analyses of Coal — Production and Distribution by Railway and by Ship — Price of Coal — Population employed in Coal and Iron Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field 223 CHAPTER XVI. THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE AND SOMERSETSHIRE. General description of the Bristol and Badstock Coal Basin — The Clapton-in- Gordano and Severn Basin, and the Nailsea Basin — Succession of Strata — Analyses, Production, and Distribution of Coal — Prices of Coal — Population employed in Coal Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field 235 CHAPTER XVII. DEVONSHIRE COAL AND LIGNITE DEPOSITS. Description of Bovey Tracey Coal or Lignite Deposits — Anthracite of Bide- f ord — Analyses and Production of Lignite and Anthracite . . . 249 CONTENTS. XIU CHAPTER XVIII. THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. General Description of the Coal-fields — The Carboniferous Series of Scotland — Section of Strata, Order and Occurrence of Coal Seams and Ironstone Measures in different Areas — Varieties of Coal and Analyses — Gas Pro- ducing Coals, Cannels, Analyses, and Yield of Gas in Cubic Feet — Produc- tion of Coal in the Eastern and Western Districts, and of the several Coal- fields — Distribution Coastwise and to Foreign Countries — Railway Distri- bution — Prices of Coal and Cost of Production — Population Employed in Coal and Ironstone Mining — Besources and probable Duration of the Coal-flelds of Scotland 254 CHAPTER XIX. THE COAL-FIELDS OF IRELAND. Description — Northern (Bituminous) Group — Counties of Leitrim, Tyrone, and Antrim — Analyses of Coal — Southern (Anthracitic) Group, Leiuster and Munster — Analyses of Coal — Production of Coal — Population em- ployed in Coal Mining — Resources of Coal-fields 28$ CHAPTER XX. COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. General Summary — Areas of Coal-fields — Production of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland — Distribution of Coal by Railway — Coal brought into London — Coal sent Coastwise and exported to Foreign Countries- Population employed in Coal Mining — Resources and Probable Duration of Coal-fields 294 XIV CONTENTS. PAKT II. IRON INDUSTRIES. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. PACK THE MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERS OF THE PRINCIPAL IRON ORES. By Feaxk Ruti.ey, Esq., F.G.S. ... . . . 31U CHAPTER I. DURHAK AND NORTHUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. Ironstone of the Coal Measures and Analyses — Iron Ores of the Carboniferous Limestone and Analyses — Production of Iron Ore — Population employed in Iron Mining — Pig Iron Manufacture, early History — Production of . Durham and Northumberland — Malleable Iron Works — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Ii'on Manufacture — Quantities of Iron Ore employed and Sources of Supply ,324 CHAPTER II. YORKSHIRE- (WEST RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. Ironstone of the Coal Measures — Analyses and Production of Ironstone — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early Hisjery — Annual Production — Works in Opera- tion — Bessemer Steel Works — Coal and Iron Ore used in the Manufacture of Pig Iron ' . . . . . 347 CHAPTER III. YORKSHIRE— NORTH RIDING (CLEVELAND DISTRICT) IRON INDUSTRIES. Geology of — Analyses, Production and average Prices of Ore — Output of the more important Mines — Magnetic Iron Ore of Rosedale — Mines in Cleve- ' land District — Ironstone Mining — Distribution of Ironstone — Population employed in Iron Mining — Barrow's Views on the Mineral Eesouices of the District — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History, Production, Distribu- tion and average Prices of Cleveland Pig — Coal and Ironstone used in Manufacture — Malleable Iron and Steel Works — Production and average Prices of Rails, Plates, Bars, and Angles — The Thomas Gilchrist Process of Steel Manufacture 365 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER IV. PACK CUMBERLAND lEON INDUSTRIES. DeBcription of Iron Ore Deposits around Whitetaven — Alston Moor— -Eskdale and Millom — Analyses, Production and Distribution of Ore— Population employed in Iron Ore Mining — List of IronJTines — Pig Iron Manufacture — Charcoal Furnaces, their Early History — Steel Works — Iron Works — Pig Iron made — Coal and Ore used in Manufacttire — Works in 1880 — Malleable Iron Works and Coal employed 415 CHAPTER V. LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Description of Iron Ore Deposits in Fumess — Analyses, Production n.nd Dis- tribution of Ore — Iron Mines in Lancashire — Population employed in Iron Mining — Pig Iron Mnnufacturo — Early History— Barrow and Wigan Coal and Iron Co.'s Works — Production of Pig Iron — List of Iron Works — Malleable Iron and Bessemer Steel Works, and Coal employed — Mersey Steel Works — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron JIanufacture — Sources of Iron Ore .... 430 CHAPTER VI. CHESHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Description of the Engineering and Metallurgical Works of the London and North- Western Railway, Crewe 460 CHAPTER VII. DERBYSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Description of Ironstones of the Coal Measures — Analyses and Production of Ironstone — Pig Iron Manufacture in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire- Early History of the Industry — Production and -Works in Operation — Malleable Iron Works in 1811— Puddling Fui-naces and Rolling Mills in recent yeais and Coal Consumed — Coal and Iron Ore Used in Pig Iron Manufacture — Districts furnishing Iron Ore 462 CHAPTER VIII. NOTTINGHAMSHIRE AND WARWICKSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Ironstone of the Coal Measures — Analyses and Production 47S XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. PAas SHROPSHIKE IRON INDUSTRIES. Ironstone of the Coal Measures— Description— Analyses— Production of Iron- stone-Yield of Measures and Cost of Working— Pig Iron Manufacture- Early History— Darby's successful Application of Coke in the Blast- Furnace at Coalbrook Dale Works— Production of Pig Iron— Malleable Iron Works— Introduction of Rolling Mills at Coalbrook Dale— Coal con- sumed in Malleable Iron Works- Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture— Districts supplying Iron Ore 480 CHAPTER X. NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Description and Analyses of the Ironstones of the Coal Measures— Churnet Valley Ore and Analysis — Production and Distribution by Canal and Railway — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — ^Apedale and Silver- dale Iron Works — Furnaces in Blast and Production of Pig Iron — Malleable Iron Works and Coal used — List of Works in 1880 — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture — Districts furnishing Ore . . 499 CHAPTER XI. SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AND WORCESTERSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Description of Ironstone Measures of Coal-field— Analyses and Production of Ironstone — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — Sturtevant, Ravenson, and Dudley's Experiments in the Use of Coal previously coked — Pro- duction of Pig Iron — Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture — Calcina- tion of Ores in Clamps and Kilns — ^Works in operation in 1880 — Malleable Iron Works in 1880, coal used — Prices of Finished Iron . . 513 CHAPTER XII. NORTHAMPTONSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Geology of the Ironstone Deposits of the Northampton Sand — Analyses Production, and Distribution of Ironstone — Iron Mines in 1880 — Pig Iron Manufactui'e — Early History — Direct Process (Dr. C. W. Siemens' Patent) for making Iron and Steel at Towcester — Iron Works in opera- tion in 1880 — Production of Pig Iron — Coal and Ironstone used in Pig Iron Manufacture 538 CONTENTS. XVU CHAPTER XIII. ?ASE LINCOLNSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Ironstone Deposits — Geology of North Lincolnshire — Scunthorpe, Froding- ham — Analyses, Production, and Distribution of Ironstone — Mines in operation in 1880 — Pig Iron Manufacture — Production since 1864 — Coal and Ore used in Pi.s Iron Manufacture 559 CHAPTER XIV. IRON INDUSTRIES OF NORTH WALES. Iron Ore Deposits of Denbighshire and Flintshire — Analyses and Production of Iron Ore — Population employed in Iron Mining — Succession of Strata in Denbighshire — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — Production — Works in operation in 1880 — Malleable Iron Works — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture 574 CHAPTER XV. IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIRE. Ironstones of the Coal Measures — Order of Occurrence — Description and Analyses — Iron Ore Deposits of the Carboniferous Limestone, Whitchurch, Mwyndy, Hendy, and Wenvoe — Production and Analyses — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — Monmouthshire, Brecknockshire and Gla- morganshire — Account of Cyfarthfa Works — Anthracite Pig Iron — Early History — Production of Pig Iron in Bituminous and Anthracite Coal districts since 1855 — Mills and Forges and Bessemer Steel Works and Coal employed — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture in South Wales 584 CHAPTER XVI. GLOUCESTERSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Iron Ore of the Carboniferous Limestone — Description of Deposits — Mines in Operation in 1880 — Analyses and Production of Brown Iron Ore — Out- put of the more important Mines — Distribution of the Forest of Dean Ore — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — Production and Yield of Furnaces — Malleable Iron Work?, Early History — Quantities of Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture 642 h XTUl CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVII. PAGE SOMERSETSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Description of the Spathoae Iron Ore Deposits of the Brandon and Eisen Hills — Early explorations at Gupworthy Mine — Analyses and Production of Iron Ore — Pig Iron Manufacture — Mills and Forges 665 CHAPTER XVIII. "WILTSHIRE, DORSETSHIRE, OXFORDSHIRE, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, HAMPSHIRE, AND THE ISLE OF WIGHT IRON INDUSTRIES. Iron Ore Deposits of the Lower Greensand, Coral Rag, and Marlstone rocks of these Counties — ^Analyses and Production of Ore — Pig Iron Manufac- ture in Wiltshire, at Westbury and Seend — Production of Pig Iron in Wiltshire (including Gloucestershire and Somersetshire) — Charcoal Pig Iron Manufacture in Hampshire — Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture 673 CHAPTER XIX. DEVONSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Iron Ore Deposits — Early account of Magnetic Ores wrought at Haytor — Deposits at Hennock, Buckfastleigh, North Molton, SmaUacombe, Torbay (Paint ore) and Exmoor — Analyses, Production and Distribution of Ores 688 CHAPTER XX. CORNWALL IRON INDUSTRIES. Early references to Iron Ore Deposits — Borlase and Pryce — Restormel Iron Mine, account of — ^Analyses of Eestormel and other Iron Ores raised in Cornwall — The Perran Iron Lode — Production and Distributiou of Iron Ore— Mines and Localities producing Ore — Distribution of Iron Ore . 702 CHAPTER XXI. IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. Iron Ores of the Coal Measures — Clay Bands and Black Bands — Discovery of Black Band Iron Ore by Mushet,' in ISOl— Analyses and Production of Clay and Black Band and other Iron Ores — Population employed in Iron Mining— Pig Iron Manufacture— Early Hist^, 1750— Charcoal Iron — Carron Works — Smeaton's Blowing Machinery^Accouut of Devon Iron Works, 1782— Hot Blast, invention by NeilsorfT829— Extension of Iron Works and their resources — ^Production of Pig Iron — Works in 1880 Distribution and average Prices of Pig Iron — Exports and Home Con- CONTENTS. XIX PAGE sumption — Malleable Iron Works — Account of Dalziel Steel WorkB — Production of Malleable Iron and prices — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture — Iron Shipbuilding 719 CHAPTER XXII. IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. Description of the Ironstone Measures of the Northern Coal-fields, Leitrim, Tyrone, Antrim — Analyses and Production — Southern Coal-fields, Leinster, Castlecomer, Kilkenny — ^Analyses and production — Iron Ore Deposits (Tertiary Age) — County Antrim — Magnetic Ores, county Wick- low — Ores [of county Cavan — ^Analyses and Production of Ore — List of Iron Mines in 1880, and details of Production — Pig Iron Manufacture — Works at Dnimehambo — Account of the Arigna Iron Works — Materials employed in Manufacture — Production of Pig Iron in 1866 , . . . 766 CHAPTER XXIII. FOREIGN IRON ORES IMPORTED. General Description of these Ores — Their mode of occurrence — Analyses of Ores — Quantities imported from Spain, Portugal, France, Algeria, Italy, Greece, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and Turkey in Asia — Bauxite and Analyses 786 CHAPTER XXIV, FLUXES (LIMESTONES) USED IN PIG IRON MANUFACTURK Fluxes (Limestones) used in the reduction of the Ores of Iron in the Blast Furnaces of Great Britain — Description and Analyses of Fluxes used in Durham and Northumberland and the North Riding of Yorkshire — Cumberland — Lancashire — North and South Staffordshire — Northampton- shire — ^Wiltshire — South Wales and Scotland 804 CHAPTER XXV. COAL USED IN PIG IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. Coal used towards the close of the past century — Mr. W. Jessop's Inquiry — Coal Commission and Mining Record Office Inquiries — Coal used in recent years since 1871 — Details of Coal used and Iron made in the years 1872 and 1880 — Extent of economy in each year since 1871 . . , 813 GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BRITISH IRON ORES. Bt Mb, HiLABY Bauerman, F.G.S 821 XX CONTENTS. APPENDICES. APPENDIX.— No. 1. PAGE lEON OEE PRODUCTION of the Mines or the United Kingdom . 825 PURPLE ORE Obtained feom Metal Estkaction Wokks . . . . 827 APPENDIX.— No. 2. PIG IRON MANUFACTURE, Various Returns of Production since the Year 1740 829 PIG IRON EXPORTED from the United Kingdom since the Year 1829 839 APPENDIX.— No. 3. MALLEABLE IRON WORKS (Mills and Forges) and Steel "Works — ^List of Works and Production of Bar Iron in the Year 1750 — AND Works in Great Britain since the Year 1861 . . 840 BESSEMER STEEL WORKS in Great Britain, and Production of Bessemer Steel since 1871 843 SIEMENS' OPEN HEARTH STEEL WORKS in Great Britain, and Production op Open Hearth Steel since 1871 .... 845 SIEMENS' REGENERATIVE GAS FURNACES for Melting Steel IN Crucibles, and Production of Steel since 1873 . . . 847 CONTENTS. XXi APPENDIX.— No. 4. PASB TIN PLATE MANUFACTUKK. Production of Tin, Tekne, and Black Plates since the Yeak 1871 849 ,, List of Wokks in Gkeat Britain in the Yeak 1880 . 851 „ Exports of Tin Plates from Great Britain since the Year 1873 854 ,, Exports of Tin Plates, and Countries to which Exported in each year since 1873 854 ,, Exports and Value for three Years ending 1880 . . 855 INDEX 857 THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. PAKT I. — ♦ — COAL INDUSTKIES. CO Q O a. < o ^ 2: o cc THE COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. PART I. COAL INDUSTRIES. CHAPTEE I. THE DURHAM AND NORTHTIMBEBLAND (OB GREAT NORTHERN) GOAL-FIELD. Early History of the Coal-field — Extent, Area, and Geological Features of Coal- field — Varieties of Coal and Analyses— Pioduotion and Distribution of Coal by Railway and Sea — Prices and Cost of Production — Population employed in Coal Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field. Early History of tlie Great ITortliern Coal-field. — The early history of this coal-field presents numerous and interesting features, and extends to a remote period ; a few of the more general facts may be referred to. As early as the year a.d. 852 there is a record of the Abbey of Peterboro' receiving twelve cart- loads of fossil or pit coal. In 1180 there occurs, in Bishop Pudsey's book (Bishop of Durham), a grant of land to a collier, for providing coals for the cartsmith at Goundou, in the County of Durham ; similar grants being made at Bishopwearmouth and Sedgefield in the same county. Again, in the reign of Henry III., a.d. 1239, a charter was granted to the freemen of Newcastle-upon-Tyne to dig coals in the castle fields, and it appears that it was about this time that coal was first sent to London. About the end of Edward I.'s reign, a.d. 1305, considerable quantities of coal were used by 2 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [part i. brewers and smiths ; this was followed by numerous complaints being made of the injurious effects of the smoke ; the burning of coal was prohibited, and by commission from the King fines levied to prevent it. Nothing appears to have resulted from this prohibition, as coals are stated to have been used a few years later at the King's coronation. In Edward III.'s time a licence was granted to the freemen of Newcastle-upon-Tyne to work coals within the town walls ; and about a.d. 1367 coals were also worked in the neighbourhood of Winlaton, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The first government tax was laid upon coals in the year 1379; in 1421 a duty of twopence per chaldron was paid to the Crown " on all coals sold to persons not franchised in the port of New- castle." This duty having got into arrear, payment was demanded by Queen Elizabeth, and in lieu of arrears a duty of one shilling per chaldron was imposed, which was enforced to the time of Charles II., when it was settled on his natural son the Duke of Eichmond. In 1799 the Government of the period purchased the above tax for an annuity of iG19,000; this was ultimately repealed in 1831, the tax having been in operation upwards of four centuries in the neighbourhood of the Tyne. Queen Elizabeth imposed a tax of five shillings per chaldron on coals sent over sea, to which King James I. added three shillings and fourpence per chaldron, and an additional one shilling and eightpence per chaldron on coals exported in foreign ships. After the great fire of London, the Lord Mayor was granted an impost of one shilling per chaldron for rebuilding the City ; this was further increased to three shillings per chaldron. In the year 1670 an additional tax of two shillings per chaldron was imposed by Parliament, for the purpose of rebuilding fifty-two parish churches, and in 1677 a fui-ther tax of three shillings per chaldron was imposed, partly for rebuilding St. Paul's Cathedral. These duties for rebuilding churches continued during the reign of Queen Anne. The duties on coal during the eighteenth century varied con- siderably, being at one time as high as nine shUhngs and four- pence per chaldron ; these duties however have, except the City of London tax on coals of one shilling and one penny per ton long since been repealed. The export duty on coals to foreign countries was whoUy repealed, by the Act 13 & 14 Vict. c. 95, from 14th August, 1850. *)HAP. I.] DURHAM AND KORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 3 Previous to this period the duties levied on coal, cinders and culm exported from the United Kingdom was three shillings and four- pence per ton in British ships, and six shilHngs and eightpence per ton in foreign ships, the duties on small coal, &c., being re- spectively two shillings per ton in British, and four shillings per ton in foreign ships. The Great Northern, or Dnrham. and Iforthuiuberlaiicl Coal- field. — This extensive area, comprising an exposed coal-field jof 460 square miles and a concealed area of 225 square miles, pos- sesses some of the most important coal-seams wrought in Great Britain. The rivers Blythe, Tyne and Wear naturally give names fo the three great divisions of the coal-field. The Blythe coal- field, the Tyne coal-field, and the Wear coal-field are really one, extending from near Warkworth at the mouth of the river Coquet on the north, to near the north bank of the Tees (within 6 miles of Barnard Castle) on the south — a distance of nearly fifty miles in length, by twenty miles in breadth ; its greatest diameter being near the centre, along the course of the river Tyne, narrowing in the north after passing the river Blythe. Beyond the exposed and concealed coal-fields above referred to, embracing an area of 685 square miles, there is, extending under the German Ocean, another area of 111 square miles known to be available. From the Coquet near Warkworth to the river Tyne, the German Ocean limits the coal-field to the east ; the Permian rocks then overlie the coal measures, forming an escarpment of magnesian limestone which ranges to the southward. As far south as Hartlepool the sea-clifi's are of magnesian limestone ; beyond this is lower land formed of Triassic rocks. The southern boundary of the coal measures wiU probably be found to occur a little north of Hartlepool, and will from thence range south-westwards to a little north of Bishop Auckland. " The centre of the basin is on & line beneath the North Seaton Colliery and Jarrow. South of the Tyne the axis of the basin passes under the Permian rocks and the magnesian limestone in a line from Jarrow to Monk- wearmouth Colliery, which is supposed to be the bottom of the basin. The beds there are nearly flat ; they are supposed to rise on aU sides." * The eastern limit of the coal basin will therefore be well out to sea under the German Ocean. The coal measures of the northern coal-field are about 2,000 * Mr. H. H. Howell. Report of Royal Coal CommisBion, vol. i., p. 139. B 2 4 COAL AND IRON INDXJSTEIES. [pakt i, feet in thickness. Those which contain the workable seams probably represent the "Middle Coal Measures " of more southern districts. The "Lower Coal Measures," or Gannister Beds, contain only thin seams ; this division cannot be identified in the northern part of the coal-field. It is not certain which part of the series, if any, represents the " Upper Coal Measures.'" Professor HuU takes the "High Main" as the top of the Middle Coal Measures ; this line of division is useful as marking off the more important seams, those lying above the High Main being: comparatively unimportant. The most important seams are the High Main and the Low Main ; they are usually separated by about 60 fathoms of strata, in which several other seams occur. As a rough guide and aid to memory it may be useful to note that in Northumberland the following seams, which are some of the most constant in the coal-field, are separated from each other by about 30 fathoms, of strata : — Seventy-fathom, or filack Close Seam. High Main. Yard Seam. Low Main. Beaumont, or Harvey. Brockwell. The following section by Professor HuU, F.R.S., indicates the position, thickness, and order of occurrence of the coal-seams in the Newcastle district.* COAL SERIES OF NOETHUMBEBLAJSTD AND DUEHAM. (Newcastle Distbict.) Ft. In. ' Closing SiU Seam 18 Strata 450 1^ Hebhurn Fell Seam 2 8 Strata 250 Five-guarter Seam . . . . . . . .40 Strata 260 Three-quarter (Black Close) Seam 2 Strata 50 to 180 High Main Coal 6 Strata from 33 to 150 ' Coal Fields of Great Britain," 4th edition, p. 276. CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND NORTHUMBEELAND COAL-FIELD. 5 COAL SEEIES OF NORTHUMBERLAND AND DTIRKAM— continued. Ft. In. 2. Metal Coal 16 Strata 33 3. Stone Coal 16 Strata 60 to 100 4. Yard Coal (variable) 2 10 Strata 60 to 100 5. Bensham Coal 2 ft. 5 in. to 5 Strata 78 6. Five-quarter Coal 3 Strata 48 7. Low Main or HuUon Coal 6 Strata 30 to 100 B. Crow Coal (inconstant) 2 10 Strata 24 9. Five-quarter Coal ..38 Strata 30 10. ItuJer Coal 1 10 Strata 96 11. Townley ox Harvey Coal 3 1 Strata 42 12. Jetty Coal 2 2 Strata 42 13. Stone Coal 2 6 Strata 18 14. Five-quarter Coal 3 4 Strata 30 15. Three-quarter Coal 2 6 Strata 54 16. Brockwell Coal 2 11 The foregoing table appKes chiefly to the neighbourhood of Newcastle and the districts to the west of that town. Slight variations and differences of names are met with in other districts, hut this sufiSciently describes the general succession. It is doubtful if the seams below the Low Main are of much value in the south-east of Northumberland and neighbouring parts of Durham. Boreholes put down to explore them at some collieries of late years have failed to prove the expected seams. 6 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part i. Most of the other important seams can be traced through the greater part of the coal-field, being known by various names iu different parts. But on the north of the river Wansbeck there is some difficulty in recognizing the beds. Just north of the river the Low Main has been worked. The "Main Seam" of Ashington and Longhirst Collieries represents the " Grey Seam" (metal and stone coals), of other districts. But the relations of the seams in other collieries are somewhat uncertain. It has long been the custom in this district to designate many seams by their thickness; thus, the "Yard Coal" is a coal which, where first chiefly worked, averaged a yard iu thickness. Other seams are spoken of as so many parts of a yard ; thus a " five- quarter seam " is a coal about 3 feet 9 inches thick. The seam most commonly known by this name is that next above the Low Main ; but in the table three other seams have the same name. The Northern coal-field is much intersected by faults, some of very great amount. In the immediate neighbourhood of these the beds often have a high dip, but through the greater part of the coal-field the seams lie at a gentle iaclination. Besides the faults, or " slip troubles " of the miners, there are basaltic dykes known as " whin troubles." In the western and northern parts of Northumberland a large quantity of coal is raised from seams in the carboniferous lime- stone series. The beds here are on the same geological horizon as the thick limestones of Derbyshire, but on going northwards we find the limestones to be gradually split up by shales and sandstones, until in Durham and Northumberland limestone forms but a small part of the whole. In Northumberland there are a large number of coal seams worked in these lower beds. In the south of the county the " Little Limestone Coal," or Acomb seam, is the most important ; in central Northumberland the Shilbottle seam ; in the northern part of the county many seams are worked, the most important coUeries being those near Scremerston. Although as compared with the true coal measures the yield frona. the limestone district is small, yet taken together it comes to a considerable amount. In 1879 the total yield of the limestone coals in Durham and Northumberland was about 250,000 tons, the total production of the Great Northern coal-field being 29,552,079 tons. CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 7 Clay ironstone is not an important product of the Northern coal-field. It is found, however, in some places of sufficient thickness to have been worked. It usually occurs in thin beds in the shale, and contains large numbers of Anthracosia ; hence it is usually known to the miners as " Mussel-band." The most constant portion of this bed is a little way above the Low Main seam ; but occasionally there are shell beds, which sometimes contain ironstone, above other seams. Clay ironstone in nodules in shale occurs sometimes in the limestone series. The most important horizon for this is below the "Four-fathom Limestone," as worked at Brinkbum and numerous places north of the Tyne; and at a much lower horizon, Kidsdale, Hareshaw, &c. The coal-field of Northumberland and Durham is naturally divided into districts, which produce the following descriptions of coal : household fire coal, gas coal, manufacturing coal, steam coal, and coking coal. Household Coal. — The household fire coal of these counties has ever been held in high repute. The celebrated " Wallsend " * was for a long period of years produced -from the High Main Coal of the Tyne, the colliery from which it was produced being at Wallsend on the Tyne, and hence the origin of the designation " Wallsend " to distinguish the " Best Household Fire Coal." This coal was also produced at the various collieries of Percy Main, Walker, Heaton, Willington, &c., on the Tyne. It was not that coal of similar, or, indeed, as afterwards turned out, of superior quality, was not produced on the Wear and Tees, but the coal of such quality on the Wear being mixed with and sold with other coals of an inferior quality, no coal of that river, or, indeed, in the whole coal-field, bore such an excellent character, or sold at such high prices as the "WaUsends" of the Tyne. Time, however, arrived when the Hutton coal seam of the Wear (the Low Main of the Tyne district) was sold unmixed with other coal; and being found in the neighbourhood of Eainton, Lambton, and Hetton, of very superior quality, it was brought into the market as a Wallsend coal. The superior WaUsends of the Tyne being worked out, it took their place, and up to • The name has since been given to several coals, which are not equal to the originaL COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. the present time, has been sold as the best Wallsend coal. This coal is now produced from the Hutton seam of the neighbouring collieries of Stewart, Lambton, Hetton, and Haswell. The only coal for a long period on the Tees, approaching to the quality of the Wallsends;of the Wear, was Tees Wallsend, or the Five- quarter and Main coal of the Black Boy Colliery, but more recently, the Five-quarter seam of the Hartlepool district has produced a coal approaching to the Wear Wallsends. Household fire coal of second quality is produced from the coUieries of all the other localities. The household coal of the Great Northern Coal-field has ever had a high reputation in the London market, where it is known as " seaborne coal ; " it is largely imported, and commands a high price ; it possesses great heating power, is steady and uniform in combustion, leaving but little residue and a small proportion of ash. A few analyses will illustrate the constituents of house- hold coal, that of the Hutton seam being now the best variety in the district. Constituents. Haswell. Hartley. Original Hartley. Carbon Hydrogen . . . Nitrogen Sulphur . . . . Oxygen Ash . ... 83-47 6-68 1-42 -06 8-17 ■20 84-284 5-522 2-075 1-181 6-223 0-715 81-18 5-56 0-72 1-44 8-03 3-07 100-00 100-00 100-00 Gas Coal and Analyses. — The best gas coal in this district is produced from the Hutton seam, which also, as previously stated, produces the best household coal. It is, however, less compact, and liable to disintegration, and as such is not so well adapted for a first-class household coal. Consequently it is of less value for that purpose, but equally valuable as a gas coal. This variety of coal is obtained from the Felling, Pelaw, Pelton, and other collieries, and from some of the lower seams on the Tyne. It is also produced from the same seam on the Wear, and from the Brockwell seam on the Tees. Gas for illuminating purposes was originally introduced by Mr. Murdoch, an assistant of Mr. James Watt, who first lighted his office at Eedruth, in Cornwall, CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND NOETHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 9 and used gas condensed in cylinders, as a light at night in going to the mines, about the year 1792. Afterwards, Murdoch having made several improvements in his apparatus, between the years 1798 and 1802,* lighted up with gas the engineering works of Messrs. Boulton and Watt at Soho, near Birmingham, in the last named year. This afforded an opportunity for making a public display of the new system of lighting on the occasion of the Peace rejoicings of that time. About this period Mr. Clegg, a gentleman to whose energy and scientific skill, gas lighting in its earliest stages is much in- debted, was working successfully in the same direction. In the year 1810, the Act of Parliament incorporating the London and Westminster Gas Light and Coke Company was passed, and on the 31st December, 1813, Westminster Bridge was lighted with gas. This step was soon followed by the introduction of gas in the place of oil in several of the leading thoroughfares of the metropolis. Each ton of coal when distilled yields 10,500 cubic feet of gas, and even more. Bands of cannel coal were formerly wrought in Leverson's Colliery, Wallsend ; Pelton Main and Washington, and Eamsey's coUiery, Newcastle-on-Tyne. The cannel of this last-named pit yielding between 10,000 and 11,000 cubic feet of gas per ton. The bituminous coal of this district is in great request for gas-making. It would be invidious to refer to all those collieries furnishing supplies for this purpose ; those selected and of which analyses are given may be regarded as some of the more important, in which the constituents appear as follows : — GonRtituents. South Peareth. Bowden Close. Williugton. Garesfleld. Carbon Hydrogen . . . Nitrogen Sulpliur . . . . Oxygen AsK .... 81-41 5-83 2-05 0-74 7-90 2-07 84-92 4-53 0-96 0-65 6-66 2-28 86-81 4-96 ) 1-05 } 0-88 ) 5-22 1-08 86-9 5-4 5-2 2-5 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 These coals yield coke varying from 66"70 to 72"19 per cent. * An account of which will be found ia the Philosophical Transactions for 1808. 10 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I, steam Coal and Analyses. — The best coal for steam purposes produced in the Northern coal-field lies to the north of the ninety-fathom dyke, in the Hartley district, and comprises almost all the coal north of that dyke, along the coast from Hartley, and to the crop of the coal in those districts to Warkworth. It is an interesting fact that the same bed of coal, the Hutton seam (or the Lo-w Main of the Tyne), is not only continuous throughout almost the whole extent of the coal-field, but that it also yields the best description of three varieties of coal, suitable for purposes not at all similar to each other, viz., the best house- hold, the best gas, and the best steam coal. The best coals for these special purposes are obtained from the Low Main seam of the district. Eecent workings have shown that the Low Main extends, as a steam coal, under the district in south-east Northumberland which produces good household coal. The annexed analyses of this and other seams of coal, will show generally the prominent constituents of the seams examined. Constituents. Buddies Hartley. Newcastle Hartley. Haawell Sunderland. Seaton Burn. Carbon Hydrogen . . . Oxygen Nitrogen . . . Sulphur Ash ... 78-69 6-00 10 07 2-37 1-61 1-36 81-81 5-50 2-58 1-28 1-69 7-14 83-71 5-30 2-79 1-06 1-21 5-93 78-65 4-65 13-66 6-55 2-49 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Coking and Manufacturing Coal. — The best coking coal of the district is obtained from the lower seams of the Tyne and from South Durham. Manufacturing coal, either separate or mixed with a gas coal, is associated with it, and is obtained from the lowest seam of the Auckland district. The best varieties of coke are obtained from the lower coal seams at Marley Hill, Garesfield, WyJam, Townley, &c., on the Tyne, and in Durham from the lower seams at Etherley, Brancepeth, Black Boy, &c. ; the seams are said to be equivalent to the Garesfield or Brockwell seams of the Tees, and yield coke of the best quality for locomo- tive consumption, and for the reduction of the ores of iron in the Cleveland district. This coke is largely exported to remote CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 1 1 districts, its superior quality bearing a high rate for carriage. It is extensively used in the iron-making districts of the north- west coast — Lancashire, and Cumberland ; also in Lincolnshire, and other districts even more remote. A second quality of coke is obtained from the Harvey or Beaumont seam, and from the washed small coal of the Hutton seam. The Great Northern coal-field is essentially a bituminous coal deposit. It does not contain any anthracite, nor, with the excep- tion of a thin bed in a limited locality, does it contain any cannel coal. The specific gravity of this coal varies from 1'2 to 1"5, and the quantity of carbon from 72 to 75 per cent. Further detailed particulars of this coal-field wiU be found in the pages of the " Coal Fields of Great Britain," by Professor Hull, F.E.S., and in the " Transactions of the Mining Engiaeers of Newcastle- upon-Tyne." The Low Main seam of the Tyne,the equivalent of which is the Hutton seam of the Wear, furnishes the least caking coal of the coal-field, but even the small coal when coked loses all trace of its original form, and leaves the ovens as large masses of coke. The caking coal of the coal-field, though valuable for many purposes, is entirely unfit for use in the raw state in the blast furnaces, in which its fusing property, by impeding the blast, causes the contents of the furnace to hang and shp, and thus to descend at irregular intervals. Agaiast this disadvantage however may be placed the extreme hardness and strength of the coke it produces, which is thereby rendered capable of resisting the crushing effects of a high column of materials existing in the blast furnace. Some interesting experiments made at the Clarence Ironworks showed that a cube of coke two inches on a side, sup- ported a weight of 25 cwt. when cold, and 20 cwt. when hot, before it was crushed. The process of coking in the ordinary ovens may be thus explained : — When the oven is re-filled with a proper charge, the coal is fired at the surface by the radiated heat from the roof; enough air is admitted to consume the gases given off by the coal, and thus a high temperature is maintained in the roof of the oven. The coal is by this means melted ; and those portions of it, which under the influence of a high temperature can of them- selves form gaseous compounds, are given off, forming at the moment of their liberation small bubbles or cells ; the coke now left is quite safe from waste unless a further supply of air is 12 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAllT I. allowed to have access to it. At this stage of the process the coke assumes a pentagonal form and columnar structure. When the coke is left exposed to heat for some time after it is formed, it becomes harder, and works better, from being less liable to crush in the furnace, or to decrepitate on exposure to the blast. The best variety of coke obtained from Durham coal yields the annexed results : — ConstituentB. Durham Coal. Average Analysis. Carbon Hydrogen . . . Nitrogen Oxygen . . . . Sulpbur Aab Total . 93-150 •721 1-276 •905 3-948 84-92 4-53 -96 6-66 -65 2.28 100-000 100-00 In the Brancepeth district, the Brockwell and Busty seams of coking coal, extensively employed in the blast furnace, show the annexed results on examination : — Constituents. Busty Seam. Brockwell Seam. Upper part. Lower part. Carbon Hydrogen . . . Oxvgeu and Nitrogen . Water .... Asb . . . . Sulpbur . . . . Total 81-22 4-70 9-45 0-85 3-28 0-81 78-46 4-42 8-82 0-99 6-17 1-83 83-40 4-40 7-18 0-99 3-50 100 100-31 100-69 100-47 The coal of the above seams yields from 60 to 65 per cent, of its weight of coke, and its purity will be understood from the appended analyses of the seams in the following collieries : — CoUeries. Carbon. Ash. Sulphur. Water. Ham steels . Consett . ... Wbitwortb . Soutb Brancepetb . . 92-55 91-88 91-56 93-41 6-36 6-91 6-69 5-30 -81 •84 1-21 -91 -21 •37 •64 •36 CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND NORTHUMBEELAND COAL-FIELD. 1 3 In the following table appears the ascertained results per cent., of coke from the coal of the collieries named : — OOLLIEMKS. PEK CENT. North. Percy Hartley 57'18 Newcastle Hartley 64-61 Derwentwater Hartley 54-83 Carr's Oowpen Hartley 58-59 Grey's West Hartley 59-02 Dayidson's West Hartley 59-49 Haswell 62-70 Hedley's Hartley 72-31 Bowden Close 69-69 Soutli Hetton 72-00 Willingtoa 72-19 Leverson's Wallsend 65-10 South Peareth 72-20 PelawMain 69-70 Pelton Main 69-80 South Tyne 63-70 TJrpeth 71-30 Washington 68-75 OldEtherley 70-00 Taking the average of numerous analytical results of the best varieties of Durham coke, 6 per cent, of ash and about •60 of sulphur may be considered as the proportion of these constituents. Some general idea wUl be formed of the ash and sulphur existing in samples of the best coke from the annexed figures : — PER CENT. SULPnUB PEK OENI, 5-86 0-58 6-79 0-68 7-54 0-77 8-33 0-90 The first coke made in Durham was obtained fi:om the Six-quarter and Blackwell coal-seams at Garesfield, belonging to the Marquis of Bute and Mr. Blackett. About a quarter of a century since the entire make of coke in all parts of the country was estimated at 2,500,000 tons a year; now, in South Durham alone, the production exceeds 4,000,000 tons. Amongst the largest producers are Messrs. Pease and Partners, the Messrs. Bell Brothers, Messrs. Strakers and Love, Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughan, and the Consett Iron Company; the first-named firm raise from their pits nearly one and a half million tons, and the Messrs. Bell Brothers one million tons 14 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [paet i. of coal annually, the greater part of which is converted into coke. The best coking coal in Durham will yield about 65 per cent, of coke : some varieties exceed this ; and the inferior from 53 to 56 per cent. The local ironworks consume a large tonnage, but a great deal is sent into other iron-making districts, as well as to Sheffield, where the hard-burnt (the costliest in making, being of good size and long in shape) is extensively used in putting round the melting pots in the steel furnace. The coking coal-field of South Durham lies principally to the west of the North-Eastern Railway going from Bradbury Station to Gateshead — the northern limit — an area of more than 250 square miles. During the past few years efforts have been made to save the gases given off in the ovens, but the success so far has not been equal to what could be desired. At several places, however, the waste heat of the coke ovens has been utilized. To have good coke it is necessary that the gases should have a free outlet, and the ovens kept burning in the ordinary way. To secure this object ovens were erected at the Brownley Colliery, and the results attained have been most favourable. The ovens were built in double rows, back to back, but with larger flues than usual between them. To each stack — about 116 feet in height — ^were connected about 100 ovens, an equal number on each side, there being four flues and boilers, so arranged that the heat was carried past, when cleaning or repairs were being carried on, the connecting flues being built compact and tight, so that there was great freedom from smoke, owing, no doubt, to the air-tight and perfect character of the flues, the small proportion of air present not cooling the gases to a point below, by which the hydrocarbons escaped imperfectly burnt. This was shown to be the case by admitting the air, when flame was at once seen. By this arrangement no coal whatever was used for the boilers, and the produce of the pits was drawn from a depth of 600 yards, and the water pumped ; for which purpose, before the new system was adopted, 600 tons per fortnight were wasted. The amount of heat available for evaporative pm-poses was found to be very large. Mr. Steavenson, of Durham, in recently noticing the ovens alluded to, gives the result of 60 of them coking at the rate of 230 tons of coal in 84 hours, which yielded 50 per cent, of coke composed of 1327 tons of carbon to 6-3 tons of ash, and found CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND KORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 15 that the composition and weight of the material lost in coking was : — Carhon, 62'6 tons ; Hydrogen, 10'3 tons ; Nitrogen, 2"3 tons ; Sulphur, 1'4 tons, and Oxygen, 15*3 tons. At several places the coal is crushed into powder hefore going into the oven, and this has been found beneficial, producing a larger per-centage of coke with less refuse. In some instances the coal is both crushed and washed, the washing being done in troughs. The total number of ovens in operation in Durham will be close upon 14,000, in which are invested considerably above one million sterling. The time necessary for the burning process varies considerably. An oven charged lightly for 24 hours' carbonisation — charging, burning, and drawing inclusive — will occupy in combustion 18 or 19 hours ; if charged for a 48 hours' operation, with a heavier load, combustion will occupy from 80 to 32 hours. But these short hours are for a material for a specific purpose. Coke made for shipment or for smelting, and having regard to appearance and quality, wUl take from 72 to 96 hours in combustion, and even as much as 120 hours ; in the latter time the coke is much harder, more compact and silvery- looking. Some of the Durham coal when crushed yields as much as 60 per cent, of coke, and in the ovens, the coke that was burnt the fewer hours for blast furnace purposes, was inferior to that burnt for a longer period, owing to its not being so easily oxidised into carbonic acid. Excepting the ovens and the general arrange- ments above referred to at Brownley Colliery, the general type of oven in use in Durham is the old bee-hive'pattem. At the Consett Ironworks 150 such are in operation, being 11 feet and 11|- feet in diameter. The annual value of Durham coke exceeds two millions sterling, and it requires about 2,000 drawers to aid the operation. Production of the Coal-field. — There is much obscurity re- garding the early returns of production of this coal-field. As early as the year 1602 the vend of coal from Newcastle amounted to 190,000 tons, increasiag to 239,261 tons in the year 1609, of which quantity 214,305 tons were sent coastwise,,and 24,956 tons exported to foreign countries. Twenty years later the vend of Newcastle reached 289,922 tons, of which 253,380 tons were shipped coastwise, and 36,542 tons exported. In subsequent years the figures following wUl show clearly the vends of the northern ports, the output of the collieries of the 16 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAET J. Great Northern coal-field, and the total output of the collieries of Great Britain in each of the same years : — * Years. Vend of Nortliem Ports. Production of Great Britain. 1660 1700 1750 1770 1780 Tons. 537,000 653,000 1,193,457 1,551,350 1,606,244 Tons. 2,148,000 2,612,000 4,773,828 6,205,400 6,424,976 The extension of the canal system between the years 1755 and 1800, led to a great expansion of the coal trade, inasmuch as the means of internal communication in the country afforded increased facilities for distribution, and gave an impetus to the use of coal in the general manufactures of the country. Between the years 1800 and 1827 no less than forty-four canals, or improvements of rivers, were projected. These receiving the sanction of the Legislature, were in due course constructed ; eventually the result of this new means of communication was seen in the distribution of the coal to remote parts of the kingdom. Again, the introduction of gas for illuminating purposes, the application of steam in our manufacturing industries and our mercantile and naval marine, the increased demand for iron due to the development of our railway system, all contributing to increased consumption, led to renewed activity and the increased prosperity, apparent in the returns of later years. In the year 1816 the production of the Durham and Northum- berland coal-field amounted to 4,826,683 tons, the output of the collieries of Great Britain the same year being 15,634,729 tons, leaving 10,808,046 tons as the produce of the other coal-fields of the kingdom. In subsequent years the returns show greatly in- creased production ; details, however, are not readily ascertained. In 1855 more reliable returns appear in the " Mineral Statistics " of the United Kingdom. Previously the most uncertain estimates of the coal raised were prevalent ; the quantities of coal carried coastwise and exported were annually published in the returns made by order of the House of Commons, but very little informa- * '• Industrial Eesources of the Tyne, Wear, and Tees," read before the British Association at Newcastle in 1863. OHAP. I.] DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD, 17 tion was to be obtained respecting tbe inland traffic and distribu- tion of coal, excepting such as was brought into the metropolitan district. For years the Great Northern coal-field has contributed one- fourth of all the coal raised from the collieries in the United Kingdom. In the year 1879 the 363 collieries in operation produced 29,552,079 tons ; the total produce of the 3,877 collieries in the United Kingdom in the same year being 134,008,288 tons. Returning to the year 1855, when official statistics for the first time appear, the Great Northern coal-field produced 15,431,400 tons, the output of 273 collieries, thus distributed : — Number of Colliekies. 100 34 64 75 Tyne, Blyth and Coquet Wear and Seaham Tees, Hartlepool and Stockton Landsale Collieries Total 273 The principal seams worked in the district may be referred to as the High Main, Five-quarter Main, Low Five-quarter, Brock- well, and Stone-coal seams. Of the coal raised in the year 1855, the following schedule shows its distribution : — DISTKIBUTION. TOHS. Sent to London by sea 3,016,868 Sent to London by rail 221,689 Sent coastwise to otter parts 2,404,471 Railway sale 2,924,000 Sent to foreign countries 3,014,372 Used in iron works 1,200,000 Colliery consumption 1,150,000 Local consumption 1,500,000 Total 15,431,400 Following the development of this great coal-field, successive years show the returns of production as under, to which is added the produce of the colHeries of Great Britain in each of same years : — Tear. Northern Coal-fleld. Great Britain. Tons. Tons. 1856 15,492,969 66,645,450 1857 15,826,525 65,394,707 1858 15,853,484 65,008,649 1859 16,001,125 71,979,765 1860 18,244,708 80,042,698 18 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paot i. The meeting of the British Association in Newcastle-upon- Tyne in 1863 gave rise to some interesting and exhaustive notices of the coal, coke, and mining industries of the North of England, including the varied trades and manufactures of the Tyne, Wear, and Tees. From these reports, prepared hy Messrs. Nicholas Wood, John Taylor, John Marley, and J. W. Pease, the produce of the Northumberland and Durham coal-field in the year 1861 amounted to 21,777,570 tons. Writing at this period, now nearly twenty years since, these gentlemen conclude their observations on the duration of the coal-field as follows: — "It has been intimated that it would be very desirable that some observations should be made on the duration of the Northern coal-field. No doubt the quantity of coal yet to work in that coal-field is a subject of national importance, but from the observations already made it will have appeared that such a calculation is attended with more than ordinary difficulty. The coal-field may be said to be that of an oval basin, elongated north and south. On the western side of the basin the outcrops of the seams are pretty well defined, but more than one-half of the basin appears to be covered by the sea." At Monkwearmouth Colliery, near Sunder- land, the coal is being wrought under the sea, and at Marsden, South Shields, the Whitburn Coal Company are sinking a pit, under the direction of Mr. Daglish, the eminent mining engineer, to win the coal entirely under the ocean. On examining the section from Eadcliife Colliery, at the northern extremity, the Castle Eden Colliery, near the southern extremity, the beds of coal lie at a very considerable depth below the water level of the sea, and that line of section passes through the deepest explored part of the coal-field. The lowest known point of deepest depression being the Hutton seam of coal (below which there are several workable beds of coa,l), which is at Monkwearmouth Colliery, 300 fathoms below the level of the sea. Before passing on to the yield of the coal-field in later years, it will be interesting to see the several heads under which the production of the year 1861, previously referred to, was distri- buted, amounting to 21,777,570 tons, showing an increase over the output of the year 1860 of 3,532,862 tons, equivalent to nearly 20 per cent. The production of the collieries of Great Britain in the same year being 84,042,698 tons, of which quantity it is said nearly 4,000,000 were wasted on fire heaps. CHAP. I.] DUEHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 19 DISTSIBnilOH. TOKS. House coal 4,493,450 Gas coal 1,717,000 Steam coal, small and manufacturing coal . . . 4,317,120 Distributed by the North Eastern Eailway . . 2,180,000 Distributed by Carlisle Railway 120,000 Coke consumed in iron trade , . .... 5,000,000 Alkali and other manufactures 1,250,000 Colliery and home consumption 2,200,000 Duff and waste 500,000 Total 21,777,570 As previously stated, the total output of the collieries of the Great Northern coal-field yield fully 25 per cent, of the total produce of the United Kingdom, and this proportion continues to be maintained, as appears in the returns of subsequent years, in which the total yield of the United Kingdom appears side by side with the returns of Durham and Northumberland : — Year. Durham and Noithuinberland, United Kingdom. Tons. Tons. 1862 19,360,356 81,638,338 1863 22,154,146 86,292,216 1864 23,284,367 92,787,873 1865 25,032,694 98,150,587 1866 25,194,550 101,630,544 1867 24,867,444 104,500,480 1868 24,394,167 103,141,157 1869 25,765,430 107,427,657 1870 27,613,539 110,431,192 1871 29,190,916 117,362,028 1872 30,405,000* 123,497,316 1873 29,640,385 127,016,747 1874 30,543,800 125,007,916 1875 32,097,323 131,867,105 1876 31,991,023 133,344,766 1877 31,210,400 134,610,763 1878 30,133,884 132,607,866 1879 29,552,079 134,008,228 1880t 34,913,508 146,969,409 The coal raised in the Durham and Northumberland coal-field * Including the output of the collieries of the Cumberland coal-field, t Ketum H.M. Inspectors of Mines, 1880. c 2 20 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [part I. was distributed and used in the following manner in each of the years 1878, 1879 and 1880 :— Distribution and Use. 1878. 18T9. 1880. Tons. Tons. Tons. Coal exported 5,838,529 6,702,785 7,066,299 *Ooke do. . . 322,800 407,064 394,550 Coal sent coastwise 5,824,578 6,266,739 6,341,976 •Coke do 8,450 8,990 11,711 Coal by rail for local con- ) sumption and land sale . J 4,997,264 4,847,681 5,935,937 Coal for railway use . _ 576,297 552,254 610,364 Coal by rail to other districts . 435,810 428,544 398,257 *Coke by rail for local con- ) sumption and land sale . ( 3,328,956 3,282,310 4,277,200 Coke by rail south, of Al- ) tofts to Carlisle . . ) 2,073,050 2,076,757 3,955,100 •Coke for railway use 12,650 13,295 10,788 Coal used at iron works, ) mills and forges, &c. . . ) 2,450,500 2,250,000 2,770,000t Colliery consumption 1,515,000 1,215,000 l,250,000t Local manufactures, domes- j tic use, &c. . • • ) Total . . . 2,750,000 1,500,660 1,891, 326t 30,133,884 29,552,079 34,913,508 Distribution of Coal. — All the early accounts bearing on this subject show that for a long period, — extending to a remote date, — coal was distributed through the country by means of pack-horses, mules, and asses ; the coals were placed in bags and laid on the backs of these animals, and within the recollection of the present generation vast numbers of these animals were thus employed along roads and in districts impassable to carts. When roads were improved and carts could be used, the usual load for a horse was one ton conveyed ten miles a-day. About the year 1632 wooden railways were introduced and the load increased to two tons in one waggon, or four tons in two waggons on a favourable gradient. In the early period of coal mining, the pits were generally sunk on or near the outcrop of the coal-seam, or in the elevated parts of the districts ; at this period two waggons were employed, an extra horse being used in the more hiUy parts of the road to drag up the empty waggons. The coals thus transported were * Equivalent in coal given. + Estimated quantities. CHAi'. I.] DUKHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 21 conveyed from the pits to the river Tyne, from whence they were conveyed in " Keels," or boats carrying twenty chaldrons, to the ships. About the year 1794 cast-iron rails were introduced and used at the collieries in Durham and Northumberland ; these about the year 1815 were succeeded by maUeable-iron rails, first in the shape of tram roads and ultimately of round-topped rails. Before the introduction of steam, horses were the motive power employed, the usual load for a horse drawing a waggon on the cast-iron roads being from ten to twelve tons, on a level or slightly inclined road, and the distance traversed daily from twenty to twenty-four miles, the waggons being loaded one-half the distance and empty the other half. The introduction of locomotive engines on tramroads occurred in the year 1811 on the Wylam EaUway, and in the following year Stephenson's improved locomotive on round-topped rails was introduced. At this period the assigned performance of a locomotive was six miles per hour, conveying a load of forty tons ; a few years later the performance of a locomotive on the Liver- pool Eailway was thirty-three tons, conveyed at the rate of five miles per hour, by Messrs. Walker and Rastrick, and by Messrs. Stephenson and Locke, forty-five tons, conveyed at the rate of twelve miles per hour. The first public railway, the Stockton and Darlington, was opened in the year 1825 for the conveyance of coal, minerals, and passengers; the motive power first employed was horses and subsequently locomotive engines. The first engine which ran on this railway is still to be seen in front of the station at Darling- ton. Since that period malleable ii'on rails have been universally used, and in recent years steel has been extensively introduced, and heavier rails have been laid. On the Manchester and Liver- pool Railway the weight of the original rails laid was 35 lbs. per yard, forty years later the rails employed were 84 lbs. to the yard. With the introduction of steam and railways a new era sprung up, giving a marked impetus to the development of the coal, iron, and other industries of the Empire. This is weU illustrated by the rapid extension of the mineral traffic in the southern parts of the county of Durham, and by the Stockton and Darlington Eailway which, as previously stated, was opened in the year 1825. Twenty years later, in 1845, and the year before the Witton Park 22 COAL AND lEON INDUSTEIES, [PABT Ironworks were opened, the total quantity of minerals carried, including coal, coke, ironstone, and limestone, amounted to 936,757 tons, increased in the following year to 943,111 tons ; five years later, with the openiag of the Eston Ironstone Mines in the Cleveland district, of the North Riding of Yorkshire, the mineral traffic increased one hundred-fold, giving an aggregate of: 1,859,207 tons, and in 1856, to 2,952,202 tons, accounted for in the following items, in each of the years named : — Distribution. 1851. 1S56. Coals and coke exported . Coals and coke, Landsale, House- hold and Iron Works . . . TiTTTie and limestone . Ironstone Total . Tons. 441,352 1.017,644 '279,607 120,604 Tons 219,591 1,557,624 875,199 299,788 1,859,207 2,952,202 The West Hartlepool and Clarence Railways, in like manner showed a rapid development of traffic in coal and coke in each of the years : — Years. Tons. Tons. 1848 1858 1862 Tjand sale Export . . . Tiand sale Export . . . Land sale Export . . . 124,167 411,130 535,297 1,175,764 1,551,773 434,437 741,327 591,610 960,163 Previous to the introduction of railways and canals our know- ledge of the detailed distribution of coal and coke is often imperfect. On the whole the following may be regarded as generally reliable, showing the quantities sent coastwise and exported ; thus in the year 1602 the total quantity thus distributed did not exceed 190,600 tons ; some years later the following details exhibit the extent to which the coal and coke of this coal-field were disposed of: — CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND K0RTHX7MBEELAND COAL-FIELD. 23 Year. Coastwise. Foreign. Total. 1609 1621 1630 Tons. 224,435 301,785 253,380 Tons. 27,339 43,755 36,542 Tons. 251,774 345,540 289,922 For the next century and more, the details of distribution are somewhat meagre. In the year 1660 the coal and coke distributed amounted to 537,000 tons ; forty years later the quantity did not exceed 653,000 tons, receding in 1710 to 650,000 tons. Not again until the year 1750 do returns appear, when 1,193,457 tons were carried coastwise and foreign ; in subsequent years accurate data are met with showing the distribution of the fossil fuel of the Great Northern coal-field. Year. Coastwise. Foreign. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1791 1,814,661 264,944 2,079,605 1795 2,251,547 418,885 2,670,432 1800 2,381,986 138,089 2,520,075 1805 2,426,616 147,146 2,573,762 1810 2,783,404 50,922 2,834,326 1815 2,717,609 159,174 2,876,683 1820 3,246,886 158,340 3,403,225 1825 3,309,386 178,544 3,487,930 1835 3,973,659 494,485 4,468,144 1840 4,517,103 1,328,445 5,846,548 1845 6,523,178 1,784,988 7,308,166 1850 6,295,670 2,176,115 8,471,686 1855 5,410,565 2,822,856 8,233,421 1860 6,360,051 4,000,712 10,360,763 1865 6,041,003 4,637,759 10,678,762 1870 5,414,266 6,635,241 12,049,607 1875 6,638,074 6,519,671 12,167,745 1876 5,785,720 6,930,306 12,716,026 1877 5,890,881 6,226,720 12,117.601 1878 5,830,501 6,071,006 11,901,507 1879 6,329,366 6,514,012 12,843,378 1880 6,349,003 7,403,029 13,752,032 Eeference has been already made to the Stockton and Dar- lington Railway, opened in the year 1825, and to the West Hartlepool and Clarence Railway. These lines, and others, have long since been absorbed into the great system known as the North Eastern Railway, which possessed at the end of 1879 a total length in main line and branches of 1,473 miles. 24 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. Since the year 1800, the figures in the above statement show that the movements of coal coastwise and to foreign countries has increased fivefold ; in the year 1879 the coal was shipped from the following ports in the quantities given : — * Ports of Shipment. Coastwise. Exported. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Newcastle . 2,650,773 3,952,308 6,603,081 North Shields . . . 135,345 500,180 635,525 South Shields 239,287 361,540 600,827 Sunderland . . . 2,657,505 1,098,672 3,766,177 Stockton 1,186 — 1,186 Hartlepool . . . 602,216 542,302 1,144,518 Middlesborough . Totals . 43,054 59,010 102,064 6,329,366 6,514,012 12,843,378 From returns furnished by the North-Eastern Eailway the following abstract has been prepared, showing at a glance the magnitude of the traffic, not only in coal and coke, but also of the ironstone carried : — Yeai-. Coal. Ironstone. Tons. Tons, 1854 2,571,064 1856 1,753,045 245,998 1858 2;402,011 259,617 1860 2,575,303 260,388 1862 3,826,590 408,979 1864 5,744,501 1,700,879 1866 7,350,956 1868 7,357,266 2,591,711 1870 8.999,784 2,816,797 1871 10,089,217 4,467,889 1872 10,486,168 4,652,052 1873 10,792,280 4,928,458 1874 10,689,846 4,904,279 1875 11,032,299 5,305,113 1876 10,535,438 5,426,576 1877 10,439,768' 5,547,822 1878 9,907,829 4,999,448 1879 9,320,511 4,190,050 1880 11,661,676 0,785,724 The coal and coke thus carried by the North Eastern Eailway * Parliamentary Returns, No. 215, Session 2, 1880. CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND NOETHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 25 is exclusively the produce of the Durham and Northumberland coal-field. This is distributed for local consumption, land sale, and also employed by the railway company for their own use, in and over the main line and branches, and in those districts traversed by the railway system between Berwick and Kelso in the north, Carlisle and Tebay in the west, and Leeds, Knotting- ley, Doncaster, and Altofts, in the south. Other railways contribute in a lesser degree to the distribution of the coal : thus the Great Northern Eailway carried the follow- ing quantities in each of the years named ; side by side are the quantities carried in each of the same years by the Furness Railways of Durham coke, from the Stockton, Darlington, and other districts from the North Eastern Eailway ; — considerable tonnage being also conveyed by the Midland, and Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railways. YvilT. Great Noi-thern Railway. furness Rjiilway. Tuns. Tons. 1869 509,164 330,374 1870 524,695 371,559 1871 611,165 3S8,096 1872 409,414 426,057 1873 365,143 489,305 1874 341,501 532,435 1875 404,313 474,336 1876 388,089 474,653 1877 334,615 579,569 1878 289,586 551,878 1879 272,896 555,180 1880 210,083 676,207 Prices of Coal and Cost of Production. — In the year 1850 the coal wrought from pits varying in depth from 750 to 1,000 feet cost on an average from 4s. 9d. to 5s. per ton delivered at pit's mouth ; the average cost per ton at the several ports of ship- ment varying according to distance by rail from 5s. 3d. to 9s. 9d., or an average all round of household coals of 7s. S^d. per ton ; of steam coals, 6s. 8d. per ton, the highest price being 7s. 3d., the lowest Ss. 9d. ; gas coals ranging from 5s. 6d. to 7s. per ton, the average being 6s. l^d. per ton ; — the best coking coals vary- ing from 6s. 9d. to 6s. 9d. and 7s. per ton, or an average through and through of 6s. 3^d. per ton ; and blacksmith's coal, 6s. If i. per ton. 26 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. In 1860 the coal in the Newcastle district in the Tanfield collieries cost from 3s. to 3s. 6d. per ton at pit's mouth, the charges for conveyance to ports of shipment a distance of 24 miles adding 2s. per ton to the cost. The best coals of the Hetton district, greatly screened, all charges of labour, rent, &c., and including railway charges, l^d. per ton per mile, delivered on board ship, costing from 16s. to 18s. per chaldron of 63 cwts. The average price of the several varieties of Newcastle coal, delivered free on board, in 1860, being : house coals, 9s. per ton ; steam coals, 8s. per ton ; and gas, coking, and manufacturing coals, 5s. 6d. per ton. The fluctuations to which the Newcastle Wallsend coals have been subject since the year 1861, is well shown in the following statement of all sales in the London coal- market in each year, showing the highest, lowest, and average price per ton : — Year. Average. Highest. Lo\yest. s. d. s. rf. s. d. 1861 18 4 25 9 16 6 1862 15 7 19 13 6 1863 15 10 18 9 12 9 1864 17 10 22 14 9 1865 18 22 9 15 3 1866 17 9 20 6 15 3 1867 18 3 25 16 3 1868 15 9 18 3 14 1869 15 9 21 9 13 3 1870 16 3 20 6 13 9 1871 17 1 23 15 1872 23 29 18 1873 30 9 42 3 26 1874 23 2 26 6 20 3 1875 20 9 22 3 19 3 1876 19 6 23 15 6 1877 17 8 22 9 15 3 1878 16 6 21 9 15 1879 16 6 23 6 13 9 1880 14 11 18 5 13 6 The average cost is further increased by the various chai-ges incidental to the conveyance of the coal, — ^from the ship to the shore, and thence to the cellar of the consumer, — adding between 5s. and 6s. per ton to the above prices. Bearing on the subject of labour, miners' wages, and arbitration in the Durham coal trade, an able article in the " Colliery Guardian " puts the subject CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 27 very clearly. The writer says : " Although the Durham coal trade has not been exempt from strikes, to which the decrease in price is generally attributed, the adjustment of the rate of miners' wages has on the whole been well managed. During the last ten years arbitration has been resorted to from time to time when differences arose as to the remuneration of labour ; and with the ability and sound judgment which Mr. David Dale applied to those questions on the side of the employers, and the reason and moderation which Mr. Crawford's salutary counsels gene- rally made to prevail among the miners, one of the most pros- perous, as well as one of the most distressing periods in the trade has been tided over without any of those violent disloca- tions or prolonged interruptions which in former years inflicted serious injuries on all parties, and sometimes threatened to ruin local industry. In Durham the ten years under review comprise the period when this experiment has been put to the severest test, and the history of the fluctuations that have taken place in miners' wages during that period forms one of the most remarkable chapters in the records of the coal-trade," — and is thus referred to : — " The first years of course showed an upward movement. When the great rise in prices began in 1872, there was a general consensus of opinion that the rates current in 1871 were fair and reasonable. At all events, whether by accident or by merit, they have formed the basis of nearly all the subsequent movements. Previous to that year prices had shown little or no variation, and the collieries then worked 12J hours a day ; but the Coal Mines Regulation Act that came into operation on January 1, 1873, reduced the hours to eleven. In the beginning of 1872 the prices of coal rose so rapidly that in March the miners obtained an advance of 20 per cent, in wages over the rate current in 1871. Prices still rising, another advance of 18 per cent, was granted in July of the same year ; and in February of 1873 a third advance of 15 per cent, took place, so that within twelve months the wages were 58 per cent, more than in 1871. That maximum rate continued for fourteen months, namely, tiU April, 1874, when a reduction of 10 per cent, took place. The next reduction followed in October of the same year, and it was fixed by arbitra- tion at 9 per cent. Successive reductions of 5, 7, and 6 per cent, respectively were made in April, 1875, February and September, 28 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paut i. 1876. A sliding scale was then adopted, with the view of regulating wages, according to the certified prices of coal as ascertained at fixed periods. The date of the sliding scale agreement was March, 1877 ; and it was found that the prices of the previous four months entailed a reduction of 7 J per cent. When the last-named reduction took place, wages were about equal to what they had been in 1870 before the advances began. By the sliding scale agreement the wages now reached the minimum provided for ; and as it had been pre-arranged that it should continue binding for two years, the wages continued at that rate, while prices continued to fall. In many cases local arrangements were made between masters and men to work for less wages, rather than cease working altogether ; but there was no general reduction during these two years. In the spring of last year, however, steps were taken to effect a general reduction as soon as the slidiag scale arrangement expired. After a good deal of negotiation, the masters reduced their first demand of 20 per cent, to 15 per cent., and many of the colliers agreed to this ; but others strongly objected, and this led to a general strike throughout the country, lasting from April 14 to May 20 — five weeks. The matter was settled by arbitration, which resulted in a reduction of 8f per cent. The coal owners claimed a further reduction in August last year ; and by arbitration they were awarded 1^ per cent., so that wages were thereafter 10 per cent, less than they were in 1871." " Another sUding scale has since been adopted, and it differs from the previous one in this respect, that the ratio of variation is fixed, but is interminable. According to the employers' in- formation the miners were paid 4s. 8^. a day in 1870 for an average output of 4*67 tons of coal, and 4s. 8^cl. in 1878 for an average output of 4*02 tons, being a decrease of 16 per cent, in the quantity of work done for the same wages." * Population Employed in Coal-mines. — The number of persons employed in coal-mining in these two northern counties in the year 1852 was respectively 29,600 men and boys under ground, and 7,900 above ground, giving a total of 37,500 persons. In the year 1854 the number increased to 38,801, of whom 28,265 were employed in Durham, and 10,586 in Northumberland. The * " Colliery Guardian," vol. xl. " Ten Tears' Coal Mining," Northumberland and Durham, pp. 331-2. CHAP. I.] DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 29 total number of persons employed at this period in the collieries of Great Britain being as follows : — No. of Persons. England 147,070 Wales 37,314 Scotland 32,969 Total .... 217,353 exclusive of females, who numbered 2,642 ; of these 38 were employed in Durham, and 8 in Northumberland. According to the Census returns for 1861 the number of male coal miners engaged in this great coal-field and Cumberland was 53,534, increased in the year 1864 to 57,538. The returns in subsequent years give the following as the number of persons employed, with the output of coal, from which is deduced the average output per man in each year : — * Year. Persons Employed. Total Coal i-.iised. Average per man. Nos. Tuii^ Tons. 1864 57,538 23,991,544 417 1865 58,978 24,591,333 417 1866 61,367 25,693,800 418 1867 63,321 26,447,500 417 1868 69,000 26,700,000 372 1869 69.800 27,296,000 391 1870 75,100 29,300,000 390 1871 79,000 30,476,000 380 1872 84,300 30,405,000 360 Comparing the results of the year 1864 with those of 1872, when the number of persons engaged was computed by the inspector, each in his own district, we have a falling off, com- paring the average output per man, of 57 tons in a. period of eight years. When the Coal Mines Eegulation Act, 1872, came into operation, the numbers employed were ascertained with more exactness than formerly, and appear in the following table, giving the output of coal and the average per man, showing a steady increase, amoimting to 25 tons per man, in a period of six years : — * According to H.M. Inspectors of Collieries Reports. 30 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET t. Year. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total. Coal rai!?ed. Average per Man. Dnder Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1814 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 79,358 80,169 81,913 80,587 79,066 74,827 72,138 76,439 Nos. 21,184* 18,965 20,225 20,508 19,562 17,678 17,471 18,361 Nos. 100,542 99,134 102,138 101,095 98,628 92,505 89,609 94,800 Tons. 29,742,617 30,567,244 32,324,145 32,254,094 31,415,225 30,132,583 28.788,974 34,913,508 Tone. 296 308 316 319 318 325 321 368 Taking the year 1879, when the total number of persons employed was 89,609, the reports of Her Majesty's Inspector give the following classification of the ages of those engaged in and about the mines : — All Ages. Under Ground, i Above Ground. Total. From 12 to 13 . „ 10 to 13 . „ 13 to 16 . Above 16 . . Total . Nos. 1,004 6,495 64,639 Nos. 289 1,783 15,399t Nos. 1,004 289 8,278 80,038 72,138 17,471 89,609 Resources and Froba.'ble Duration of the Durham and ITorthumlierland Coal-field. — Adopting 4,000 feet as the limit of practical depth in coal working, and making due allowance for loss of coal destroyed by faults, barriers, and waste in working, the Commissioners engaged on the Eoyal Coal Commission (Mr. Thomas E. Forster for the Northumberland coal-field, and Sir George Elliot, Bart., for the Durham coal-field) give the following estimates as to the available coal remaining to be wrought in this Great Northern coal-field. I Geneeal Stjmmaey. Nortiumberland Coal Field .... Nortbumberland Mountain Limestone District Durliani Total Tons. 3,148,096,839 665,180,007 6,223,363,390 10,036,640,236 * The total for 1873 includes those persons employed in the Cumberland coal- field, f Including 8 females aboTC 16 years of age. t Coal Commission Report, vol. i. p. 20 — 26. CHAP. 1.] DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND COAL-FIELD. 31 The estimated quantity in the Northumherland division of the coal-field includes the under-sea coal amounting to 403,200,000 tons. This quantity is estimated on the following basis. " It is supposed that from the fiver Tyne northward to CresweU, a distance of 20 miles, four workable seams of coal will be found, making in the aggregate 14 feet of coal over an area of 40 square miles; taking the extent to be worked seaward at two miles equal to 25,600 acres X 14 feet thick x 1,500 tons per foot per acre, and allowing 25 per cent, to be left, the above-named quantity will be available, namely, 408,200,000 tons." In the Durham division of the coal-field amounting to 6,223,863,390 tons, it is estimated that the total amount of undersea coal available is 2,234,509,005 tons, and in all these estimates the coal seams down to a thickness of 12 inches have been taken into account. Taking the production of the year 1870 (27,613,539 tons) as a basis of computation, 364 years would bring about the exhaustion of this coal-field. Since the year 1870 the total output of the collieries has greatly increased, amounting in the aggregate to 302,378,849 tons ; there would therefore remain in the year 1880 available coal amounting to 9,734,261,387 tons. This quantity at the average production of the ten years ending 1879 (30,237,884 tons) would afford supplies for 322 years to come ; while at the rate of production in the year 1880, amounting to 34,913,508 tons, the period would be reduced to 280 years. CHAPTEE II. THE YORKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field— Sheffield, Leeds, and Barnsley, &c., districts— Prinoipat Coal Seams— Analyses of Coals— Barrow Silkstone . Colliery near Barnsley — Production of Coal and Distribution by Railway — Price of Coal and cost of Production — Population employed in Coal and Ironstone Mining since 1873 — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field (including Yorkshire, Derby- shire and Nottinghamshire). The Tortshire Coal-field. — This great coal-field occupies a considerable area of the West Eiding and southern parts of Yorkshire, and with its extension into the shires of Derby and Nottingham, has a known area of about 800 square miles, its length from north to south being upwards of 66 miles, extending from Bradford and Leeds on the northern boundary, through Sheffield to Derby and Nottingham on the south, its breadth varying from 5 to 20 miles. It is the most continuous of the coal-fields of Great Britain and is almost entii-ely expose^ throughout its area, its eastern margin only being covered by the magnesian limestone or Permian rocks. Sheffield occupies the centre of the coal-field, and in a section of 4,500 feet of coal measures 15 seams of coal occur, each seam having a thickness exceeding two feet, and giving a total thickness of 46 feet of vertical coal, while of the numerous seams less than two feet thick, there exists a vertical section equal to 53 feet of coal. In this Chapter only that part of the coal-field is described which is contained within the county of York. The rocks of the carboniferous system are usually divided in the centre and north of England into the following groups : — Upper Cwrhoniferous ' Upper coal measures. Middle coal measiores. Lower coal measures. Millstone grit. Lower Carhonifermi . . . i Yoredale rooks. •^ j (Jarbonuerous limestone. The lowest of these subdivisions, the Carboniferous limestone, consists over the greater part of its exposure in Yorkshire, as in cuAP. II.] THE YORKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 33 Derbyshire, of very little else but limestone. Partings of clay or shale between the limestone beds occur ; their thickness however is inconsiderable when compared with the whole subdivision. The limestones are for the most part thickly bedded, and com- paratively free from earthy or sandy admixture. Towards the top of the carboniferous limestone, the limestone beds become thinner and more earthy, and the shale partings grow more numerous, and a passage takes place into the next subdivision, the Yoredale Rocks. This group consists largely of dark shale, and beds of limestone and sandstone. These latter are usually thinly bedded, and more or less earthy, frequently passing into calcareous shales. The Millstone Grit consists of sandstones thick and coarse, the individual beds showing much irregularity, although there are groups of sandstone which maintain considerable persistency over large areas. The coals here found are few in number, for the most part thin and of poor quality, and with one or two exceptions singularly local. The Lower Coal IKEeasnres next occurring contain a few seams of coal of no great thickness and of poor quality, but an improvement upon those seams met with in the Millstone Grit. The sandstones of the lower coal measures, though important rocks, are, as a rule, neither so coarse nor so thick as the massive gritstones of the group below. It is in the lower coal measures that the hard seat-stone, known as " Ganister," occurs most abundantly, although it is not altogether absent from the Mill- stone grit, and the middle coal measures. "Ganister" is described as a highly silicious rock, which, when ground down and mixed in some cases with powdered fire-brick, or similar materials, forms one of the best fire-resisting materials known. Ganister is found almost exclusively in the lower coal measures, and generally forms the seat of a bed of coal. Professor Green referring to this rock, says, " There is one bed known as the ' Halifax Hard ' or Ganister Coal, beneath which Ganister is almost always present ; and the seat stone of this seam is not only more constant in its occurrence, but is usually regarded as of better quality than the Ganister of other horizons." The Middle Coal Measures are alike remarkable for the number and thickness of the coal seams, and the excellent quality of their coals. The sandstones of this division are finely 34 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part i. grained, and not so thick as the sandstones of the two groups below ; they are also much less persistent, and can seldom be traced continuously for more than a few miles. The Upper Coal Measures consist mainly of sandstones and shales of a deep red colour. They also contain thin limestones, and although coal seams are not absent they are neither so numerous nor so valuable as those of the middle coal measures. With this brief sketch of the Carboniferous rocks, drawn from "The Geology of the Yorkshire Coal-field"* extending from Sheffield in the south, to Leeds in the north, the next point to consider will be the order of occurrence of the principal coal seams in some of the more important localities within the area. Analyses of Cranisters and Underclays. — These, as the name implies, usually form the seat of a seam of coal, but under- clays do occm' without any coal seam over them. There is usually, however, if coal be absent, a seam of highly carbonaceous black shale above an underclay. Analyses of these Ganisters and underclays by Mr. J. W. Westmoreland, formerly of the Bowling Iron Works, give the following results : — Shipley Fibeclay beneath Halifax Haed Bed. Silica ol-io Alumina • . 35'28 Peroxide of iron 4-53 Titanic acid 1-21 lAme trace Magnesia 1-00 Potash -58 Moisture -lO Gieldin's GtAnister, from Plainteees Eoad, neab Laisterdyke Statiob". Silica 96-55 Alumina I.59 Peroxide of iron with, some titanic acid •■..•11 Lime .jg Magnesia .... .J7 Waiter .gg Potash .53 This Ganister is of very good quality and is used for making *' holes" for crucible steel, and forms the seat of the Better Bed Coal. * By Professor A. H. Green, E. Enssell and others. (" Geoloffical Survev Memoir," p. 20.) ^ ^ o CO CD t- S > ^ cq cq cq cq cq cq oq cq -^ P, ^ OS o> 00 CD r-f ^o r- cq th CO 00 »o CD o 'ti 03 o ao* o H.S OS cq «r- «:> ■* OS cq *- S £3 CD 1 eq >o cq c» CO 00 ^ t-i lo" "O" CD «2 CD >o CD I-' H rH l-H rH ** +- Pi- e-O^ o T-t r- cq CO ■* CO co o 1 Tt< Jr- oo ^~t »o OS »o »o i CO i:- t-^ rH ■* ir- 00 cq o H ■^ cq CD O oT CO OS o § CO rH CO TtH ^ cq OS oo •^ cq cq cq cq cq oq rH rH d m i o 05 rH ■*< CO UO OO J:^ CO i-t CD CO ■* CO CO 00 u S tH 00 °^ cq CO oo 05_ °i 3 (D H oT t-^ CO CO 00 •* ko" oo" -* 00 00 00 oo 1:^ >o ir' i »-) 1-t tH tH rH r-t rH rH s 00 CO o cc M3 CO CO CD t^ tH m o CO 00 TtH CO I:~ CO_ os_ »o cq_^ cq ■^ o 1 § T-H t-^ >o" 05 lo" cq" Y-H 00 tH cq «3 cq o 00 TtH CD o B CO oo 00 tH 00 >ts cq ^„ rH rH rH »o 1-H rH CD rH 1^ CO 05 o !>• tH t^ t- tH cq OS o> rH OS «^ 00 ^J:^ 4i S >o -* rH O »o Ir- o ^ g a t- cq. cq 1-t o 05 o o" O o CD CD CO CO >o CO CD Ui CD tH o CD cq o O 04 1 o 3 05 rH 00 >o 00 OS CD cq o «o 00 rH co_ 1:^ J:' Jr- 00 52 13 tH of CO cq cq" rH rH rH § l-H rH rH rH rH rH rH rH o ai Pi (u oo CO CD r- 00 >o t- ^ cq 00 O co 00 cq «= 1 00 CO_ O CO CO <» CO CD i^l K >o oT Oi 00 1:- Ir-^ 00 00 r)< '*< ■* ■*! Tt* -* 7* '^l CO ■* »o CO r^ 00 a> o fe' l:- 1:~ t- t^ 1^ r^ t- 00 H iH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH CO o ■* Oi I— t C4 CO I— 1 ■* hfl CI Tt pl - :: I, CHAP. II.] THE YOEKSHIEE COAL-FIELD. 55 The distribution of labour in Yorkshire shows more than ordinary uniformity throughout the depression of recent years. Since 1873, the average production per man has only once shown any notable variation. This falling off in production occurred in the year 1874, when 4,976 persons were employed in excess of the previous year, the output of coal being 484,465 tons less. The cause is thus explained. In the previous years of scarcity there was a great demand for more labour at the colHeries, and it was not till 1874 that that demand was satisfied. It was met however by the influx of all sorts of unskilled labour. Artisans and labourers from other trades were attracted by the high rate of wages offered and flocked to the collieries ; but they were neces- sarily less efficient than a corresponding number of trained hands would have been. Some eighteen months or two years' experience are considered necessary to make an efficient collier, and hence we find that in Yorkshire the anomalous state of the colhery labour that prevailed in 1874 did not continue. The actual output per man, due to the different positions and thickness of the coal-seams in different collieries show great variations. In some of the best collieries of the district the actual output per man has been as high as 600 tons per annum, in others it has not exceeded 190 tons. In addition to the difference of the character of the coal worked, the number of days which the men worked also affects their actual output. In some districts the collieries have been known to work double the time of others. During the year 1879 there were 24 new pits being sunk in Yorkshire; most of them being near Leeds and Sheffield, there being only one or two new sinkings near Bamsley. Of the persons employed in the year 1879 in the Yorkshire coal-field, the following statement will show their respective ages : — Ages. Under ground. Above ground. From 10 to 12 „ 10 to 13 . „ 12 to 13 „ 13 to 16 . Above 16 . . . Total . . . Jfos. 250 '769 5,503 41,805 Nos. 'll8 '848 10,783 48,327 11,760* Including eleyen females employed above ground. 56 UOAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. Besonrces and Probable Duration of the lEidlaud Coal- Pieia,— The coal-fields of South Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire comprise a partof the Midland coal-field. The late Mr. J. T. Woodhouse, a member of the Eoyal Coal Commission^ to whom was entrusted this enquiry, has arrived at the following results. The acreage of the coal-field being divided as under : — Name of District. Total Acreage. Acreage Unwrouglit. Acres. Acres. Outside the Permian Midland 6,039,615 5,856,948 Midland deep coal . . . 265,590 265,590 Proved Sub-Permian Midland 1,523,396 1,519,517 Midland deep coal . . . Total acreage . 141,555 141,555 7,970,156 7,783,610 The quantity of coal estimated as originally existing in the coal-field, all necessary deductions being made for coal which cannot be worked by reason of its being left for boundary pillars, faults, broken ground, waste in working, &c., gave a total of 33,768,362,814 tons, the quantity remaining unwrought, 32,721,198,832 tons, and the net tonnage remaining and avail- able for future supplies, 18,406,799,443 tons. The details of these quantities apportioned in districts are as under :* — Name of District. TONNAGE. Total estimated tonnage. Tonnage remaining „,5flw°*^® i,mvovi;o,l. avaalable for con- siniiiilion. Outside the Permian Midland Midland deep coal . . Proved Sub-Permian Midland . . . . Midland deep coal . Total . . . Tons. 24,714,936,964 747,285,800 7,801,543,230 504,596,820 Tons. 23,693,839,102 745,285,800 7,777,477,110 504,596,820 Tons. 13,327,784,524 420,348,320 4,374,830,886 283,835,713 33,768,362,814 ! 32,721,198,832 ! 18,406,799,443 Report Coal Commission, vol. i., p. 31. '° Under Sea Coal. — It is estimated that for a distance of. eight miles, two workable seams of coal will be found under the 'sea, making in the aggregate 11 feet of coal over an area of 16 square miles ; taking the extent to be worked seaward 2 miles = 10,240 acres X 11 feet, and allowing 40 per cent, to beleft= . . . . 101,376,000 Total 405,203,792 Including 7 females. f Including 329 females, J Coal Commission Eeport, vol. I., p. 21. CHAP. HI.] WESTMORELAND COAL-FIELD. 67 This quantity, at the rate of production in the year 1870, viz., 1,408,236 tons, would afford supplies for 288 years. During the ten years ending 1879, the output of the collieries of Cumber- land amounted to an aggregate of 14,080,029 tons, or an average annual output of 1,408,002 tons; leaving a total of 391,123,499 tons yet available for a period of 277 years. The output of the collieries of Cumberland in 1880 was 1,680,841 tons, showing an increase over the previous year of 156,802 tons, and reducing the period of duration to about 236 years. Westmoreland Coal-field. Fopnlation Employed and Coal Baised.* — The coal produced in Westmoreland is inconsiderable, not exceeding 2,000 or 3,000 tons in any one year. In the year 1854 the total number of persons engaged in coal and iron mining was 109 ; of these 67 were engaged in coal, and 62 in iron mining. The returns of recent years, as under, show a considerable falling off. The details are as foUows : — PERSONS EMPLOYED. Average per Year. Total. Coal raised. Under Above man. ground. ground. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1873 20 3 23 1,972 86 1874 12 1 13 1,297 99 1875 18 1 19 2,566 135 1876 13 2 15 2,020 135 1877 13 2 15 2,051 136 1878 15 2 17 1,830 108 1879 17 2 19 2,026 106 1880 13 3 16 1,950 122 In the years 1877 and 1879 the number engaged in iron- mining was but ten in each year, of whom six were engaged in underground and fom* in overground operations ; the quantities of iron-stone raised amounting to 8,000 tons and 1,454 tons respectively. The coal raised according to the " Mineral Statistics " in the years 1878 and 1879 is in excess of that of the Inspectors, and is given respective^ at 4,640 tons and 4,697 tons. * Reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. ?■ 2 CHAPTEE IV. LANCASHIKB COAL-FIELD. General Description of Coal-field — Principal Coal Seams Wigan and Burnley Districts — Analyses and Production of Coal — Deep Pits at Eosebridge Collieries, "Wigan, and Ashton Moss, near Manchester — Pemberton Colliery, General Arrangements — Coal Washing Apparatus — Distribution of Coal — Bridgewater Navigation — Sent Coastwise and Exported — Population employed in Coal Mining — Price of Coal and Cost of Production — Kesouices of Coal- field, and probable duration. The Lancashire Coal-field. — This important coal-bearing tract, most irregiilar in outline and greatly disturbed by faults, has an estimated area of 217 square miles. The chief centres of activity are Prescot, Saint Helen's, Wigan, Bolton, Bury and Manchester, and the isolated tract of Burnley. The South Lancashire area of the coal-field, extending from Bickerstaffe to Stalej'bndge, is thirty-two miles in length, its average breadth being about six miles. The number of seams of workable coal, as also the character of the strata in which they occur, vary considerably in different parts of the area ; thus in the neigh- bourhood of Saint Helen's the number of coal seams exceeding two feet are 13, compared with 17 in the Wigan and 18 in the Manchester district; a general thickening out of the coal measures taking place towards the N.N.E., the same coal seams being found further apart at Saint Helen's than at Prescot, and at Wigan than at Saint Helen's. The coal measures are divided into Upper, Middle and Lower. The Upper form the Manchester coal-field, and include the Ardwick limestone series, containing numerous fish remains overlying the Bradford Four-foot coal. The Middle coal measm-es, with a section of 3,500 feet, containing all the important seams of coal, from the Worsley Four-foot coal to the Arley mine. The Lower or Ganister series, consisting of flags, shales and thin coals. The seams of the Middle coal measures' vary from 3 to 9 feet in thickness, and most of them can be traced over the whole district under different names; for example, the "Little Delf" of Saint CHAP. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD, 69 Helen's is the Arley Mine of Wigan, the " Riley Mine " of Bolton, and the " Dogshaw Mine " of Bury. It is the lowest coal bed of the Middle series, and of great economic value.* The following are the more important seams wrought in the Wigan area of the coal-field, with their respective average thickness : — Ft. In. Four-foot Coal of Eed Eock Bridge 4 Ince Yard Goal 3 Ince Four-foot Coal 3 7 Ince Seven-foot Coal (with parting) 7 Furnace Mine (with parting) 4 7 Pemberton Five-foot Mine 5 2 Pemberton Four-foot Mine 4 6 Wigan Five-foot (inferior) 4 6 Cannel Best G-as Coal from 1 to 3 King Coal 3 10 Yard Coal 3 Bone Coal 2 3 Smith Coal (Eushy Park) 3 6 Arley Mine 4 The last-named seam being the next in value to the Cannel. In the northern and eastern portions of the district and at Upholland, near Wigan, in the lower coal measures, two thin seams of coal are worked, the one known as the " Upper Moun- tain Mine " in the Oldham district, from 14 to 16 inches thick, and a second, the " Lower Mountain Mine," or " Ganister Coal," varying in thickness from 18 to 30 inches, the two seams separated by intervening strata, amounting to from 60 to 75 yards. The other districts of importance are the coal areas in the neighbour- hood of Manchester and the Bm'nley coal-field ; the former lies to the north-east of Manchester, four and a half miles in length, its greatest breadth not exceeding one and a half miles : the latter, small but rich coal basin of Burnley, lying further to the north of the main coal-field. In both these districts important and valuable seams of coal occur. The following gives generally those in the Burnley district, with their average thickness : — Ft. In. Doghole Coal 6 Kershaw Coal 3 SheUCoal 2 6 Main Coal 5 Maiden Coal 3 Lower Yard or Five-foot Coal 5 Lower Bottom or Four-foot Coal 3 6 * Professor Hull's " Coal-fields," 4th ed., p. 200. 70 COAL AKD IKON INDUSTRIES. [pakt i. Ft. In. Impure Oannel 2 6 Thin Goal (and Fisli Bed) 2 9 (Coal, 28 in. ) GreatMine ^ Shale, 12 „ } 4 (Coal, 19 „ ) China Bed 2 DanehyBed 2 FnUedge Main Coal or Arley Mine 4 Below the Fulledge Coal, in the lower coal measure, occurs the upper and lower Mountain Mines, the latter, " Ganister Coal," having a thickness of about four feet, the former being about two feet. Bands of ironstone occur in this district, and were formerly worked. Analyses of Lancashire Coal. — The second Report of Coals suited to the Steam Navy affords very valuable information of the economical value of the Lancashire' coal.* Of the following weU-known seams worked in the Wigan dis- trict, the annexed particulars are gathered : — Balcarres Arley Mine. — Described "as a semi-bitumiuous coal, the vein at a depth of 212 yards from the surface being 5 feet 6 inches thick, and regular. The coal on examination was foimd to light easUy and burn freely, but with the evolution of much smoke during the time of combustion. The amount of ash left was rather considerable, but the quantity of clinker formed was so small that at the expiration of eight hours from the time of lighting the fire the draughtways between the bars remained nearly as clear as before the commencement of the operation. The small quantity of clinker formed was very fusible, and adhered to the bars." Balcarres Five-foot Mine. — This mine is also situated in the parish of Wigan. The vein is 5 feet 4 inches thick, and has been found to be regular as far as proved. This coal, Kke the former, was found to light readily, and blows off the steam rapidly, but gives a hard clinker, which adheres so firmly to the bars as to interfere materially with the maintenance of a clear fire. The coal gives off much smoke during combustion, and leaves a considerable amount of reddish ash. The Balcarres Haigh Yard Mine, — The coal of this seam occurs at a depth of 98 yards from the surface, is 34J inches in thickness, and very regular, and yields a free burning coal. * De la Beohe and Playfair, 1851. OBilP. IV.] LAKCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 71 The coal resembles in appearance the two last coals referred to, and was found during the experiments to bum in a nearly similar way, with the exception of its being consumed rather less rapidly and more steadily than the other specimens. The clinker was found to be small in quantity, but extremely fusible, and by melting on the bars obstructed the draught. Blackley Hurst Fowr-foot Vein and Three-foot Vein. — The average thickness of the former is 3 feet 10^ inches, while the latter is usually an inch less than its name implies. The Four-foot Vein is mined at a depth of 60 yards, and the Three- foot Vein at a depth of 140 yards from surface. The coal is described as clean and durable, and has been largely used by the Scotch and Irish steam packets, and it fm'ther appears that a mixture of these two veins furnished a supply of fuel to the Halifax and Boston mail steamers for a considerable period. This coal has also been employed for the manufacture of gas, and it was observed during the experiments to be shghtly bitu- minous and rather fragile, yielding much smoke and depositing a considerable amount of soot. Little ash and clinker were, how- ever, left, the latter being of reddish colour and very hard. The following shows the mean composition of average samples of these coals : * — Constituents. BALCARRES COLLIERY. Blackley Hurst Four-toot Mine. Arley, five feet six in. Five-foot Mine. Haigh Yard Mine. Carbon . Hydrogen . . . Nitrogen Sulphur . . . Oxygen . Ash . ... Specific gravity Coke per cent. . . 83-54 5-24 0-98 1-05 5-87 3 '32 74-21 5-03 0-77 2-09 8-69 9-21 82-26 5-47 1-25 1-48 5-64 3-90 82-01 5-55 1-68 1-43 5-28 4-05 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 1-26 1-26 1-28 1-26 62-89 55-90 66-09 57-81 Other analyses of coal raised in the Wigan district show the • Second Eeport, " Coals suited to the Steam Navy,'" by De la Beche and l>layfair, p. 7. 72 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. following constituents, the samples examined being from seams in the Ince Hall Collieries, and employed for steam, domestic purposes and gas manufacture. The analysis in the last column is of the Cannel coal worked in the collieries at Walthen House, two miles from Wigan, of Messrs. W. H. Brancker & Co., and extensively used for gas-making, with the exception of small quantities used for household purposes. The principal market for this coal is Liverpool, distant 33 miles from the mine. The results of analyses are thus tabulated : — Constituents. INCE HALL COLLIERIES. Cannel Seam. Arley Four-foot. Pemberton Four-foot. Pembei'ton Five-foot. Carbon . Hydrogen . . . Nitrogen Sulphur . . . Oxygen . Ash . Specific gravity Coke per cent. . . 82'61 5-86 1-76 •80 7-44 1-53 77-01 3-93 1-40 1-05 5-52 11-09 68-72 4-76 2-20 1-35 8-63 14-34 79-23 6-08 1-18 1-43 7-24 4-84 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 1-272 1-276 1-269 1-23 64-00 57-10 56-50 60-33 The coals worked by the Moss HaU Company, whose collieries are situated near Wigan, have also been investigated. The following coals are thus described : — The Pemberton Four-foot Coal, raised from the Moss Hall CoUiery, being obtained from a depth of 208 yards from the surface, the vein exhibiting great regularity, and 4 feet 6 inches thick ; the specimen examined being a bright coal, with a cubical fracture, free from iron pyrites, and containing but little shaly matter or mineralized charcoal. The Pemberton Five-foot Coal is obtained from a coUiery situated in the immediate neighbourhood of the preceding, and is described as "hard, burning moderately freely, and very hot." The New Main Coal, worked by the same Company at a depth of 110 yards, the yeia, which is 4 feet 6 inches thick, being divided in the middle by four inches of metal. The coals from this vein are described as " moderately hard, free burning, CHAP. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 73 and producing a great heat." This, like the two previous varie- ties in the experiments made, was found to yield similar results. The annexed shows the mean composition of average samples of the coals referred to : — Constituents. Pemberton Four-foot. Pemberton Five-foot. Pemberton New Mine. Carbon . Hydrogen . . . Nitrogen Sulphur . . . Oxygen . Ash . . . . Specific gravity 75-53 4-82 2-05 3-04 7-98 6-58 76-16 5-35 1-29 1-05 10-13 6-02 77-50 4-84 -98 1-36 12-16 3-16 100-00 100-00 100-00 1-258 1-283 1-278 Coke per cent. . . 55-70 56-10 57-70 The coal seams wrought in the Haydock Collieries of Messrs. Eichard Evans & Co., situated in the parish of Ashton in Makerfield, near Warrington, and of which analyses ai'e pub- lished, exhibit considerable variety, and are thus described : — The Rushy Park Coals are obtained at a depth of 260 yards from the surface, the seam having a thickness of 4 feet 8 inches. These coals are employed for the generation of steam and other furnace purposes ; the specimen examined was bright, with a cubical fracture, and contained rather large quantities of iron pyrites. The Haydock Little Del/, extracted from the same colliery, at a depth of 320 feet from the surface ; the vein is 3 feet 6 inches thick, the coal being chiefly employed for smith's use and coking; this coal closely resembles the foregoing, but is more bituminous, softer, and less bright, contains large quantities of white shale and mineralized charcoal, although but little iron pyrites was observed. The Haydock Higher Florida Coals, obtained from the colliery of the same name, situated in the same parish as the two preceding mines, is obtained from a vein 4 feet 4 inches thick, at a depth of 250 yards from the surface. The coals are described as "clean, hot and durable," and are largely used by the ocean steamers from the Mersey and at the saltworks in 74 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PiKT I. Cheshire. The coal is very brilliant, and has a cubical fracture, but contains considerable quantities of white shale and iron pyrites, particularly on the planes of cleavage, where a little brown coal and mineralized charcoal are also occasionally met with. The Florida Main Seam. — These coals are extracted from the same colliery as the foregoing, and are raised from a vein about 10 yards below the higher seam. The roof is composed of fire-clay and shale, and the underlying strata consist of dark shale and grit-stone. The vein is 6 feet in thickness and is tolerably regular. The composition of average samples of the Haydock seams is as follows : — Constituents. t ^^^^ Little Delf. Higher Florida. Florida Main Seam. Carbon . Hydrogen . . . Nitrogen Sulphur . . . Oxygen . Ash .... 77-65 5-53 •50 1-73 10-91 3-fi8 77-91 5-16 •54 •52 10-65 3-42 77-33 5-56 1-01 1-03 12-02 3-05 77-49 5-50 1-27 0-88 12-84 2-02 100-00 98-20 100-00 100 00 Specific gravity 1-323 1-257 1.218 1-267 Coke per cent. . . 59-40 58-10 57-10 54-40 Another analysis of the Eushy Park Coal, described " as slightly caking ; lustre of coke, semi-transparent ; " showing the following composition : — Eesults Tabulated. Carbon 75'81 Hydrogen 5-22 Oxygen 11-14 Nitrogen 1-93 Sulphur 0-90 Ash 5-00 100-00 The specific gravity of this sample was 1'279, and the yield of coke per cent. 65'50. OHAP. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 75 Production of Coal. — The early history of coal-mining in Lancashire and the production of coal is very ohscure. It is generally known, however, that towards the close of the past century the coal produced was not considerable, and further, that the construction: of the Bridgewater Canal, bringing many of the great centres of industry into communication, greatly contributed to the development of the resources of the coal- field. The above great enterprise was commenced about the year 1759, and was designed and constructed by the celebrated engineer, James Brindley, connecting Worsley with Manchester, and furnishing an important outlet for the coal of that section of the Lancashire coal-fields. The canal was afterwards extended to Liverpool, and in 1762 an Act of Parliament was obtained to extend the canal to the tideway in the river Mersey. The Sankey Brook Canal was formed and opened a few years previously, between 1755 and 1759, connecting the coal-field of Saiat Helen's with the river Mersey. In the year 1854 * appeared an interesting paper by Mr. J. Dickinson, H.M. Inspector of Mines, on the Lancashire, Cheshire and North Wales coal-field, in which it is stated regarding Lan- cashire, that the coal produced in 1852 amounted to 8,256,000 tons, from 334 collieries, the pits being of various depths, up to 520 yards. t Deeper coals were at that time worked bj'^ inchne planes, from the bottom of shafts, to a depth from surface of 600 yards. The 384 collieries above referred to were worked by 679 pits, the average depth being about 118 yards. These depths are now greatly exceeded. At Eosebridge Colliery in the Wigan district, coal is being won at a depth of 815 yards from the surface. I Recently, at the Ashton Moss Colliery, Auldenshaw, near Manchester, the " Great Mine," a seam of coal 6 feet thick, has been reached at a depth of 895 yards from the surface, or 897 yards including the seam itself. As far back as the year 1874, the Ashton Moss Colliery Company commenced sinking operations, with the view of finding the Four-foot Mine, which was being worked in other parts of the coal-field. At a depth of 450 yards the mine was proved, • " Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester," toI. xii. p. 71. t Two pits at the Pendleton Colliery (1852). % August, 1880. 76 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt i. and several headings were driven by waj' of testing the bed, which, however, was found to be not of sufficient thickness to be workable. The proprietors now determined to sink a shaft 250 yards deeper, in all 700 yards. This depth, greater than that of the Astley Deep pit at Dukinfield (686 yards), in the adjoining county of Cheshire, having been reached, and not having over- taken any coal of a workable character, the engineers now directed that borings should be made ; the results were encouraging, and orders were given to sink further, and on Saturday, 5th March, 1881, six years after the ground was first broken, the workers reached the " Great Mine " above referred to. This seam is believed to be a continuation, without any intervening fatilt, of the seams which are at present being worked on the east side of Manchester. At a depth of 950 yards lies the " Eoger Mine," 4 feet thick, and below this are supposed to exist several workable seams- of coal, including the Black Mine and the Cannel Mine, both of which are got at Ashton. The coal is a house-fire coal, with coking properties, and is most valuable for position, being so near the large centres of population, available alike for quantity and excellence. The field that can be worked by the Company is about 2,000 acres in extent, from Guide Bridge to Droylsden on one side, and extending from Fairfield to Ashton on the other. A second shaft is now being sunk ; being indeed but 200 yards short of the first shaft, and when working operations have fairly begun the mines are calculated to yield from 1,500 to 2,000 tons per day, and plant is being put down with that view. In the sinking operations the miners encountered no less than sixty seams or strata of coal, cannel, or shale, varying from 3 inches to more than 2 feet in thickness, but none until now of a workable character. The temperature, taken at a depth of 860 yards, was 78° Fahr. The " Great Mine," which has just been proved, has been worked from the outcrop to within a distance of 2,000 yards at the Lord's Field Colliery, and about 1,000 yards by the Dukin- field Coal and Cannel Company, "fair rise and dip." The first- named pit pierces the seam vertically at a depth of 130 yards, and the Chapel and Dewsnap Pits of the latter Company strike it at about 250 yards. In comparison with other pits the Ashton Moss Pit is the deepest in England. The sinkings and borings have penetrated CHAP. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 77 to a depth of 1,050 yards ; the sinkings alone have reached 895 yards, and this will soon he increased to 960 yards. Hitherto the Astley Deep Pit at Dukinfield (686 yards)) the Eose Bridge Pit at Wigan, and the Moss Pit, situated in the same locaUty, extending to a depth of about 820 yards, were regarded as the deepest coal-pits in the kingdom. Even these great depths are exceeded in the mining districts of continental countries ; the deepest perpendicular shaft at present existing is that of Adalbert, at Prizbram, in Bohemia, which has reached the depth of 2,100 metres, or 1,096 yards, though there are others, not quite perpendicular, which are still deeper. The Rock-salt bore-hole, at Spesenberg, near Berlin, was carried down 4,175 feet some few years ago, and a coal-mine at Viviers, Belgium, is now 3,542 feet. Two other shafts in Belgium, at Gilly, are sunk to the depth of 2,847 feet, and from these an exploring shaft was carried 666 feet further, though it was unsuccessful as regards the finding of the expected seam. The deepest shaft in Prussian mining is the Samson Shaft at the Oberhartz Lead and Silver Works in Hanover, which is 2,437 feet. France has nothing beyond 1,881 feet, at a colliery at Eonchamp. There is only one case on record where a depth exceeding one mile from the earth's surface has been reached ; viz., at the Artesian well at Potsdam, Missouri, in the United States of America, where the chisels have been carried down to 5,500 feet, or 1 mile 220 feet. Resuming with the returns of coal produce in Lancashire, in the following table will be found the number of collieries and output of coal in the North and East or Manchester district ; and the Western district (Saint Helen's and Wigan), together with the total number of collieries and produce of coal, from which it will be seen, that since the year 1854 the output of the colUeries of Lancashire have increased a hundredfold ; and it may be generally observed, that during the year 1880 the coal trade of Lancashire was carried on under very unfavourable circum- stances. In the beginning of the year colliery proprietors largely increased their output, due to the revival of trade which set in towards the close of the previous year. These hopes were not reahsed, and the increased production became a binrden on the market. During the last two months of the year, however, a better demand arose for coal ; this was met by increased output and better prices. 78 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I, Year. NORTH Xm> EAST DISTRICT. WESTEKN DISTRICT. TOTAL COAL. No. Of Coal No. of Coal No. of 1j311C3SiliTB Collieries. Rlised. Collieries. raised. Collieries. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1854 ... 340 9,080,500 1855 • •■ 357 8,950,000 1856 248 111 ... 359 8,950,000 1857 247 112 359 8,665,000 1858 273 107 380 8,050,000 1859 272 5,756i000 109 4,900i000 381 10,650,000 1860 266 5,750,000 105 5,600,000 371 11,350,000 1861 269 5,950,000 104 6,245,000 373 12,195,000 1862 272 4,975,500 107 5,622,000 379 10,597,500 1863 280 5,325,500 99 5,550,000 379 10,876,500 1864 276 5,900,000 103 5,630,000 379 11,530,000 1865 249 6,312,000 93 5,650,000 342 11,962,000 1866 251 6,570,000 95 6,750,500 346 12,320,500 1867 254 6,844,000 99. 5,997,500 353 12,841,600 1868 293 7,053,000 93 6,747,500 386 12,800,600 1869 299 7,020,000 93 6,975,500 392 13,995,600 1870 298 7,055,500 87 6,755,100 386 13,810,600 1871 287 7,576,000 89 6,275,000 376 13,851,000 1872 324 9,363,236 98 ...* 422 16,363,236 1873 325 9,500,000 160 7,5o6,'ooo 485 17,000,000 1874 376 8,095,570 182 7,442,950 658 15,538,620 1875 400 8,825,798 188 8,250,246 588 17,076,044 1876 385 8,265,000 174 9,125,000 659 17,390,000 1877 342 8,735,055 175 8,886,476 517 17,621,531 1878 344 8,634,500 178 9,425,526 522 18,060,025 1879 362 9,020,045 179 9,591,700 541 18,612,346 1880 311 9,519,858 166 9,600,436 477 19,120,294 During the years 1879 and 1880, among the many extensive companies raising coal in Lancashii-e may be mentioned the Wigan Coal and Iron Co., who produce annually from their numerous collieries upwards of one and a half million of tons ; the Messrs. Andrew Knowles and Sons, and the Bridgewater Trustees, each raising nearly one million tons. The yield of Cannel coal is obtainable for a few years only, from 1857 to 1862, and was as follows ; these quantities being included in the above totals for each of those years : — Caitnel Coai pboduced in Lancashire. Yeaj. Quantities. Year. Quantities. 1857 1858 1869 Tons. 300,000 275,000 295,000 1860 1861 1862 Tons. 350,000 450,000 332,000 * Included in the return of North Wales, and estimated at 7,000,000 tons. CHAP. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD, 79 Before proceeding further this will be a fitting place to give an accoTint of some of the mechanical arrangements employed in an extensive Lancashire colliery ; that of " Pemberton " of Messrs. Blundell, affords an interesting illustration, and was visited in the autumn of 1879 by the members of the Iron and Steel Institute, in whose Journal the following account appears : — " The Pemberton Colliery has two shafts, sunk to a depth of 624 yards, — a downcast and an upcast. The downcast is 17 feet 4 inches in diameter at the top and 16 feet at the bottom. The shafts were sunk by means of two pairs of horizontal engines, with cylinders 16 inches diameter and 3 feet stroke. Down each side of the shaft run pairs of railway metals, which form guides for the cages. The cages each hold six tubs, are made of steel, and weigh 28J cwts. The tubs also are made of steel, weigh 3| cwts., and carry about 7i cwt. of coal. The ropes are steel, and taper from If inch to If inch, and weigh about 3 tons. The heapsteads are well arranged and substantially built ; one of iron, and the other of iron and stone combined. The screening arrangements are weU planned. After the round coal has passed the ordinary screen, the remainder falls through an ii-on hopper into a long tube containing an 18-inch worm or creeper, along which the coal is carried into a well, whence it is mechanically lifted into the apparatus house, and passing through revolving screens, is discharged into waggons, in its various sizes. " The coal-washing apparatus is of the ordinary kind, the washed coal being converted into coke on the premises. The engine-house is a fine building, containing two pairs of 36-inch cylinder horizontal winding engines, with 6-feet stroke. The winding drums are conical in form, with a maximum diameter of 30 feet 6 inches, and a minimum diameter of 19 feet, arranged for winding from the depth of 624 yards in 22 revolutions. The centre lines of the pulleys are on the flat part of the top of the drums, and consequently there is no chance of the rope slipping, while an additional protection is afforded by the coiling of the rope in a spiral groove. The pulleys are 18 feet in diameter. The boilers are 16 in number, each 28 feet long, and having two flues, each 2 feet 10 inches in diameter. A capstan engine is placed on the ground floor of the engine-house, which can be adapted to either shaft in case of emergency. For this purpose centre pulleys have been fixed in the head-gear. 80 COAL ,AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet i. The colliery is ventilated by a Guibal fan, constructed of steel, and measuring 46 feet in diameter and 15 feet in width. The length of the shaft is 19 feet 3 inches, and its diameter in the centre 16J inches, and at the pedestal end 12 inches. At the crank end the bearings are 18 inches long, and engines have been specially adapted to work the fan. There are two cylinders 36 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 8 feet 6 inches. One of the cylinders is sufficient to work the fan, but the other can be applied in a few minutes without interfering to any perceptible extent with the ventUation. The shaft is covered at the top with two doors, and the air enters the fan-house by means of a culvert. At the top of the drift, between the fan and the shaft, there is an escape chimney provided with four doors, so that in case of an explosion the blast would pass through these doors, and also through the door in the pit-scaffold, without injuring the fan. " The fan is calculated to produce 247,000 cubic feet per minute at 58 revolutions and 3|-inch water-gauge. The fan- engine was constructed by Messrs. Baker and Valiant, of Wigan, and the fan by the Staveley Iron Company. At this colliery has been introduced a new system of working the coal by means of compressed air, invented by Mr. E. Eeuss. In this system a circular hole is bored into the face of the coal for the reception of a cast-iron cartridge, which is connected with a powerful hand air-compressor. The cartridges are simply hollow castings, about 14 inches long and 3 inches in diameter, having one end solid and the other tapped to receive the tubing. The cartridge having been inserted in the coal, the air-compressor is started, and when the required pressure has been reached the cartridge bursts with a sharp report, bringing down the coal ready for loading." DistriTjution of Coal. — Foremost amongst the railways in the movement of coal, the produce of Lancashire, is the London and North-Western, whose system traverses the coal-field in aU directions. In the year 1854 this system carried firom Lancashire 1,248,461 tons, increased in 1859 to 1,411,000 tons. Since 1859 the total weight of coal carried, distinguishing that passed on other lines from that carried on the North-Western system, will be seen in the subjoined table, amounting in the last-named year to 7,024,080 tons, of which 5,676,094 tons were conveyed to stations on the London and North-Western Eailway, and 1,347,986 tons to stations on the lines of other companies. CHAP. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FJIELD. 81 To Stations on To Station? on Years. London and North- other Companies' Total. Western RaUway. Lines. Tons., Tons. Tons. 1859 ... 1,411,000 1862 . . . 1,641,391 1863 1,796,035 1864 2,557,087 1865 . .. ... 3,440,778 1866 ... ... 3,321,737 1868 3,375,597 366,378 3,741,975 1869 3,790,482 420,598 4,211,080 1870 4,350,534 ■ 617,251 4,967,785 1871 4,612,476 824,574 5,437,050 1872 5,127,663 570,595 5,698,258 1873 4,618,324 796,739 51415,063 1874 3,862,609 1,043,885 4,906,494 1875 4,604,432 1,230,726 5,835,158 1876 4,629,689 1,349,685 5,979,374 1877 4,812,141 1,332,143 6,144,284 1878 4,951,485 1,263,974 6,215,459 1879 5,464,701 1,421,252 6,885,953 1880 5,676,094 1,347,986 7,024,080 The Lancashire and Yorkshire Eailway contributes largely to the movement of Lancashire coal ; the quantity in 1869 was 2,261,511 tons, increasing yearly, as shown by the annexed statement : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1869 2,261,511 1876 3,360,041 1872 2,874,637 1877 3,556,192 1873 2,781,805 1878 3,648,663 1874 2,859,742 1879 3,915,411 1875 3,285,434 1880 4,120,572 The Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Eailway also carries coal from this coal-field, principally to Manchester, Ardwick, Gorton, Guide Bridge, Ashton, and Staleybridge ; the quantities received and forwai'ded are as follows : — Year. Received. Forwarded. Year. Received. Forwarded. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1860 99,922 11,581 1865 63,152 1,285 1861 107,834 15,228 1866 80,428 3,594 1862 74,192 19,637 1867 39,870 6,938 1863 79,287 307 1868 24,659 2,708 1864 63,577 571 1869 18,191 1,590 82 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [fabt 1. The returns of later years appear in a different form and show the quantities carried by the same railway system from Ashton- under-Lyne and Wigan : — Year. Wigan. Ashton-nnder-Lyne. Total.' Tons. Tons. Tone. 1870 1,672 12,255 13,927 1871 2,864 9,613 12,477 1872 15,357 13,783 29,140 1873 9,896 17,532 27,428 1874 10,173 12,487 22,504 1875 6,346 17,857 24,203 1876 32,122 20,463 62,575 1877 23,218 38,590 61,808 1878 21,262 24,667 45,929 1879 27,404 29,532 56,936 1880 23,066 32,842 85,908 Following the distribution of coal by canal in Lancashire, the first return met with of the coal traf&c of the Bridgewater Navi- gation is for the year 1868,* when 501,514 tons were conveyed from the Worsley coal-field ; 411,191 tons from the Wigan coal- field, and 5,507 tons from the Saint Helen's district; giving an aggregate carried of 918,212 tons. The importance of the Bridgewater Canals, and the great facilities they afforded at an early period for the conveyance of merchandise and minerals long before the introduction of railways, is thus referred to by a local historian, Aitkin : — " "When the Duke of Bridgewater undertook this great design (the construction of the Bridgewater Canal), the price of carriage on the river navigation was 12s. the ton from Manchester to Liverpool, while that of land car- riage was 40s. the ton. The Duke's charge on his canal was limited by Statute to 16s., and together with this vast difference it had all the speed and regularity of land carriage. The articles conveyed by it were likewise much more numerous than those by river navigation. Besides manufactured goods and their raw materials, coals from the Duke's own pits were de- posited in yards at various parts of the canal for the supply of Cheshire." f The only other statement throwing light on the coal traffic * Goal Commission Report, vol. iii., p. 81. f Aitkin's "Description of the Country round Manchester,'' p. 116. OH^. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 83 of the Bridgewater Navigation Company is for the years 1878, 1879, and 1880 when the quantities carried were as follows : — Districts. 1878. 1879. 1880. Received from the Wigan Dis- ^ trict by the Leeds and Liver- > pool Canal . . . . S From Worsley and other Col- ) lieries ) Total . Tons. 313,000 507,000 Tons. 260,000 498,000 Tons. 315,000 512,000 820r000 758,000 827,000 The Leeds and Liverpool Canal also carries large quantities of coal, for shipment in all directions from Lancashire and Yorkshire, amounting in 1878 to 1,160,000 tons, 1,186,000 tons in 1879, and 1,301,105 tons in 1880. A writer in the Colliery Guardian* referring to the small amount of coal shipments from Lancashire, remarks, ',' There are few coal-fields whose trade it is more difficult to give an account of than Lancashire. The fact that it is the husiest and most populous county in the United Kingdom no doubt accounts for the fact, that the consumption of coal is almost entirely local. There is no coal-field that exports less coal, nor is this surprising, for in previous years when the production was less than it is now, large quantities had to be imported. Now, however, the local supply has risen to the requirements. As to the chief sources of consumption they are almost too numerous to mention. Some of the largest ironworks in the kingdom are in Lancashire, but those do not rely on Lanca- shire coal. Hence the supply and demand are not so directly affected by the manufacture of crude iron as might at first sight appear. On the other hand, the textile industries of Lancashire are the largest in the kingdom, but cotton-miUs do not consume much coal ; and the years of greatest coal production have been those when the mills were least active. The general and domestic consumption, however, must be large : — within the radius of local consumption, nearly equal to that of the London district ; and we know that the general and domestic consumption of • " Tea Years of Coal Mining," Lancashire. August 20, 1880, p. 291. G 2 84 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. London is about nine millions — one-half of the total production of Lancashire. The population of Lancashire, however, is pre- eminently an industrial one, and it is not difficult to understand how her teeming industries can consume as much more coal as the general and domestic consumption. Nearly a million tons are shipped at Liverpool, but compared with other districts having access to the sea, its coal shipments are remarkably small. The total shipments of coal, coastwise and to foreign countries, from Lancashire, in which the shipments from Cheshire are in- cluded, were as follows, in each year given : — Tear. Coastwise. Exported. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1842 165,428 125,357 290,785 1845 165,018 125,852 290,870 1850 279,364 264,892 544,256 1860 358,654 604,168 962,822 1870 580,726 561,567 1,142,293 1875 582,989 717,104 1,240,093 1876 503,655 730,750 1,234,305 1877 512,596 721,660 1,234,156 1878 669,885 624,924 1,149,809 1879 669,481 563,693 1,233,174 1880 753,804 610,672 1,364,376 In the year 1879 the details of the coal shipments, coastwise and exported, were as follows, from Lancashire and Cheshire : — Ports. Shipments Coast \vise. Sliipnients Foreign. Total Shipments. Chester . Liverpool . Euncorn Preston Fleetwood Barrow Lancaster Tons. 63,455 459,604 65,165 16,348 84,721 "288 Tons. 6,855 649,742 1,190 6,030 626 260 Tons. 59,310 1,009,246 56,356 16,348 90,751 626 538 Total 669,481 563,693 1,233,174 The great bulk of the above coal being despatched from Liverpool, the chief port of shipment, it will be interesting to follow the increase of shipments, coastwise and foreign, from that port. It must be borne in mind, however, that although the CHAP. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 85 great bulk of the coal is derived from the Lancashire coal-fields, that shipped at Birkenhead, included in the port of Liverpool, is derived from the Cheshire and North Wales coal-fields, while a small quantity is received from Yorkshire. The shipments are as follows from Liverpool : — Year. Coastwise. Foreign. Tolal. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1842 56,218 117,718 173,936 1845 29,289 123,456 152,745 1847 15,390 106,197 111,587 18n0 117,209 260,943 378,152 1852 105,932 277,645 383,577 1855 105,030 424,059 629,089 1868 166,952 474,713 641,665 1860 160,238 690,128 750,366 1865 130,566 616,976 747,542 1870 141,353 531,719 673,072 1871 377,209 688,085 1,065,294 1872 357,940 738,489 1,096,429 1873 388,520 591,368 979,888 1874 286,001 717,420 1,003,421 1875 334,502 704,496 1,038,998 1876 303,269 723,532 1,026,801 1877 296.731 715,594 1,012,325 1878 362,381 614,741 977,122 1879 459,504 549,742 1,009,246 1880 487,547 568,402 1,055,949 The total declared value of coal exported in 1880 from Liver- pool to foreign countries was ^319,318, giving an average value of lis. 6d. per ton, compared with ^608,196, the value of coal sent to foreign countries in 1872, giving an average of 16s. Qd. per ton. Population Employed in Coal-ISining. — The total number of male persons employed in coal-mining in the year 1854 was 28,834 of all ages. The extensive collieries of Messrs. Andrew Knowles and Sons at this period were producing daily about two thousand fom' hundred tons of coal. It further appears that in Lancashire, in the same year, an ordinary collier in a Fom'-foot seam worked about four tons a-day. Each collier having an assistant, called a drawer, who trams the coal to the horse-road or the shaft, this reduces the get per collier to two tons per day, while the holidays usually accorded to underground workmen further reduced the average get per person to the amount above stated. In 1864, for the first time, H.M. Inspectors ascertained 86 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. the number of persons employed in and about the coal-mines of Great Britain, and in that year the number in North and East Lancashire, known as the Manchester district, was 23,525, the coal raised amounting to 5,998,875 tons. The Western division of Lancashire, including the Wigan and Saint Helen's districts, being grouped with North Wales, the separate numbers engaged are not distinguished before the year 1873. The following are the numbers of persons employed in North and East Lancashire and North Wales between the years 1864 and 1872, with the quantities of coal raised in each year and the average produce per man : — Year. Number Employed. Coal BMsed. Average per Man. Tons. Tons. 1864 23,525 5,998,875 255 1865 23,525 6,312,000 268 1866 25,440 6,774,000 266 1867 26,820 6,844,000 255 1868 26,360 7,053,000 267 1869 26,190 7,020,000 268 1870 26,200 7,030,000 268 1871 26,110 7,575,800 290 1872 28,657 9,363,236 326 In the year 1873 " The Coal Mines Eegulation Act " came into operation, and since that date very complete information is found in H.M. Inspectors of Coal Mines' Eeports, distinguishing the number engaged underground and above ground and their re- spective ages. In the annexed table is given the numbers so employed in the North and East Lancashire district, with the output of coals * and average produce per man : — Tear. EMPLOYED. Total Employed. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 26,429 27,166 27,305 25,048 24,154 24,726 25,495 25,552 Nos. 5,463 5,662 5,701 5,334 5,190 5,063 5,262 5,445 Nos. 31,882 32,828 33,006 30,382 29,344 29,789 30,757 30,997 Tons. 8,063,855 8,063,974 8,881,137 8,264,179 8,741,387 8,633,839 8,993,697 9,519,858 Tons. 253 245 263 272 298 298 292 307 H.M. Inspectors of Mines Eeports. CHAP. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 87 The corresponding figures for the Western district, including Wigan and Saint Helen's, being as follows : — Year. EMPLOYED. Total Employed. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Noa. 22,753 22,709 24,314 23,230 22,812 23,177 23,288 23,314 Nos. 6,571 6,813 7,224 6,963 6,734 6,203 6,028 5,932 Nos. 29,324 29,622 31,538 30,193 29,546 29,380 29,316 29,246 Tons. 7,818,112 7,446,725 9,048,914 9,091,374 8,952,425 9,427,572 9,562,170 9,600,436 Tons. 266 252 287 301 303 320 325 328 Summarising the two districts, the following shows the total number of persons working underground and above ground in the Lancashire coal-fields, with the coal raised and the average produce per man : — Tear. EMPLOYED. Total Employed. Coal Baiaed. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1876 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 49,182 49,875 51,619 48,278 56,966 47,903 48,783 48,866 Noa. 12,024 12,475 12,925 12,297 11,924 11,266 11,290 11,377 Nos. 61,206 62,350 64,544 60,675 68,890 59,169 60,073 60,243 Tons. 15,881,967 15,510,699 17,930,051 17,455,653 17,693,812 18,061,411 18,555,867 19,120,294 Tons. 260 248 277 288 291 305 309 327 In 1870 the total coal produced in Lancashire was 13,810,600 tons, and in 1880 the returns show an increase of 5,309,694 tons, giving an increase of nearly 88 per cent, in a period of ten years ; indeed, in no other coal-field has the production increased so rapidly. When in 1872 and 1873 the demand for coal became so considerable, many new shafts were sunk and old pits re- opened to meet the requirements of the time, and when the temporary pressure was met the number of workings was reduced, prices having fallen, rendering the continuance of operations unproductive. Now, however, it appears that those collieries which continued at work during the years of depression are COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. producing coal in larger quantities than they did in previous years when prices were better than they at present are. From the above figures it appears that the individual efficiency of the miner has greatly increased in Lancashire in recent years ; the average output per man rising from 260 tons in 1873 to 327 tons in 1880, equivalent to an increase of 25 per cent. The respective ages of aU employed in coal-mining in Lan- cashire, as previously stated, amounted to 60,073 in the year 1879 ; the details appear in the annexed table : — All Ages. Males and Females. SOETH AND EAST. WEST. Total. Under Ground. Above Ground. Under Ground. Above Ground. From 10 to 12 „ 12 to 13 „ 10 to 13 „ 13 to 16 „ 13 to 16 Above 16 Males S) Females Males Females Total . Nos. 191 485 2,302 22,517 Nos. . 'll8 291 9 4,616 228 Nos. "263 1,817 21,208 Nos. "'23 366 120 4,269 1,250 Nos, 191 748 141 4,776 129 52,610 1,478 25,495 5,262 23,288 6,028 60,073 Price of Coal and Cost of Production. — About the year 1860 the cost of getting coal on the average was estimated at 4s. Qd. per ton for ordinary coal, and 6s. 6d. for cannel coal, the former selling at bank at 6s. Bd. per ton, although a short time previously it did not exceed 5s. 6d. per ton. For many years prices did not exceed 6s. per ton for manufacturing coal; in 1871 and 1872 however the same variety rose to 20s. and even 25s. per ton, and even at this price manufacturers were greatly incon- venienced, being unable to secure a supply ; indeed, it was not uncommon at the period referred to, to use the best house coal instead of ordinary steam coal for manufacturing purposes. The following table shows generally the prices ruling in the Manchester district, at the pit's mouth, in the year 1870 : — * OOILIEKIES. Altham. (coal), 6s. Bank Hey (coal), 5s. 8d. Birtle Dean (coal), 7s. 6d. Breightmet (house coal), 7s. M. ; (engine coal), 4s. 9d. * Coal Commission Report, vol. iii., Appendix, p. 213, prices at the pit's mouth. CHAP. IV.] LANCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 89 COLIIKRIES. Broadfield (coal), 5s. 9d., 8s., 12s. 6d. Combermere (coal), 4s. 6d. Great Lever (best coal), 10s. ; mixed, 8s. ; steam, os. Lower Moor (best coal), 10s. 6d. ; small, 6s. Bedsbam, 5s. to 8s. id. Stand'Hill (coal), 6s. 3d. Wharton, best, 6s 8d. ; riddled, 5s. 5d. ; burgie, 3s. 9d. ; slack, 2s. 6d. Tyldesly, 8s. 9d. summer ; 98. id. winter. In the Saint Helen's district prices averaged from 4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. per ton. And in the Wigan district prices varied, best coals from 6s. 9d. to 7s. 6d. per ton; common from 4s. 8d. to 5s. and slack from 2s. M. to 3s. per ton. From the evidence of Mr. Alfred Hewlett, the Managing Director of the Wigan Coal and Iron Company,* in whose collieries some 10,000 persons are employed, producing nearly 2,000,000 tons of coal per annum, some very important facts are gathered. In referring to the con- dition of the coal trade, he says, — " From 1867 to 1870 the coal trade of the district was in a very depressed state, large stocks were accumulating on the pit banks and on the wharves ; prices were very low. Competition for a market consequently ran high, and the pits were obliged to be put on very short time, in many cases half-time, owing to the absence of demand. An improve- ment sprung up towards the end of 1870, but still the standard of production of 1867 has not since been reached." Again, referring to the price realised for coal since 1867, he observes : — " Taking 1867 as the datum, in 1868 the average price of coal was 6 J per cent, less than in 1867 ; in 1869 it was 9^ per cent, less than in 1867 ; in 1870 it was also 9| per cent, less ; in 1871 it was 8 per cent, less ; in 1872 it was 34 per cent, more than in 1867 ; and for the first quarter of 1873 it was 82|- per cent, higher than in 1867 ; the above represent prices at the pit's mouth." About this time (April, 1873), the average earnings of the coUiers, working from eight to eight and a half days in the fort- night, were : — in the Cannel Mine, one man earned 13s. Id. ; another, 10s. Ad. ; another, Us. 24fL ; another, 15s. O^d. ; another, 18s. 4Jrf. In another seam, at the same time, one man earned 9s. %d. ; another, 13s. A\d. ; another, 15s. ; another, 12s. Id. ; another, lis. 9d. The general effect of the operation of " The Coal Mines Eegulation Act, 1872," being to increase the cost of * Select Committee on Coal Eeport, 1873, pp. 72 — 74. 90 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. production from Is. id. to Is. 8d. per ton, due to the restric- tions as to employment of boys underground, the provision for weighing, and the decrease in the hours of labour. In the years 1878, 1879, and 1880 the average, with the highest and lowest prices of coal and slack at the pit's mouth, was as under : — Year. COAL. SLACK. Average. Highest. Lowest. Average. Highest. Lowest. 18'78 1879 1880 5. d. 9 8 6 8 9 5. d. 13 20* 18* 9 s. d. 7 6 6 8 s. d. ,4 4 4 6 s. d. 6 8 5 10 5 6 i. d. 3 2 2 6 In December, 1880, the best qualities of Lancashire house- coal were to be bought at from 8s. 6^^. to 9s. 6d. per ton ; seconds from 6s. 6d. to 7s. ; common round coal, 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. ; burgie, 4s. to 4s. Sd., and good slack, 4s. to 4s. 6d. per ton at the pit's mouth. Now, in March, 1881, best coal is quoted at 10s. to 10s. 6d. ; seconds, 8s. to 8s. 6d. ; common coal, 6s. 6d. to 7s. ; burgie, 5s. to 5s. lOd., and slack, 4s. to 4s. 6d. per ton ; these increased prices being due to the recent strike extending through the Lancashire coal-field, involving a complete stoppage of work on the part of, at least, 60,000 men and boys for nearly three weeks, including the colliers and day men employed about the pits. In the Manchester and Bolton districts, from 13,000 to 14,000 men ceased work, during the period of the strike extend- ing over a period of nearly six weeks, and in the West Lanca- shire district, at one period 36,000 ^o 37,000 men were out during the period of the dispute, extending to nearly two months. Xlesources of Coal-field and Probable Duration. — The total area of the Lancashire coal-field amounts to 5,862,390 statute- foot acres of coal wrought and unwrought, excluding all seams that are not of workable thickness. Of this acreage the portion already wrought amounts to 597,604 statute-foot acres, leaving 5,264,786 statute foot acres for future supplies. From this area, however, necessary deductions are made for faults, supports, * Cannel Coal. OHAP. lY.] LAKCASHIRE COAL-FIELD. 91 bajriers, &c., leaving unwrought and likely to be clear for working, 3,883,372 statute-foot acres. In computing the available quantity of coal in this acreage (5,436 millions of tons), one-fourteenth has been allowed for unavoidable loss, waste in working, the actual estimated quantity of coal obtained Irom each foot-acre being taken at 1,400 tons of 2,240 lbs. each. Taking the production of Lancashire (1870), when the output was 13,810,600 tons, sufficient coal remains from that date for a period of 393 years. The total production during the past ten years amounts to 165,313,301 tons ; this, deducted from original estimate, leaves 5,270,686,699 tons ; and taking 16,513,330 tons, the average output of the ten years, there would be sufficient to last for 317 years ; while at the rate of consumption in 1879, when the production was 18,612,345 tons, the resources of the coal-field would be exhausted in 283 years, and as production will increase, at an earher period. From the reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines for the year 1880, it appears the total production of the Lancashire coal-field exceeded that of any previous year, the output amounting to 19,120,294 tons ; at this rate of production the exhaustion of the Lancashire coal deposits would take place about 275 years hence. CHAPTEE V. CHESHIEE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field and Principal Seams — Analyses, Production, and Distri- bution of Coal — Population Employed in Coal Mining — Eesouroes of Coal- field and probable Duration. The Cheshire Coal-field. — This coal tract lying to the south of the River Mersey has its most northern part situated near Stockport, the central portion lies east of Poynton, and the southern termination of the coal-field is near Macclesfield. The annexed section shows the order of occurrence of the coal series in the neighbourhood of Bredbury, near Stockport, where the following seams have been worked at the Bredbury collieries.* Coal-series of Bebdbuey, Cheshire. Ft. In. Blach Mine (ooal) 4 Strata 24 Coal 10 Strata . . 27 Coal and Dirt 2 Strata 105 ( Coal 1 3 ) Stone Mine I Stone 10^ 33 ( Coal 1 ) Strata 45 Cannel Mine (common coal here) . . . . . 14 Strata 96 Peacock or King William Coal ...... 2 6 Strata . 75 Coal 10 Strata 76 Coal 1 10 Strata 45 Silver Mine (good coal) ....... 3 2 Below these occur the following coals not worked at Bredbury : — ( Coal 3 ) Water Mine \ Shale 1 V 5 [ Coal 1 ) Eosemary Mine '\ Upper Woodley Mine > Thickness uncertain. Lower Woodley Mine ) * (f Explanation Horizontal Section of Sheet 65." Geol. Survey of Great Britain, CHAP, v.] CHESHIRE COAL-FIELD. 93 Professor Hull, referring to this coal-field, says it is bounded along'tlie west by Triassic and Permian rocks, which are brought in along the line of the " Red Rock fault of Ciieshire," and that several valuable seams of coal occur, including the " Mill Mine " 4i feet thick ; the " Sheepwash Mine ; " the " Great Miue ; " the "Silver Mine;" the "New Mine;" and the "Redacre Mine," which represents the Arley or Royley Mine.* Analysis of Cheshire Coa.!. — The character of the Cheshire coal wiU be understood from the results of the annexed analysis showing the composition of coke made from coal raised from the Dukinfield Colliery ; the analysis is given by Dr. Percy in his Metallurgy, and was made by Mr. C. Tookey in the laboratory of the Royal School of Mines : — Carbon 85-84 Hydrogen 0'52 Oxygen and Nitrogen 1'38 • Sulphur 0'86 Ash U-40 100-O Ot Coke, Dr. Percy remarks, " consists essentially of carbon and the fixed inorganic matter of the coal from which it has been derived, but contains, also, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen with sulphur in the state of sulphide of iron. Half the sulphur in the original coal, or thereabouts, is found in the coke made from it ; the bisulphide of iron in the coal being converted into proto- sulphide by the burniag off of one equivalent of the sulphur, and the production of sulphiurous acid." The Cannel coal, raised by the Dukinfield Coal and Cannel Company from their Dunkirk Colliery, where the seam averages 2 ft. 6 in. in thickness, has been examined by Mr. Robert J. Toothill, analytical chemist of- Manchester, with the following results : — Tabulated. Yield of gas per ton 9962 cubic feet. Temperature 60° Fahr Illuminating power = 25'5 candles. Coke (hot) 13 cwts. 3 qrs. Coke (slacked) ready for sale . . .13 cwts. 3 qrs. 16 lbs. Water 15 gallons. Specific gravity 4° at 60° Fahr. Tar 15 gallons. Specific gravity 28° at 60° Fahr. Coke good. * " Geology of Stockport, &o." Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 29. t " Percy's Metallurgy," Fuel, p. 417. 94 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. The Cannel nuts raised by the same company yielded per ton 9,700 cubic feet of purified gas, at a temperature of 60 degrs. Fahr. illuminating^ power = 18"5 candles. Coke f hot) . . . . Coke (slaokeii) ready for sale Water, 9 galls. 1 qrt. . Tar, 12 galls. 2 qrta. . . IScwts. qrs. 12lbs. 16 cwts. qrs. 24 lbs. Specific grayity 5j° at 60° Falir. „ 26i° at 60° Fahr. The mine from which the above Dunkirk cahnel, and cannel nuts, are obtained is termed the Cannel Mine. Its depth at the above company's Astley Deep Pit from the surface is 736 yards, it being fifty yards below the weU-known Black Mine of the district to which the shafts of the company are sunk. It is got at by tunnels from the last-named mine. Frodnctiou and Distribution of Coal. — The Cheshire collieries, although yielding a notable quantity of coal, are not accredited with returns of production prior to the year 1854. It is probable that the returns of the Lancashire coal-field at an early period included the Cheshire coal. In the year above-named, 32 collieries in operation gave an output of 786,500 tons of coal, of which quantity the London and North- Western Eailway carried 157,505 tons, to the great industrial centres of Manchester, Macclesfield, Stockport, &c. The output of the coal-field and the number of the collieries in recent years are as under : — Year. Number of Collieries. Coal Eaised. Tear. NumlDer of Collieries. Coal Raised. Tons. Tons. 1855 32 755,500 1868 29* 937,500 1856 32 754,327 1869 28* 957,150 1857 31 750,500 ia7o 29 929,150 1858 35 695,450 . 1871 29 975,000 1859 35 700,000 1872 31 t 1860 35 750,500 1873 31 1,150,500 1861 39 765,570 1874 36 615,105 1862 39 787,750 1875 37 658,945 1863 39 822,750 1876 39 584,580 1864 38 821,700 1877 36 645,500 1865 39 850,000 1878 33 616,675 1866 38 893,000 1879 26 720,350 1867 39 935,000 1880 ^0 681,000t * Several Binall collieries chiefly near Macclesfield ceased to work ia those years, t Included in North Staffordshire. Production not less than 1,000,000 tons. J Report H.M. Inspectors of Mines. CHAP, v.] CHESHIRE COAL-FIELD. 95 In Cheshire the chief of the great railway lines is the London and North-Western, passing by the south, to Staiford, Crewe and Warrington to the north. From Crewe branches pass to Stockport and Manchester on the east, and to Chester and Birkenhead on the west. At Crewe, it may be mentioned, is situated the great engine factory and steel works of the London and North-Western EaUway, which line carried coals from Cheshire as follows in each of the years named : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. 1854 1855 1859 1860 Tons. 157,595 100,000 160,000 150,000 1864 1865 .1866 1868 Tons. 110,891 123,588 133,092 148,236 These quantities include coal carried by the company and passed over to other lines, which, in the returns of later years, are separately distinguished as under : — Year. stations on Londou and Nortli-Western Line. Stations on Otlier Lines. Total Carried. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1869 121,202 2,964 123,896 1870 103,885 599 104,484 1871 140,452 773 141,225 1872 132,775 239 133,014 1873 100,354 7,226 107,580 1874 117,624 1,390 119,014 1875 135,304 619 135,923 1876 147,741 685 148,426 1877 157,080 271 157,351 1878 155,062 310 155,372 1879 168,761 338 169,099 1880 179,108 5,707 184,815 It is not an easy matter to determine the quantities of coal exported from this coal-field; much of it being shipped from ports on the Mersey, and this is included in the returns of the port of Liverpool. The shipments from the port of Chester to foreign parts show but little variation; but the shipments coastwise show a great diminution, which is explained by the large quantities carried by railway. The movements of coal, 96 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. coastwise, and to foreign countries, were as follows in each of the years named : — Tear. Coastwise. Foreign. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1851 101,044 949 101,993 1854 91,469 360 91,829 1857 73,850 107 73,957 1860 56,838 200 58,838 1863 61,866 1,431 63,297 1866 59,818 600 60,418 1869 73,813 2,797 73,610 1872 85,986 7,098 93,084 1873 109,023 10,679 119,702 1874 90,049 7,959 98,008 1875 96,842 8,823 105,665 1876 67,646 6,137 73,773 1877 83,512 4,822 88,334 1878 68,826 4,602 73,428 1879 53,455 5,855 64,310 1880 64,349 7,679 72,028 Popnlatiou employed in Coal-mining in Cheshire. — In the year 1854, the number of persons engaged in coal-mining was 2,618, the coal raised amounting to 786,500 tons. Twenty years later the numbers were 2866, of whom 2,253 were engaged under- ground, and 613 above ground, the output of coal being 614,956 tons. Since the year 1874 the numbers employed and coal raised have been as under : — * Year. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 2,253 2,059 1,939 1,814 1,875 1,835 1,961 Nos. 613 685 699 587 584 549 530 Nos. 2,866 2,744 2,638 2,401 2,459 2,384 2,491 Tons. 614,956 688,865 594,300 629,000 617,000 723,200 681,000 Tons. 227 261 225 261 251 303 273 A comparison of the average output of each collier between the yeai's 1874 and 1879 exhibits steady working, amounting to an increase of upwards of 30 per cent., the average per man * Reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. CHAP, v.] CHESHIRE COAL-FIELD. 97 increasing from 227 to 303 tons ; a falling off appears in 1880, the average per man not exceeding 273 tons. In the year 1879 the ages of those employed are thus distinguished : — All Ages. Under Grounil. ] Above Ground, Total. From 12 to 13 „ 10 to 13 . . „ 13 to 16 Above 16 . Total . Nos. 20 141 1,674 Nos. "ib 38 501 Nos. 20 10 179 2,175 1,835 549 2,384 Resources of Coal-Field and Probable Duration. — The total area of the Cheshire coal-field,* -wrought and unwrought, to a depth not exceeding 4,000 feet, amounts to 236,797 statute acres one foot thick. Of this area 232,029 acres occur at a depth not exceeding 3,000 feet; and 4,768 acres at a depth hetween 3,000 and 4,000 feet. The portion already wrought of the ahove 236,797 statute-foot acres in 1870 was 40,000 acres, leaving at that date 196,797 acres for future use. From this area large deductions are made, for faults, supports, barriers, &o., amounting to 54,149 acres, leaving portion unwrought and likely to be clear for working, 142,648 acres of one foot in thickness, equivalent to 200,000,000 tons of coal. In the above computation the Commissioner allows one- fourteenth for unavoidable loss and waste in working, or 1,400 tons per statute-foot acre. Considering the production of this coal-field in 1870, amounting to 929,150 tons, supplies are yet available for 215 years from that date. During the ten years ending 1879 the total coal raised amounted to 7,895,705 tons ; this deducted, leaves as under : — Original estimate, 1870 200,000,000 Deduct ten years ending 1879 7,895,705 Total available 192,104,295 A reference to the returns of production shows that fi-om 1870 to 1873 the maximum was attained, amounting to 1,150,500 tons. * Beport Eoyal Coal Commissioners. Mr. Joseph Dickinson, vol. i., p. 18. 9lj COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet i. Since 1873 a falling off has taken place, the output in 1879 being 720,350 tons. It therefore appears that the output of 1879 would afford supplies for 266 years, while the average output of the ten years, namely, 789,570 tons, would give 243 years, and the output of 1873, the year of greatest production, but 167 years for the exhaustion of the coal to a depth of 4,000 feet. The returns for the year 1880 exhibit a decrease compared with the previous year, the quantity not exceeding 681,000 tons. Coal used in Manufacture. — An important industry of Cheshire, namely, salt manufacture, employs considerable quan- tities of coal, of which it appears 10 cwts. are used in the manu- facture of each ton of salt. CHAPTEE YI. DBKBYSHIRH COAL-FIELD. DeBcriptlon. of Coal-field and Succession of Strata at Kilburne and Shipley Collieries — Analyses, Production, and Distribution of Coal — Prices of Coal — Population Employed in Coal and Ironstone Mining — (Eesooices and Duration included in the Great Coal-field of York, Derby, and Notts). Derbyshire Coal-field. — This coal-field, with that of Notting- hamshire, includes the southern extension of the Yorkshire coal-field. The succession of strata in Derhyshire is well illustrated hy the following section, showing the coal series in descending order from the hase of the magnesian limestone. The section is taken across the coal-field, from Wingfield to the escarpment of the magnesian limestone, a distance of nearly seven miles : — * SUOOESBION OT StBATA. Ft. In. Sandstones and shales 350 Coal 2 10 Strata 107 Coal 2 1 Strata 220 Bamsley Top Sard Coal . . . . 5 ft. 10 in. to 7 Strata, Brown Bake and Black Bake ironstones . . 470 Soft Coal (generally two seams with partings) . . . 6 Strata 120 Lower Hard Coal 3 ft. Oin. to 4 Strata 200 Furnace Coal 2ft. 6in. to 4 Strata with nodular ironstone 140 Silkstone Clod or Black Shale Coal . . . 5 ft. in. to 7 Strata 385 Eilburne Coal 4 ft. in. to 5 Strata with Honeycrop Ironstone .... 200 Wingfield Flagstones 350 Black Shales • . . 300 Flagstones and shales 200 Coal with a floor of Ganister 10 Flagstones and shales 125 Ganister Coal (with a floor of Ganister) . . . . 2 Flagstones and shales 600 Millstone grit * " Geological Survey of England and Wales." Explanation of Horizontal Sections. Sheet 60. 1869. H 2 100 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part i. The total thickness of measures in the above section down to the limestone grit, is 3,808 feet, with about 40 feet of work- able coal, the principal seams of which are the " Top Hard " and the " Lower Hard," the " Black Shale " and KUbume Coal. This last-named coal is the lowest workable seam above the Ganister coal, and the following is the section of the strata above and beneath the coal at Eolburne Colliery : — SEOTIOlf AT KlLBUBNE OOIXIEET. Shales Goal Sandstones and shales Coal Shales Coal Sandstones and shales Coal and sloom (soft clay) Sandstones and shales Coal . 3 ft. 10 in. Sloom. 0„ 2,, Coal . 1 „ 2 „ Clunoh (soft clay) full of "dogtooth " ironstone. I Ironstone Dark bind .... Ironstone Dark shaley bind . Iromtmie ..... Shaley bind .... Ironstone . Shaley bind .... Ironstone ..... \ Shaley bind .... KUbume Coal Ironstone measures Ft. In 29 7 2 1 65 4 1 4 58 1 8 95 1 2 6 111 7 5 2 2 7 2 2 2 1 10 3 3 6 2 2 2 3 2 2 From the outcrop of the KUbume coal the dip is north tiU the centre of Shipley Basia is reached, where the beds are flat, and comprehend all the coal-series from the Top Hard seam inclusive. The following are the names of the coals at Shipley Colliery : — Ft. In. Soft Coal X 6 ,, and smut 2 10 Soft Coal 2 Light-coloured clay 6 Soft Coal 1 10 Light-coloured clod 4 Soft Coal 12 Top Hard Coal 6 2 Old Greaves Coal , . . . , . . . .30 Soft Coal . 16 .09 CHAP. VI.] DERBYSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 101 Ft. In. Waterloo Coal 3 8 Soft Coal 16 2 14 Cannel 2 Soft Coal 14 Coal and shale 3 Bright Soft Coal 4 3 Black Olod (Olay) 4 9 Soft Coal 9 Bottom Sard Coal 5 6 East and north of Shipley Colliery the beds rise and the Top Hard coal crops out. Analyses of Derbyshire Coal. — Of the various coal seams worked in the Derbyshire area of the Midland coal-field, a few of the more important will show the general character and purposes to which they are suited. The Top Hard Coal, for example, worked at Staveley Colliery, four miles N.E. of Chester- field, is a seam of great regularity in its occurrence, with an average thickness of six feet. The coal is described as a " strong splint which may be exposed for years to atmospheric influence without change or waste," and is extensively used in Derbyshire and Yorkshire in the various stages of iron manufacture. In structure these coals somewhat resemble silicified wood, but seem to have two distinct planes of cleavage at right angles to each other, which give the fragments the form of long four-sided prisms, which, when broken, give rise to splinters of the same shape. The coal is usually found to contain quantities of iron pyrites in the lines of cleavage, and when tried under the boUer, it is found to light easily and burn freely, yielding much smoke, and it was observed that when a fresh charge is thrown on the fire, a crackling is heard occasioned by the decrepitation of the coals. The " Loscoe Hard and Soft Coals " are two seams worked at Loscoe Colliery, situated on the borders of Nottinghamshire, ten miles from Derby, and twelve from Nottingham. The Hard Coal seam is 32 inches in thickness, and is worked at a depth of 130 yards from the surface, whilst the Soft Coal Seam is about 12 inches thick, and is obtained from a depth of 112 yards. These coals differ greatly in their qualities, the " soft " coal being considered a good household and gas coal, whilst the " hard " .is chiefly recommended for steam purposes. The Loscoe soft 102 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. coal is described as bright, with a spHntry fracture containing much shale and iron pyrites ; the harder variety is duller in its general appearance, and contains thin layers of very bright coal, together with iron pyrites and white shale. The " Langley Hard Coal" This coal is extracted from the Lower Hard coal seam of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire ; at Heanor in the former county, the seam is three feet in thickness, and is raised at a depth of seventy yards from the surface. This coal finds a ready market in the neighbouring counties of Notts, Lincoln, Leicester, Eutland, and Northampton. The composi- tion of the above-named coals appears in the annexed analyses, to which is added the specific gravity and the yield of coke : — * ConstiiTuents. Stavelcy " Top Hard." Loscoe Soft Coal. Langley Hard Coal. Carbon . Hydrogen . . . Nitrogen Sulphur . . &^." ■ . • . : Specific gravity Coke per cent. . . 79-85 4-84 1-23 0-72 10-96 2-40 77-49 4-86 1-64 1-30 12-41 2-30 77.97 5-58 0-80 1-14 9-86 4-65 100.00 100-00 100-00 1-27 1-285 1-264 57-86 , 52-80 54-90 Dr. Percy + gives the following analyses of Derbyshire coals, the first consisting of the average of a mixture of thirteen dif- ferent seams worked in the Eenishaw Colliery, and the second of coal raised at the Monkwood CoUiery also situated near Chesterfield : — Eesttlts Tabulated. Constituents. Eenishaw. Monkwood. Carbon Hydrogen . . . . Oxygen and Nitrogen . Sulphur Ash Water 77-12 5-05 8-08 1-61 5-82 2-32 83-18 4-76 6-79 1-42 1-70 2-15 100-00 100-00 * Appendix, Third Keport. Coal Suited to the Steam Navy, pp. 29, E5. + " Metallurgy," Fuel, p. 32. The Monkwood coal yielding of coke 66-75 per cent. CHAP. VI. J DERBYSHIRE COAL-EIELD. 103 Prodnction of Coal and Distribution. — Towards the close of the last century, although it was generally known that coal was raised from the many collieries of Derbyshire in considerable quantities, no exact record is met with. It was certainly con- siderable, besides which a large quantity was conveyed by the Erewash Canal to Leicestershire for consumption in that county, PiLkington,* writing about the year 1789, describes the coal raised in Derbyshire as of two varieties or general divisions, "hard" and "soft." The soft coal, he adds, "which lies much nearer to the surface, is found m most of those shafts in which the o*her sort is met with. It is generally shattering and sulphureous. It is much used for burning limestone and the manufacture of iron goods. A large quantity is also converted into coak." The " hard " coal, which is more useful and valuable, is more varied in its nature and properties. The earUest return of production met with appears in Farey,t where it is recorded that for the twelve months ending June, 1808, 8,280 boat-loads of coals passed on the Erewash, Cromford, and Nottingham canals, on their way towards the places of con- simiption ; these contained — TONS. Hard Goals 205,006 Soft Coals 37,289 Cobbles 27,161 Coke 24,384 qrs. The value of which amounted altogether to £122,838. Not again until the year 1816 does any reliable data appear showing the quantity of coal raised in Derbyshire, for that year ; however, it is gathered from the report of a deputation from the Wear, sent to inquire into the quantities of coals conveyed by railway and canal in different parts of the kingdom, that 355,554 chaldrons were thus distributed, and, assuming these as New- castle chaldrons of 63 cwts. each, a total appears of 942,000 tons ; the total estimated production of the kingdom the same year being set down at 27,020,115 tons. Again, in the year 1854, inquiries over the several districts gave the following as the quantities of coal raised : — J * James Pilkington. " View of Derbyshire." Derby, 1789. t " View of Derbyshire." .Tohn Farey, 1811, p. 185. j " Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom." 104 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAET I. DISTRICTS. TONS. Chesterfield 1,098,696 Alfreton ... 660,000 Eipley 145,000 Glossop 70,000 Ilkeston 263,000 Burton-on-Trent 180,000 Total . . 2,406,696 Of the collieries in the Erewash Valley district there was sold and conveyed to distant places during the year 1854 : — HOW BISTMBCTED. TONS. By canal or water sale 323,129 By railway sale 599,247 Total 922,376 The London and North-Western Railway carried and dis- tributed 328,505 tons, and large quantities were also carried from the district by the Midland Railway. In later years the number of collieries and production of coal in Derbyshire were as given in the annexed table : — Year. Number of Collieries. Coal raised. Tear. Nxunber of Collieries. Coal raised. Tous. Tons. 1855 171 2,266,000 1868 142 4,957,879 1856 176 2,298,326 1869 140 5,460,090 1857 171 2,612,372 1870 137 6,102,265 1858 161 *3,960,750 1871 130 5,360,000 1859 153 •4,250,000 1872 156 t 1860 153 •4,940,000 1873 166 t 1861 158 •5,116,319 1874 243 7,150,570 1862 155 4,534,800 1876 255 7,091,325 1863 155 4,550,750 1876 261 7,025,350 1864 154 4,470,750 1877 234 6,975,550 1865 154 4,595,750 1878 237 7,190,000 1866 150 4,760,520 1879 234 7,450,370 1867 150 '4,560,660 1880 234 7,903,834 Examining the above returns of production, it will be seen that in the year 1875 the output had increased threefold com- pared with the year 1855, since which date the production has been well maintained, exhibiting but little variation ; in 1879 a marked increase appears over the previous year, amounting to upwards of 250,000 tons, or nearly 4 per cent. * Including the produce of Nottinghamshire. f Included in the returns of Notts, Leicester, and Warwick. CHAP. TI.] DERBYSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 105 The steady development of the Derbyshire collieries comes out clearly in the returns of distribution. In the year 1855 the Midland Eailway carried out of Derbyshire 415,357 tons, which was distributed in Eugby and other places on the London and North- Western Eailway. The quantities carried by the Midland EaUway and the London and North-Western Eailway for 1860 and previous years were as follows : — Year. UIDLAND RAILWAY. LONDON AND NORTH-WBSTERN. North Derby. Erewash Valley. 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 Tons. 557,825 545,312 595,380 537,890 Tons. 867,288 916,317 972,715 968,026 Tons. 675i000 Before giving the returns of distribution for the past twenty years, it will be desirable to caU. attention to an early return of the sales of coal by canal from the collieries in the Erewash Valley, dating from the year 1803, when the sales amounted to 254,268 tons, increased to 427,670 tons in the year 1848.* The figures below are from the return referred to : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1803 254,268 1830 253,498 1806 267,204 1833 316,187 1809 321,056 1836 377,103 1812 279,280 1839 377,606 1815 298,482 1842 410,495 1818 236,372 1845 334,159 1821 331,840 1846 385,695 1824 318,624 1847 475,779 1827 288,678 1848 427,670 From the annual statements of accounts published by the " Association of Coal Owners of the Erewash VaUey, Leicester- shire, and North and South Derbyshire," verj'^ complete returns are obtained, showing the sales of coal by railway and canal. The above-named association was dissolved in 1877 and a new p. 16. For details of each year's sale, see Coal Commission Report, toI. iii., Appendix, 106 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET 1. one founded.* The returns for a few years will show the con- dition of the coal industries of Derbyshire under the auspices of the Association ; the figures are as follows : — Tear. Erewash Valley. Nortli Derbyshire. South Derhyshire. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1860 1,926,167 537,890 1862 1,329,766 351,208 ... 1864 1,742,643 483,132 1865 1,739,979 466,448 1866 1,843,397 450,515 1867 1,825,798 503,137 128,381 1868 1,634,624 517,384 165,210 1869 1,781,964 598,086 121,392 1870 1,924,718 628,153 268,477 1871 1,949,428 840,291 331,790 1872 2,091,377 1,041,183 374,846 1873 2,046,017 1,212,440 344,071 1874 2,026,013 878,246 463,832 1875 1,917,759 765,835 410,231 1876 1,744,511 554,509 366,554 Beyond these returns, the coUiefies in Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire, also in the Association, sent away coals in lesser quantities, bringing up the total sales of the Association in each of the same years to the following figures : — Leicesteeshiee and Noeth Dbrbtshiee Association Sales. Year. Quantities. Tear. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1857 1,837,920 1867 3,054,303 1858 1,925,584 1868 2,853,512 1859 2,019,546 1869 3,282,625 1860 3,115,883 1870 3,440,374 1861 2,473,732 1871 3,784,212 1862 2,267,998 1872 4,227,381 1863 2,492,893 1873 4,260,704 1864 2,870,148 1874 3,924,793 1865 2,818,154 1875 3,482,861 1866 2,952,788 1876 3,013,925 In the above returns it should be remembered that the quan- tities do not include the local or land sales, nor coals used for iron-makiug purposes, but only railway and canal sales. . The extent of these sales may be gathered from the annexed details for the years given : — * "The Derbyshire, Leicestershire, and Nottinghamshire Coal OAvners Associa- tion," from which no returns are published, but issued to members only. CHAP. VI.] DERBYSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 107 Districts. 1880. 1870. 1876. Erewash Valley . Leicestershire . . . . North Derbyshire South Derbyshire . . . Nottinghamshire . Totals .... Tons. 1,926,167 651,826 537,890 Tons. 1,924,718 462,427 628,153 268,477 156,599 Tons. 1,744,511 213,574 554,509 366,554 134,777 3,115,883 3,440,374 3,013,925 Previous to the year 1848, the chief means of distributing the coals of those collieries situated in the Erewash Valley was by the canal bearing the same name ; in 1849, however, for the first time, returns are available, showing the quantity carried by railway. These latter show a greatly increased traffic till the year 1875, when a falling off appears, and again in 1876, when the last return was published. The details given below show the sales by railway and canal of the " Associated Collieries of the Erewash Valley District " from 1849 to 1876 :— Year. Canal. Railway. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1849 386,955 43,820 430,775 1851 334,922 251,079 586,001 1853 320,408 497,961 818,369 1855 223,893 753,277 977,170 1857 227,704 776,948 1,004,652 1859 208,905 968,026 1,176,931 1861 218,421 1,282,669 1,501,090 1863 223,972 1,347,944 1,571,916 1865 210,440 1,649,542 1,859,982 1867 196,579 1,749,225 1,945,804 1869 192,902 1,709,061 1,901,963 1870 148,342 1,776,114 1,924,456 1871 148,926 1,800,502 1,949,428 1872 146,610 1,944,767 2,091,377 1873 124,490 1,921,527 •2,046,017 1874 106,163 1,919,853 2,026,017 1875 105,479 1,730,636 1,836,113 1876 102,430 1,502,378 1,604,808 The great increase in the movement of coal since the introduc- tion of railways is shown in the above returns. In 1849, the first return of coal carried from the collieries in the Erewash Valley district, givea 43,820 tons, increased to 968,026 tons in 1859, and 1,944,767 tons in 1872, since which a falling off appears. On the other hand the coal sales by canal exhibit a falling off 108 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. from 386,955 tons in 1849, to 102,430 tons in 1876, when these returns were discontiaued. The foregoing statements of distribution refer to the produce of those collieries in the districts named ; for complete returns of the distribution of coal by railway, the statements annually fur- nished by the several railway companies, and published in the " Mineral Statistics," afford the desired information. The most important of these returns are those of the Midland Railway, whose system has in a greater degree than any other, contributed to the distribution of the vast deposits of coal of the Midland coal-fields of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicester- shire, and Warwickshire. In the following table is given the distribution of coal, the out- put of the Derbyshire collieries, by the Midland, London and North-Western, Great Northern, and Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire EaUways, since the year 1855 : — Year. Midland Railway. London and North- western RaUway. Great Northern Railway. Manchester, Shef- field and Lincoln- shire Railway. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1855 *415,367 328,605 1856 1,425,113 >.. 1857 1,461,629 • >• . .. 1858 1,568,095 • •• • .> 1859 1,743,769 675,000 1860 t2,230,275 • .. 169^412 132^641 1861 t2,370,817 232,696 122,656 1862 t2,283,406 1766,899 356,640 ■ •• 1863 2,514,128 1907,646 1864 3,013,730 20,379 .. . ... 1865 2,577,690 ... ... 1866 3,135,855 24,982 526,072 1867 3,555,745 32,378 620,409 219;687 1868 2,350,393 53,824 585,113 229,867 1869 3,617,082 42,129 668,735 293,456 1870 4,079,447 66,217 573,261 ... 1871 4,695,527 34,356 375,439 1872 4,875,044 29,201 357,580 137^325 1873 5,197,550 26,463 441,226 227,622 1874 5,252,740 30,140 416,202 331,285 1875 5,488,692 33,485 499,044 342,312 1876 5,022,347 33,214 619,494 239,464 1877 5,156,162 40,577 736,120 293,885 1878 6,173,115 40,203 824,337 306,380 1879 5,689,527 38,190 955,468 387,276 1880 5,603,872 27,632 896,636 408,836 * Not including collieries in Erewash Valley, t Including Nottinghamshire collieries. + Midland Coal-field. CHAP. VI.] DEEBYSHIKE COAL-FIELD. 109 Prices of Coal in Derbyshire. — In 1860 the average cost of coal loaded into carts or trucks at the pit!s mouth varied from 5s. to 58. 6d. per ton. The selling price of hest coals being about 9s. per ton, and ordinary coals 6s. 6d., cartage in the district in- creasing the price by about one shilling per ton per mile, while, as regards railway carriage, the cost for long distances, exclusive of waggons, was ^d. per ton per mile. Advancing to the year 1870, it appears from the Eeport of the Coal Commission * that the average prices of coals in the Chester- field district were as follows : — I. d. Brknington 6 6 Monkwood Gs. Od. to 9 Menishaw 6 8 Woodhouse Sard 7 6 Soft • ..71 ,, Small 4 7 And in the Alfreton district : — 8. d. s. d. Coatea Park, Screened 5 to 5 6 „ Cobbles 6 „ 7 „ Brights 8 ,, 8 6 Shirlcmd, Bound 5 6 „ 8 Swamwiclc, average 5 ,, 12 In recent years the average price per ton at the pit's mouth of coal and slack was as follows : — Year. Average. Highest. Lowest. s. d. s. d. s. d. 1878 Coal 8 4 11 6 6 Slack . . . 3 6 5 3 2 6 1879 Coal 7 3 10 6 6 Slack . . . 4 3 5 9 2 1880 Coal 7 6 10 6 1 Slack . . . 4 4 6 2 4 Showing a falling off in the price of coals and an increase in that of slack in 1880 compared with the previous years. Foptilatiou employed in Coal and Ironstone Btiuing. — The total number of male persons employed in coal mining in Derby- shu-e in 1854 was 5,434, and in ironstone mining 1,428, giving a Vol. iii., Appendix, p. 212. 110 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. total of 6,862 ; the total quantity of coal raised in the same year was 2,406,696 tons. , The first return distinguishing the number of persons em- ployed underground and above ground in Derbyshire in coal mines appeared for the year 1873,* when 22,173 persons were engaged underground, and 6,950 above ground, giving an aggre- gate of 28,128 persons employed, the output of coal amounting to 6,977,587 tons. In the following table the total numbers appear for each year since, with the output of coal and average produce per man : — Yew. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total Employed. Coal raised. Average per Han. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 22,173 24,019 23,683 23,078 21,937 21,190 21,713 21,183 Nos. 5,950 6,461 6,414 6,508 6,148 5,785 6,146 6,073 Nos. 28,123 30,480 30,097 29,586 28,085 26,975 27,859 27,256 Tons. 6,977,587 7,152,944 7,190,921 6,959,101 7,054,091 7,289,380 7,561,235 7,903,834 Tons. 249 234 238 242 251 270 271 290 The average produce per man shows increased ef&ciency, to the amount of 41 tons in eight years, equal to nearly 16 per cent. The ages of those employed in the year 1879 above and below ground were as under : — Ages. Under Ground. | Above Ground. From 10 to 12 . „ 10 to 13 . „ 12 to 13 . „ 13 to 16 . Above 16 Total 4 'll2 2,201 19,396 "35 539 5,572 21,713 6,146 The resources and probable duration of the Derbyshire coal- field are considered in the account of the Yorkshire coal-field. See Reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. CHAPTEE YII. NOTTINGHAMSHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field and Section of Strata at Cinderhill Colliery— Analyses, Production, and Distribution, of Coal by Eailway — Population employed in Coal Mining in Nottinghamsbire — (Eesources and Duration, included in the Coal-field of York, Derby, and Notts). The XTottmgliamsliire Coal-field.— rThis coal-field is a con- tinuation of that of Derbyshire and Yorkshire, and Mr, W. T. Aveline, in his " Memoir of the Country around Nottingham," gives the following section, remarking that, " as in other districts, the coal formation is here an accumulation of beds of sandstone, shale-clay, and ironstone, alternating with each other. There are many beds of coal in this field lying at intervals below each other, separated by the sandstones, shales, &c., but it is only a few of these that are thick, or good enough, to be worked to a profit." * Vbbtical Section of the Nottingham and Derbyshire Ooai-field. The first part {to the Top Hard Goal) from a pit at Cinderhill. No. Description of Strata. Thickness. Ft. In. 5 4 6 3 8 5 3 8 4 1 1 9 19 3 5 2 7 6 8 40 4 li 6 20 9 2^ 14 7 1 li 20 2 2 ^ 18 10 1 1 Depth. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Limestone (Magnesian) Light blue and oromi stone in beds Blue stone Dark-pink bind .... Dark-grey stone .... Bed stone with pebbles . Clunch (usually tough clay or shale) Bind Lronstone Soft clunch Black shale or bind .... Olunch Bind, with bands of ironstone . Chillery coal .... Light and dark clunch Bind Ironstone Bind . . , . Soft coal Shale bind and clunch . Soft coal Clunch and bind, with bat and shale Soft coal Clnneh and bind .... Ft In. ll" 7 20 23 8 24 25 26 9 45 9 46 51 53 60 100 101 107 128 2 142 9 143 lOi 164 Oi 166 5 185 3 186 3 187 3 " Memoirs of the Geological Survey," 1861. (Quarter sheet, 71 N.E.) 112 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. No. Description of Strata. Thicluiess. Depth. 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Soft coal Cluncli and stone Bind, clnnch, stone, and bat, mth a little coal and ironBtone Coal . . . . . Dark cluncli, with bat and ironstone Coal Shaly bind Soft coal Shale and bind Soft coal Dark clunoh, with impressions . Soft coal Clunch and bind Coal Black shale and bind .... Soft coal Shale clunch, &c Coal Shale and bind and a few smaU. beds of ironstone Coal (hard) Clunch, bind, and shale .... Main coal Ft. 'In. 1 7i 9 5 81 8^ 3 6| 20 8' 10 2 36 3 3 11 1 45 1 29 2 68 3 82 3 2 2^ 50 8 2 Ft. In. 188 lOi 198 3} 280 283 6i 304 2t 304 9| 314 10| 317 2| 353 4| 356 81 360 71 361 101 407 l| 408 6i 438 l| 440 61 509 it 512 10| 595 1^ 597 4 647 4 655 6 Anotlier section in the same district, by Mr. Aveline, gives the following as the depth and thickness of the seams and intervening strata between the " Top Hard" and the " Deep Hard Coal: " — Description of the Strata. Thiclcness. Depth below Top Hard. Bind with ironstone Coal . Clunch and bind Coal Bat, clunch, and bind .... Coal (probably the Ell coal) . Bind and rock The main or deep soft coal . . . . Bat Dark clunch and iire-clay . . . . Bind and rock The Deep Hard coal Ft. In. 25 2 10 11 10 9 9 1 54 3 1 12 6 6 10 3 6 Ft. In. 424" 5 436 3 447 504 527 10 The following section gives the chief coals below the Deep Hard Coal : — OHAP. VII.] NOTTINGHAMSHIRE COAL-FIELD, 113 Description of the Strata. Clunch, bind, &c Piper coal Bind, olunch, and other strata . Furnace coal Clunch, bind, &c Yard coal Clunch, bind, &c Black shale coal Clunch, bind, &c Eolburne coal Depthof KUburne coalbelow Top Hard coal Thickness. Ft. In. 66 5 138 4 108 3 30 5 4 459 3 6 Depth below Top Hard. Ft. In. n' 213 324 359 4 82i' 10 1,339 8 It is remarked that of the coals in the above sections, the only beds that are, or have been, worked in this district are the Top Hard, or " Eifler," Waterloo, Main Soft, Lower Hard, and Piper coals; and further, that clunch usually means tough clay or shale ; binds, shaley clay often blue, and bat, carbonaceous shale. Analysis of Coal. — The coal raised in the neighbourhood of Worksop, at the Shireoaks Colliery, examined by Mr. Charles Tookey in Dr. Percy's laboratory, shows the following con- stituents : — Ebsults Tabulated. Carbon 77-40 Hydrogen 4-96 Oxygen 7-77 Nitrogen 1*55 Sulphur 0-92 Ash 3-90 Water 3-50 100-00 The ash remaining being described as bulky and slightly pink in colour ; the coal, on coking, yielding 63"18 per cent. Other coals, extensively worked by the Butterley Company, in Notts and Derby, are known as the " Upper Hard Coals " and the " Lower Hard Coals," the former described " as excessively hard and containing much minerahzed charcoal in the joiutings, with thin strata of bright coal occasionally intervening; the second closely resembles the first, but contains more iron pyrites." * The Appendix, Third Keport Coal Suited to the Steam Navy, p. 29. 114 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. coal, in the first analysis, was obtained from the Portland CoUiery of the above-named company, situated at Kirkby, in Ashfield, Notts, at a depth of 180 yards from the surface, the vein, being irregular, varying in thickness from 3 feet 6 inches to 5 feet. The second, the "Lower Hard Coals," examined was obtained from the Langley CoUiery of the same company, situated near Heanor, the seam having a thickness of three feet ; the following gives the results : — Constituents. Portland Upper Hard. Langley Lower Hard. Carbon ..... Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Oxygen Ash Specific gravity Per centage of Coke . . . 80-41 4-65 1-59 0-86 11-26 1-23 77-97 5-58 0-80 1-14 9-86 4-65 100-00 100-00 1-301 1-264 60-90 54-90 It is remarked of these coals that they light easily, and when thrown on the fire make a crackling noisb. They burn freely, leaving a white-coloured ash, the " Lower Hard " more than the " Upper Hard," and both requiring the frequent use of the rake to prevent the choking of the draught in the furnace. The clinker, though considerable, did not adhere to the fire-bars, and when the stoking or charging the fire took place it was found much smoke was evolved. Production and Distribution of Coal. — In the year 1816 the quantity of coal carried by inland navigation in Nottingham- shire was 494,665 tons ; in Derbyshire, 942,218 tons, and in Yorkshire, 2,563,626 tons, the produce of this great coal-field, extending through the above-named counties. Indeed, these quantities may be regarded as the output of the collieries in operation at the time. The next return, for the year 1854, gives the output of seventeen collieries in Nottinghamshire as 813,474 tons, the production being doubled since the year 1816. In 1855 the number of collieries increased to 20, and the output fell off to 809,400 CHAP. VII.] NOTTINGHAMSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 115 tons. Subsequently the number of coUieries and production of coal in the Nottinghamshire coal-field has been as under : — Year. No. of CoUieries. Coal Haised. Tear. No. of Collieries. Coal Raised. Tons. Tons. 1816 ... 494,665 1867 24 1,575,000 1854 17 813,474 1868 27 1,508,439 1855 20 809,400 1869 26 1,575,450 1856 24 * 1870 27 2,115,372 1857 23 * 1871 27 2,469,400 1868 23 * 1872 28 * 1859 23 * 1873 34 * 1860 21 * 1874 45 3,127,750 1861 22 * 1875 46 3,250,000 1862 21 732,666 1876 48 3,415,100 1863 21 760,000 1877 47 3,895,750 1864 21 796,700 1878 41 4,107,350 1865 21 1,095,600 1879 41 4,249,242 1866 25 1,600,000 1880 44 4,432,393t The development of the Nottinghamshire coal-field is greatly aided by the ample facilities provided by several important systems of railways and canals. The coal-field on the south- west border of the county is traversed by the Midland Railway, which enters the county at the south-west corner running through the Erewash Valley along the border to Codnor, in Derbyshire, and on to Mansfield ; a branch coming from Derby runs along the valley of the Trent to Nottingham and from Newark to Lincoln, with branches from Nottingham to Mansfield and South- well. The impulse given to the coal trade of Nottinghamshire appears in the railway returns. The Midland Railway, in 1863, carried from Nottinghamshire 83,932 tons, and in subsequent years the following quantities, according to returns of " Mineral Statistics : " — Year. Coal Gamed. Year. Coal Cai-ried. Tons. Tons. 1864 188,753 1873 967,000 1866 197,873 1874 1,005,587 1867 180,506 1875 1,019,793 1868 191,796 1876 1,222,417 1869 283,548 1877 1,295,479 1870 471,118 1878 1,506,936 1871 674,796 1879 1,625,471 1872 689,407 1880 1,614,377 * Production included in Derbyshire, t Beport H.M. Inspector of Mines. I 2 116 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [rABT I. In the year 1880, and previous years, the following quantities of coal, the produce of the Nottinghamshire collieries, have been used by the Midland Railway Company for locomotive purposes. Side by side is given, for the same years, the total quantities of coal used for similar purposes by the Midland Company through- out their railway system : — Tear. Nottingham Coal. Total Coal Used. Tons. Tons. 1876 87,392 548,817 1877 126,611 612,886 1878 130,457 676,117 1879 145,627 656,340 1880 94,641 707,185 The Manchester, Shefi&eld, and Lincolnshire Railway carried small quantities of coal from Nottinghamshire between the years 1872 and 1878, when the traffic appears to have ceased; the tonnages, though unimportant, were as under, amounting in 1872 to 4,397 tons :— Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. 1873 1874 1875 Tons. 4,234 4,056 3,838 1876 1877 1878 Tons. 3,869 5,622 9,601 During the existence of the association known as the " Asso- ciated Coal Owners of Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, and Leicestershire," information was available showing the respective sales, by railv^ay and canal, of coal, the produce of collieries situated in Nottinghamshire and the adjoining counties. The Association was dissolved in 1877, but up to that date the move- ment of coal in each year from this coal-field was as under : — Year. Quantities. Year. | Quantities. 1869 1870 1871 1872 Tons. 121,392 283,548 227,987 265,008 1873 1874 1875 1876 Tons. 276,645 163,765 86,315 134,777 Populatioa Employed in Coal mining in XTottinghamsMre. — The total number of persons of all ages employed in the year 1854 OHAP. vn.] NOTTINGHAMSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 117 was 3,071 ; the output of the coal mines amounting to 813,474 tons. In 1873 the numbers were 10,366, of these 7,755 were engaged in underground operations, and 2,611 above ground, the total coal produced in the coal-field amounting to 2,890,929 tons. The numbers employed in subsequent years, and the output of the collieries, and produce per man, appear in the annexed state- ment : — * Year. persons employed. Total. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nob. 7,755 9,099 9,618 10,294 10,182 10,633 10,772 10,357 Nob. 2,611 3,129 3,095 3,311 3,210 3,278 3,459 3,235 Nos. 10,366 12,228 12,713 13,605 13,392 13,911 14,231 13,592 Tons. 2,890,929 3,125,176 3,265,368 3,582,995 3,877,322 4,106,392 4,316,954 4,432,393 Tons. 279 255 278 264 289 295 303 326 The maximum number of colliers employed in our coal-fields was in the year 1875, when of the 635,845 engaged, 427,017 were underground, and 108,828 above ground ; since that date, in most districts, the numbers employed have diminished. In Nottinghamshire, however, the numbers have gone on increasing, and the efficiency of the collier appears in the high average of coal raised by each individual in 1880, compared with 1873 and intervening years. Of the 14,231 persons employed in coal-mining operations in the year 1879 Her Majesty's inspectors give the following analysis of their respective ages : — All Ages. Under Ground. Above Ground. Total. From 12 to 13 . . „ 10 to 13 „ 13 to 16 . . Above 16 Total . Nos. 58 975 9,739 Nos. 'l4 225 3,220 Nos. 58 14 1,200 12,959 10,772 3,459 14,231 The resources and probable duration of the Nottinghamshire coal-field are considered in the great coal-field of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire. • Eeports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. CHAPTEE VIII. LEICESTEESHIEE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field — Section in the Moira and Coleorton Districts — ^Analyses, Production, and Distribution of Coal— Population Employed in Coal Mining— Eesources and Probable Duration of Coal-field. The Leicestershire Coal-field, as described by Professor Htill, F.E.S., occupies an irregular-sbaped area south of the valley of the Trent, and bounded by strata of New Red Sand- stone age, except on the north-eastern side, which is occupied by the ancient shales and porphjrries of Charnwood Forest, of Cambrian age. The coal-field he divides into three districts : Moira, occupying the west ; Ashby de la Zouch, the centre ; and Coleorton, the east, the carboniferous series of the district being thus divided : — 1. Upper Sandstone. 2. Middle Goal Measures. 3. Lower Coal Measures. 4. Millstone Grit. 5. Toredale Series and Carloniferous Limestone. In the Middle Coal Measures are numerous seams of coal, ten of which, exceeding two feet in thickness, are workable, and give an average thickness of from 40 to 45 feet of solid coal. The annexed section shows the order of occurrence of the principal coal seams in the Moira and Coleorton districts : — Moira District (West). Coleorton District (Bast) Ft. In. Ft. In. EUOoal 3 8 StouT Smut . 4 9 Dicky Gobbler . . . 3 6 Swannington . . . 3 7 Block Coal . 3 6 Slate Coal . 4 8 Little or Four Feet . . 4 6 Coal 2 10 Cannel .... 3 6 Coal .... 3 7 Main |?/!^®^S™ \ ■ \ Nether Seam ) . 12 Main Coal . . . 6 Upper Lount . 3 9 Toad .... 3 6 Second Lount . . . 3 Little Woodfield . 2 6 Middle Lount 4 6 Woodfield. . . . Nether Lount . . . 4 6 Stockings 9 Heath End Coal and Eureka . . . . 4 6 Cannel Lower Coal Measures . 10 cuAr. VIII.] LEICESTERSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 119 The total thickness of measures in the Leicestershire coal-field is at least 2,500 feet, and that part containing the principal coal beds is situated about the centre. Towards the base from 800 to 1,000 feet of unproductive coal measures occur. The main coal of the Moira district is from twelve to fourteen feet thick, that of Coleorton from six to eight feet, and it is observed by Professor Hull that, though the section in the Moira and Coleorton districts cannot be identified, yet it is highly probable, that the productive measures of each, occupy the same general position in the series. Analyses of Leicestershire Coal. — That raised at the Ibstock Colliery, situated about eleven miles from the town of Leicester, whence the coal is sent by canal and railway to various parts of England, is described* as " Mingy or Cleft coal, with a cubical fracture, adapted for house purposes, and more particularly for steamers." The mine is 128^ yards deep, and the seam 8^ feet thick, and tolerably regular. This coal will not coke, and has been employed by some of the railway companies instead of that fuel. The sample experimented upon was of a full black colour, with a cubical fracture, and contained a considerable amount of pyrites, and but little white shale. On the grate it was found to produce a good clear fire, and with careful stoking gave off but little smoke. The coal behaves precisely like an ordinary splint, and, with a quick draught, leaves a rather large quantity of clinker, which does not, however, attach itself to the bars. The composition of mean average samples of this coal appears in the annexed analysis, one pound of which was found to evaporate 6"63 lbs. of water at a temperature of 212° Fahr. Eesults Tabulated. Carbon 74-97 Hydrogen 4-83 Nitrogen 0-88 Sulpiur 1-45 Oxygen 11-88 Ash 5-99 100-00 The specific gravity of the coal is 1"291, the per centage • Third Report, Coals Buited to the Steam Nayy, pp. 22, 65. By De la Beche and Playfair, 1851. 120 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAET I. amount of coke left being 50-80, and the average weight of a cubic foot 47-33 lbs. The coal raised at the Whitwick Colliery, situated near Coal- ^dlle, and examined by Dr. Percy, gives the composition per cent. as follows* : — EESTJIiTS Tabttlated. Carbon 69-00 Hydrogen ^'35 Oxygen ) and [ 10-78 Nitrogen ) Sulpliur • . - 0'''8 Ash 5-42 Water 9'67 100-00 Coke 58-14 It is observed by Dr. Percy that the coke is firm and compact, the flame yellow, slightly smoky, and the colour of the ash pinkish- white. Production of Coal in Leicestershire. — The output of the coal mines of this coal-field, in 1816, was 176,665 tons, in 1854 the output of eleven collieries in operation was 439,000 tons, increased in later years as under : — Yeai-. Number of Collieries. Coal Baised. Year., Number of Collieries. Coal BaUed. Tons. Tons. 1855 11 425,000 1867 11 1,150,000 1856 14 632,478 1868 11 t608,088 1857 14 698,750 1869 10 650,700 1858 14 750,000 1870 11 599,450 1859 14 800,000 1871 12 699,900 1860 14 730,000 1874 24 1,100,465 1861 11 740,000 1875 25 1,154,619 1862 10 696,024 1876 27 1,005,000 1863 10 805,750 1877 27 1,149,590 1864 10 890,500 1878 28 1,020,500 1865 11 965,000 1879 27 1,035,016 1866 11 866,560 1880 27 1,063,382 Distribution of Coal. — The Midland Eailway, in the year * Percy's " Metallurgy," Fuel, p. 569. f In previous years the following collieries were iacluded in the Leicestershire return, they are now included in Derbyshire — Bretby Gresley, GranviUe Stanton, Cadley Hill, and Swadlincote. HAP. VIII.] LEICESTERSHIBE COAL-FIELD. 121 1856, carried 487,230 tons of coal, the output of the Leicestershire collieries, and distributed it at various stations over their system; the returns of subsequent years are as follows : — Midland Eailvat Ebtuens. Year. Quantities. Tear. Quantities. | Tons. Tons. 1837 520,514 1869 777,603 1858 634,471 1870 864,273 1859 648,133 1871 966,830 1860 717,633 1872 1,017,201 1861 696,258 1873 1,162,087 1862 705,275 1874 1,074,816 1863 766,054 1875 1,049,664 1864 879,191 1876 1,106,456 1865 843,928 1877 869,785 1866 865,240 1878 987,087 1867 920,476 1879 954,770 1868 777,603 1880 1,054,433 The quantity of coal carried in 1880 was 1,054,433 tons. Beyond the above tonnages small quantities, not exceeding a few thousand tons of locomotive coal, are carried annually for consumption on the Midland system. The total increase in the movement of Leicestershire coal since 1857 has exceeded 100 per cent., the greatest increase being in the year 1878, since which a diminution is shown. The revival of trade, however, during the past year shows an improvement ; the returns being in excess of previous years. Some interesting particulars are found in the annual reports of the Associated Coal Owners, showing the total sales of coal in Leicestershire by railway and canal; the sales in 1866 amounted to 658,876 tons. As these returns throw considerable light upon the movement of Leicestershire coal, they wiU be interesting, as indicating the extent of the industry in the years named : — Year. Quantities. Yeai-. Quantities. Tons Tons. 1866 658,876 1872 426,574 1867 596,988 1873 381,531 1868 536,294 1874 392,937 1869 559,377 1875 302,721 1870 462,427 1876 213,574 1871 434,716 122 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. These quantities, it should he observed, do not include the local or land sales, nor coals used for iron-making purposes, but refer exclusively to railway and canal sales. The London and North Western Eailway are also carriers of coal from Leicestershire ; the quantities, however, have never been considerable, and do not increase. For a few years they carried to stations on their own line, and passed over to other lines, the following tonnages : — Tear. Conveyed on Main Line. Passed over to Other Lines. Total Carried. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1873 02,237 6,932 59,169 1874 33,607 ... 33,607 1875 19,009 ... 19,009 1876 12,361 185 12,546 1877 23,302 1,587 24,889 1878 32,643 2,400 35,043 1879 43,256 3,256 46,512 1880 41,700 3,138 44,838 Some coal is also carried by the Great Northern Eailway from Leicestershire to stations between London and Hatfield, and Welwyn and Peterboro'. The quantity carried in 1869 was 6,321 tons ; in later years as under : — Year. Quantities Year-. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1869 6,321 1875 1,254 1870 6,561 1876 1,104 1871 1,827 1877 1,045 1872 1,231 1878 2,308 1873 1,773 1879 1,566 1874 1,057 1880 1,829 Fopiilation Employed in Coal Mining in Leicestershire. — In the year 1854 there were 1,646 persons thus engaged ; ia 1873 the number increased to 8,837, of whom 3,038 were under ground, and 799 above ground ; the output of coal amounting to 832,504 tons, compared with 439,000 tons in the year 1854. The particulars for the eight years ending 1880 appear in the subjoined table,* with the average production per man in each year : — * Keports H.M. Inspectors of Mines. CHAP. VIII.] LEICESTERSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 123 Year. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total. Coal Kaieed. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 3,038 3,896 3,983 3,435 3,679 3,188 3,493 3,213 Nos. 799 982 1,080 1,145 1,117 1,089 1,076 1,076 Nos. 3,837 4,878 5,063 4,580 4,796 4,277 4,569 4,289 Tons. 832,504 1,101,402 1,170,460 893,204 1,049,594 1,021,497 1,103,294 1,063,382 Tons. 217 225 231 195 218 239 241 248 Of the persons employed in 1879, the following is an analysis of the respective ages of those engaged under and above ground : — Ages. Under Ground. Above Ground. From. 12 to 13 „ 10 to 13 . „ 13 to 16 Above 16 . Total Nos. 25 290 3,178 Kob. '"6 79 991 3,493 1,076 Resources of the Leicestershire Coal-field and probable Dnration. — The total available amount of coal in this coal-field, to depths not exceeding 3,000 feet, allowing for necessary deduc- tions, is 836,799,784 tons. From the Keport of the Coal Commis- sion, prepared by Mr. J. T. Woodhouse, the Moira and Coleorton districts are estimated to contain the following quantities, making up the total above referred to as available : — Name of District. TONNAGE. Total estimated Tonnage in tlie District. Tonnage remaining unworked. Net Tonnage avail- able for con- sumption. Outaide the Permian, Moira Ooleorton . . . Proved Sub-Permian, Moira Ooleorton . . . Total . Tons. 825,155,925 146,418,084 35,642,781 595,010,079 Tons. 775,652,338 108,303,063 31,746,710 571,941,921 Tons. 436,304,428 60,920,465 17,857,518 321,717,323 1,602,226,869 1,487,644,032 836,799,734 124 COAL AND lEON INDUSTEIES. [part i. In the year 1870 the total production of Leicestershire was 599,450 tons, the year of greatest production being 1876, when 1,154,619 tons were produced, since which date a falling off appears in the output, that in 1879 being 1,035,016 tons. Deducting the output of the ten years ending 1879 there remaias about 826,799,734 tons, sufl&cient to afford supplies, at the rate of output in 1879, for 799 years, and, with increased production, for a less period. The quantity of coal raised in Leicestershire in 1880, according to the returns of H.M. Inspectors of Mines, was 1,063,382 tons, showing a decrease compared with the previous year of nearly 39,000 tons. CHAPTEE IX. WAEWICKSHIBE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field and Suooession of Strata at GrifE Colliery^Production and Distribution of Coal — Cost of Production and Prices — Population Employed in Coal Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field. The Warwickshire Coal-Field. — This coal-field extends in a direction bearing south-east to north-west in a narrowing band, by Atherstone and Nuneaton, from the hamlet of Wyken in the immediate neighbourhood of Coventry, to the village of Poles- worth in the northern part of the county. The length is between 15 and 16 miles, and in the south, near the Hawkesbury railway station and from thence to Baddesley Ensor, it maintains an average width of from one to two nules. At Baddesley Ensor it widens out, exceeding four miles from east to west, and continues about the same width as far north as Shuttington. The follow- ing formations enter into the structure of the district : — [ The Lias. The Trias or New Red Sandstone. The Permian Bocks. . The Goal Measures. Igneous Bocks, Greenstone. Stratified Bocks The Coal Measures, the lowest division of the stratified rocks, consist of: — Sandstones and Shales. Upper Goal Measures. Lower Goal Measures. Millstone Cfrit. The sandstones and shales, occupying the top of the coal measures, have a thickness of 50 feet, at the base of which is a thin bed of limestone, ranging in thickness from two to three feet, and known as the "Spinorbis Limestone." The upper division of the coal measures, 1,400 feet in thickness, contains 126 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt i. five workable seams of coal, wldch occur near the middle of the series. At the northern end of the coal-field these seams are separated by about 120 feet of shales and sandstones, aU decreas- ing in thickness southwards, while the coal seams remain nearly the same. The following shows the order of the coals, and the thickness of strata between each seam, from a section taken at the Griff colliery north of Bedworth :* — Succession of Stkata. Ft. In. Four-foot Coal 3 Intermediate measuies 51 Two-yard Coal 6 Rider Goal 2 Parting 9 Bare Goal . . . . . . . . ..42 Intermediate measures 72 Slate Coal 10 Intermediate measures 84 Seven-foot Coal 5 9 These coal seams crop out on the surface to the east side of the coal-field at the north end near Polesworth, and take a direction south to Wykin near Coventry, where they lie con- cealed by overlying New Ked Sandstone, which rests uncon- formably upon them. In the southern part of the coal-field, in the neighbourhood of Bedworth and Hawkesbury, the whole of the coals come together, forming one thick seam, with thin partings of fire clay, whereas in the northern part of the coal-field, as previously stated, in the neighbourhood of Tamworth, Polesworth, and Baddesley, the same beds of coal are widely separated, the intermediate strata of sandstones and shales having thickened out. The Lower Coal Measures attain a thickness of nearly 1,500 feet, and are barren of coal seams. It was in the shales of the lower part of this series at HartshiU Hays, that manganese was formerly wrought, the red colour of the rocks beiag probably due to the presence of the iron mixed with that mineral disseminated through them. At the base of the coal measures occurs the MiUstone Grit, the lowest part of the carboniferous formation, consisting of a hard silicious quartz rock, with thin bands of interstratified shale, the whole exceedingly altered, and traversed along the strike by intrusive lines of Greenstone. * " Warwickshire Coal-field," by H. H. Howell, F.G.S. CHAP. IX. WAEWICKSHIKE COAL-FIELD. 127 There are a few ironstone measures in this coal-field, worked but to a limited extent and yielding nine cwts. to the square yard ; the ironstone giving on analysis upwards of 40 per cent, of metallic iron. Frodnction and Distribution of Coal. — Several collieries existed in Warwickshire towards the close of the last century, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Bedworth, Griff, Chilvers Coton, Oldbury, and extending in the same line near to Ather- stone, Polesworth, and Wilncot, the coal obtained being de- scribed as of a sulphurous quaHty, making hot durable fires and being sold at from three pence to five pence per hundred weight at the pits.* The production in the year 1816 amounted to 162,962 New- castle chaldrons, equivalent to 431,849 statute tons.t In 1854 for the first time appeared the number of coal mines in Warwick- shire and the output of coal ; since that date the particulars are as follows : — Year. Collieries. Coal Raised. Year. Collieries. Coal Raised. Nos. Tons. Nos. Tons. 1854 15 255,000 1868 16 624,850 1855 17 262,000 1869 16 585,630 1856 16 335,000 1870 18 647,540 1857 16 398,000 1871 18 723,600 1858 17 356,500 1872 19 1750,000 1859 17 355,760 1873 24 jsoo.ooo 1860 17 545,000 1874 29 851,500 1861 16 647,000 1875 31 799,750 1862 16 678,000 1876 29 884,750 1863 16 685,500 1877 34 930,850 1864 16 764,000 1878 32 1,025,450 1865 16 859,000 1879 31 1,060,016 1866 15 775,000 1880 31 1,101,386 1867 15 880,850 The distribution is mainly effected by railway and canal. The railways form a close network thi'ough the county and coal-field, the London and North Western, Great Western, and Midland coming into Birmingham, while the canals, which are numerous, give access to the Trent, the Mersey, the Thames, • " General View of the Agriculture of the County of Warwick." By Mr. John Widse, 1794. t Coal Commission Report, vol. iii., pp. 40, 41. t Estimated production. Ketums for those years included in Derbyshire, &c. 128 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. and the Severn ; indeed the greater part of the county and the coal-field is intersected by canals. The London and North Western between 1854 and 1868 carried the following tonnages of coal from Warwickshire : — Year. Quantities. Tear. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1854 196,332 1864 151,535 1855 150,000 1865 152,881 1859 54,000 1866 159,010 1862 98,280 1867 211,144 1863 156,804 1868 183,346 For subsequent years the coal carried by the London and North Western EaUway appears in the annexed table, distinguishing that forwarded to stations on their own line, from that passed on to other railway lines : — Year. London and North- Western. To Stations on other Lines. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1868 159,348 23,998 183,346 1869 145,849 38,037 183,886 1870 148,571 39,360 187,931 1871 173,663 38,716 212,379 1872 178,889 50,126 229,015 1873 187,377 61,073 248,450 1874 128,874 85,250 214,124 1875 127,702 80,542 208,244 1876 146,319 101,991 248,310 1877 145,178 103,960 249,138 1878 184,275 124,245 308,520 1879 177,465 118,970 296,435 1880 171,673 134,579 306,252 The Midland Eailway also contributes to the distribution of coal, extending from Derby through Tamworth, and from Leicester to Nuneaton and Whitacre junction, and thence to Birmingham ; other branches bringing it in communication with the London and North Western hne. The Midland Eailway carried the quantities stated below in each of the following years : — CHAP. IX.] WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 129 Year. Coal Carried. Year. Coal Carried. Tons. Tons. 1857 28,010 1869 62,903 1858 28,907 1870 76,863 1859 38,489 1871 86,826 1860 20,000 1872 119,122 1861 * 1873 158,799 1862 * 1874 162,512 1863 79,809 1875 174,442 1864 85,922 1876 165,085 1865 86,069 1877 164,279 1866 74,751 1878 233,022 1867 60,134 1879 295,673 1868 60,093 1880 308,697 During the j'ear 1880 the quantity of coal carried by the Midland Railway amounted to 308,697 tons, showing an increase of 13,024 tons, compared with the previous year. Cost of Frodnctiou and Prices. — Much of the coal raised in Warwickshire is used for domestic purposes, the small being employed for lime and brick burning. When stacked and exposed to the weather, a considerable amount of small softened coal is found after the removal of the bulk. In 1830, Mr. Thomas Smith gives the average profit per ton on working the best coals as 3s. lOd. per ton, the average price being 10s. lOd. ; the real average being reduced by the lower price of the small coal to about 9s. 3d. per ton and the profit to 2s. 3d. per ton, the cost of getting, work, and royalty in all cases at that period amounting to about 7s. per ton. The entire produce per acre of all the coal seams worked, amounting to 14,521 tons of coals, and 1,086 tons of lumps or cobbles, giving a total of 15,607 tons per acre, the total quantity left in the workings in the form of ribs, being about 1,612 tons per acre. Upon the usual mode of working at this period, each man got per day two tons three cwts. of coal ; each ton costing, in loading, drawing out, banking, and loading into waggons, from Is. 3d. to Is. 6d., timber, powder, and sundries included. f In the year 1870 J the following were the prices at the pit's mouth at the undermentioned collieries in Warwickshire : — Bedworth, average, 6s. 9d. Olascote, best, 10s. ; slack, 2s. 6d. Oriff, average, 7s. Gd. Peel, best, 6s. 8d. ; slack, 3s. 4(f. Wyken, best, 68. 2d. ; slack, 3s. 4d. * Not eeparately dietingniehed. f Miner's Guide, 1836, p. 141. t Coal Commission Report, vol. iii., Appendix, p. 212. 130 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. Ten years later the average, highest, and lowest prices of coal and slack at the pit's mouth were as follows : — Prices. 1880. 1879. Coal. Slack. Coal. Slack. Average Highest .... Lowest .... s. (?. 6 6 7 5 6 s. d. 4 6 5 6 2 s. d. 7 2 9 6 s. d. 4 5 6 2 Population employed in Coal Mining in Warwickshire. — In 1854 there were 1,646 persons engaged in coal mining, pro- ducing 255,000 tons of coal. Twenty-five years later the production of the coal-field was fourfold, exhibiting remarkable progress ; the details of the eight years ending 1880 are as foUows, with the output of the coal-field and the average produce per man.* Tear. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total. Coal raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 3,578 3,659 3,505 3,453 2,990 3,159 3,244 3,207 Nos. 1,070 1,134 1,099 1,124 1,022 1,032 1,020 986 Nos. 4,648 4,793 4,604 4,577 4,012 4,191 4,264 4,193 Tons. 832,387 852,774 803,851 896,246 922,879 1,022,915 1,054,759 1,101,386 Tons. 179 178 174 195 230 243 247 263 The steady working of the mines appears in the average output, giving an increase in the eight years of 84 tons, equal to 46 per cent, per man. The ages of all employed in the year 1879, under and above ground, were as follows : — Ages. Under Ground. Above Ground. From 12 to 13 „ 10 to 13 . „ 13 to 16 Above 16 . Total . Nos. 17 239 2,988 Nos. 3 76 941 3,244 1,020 Reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. CHAP. IX.] WARWICKSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 131 Besonrces of the Warwickshire Coal-field and probable Duration. — The total acreage of coal in this coal-field to a depth less than 3,000 feet has been estimated by Mr. J. T, Woodhouse at 163,617 acres, of which 163,909 acres remained unworked in the year 1870. This acreage is thus distributed : — Namo of District. Total Acreage. Acreage Unworked. Outside the Permian Proved Sub-Permian Total acres . 161,196 2,421 152,785 1,124 163,617 153,909 Converting the total acreage into tons, at the estimated rate of 1,556 tons per acre per foot thick, there existed originally in this coal-field 995,511,270 tons, the acreage unv^orked amounting to 815,382,625 tons ; and of this quantity there remaias — due allowance being made for coals which cannot be worked from various causes — 458,652,714 tons. The details of these enumerated quantities are thus given in the Coal Commission Report :* — District. Total estimated Tonnage in ■Warwickshire. Tonnage remaining unworked. Net Tonnage available for consimiption. Outside the Pennian Proved Sub-Permian . Total . Tons. 880,033,153 115,478,117 Tons. 809,730,113 6,662,612 Tons. 455,473,182 3,179,532 995,511,270 815,382,625 458,652,714 The total quantity of coal wrought during the ten years ending 1879 amounts to 8,473,456 tons; deducted from the original estimate leaves 450,179,258 tons available for future consump- tion. This quantity, taking the average of the ten years (847,345 tons), would afibrd sufiicient supplies for 531 years hence, whUe taking the production of 1879 (1,060,016 tons), the exhaustion of the coal-field would occur in about 425 years. It should be observed that the estimate of coal in Warwickshire includes all workable seams not exceeding a depth of 3,000 feet, and that the output of the coal-field has quadrupled in a quarter of a century, the production of 1880 exceeding that of the previous year by 46,627 tons. * Vol. i. p. 31. K 2 CHAPTEE X. SHROPSHIRE COAL-FIELDS. Description of Coal-fields, and Section of Strata at Coalbrookdale — ^Analyses, Pro- duction, and Distribution of Coal — Prices and Cost of Production — Population employed in Coal and Iron Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal- field. The Shropshire Coal-fields. — The coal deposits of Shrop- shire are not found occurring in one unbroken area, like those of the Great Midland coal-fields of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, but rather in several detached tracts or areas, all referable, geo- logically, to the same age. Of these the most important is the coal-field of Coalbrookdale ; the others are those of Shrewsbury, Oswestry, the Glee HiUs, and the Forest of Wyre. The Goalbrookdale coal-field has an area of twenty-eight square miles, and extends from the Severn, near Broseley and Iron- bridge on the south, having an irregular western boundary at Coalbrookdale, Little IVenlock, and the faults a mile or two to the eastward of Welliagton, where it has its greatest vddth of about four or five miles ; it then, becoming gradually narrower, extends to LUleshaJl and Church Aston. The greatest thickness of the coal measures in this area exceeds 1,200 feet, in which occur several important seams of coal. Professor Hull gives the follow- ing succession of coal seams, and their varying thickness in the Coalbrookdale coal-field.* COAL SEAMS. THICKNESS. Ft. In. Ft. In. 2 FurusCoT'*""' H^°--d only at north 3.' GurCoal .■.".) end of coal-field. 4. Top Coal from 4 to 4 6 5. Half-yard Coal 16 6. Double Coal 5 to 6 7. Yard Coal 2 6 ,, 3 8. Big Flint Coal 3 „ 4 6 9. Stinking Coal 3 „ 4 10. Clunch Coal 2 11. Two-foot and Best (with parting) ... 34 12. Handle and Clod Coal 4 to 5 13. Little Flint Coal 1 6 „ 2 3 • " Coal-fields of Great Britain," 4tli edition, p. 143. IHAP. X.] SHROPSHIRE COAL-FIELDS. 133 The aggregate average thickness of the seams exceeding two feet in this section, is equal to 27 feet of solid coal. It is observable that in passing from the north to the south of the coal-field the thickness of the measures and of the seams of coal diminishes considerably. This appears in the following table, showiag the number of seams existing in different parts of the coal-field, and how much they vary in their dimensions in the pits referred to, the united thickness of the mass of coal in any one pit not being dependent upon the number of the seams : * — Pits. Thickness of No. of Beds Coal. of Coal. Yds. Ft. In. Hadley .... 15 16 Sneds HiU . . . 14 2 2 12 Malinslee 11 10 13 Langley . Dawloy .... 11 2 6 11 14 16 Lightmoor . . 13 2 17 Madeley 10 2 10 24 Broseley .... 7 9 13 The Shrewsbury coal-field is of less extent than that of Coal- brookdale, and forms a narrow band fi'om the base of Haughmond Hill, east of Shrewsbury, to the river Severn, near Alberbury, a distance of eighteen miles, its greatest width in any one place not exceeding one mile. In the lower part of the coal measures there are two or three seams of coal worked, but only to a limited extent. The other coal areas of Oswestry and the Forest of Wyre possess some workable seams of coal, but their production is not very considerable. They are thus referred to by a writer in the Colliery Guardian t familiar with the district : " The seam won at Highley is not quite 4 feet thick of good coal ; there is a roof of clod some 2 feet 9 inches thick, and a bat of 9 or 10 inches. At BiUingsley this same seam, at a depth of 155 yards, has a thickness of 6 feet 9 inches gross, and they have in addition a ' half-yard,' 'four-feet,' and a ' two -feet ' seam, besides the top or sulphur coal; they also have seams of fire-clay (one over the Brooch coal) and ironstone, which do not appear at Highley." Billingsley is situated some two miles to the north-west of the last-mentioned * Coal Commission Report, Vol. iii., p. 122. t Vol. xxxviii., Nov. 28, 1879, p. 854. 134 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. place, and it appears that the seams of coal between the two places thin out to the east of the coal-field. Analysis of the Coal. — The following coals, extensively employed in the iron-works of the district, give, upon examina- tion, the annexed results, each 100 parts of coal consisting of— Name and Locality. Volatile Matter. Carbon. Ashes. Speoiflo Gravity. Fungus Coal (Donniagton) Top Coal Flint Coal (Madeley) Sulphur Coal (Ketley) . Best Coal (Madeley) Clod Coal „ . . Little Flint Coal (Broseley) 34-8 37-1 34-6 41-1 34-3 37-3 38-3 63-8 62-1 64-9 56-1 64-4 62-7 6M 1-4 0-8 0-5 2-8 1-3 1-0 0-9 1-245 1-267 1-269 1-292 1-273 ■ 1-264 The Top, Yard, Double, and Big Flint coals, are largely employed for manufacturing purposes ; 'the Clod Coal and Little FHnt being most valued for iron smelting, while the " Fungus Coal," chiefly confined to the northern area of the coal-field, is alike useful for aU purposes where coal is employed. Prodnction and Distribution of CoaL — The earliest in- formation appears for the year 1854, when the 48 collieries in the county raised 1,080,000 tons, which were chiefly employed in the iron works and for local consumption. Since 1864, the number of collieries and production of coal are shown in the following table : — Year. Collieries. CoaL Tear. Collieries. Coal. No. Tons. No. Tons. 1855 56 1,105,250 1868 64 1,496,500 1856 55 752,100 1869 69 1,392,862 1857 55 750,000 1870 59 1,343,300 1858 57 749,360 1871 59 1,350,000 1859 69 765,760 1872 60 * 1860 68 850,000 1873 60 1,570,000 1861 66 829,750 1874 65 1,187,950 1862 65 1,029,760 1875 64 1,225,785 1863 66 1,150,000 1876 64 1,054,049 1864 66 1,150,000 1877 61 927,580 1865 69 1,135,000 1878 63 830,575 1866 63 1,220,000 1879 62 854,380 1867 62 1,558,500 1880 66 905,000 Included In the returns of production for North Staffordshire and Cheshire, CHAP. X.] SHROPSHIRE COAL-FIELDS. 135 To the distribution of the Shropshire coal, the London and North Western Eailway principally contributes : in 1863, the earliest return is met with, when 88,167 tons were carried out of the county, and in 1865 but 75,230 tons ; the Great Western Kailway, in the same year, carrying 795 tons into South Stafford- shire. The quantities carried in later years appear as follows, together with that passed over to other lines by the — London aot) Nobth Westekn Railway. Year. To Stations on Line. To other Lines. Total carried. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1867 45,936 ... . 45,936 1868 59,186 59,186 1869 116,020 1,777 117,797 1870 113,947 3,370 117,317 1871 109,519 5,077 114,596 1872 105,461 4,903 110,364 1873 100,354 7,226 107,580 1874 99,532 7,559 107,091 1875 99,529 6,818 106,347 1876 88,374 3,688 92,062 1877 101,552 3,090 104,642 1878 82,862 2,845 85,707 1879 65,230 3,885 69,115 1880 103,502 2,831 106,333 Prices and Cost of Production. — Forty years ago this question was carefully considered, both as regards coal and iron- stone ; * the Fungus Coal, the uppermost in the series, yielding 15 cwts. of marketable coal to each cubic yard, of which 10 cwts. were large coal, 2 cwts. lumps, and 3 cwts. slack. At this period the cuttings, or perpendicular channellings, to facilitate the bringing down of the coals, were situated at from four to five yards distance from each other, and to bring down and clear away the usual line of 30 yards in one day cost £2 3s., distributed as follows : — £ s. d. 3 holers at 2s. Qd. ■per day 8 3 3 brushers and coggers, 3s. 3d 9 9 Drawing out -. .150 Total £2 3 and producing of coals, 17 tons ; lumps, 3 tons 8 cwts., and slack, 5 tons 2 cwts., in all a total of 25 tons 10 cwts. The cos^ * Thomas Smith's " Miner's Guide," 1836, p. 118, 136 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. and production of each seam of coal (per ton) appear in the sub- joined statement : — Thickness. COST PER TON, Coals. Lumps. Slack. Yds. Ft. s. d. s. d. s. d. Fungus Coal . I 2 OJ 1 2 1 Stone . . •■ 1 1 1 11 1 2 1 Top .... 1 2 1 7 1 2 1 Double . . . . 2 1 9 1 2 1 Yard .... 1 2 1 2 1 Flint .... 1 2 1 10| 1 2 1 Bandle and Clod . Total . Average cost . 2 1 1 9 1 2 1 11 12 11 8 2 7 . 1 10 1 2 1 Dead work . 2 2 2 Royalty .... Average cost ] )er ton . 8 4 2 4 6 3 6 3 2 The same authority, considering the yield per acre of the above seams of coal, estimates the produce as follows, to which is added the royalty per ton, and the total royalty per acre : — Produce per Acre. • Royalty. Amount of Royalty. Coals .... Lumps . . . . Slack .... Tons. 26,620 5,324 7,986 s. d. 8 4 2 £ s. d. 887 6 8 88 14 8 66 11 Again, the average quantity of coal wrought by each man per day is stated as follows : — Coal Seams. Coals. Lumps. Slack. Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Fungus . . . . 2 16 2 11 1 17 Stone .... 3 4 2 12 3 19 1 Top 5 13 1 18 2 Double .... 3 15 2 16 12 2 Yard .... 3 12 18 Flint .... 3 6 2 13 1 10 Handle and Clod . . Total per day Average per day . 5 14 1 1 2 3 1 14 1 27 10 2 4 7 7 19 2 3 18 2 12 2 12 3 OHAI". X.] SHROPSHIRE COAL-FIELDS, ]37 The aggregate of these totals gives an average of 5 tons 13 cwts. 3 qrs. got by each miner per day of coal from the above-named seams of coal. Following the prices obtained per ton at the pit's bank in 1868, the annexed shows generally the average : Top Coal, at Old Park CoUiery, 10s. M. per ton; Double Coal, 8s. 6d. ; Yard Coal, 8s. 6d. ; Flint, 9s. M. to 10s. ; New Mine, 6s, M. ; Two- foot, 8s., and Little Flint, 10s. M. per ton. Mr. T. Parton, F.G.S., in his notes on the Shropshire coal- field,* writing in the year 1868, states that at that time the cost of extracting the coal and ironstone varied according to special circumstances, and gives the annexed as the prices delivered on colliery bank as a very close approximation :— Top Coal Double Coal Yard Coal Blue Matt Ironstone White Piatt Ironstone . Big Flint Coal . Penny Stone Ironstone . Stinking Coal . Two-foot and Best Coal Randle Coal Clod Coal . Little Plint . from s. d. s. d. 3 Oto 4 2 6 „ 3 3 6 „ 4 6 7 „ 10 9 „ 11 3 „ 3 6 6 „ 9 3 „ 4 3 „ 4 3 3 „ 3 6 3 „ 4 4 6 „ 6 These prices may be regarded as the highest and lowest incurred in getting the coals and ironstones, fluctuating according to the rate of wages. The average prices of coal and slack during the years 1878 and 1879 exhibit but little variation, and in the last-named year were quoted as follows, to which is added the highest and lowest prices ruling throughout the year : — Year. i Average. Highest Lowest. 1879 j 1880 1 Coal Slack. . . . Coal Slack. . . . s. d. 8 9 3 10 9 2 4 3 s. d. 13 4 5 10 13 4 6 3 s. d. 6 2 6 6 8 2 6 Comparing these prices with those ruling in the year 1873, * Vol. XV. " Colliery Guardian," 1868, p. 223. 138 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. known as the year of the " Coal Famine," it appears, in evidence before the Select Committee on Coal,* that in Shropshire, Cheshire, and North Staffordshire, the price of coal per ton in these districts rose from 7s. 6d. to 20s., while as regards slack, which previous to the year 1872 was sold from 2s. 3d. to 2s. 6d. per ton, it rose in this last-named year to 10s. 6d. ; the great demand for coal at this period arising in Shropshire from the iron manufactures, and in Staffordshire from the earthenware industries. Population employed iu Coal and Iron Mining. — The number of male persons employed in coal and iron mining in Shropshire, according to official returns for the year 1854, was 5,722 ; of these 4,580 persons were engaged in coal mining, and 1,142 in iron mining, the yield of coal the same year being 1,080,000 tons. In later returns the persons employed are included in other districts, but when the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1872, came into operation, and since, very complete accounts have appeared in the Reports of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Mines, showing the number engaged under groimd and above ground, together with the quantities of coal raised. These details appear in the annexed table, to which is added the average tonnage of coal raised per person in each year : — PEESONS EMPLOYED. Year. Coal raised. Average per Total Minerals Average per 1 Under Above 1 J 4^, Ground. ■'"'«"• Man. raised.t Man. Ground. 1 Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1873 ... ... ... 1,262,490 1,858,870 ... 1874 5,635 2,487 8,122 1,188,490 146 1,623,310 200 1875 5,513 2,204 7,717 1,225,180 158 1,721,720 223 1876 4,684 1,896 ; 6,580 1,059,740 161 1,558,840 236 1877 4,191 1,583 5,774 921,700 159 1,343,370 233 1878 3,766 1,468 5,234 827,200 158 1,195,600 213 1879 3,423 1,348 4,771 822,400 172 995,295 208 1880 3,646 1,235 ! 4,781 905,000 189 1,168,900 244 The total of persons given as employed in coal mining also includes those engaged in raising fire-clay and ironstone ; it is therefore desirable to take the total of minerals raised to follow more clearly the average produce per man, which appears in the last column. * Mr. Thomas Wynne, H.M. Inspector of Coal Mines. Report, Coal, 1873, p. 42, + Including coal, fireclay, and ironstone. CHAP. X.] SHROPSHIRE COAL-FIELDS. 139 Resources and probaUe Dnratiou of Coal-field. — In the Eeport of the Eoyal Coal Commission, the quantity of unworked coal remaining in the Shropshire field is included in the returns of South Staffordshire and East Worcestershire. It has, how- ever, heen estimated by reliable authorities that the available coal remaining in Shropshire did not exceed 20,000,000 tons in the year 1870. At the then rate of production, 1,843,300 tons, the exhaustion of the deposits may be expected at no very distant period. Since that date, however, the production has fallen off, being only 822,400 tons in the year 1879, compared with 905,000 tons in 1880, showing an increase of 82,600 tons in the last-named year. CHAPTEE XI. NORTH STAFFORDSHIEE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field, Its Extent, Area, and Suoeeesion of Strata— Coal Seams and Ironstone Measures — Cheadle Coal-field — Analyses, Production, and Dis- tribution of Coal — Quantities Consumed in Ironworks, Potteries, Brick-works, &o.— Price of Coal and Cost of Production — Population Employed in Coal and Ironstone Miniog — Resources and probable Duration. North Staffordshire Coal-field. — This coal-field is remark- able for the number and richness of its beds of coal and ironstone. The coal-field is triangular in form, with its apex at the base of Congleton Edge, and deeply iadented along its southern margin by spurs of the Permian formation, which runs far into the heart of the coal measures through the agency of faults. The coal-field has an area of 75 square miles and even more, if the coal lying under the Permian rocks to the south were included. It extends from Handford Lane End and Longton on the south, to Biddulph on the north, again from Oakmoor and Cheddleton on the east to Madeley on the west. Its resources of coal and ironstone greatly exceed that of the South Staffordshire coal-field, though smaller in its area. It has twice the thickness of workable coal, and many of the seams of coal are roofed by measures of rich argil- laceous ores of iron. The coal measures are divided into upper, middle, and lower measures ; the upper series of which is barren of profitable coal, while the middle, or pottery coal and ironstone measures, 4,000 feet thick, contain, no less than 40 seams of coal, besides numerous bands of ironstone. The lower division includes beds of black shales and flags, with 17 or 18 seams of coal, each having a thickness exceeding two feet. In one area of this coal-field a thickness amounting ia the aggregate to 140 feet of coal exists ; iu another, where 24 seams of coal occur, a total thickness of 109 feet of coal has been ascertained, interstratified with nu- merous courses of " black band " or carbonaceous iron ore, varying from two to six feet in thickness, and crowded with the characteristic fossil shells " Anthracosia " and "Anthracomya." CHAF. XI.] NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD, 141 The annexed section shows the order of occurrence of the several coal seams and intervening strata, with the respective thicknesses : — COAL SEAMS AND INTERVENING STRATA. THICKNESS. Ft. In. Pmcock Goal 6 6 Strata 20 Spencro/t Coal 3 9 Strata . . . . , 121 Great Row Coal 8 Strata 71 Oannel Bow Coal .50 Strata 64 Wood Mine Coal 2 Strata 29 Seep Mine Goal 2 8 Strata 361 Winghay Coal 4 6 Strata 377 Aah or Bowhurst Coal 8 Strata 121 Bumwood Goal 5 Strata 68 OoUen Twist 3 6 Strata 486 Mossfield Goal 4 7 Strata 30 Coal 3 Strata 270 Birches Goal 4 6 Strata 300 Ten-foot Goal 6 Strata 102 Bowley Alley Coal 4 6 Strata 81 Holly Lane Goal 5 10 Strata 84 Sparrow Batts Goal 4 9 Strata 222 Flats Goal ..30 Strata 108 Frog's Bow Coal 4 6 Strata 30 GocJchead Goal 4 6 Strata 420 Bullhurst Coal 4 Strata 60 Winpenny Coal 3 In the northern part of the coal-field at Rugged Mow Cop, to the south of Congleton, some sixteen coal hasins or coal areas, more or less separated, can he distinguished, all geologicaEy of the same age. The resources of this coal-field are considerable, presenting a total thickness of 150 feet of coal, and an available 142 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt i. quantity for future use amounting to 4,826 millions of tons of coal, as ascertained by the Eoyal Coal Commission, allowing for necessary deductions; while if the whole of the workable seams of coal and ironstone were spread over the area of the coal-field, the sohd thickness of coal would be represented by 32 feet, and the ironstone by a thickness of five feet. The ironstone deposits of this coal-field are no less remarkable than the seams of coal ; they are extremely numerous, and exist abundantly iu the districts of Longton, Hanley, and Newcastle- under-Lyme. In a section of measures at the Longton CoUiery of 250 yards nine distinct seams are worked. At Apedale, three miles north-west of Newcastle-under-Lyme, the principal measures occurring are the " Black Band" " Red Shag," " Bassy Mine," and " Red Mine," having a thickness respectively of four, six, seven, and nine feet. The following are the more important measures of ironstone worked, the yield varying according to the thickness and regularity of the seams.* At Shelton the " Red Shag," a black band ironstone, has a thickness, exclusive of shaly partings, of from 15 to 17 inches, lying immediately upon a seam of coal 12 inches thick ; this ironstone is extensively exported in a calcined state to the districts of South Staffordshire. This ironstone contains so large a proportion of carbonaceous matter, that no coal is required for its calcination. The " Gutter ironstone," though somewhat poor at Shelton, is said to be the same measure between Chesterton and the mouth of the Harecastle tunnel, where it attains the great thickness of six feet ; this stone, when mingled in certain proportions after calcination with haematite, is employed as a "puddle ore." The " Red Mine " of Silverdale and Apedale, next in descend- ing order, lies upon a seam of coal two feet thick ; the ironstone measure is variable in thickness, the average of which may be taken as 14 inches. The "Bassy Mine," also called "Red Mine," is a measure weU developed in the eastern part of the coal-field, where it has been extensively wrought. This measure at Shelton has a thickness of 30 inches, and is calcined in large heaps of 2,000 tons, parts of another measure called the "CannelKow" being used in certain proportions to assist in the calcination. At the * " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part iv., pp. 272-3. CHAP. XI.] NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 143 Lane End Iron "Works these "black band" measures, that is the "Red Shag" and "Red Mine," are employed in about equal proportions with argillaceous ironstone, chiefly the " Penny stone," with the addition of some haematite from the west coast, in the manufacture of pig iron. The Cannel Mine next occurs ; at Apedale it is described as a black dull compact ironstone, with a fracture slightly conchoidal, and calc spar sparingly exhibited in the faces of the joints. Six beds of these nodules, together 12 inches thick, occur in a section of five feet six inches, and it is reported to yield about 18 cwts. of ironstone to the square yard. The " Gabbin ironstone " measure, occurring some 20 feet below the Spencroft Coal, is a measure from 13 to 16 inches in thickness, interstratified with partings of shale, and bearing a strong resem- blance to the measure of the same name in South Staffordshire. The "Cannel Row" and the " Pennystone" measures of Shelton are other important seams, the latter consisting of three bands of an aggregate thickness of 20 inches, the lowest band being from 10 to 12 inches in thickness, consisting of a brown stripy coarse-grained stone, with occasional laminae of black shale, and containing broken fossil remains, and occasional crystalline portions of zinc blende. The " Deep Mine " and " Chalky Mine " at Lane End : the former consisting of three bands, and generally regarded as the richest measure of the district, yielding 10 cwts. per square yard ; while the latter, 12 inches in thickness in four bands, yields an average of 12 cwts. of ironstone per square yard. A few other ironstone measures occur in depth, notably the New Mine, Little Mine, and Brownstone, capable of producing from 10 to 12 cwts. to the yard. Fish remains are found in quantity in the associated shales of these measures. The Cheadle Coal-field. — This coal-field is of comparatively small area, its breadth from east to west being about four miles, while its length from Ipstones to Mobberley has a range of five miles. The coal-field is but slightly productive, being composed of only the lower strata of the formation. Near the town of Cheadle the following seams are worked : — Two-yard Coal. Half-yard Coal. Yard Goal. Littley Coal. Four-foot Coal. Woodhead Coal, 3 ft. thick. 144 COAL AND IRON INBITSTRIBS. [part i. These seams crop out towards the north, west, and east, making a sort of trough, and they ultimately pass below the new red sandstone, between Dilhome and Mobberley towards the south. To the north of the coal-field rise the high moorlands of the millstone grit ; and the strata which immediately overHe this formation are finely opened up by the deep channel of the river Churnet. The coal measures reposing on the millstone grit give a thickness of about 370 yards, in which at intervals occur bands of argillaceous ironstone. The working of the coal and ironstone in North Staffordshire presents some interesting features, which are thus described. Owing to the high dip of the beds of this coal-field, 14 to 16 inches to the foot, the coal has to be worked by system of pillars 40 feet long by only 10 feet thick, the great inclination not allowing them to be any broader. The mode of working adopted is thus explained. The main level or "horse road" is driven horizontally with the cleat of the coal, together with an " air head " 10 yards off on the upper side, which is thirled into every 20 yards for ventilation. This air head afterwards takes the return air from the workings to the " up take," and no miner is allowed to enter it. At every 160 yards a bord or break dip (so called from a break situated at the top to allow the full car to puU up the empty one) is driven " up bank " at right angles to the main level, the longest being 110 yards. A smaller bord for air is likewise run up beside this and thirled into every ten yards. On reaching the top, two drifts are put out from each break dip at 10 yards apart, and the air " bratticed " up by canvas for 40 yards, when it is thirled. These drifts from either side meet at 80 yards, and, after thirling again, the narrow pillars (of 40 by 10 yards, as before mentioned) are worked away against the cleat, the air being made to pass along the face of the work. As soon as taking away the pillars above is fairly commenced, the next drift is driven, so that the working of the pillar above is always slightly in advance of that immediately below. The ironstone, occurring in measures of varying thickness, is worked nearer the surface on the west (well seen at New Chapel), where the dip is inconsiderable. Owing to the thin beds, ponies are used entirely, and the mode of getting the stone to the main levels is one of the most primitive to be seen anywhere. A man loads the ore on a wooden sleigh, which he then drags on his CHAP. XI.] NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 145 hands and knees, through a small road, made through the Goh by packing up with stones on each side. The ironstone is worked away in a face of 30 yards by " holing " the shale below, and putting the shot in above. Analyses of the Coal. — The following analyses of coals raised by the Chatterley Iron Company from their Whitfield Colliery, near Tunstall, are given by Mr. Charles Homer, F.G-.S., in his paper on the North Staffordshire Coal-field and the ironstone measures contained therein.* The coal seams examined were as follows : — LiUle Sow Coa?.— Worked at a depth of 781 yds., 2 ft. 9 in. to 3ft. Sin. thick, a good household coal, sold chiefly in the London market ; is of a fine bright appearance and of first-class quality. Old Whitfield Coal. — Worked at a depth of 801 yds. ; the seam is 3 ft. 9 in. thick ; is a good blast-farnaoe, steam, and manufacturing coal, and is also in demand for household purposes. Bowling Alley Goal. — Worked at a depth of 921 yds. ; the seam is from 3 ft. 6 in. thick ; is a good manufacturing and household coal, and is also used for ironmaking. ffollj/ Lane Coal. — Worked at a depth of 947 yds., the seam varying from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. thick ; is one of the best household coals in the district, has a good roof and floor, and is cheaply got. Mard Mine Coal. — Worked at a depth of 948 yds. ; it varies from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 6 in. thick, and takes its name from its extreme hardness, and from the analysis it will be seen that it is the best coal in the district for blast-furnace purposes, for which it is solely used, and in great demand. It is also a first-class locomotive coal. EesXTLTS TABtriiATBD. Constitueuts. Little Row. Old Whitfield. Bowling AUey. Holly Lane. Hard Mine. Fixed carbon Volatile hydro-carbon . Svdphur Ash Total. 61-59 37-40 0-20 0-81 61-27 37-61 0-12 1-00 63-13 31-70 0-62 4-55 61-79 37-35 0-06 0-80 63-50 34-85 0-00 1-65 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Production and Distribution of Coal. — In the year 1856, for the first time, the particulars of the output of the North Stafford- shire Collieries are separately distinguished fi:om those of South Staffordshire and Worcestershire ; the coHieries being grouped in the following districts, numbering 123, and producing an aggre- gate of 1,295,000 tons :— * Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 1875, p. 340. 146 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. HOBTH STAFPOMSHIBB. ITUMBBB OF COLLBKIBS. Cheadle 16 Longton 23 Hartley 12 Burslem 18 Tunstall 15 Biddulph 12 Newcastle-under-Lyme 27 Total . . . 123 The number of collieries for a few years shows little variation. In the year 1860 the production amounted to 2,376,500 tons, the distribution of which was as follows : — BISIRIBDTIOH. TOHS. Coal used in iron-works 538,700 ,, ,, in the potteries 150,000 ,, ,, ,, ordinary local consumption .... 875,000 Colliery consumption ........ 15,500 Sent out of district 797,300 Total . . 2,376,500 Following the production of coal in North Staffordshire since 1860, the annexed table gives the number of collieries and their output, and side by side the production of South Stafford- shire and East Worcestershire in each of the same years : — Tear, No. of Collieries. North Stafford. South Stafford, and Bast Worcester. Total of County. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1861 128 2,372,600 4,881,250 7,253,750 "1862 114 2,537,250 4,985,500 7,522,750 1863 114 2,698,500 5,171,820 7,870,320 1864 117 3,196,500 8,263,361 11,459,851 1865 125 3,495,760 8,705,239 12,200,989 1866 107 3,734,814 8,664,966 12,399,780 1867 117 3,747,814 8,779,509 12,527,323 1868 113 3,545,830 8,748,950 12,294,780 1869 112 3,724,712 8,944,396 12,669,107 1870 108 3,873,662 9,366,500 13,230,062 1871 115 4,250,000 10,031,250 14,281,250 1872 121 * 10,550,000 ... 1873 123 3,892,019 9,463,559 13,356,578 1874 156 4,313,096 8,389,343 12,702,439 1875 157 4,456,213 10,261,791 14,708,004 1876 152 4,077,548 10,081,067 14,158,615 1877 143 4,149,975 9,841,191 13,991,166 1878 145 4,072,416 9,130,774 13,203,190 1879 144 4,025,535 9,350,000 13,375,635 1880t 144 4,074,800 9,660,000 13,734,800 * Included in production of Cheshire and Shropshire, giving a total of 6,327,188 tons. Estimated production of North Stafiordshire in the year 1872— 4,000,000 tons. f Reports, H.M. Inspectors of Mines, 1880. CHAP. XI.] NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAJL-FIELD. 147 The greater part of the coal raised in North Staffordshire is consumed in the nvimerous industries located in the area; the most important of these are the ironworks, potteries, and brick manufactures ; some quantities are sent out of the district by the Trent and Mersey navigation, and the North Staffordshire Eail- way. In the year 1871 the distribution of coal was as follows : — DISIBIBTITION OF COAL. TOHS. Used in iron works 1,826,000 Potteries and brick works 765,000 Other manufactures 526,951 North Staffordshire Eailway 241,841 Trent and Mersey Oanal 356,964 Local distribution by railway 606,244 Colliery consumption 30,000 Total 4,250,000 Since 1871 the following statement wiU give the quantities of coal consumed and distributed as stated : — DlSTRIBTJTIOlf BY RAILWAY. TRENT AND LONDON AND NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE. MERSEY. NORTH-WESTERN. Year. Exported. Local. Local. Exported. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 18V2 266,025 556,768 331,930 59,152 1873 472,097 476,454 297,180 83,534 1874 674,924 617,336 271,016 95,070 1875 632,283 558,086 ♦266,869 89,077 1876 739,978 632,547 215,949 73,738 1877 753,141 609,879 265,267 68,646 1878 727,304 472,940 244,167 63,129 1879 891,974 473,765 250,920 73,602 1880 863,704 387,791 288,321 79,695 In each of the same years the coal used in the iron works, brick works, and potteries were as follows, to which is added the coal used for domestic and other local consumption : — Year. Iron Works. Potteries, Brick Works. Domestie and local use. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1873 1,376,000 760,000 400,000 1874 1,000,000 960,000 750,000 1875 1,260,000 950,000 650,000 1876 1,050,000 860,000 600,000 1877 1,228,429 760,000 900,000 1878 1,260,000 750,000 900,000 1879 700,000 650,000 «38,510 1880 780,000* 670,000* 863,842* * Estimated quantities. L 2 148 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. Following the returns of production and the distribution of coal in North Staffordshire, the year 1875 appears as the one of greatest production, when 4,456,213 tons of coal were raised, the distribution of which is thus accounted for ; side by side will be found similar details for the years 1879 and 1880 : — Distribution. 1875. 1879. 1880. North Staffordshire Kailway, ) out of District . . ) Local distrihution by railway . Local distribution by Trent ) and Mersey Canal . ) London and North-Western 5 carried . . . . j Great Northern carried . Used at Iron Works, &c. . . Colliery consumption Potteries, Brick Works, &c. Domestic and local consumption Total . . . Tons. 632,283 558,086 266,869 89,077 9,898 1,250,000 50,000 950,000 650,000 Tons. 891,974 473,765 250,920 73,602 21,168 700,000 125,596 ■ 650,000 838,510 Tons. 863,704 387,791 288,321 77,595 13,547 780,000 130,000 670,000 863,842 4,456,213 4,025,535 4,074,800 Of the coal raised in 1880 in North Staffordshire, nearly 2,500,000 tons were consumed in the county, the remainder being distributed by railway. Towards the close of 1879 a demand for coal arose in the district : this was met by increased output and better prices, but the demand did not continue beyond March, 1880, when many of the collieries for a time limited their work to three and four days per week. Prices of Coal and Cost of Production. — The cost of work- ing varies so much in this as in other districts, according to circumstances, that considerable difficulty is met with in arriving at exact information. In the following well-authenticated data appear some general facts bearing on the point. In the year 1830 the average cost per ton of getting coal and slack at the Apedale Mines was respectively 2s. Id. and Is. The royalty gave an average on coals of Is. O^d., and on slack 4|tZ. The profit on coals amounted to ll^d. per ton, and on slack IJd. per ton. Adding to the above the average cost of dead work, 2s. B^d. per ton, the average cost per ton of coals in the Apedale Mines amounted to 6s. lOd., and of slack 3s. 9^d. The above prices give the average of seventeen seams of coal in the mines above named. In the subjoined table appears the thickness of the several CHAP. XI.] NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 149 seams, the produce of coal and slack per acre, and the profit per acre.* PEODOCE PER ACHE. ^■'/.IrnAoo , Profit per Acre. Cod. Slack. Yds. Ft In. Tons. Tons. £ s. Peacock Coal 1 2 4,840 806 100 16 Spincroft . . . . Great Eoe . 1 2 2 4,840 5,808 806 968 100 16 169 8 KflTITIftI 2 5,808 968 169 8 Little Eoe . 2 1 6,637 1,106 304 3 Eusty Mine . . . 3 8,712 1,452 399 6 Chalky Mine . 1 2,904 484 24 4 Single Foui'-foot . . 1 2 4,840 806 80 13 Single Five-foot . 1 2 4,840 806 221 Eagman . . . . 1 6 2,904 484 105 1 One Yard to Seven-foot 2 2 6 8,228 1,371 754 14 Hams . . . . 1 2 4,840 806 100 16 Ten-foot 3 8,712 1,452 980 2 Top Two Eoe . . . 2 1,936 322 Bowling Alley 1 2 4,840 806 Seven-foot Nabbs . . 1 2 6 5,280 880 726 Eight-foot Nabbs . 1 1 6 4,356 726 598 19 Grey Coal . . . 3 8,712 1,452 ... The prices of the above coals and slack delivered into boats or waggons varied, coals from 6s. 6d. to 12s., and slack from 3s. 6d. to 5s. per ton. In the year 1860 the cost of getting coal and bringing it to bank varied, according to the depth of seam worked, from 2s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. per ton. The selling price at pit's bank being : common coal, 6s. 2rf. per ton ; and best household coal, 9s. 2i. per ton. The prices in the year 1870 show a shght advance, increased in 1873 by the operation of the Coal Mines Eegulation Act. During the three years ending 1880 the average prices of coal and slack in North Staffordshire were as follows, to which are added the highest and lowest prices per ton : — Prices. COAL. SLACK. 1880. 1S7EI. ISYS. 1S80. 1S79. 1878. Average price . Highest ,, Lowest „ s. d. 8 4 12 6 6 6 s. d. 7 8 11 8 6 s. rt. - 9 3 12 6 8 4 s. rt. 3 9 5 6 2 6 s. d. 3 6 5 2 6 s. d. 4 6 5 3 * Smith's " Miner's Guide." 1836, pp. 103, 105. 150 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT 1. Population employed in Coal and Ironstone Mining.— Not until the year 1874 have we precise inforlnation on this subject ; in previous years the numbers .employed were grouped in the inspection district, including North Staffordshire, Cheshire, and Shropshire, which, according to the census of 1861, numbered 16,427 male coal-miners. Later, in the year 1867 and subsequent years tmtil the passing of the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1872, the number of male persons employed as computed by the inspector of the district was as follows, to which are added the quantity of coal raised, and the average number of tons per man :* — Year. Number of Persons employed. Tons of Coal raised. Tons raised per Man. 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 Nos. 21,000 21,000 21,000 21,200 21,000 27,753 Tons. 6,000,000 6,000,000 6,200,000 6,500,000 6,500,000 6,327,188 Tons. 285 285 295 309 307 228 Mr. Thomas Wynne, H.M. inspector of this district, states, in his evidence before the select committee on coal already referred to, that the number of persons employed in the last-named year was arrived at under entirely different circumstances to those obtained in previous years. He says, "Previous to the year 1872 we had no power to call for returns, and in 1872 we had the power, and we called for them; and the return has been made even up to so close as the men who repair railway waggons, the carpenters and blacksmiths, and the loaders of the boats, and every person employed in and about the colliery," f above ground and underground. In the year 1873 and subsequent years those employed above and below groimd are separately given, amounting in 1873 to 23,177 under ground and 7,444 above ground, or a total of 30,621 persons, of whom 10,000 were engaged in ironstone mining, pro- ducing, according to the returns of H.M. inspectors, 6,267,468 tons of coal, and 3,000,000 tons of ironstone, in the district of North Staffordshire, Cheshire, and Shropshire. * Select Committee on Coal, 1873, p. 329, North StafEordsliire, Shropshire, and Cheshire district, t Report, Select Committee on Coal, 1873, p. 211. CHAP. XI.] NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 151 Since 1874 the details appear separately for North Stafford- shire,* and are as follows : — Year. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total employed. Coal raised. Raised per Man. Under Ground. Atove Ground. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 15,606 14,908 13,958 14,005 13,063 12,660 12,307 Nos. 5,150 4,687 4,603 3,951 3,845 3,346 3,273 Nos. 20,756 19,595 18,561 17,956 16,908 16,006 15,580 Tons. 4,486,483 4,202,149 3,905,066 4,191,320 4,140,200 4,017,045 4,074,800 Tons. 216 215 210 233 245 251 261 The ages of the 16,006 persons employed in the year 1879 are thus distinguished by Mr. Thomas Wynne, the inspector of the district : — Male persons. Under Ground. Above Ground. Total. Ages. From 12 to 13 „ 10 to 13 . „ 13 to 16 Above 16 . Total all ages . Nos. 96 "946 11,618 Nos. '4 206 3,136 Nos. 96 4 1,152 14,754 12,660 3,346 16,006 Resources and probable Duration of the Coal-field.— Sir George EUiot, Bart., to whom, as a member of the Eoyal Com- mission, was intrusted the investigation into the quantity of coal available in North Staffordshire, reports as follows : f — " The coal-field consists of one large, and several small outlying dis- tricts, all of which are separately considered. The chief physical characteristics bearing on the inquiry are, the steep inclination of the seams in some parts ; the great thickness of coal (150 feet divided into numerous seams) the anticlinal axis running through the district, and the great fault which throws the strata down about 1,200 feet." The principal district has an area of 30,876 acres, and is bounded on the west and south by the new red sandstone and permian rocks, and on the east by the red sandstone and mUl- * Reports, H. M. Inspectors of Mines. + Report, Coal Commission, vol. i., pp. 26, 27. 152 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. stone grit. The area is much disturbed by faults, the dip of the seams varying greatly in dififerent parts. It is further remarked that the above named area of 30,876 acres was arranged in four divisions for purposes of investigation, the aggregate of which appears in the following statement, in which also is given the estimated quantity of coal in each of the outlying districts, avail- able after deducting portions likely to be sacrificed by faults, barriers, and loss in working, at various depths : — District. Siuface Area. Not exceeding 1,600 ft. in Depth. Between 1,500 ft. and 3,000 ft. in Depth. Between 3,000 ft. and 6,000 ft. in Depth. Total at aU Depths. 1, 2, 3, and 4 Verges . Cheadle . . Wetley. Goldsitch. . Total . Acres. 30,876 10,400 11,616 1,200 90 Tons. 1,325,980,007 354,330,240 104,524,603 3,062,400 117,450 Tons. 1,012,361,046 672,824,815 Tons. 664,928,888 791,933,744 Tons. 2,903,269,941 1,815,299,199* 104,524,603 3,062,400 117,460 51,182 1,788,014,700 1,585,185,861 1,356,862,632 4,826,273,693 In the report of the Commissionf the total quantities of coal available at all depths are thus rendered; coal to deptM not exceeding 4,000 feet, 3,825,488,105 tons, and below 1,000,785,488 tons, making the aggregate of 4,826,273,593 tons, j Taking the production of the year 1870, as given (3,873,562 tons), since which the production has yearly increased, there remain supplies for the next 1,246 years from that date. Deduct- ing the produce of coal during the ten years ending 1879, amounting to 41,110,364 tons, there remained at that date 4,785,163,229 tons to a depth of 9,000 feet. This quantity, taking the average production of the ten years (4,111,036 tons), it is estimated, will furnish supplies to our numerous industries for a period of 1,164 years compared with 1,246 years from the year 1870. WhUe according to the output in the year 1880, amount- ing to 4,074,800 tons, ample supplies would be stored for 1,174 years hence. * This quantity includes 96,210,400 tons of coal in the district of the Verges, at depths between 6,000 and 9,000 feet, t Report, Coal Commission, vol. i., p. ix. CHAPTEK XII. SOUTH STAFFOEDSHIEE AND WOKCESTEESHIKB COAL-FIELD. Deacription of Coal-field — The South StafEordshire MineB Drainage Association, its Objects — Analyses, Production of Coal-field, and of the Area under the Mines Drainage Act — Yield of Coal Seams per Acre — Distribution of Coal — Prices and Cost of Production — Population employed above and below Ground — Average Output per Man — Eesouroes and probable Duration of Coal-field. The South Staffordshire and Worcestershire Coal-field. — This coal-field is one of the most important in central England, and differs from all others in the character of the underlying rock, which is Upper Silurian (Wenlock limestone and shale), the millstone grit, or carboniferous limestone, on which the coal usually rests in other coal-fields, being absent here. In other words, the old land surface, on which the flora of the coal measures grew, was an eroded surface of Upper Silurian rocks. It has been clearly shown by the late Professor J. B. Jukes, in his " Memoir on the South Staffordshire Coal-field," that, whilst the same accumulations were going on in other parts of England, a broad tract of land, extending over Shropshire, Staffordshire, and Warwickshire, was dry land. Consequently the usually associated condition of other coal-fields is here wanting ; both the grits and limestones of the carboniferous series being absent, the well-marked isolated Silurian masses of Dudley, Sedgley, and Walsall, rising from beneath the coal measures, and on which they rest. The coal-field extends from Eugeley in the north, to the Clent Hills in the south, a distance of twenty miles, embracing the important districts of Cannock Chase, Wolverhampton, Bilston, Dudley, Corngreaves, &c., and has an average width of from seven to eight miles, and is bordered by the Bunter Sandstone and Permian Rock, the former having a thickness of 1,200 feet, the latter exceeding 2,000 feet. The coal measures beneath are divided into upper and middle ; the upper division consisting of red and mottled clays, red and grey sandstones, and gravel beds, 154 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [paet i. and having a total thickness of 800 feet, but barren of coal seams. The middle measures, however, contain a thickness of upwards of 500 feet, in which occur six important seams of coal, interstratifled with numerous courses of ironstone. The general thickness of these measures is given as follows by Professor Jukes, the thickness of the seams and strata being the average of many sections in the southern district of the coal-field : — UPPER COAL MEASURES. Ft. Eed and mottled clays, red and gray sandstones and gravel bed 800 MIDDIE COAL MEASURES (1300 ft.) 1. Brooch Coal 4 Strata mth ironstone 130 2. Thick Coal 30 Strata ■with. Gubbin ironstone 20 3. Seathen Coal .......... 4 Strata -with ironstone 109 4. New Mine Coal 8 Strata witb ironstone .... . . 16 5. Fire-clay Coal ... . ... 7 Strata 30 6. Bottom Coal . . 12 Strata with, several courses of ironstone . . . 140 The above six seams give a total thickness of 65 feet of work- able coal, the most important of which is the " Thick Coal," ten yards thick, a source of great wealth to the district of Dudley. This celebrated seam is in the northern part of the coal basin, near Essington and PelsaU, represented by nine distinct seams, divided and separated by 420 feet of sandstone and shales. Each of these seams has its own under-clays, roof, and fossil contents. One interesting feature in this coal-field is tlie basaltic mass of Eowley Eegis, forming a hill two miles in length and 820 feet in height. Professor Jukes * considers that this] rock has been poured out in the form of a lava flow during the coal period, for the beds of coal dip under the basalt, and have been followed and found "blackened " or charred, and utterly worthless.! The flooded condition of the collieries in and around Bilston renders the enormous quantity of 150,000,000 tons of coal un- workable. To provide a remedy, and to make this great mass of coal, and the ironstone measures associated with it, more easily available, the " South Staffordshire Mines Drainage Act, 1873," * For detailed information of the " South StafEordshire Coal Field," see " Memoirs of the Geological Survey," hy J. Beete Jukes, F.E.S. Second edition, published 1859. + This coal has of late years been used in several manufactures, also on railways. It is not charred, but converted into a black pulverulent mass. CHAP. XII.] SOUTH STAPPOKDSHIRE AND WOECESTERSHIEE, 155 was passed, the works of which are now in active operation. This flooding or ponding up of water ia the mines has heen occasioned by a great part of the drainage area having subsided, causing hollows, which, often occurring in the water courses, find their way into the mines below, and become a fruitful source of danger to life and property. The geological or under-ground configuration of the drainage area may be described as a series of basins, separated by faults, and in each basin the strata incline more or less to the centre of the basin, at which they come at their lowest point. The result is that all mines in any one of these basins are dependent upon each other, and (except so far as surface percolation is concerned) independent of other basins. Consequently the mines on the top edge of a basin are little troubled with water, their water naturally draining into the mines of their less fortunate neighbours lower down. In carrying the Act into operation, the Commissioners had three important things to consider. First, to subdivide the drainage area into districts, following the natural configuration of the strata, so that each district might consist of a subter- ranean basin, and, so far as its underground drainage was concerned, be entirely unaffected by, and unable itself to affect, any other district. In the second place, it was necessary to introduce an efiicient system of surface drainage to prevent water percolating from surface water-com-ses and drains into the mines ; and thirdly, an efficient system of underground or mine drainage, by removing the water which is actually in the strata itself. The mines in the area are classified under the following heads : — (1.) Mines at the top edge of an underground basin (" called mines in the cross "), which are necessarily free from Water ; (2.) Mines obstructed and requiring perpetual pumping ; (3.) Flooded mines ; and (4.) Exhausted mines. The necessary funds for carrying out the Act are provided by two distinct rates — the one called the " General Drainage Eate," applicable for the purposes of surface drainage ; the other, the "Mines Drainage Eate," applicable for the purposes of under- ground drainage. The engineering works of this comprehensive scheme have 156 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES, [PABT I. been carried out under the able superintendence of commissioners, assisted by Mr. E, B. Marten, C.E., of Stourbridge ; and an in- structive model on a large scale of the area of the country included in the Act, constructed by Mr. James B. Jordan, and deposited in the offices of the commissioners at Wolverhampton, illustrates the configuration of the country and the details of the scheme. Analyses of the Coal.— The Ten Yard, or " Thick Coal," from the Whyley CoUiery, and the "Heathen Coal," two im- portant seams in the South .Staffordshire and Worcestershire coal-field, are thus referred to by Dr. Percy:* "Non-caking coals, rich in oxygen ; the Ten Yard or Thick Coal, from the Whyley Colliery, in the vicinity of West Bromwich, this seam consists of ten or more beds, to which special names are applied, viz., ' Eooves,' ' Top Shpper,' ' White Coal,' and ' Brazils ; ' the last-named contains much earthy matter, and is in request for certain reverberatory smelting furnaces in Birming- ham." The powder of each of these coals is brownish-black. The Heathen Coal, from the Grace Mary Colliery, Rowley Regis. — " This seam is between 5 and 6 feet thick, lies at the depth of a few yards below the Ten Yard Coal, and is overlaid by the Gubbin ironstone. The coal is bright black, non-caking, and yields a buff-coloured ash." The composition of these coals appears in the annexed table : — Composition exclusive of Water. TEN YARD OR THICK COAL. Heathen Coal. Rooves. Top Slipper. White Coal. BrazUs. Carbon .... Hydrogen. . . . Oxygen. Sulphur . . . . Ash ... . Water .... Total . 76-12 4-83 16-72 1-00 2-33 77-01 4-71 16-72 0-74 1-56 76-40 4-62 17-43 0-35 1-55 72-13 4-32 17-11 0-54 6-44 70-41 4-69 12-47 0-71 2-20 9-52 101-00 100-74 100-55 100-55 100-00 Composition exclusive of Sulphur, Ash, and Water. Carbon .... Hydrogen . . . . Oxygen and Nitrogen . Total . 78-46 4-96 16-58 78-53 4-80 16-67 77-68 4-69 17-63 77-33 4-67 18-00 80-41 5-35 14-24 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 * Percy's " Metallurgy," Fuel, p. 325. CHAP. XII.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AND WORCESTERSHIRE. 157 Other seams, worked at Grace Mary Colliery, Eowley Eegis, are thus described : * Sawyer Coal. — " This coal forms one of the constituent seams of the Ten Yard or Thick Coal ; the sample analysis came from the neighbourhood of an igneous dyke. Coke, slightly coherent, moderately lustrous ; flame, yellow, smoky ; colom' of the ash, buff." Brazils Coal. — " This also forms part of the Thick Coal, and, like the last sample, came from the neighbourhood of an igneous dyke. Coke, slightly coherent, moderately lustrous. Flame, yellow, smoky. Colour of the ash, buff." These analyses were made in Dr. Percy's laboratory, in the Eoyal School of Mines, by Mr. Charles Law, and give the following results : — Results Tabulated. Constituents. Sawyer Seam. Brazils Seam. Carbon .... Hgdrogen . . . . Oxygen and Nitrogen . Sulphur . . . . Ash .... Water .... 68-40 4-43 10-28 1-05 8-91 6-93 67-34 4-62 11-68 0-62 8-00 7-74 100-00 100-00 The composition per cent., exclusive of sulphur, ash, and water, being : — Constituents. Sawyer. Brazils. Carbon .... Hydrogen. . . . Oxygen and Nitrogen . Yield of Coke 82-30 5-33 12-37 80-51 5-52 13-97 100-00 100-00 64-00 60-70 Production of CoaL — It appears, from Plott's History of Staffordshire, that in the year 1785 there were twelve collieries at work in the coal-field, in the districts of Wednesbmy, Dudley, and Sedgley, and twice as many out of work, some of which afforded 2,000 tons yearly, others three, four, or five thousand tons per annum. From which it may be estimated that the production of coal at this period, in these important districts, did not exceed • Percy's " Metallurgy," Fuel, p. 669. 158 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES, [part i. 60,000 tons. In the year 1800 a committee was appointed by Parliament to inquire into the inland coal trade. From the evidence bearing on Staffordshire, it is stated by Mr. Alexander Eabey, an iron merchant,* that " the present price of the Staffordshire (coal) at the pit is six shUlings per ton, of 21 cwts., and 120 lbs. to the cwt. ; inferior coals are sold at three shillings per ton ; the small coal for engines are from one shilling to one shilling and sixpence per ton." Mr. ' Eabey does not give any facts bearing on production or distribution, but he gives the following information, showing the price of coals after the cost of conveyance has been added : — " I compute the average distance of those collieries (the Dudley collieries), to Brentford, 148 miles ; the boatage, |d. per ton per mile ; 9s. Sd. boy and horse, of back carriage in- cluded, would be about ^d. per ton per mile, is 6^d. more, ia all, about £1 Is. 5d. per ton." A London chaldron of the Newcastle coals wiU be about twenty-seven cwts. ; he adds one-third of the weight and one-third of the price on a London chaldron. There- fore, if Staffordshire coals to Brentford cost £1 8s. 7d. per chal- dron, allowing 2s. lid., they would stand, when imported into London, about 33s. per ton. Returning to the coal production of Staffordshire, we have it, on the authority of Samuel Salt, for the year 1816, that it amounted to 795,000 tons. The same gentleman, in his " Sta- tistics and Calculations," gives the total output of the collieries of Great Britain for the same year (1816) as 27,020,115 tons. Since the year 1854, ample information has been published, showing the number of collieries working in the South Stafford- shire coal-field, including that portion of the coal-field in the county of "Worcester, in the neighbourhood of Dudley. The number of collieries at fuU work at this period was 500, which had at least 2,000 pits, and of these a large majority produced nearly 100 tons of coal per week. The total production of coal in North and South Staffordshire at this period was 7,500,000 tons, the quantities carried out of the county being comparatively small, the pig iron industries consuming 3,415,200 tons. The number of collieries, and the annual output from 1854 to 1863, are as follows : — * Inland Coal Trade, " Report of the Committee, 1800," Evidence on Stafiordshire. CHAP. XII.] SOUTH STAFFOEDSHIEB AND WOKCESTEKSHIEE. 159 Year. ColUeries. Production of Coal. Year. ColUeries. Production of Coal. No Tons. No. Tons. 1864 393 *7, 500,000 1859 422 4,450,000 1855 377 ♦7,323,000 1860 441 5,271,800 1856 425 6,010,500 1861 452 4,881,250 1867 438 5,509,625 1862 457 4,986,500 1858 424 4,955,780 1863 465 6,171,820 Since the year 1864 two sources of information are at hand, giving the output of the collieries in South Staffordshire and Worcestershire; the one from the "Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom," the other from the " Annual Keports of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Coal Mines." The collieries of this district, it may be observed, are very numerous ; many of them, however, are but small workings. It not unfrequently happens that a pit is opened and, a few tons of coal haviag been obtained, it is closed within a few months. The following table shows the number of collieries in each year, the variation iu numbers being due to the cause above referred to, as well as pits being included as collieries, also the respective quantities of coal raised as deter- mined by the Keeper of Mining Eecords in each year. Tear. CoUierieB. Mineral Statistics. Year. Collieries. Mineral Statistics. No. Tons. No. Tons. 1863 465 6,171,820 1872 319 10,650,000 1864 623 8,263,351 1873 407 9,463,559 1866 642 8,706,239 1874 469 8,389,343 1866 512 8,664,966 1876 442 10,261,791 1867 572 8,779,509 1876 434 10,081,067 1868 +327 8,748,950 1877 457 9,841,191 1869 326 8,944,395 1878 437 9,130,774 1870 326 9,356,500 1879 425 9,360,000 1871 307 10,031,250 1880 413 t9,660,000 Bearing on the question of production in South Staffordshire, it may be noted that the coal deposits of Cannock Chase are now (June, 1881) in course of rapid development, one company pro- ducing on an average 2,000 tons per day, and even more ; and should occasion require, the same company is in a position to increase its output to 3,000 tons daily. Eecently, at one of the pits of the Cannock and Eugeley Company, 1,051 tons were brought to bank from a depth of 350 yards in a period of eight hours. The Keeper of Mining Eecords, referring to the returns for the * Including the production of North StafEordshiie. t In previous years pits were included as collieries, i Beport of H.H. Inspectors of Coal Mines. 160 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. year 1864, remarks * : "It will be necessary to make corrections in former years, aU the returns being too small. This has arisen from my having taken the ' boat load ' as being 20 tons." The best explanation of the difficulty will be. given in the following paragraph from a paper read at a conference of mine owners and agents, by Eupert Kettle, Esq., Vice-President of the Dudley and Midland Geological Society : — " We have in one colliery district three different weights, each called and commonly recognized as a ton. First, the statutable ton, that is, the avoirdupois weight of 2,240 lbs. Next, we have the long hundred, or long weight, as we commonly understand it, that is, 120 lbs. to the hundred-weight instead of 112 lbs., giving 2,400 lbs. to the ton. And then, thirdly, we have the ' boat load ' of 24 long hundreds, or 2,880 lbs. to the ton : and, lastly, there is a measure acted upon, I am sorry to say for business purposes, called a ' boat load.' I should very much like some one to tell me any rule by which I can ascertaia the exact weight, according to the law standard, of the whole, or any aliquot part of a ' boat load ' of coals. I know a boat load is 20 tons, and the furthest to which I can carry the weight is 20 tons 'lease weight,' that is 57,600 lbs. or 25 tons, 13 cwts., 2 qrs., and 16 lbs. weight, and yet I am told that sometimes a ' boat load of coals ' will what is called weigh out thirty hundred- weight to the ton." In considering the production of coal, and the area of this coal- field included under the operation of the " South Staffordshire Mines Drainage Act, 1873," the importance of the work wiU be understood by the returns of the several districts of coal produced, upon which rates were levied in each year since 1874. It must be remembered, however, that the largest part of the coal obtaiued annually in South Staffordshire is worked outside the Mine's Drainage area : — Districts. 1874. 1376. 1878. 1879. 1880. Tipton . Bilston . . KangBwinford . Old Ttm . . Oldbury . Total . Tons. 1,103,396 640,926 757,937 782,193 641,103 Tons. 950,666 568,687 835,561 884,127 867,728 Tons. 584,075 242,637 724,530 699,784 904,748 Tons. 434,798 175,420 709,315 684,522 946,966 Tons. 518,602 204,531 696,658 828,430 940,813 3,925,555 4,106,769 3,155,774 2,951,021 3,189,034 * Mineral Statistics, 1864, p. 90. CHAP, xii.] SOUTH STAFFOEDSHIRE AND WOECESTEESHIRE. 161 The j'ield per acre of the seams of coal is a matter of great importance, varj'ing considerably in this district, more particularly in the " Ten Yard Coal," the thickness of which, exclusive of its pai'tings of clay and shale, averages 8 yards, 2 feet, 3 inches. The following table, by Mr. Thomas Smith, gives practically the average quantities of coals, lumps, and slack obtained from each acre of coal, of the thickness indicated : — * Coal Seams, Thickness. Coals. Lumps. Slack. Brooch Coal . Flying Eeed . . . Thick Coal . Heathen Coal . . . New Mine Top and Bot- tom Coal . New Mine Bottom Coal . Total thickness Yds. Ft. In. 1 9 1 1 8 2 3 1 U 2 6 3 2 6 Tons. 1,815 3,226 10,400 2,420 11,695 9,275 Tons. 363 645 1,733 484 2,339 1,855 Tons. 1,452 968 3,267 726 3,508 2,782 21 38,831 10,574 7,419 2,494 12,703 3,025 Total quantities, the Th being got with ribs and Additional if the Thick Cc by long work lick Coal pillars . al be got \ ongwork Total quantities if got by 1 49,405 9,913 15,728 Distribution of Coal. — The London and North. Western Eailway carried, in the year 1859, out of South Staffordshire, 94,000 tons of coal, the total quantities carried by the same rail- way system in the year amounting to 2,721,000 tons. In the years 1860 and 1861 the production is thus accounted for : — How Distributed. I860. 1861. Used at Iron Works Used in Collieries and Lime Works Local consumption ■ . . . Sent out of district ..... Total . . Tons. 2,975,000 156,800 650,000 490,000 Tons. 2,550,500 160,750 650,000 1,520,000 4,271,800 4,881,250 Ten years later the following details of distribution appear for the years 1870 and 1871 :— • Thomas Smith's " Miners' Guide, 1836," p. 79., 162 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [I'AET How Distributed. 1870. 1871. Used at Iron Works Used in other manufactures . . Domestic consumption . Collierjr „ , &o. . . By Railway and Canal . Total . . Tons. 3,185,750 1,350,000 1,850,000 1,250,760 1,720,000 Tons. 3,585,750 1,500,000 1,875,500 1,350,000 1,720,000 9,356,500 10,031,250 The annexed table shows the quantities of coal used at the ironworks, and sent out of the district by railway : — Year. Iron Works. London and North Western. Midland. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1860 2,975,000 93,000 60,104 1861 2,550,500 ■ ■• 89,048 1862 2,350,500 211,210 88,248 1863 2,561,320 314,695 79,809 1864 4,660,945 389,174 85,922 1865 4,655,940 314,121 • .. 1866 4,588,375 272,892 33,376 1867 3,979,379 337,417 43,263 1868 3,293,450 455,967 34,667 1869 3,170,500 626,308 41,189 1870 3,185,750 665,720 42,305 1871 3,585,750 708,597 47,660 1872 *3,250,000 809,622 53,842 In the last-named year the Great Western Eailway carried 494,608 tons out of South Staffordshire, and 408,219 tons from the Ruabon district into the same county. Following the dis- tribution of coal, the annexed statement gives the details for the year 1880 and the three previous years : — How Distributed. 1877. 1878. Tons. 1,086,370 169,392 325,364 859,122 3,030,570 208,828 1,801,128 1,000,000 650,000 1879. 1880. CarrieJ out of County by London 1 and North-Western Kailway / Carried out of County by Midland I Kailway .... J Carried out of County by the Great 1 Western ... . / Carried by Birmingham Canal for 1 Birmingham . . . j Carried by Birmingham Canal for 1 Works in Mining Districts . | Carried out of County by ditto Canal Domestic Consumption, in addition 1 to Birmingham ... J Colliery Consumption, &c. . Used in Manufactures, extra . Total produce of South Staf- \ fordshire and Worcestershire / Tons. 1,138,293 163,903 344,702 916,238 3,144,460 207,995 1,776,550 1,255,000 895,000 Tons. 1,499,337 209,561 311,178 828,942 2,968,800 227,782 1,500,180 950,110 854,110 Tons. 1,511,099 189,247 306,141 770,245 3,401,613 214,390 1,440,265« 965,000. 8ti2,000» 9,841,191 9,130,774 9,350,000 9,660,000 Kstimated quantities. CHAP. XII.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AITB WORCESTERSHIRE. 163 Before considering the distribution of coal by canal, it will be desirable to trace generally the distribution by railway since the last returns for the year 1872. It will be useful at the same time to record the quantities of coal brought into South Staffordshire by the Great Western Kailway from the Euabon district : — Year. London and Xortli Western. Midland. GREAT WESTERN. Out Of South Stafford. From Ruabon. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 971,525 632,630 1,161,425 1,203,401 1,138,293 1,086,370 1,499,337 1,511,099 Tons. 106,484 60,590 140,593 181,511 163,903 169,892 209,561 189,247 Tons. 487,635 303,187 398,842 369,102 344,702 325,364 311,178 1,511,099 Tons. 397,069 347,527 369,084 352,777 294,316 263,268 250,953 285,850 The other items of distribution in each of the same years, attracting attention, are the quantities conveyed by the Birming- ham Canal to the various works in the mining districts in South Staffordshire, and for domestic consumption. Year. To Birmingham. To Mining Bistricts. Domestic Consiunption. Collieries Consumption. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1873 812,668 3,500,223 1,750,000 1,300,000 1874 776,881 • 3,114,305 1,750,000 1,625,000 1875 939,779 3,377,355 1,675,500 1,279,000 1876 936,724 3,114,821 1,650,000 1,250,000 1877 916,288 3,144,460 1,575,550 1,255,000 1878 859,122 3,030,570 1,801,128 1,000,000 1879 828,942 2,968,800 1,500,180 950,110 1880 770,245 3,401,613 1,440,265 965,000 The distribution of coal is greatly facilitated in South Stafford- shire by the system of water communication traversing the county in all directions ; and the Birmingham Canal Navigation, which has direct communication with the adjoining counties of Worcester and Warwick. The annexed table will show the quantities of coal sent by the several canals carrying from South Staffordshire in each of the years named : — M 2 164 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [part I. "Worcester Wai-wick Coventiy Staffordshire Whittington Canal. Canal. Canal. sliire Canal. to Fazeley. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1866 135,585 77,205 518 13,776 1,039 1867 148,000 94,165 2,149 19,661 3,044 1868 148,186 98,248 1,778 28,317 4,772 1869 148,474 104,021 1,210 41,724 2,946 1870 140,453 103,286 773 48,502 2,812 > 1871 127,859 110,243 322 52,845 2,395 1 1872 118,779 91,374 340 59,132 1,160 1 1873 118,672 90,087 452 64,650 847 1874 102,130 67,785 405 55,951 479 1875 117,552 25,626 213 83,660 902 1876 116,061 9,534 405 97,555 1,972 1877 112,051 7,685 572 85,301 2,385 1878 110,176 6,834 2,373 83,755 5,689 1879 116,058 23,459 206 83,946 4,112 1880 109,909 15,269 612 87,186 1,415 Supplementing the above quantities with the tonnages of coal sent to Birmingham, and carried for the supply of works in the mining districts, by the Birmingham Canal Navigation, the following totals show the aggregate distribution of coal by canal in each of the years named : — BlEMINGHAM CASTAL NAVIGATION. Year. Coal carried. Tear. Coal carried. Tons. Tons. 1866 3,601,621 1873 4,587,600 1867 3,841,062 1874 4,117,937 1868 3,786,369 1875 4,545,089 1869 4,302,103 1876 4,277,054 1870 4,312,582 1877 4,268,744 1871 4,415,697 1878 4,098,521 1872 4,495,333 1879 4,025,525 The quantity carried in 1880 amounted to* 4,386,248 tons. Prices of Coal and Cost of Froduction. — In 1836 Mr. Thos. Smith, in his " Miners' Guide," gives the following quotations per ton of coals of different descriptions delivered into boats or waggons at the pits, the coals quoted being raised at the Deep- field Mine :— Deepbteld Mine. s. d. Brooch Coal, large .80 „ lumps , : . ..50 „ Takings 3 9 CHAP, xu.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AND WORCESTERSHIRE. 165 Deepfield Mine (continued.) s. d. Brooch Coed, slack 2 6 ,, coke, per sack 14 Thick Coal, best 9 „ second 8 „ inferior 7 ,, furnace coal 6 6 ,, lumps 5 ,, slack, good 2 9 ,, ,, small 2 6 iVctu 2Iine Top and Fire-clay Coals, best 7 „ ,, ,, furnace coal . . .60 „ „ lumps . . ..50 „ „ ,, rakings. . . .36 „ ,, „ slack, good . ..29 ,, „ „ inferior . .26 New Mine, bottom coal, best 6 ,, lumps 4 6 ,, slack 2 6 The above are the actual charges at the time, but the prices of all the varieties of coal vary considerably, according to their quality, which is by no means the same in all parts of the same district or collieries.* The average cost per ton of getting coals, lumps, and slack from the various coal seams was as follows at the period above referred to : — Coal Seam. Coal. Lumps. 1 Slack. Brooch .... Flying Reed . . . Thick Coal , Heathen Coal . . . New Mine Top and Fire Clay Coal . New Mine Bottom Coal . Total . S. ((. 4 3 2 6| 2 4 2 7 J 1 m 1 lOi S. l(. 1 '1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 s. d. 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 bl 7 6 The average price per ton of these six seams of coal being, coals, 2s. Id. ; lumps, Is. 2d., and slack. Is. When in 1873 a great demand for coal arose, due to the j^eneral activity of trade, prices increased considerably, varying from 15s. to 19s. per ton ; prices in the previous year ranging from lis. 3d. to 15s. per ton. Mr. Fisher Smith, in his evidence * " Miners' Guide," Thomas Smith, p. 84. 166 COAL ANB lEON INDUSTRIES. [part i. before the Select Committee on Coals,* states that upwards of 1,000,000 tons of coal are raised in the year from the collieries belonging to the Earl of Dudley, nearly one-half of which is used in iron manufacture, and in the production of which from 8,000 to 10,000 men are employed. It further appears that hewers' wages in 1873 were 5s, 6d. per day for less hours' work than in the year 1869, when wages varied from 4s. to 4s. 6d. per day. To illustrate this more clearly one pit is taken as a fair average, in which the hewers made in the week 7*3 days, for which they received 29s. 3d. In 1872 they did 7"2 days, earning £1 15s. Id. per week, and in 1873, in 7'3 days, earning £2 Os. 5d. per week, the above rates being an average of 10 men for each period, some of the highest and some of the lowest. In 1869 they worked 11 hours per day, diminished to 8 hours in 1872 and 1873. Immediately preceding the passing of the " Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1872," the prices of thick coal, at the respective collieries of the Earl of Dudley, were as follows : — Coal Vis. per ton. Lumps 12s. ,, Slack (engine) 6a. „ The effect of the Act in the district has been to increase the cost of coal something like Is. per ton. The wages of colliers in South Staffordshire have not under- gone such great fluctuations during the past ten years as in most other coal-fields. Between 1870 and 1873 they rose from 40 to 45 per cent. ; but a good deal of it was in the form of the re- duction of the hours of work. In South Staffordshire the hours of labour fell from sixty-six a week in 1871 to forty-eight in 1873, while the wages rose from 5s. a day to 5s. 6d. ; that is, the hours of work decreased 29 per cent., and wages increased 10 per cent., making altogether an advance of nearly 40 per cent. In North Staffordshire the hours of labour also fell from 68 to 50 per week, and wages were advanced 30 per cent. Since then the reverse movement has taken place. The wages are now regulated by a sliding scale, according to the selling price of coal.t The present selling prices of coal per ton of 2,240 lbs., from * Report, Coal, 1873, p. 91. •j- "Ten Years' Coal Mining, StafEordshire," ColUei-y G'worrfiare, toI. xl., 1880, p. 492. CHAP. XII.] SOUTH STAFFOEDSHIEE AND WORCESTERSHIKE. 167 the Earl of Dudley's collieries, are as follows (September, 1881), these prices have been current for upwards of nine months : — EAST OF DUDLEY (Tipton Disteict). Thick Coal. INTO BOATS. s d Best (Household) g o' Eurnace '.'.'..' 8 Porge or Steam . . . ..'.'..'. 8 Engine Slack (Best) '..'.! 4 Pine Slack (Ordinary) . ! 3 6 New Mine Coal. Large 9 IJorge 8 6 Engine Slack 4 6 Heathen Coal. J'arge 9 Eorge 8 6 Engine Slack 4 6 WEST OP DUDLEY (Bkierley Hill District). Thick Coal. 1. Best (Household) 12 ■ 2. Purnace 8 6 3. Steam (For locomotives) 7 4. Screenings (Bright) 7 5. Screenings (Steam) 6 6 6. Engine Slack (Best Himley CuUiery) . . . .40 7. Engine Slack (Ordinarj) 3 6 In the beginning of February, probably due to the severe weather previously prevailing, the quotations of coal and slack were advanced, making furnace coal, 10s. per ton; forge coal, 8s. M., and engine coal and slack, 5s. per ton. These quotations, regulating the basis of the coal trade in Staffordshire, wiU accordingly lead to an advance of wages of 3d. per day to men working on thick coal, and l^d. to the men employed in the thin coal seams. No change appears to have been made in the Can- nock Chase district, where the Cannock Chase Eailway Collieries Company, one of the leading firms, give the following quotations : best deep coal, 10s. ; j'ard coal and best deep cobbles, 9s. ; shallows, 8s. Qd. ; steam coal, 6s. 6rf., and slack, 6s. Qd. and 5s. 6d., according to quality. Fopulatioii employed above and below Gronud. — ^In the working of coal and ironstone in Staffordshire, in the year 1854, 168 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [I'ART I. there were employed in coal mining 25,681 persons of all ages, and in ironstone mining 2,870 persons ; these totals include all employed above and below ground. In the Worcestershire ex- tension of the coal-field 2,188 persons were employed in the same year in coal-miniag, and 252 in ironstone mining, giving an aggregate of 27,869 persons in coal mining, and 3,122 persons in ironstone mining. The census of the year 1861 gave 25,235 persons as the number employed in South Staffordshire and Worcestershire ; increased in the year 1864 to 26,620 persons, when the production of the coal-field was, according to the returns of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Collieries, 10,206,000 tons of coal, giving an average annual yield per man of 383 tons. In subsequent years we have the following numbers of persons employed computed by the inspector of the district, to which is added the output of coal, and the average yield per man : — Year. Persons Employed. Coal Kaised. Average per Man. No. Tons. Tons. 186-1 26,620 10,206,000 383 1865 27,000 10,201,000 380 1866 27,000 10,300,000 381 1867 27,100 10,268,000 379 1868 28,000 9,900,000 350 1869 28,500 10,408,000 365 1870 29,000 10,400,000 358 1871 31,000 10,500,000 338 1872 31,500 10,550,000 335 These returns exhibit a gradual decline between the years 1864 and 1872 in the average output per man of 48 tons, equivalent to a decrease of 12 per cent. In the year 1873, under the provisions of the Coal Mines Regulation Act, the total number of persons employed in South Staffordshire, in coal and ironstone mining, was 36,829, of whom 27,497 were engaged under ground, and 9,932 above ground. Since that date^ the number of persons emploj'ed, and the quantity of coal and ironstone raised in South Staffordshire and Worcestershire, has been as follows ; * to which is appended the average yield per man in tons : — * Reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. • HAP. XII.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AND WORCESTERSHIRE. 169 PEEKONS EMPLOYED. Year. Coal Raised. Ironstone. Eaised. Average IJer Man, Under. Above. Total. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1873 27,497 9,332 36,829 11,100,000 346,644 310 1874 27,304 9,551 36,855 8,500,000 246,174 237 1875 26,457 9,211 35,668 10,300,000 384,055 299 1876 24,476 8,322 32,798 10,000,000 294,482 313 1877 21,483 7,277 28,760 9,500,630 206,452 337 1878 18,681 6,422 25,103 8,976,000 191,513 365 1879 17,641 5,914 23,555 9,329,197 149,204 402 1880 17,563 5,930 23,493 9,660,000 180,245 423 In the year 1879, the numbers of persons employed in the South Staffordshire and Worcestershii-e parts of the coal-field sue given separately, and appear as follows : — Districts. Under Ground. Above Ground. Total. South Staffordshire Worcestershire . . Total . Nos. 15,045 2,596 N..S. 5,061 853 Nos. 20,106 3,449 17,641 5,914 23,555 Their respective ages being thus distinguished ; Male Persons. Under Ground. Above Ground. Total. Nos. X.is. N..S. From 12 to 13 21 ... 21 „ 10 to 13 . 3 3 „ 13 to 16 1,256 368 1,624 ,. 13 to 16 . 89* 89 Above 16 . . . 10,364 5,057 21,421 „ 16 . . . . Total . 397t 397 17,641 5,914 23,555 In examining the average quantity of coal and ironstone raised per man in South Staffordshire, according to the returns of Her Majesty's Inspectors, a great falling off appears in the year 1874, when it did not exceed 237 tons ; the diminished output lu-ose from a " strilie," which prevailed for about four months. This, with the depressed condition of the iron trade, on which ♦ Females, 18 in Staffordshire and 71 in Worcestershire. t Females, 316 in Staffordshii-e and 81 in Worcestershire. 170 COAL AND IRON INDUSTKIES. [PAET I. the consumption of coal greatly depends, reduced the output from 11,100,000 tons in 1873 to 8,500,000 tons the following year, a decrease of 2,600,000 tons, equal to 23 per cent. Since 1874 the average output has steadily increased, and results in this direction compare favourably -with other coal producing districts. Comparing the results of the past ten years with the average yield per man in the year 1835, we have the following as the actual quantity of coal and ii'onstone got per man per day in the South Staffordshire coal-field, from the seams named : — * Coal Seams. Coals. Lumps. Slack. Brooch Coal . Flying Eeed Coal . . Thick Coal . Heathen Coal . . . New Mine Top and Fire Clay Coals . New Mine Bottom Coal . Average day's getting . Tons. Cwts. Qre. 1 4 2 10 5 2 3 3 9 1 4 10 Tons. Cwts. Qrs. 5 10 10 9 10 2 18 Tons. Cwts. Qrs. 1 15 1 10 13 1 3 1 1 18 16 1 3 12 2 6 5 3 3 2 2 12 1 3 giving a total daily production of 4 tons 15 cwts. Iqr. per man. The output of ironstone, according to the same authority, per man per day being as foUows, from the ironstone measures named : — * IROKSTONH MEASUBES. Tons.Cwts.Qrs. Thick Coal or Black Gubbin 18 3 New Mine ,, 16 2 PoorEobin 18 3 White Stone 260 Balls 15 Gubbin 15 Blue Flats 2C0 8 16 Average day's getting 15 Besonrces of Coal-field and probable Duration. — The result of the Coal Commission Inquiry shows that the aggregate acreage of coal, estimated as remaining unworked in South StaiFordshu-e, • " Miners' Guide," by Thomas Smith, of Sandy Fields, near Sedgelev, 183G. pp. 82, 83. CHAP. XII.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AND WOKCESTEESHIKE. 171 East Worcestershire, and Shropshire coal-fields, extend over an area of 136,368 acres, the coal amounting to 2,266,668,310 tons, while 360,548,542 tons are deducted as unavailable through inferior quality, waste in worldng, or destroyed by faults or other causes, leaving 1,906,119,768 tons available for future use. These estimates do not include any seam less than 12 inches m. thicltness, nor is any seam known to exist below 500 yards. Assuming 20 millions as the available coal remaining in the Shropshire area, there remained in the year 1870 some 1,886,119,768 tons in the South Staffordshire coal-field, which, at the rate of production (9,356,500 tons) in the year 1870,* would be exhausted in 200 years from that date. Deducting the coal raised during the ten years ending 1879, amounting to 96,445,475 tons, there remained at the end of 1879 some 1,789,674,293 tons, which, at the average of the past ten years, 9,644,547 tons, would afford supplies for 186 yeai's^ hence. The production of this coal-field in the year 1880 shows a slight increase over the average output of the past ten yeai's ; the total amounting to 9,660,000 tons, of which 8,231,000 tons, was raised in South Staffordshire, and 1,429,000 tons in the Worcestershire extension of the coal-field. The " ten yard " or thick coal, on either side of Dudley, was estimated by Mr. WiUiam Matthews in 1870 to last 40 years from that date, at the then rate of production. * Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom. CHAPTEE XIII. NOETH WALES COAL-FIELDS. Description of the Auglesea, Denbigh, and Flint Coal-fields and Succession of Strata — Analyses — Production and Distrilnition of Coal — Population employed , in Coal Mining — Resources and probable Duration. The North Wales Coal Fields. — These are situated in the counties of Anglesea, Denbigh, and Flint. The Anglesea coal- -field * forms a band of country stretching from Hirdrefaig, to Malldreath Bay, a distance of nine miles, its breadth at Mall- dreath Marsh being a mile and a half. The succession of strata as detennined by Professor Ramsay appears in the following section. + SuccEssioisr OF Strata Axglesea Coal-field. Permian RocJcs. — Eed Sandstone, Marl and conglomerate Coal Measures (1309 ft.). — Coal (Glopux) lying in lumps Shale Coal . Shale Coal . Strata Coal (irregular) . Strata Coal . Strata Coal (with Cannel roof) Strata (about) . Coal (supposed Berw Ucliaf coal, in three beds with partings Strata 650 Millstone Orit. — Coal (perhaps iti Millstone Grit) 2 ft. in. to 3 ,, ,, Yellow Sandstone and conglomerate . . Carhoinferous Limestone. — Grey and Black Limestone and Sandstone with Productus, Spirifer, Corals, &c. . . 450 There are eight seams of coal in this outlying coal-field, from -which no coal was raised in the year 1879 or 1880. The Denbighshire Coal-field is some eighteen miles in length l)y four in width, commencing three miles south of Oswestrj', * " Coal-fields of Great Britain," pp. 162, 163. t " Explanation of Section of Geological Survey," sheet 40, and Geological Map, sheet 78. Ft. In. 195 9 61 3 63 4 75 2 43 6 90 1 8 300 7 6 650 to 3 200 CHAP. XIII.] NORTH WALES COAL-FIELDS. 175 » where the new red sandstone begins to rest directly on the Mill- stone Grit, and extends northward by Oswestry to Euabon and AVrexham, to the north of the valley of the Alyn. The seams of coal in the field are not numerous, nine in number. The upper and lower sulphurous seams at the top of the series are not worked. The other seams and strata occur in the following order with the respective thicknesses : — SrccEssioif OF Coal Seams, Denbighshire Coai. Pield. Yds. Ft. In. Top SulpJiurous Coal 4 Strata 70 10 Bottom Sulphurous Coal 4 G Strata 10 7 Smith's Coal 022 Strata 12 1 1 Drowsall Coal (good quality) 3 Strata 908 Powell Coal 033 Strata 913 Tiuo-yard Coal 6 Strata 11 Crank Coal 028 Strata with Brassey Ironstone 10 2 6 Brassey Coal 5 Strata with Black Band Ironstone 18 in. . . . 10 11 Main Coal, with a parting of clay 18 in 7 6 Total . . . . lo6 10 Some valuable seams of ironstone occur in this coal-field, the principal being the " Brassey " and " Black Band ; " this last measure abounds in fossil remams of fish scales, teeth, and also contains a bivalve shell of the genus Anthracosia. The Plintsliire Coal-field extends for a distance of fifteen miles along the western side of the estuary of the Dee to the point of Air, but throughout a considerable part of its range the productive portion is narrow and greatly broken by faults. The coal seams dip beneath the estuary, reappearing through a fault near Parkgate, and underlie the New Red Sandstone of the Cheshire plain. Professor HuU gives the following general section of this coal-field : — Succession of Steata, rLiNTSHiRE Coal Pield. Ft. In. Four-foot Coal (Cannel Coal) 4 Strata 41 Bind Coal 2 6 Strata with ironstone 62 Hollin Coal (in three beds) 6 6 174 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [I'AKT I. Ft. In. Cannel I H Strata with ironstone 29 Brasseii Coal . . . . . • • • ..30 Strata 82 Main Coal 7 Strata 180ft. to 300 Lower Four-foot Coal (in some places Cannel . . .40 The main and Brassey Coal of Flintshire and Denbighshire correspond ; the HoUinof the first is the Two Yard of the second, while the " Bind " and the " Powell " seams are identified, so also with the intermediate measures of ironstone of Flintshire ; they also correspond with Denbighshire. These coal-fields were probably at one tune continuous, though they are now divided by the Mill- stone Grit, and severed by the Great Bala fault, one of the most extensive in Great Britain, traceable from the sea on the coast at Merionethshire through Bala lake into Cheshire, and with a dis- placement of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet. The total area of the Flintsliire coal-field is 35 square miles with an estimated thick- ness of 35 feet of coal. The coal and shales of these coal-fields are of considerable importance as gas and oil producers, as well as being adapted to household purposes. Those employed for gas-making (cannel) in Flintshire constitute a large portion of the HoUin Coal, and of the Lower four-foot coal of Leeswood near Mold. This latter seam is reported to yield a larger percentage of gas than the far- famed Wigan cannel, but the rich gas-producing area is limited to a comparatively small district, and is being rapidly exhausted. Analyses of the North Wales Coal. — The bituminous coals of Denbighshire, examined by Mr. Lewis Thompson, show the following constituents ; the coals reported upon beiug seams worked in the Ruabon district, known as the following : — BUABOS COALS. Constituents. Top Yard. Main Seaui. Yard Seam. Nant Scam. Volatile matter Coke Ash . . . Sulphur in. coal . ,, in coke „ in volatile matter . Ash in coke (per cent.) . Specific gravity . 37-50 62-50 2-50 1-40 0-80 0-60 4-00 1-269 41-50 58-50 1-00 0-85 0-45 0-40 1-70 1-284 34-00 66-00 1-40 1-10 0-60 0-50 2-10 1-271 37-90 62-10 1-40 1-10 0-70 0-40 2-20 1-269 CHAP. XIII.] NORTH WALES COAL-FIELDS. 175 The Ruabon Main Coal in the above series yielding by far the greatest proportion of volatile matter is thus described : " Coal black and laminated ; fracture irregular, inclining to cubical ; cross-fracture, foliated and splintry, with numerous layers of charcoal and other indications of iron pyrites ; streak, dull black. On the fire swells, and fuses together ; ash, pale yellow." The " Main Coal" and the " Two Yard Coal " worked by the Brymbo Company, Wrexham, employed as furnace and steam coal afford the following results on examination : — Eesults Tabulated. Constituents. Bryinbo Main Cual. Brymbo Two-yard. Carbon . Hydrogen Nitrogen . Sulphur Oxygen . Ash 77-87 O-09 0-57 2-73 9-52 4-22 78-13 0-53 0-54 1-88 8-02 5-90 100-00 100-00 The yield of coke from these coals is equivalent respectively to 55'40 and 56*20 per cent., the specific gravity being I'SOl and 1-283. Other analyses made in Dr. Percy's laboratory in the Royal School of Mines by Mr. W. L. Ward, give the following results. The coal examined was obtained from the " Main Seam " and the " Crank Seam," Wrexham, Denbighshire. Eesults Tabulated. Constituents. Main Coal. Crank Coal. Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen and Nitrogen Sulphur Ash Water 78-44 5-27 8-30 0-99 2-15 4-85 81-29 4-23 6-77 0-91 2-50 4-10 100-00 1 99-80 The Main Coal yields when coked 61"38 per cent., the coke leing somewhat lustrous and coherent, the colour of the ash light red. The Crank Coal, it should be observed, is a non-caking 176 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt i. coal ; colour of the ash light red. This coal is largely composed of the fibrous charcoal-like stuff, commonly called " mother of coal." The coal of several seams raised at the Ffrwd Collieries of Messrs. Sparow and Poole situated near Wrexham in Denbigh- shire, gave the following results on examination by Mr. Edward Eiley. The annexed refers to the five feet coal, the best furnace coal of the district. The whole of the sample was intimately pulverised. It contained moisture 4'32 per cent, The coal dried at 212° Fahr., giving the following : — Eestjlts Tabtjlated. Coke, per cent 67"28 ■ Sulphur -91 Ash 4-27 The ash consisting of silica "49 per cent, iron peroxide, and alumina, 3'06 per cent., with hme and traces of magnesia "72 per cent. ; a second analysis of the same coal giving 66'59 per cent, of coke, and 4"43 per cent, of ash. The Powell coal examined consisted of three samples, each of which was pulverized separately, and an intimate mixture made of equal weights of the powder. The mixture gave moisture 3'48 per cent. The coal dried at 212° Fahr., giving the following : — Eestjlts Tabulated. Coke, per cent 66 -SI Sulphui- 4'15 Ash 6-61 The ash consisted of silica 1"14 per cent., oxide of iron and alumina 5"28 per cent., and an appreciable amount of phosphoric acid and lime, amounting to 0"19 per cent. A second sample of the same coal prepared under similar conditions gave of coke 67'18 per cent, and 6'50 per cent, of ash. This coal appears to be extensively used for hme-burning, brick-making, &c. ; it is a caking coal and makes a good coke, it has been tried in the blast furnace, but it was found after some days' trial it would only make white iron. Samples of the Top, Bind, and Bottom seams examined under similar conditions as the preceding seams, the samples being pulverized, and equal weights of each intimately mixed, gave of moisture 3*38 per cent., and dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr. the annexed results were obtained of two varieties : — CHAP. XIII.] KOETH WALES COAL-FIELDS. Eestjlts Tabttlated. 177 Cnnstitnents. First. Second. Coke per ceut Sulphur Ash 67-91 2-25 P7-01 2-48 The ash in the first analysis consisted of 0*68 per cent, of silica, oxide of iron and alumina 1'28 per cent., and 0'56 per cent, of lime with a little magnesia. The second example examined is a furnace coal of second quality, containing hut a small proportion of sulphur; so far ns experience goes it does not appear to be a strong coal, crushing to some extent in the blast furnace, while as a coking coal it gives very good results. Another seam of coal in the "Wrexham district, examined also by Mr. Riley, name not stated, gave the annexed results. The coal contained moisture 4*79 per cent., giving when diied at 212° Fahr. :— Eesults Tabvlated. Coke, per cent 66'31 Sulphur 0-9(3 Ash 1-48 The ash consisting of silica 0"45 per cent., oxide of ii-on and alumina 0'63 per cent., and 0*40 per cent, of lime, with a little magnesia. It is remarked of this coal that the ash is white in colour ; the coal appears to make a hard coke, well adapted for use in the blast furnace, the percentage of sulphur being in- considerable. In this seam, and in others in the district, there are occasionally found thin veins or balls of iron i^yrites ; these when carefully removed not only increase the value of the coal, but render it available for use in the blast furnace. The Flintsliire Coals, described as free burning, strong, not binding, and leaving a white ash, the principal markets for which are Liver|)ool, Chester, Holyhead, the Isle of Man, and the local metallurgical establishments, give the following composition: — Those examined, the "Ewloe" and the "BagiUt Main Coal," are thus refeiTed to. The Ewloe coal is a " splintry coal of a brown black colour, containing large quantities of mineralised charcoal and iron pyrites, although less white shale was observed than usually occurs in coals of this part of the principality." The 178 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAllT I. Ewloe coal is worked in the parish of Hawarden. The thickness of the seam varies from 8 to 10 feet, and occurs at a depth of 160 yards from the surface. The "Bagillt Main Seam" is a vein 6 feet thick, worked at a depth of 100 yards from the surface ; the colliery is situated in the parish of Holywell, bordering on the Eiver Dee, from which river it is distant about one mile. As steam coals they are found to light easily, burn freely, and blow off much steam. These coals evolve much smoke and soot, and a considerable amount of ash and cinder ; the amount of clinker left, however, is small. The mean composition of average samples of these coals is as follows : — * Eeshlts Tabulated. Constituents. Ewloe Coal. Bagillt Main. Carbon ..... Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Oxygen Ash Specific gravity Coke per cent Weight of a cubic foot Space occupied by a ton . . 80-97 4-96 1-10 1-40 8-20 3-37 88-48 5-62 2-02 1-36 0-86 1-62 10000 j 199-96 1-275 54-50 54-51 lbs. 44 -44ft. 1-269 55-80 49-63 lbs. 45-16 ft. Cannel coal is not widely diffused in our coal-fields, the most noted localities being Wigan in Lancashii-e, the most impor- tant in Great Britain ; and Leeswood (south of Mold), Flint- shire; Gilmerton, near Edinburgh; Muirkirk, in Lanarkshire, and a few other localities in Ayrshire and Fifeshire. The character of cannel coal is very variable ; where it occurs in its most perfect form, as at Leeswood Green, near Mold, Flintshire, the roof of the seam is usually of a rich oleaginous shale, from 4 to 10 inches through. Next below comes what is termed the smooth cannel, which is about 27 inches thick. This mineral is described as possessing a flat conchoidal fracture, and in addition to its more important commercial properties might, if required, be converted into jet-like ornaments. The smooth cannel passes insensibly down, trending into what is known and highly prized as " curly cannel," which may be said * " Coals Suited to the Steam Navy," 3rd Report, pp. 10, 31, and 65. CUA.P. Xllt.] NORTH WALES COAL-FIELDS. 179 to average 18 inclies in thickness. Tlie cannel seat or floor is a liiglily bituminous shale, occasionally passing into an impure coal, and associated with a black band ironstone. The aspect of the curly cannel is quite unique ; it is lustrous, compact, and imperfectly conchoidal, with numerous flat circular disc-like appearances. In a report on the Leeswood cannel, made by Dr. Andrew Fife, to ascertain its value as a gas-producing mineral, and also as a coke-giving coal, the annexed table noting the results of his examination exhibits the character, in comparison with other well-known cannels : — Leeswood smooth Cannel. Leeswood curly Cannel. Wigan Cannel. Lesniahago Cannel. Torbane or Boghead Coal. Cubic feet of gas per ton Durability of gas per ) foot : min. . . ) Illuminating power per ( foot, candles . ( Grains of sperm per foot Value of coals in lbs. of ) sperm . . . ( Comparative value of ) the coals . . ) 9,972 u8-05 8-2 0-981 1401-7 5-010 14,280 82-30 1-09 1-308 2668-3 5-025 12,100 48-35 5-00 0-36 617-00 10,176 70-00 8-70 1-044 1517-0 1-16 15,482 84-40 10-30 1-242 27360 2-86 Production of Coal. — From Pennant, in his " Tom' in "Wales," * written in the year 1810, we have the following account of the Mostyn collieries in Flintshire : — " The collieries of Mostyn and Bychton have been worked for a very considerable time, and in the last century (the eighteenth) supplied Dublin and the eastern side of Ireland with coals. They were discovered in the town- ship of Mostyn as early as the time of Edward I., as appears by an " Extent " of that place, in the 23rd year of his reign. They are at present in a low state, partly from the rise of the works at Whitehaven, but more from the loss of channel of the Dee, which in the beginning of this century flowed so close to our shore, that ships of 200 tons lay under this parish with their cables twisted round the trees. At present vessels of 60 or 70 tons cannot approach nearer than two miles, the Dee now flowing ander the opposite shore. Still, we load a few vessels for Ireland, and some for Nortli Wales. Much is also consumed by the neigh- bouring smelting-houses and the inland parts of Denbighshire. * Thos. Pennant's " Tour in Wales," Vol. i., p. 23, 1810. K 2 180 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. The improvement of land by lime has of late occasioned a great consumption of coal by the farmers, and by the persons who burn it for sale." From the agricultural survey of North "Wales, published in 1794,* it appears that there was but one colliery in Anglesea pro- ducing ten tons per day, or about 3,000 tons a year, and sold at 16s. per ton at the pit's mouth. The metallurgical works of the Pary's Mountain and Sulphur Company, now known as the Mona Smelting Works, appear to have been the only manu- facture then carried on in the district. Until the year 1854 there does not exist any information showing the production of the coal-fields of North Wales, the output of the collieries being in- cluded with those of other coal-fields. In that year, however, 1,143,000 tons were raised from the 60 collieries then in opera- tion in Denbighshire, FUntshii'e, and Anglesea, and in the following year 1,125,000 tons, the yield of 65 collieries. In subsequent years the production of the respective coal- fields in North Wales are separately distinguished, the quantities being as foUows, with the total number of coUieries in the three coal-fields : — + Year. Num'ber of Collieries. Denbiglisllire. Flintshire. Anglesea, Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1856 81 527,000 619,500 4- 1857 84 627,000 519,500 t 1858 81 525,000 497,000 t 1859 81 1,039,500 687,500 35,000 1860 84 1,139,500 590,500 20,500 1861 78 1,250,000 600,500 19,750 1862 77 1,016,000 625,500 18,500 1863 81 1,078,500 631,500 18,000 1864 81 1,381,560 590,500 15,000 1865 84 1,395,000 575,000 12,500 . 1866 80 1,500,000 570,000 12,000 1867 75 1,475,250 885,500 10,500 1868 66 1,520,000 857,500 7,500 1869 65 1,427,701 725,288 2,191 1874 122 1,435,950 985,000 3,850 1875 124 1,379,560 955,500 2,248 1876 128 1,355,500 850,000 1,750 1877 112 1,622,500 855,750 1,330 1878 107 1,513,900 707,785 672 1879 105 1,498,985 720,697 ... 1880 76 1,650,406 778,909 * The Rev. "Walter Davies, M.A., 1794. + Mineral Statietios. J Included in Flintshire. CHAv. xni.] NORTH WALES COAL-FIELDS. 181 Summarising the above returns of the coal produce of North Wales, the following shows the number of collieries in each count}', as also the total output : — NUMBER OF COLLIERIES. Total of Koi-th Wales. Year. Denbigli- shire. Flintshire. Anglesca. Nos. Nils. Nos. Tons. 1854 25 30 5 1,143,000 1850 29 31 5 1,125,000 1850 34 42 5 1,046,500 1S57 39 40 5 1,046,500 1858 39 37 5 1,022,500 1859 38 38 5 1,662,000 1860 39 40 5 1,750,500 1861 35 38 5 1,870,250 1862 31 41 5 1,660,000 18C3 35 41 5 1,728,000 1804 35 41 5 1,987,060 1865 36 43 5 1,983,000 1860 35 40 5 2,082,000 1807 34 37 4 2,371,250 1868 29 34 3 2,385,000 1809 31 32 2 2.155,180 1870 23 28 2 2,329,030 1871 24 32 2 2,500,000 1872 38 34 2 * 1873 50 62 3 2,450,000 1874 59 60 3 2,425,300 1875 61 00 3 2,337,303 1876 01 04 3 2,207,250 1877 59 51 2 2,479,580 1878 54 61 2 2,222,357 1879 53 52 • .. 2,219,682 1880 38 38 2,429,315t Cannel coal ajjpears to have been discovered in Flintshii-e about the year 1862, at Leeswood, when 28,816 tons were raised. This quantity was increased to 120,000 tons in the year 1864, when the following collieries were raising cannel coal: — Lees- wood Green, Leeswood HUl, Coed Talon, Coppa and Nerquis, all situated near Mold, and at "Wern near Bagillt. The pro- duction of cannel in 1865 amounted to 150,000 tons in Flint- • * Included in West Lancashire, but estimated at 2,600,000 tons, t Ecport H.M. Inspectors of Mines, 18S0. , 182 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [pakt i. shire. The production of the seams yielding cannel the same year in the collieries of the United Kingdom was as follows : — TONS. England 946,175 Wales 150,000 Scotland 322,000 Total 1,418,175 The yield of cannel coal not being separately distinguished from that of bituminous coal and anthracite since the above- named year, the following details of the quantity raised in England in 1865 will generally indicate those coal-fields from which the cannel coal was then obtained : — COHNTIES. TONS. South StafTordsliire 10,000 Nottinghamshire 46,950 Derbyshire 42,225 Yorkshire 185,000 Lancashire 650,000 Cheshire 12,000 Total production in England . 946,175 Of the total cannel coal raised in the year 1865, it was esti- mated that 250,000 tons were submitted to distillation for coal-oil, leaving 1,168,175 tons available for gas manufacture and other purposes. Distribution of Coal. — The coal of North Wales has long en- joyed a high reputation for various commercial purposes, and is extensively employed as a steam coal, for gas manufacture and coking, and some varieties for the blast-furnace and foundry. As a house coal some seams of the Euabon district, in Denbighshire, are especially suitable, and these coals are in good demand in the midland counties and the metropolis. The early returns beai'ing on the distribution of coal from North Wales are not important ; those returns, however, of recent years, show in a marked manner the increasing demand. The following table giving the quantities carried out of the district by the London and North- Western and Great Western Eailways, will show the extent of the distribution since 1863 : — CHAl'. XIH.] NOllTH WALES COAL-FIELDS. 183 London and Great Western North-Western Railway. HaUwoy. Tons. Tons. 1863 196,957 1864 216,043 ... 1865 305,000 625,291 18G6 310,863 600,000 1867 372,755 627,355 1868 381,668 703,379 1869 321,367 611,524 1870 376,512 646,810 1871 391,516 839,090 1872 408,667 967,855 1873 481.284 950,746 1874 464,808 864,162 1875 424,118 802,763 1876 368,554 1,055,775 1877 373,464 1,183,205 1878 328,325 988,675 1879 316,200 952,154 1880 304,509 960,934 While the above figures exhibit the increased distribution of the North Wales coal since the j'ear 1863, the London and North- western Railway, it appears, carried over its extensive system from the several coal-fields which it traverses in the same year, 3,756,111 tons, increased to 8,299,491 tons in the j^ear 1873, and 11,100,891 tons in the year 1880. The Great Western Railway in the same manner carried a total of 382,104 tons in the year 1857, increased to 6,412,798 tons in the year 1877, and 6,909,968 tons in the year 1880. Fop-ulaitiou employed in Coal mining in Vorth Wales. Anglesea. — The number employed in the year 1854 in coal mining was 51 persons of all ages. Not again until 1874 do any returns appear; in that year, however, and until 1878, the numbers employed under and above ground are as follows : — Year. PEBSOKS EMPLOYED. Total. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 Nos. 32 15 12 10 7 Nos. 20 7 7 7 6 Nos. 52 22 19 17 13 Tons. 3,746 2,248 1,820 1,320 672 Tons. 72 102 96 77 51 184. COAL AND IROX INDUSTEIES. [PAUT I, Denbighshire. — The number engaged in coal mining in the year 1854 was 8,017, and in iron mining three persons. The quantity of coal raised being included in the production of North Wales, which in that j'ear amounted to 1,143,000 tons, the total number of persons engaged in its output being 4,623, of whom 1,555 were in Flintshire, and 51 in Anglesea. Since the year 1874 the figures are as under : — * Year. PERSONS EJirLOYEP. Total. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 6,488 6,419 5,947 5,228 5,025 5,377 5,689 Nos. 1,628 1,683 1,497 1,444 1,232 1,278 1,270 Nos. 8,116 8,102 7,444 6,672 6.257 6,655 6,959 Tons. 1,431,959 1,381,380 1,560,388 1,618,077 1,514,829 1,499,857 1,650,406 Tons. 176 171 210 243 242 225 237 In the year 1879 the ages of those employed above and below ground are thus distinguished : — All Ages. 1 Under Ground. Above Ground. Total. Between 12 and 13 ,, 13 and 16 . . ,, 10 and 13 Above 16 . Total Nos. 33 398 4,946 Nos. "98t 1,173§ Nos. 33 496 7 6,119 5,377 1 1,278 6,655 Flintshire. — The total number of persons of all ages engaged in coal mining in Flintshire in the year 1854 was 1,555. Occa- sional returns are met with in later years, but none sufficiently complete for comparison. In 1874, i| and since the necessary data are available, and appear in the annexed table, showing the numbers employed, the quantities of coal raised, and the average produce per man : — * Reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. .+ Including 11 females. J Including 4 females. § Including 61 females. II Report H.M. Inspector of Coal Mines, Mr. Henry Hall. CHAP. XIII.] KORTH WALES COAL-FIELDS. 185 Year. PEHSOKS EMl'LOYED. Total. Coal r.aised. Avei-age I»er Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Noa. 4,567 4,266 3,472 3,078 2,608 2,733 2,633 NOH. 1,401 1,208 1,0J6 1,029 766 754 616 Nos. 5,968 5,474 4,518 4,107 3,374 3,487 3,249 Tons. 993,332 965,490 855,257 854,923 708,724 721,697 778,909 Tons. 166 176 189 208 210 207 240 In the 3'ear 1879 the respective ages of those employed are classified as follows : — * All Ages. 1 Under Ground. Above Gruund. Total. From 13 to 10 Above 16 .... N(.a. 108 2,025 Xns. 86 668 Xbriefly stated as follows : — " The Marquis of Bute was the owner of a large tract of land that intervened between the town and the sea, called ' Cardiff Moors,' and conceived the idea of converting it into a harbour on a scale commensurate with the prospective wants of the neighbourhood. In the year 1830 he obtained an Act for constructing a new port, the ' Bute Ship Canal,' and steadily proceeded amidst many difficulties to carry out the design at his individual cost." The work, which was considered a wild speculation, commenced in 1834 with the con- CHAP. XIV.] SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD. 211 struction of a feeder from the river Taff. The first stone of the docks was laid in March, 1837, and the docks opened in October, 1839. A few years previously the high character of the coal- seams in the Aherdare and Merthyr districts attracted attention from their valuable qualities as a steam coal, and a great impetus was given to their development by the opening of the West Bute Dock in 1839, and the East Bute Dock iu 1859. It may be briefly stated that the West Bute Dock contains a water area of 18 acres ; the East Bute Dock an area of 42 acres, with a basin area of 3 acres. Beyond this the Port of Cardiff possesses greatly increased accommodation iu late years by the addition of the Penarth Dock and Tidal Harbour, the former having a dock area of 18 acres and a basin of 3 acres, while the latter has a total length of 13,200 feet. This great area has been further supplemented by the New Bute Basin, with an area of 12 acres, with machinery capable of shipping 4,480 tons of coal per day ; and the Glamorganshire Canal Dock, with a length of upwards of 5,000 feet, for discharging and loading small vessels, and beyond which increased accommodation has recently been added by the addition of a new dock on the east side of the existing East Dock, with a water area of 55 acres. Previous to the opening of the Taff Vale Railway in the year 1840, coal was conveyed down the Glamorganshire Canal already referred to, which has a length of 25 miles, with a rise of 611 feet. This great undertaking commenced in the year 1791, and was completed and opened in the year 1794 to Cardiff. The only information showing the extent of mineral traffic on this canal is found in Mr. Jellinger Symons' " Industrial Capacities of South Wales," * from which it appears that in the year 1846 the coal carried amounted to 287,271 tons, and in each of the years between 1846 and 1852 to the following quantities : — Year. | Coal Carried. Year. Coal Carried. Tons. 1847 262,077 1848 281,967 1849 245,785 1850 1851 1852 Tons. 268,361 294,537 301,829 The other principal ports of shipment in South Wales for the export of coal are those of Swansea, Llanelly, and Milford. The * Published by E. Mason, Tenby, 1855, p. 22. P 2 312 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pAkt i. growth of the port of Swansea has been very rapid ; it has been remarked that of all the ports in the Bristol Channel, " there are none more favourably situated than Swansea; for it is an important fact, that Swansea Harbour is accessible to any stranger that may arrive in the bay when blowing too strong for pilots to get off." The stone piers enclosing the outer harbour were erected under an Act passed in the year 1791, and stretch some 600 yards on the east, and 300 yards on the west side. The following are some of the particulars of the dock accom- modation : — The North Docks were commenced in the year 1849 and completed in the year 1861, and possess an area of lock and half-tide basia of 13f acres. The South Docks were completed in 1859, the area of the entrance basin being 3 acres, and the dock area 13 acres. Ample provision is here made for shipping coal, large iron boxes, with false bottoms, being employed, each containing 2^ tons, and four of which are conveyed upon a truck each journey; beyond these ordinary tipping- waggons are used. LlaneUy is situated some 10 miles to the west of Swansea, and both ports are the seats of some of the most extensive and im- portant metallurgical works in the kingdom ; more especially for the smelting of copper ore, the manufacture of tin-plate, and the reduction of the ores of iron, &c. The port has good docks, is situated on the estuary of the Burry and Llwchwr rivers on the east of Caermarthen Bay, and is connected with the Llanelly and the Great Western Eailways. The principal coal shipped at Llanelly is anthracite ; which variety of coal is also shipped at Burry Port and KidweUy, smaller ports to the west of Llanelly. Milford was formerly a great outlet of the coal of Pembroke- shire ; the trade has of late years moved eastward, but is still of considerable importance. The ports of Milford and Pem- broke, situated at the mouth of the Dancleddaw river, which here flows into an inlet of the Atlantic, constituting one of the finest harbours in the world, and giving rise to an important naval arsenal. It is here that the South Wales section of the Great Western Railway terminates, the port having extensive commercial relations with the south of Ireland. With the foregoing brief reference to the more important ports contributing to the distribution, coastwise and to foreign countries, of coal the produce of South Wales, the following statistics will show the growth of the coal-trade. The earliest CHAP. XIV.] SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD. 213 accessible returns are for Swansea, where the shipments coast- wise, to foreign countries and Ireland, were as follows in each of the years : — Year. Coastwise. Exported. Total. 1816 1817 1818 Tons. 159,181 167,251 190,022 Tons. 29,974 57,784 34,321 Tons. 189,155 225,035 224,343 The Cardiff and Newport shipments in each of the same years of coal, the produce of the South Wales coal-field, were as foUows : — Year. | Coastwise. Exported. Total. 1816 1817 1818 Tons. 177,044 207,763 218,800 Tons. 75,199 90,090 95,414 Tons. 252,243 297,843 314,214 In subsequent years the returns of each port are separately distinguished. The Llanelly and Pembroke shipments in each of the same years stood thus : — Year. LLANELLY. Total. PEMBKOKE. Total Coastwise. Expoi-ted. Coastwise. Exported. 1816 1817 1818 Tons. 29,418 38,512 34,570 Tons. 15,480 26,527 18,427 Tons. 44,898 65,039 52,997 Tons. 27,532 21,956 28,970 Tons. 271 3,333 3,462 Tons. 27,803 25,289 32,432 The total shipments from Milford during the same years amounted to but 1,895 tons. Summarising the above returns, the total quantities of coal and anthracite sent coastwise ajid exported in each of the above years appear thus, and afford reliable data for comparison : — Year. Coastwise. Exported. Total. 1816 1817 1818 Tons. 393,175 436,472 472,362 Tons. 120,924 177,734 151,624 Tons. 514,119 613,206 623,986 214 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [part I. From these totals, compared with the total exports previous to the year 1800, when Swansea was the chief port of export, may he gathered some interesting facts bearing on the growth of the coal industries of South Wales. It only remains to add that, during the same years, from 1780 to 1799, the total exports from Cardiff, Llanelly, and Pembroke did not exceed 3,700 tons :— * Year. Swansea. Year. Swansea. Tons. Tons. 1780 64,502 1790 157,588 1781 53,772 1791 154,943 1782 71,597 1792 179,595 1783 70,725 1793 218,060 1784 102,391 1794 169,999 1785 88,624 1795 182,746 1786 90,645 1796 181,213 1787 98,111 1797 202,023 1788 101,412 1798 211,172 1789 113,509 1799 244,976 In the above quantities are included the coal sent coastwise, which formed the great bulk, the quantities at this period sent to foreign countries not exceeding from 30,000 to 40,000 tons per annum ; while in the three years above referred to, the coal sent coastwise, and shipped to Ireland and foreign countries, amounted to : — Year. Coastwise. Ireland and Foreign Countries. Total. * 1816 1817 1818 Tons. 4,145,909 4,067,722 4,253,007 Tons. 824,536 873,806 821,329 Tons. 4,970,445 4,941,528 5,074,336 Ten years later it is stated on the authority of the author of " Fossil Fuel," that upwards of 64,000 tons of " Stone coal or Culm," were exported from Swansea ; while iu 1829 Swan- sea, Newport and Neath, shipped 550,000 tons of coal, and Cardifif 60,000 tons ; these quantities presumably included that sent coastwise. For a few years about this period the details bearing on the distribution of coal raised ia the South Wales coal-field are somewhat uncertain ; in the year 1830 and in sub- sequent years, returns made by the Commissioners of H.M, " Coal Commission Report, vol. iii., Appendix, p. 6. CHAP. XIV.] SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD. 215 Customs to Parliament, afford aU the necessary information bearing on the distribution of our coal, whether to our Colonies, foreign countries, or that sent coastwise to other ports in the United Kingdom, and in late years the coals shipped to Ireland. From the returns above referred to the following details appear for the years named : — CoAI,, OlNDEES, AND OUIM EXPOKTED EKOM THE UNITED KINGDOM. Ports. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. Oardifl . . . Newport . Llanelly . . . Swansea . Milford . . Total . Tons. 711 1,930 3,855 6,403 10 Tons. 726 4,698 5,817 7,013 Tons. 1,052 5,244 4,740 8,198 214 Tons. 1,521 2,609 7,109 13,501 12,909 18,254 19,448 24,740 In each of the same years the total quantities exported stood as foUows, together with the amount of duties received thereon. The duties in the year 1830 varying from Is. per ton to British possessions and 5s. 9a!. per ton in British ships to foreign countries, while in other ships it amounted to 10s. In the year 1835 all duties on coal to British possessions were remitted. The remaining duties, a few years later, were reduced, and finally abolished in the year 1850, since which year all coals have been exported free of duty : — Year. Quantities Exported. Amount of Duty Received. Tons. £ s. d. 1830 504,419 63,889 17 6 1831 510,831 55,237 5 10 1832 588,446 56,706 2 10 1833 634,448 65,008 8 6 1834 615,255 1835 736,060 From this time forward ample details from Parliamentary and other returns are accessible, showing the distribution of coal, from which the following figures are gathered. In the annexed table appears the quantities of coal, culm, and cinders sent coast- wise and exported from the ports of South Wales, including Monmouthshire, in each of the years named since 1884 : — 216 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT I. Year. Coastwise. Exported. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1834 1,026,838 30,404 1,572,242 1836 1,066,261 46,110 1,112,371 1838 1,227,083 65,902 1,292,985 1840 1,374,419 63,867 1,438,286 1842 1,453,154 109,819 1,562,973 1845 1,656,963 236,061 1,893,024 1848 1,663,937 300,189 1,964,126 1851 1,573,773 453,125 2,126,898 1854 1,786,878 772,481 2,559,359 1857 2,004,225 1,418,026 3,422,251 1860 2,238,875 1,719,560 3,958,436 1863 2,231,071 2,272,540 4,503,611 1866 2,432,654 2,971,920 5,404,574 1869 2,511,080 3,226,790 5,737,870 1872 2,555,805 3,592,767 6,148,573 1873 2,492,404 3,348,147 5,540,551 1874 2,270,612 3,992,316 6,262,818 1875 2,182,535 3,696,724 5,879,259 1876 2,390,402 5,092,392 7,482,792 1877 2,376,466 5,283,417 7,659,883 1878 2,415,667 5,798,565 8,214,232 1879 2,538,179 6,291,337 8,809,516 1880 2,492,204 6,893,839 9,386,043 The great development of the coal industries of the South Wales coal-field is well shown in the ahoYe tahle, more especially when comparing the returns of the year 1850 (when the export duty on coal was repealed,) with those of the year 1860. The coal sent coastwise, although showing a considerable increase, bears no proportion to the yeai'ly increasing quantities exported. In the annexed statement for the years 1860, 1879, and 1880 appear the respective shipping ports and quantities of coal sent coastwise and exported to foreign countries in each of those years from the ports named : — 1860. 1879. 1880. Coastwise.' Exported. Coastwise. Exported. Coastwise. Exported. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cardiff . . 782,002 1,133,086 827,458 4,427,602 864,899 4,991,317 Newport . 629,206 187,591 983,725 936,556 868,963 1,016,550 Swansea . . 227,675 295,102 251,992 775,301 248,853 688,604 Neath . 185,310 13,740 , , , ^ ^ LlaDelly . . 284,170 89,996 116,389 69,740 120,383 76,874 Uaford . 51,351 45 27,153 , , 25,168 Briton Ferry . .. 185,287 63,406 191,573 94,070 Port Talbot. . 61,965 , . 79,434 21,272 80,922 16,798 Porth Cawl . Total . . 17,196 66,741 8,460 91,443 11,626 2,238,876 1,719,560 2,538,179 6,291,337 2,492,204 6,893,839 CHAP. XIV.] SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD. 217 Kailway Distriliution. — The Taff Vale and Great Western Railways and their many branches contribute mainly to the dis- tribution of the great bulk of coal to the ports of shipment and to remote parts of the kingdom, other lines of railways contri- buting in a lesser degree. The Taff Vale main line, extending from Merthyr Tydvil to Cardiff, was opened in October, 1840, and completed in April of the following year ; originally it had but a single line of i*ails, which were far from sufficient for the traffic, and soon double rails were laid down. The detailed returns of mineral traffic published annually, leave nothing to be desired as regards the statistics of coal conveyed over the main line and branches, which had increased enormously during the forty years the railway has been in existence, and may be gathered from the annexed figures taken from the Company's return of coal and coke carried by all trains in each of the years given : — Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1841 41,669 , 1871 3,593,932 1844 187,740 1872 4,213,506 1847 360,324 1873 4,527,641 1860 594,222 1874 4,352,778 1853 874,362 1875 3,776,813 1856 1,394,394 1876 4,879,180 1859 1,759,422 1877 5,170,953 1862 2,540,657 1878 5,613,639 1865 2,855,198 1879 5,849,184 1868 3,540,324 1880 6,894,403 Of the aggregate quantities, the following table, prepared from the railway return previously referred to, shows the quantities carried in each of the years to the places named : — Distribntion. 1847. 1S65. 1878. 1S79. 1880. Cardiff and Penarth Junction Sold retail . . . . Quaker's Yard Junction Mountain Ash Junction . . Conveyed over by other Kailways . . J Brecon and Merthyr Junction "Walnut Tree Bridge Junction Total .... Tons. 336,769 23,655 Tons. 2,501,689 212,075 102,611 37,024 1,799 Tons. 4,761,254 327,506 90,664 17,903 413,781 254 2,277 Tons. 6,064,111 294,556 121,405 10,160 352,329 5,916 707 Tons. 5,965,457 356,691 135,419 4,006 345,757 97,010 63 360,324 2,855,198 5,613,639 5,849,184 6,894,403 The Great Western Eailway passes through the entire length 218 COAL AND IRON INDXISTEIES. [part I. of the coal-field, and like the Taff Vale exercises a great influence in the distribution of the coal. The Great "Western carrying it inland, not only to remote parts of the kingdom but also to the Metropolis. An early return for the year 1857, when the traf&c originated, gives the quantity carried from South Wales as 120,080 tons ; in 1865 the Midland Eailway conveyed 1,983 tons from the coal-field, advancing to the year 1866, when the railway returns assume a definite form, the distribution is traced with much clearness, the quantities in each year appearing as follows : — Year. Great Westei-n. Midland. Monmouthsliire and Canal. Vale of Neath. London and North-Western. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1865 1,345,512 ... 1,315,783 700,592 37,670 1867 2,238,342 1,637 1,579,410 911,600 1868 2,553,487 573 1,389,660 1,046,432 47,648 1869 2,800,790 390 1,528,354 1,106,064 71,415 1870 2,850,412 4,730 1,676,486 * 70,321 1872 3,067,685 27,351 1,759,356 * 107,520 1874 3,427,576 191,027 2,120,700 * 439,493 1876 4,445,775 570,120 * * 750,524 1878 4,422,464 591,333 * * 758,790 1879 4,763,429 639,553 * * 827,831 1880 5,384,411t 707,458 * * 903,335 It is only necessary to add that details of the distribution of the above quantities will be found in the "Mineral Statis- tics of the United Kingdom " and vol. iii. of the " Coal Com- mission Eeport, 1871." Frices of Coal and Cost of Frodnctiou. — ^An inquiry insti- tuted about the year 1860 shows that at that period the cost of cutting coals and iilling into trams varies, according to the district, from lOd. to 2s. 6d. per ton. These extreme variations are due to the thickness of the seam and to its quahty top and bottom. The cost at bank, including royalties and all ex- penses, but not interest on capital expended, being about 5s. 6d. per ton. At this period, 1860, the selling price of coal at pit's bank, subject to variation, being, on the average, as foUows : — * Included in the Great Western return. t Beyond this quantity in the year 1880 the Great Western Eailway carried 2,696,610 tons of coal from Monmouthshire. CHA1-. XIV.] SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD, 219 SOOTH WALES. S. d. Large coal 6 6 Brush coal (i.e., coal cut and sold thorough and thorough as it is in the seam) 5 6 Clean small coal 4 6 These rates also apply to Monmouthshire. Kailway charges, according to old Acts of Parliament, were as follows about the year 1860 : — s. d. For tonnage {i.e., the use of the road) . 1 per ton per mile. For locomotive power 0^ ,, „ These rates have been considerably reduced in recent years. The average distance of the South Wales collieries from the ports of shipment may be taken at about 18 miles, and the cost of shipping at port, per ton, 6rf. In the j'ear 1860 the cost of Welsh coal, at port, will have been about : — a. d. Getting coal 5 6 per ton. Conveyance to ports and waggons . . . . 1 10 ,, Shipping 6,, Total . . . . 7^ „ During the next ten years, till 1870, the wages of coal-miners were but moderate ; in the following year, 1871, a period of prosperity set in, when the iron-workers sought an increase of wages, this was succeeded by the coal-miners seeking corre- sponding advantages. On the average, at this period, the collier worked four days per week, receiving 40s. per week, or 10s. per day. Between 1872 — 74 the great strike occurred in South Wales, when it may be remembered about 60,000 out of 65,000 hands engaged in the collieries and ironworks of the district struck work from the 1st December, 1872, to the middle of February, 1873, causing the stoppage of 118 collieries. The loss of production in the interval referred to has been estimated at 1,170,000 tons of coal; the total cost of the strike to the masters and men at about £2,000,000 ; the loss of wages alone amounting to about £800,000. Towards the close of the year 1873 the tide of prosperity turned, prices fell and wages decreased, till in 1877 colliers' wages in South Wales did not exceed from 4s. to 4s. M. per day for ordinary pitmen, and 5s. to 5s. 3i. for hewers, since 220 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. which date wages have continued to decrease. The disastrous strike of 1877 at Saundersfoot, in Pembrokeshire, is another example of loss to industry. Here a cessation of labour con- tinued for seven months, the colliers eventually resuming labour on the former terms. The average price of coal prevailing in the year 1878 was 8s. per ton ; the highest price, 10s. per ton, and the lowest, 6s. 6d. per ton. While in 1879 the average price did not exceed 7s. Sd. per ton ; the highest price, lis. per ton, and the lowest, 6s. per ton, compared with 7s. 6d., 13s., and 6s. in the year 1880. Population employed in Coal and Iron-mining in tlie Sonth Wales Coal-field. — The number of male persons employed in coal-mining operations in South Wales in the year 1854 was 32,473; the number in ironstone-mining, 10,272, thus appor- tioned to the respective counties of South Wales in which the mineral basin occurs : — Counties. Coal Mining. Iron Mining. Glamorganshire . MoTi m outhsliire Oaermarthenshire . Brecknockshire . . . Pembrokeshire Total . . . No. 15,295 11,367 3,344 1,541 926 No. 5,079 3,404 19 1,767 3 32,473 10,272 The total number of females employed in coal-miuiag in South Wales m the same year was 1,059, of whom 395 were employed in the Monmouthshire area of the coal-field. Referring to the annual reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines for the year 1873, the total number of persons employed in the South Wales coal-field, exclusive of that part of the coal-field in Monmouthshire, was, ia coal-mining, 45,474, of whom 36,316 were employed underground, and 9,158 over ground. The number in ironstone mines being 1,090, of whom 805 were under and 285 above ground. In subsequent years siace 1874, the numbers employed in the South Wales coal-field in coal and ironstone-mining have been as foUows, distinguishing those engaged under and above ground and the quantity of coal and ironstone raised, according to the reports of H.M. Inspectors, to which is added, for comparison, the average quantity raised per man in each year : — CHAP. XIV.] SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD. 221 Year. PERSONS EMPLOYEE. Coal Raised. Ironstone Raised. Total Coal and Ironstone. Average per man. Above Ground. Under Ground. Total. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 13,865 11,893 10,836 10,180 9,590 10,187 10,920 59,463 60,750 56,647 55,126 54,146 56,308 58,238 73,328 72,643 67,483 65,306 63,736 66,495 69,158 Tons. 16,432,060 14,173,143 16,972,'284 16,921,214 17,517,118 17,819,043 21,165,580 Tons. 363,131 398,533 223,386 214,429 196,331 143,525 148,101 Tons. 16,785,191 14,571,676 17,195,670 17,135,643 17,713,449 17,962,268 21,318,981 Tons. 229 200 255 262 278 270 308 The population employed above and below ground in the South Wales coal-field was as follows in the year 1879, distinguishing the number of persons in each county : — County. Under Ground. Above Ground. Total. Brecknockshire . Glamorganshire . . Oaermarthenshire Pembrokeshire . . Momnouthshire . Total . . . Persons. 438 39,843 1,964 424 13,639 Persons. 65 7,238 542 182 2,160 Persons. 503 47,081 2,506 606 15,799 56,308 10,187* 66,495 Resources and Probable Duration of the South. Wales Coal- field. — From the Keport of the Eoyal Coal Commission the total quantity of coal ascertained by Messrs. H. Hussey- Vivian and George T. Clarke as remaining in this great coal-field was 36,566,195,917 tons ; of this quantity the amount existing to depths not exceeding 4,000 feet is given as 32,456,208,913 tons, that existing at depths exceeding 4,000 feet amounting to 4,109,987,004 tons. An analysis of the Eeport of the Eoyal Coal Commission distinguishes the net quantity of coal remaining unwrought in the several divisions of the coal-field as follows : — South Wales Mhu'eral BAsiN.f TOKS. Pembrokeshire 215,695,910 Eastern division of coal field to the Glyncorrwg Fault on the west 12,963,230,517 Division of coal-field westward of the Glyncorrwg Fault 23,387,269,490 Total quantity of unworked coal in coal-field 36,566,195,917 * Of this number 990 were females, of whom 558 were above 16 years and 432 mider that age. + Coal Commission Eeport, vol. i., pp. 7, 8, and 15. 222 COAIi AND IRON INDITSTKIES. [pakt i. At the rate of production in the year 1870, namely, 13,664,112 tons, this coal-field would furnish supplies for 2,676 years. Since the year 1870 the output of the collieries has largely increased, amounting in the year 1879 to 17,819,043 tons, and in 1880 to 21,165,580 tons, apportioned as follows : — OOnuTY. COAL RAISED, TOHS. Brecknockshire 100,616 Glamorganshire 15,320,096 Oaennarthenshire 625,933 Pembrokeshire 79,386 Monmouthshire 5,039,549 Total 21,165,580 The output of 1880 exceeding that of 1879 by 3,346,537 tons, equivalent to upwards of 18 per cent. The total production in the ten years ending 1879 was 154,162,130 tons ; this quantity, deducted from the original estimate, would leave 36,412,033,787 tons available for future use, which at the average consumption of the past ten years (15,416,213 tons,) would yield supplies for 2,862 years ; and at the rate of production in 1880 the exhaustion of the South Wales coal-field would take place 1,720 years hence. CHAPTEE XV. GLOtJCESTEESHIRE COAL-FIELD. Description of Coal-field — Section of Strata — Area of Woods and Plantations in Forest, and Ancient Eights of Miners — ^Analyses of Coal — Production and Dis- tribution by Railway and by Ship — Price of Coal — Population employed in Coal and Iron Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field. Gloucestershiire Coal-field. — Forest of Dean. — The coal-field bearing this name occupies a superficial area of 34 square miles ; it is distant some 14 miles from the city of Gloucester, and lies between the rivers Severn and Wye. In form and outline this basin is more perfect than any other coal-field in Great Britain. The coal measures, in their greatest section, are no less than 2,765 feet, and the uniform dip of the strata, from the margin of the coal-field towards the centre, is so regular in its occurrence that each division of its strMa is weU known. In this section occur 15 seams of coal, varying in thickness. Of these seams, exceeding 2 feet thick and upwards, there are eight, giving an aggregate thickness of solid coal of 24 feet. Professor E. Hull, F.R.S., in his " Coal Fields of Great Britain," gives the following section, showing the succession of the coal seams : — Ft. In. Sandstone and shales, with thin coals . . . 830 1. CowDelf 8 Strata 91 10 2. Dog Delf 12 Strata 46 9 3. Smith Coal 2 6 Strata 34 6 4. Little Delf 18 Strata 48 8 5. Park End High Delf 3 7 Strata 56 6. Starkey Delf, with parting 2 Strata 50 7. EockyDelf 19 Strata 77 6 224 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [past i. Ft. In. 8. Upper Ohurchway Delf, with partings . . . . Ill Strata 34 9. Lower Ckurohway Delf 16 Strata 130 10. Braizley Delf 19 Strata 430 11. Nag's Head or TorHey Delf 2 9 Strata 153 , 12. WMttington Delf . 2 6 Strata 137 13. Coleford Higli Delf 2 ft. to 5 Strata 124 14. Upper Trenchard Delf 2 Strata 72 15. Lower Trenchard or Bottom Coal 14 The thick series of sandstones occurring between the Church- way and Coleford High Delf coal seams yields an excellent building stone, and have given rise to numerous quarries ; and Professor Smyth is of opinion that these sandstones appear to be the equivalent of the Pennant of the Bristol coal-field. The coal measures are surrounded by belts of millstone grit and carboniferous or mountain limestone, upon which they rest, and the carboniferous limestone, in turn, reposes upon a bed of Old Red Sandstone. Sir Henry de la Beche gives the following details in the "Memoirs of the Geological Survey,"* showing the thickness of the several divisions of the strata of this coal-field : — Feet. Coal measures, with fifteen coal seams 2765 MiUstone grit 455 Carhoniferous limestone 480 Lower limestone shale 165 Old Bed Sandstone ' 8000 Of the 24,000 acres comprising the area of the Forest of Dean, it appears 18,500 acres belong to the Crown, subject to certain rights of the free miners ; between 600 and 700 acres belong to the Crown, free from all rights of common, the remaining 4,800 acres being the property of private individuals; the existing woods and plantations in the Forest extend over between 14,000 and 15,000 acres, consisting almost entirely of oak, of ages varying from 2 to 70 years ; the greater portion, however, are from 50 to 60 years old, and in general are in a thriviag condition. From the report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons, dated July, 1874, are gathered many interesting facts : it is there ' Vol. i., p. 203. CHAP. XV.] GLOUCESTERSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 225 stated that the surface of the Forest occupied by the mines is estimated at 1,000 acres, within which is included spoil banks, quarries, railways, tramways, and other works, while the present income to the Crown from coal mines varies from £11,000 to £12,000 per annum, and from iron mines from £4,000 to £5,000 per annum. Special privileges are inherited by the male population, that is to say, every male person bom and abiding in the hundred of Saint Briavels, of the age of 21 years, who has worked for a year and a day in a coal or an iron mine within the hundred, is entitled to be registered as a free miner. These registered free miners, according to the returns published in the year 1838, numbered 1,200 ; they are not now so numerous as then, their numbers in the year 1874 probably not exceeding 700 or 800. The privilege possessed by these free miners consists in their being entitled to the exclusive rights of having grants from the Crown of what are called " gales," which confer licenses to work in mines. These " gales " number about 260, in which coal and iron occur, and of this number not less than 66 were in operation in the year 1879 and 63 in the year 1880. Other deposits of coal occur in the Gloucestershire portion of the Bristol coal-field. A considerable section of the Bristol coal- field belongs to Somersetshire; these wiU be considered in a succeeding chapter, referring to the East Somerset and Bristol coal-fields. Analyse^ of the Forest of Seau Coal. — A reference to the distribution of coal, the produce of the Forest of Dean, for the years 1867, 1868, and 1870, will sufficiently show the extent to which it is employed in the industries of the district and the sur- rounding neighbourhood. It is extensively used in the ironworks of the Forest, being previously converted into coke. It is also in great demand for household consumption; its hardness, large size, and good burning qualities, rendering it especially suitable for this purpose. In the Admiralty investigation on the coals suited to the Steam Navy, the coal raised at the Park End Colliery, from the " Park End High Delf," or Lowry Vein, is thus referred to and de- scribed. " The vein is generally regular, and about 3 feet thick, and is worked long work, as in the thin veins of the Staffordshire coal-field. The overlying and subjacent strata are of the usual Q 226 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt i. kind of shale. The dip varies from 6 inches to 2 feet in the yard, or from one in six to two in three." The coal is described to be of a "free burning character, of great strength and durability." The distance from the shipping port of Lydney is 5 miles. The current price in summer is 10s. per ton ; in winter, lis., free' on board, and the principal markets are in Ireland, Cornwall, Cheltenham, and the manufacturing districts of Grlou- cestershire and Bridgewater The coal examined had a very hard and compact structure, with a clean and bright fracture, and contained iron pyrites in very large quantities in every joint, even when broken down into the smallest sized pieces. It was re- marked during the examination that the coal kindled easily, but that it made a very dirty, smoky fire, which, at the ordinary working draught, caused immense volumes of dense smoke to appear at the chimney top. "When the draught was increased, the fire became clearer, but then the rush of smoke swept the loose soot from the flues and chimney, and carried it out in large flakes from the chimney top. If the draught was lessened, the fire would hardly burn, and, on opening the doors, the whole place was instantly fiUed with the loose ashes, and smoke forced out from the fire. The cinders, ashes, and clinker, were of a light weight, and clean ; the clinker contained much scoria, some of it quite vitrified. The Park End seam, above referred to, has the annexed composition : — Eestjlts Tabulated. Carbon 73.52 Hydrogen 5.69 Nitrogen 2-04 Sulphur . 2'27 Oxygen 6-48 Asli 10-00 Total lOO'OO The specific gravity of the coal is 1-283 ; its yield of coke, 57-8 per cent. ; the mean weight of a cubic foot, 54*44 lbs., and the economic weight or space occupied by one ton, 41*14 cubic feet. The Coleford High Delf and Trenchard seams, extensively worked in the Forest, and favourably regarded as serviceable coals, much in request for domestic purposes, the small being used for raising steam, are thus referred to. The Coleford High Delf, worked on the north-western side of Dean Forest, in the CHAP. XV.] GLOtrCESTEESHIRE COAL-FIELD. 227 neighbourhood of Symond Yat, on the Eiver Wye, where the seam is 5 feet thick, is thus constituted. Some portions of the seam in the High Meadow district occasionally yield a peculiar character of coal, known locally as " black coal," containing, by analysis, 87 per cent, of carbon. The Trenchard Coal, of which the analysis appears side by side, has a thickness, in the neigh- bourhood of Lydney, of 4 feet : — EeSULTS TABtriiATED. Constituents. Coleford High Delf. Trenchard. Carbon .... Hydrogen . . . . Oxygen. Nitrogen . . . . Sulphur. Ash Total 78-810 5-303 9-055 1-750 2-062 3-020 80-709 5-425 7-060 0-735 1-271 4-800 100-000 100-000 Frodnction of Coal. — The earliest information on this subject takes us back to the year 1788, when, of the 131 collieries then existing in the Forest, 90 were iu operation, producing 1,816 tons of coal per week, equivalent to an annual production of 94,432 tons. The first railway constructed in the Forest of Dean, and made available for the conveyance of mineral traffic, was about the year 1809, from Newnham to Churchway, a distance of seven and a half miles. A careful search of numerous documents and treatises referring to the Forest of Dean since the year 1788, has not been fruitful of results until the year 1854, when it appears 60 collieries were in active operation, producing 420,866 tons of coal. In subsequent years, as in 1864, the returns of production of coal in the Forest of Dean were included in the total produce of the coal-fields of Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and the Anthracite and Lignite deposits of Bideford and Bovey Tracey in Devonshire. The following figures indicate the production of the above- named deposits, as published for the year 1854 : — COAL FIELDS. Gloucestershire, ' ' Forest of Dean " Somersetshire, " Bristol Coal Field " Devonshire, Bovey Tracey Lignite „ Bideford Anthracite Total TONS. 420,866 1,050,000 15,000 6,500 1,492,366 228 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES, [past I. In the year 1855, and until 1867, the returns include the out- put of the collieries of Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and Devon- shire, and appear as follows : — NUMBEK OP COLLIERIES. Year. Production of Coal. Glouces- Somerset- Devon- tershire. shire. shire. Tons. 1855 55 31 2 1,430,620 1856 56 29 2 1,630,000 1857 62 35 2 1,225,000 1858 59 35 2 1,125,250 1869 60 35 2 1,250,000 1860 63 37 2 * 1861 71 40 2 * 1862 76 42 2 1,750,000 1863 78 41 2 1,950,000 1864 94 37 2 1,950,000 1865 97 37 1 1,875,000 1866 79 35 1,860,700 1867 76 34 ... 1,975,000 About this period the production of the collieries in Dean Forest is separated, and is shown in the annexed table, with the number of collieries working in each year. The totals in the last column include the production of Somersetshire in each of the years from 1867 to 1873 :— Year. FOREST OF DEAK. Total of Gloucestershire. Number ot CoUieries. Coal Produced. 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 54 54 60 44 54 59 76 71 69 69 64 60 55 63 Tons. 847,667 848,128 852,125 907,183 837,893 730,409 790,374 666,697 702,080 668,009 638,319 655,903 779,428 759,853 Tons. 1,975,000 1,969,000 1,979,000 1,955,950 2,086,475 # 1,858,740 1,147,272 1,273,080 1,257,647 1,194,726 1,147,605 1,250,718 1,195,930+ Since the year 1873, the production of Gloucestershire is dis- * Included in the Monmouthshire return. + Return H.M. Inspectors of Mines. CHAP. XV.] GliOUCESTEKSHIKE COAL-FIELD. 229 tinguished, and includes the output of the Forest mines ; the difference between the two columns in later years will be coal raised in that part of the county belonging to the Bristol district. For the years 1867 and 1868 the coal raised from the Forest mines is shown in the following statement : — Workings. 1867. 1868. Galea's retiim of quantities worked ex- clusive of colliery oonsumption and • workmen's allowance Consumed by engines Consumed by workmen .... Total raisings . . . Tons. 777,677 40,000 30,000 Tons. 778,828 40,000 30,000 847,677 848,128 The following are the quantities of coal raised in the several collieries in the Forest of Dean in the year 1880, amounting to 759,853 tons :— OOLLIEBIBS. TONS. Aries Level. . . . 2,011 OOLLIEBIXa. IONS. Brought forward . 288,746 Bailey TTi 11 . . 5,232 Nagshead . 22,089 Bilson . 4,482 Old Fire Engine , 14 Britannia 33,060 Patches 632 Bridewell . 58 Parkend. 8,093 Brooming Hold . 1,007 Prosper 34 Chapel Quarry . 1,120 Princes Eoyal 2,665 CoalwayTTill . 120 ParkhiU . 2,565 Coal Ht Hill . 362 Pluckpeny 179 Cross TTnaves . 769 Besolution . 83,059 Crump Meadow . Dark Hill . 75,173 Boyal Forester 56,976 4,206 Bose in Hand 60,961 Deans Meend 3 Eegulator No. 4 665 Farmer's Folly 7,924 Richard Winter . 14,065 Foxes Bridge 126,978 Smith's Delight 2,346 Gentlemen Colliers 3,937 Society 763 Hopewell Engine 4,331 SpeedweU 1,994 Haywood Hillers Land 2,344 Soundwell . 41,555 80 Saint Vincent 1,643 Hawkin . 35 Success 6,670 Invention . 313 Speculation . 18,694 Knookley Sump 684 Small Profit 24,173 Lightmoor . 60 Tormentor 1,416 Little BrockhoUands 1,562 Trafnlgar . 88,794 Lonk Level 618 Uncertainty . 595 Little Brit,a,iTi . 297 Unity . 6,331 Lydbrook D. Level . Morses Level . 5 Vallet's Level 779 139 Wallsend . 8,847 New Fancy. 8,382 Whirrley 654 New Found Out . 2,285 WorraU Hill . 13,739 New Eoad Level. 1,154 WiemeU . 50 Old Oroft Level . 15 WeU Level . Total 68 Carried forwar a . 288,746 759,863 230 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT I. Distribution of Coal. — The principal shipping ports are those of Gloucester and Bristol, from which considerable quantities of coal are sent coastwise and to foreign countries. Previous to the year 1831 an export duty was levied on all coals sent out of the United Kingdom, but in that year the duties levied on coals sent to our British possessions were repealed, and it was not tUl the year 1850 that the duties levied on coals sent to foreign countries were whoUy repealed. The respective shipments from Bristol and Gloucester were as follows in each of the years given since 1819 : — Year. Bristol. Gloucester. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1819 3,711 3,485 7,196 1821 2,543 15,615 18,158 1823 4,427 22,799 27,226 1825 4,986 14,077 19,063 1827 6,658 18,591 25,249 1829 6,517 6,517 1830 6,517 98 6,615 As already stated, the duty on coal sent to our colonial pos- sessions was repealed in the year 1831. In the two previous years the duties varied from 8d. to Is. per ton. At the same period, the duty levied on coals sent to foreign countries was 8s. id. per ton, when conveyed ia British ships, and 6s. 8d. in ships of other countries. While as regards cinders, small coal, and culm, the respective duties were 2s. per ton in British ships, and 4s. per ton in those of other countries. The total amount of duties received in the year 1830, on 504,419 tons, was £63,889 17s. 6d., and in the year 1832, on 588,446 tons, £56,706 2s. lOd. During the few years prior to the total abolition of all duties on coal exported, the quantities and duties received were as under : — Year. Quantities. Duty. 1847 1848 1849 1850 Tons. 2,483,161 2,785,300 2,826,039 3,351,880 £ s. d. 4,195 12 5 4,393 2 10 3,233 13 2 1,045 15 1 In each of the above-named years, the shipments from Bristol OHAP. XV.] GLOTJCESTEKSHIKE COAL-FIELD. 231 and Gloucester were as follows; the amount of duty does not appear, the sum, however, will have been inconsiderable : — Year. Bristol. Gloucester. Total. 1847 1848 1849 1850 Tons. 10,968 11,959 15,479 13,547 Tons. 112,202 119,993 89,272 85,707 Tons. 123,170 131,952 104,751 99,254 In subsequent years the total exports of coal are shown in the following table, the great bulk being sent coastwise to other ports in the United Kingdom : — Year. Bristol. Gloucester. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1852 11,060 89,229 100,279 1854 13,425 79,023 92,448 1856 11,662 97,288 108,950 1858 12,084 138,438 150,522 1860 10,897 163,982 174,879 1862 5,791 168,698 174,489 1864 11,196 172,104 183,300 1866 10,944 175,647 186,591 1868 13,228 171,859 186,087 • 1870 11,854 200,209 212,063 '1872 12,437 345,876 358,313 1874 7,353 205,438 212,791 1876 8,959 172,053 181,012 1877 7,146 167,495 174,641 1878 10,121 202,785 212,906 1879 12,110 264,862 266,972 1880 10,731 218,496 229,227 From the above table it wUl be seen that the greatest exports from Bristol and Gloucester took place in the year 1872, when 358,313 tons were shipped ; of this quantity 344,450 tons were shipped coastvdse from Gloucester, and 1,426 tons ex- ported to foreign countries, the shipments from Bristol amounting to 12,295 tons. Since 1872 a decline of shipments is shown from the above-named ports, the total in 1880 being but 229,227 tons. Some interesting details of the distribution of the Dean Forest coal appear for the years 1867, 1868, and 1870, in which the quantities carried out of the district are separately distinguished from that used locally, and in the ironworks of the district. The returns for these years are as follows : — 232 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. How Distributed. 1870. 1868. 1867. Tons. Tons. Tons. By Or. W. Railway from Lydnej 16,728 7,617 7,760 Erom BuUo Pill Railway . 284,819 306,000 300,000 By water from Lydney 171,919 168,404 166,992 By water from BuUo PiU . 96,307 61,220 59,380 Land sales in the Forest and i surrounding districts 82,000 80,000 82,000 Consumed by engines and workmen 70,000 70,000 70,000 Consumed at iron, tin, and wire works in the Forest . Totals . 185,410 154,887 161,545 907,183 848,128 847,667 The earliest return of coal carried by the Midland Railway from Gloucestershire is for the year 1856, showing that 132,035 tons, compared with 230,745 tons in the year 1866, and 226,643 tons in the year 1867, were carried. The followiag shows the coal carried from collieries in Gloucestershire since the year 1858 : — Year. Quantities. Tear. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1858 174,840 1871 234,420 1860 227,265 1872 232,875 1862 223,606 1873 293,069 1863 233,174 1874 225,013 1865 246,625 1875 243,753 1866 230,745 1876 227,740 1867 226,643 1877 200,253 1868 210,138 1878 192,007 1869 215,718 1879 188,542 1870 219,010 1880 223,098 The quantity carried ia the year 1880 was 223,098 tons, the total quantities of coal carried by the Midland Eailway system the same year, from aU districts, giving an aggregate total of 12,383,910 tons. The Gloucester and Berkley Canal Company are also carriers of coal from the Forest of Dean Collieries. In the year 1873 the total amounted to 1,612 tons, increased to 4,333 tons in 1874, and ia the years 1877 and 1880, from Dean Forest and South Wales respectively, 31,262 tons and 14,691 tons. Price of Coal. — "We learn from the " Survey of Gloucester- shire," written by Mr. Eudge, that, in the beginning of the CHAP. XV.] GLOUCESTEESHIUE COAL-FIELD. 233 present century, house coal from Dean Forest pits was sold at 7s. per ton, and smiths' coal for 5s, per ton ; much of the coal consumed in the city of Gloucester and the neighhourhood, at that time, beiag principally supplied from Shropshire and Staf- fordshire. In the year 1870 prices of coal were as follows : — Collieries, Fokest or Dean. Hopewell, Coleford, 5a. Gd. and 68. Miles Level, Coleford, 3«. 6d. to 8s. Nelson, Coleford, 5s, Gd., 7s. and Be. Pillowell, Lydney, Ss. 6d. Boyal Forrester, Coleford, 68. and 78. The ahove were the average prices per ton at the pit's mouth. Here, as in other districts, prices have fluctuated since the year 1870. The average prices ruling in 1879 were about 9s. 9d. per ton for coal (best household), and for slack, 4s. 9d., the highest price of coal being 14s., and the lowest 6s. 6d. per ton ; the slack ranging from 3s. 6d. to 5s. per ton. The average price at the pit's mouth in 1880 was about 10s., and slack 4s. 6d. per ton. Fopnlatiou Employed. — In the year 1854 the number of persons employed in coal and iron mining, in the Forest of Dean, was 2,218 ; of these 2,007 were coal, and 211 ironstone miners. Twenty years later the total persons employed amounted to 5,050, of whom 3,962 were engaged under ground, and 1,088 above ground. Since that date Her Majesty's Inspectors of Mines give the numbers engaged as follows, to which is added the produce of coal and the individual output per man : — Tear. Under Ground. Above Ground. Total. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1874 3,962 1,088 5,050 671,232 133 1875 3,803 891 4,694 702,053 149 1876 3,573 861 4,433 619,805 139 1877 3,468 680 4,148 627,401 151 1878 3,291 694 3,985 657,276 165 1879 3,677 614 4,291 788,501 180 1880 3,207 623 3,830 720,123 188 These figures refer exclusively to the Forest of Dean coal- field; the population employed in the Bristol district, also in Gloucestershire, will be included in the Somersetshire coal-field. 234 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [pakt i. Of the population employed in 1879 there were 3,305 working under ground above the age of 16, and of those above ground, 581 were above the same age, the remainder being under ; while a total absence of female labour appears throughout the Forest of Dean, as well as the Bristol district. Resources of Coal-field and piro1)able Duration. — The total area of the Forest of Dean coal-field, as recorded by the Eoyal Coal Commission,* amounts to 302,671 statute acres, one foot thick. Of this area, the portion already wrought amounts to 37,787 statute foot acres, the portion unwrought, deducted for faults, barriers, supports, &c., amounting to 75,681 statute acres, of the same thickness, leaving unwrought, and likely to be clear for working, 189,203 statute foot acres. In this computation, after making due allowance for unavoidable loss and waste iu working, each statute acre is estimated to yield 1,400 tons, giving a total quantity of coal yet available (1870) of 265,000,000 tons. Taking the production of the year 1870, as recorded in the "Mineral Statistics," 907,183 tons, the coal remaining would last for 292 years. Since 1870, however, a diminished production appears, that of 1880 giving but 769,853 tons. The total yield dmriug the past ten years is 7,376,295 tons, giviag an average annual output, from the Forest of Dean collieries, of 737,629 tons. Making the necessary deduction, and taking this average, there yet remaias available 257,623,705 tons ; sufficient to last for a period of about 349 years. * " Coal Commission Report," vol. i,, p. 18, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, H.M. Inspector of Mines. CHAPTEE XVI. THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD IN GLOUCESTBESHIEE AND . SOMEESETSHIRE. General description of the Bristol and Eadstoek Coal Basin — The Clapton-in- Gordauo and SeTem Basin, and the NaUsea Basin — Succession of Strata — Analyses, Production, and Distribution of Coal — Prices of Coal — Population employed in Coal Mining — Resources and probable Duration of Coal-field. The Somersetshire and Bristol Coal-field.— Few coal-:&elds possess more interesting features. The following section gives the succession of rocks and their average thickness : Trias Carhonifercms system Old Bed Sandstone Bhoetic beds . New Eed Marl . , Dolomitic Conglomerate ' Ooal measures . Millstone grit Carboniferous limestone . Lower lim.e8tone shales . Old Bed Sandstone . THICKNESS. Feet. 50 300 25 5,000 800 3,000 500 4,000 The dolomitic conglomerate reposing on the coal measures, and so called from its peculiar character, contains hematite iron ore deposits ; the variable thickness however of this, the lower division of the trias, rarely exceeding from 25 to 30 feet in this area, has rendered mining operations somewhat uncertain, and hence the deposits have been developed but to a limited extent. The coal measures of this district consist generally of a series of shales and sandstones, with seams of coal and occasional mea- sures of ironstones, and may be taken in their average depth as having a thickness of not less than 5,000 feet. These measures are divided iato an upper and lower series, between which inter- poses an arenaceous rock, averaging in thickness about 2,000 feet, and known as the "Pennant Grit," consisting of thick beds of sandstone, varying in colour from grey to dark red. These beds frequently alternate with thin shales, and occasion- ally a seam of coal interposes. 236 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [paet i. The upper and lower coal measures series contain productive seams of coal, while some measures of ironstone are met with in the lower series. The I'ennant Grit, however, is the principal division of the coal measures in which ores of iron are met with, and in the neighbourhood of Bristol these ores have been wrought in several localities. In the millstone grit, at the base of the coal measures, beds or courses of iron ore are occasionally met with ; the millstone grit, it may be stated, is familiarly known as the " Farewell Eock," from the fact that when reached there is no longer any probability of meeting any coal in depth. The millstone grit in Somerset- shire and Gloucestershire has a varying thickness. In the Mendip HUls it does not exceed 500 feet in thickness, while in the Bristol area it may be taken as varying from 800 to 1,000 feet. It is composed of beds of sandstone, grit, hard and close grained, thin beds of sandy shale, with occasional seams of coal and beds of conglomerate containing quartz pebbles. The carboniferous or mountain limestone upon which the mill- stone grit reposes, is also a repository of the ores of iron in this area : it is made up of numerous beds of grey and blue limestone, interstratified here and there with chert in bands and strings. These beds are traversed by joints, veins and faults, in which are found the deposits of ore in irregular veins, pockets, and fissures. The true carboniferous limestone in this area has an average thickness of 3,000 feet and rests upon the lower limestone shales, the lowest member of the carboniferous system, having an average thickness of not less than 500 feet, and forming as it were a passage between the old red sandstone and the carboniferous limestone : it consists of shales and limestones, occasionally sandy and micaceous, varying in colour from blue to grey, and brown, while in the uppermost part are beds of tough bluish limestone. Three coal basins in isolated tracts occur in the area of the Somerset and Bristol coal-field, namely, that of Bristol and Badstock ; of Clapton-in-Gordano ; and NaUsea. The Bristol and Badstock Coal Basin.— The extreme length of this coal-field from its northern apex at CromhaU to the flanks of the Mendips is about twenty-five miles ; at Frampton CottereU it has an average width of four and-a-half miles, from Stapleton to Mangotsfield about five miles, and a line drawn from Bristol CHAP. XVI.] THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 237 eastward to Naishcombe Hill about six miles. In the above area the coal-field may be conveniently divided into two sections, or into a northern and southern basin, separated by the Kings- wood anticlinal, which forms a natural division. Mr. McMurtrie remarks that the whole of the northern part of the coal-field commencing at Kingswood has been raised to a higher elevation than the Somersetshire end of the basin, and it has thus been more exposed to those powerful denuding forces which have swept over the district. In the northern basin the upper coal measures yield but four workable seams of coal. At Coal Pit Heath the succession of beds is illustrated by the following section : — Frog Lake Pit, Coal Pit Hkath. (From the Report of the Royal Coal Commiaaion.) Ft. In. Coal measures 455 2 Eag Coal 10 Coal measures 16 Top or Hard Coal 2 Coal measures 71 6 Stinking Seam 6 Coal measures 10 Holybush Seam 2 Coal measures 68 High Seam (in two bands) 4 In the southern or Eadstock basin the following section shows the succession of strata in the district at the Paulton Engine Pit : — Paultom' Engine Pit. {From the Report of the Royal Coal Com/mission.) Coal measures GFreat Seam . Coal measures Upper Little Seam Coal measures Middle Seam . Coal measures Slyving Seam Coal measures Under Little Seam Coal measures BuU Seam Ft. In. 348 2 34 1 6 82 6 1 1 82 11 1 10 32 2 9 The Clapton-iu-Gordauo, and Severn Basin.— This coal tract, the exposed portion of which lies between Clevedon and Port- 238 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES, [pakt i. bury, has in recent years been the subject of much interest occa- sioned by the discovery of coal measures in the bed of the Severn, east of Almondbury.* The following is the account of a boring made near to Clapton Farm : t — Ft. In. Soil and New Red Sandstone 10 Dolomitic conglomerate 11 Pennant Grit 114 Bed of marl -with water 10 Pennant Grit 20 Clay 5 2 Coal 10 Shales 60 Pennant Grit 220 Shales 5 Pennant Grit 63 Total 510 Coal also appears to have been found, one seam four feet thick, in the railway cutting at Almondbury, and at Cattybrook, burning freely with a white ash ; these seams lying almost verti- cally appear to have been worked duriag the past century, from the fact that old tokens (1756) of the Birmingham Mining Com- pany have been found there. Nailsea Basin.— The upper coal measures are absent in this basia ; at NaUsea the Pennant Grit occupies all the central part of the valley about Nailsea church and village, and is seen to pass westwards. Its maximum thickness at Nailsea appears to be about 150 yards, and it contains a good seam of workable coal known as " Grace's Seam," three feet thick, which has been extensively wrought from several shafts in the neighbourhood of Nailsea church. $ In the upper series of coal measures there are 16 seams of coal, in the Pennant series from two to three, and ia the lower series 26 seams in the central area, decreasing to seven in the northern area. The Eadstock group contains eight seams, varying from 10 inches to two feet four inches, and even more ia thickness, giving from 70 to 100 feet thickness of coal. The group in the Far- ringdon series has eight seams, varying from 1 foot to 3 feet * " Boyal Coal Commission Report," vol. i., p. 57. t " Coal-fields of Gloucestershire and Somersetshire," p. 55. t " Coal-fields of Gloucestershire and Somersetshire," p. 66. CHAP. XVI.] THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 239 10 inches in thickness. Again, at Coal Pit Heath, and Parkfield in Gloucestershire, there are six seams, varj'ing in thickness from 18 inches to 2 feet 10 inches. The Nettlebridge district contains four seams of coal in the Pennant Grit which have been occasionally worked ; the coal wrought from these seams is mostly small, and the hardness of the rock and the presence of water renders the working of these thin seams unprofitable. The lower coal measures contain the most valuable and the greatest number of coal seams, which are also those most extensively worked. In the Nettlebridge Valley this series comprises about 25 seams, varying in thickness from 15 inches to 6 feet. At Bitton Bristol and Kingswood there are about 29 seams, varying in thickness from 1 foot to 6 feet.* Coal has been wrought, though not in considerable quantities, for three or four centuries, in the Nettlebridge Valley, and pro- bably in the neighbourhood of the Bristol coal-field. In the working of the coal seams, the "long wall" system is that usually adopted, and Mr. W. W. Smyth observes, "that the mode of working adopted in the district, coupled with certain local advantages, has rendered it possible to work coal seams of little more than one foot thick." f At the Writhlington collieries a seam is worked which often does not exceed 8 to 10 inches in thickness. This would not be worked if it were continuously of such small size, but its ordinary thickness is 14 inches in the neighbourhood of Eadstock. Underground water appears rarely to interfere with the working of coal in this coal-field; in reference to this point Professor Prestwich observes that "the faults as usual assist in impeding the circulation of underground water. But probably this is owing to the great extent of secondary rocks covering and pro- tecting the outcropping edges of the coal measures from rain and surface waters." t In some districts, however, as at Kingswood, the water accumulated in the old workings is a source of great danger to modern collieries, so much so, that the fear of tapping them has retarded to some extent mining operations. * " East Somerset and Bristol Coal-field," pp. 32, 33. t " Coal and Coal Mining," 1867, p. 64. J " Coal Commission Report," vol. i. p. 41. 240 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. Analyses of the Coal.— A few examples of the constituents of the coals raised in the Bristol coal-field will show generally their commercial value. The coals from the Kadstock seams are usually considered as the best for household purposes ; they bum briskly, make a clear fire, and as they give out a great heat are valuable as a cooking coal, and leave but a smaU quantity of ash. The Hard Vein or Top Coal, the uppermost seam of the work- able coal, having a rock roof of considerable thickness above, the seam largely composed of stems of calamites, &c., in the body of the coal, causing some difficulty in working it free from shales and impurities. Another seam, lower in the series, is the " Holy- bush," a coal tolerably hard and suitable for gas manufacture. Analyses of these seams give the annexed results : — Constituents. Hard Seam. Holybusli Seam. Asli .... Fixed Oarbon . . . Volatile matter "Water .... Specific gravity Sulphur . . . . 4-27 I 5-93 63-55 i 59-10 1 32-18 ; 34-97 100-00 100-00 1-28 1-625 1-28 1-64 One pound of coal of the Hard Seam will convert 13-80 lbs. of water into steam at the temperature of 212° Fahr. The evaporative power of the Holybush Seam being 14"40 lbs. of water converted into steam under the same conditions. The " Great Vein " of the Kiagswood series, and indeed of the Bristol coal-field, is greatly valued as a steam coal, and is exten- sively used in the Bristol district as a house coal; the seam averages from 4 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. in thickness, is easily wrought, though requiring much timbering to keep the roads secure and the workings safe; and it is said to be very free from dirt. Other good workable seams, the " Two-foot," or " Little Toad Vein," and the " Lower Fire Coals," may be referred to ; this last seam is made up of five coals with shaly partings, the latter collectively 2 ft. thick, leaving 3 ft. of coal. The top of this seam is sound, and the ironstone measures in the roof render it HAP." XVI.] THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 241 a valuable seam. The above-named coals show the annexed results on analyses : — * Constituents. Great Vein. Little Toad Vein. Lower Five Coals. Ash ... . Fixed Carbon . . . Water .... Volatile matter . . . Sulphur Specific gravity . . 5-84 70-84 1-50 21-82 9-59 69-80 1-43 19-18 7-64 68-10 24-26 100-00 100-00 100-00 1-16 1-80 1-85 1-34 Production and Distribution of Coal.— In the beginning of the present century there were 24 collieries in Somersetshire, with a total of 29 pits from which coal was drawn ; they were distributed as follows in districts : — Districts. Collieries. Pits. Nettlebridge . Paulton . . . . Eadstock Total . 7 10 7 8 14 7 24 29 At the time referred to (1800) careful inquiries assume that 20 tons of coal were daily drawn from each pit, giving an annual production of 185,540 tons; since, however, many of the col- lieries would lie idle in summer, and all of them working leisurely, it is estimated that not more than 140,000 tons were raised. The general character of the coals raised will appear from the fol- lowing remarks by Professor Prestwich:t — "The quality of the coals of the Somersetshire and Gloucestershire coal-field is not such as to compete for household purposes with the Newcastle coals in other markets, owing to their leaving ah ash in burning. Many of the seams are otherwise of a good and useful descrip- tion, whilst others are extremely well adapted for steam and locomotive purposes, for gas making, and some are especially * "The Bristol Coal-field," a paper read before the British Association, at Bristol, 1875. t " Coal Commission Report," vol. i., p. 39, 242 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. valuable as smiths' coal and for iron smelting. With the exception of their use for the latter purpose, which even now leads them to he sent to Beading and as far as Birmingham, they are not likely, for the present at all events, to be much sought after for a distant supply." The seams in the upper coal measures at Radstock and Far- rington furnish good household coals, those in and around Bristol are chiefly used for gas manufacture. The lower coal measures in Gloucestershire furnish some good household coals, particu- larly the Kingswood "Great Seam;" they also yield smiths', coking, and steam coals. In the Nettlebridge vaUey the seams generally afford good smiths' or coking coal. In the year 1864 Messrs. Greenwell and McMurtrie gave the following as the number of collieries and pits in the Eadstock district ; they were : — Districts. Collieries. Pits. Nettlebridge . Eadstock . . . . Paulton Total . 4 10 12 4 13 12 26 29 The estimated daily output in the same year being — Nettle- bridge, 290 tons ; Paulton, 650 tons ; and Eadstock, 1,160 tons, giving a daily total yield of 2,100 tons. Making due allowance for inactivity during the summer months, the annual production of coal did not exceed 600,000 tons. In the ^year 1867 the output of these collieries amounted to 413,678 tons ; the details are thus given : — Districts. . Coal. ' 1 Slack. Total. Nettlebridge . Eadstock . . . . Paulton Total . Ton.s. 10,919 219,502 110,846 Tons. 8,081 38,940 25,390 Tois. 19,000 258,442 136,236 341,267 "72,411 413,678 In order to arrive at the total returns of coal raised in Somer- setshire it is necessary to add an additional return of six collieries CHAP. XVI.] THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 243 in the Eadstock district, not included in the above, also coal allowance to workmen, and engine coal. The output of the Radstock collieries would therefore stand as follows for the year 1867 :— * TONS. Eetums received 413,678 Eadstock (additional) 115,000 Workmen's coal 7,000 Engine coal 10,000 Total . . * . . . 5 45,678 For a few years the collieries in the Radstock and Nailsea dis- tricts are separately distinguished, producing coals in the follow- ing quantities : — Year. Eadstock. Nailsea. Tons. Tons. 1863 ... 22,295 1864 600,000 33,234 1867 545,678 23,224 1868 586,000 20,000 1869 539,000 ... The production of the Nailsea coUieries in 1868 was distributed as follows : — f DlSTEIBUTIOlf AND USES. TONS. The glass works consumed 15,500 Sales in the country around 3,000 Engine coals and pit fires 1,250 Colliers' allowance 250 Total 20,000 Since the year 1870 the output of the collieries in the Somerset coal-field, together with the produce of collieries in the Bristol district, are available, and are given in the following quantities, with the total number of collieries in both divisions of the coal- field; the production of Somersetshire, in 1880, amountmg to 757,802 tons, and the Bristol Coal-field 475,807 tons, giving a total of 1,233,609 tons, compared with 1,048,567 tons in the year 1870 :— * " Coal Commission Eeport," vol. iii., p. 127. f Ibid., 126. K 2 244 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [I'AKT I. SOMERSETSHIRE. BEISTOL. TOTAL. Collieries. Coal. Collieries. Coal. Collieries. Coal. Nos. Tons. Nos. Tons. Nos. Tons. 1870 34 525,000 18 523,567 52 1,048,567 1871 35 673,878 18 573,704 53 1,247,582 1872 33 * 15 * 48 l,280,000t 1873 34 * 16 * 50 1,068,366 1874 38 609,684 18 480,275 56 1,089,959 1875 40 654,878 20 571,000 60 1,225,878 1876 45 650,415 21 589,538 66 1,239,953 1877 41 666,500 20 556,407 61 1,222,907 1878 39 693,000 21 539,121 60 1,232,121 1879 39 767,930 22 471,290 61 1,239,220 1880 39 757,802 22 475,807 61 1,233,609 The returns ^or the year 1880 giving an increase of 185,042 tons beyond those of J870, and showing that while the Somerset area of the coal-field has increased its production to the extent of 232,802 tons in the period, the collieries of the Bristol district have fallen off to the extent of 47,760 tons. The distri- bution of the Somersetshire coal-field is mainly effected by the Great Western EaUway, which system carried from the Eadstock district coals in the following quantities since 1866 : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1865 211,936 1873 237,372 1866 211,948 1874 204,890 1867 222,948 1875 199,456 1868 254,134 1876 183,691 1869 271,326 1877 195,492 1870 294,310 1878 202,031 1871 . 306,732 1879 203,988 1872 261,657 1880 258,482 The great bulk of the above quantities were carried over the main line of the Great Western Eailway, quantities not exceeding one-tenth of the above being passed over the stations beyond their system. The Westbury Iron Company ia Wiltshire, it may be observed, derive their supplies of coal for their blast furnaces from their own collieries in the Nettlebridge Valley. Prices of Coal at the Pit's mouth. — During the years 1868 and 1869, the best varieties of house coal obtained irom. the Easton and Whitehall Collieries in the Bristol district, varied at * Production included in South Wales district, t Production estimated. CHAP. XVI.] THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 245 the pit's mouth from 10s. to 13«. per ton ; and coal suitable for steam purposes from Ss. to 6s. per ton, the cost of cartage to Bristol being 2s. and to Clifton 3s. per ton. The coal of the Ashton Vale and Bedminster Collieries in the Paulton district were quoted at the same period: Bedminster screened, 10s. 6d. ; picked lumps, 13s. ; Ashton Vale slack, 5s. per ton. In the Eadstock district in 1870 the best varieties of coal were quoted as follows : — Bull Hall coal, lis. 8d. to 14s. 2d. ; slack, 4s. 9d. to 5s. Qd. ; Coal Pit Heath, from 7s. to 10s., and slack, 4s. per ton ; while in the Paulton and Bedminster Collieries coals varied from 8s. to lis., and slack from 3s. to 7s. per ton. In the year 1880 in the Bristol district the average prices of best house coals at the pit's mouth was 9s. 9d., and in Somerset- shire generally about 10s., the highest price obtained for coals being 14s., and the lowest 6s. lOd. per ton ; slack varied from 2s. id. to 5s., the average being 4s. per ton. Population employed in Coal Mining. — In the year 1854 the number of persons of aU ages engaged in coal mining was 6,180, and in iron mining 68. There is no information available in subsequent years showing the numbers of persons employed until the year 1873, arising from the fact, that in intervening years the numbers thus engaged were included in other districts. In 1873 and since ample information is available, giving the number of persons employed underground and above ground, distinguishing the Somersetshire from the Bristol area of the coal-field.* The numbers engaged in Somersetshire were as follows, with the quantity of coal raised, to which is added the average produce per person in each year : — SOMEESETSHIEE AeEA OF THE CoAL-FIELD. Year. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground, Above Ground. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 3,707 3,674 3,631 3,347 3,348 3,464 3,508 Nos. 967 916 891 783 844 786 757 Nos. 4,674 4,590 4,522 4,130 4,192 4,250 4,265 Tons. 609,039 640,508 650,714 670,256 692,942 742,060 757,802 Tons. 130 139 144 164 163 174 178 • H.M. Inspectors of Mines' Keports, 1874 to 1880. (246 COAL AND lEON INDUSTEIES. [I'AET I. The efficiency of the mines in this division of the coal-field shows favourably in 1880 compared with 1874, to the extent of 48 tons per man, equivalent to an increase of 33 per cent. In the Bristol division of the coal-field the numbers of persons employed were as under, with the coal produced, and the average yield per man : — BEisToii Aeea of the Coal-field. Tear. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 2,713 2,782 2,518 2,516 2,305 2,362 2,382 Nos. 600 675 607 618 590 606 578 Nos. 3,313 3,457 3,125 3,134 2,895 2,968 2,960 Tons. 497,042 571,050 541,853 618,995 482,129 501,559 475,807 Tons. 150 165 173 166 166 169 160 In that part of the Bristol coal-field in Somersetshire a steadj^ increase per man appears in 1880 compared with 1874. However, to arrive at average results for the whole coal-field, it is neces- sary that both districts should be summarised ; the result is as follows : — Somerset and Bristol Coal-field. Year. PERSONS EMPLOYED. 1 Total. ' i 1 Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 6,420 6,456 6,149 5,863 5,653 5,826 [5,890 Nos. 1,567 1,591 1,498 1,401 1,434 1,392 1,335 Nos. 7,987 8,047 7,647 7,264 7,087 7,218 7,225 Tons. 1,206,081 1,211,558 1,192,567 1,189,2.51 1,175,071 1,243,619 1,233,609 Tons. 151 150 156 163 163 172 171 Resources and proTiable Duration of the Coal-field. — This coal-field has an area of 238 square miles, 14 of which are exposed, including that part in Gloucestershire. The coal-field is remarkable from the circumstance of so large a portion of it CHAP. XVI.] THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 247 being covered by the New Eed Sandstone, Lias, and Oolites, under which it is worked to a considerable extent. Its area may be divided into three portions.* Extent of the Somersetshire and Bristol Coal-field. AKEA IN ACRES. Portion of exposed coal measures 30,580 Portion of coal measures covered by and worked under the newer formations 24,111 Portion of coal measures covered by the newer formations and not yet worked 98,089 Total extent of the Ck>al Measures . . 152,780 The coal already wrought is estimated to cover an area of 24,111 acres, each acre being estimated to yield 1,500 tons of one foot thick, an allowance of from one-tenth to one-third being made for waste in working, faults, &c. The quantity of coal already wrought amounts to 114,024,685 tons, obtained as follows : — OOAIi MEASURES. TONS. From the Upper Series 49,698,786 „ Pennant Grit 1,245,025 Lower Series 58,080,874 ,, sundry small pits 5,000,000 114,024.685 All tliis coal, except 27,000 tons, has been wrought at a depth not exceeding 1,500 feet, the 27,000 tons being wrought at a depth of from 1,500 feet to 1,940 feet. The total coal remaining unwrought and available for use to a depth of 9,000 feet is estimated to amount to 6,944,310,982 tons, from which a deduction of one-fifth is made for possible over estimates on the coals of the lower series (amounting to 4,200,000,000), equal to 840,000,000 tons, leaving the total of workable coal remaining unwrought as above stated 6,944,310,982 tons. Or, taking the total at all depths down to 4,000 feet, there yet remains available for future supplies 4,218,970,762 tons. The distribution of the coal is as follows to the depth of 9,000 feet :— * " Coal Commission Report," vol. i., p. 3G. 248 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paiit i. TONS. 1. Not exceeding 1,500 ft 1,718,791,280 2. Between 1,500 ft. and 3,000 ft 1,519,997,981 3. „ 3,000 ft. and 6,000 ft 2,227,531,577 4. „ 6,000 and 9,000 ft. . ■. . . . 637,990,144 Total to 9,000ft. . . . 6,104,310,982 Total to 4,000 ft. . . . 4,218,970,762 Professor Prestwich observes with regard to the duration of the coal-field : The present quantity of coal wrought in this coal-field has been calculated to vary from 750,000 tons (1859) to 1,000,000 tons, at wliich latter Mr. Cossham estimated it in 1863. Adopting the latter estimate, the quantity of coal remaiu- ing unwrought, at this rate of consumption, is sufficient, supposing the whole quantity to be available, for 6,104 years, or supposing a lunit in depth, the duration of the supplies from the respective zones would be as under : — TEAKS. 1. Not exceeding 1,500 ft. sufScient for .... 1,719 2. Between 1,500 and 2.000ft. sufficient for .... 1,520 3. „ 3,000 and 6,000ft. , 2,227 4. „ 6,000 and 9,000 ft. ,, .... 638 6,104 Or the total to the depth of 4,000 feet may be estimated as equal to a Supply for 4,219 years.* Takiug the production of Somersetshire as recorded in the "Mineral Statistics, 1870," amounting to 1,048,567 tons, and dealing with the above available quantities, sufficient supplies would be ensured by the store of coal to the depth of 9,000 feet for 5,821 years, and to the depth of 4,000 feet for 4,024 j'ears. Again, deducting the production of the past ten years (amount- ing to 11,894,553 tons), from the original quantities unwrought, there remained at the end of 1879 to the depth of 9,000 feet 6,092,416,429 tons, and to the depth of 4,000 feet 4,207,076,209 tons, which at the average production of the ten years (1,189,455 tons) would afford supplies at the former depth for 5,122 years, and the latter 3,527 years, * " Coal Commission Report," vol. i., pp. 50, 51. CHAPTER XVII. DEVONSHIKE COAL AST) LIGNITE DEPOSITS. Description of Bovey Tracey Coal or Lignite Deposits — Antliracite of Bideford — Analyses and Production of Lignite and Anthracite. Devonshire. Bovey Coal, or Bovey Tracey Lignite. — This deposit is found near the town or village of Bovey Tracey, on the left bank of the river Bovey, and about two miles and a half above the point at which it falls into the river Teign, being about eleven miles distant from each of the towns Exeter, Torquay, and Totnes. The deposit is described by Mr. Pengellj', F.G.S.,* as stretching away in a south-easterly direction, having a length of six miles from a point about a mile west of Bovey to another nearly as far east as Newton ; its greatest breadth, from Chudleigh Bridge on the north-east, to Blackpool on the south-west, being about fmir miles. It forms a lake-like expansion of the valleys of tlie Teign and Bovey rivers, especially the latter, whose course it may be said to follow in the higher part, where it is most fully developed ; whilst the Teign constitutes its axis below the junc- tion of the two streams. Its upper or north-western portion immediately adjacent to the village, is known as "Bovey Heath- field," and extends over an area of about 700 acres. Shafts and other excavations have shown that this basin consists of an accumulation of coarse gravel (mixed with sand and clay) of variable thickness, unconformably covering distinct strata of lignite, clay, and sand, which are familiar to geologists as the "Bovey deposit," whilst the lignite is equally well known as " Bovey Coal." This deposit not only occupies the plain which has been described, but is continued in a narrow southerly direc- tion from Newton, to near Kingskerswill, about three and a half * " Memoirs on the Lignites and Clays of Bovey Tracey." Transactions of the Eoyal Society, part 2, 1862. 250 COAL AND lEON INDUSTETES. [pam i. miles from Torbay; and where it crosses the estuary of the Teign it is distant about four miles from the coast. The most important of the excavations is that known as the " Coal Pit," which is situated on the Heathfield, somewhat less than a mile south of the village, and about the same distance from the western margin of the deposit. It is open to the day, and is in form a rude parallelogram, having its longest side about 960 feet, whilst the shortest measures 340 feet, its greatest depth at the western end being about 100 feet. Subterranean excava- tions have been carried on verj"- extensively in various directions by means of tunnels opening out of the pit at its bottom. Attention was first directed to this deposit in the year 1760, when the Rev. Jeremiah Milles communicated his views to the Eoyal Society in a letter addressed to the Earl of Macclesfield,* although it appears that the lignite was discovered about the year 1745, and probably at an earlier period. Dr. Maton, about the year 1796, in his " Observations on the Western Counties of England," gives some particulars respecting the Bovey deposits, apparently from actual observations. The pits at this time were of considerable depth, 80 feet, and the lignite was worked to supply fuel for a pottery close hy. About the year 1812, another pottery was established near Bovey Tracey, called FoUey Pottery, from the coal-pits, the lignite being locally known as FoUey Coal, In 1853 the pottery kilns were fired with lignite ; later, in 1869, it was not employed in the earthenware kilns, the small quantity then used being in the brick-works of the neighbourhood, where it is also used in small quantities in the cottages, but the disagreeable smell which it gives out in burning renders it objectionable. Some years since a company engaged in working iron ore at Ilsington proposed to use this Bovey lignite for smelting the ore ; two blast furnaces were commenced, but ere they were completed the company was dissolved, and the experiment for using this lignite for iron smelting was never tried. Analysis of the Bovey Tracey Iiignite — The Bovej' coal, examined by Fred. Vaux, Esq., in his paper " On the Ultimate Analysis of some Varieties of Coal," t is thus described : — Be- * " Philosophical Transactions," li., part 2, p. 634, &c. + " Journal of the Chemical Society of London," vol. i., p. 318 (1849). cirAr. XVII.] DEVONSHIRE COAL AND LIGNITE DEPOSITS. 251 comes quite rotten after immersion in water; that it does not soil the fingers ; that the coke has a semi-metallic lustre, does not smell, cakes but slightly, and does not take the form of the crucible ; that it is easily converted into a bulky red ash, inter- spersed with filaments ; that before the blowpipe it is partially, but with difficulty, fusible into a black clinker ; and that its com- position is shown in the annexed table, giving the relative propor- tions in 100 parts of Bovey lignite, exclusive of water. Eesults Tabulated. Carbon 66'314 Hydrogen 5-627 Oxygen 22-861 Nitrogen 0-565 Sulphur 2-36i Ash 2-269 Water 34-660 Coke 30-799 Free from Water and Ash. Carbon 67-8535 Hydrogen 5-7576 Oxygen 23-3920 Nitrogen 0-5781 Sulphur 2-4188 Copper and lead, it is stated, were detected in the ash. Another sample of the Bovey lignite called " Board Coal," from a bed about fom' feet thick in the " Board Coal Seam," is thus described in Dr. Percy's "Metallurgy."* The analysis was made by Mr. . William Eatcliffe, and was communicated by the late Mr. Ebenezer Eogers, of Abercarne, near Newport, Mon- mouthshire : — "It abounds in the remains of dicotyledonous plants, and is woody in structure. It is said to yield a bright, hard, porous coke. The h3'^groscopic water was estimated by the loss in weight by diying at 100° C, and the specimen analysed had been previously dried at that temperature. It is stated that there are also twenty seams of what is locally termed " rough coal," with which a large proportion of claj'' is intimately mixed; a specimen of tliis variety yielded after air-drying at 37° C, 52"37 per cent, of coke, containing 29'98 of ash, which contained 0'532 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and of which 65*48 per cent. * If Fuel," 1875, pp. 312, 313. 252 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [pabt i. was insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and consisted chiefly of silica." The results appear in the annexed analysis, the composition per cent, being exclusive of water, which gave 2"21 per cent., the yield of coke amounting to 51'50 per cent. Eesults Taeulated. Carbon 66'76 Hydrogen 5"59 Oxygen 22-81 Sulphur 2-09 Ash 2-7o 100-00 The composition per cent., exclusive of ash and water, being carbon, 70"15 ; hydrogen^ 5"88 ; oxygen and nitrogen, 23"97 per cent. Production of Lignite. — The quantity raised at the Brown Coal Mine in the year 1854 amounted to 15,000 tons ; in subse- quent years the output has been as follows : — - YEAK. TONS. 1850 5,600 1857 3,850 1867 1,368 1868 1,383 The above are the only returns obtainable. Since the last- named year some quantities have been raised from time to time, but being included in other districts the exact quantities are not known. Bideford Anthracite. — Another description of coal which has been worked in Devonshire is the variety known as culm or anthracite of Bideford. These beds of anthracite stretch across the country, from Barnstaple Bay by Bideford and Alverdiscot towards Chittlehampton, and there are evidences that these culm deposits were worked on the line of the out-crop at a remote j)eriod. Many old worldngs have from time to time been dis- covered, some of the pits having been carried to depths of from eight to ten fathoms. The beds of culm are very variable in thickness, the middle or great anthracite bed upon which all the chief workings have been carried is described as varying from CHAP. XVII.] DEVONSHIRE COAL AND LIONITE DEPOSITS. 253 6 inches to 14 feet in thickness, the average being about 7 feet. According to Lysons, the beds in the vicinity of Eastacot were extensively worked in the middle of the last century.' A pit here was re-opened about the year 1790, and abandoned in the follow- ing year on account of the water, when the pit reached a depth of 25 fathoms, the quantity of anthracite raised being about 900 bushels per week. Sir Henry de la Beche,* writing in 1838, says, culm or an- thracite beds are now at work about a mile on the east of Bide- ford. Mr. John Bundle, M.P., who is interested in them, states that about twelve or eighteen months previously, they drove a little under the adit, and in a short time obtained from 600 to 700 tons of anthracite. It appears that these mines were partially opened about 1825 for 200 fathoms in length, above an adit 15 fathoms deep. The eastern mine in full work employed three men and five boys, and produced about 700 bushels or 58 tons of anthra- cite per week. From the western mine about 1,500 tons were raised in the year. The quantities raised of late, as far as returns are available, are inconsiderable, and are as under : — YEAR. TONS. 1854 6,500 1856 5,036 1857 4,173 Some quantities, it is said, were raised in the year 1877 and since ; they were, however, small, and do not appear to have been recorded. This fuel was at one time extensively used at Greenacliff in Barnstaple to burn with the limestones brought there from South Wales. A variety of the anthracite, probably formed from de- •composed portions of it, has long been raised near Bideford and employed as a pigment. Lysons t says it was used in Plymouth in 1822, and at a later period it was sent to Chatham for the same purpose. The quantity (paint-clay) raised in the year 1880 amounted to 200 tons. * " Geological Eeport on Cornwall, Devon, and West Sdmerset," 1839, p. 5H, ■f " Magna Britannia," Devonshire, p. ocxcii. CHAPTEE XVIII. THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. General Description of the Coal-fields — The Carboniferous Series of Scotland — Section of Strata, Order and Occurrence of Coal Seams and Ironstone Measures in different Ai-eas — Varieties of Coal and Analyses — Gas Producing Coals, Cannels, Analyses, and Yield of Gas in Cubic Feet — Production of Coal in the Eastern and Western Districts, and of the several Coal-fields — Distribu- tion Coastwise and to Foreign Countries — Kailway Distribution — Prices of Coal and Cost of Production — Population Employed in Coal and Ironstone Mining — Kesources and probable Duration of the Scotch Coal-fields. Coal-fields of Scotland. — The carboniferous rocks of Scotland cross the country in a direction from south-west to north-east, stretching from sea to sea, from the Firth of Clyde on the east to the Firth of Forth on the west, and occupying the great sjTiclinal hollow or trough along the vaUey, and parallel to the mountain chains of the Graijnpians and Lammermuirs, or between the slopes of the Grampians and the north flanks of the southern uplands. This great hollow, or depression, is filled with a coal- field nearly 100 miles in length, extending from Saint Andi-ew's, near Greenock, to the eastern coast, and from Dalkeith, near Edinburgh, to Ayr on the western coast, an average breadth of 25 miles. The area thus described is not all productive of coal ; in it occur several distinct coal-fields, or basins, divisible into six, viz., the coal-fields of the Clyde basin, the Mid Lothian, Edinburgh and Haddington coal-field, the East Lothian coal- field, the Fifeshire, Clackmannan, Ayrshire, and Lesmahago coal-fields. The greatest part of the workable coal seams of the Scottish area is included in the carboniferous limestone group ; for the English lower carboniferous rocks undergo a gradual physical change in their extension, from south to north, or from the Midland Counties into Northumberland and South Berwickshire, and coal seams occur and are worked in them near the base, as- sociated with thick beds of shale, the calcareous beds having greatly diminished. Below the equivalents of our carbonifei'ous limestone are a series of white and grey sandstones, shales, CHAP, xvm.] THE COAL-FIELDS OP SCOTLAND. Jo-j cement stones, and thin coal seams. These equal the EngHsli lower limestone shales, and are termed " calciferous sandstones," which sometimes attain a thickness of 4,000 feet. The carboniferous series of Scotland, divisible into four groups, are thus classified by Professor A. Geikie, F.K.S., in the thii-il edition of Juke's " Manual of Geology : " — DIVISIONS. 4. Coal measures .-* 3. Millstone grit 2. Carboniferous limestone series. 1. Calciferous sandstone series. ENGLISH EftUITALENTS. Bed sandstones (Hamilton) wHte and grey sand- I Middle and Lower stones, shales, fire-clays, f coal measures. coal seams, and ironstone. ' Moorstone rock, or Eoslin | ^^^^^^^ j^ ^,,^ sandstone and conglo- V Yoredale series, merato. ) ' Sandstones, sometimes \ coarse shales, coals, black- Carboniferous or band, and clay-band iron- V mountain lime- stones, oil shales, and stone, fossiliferous limestones. J White and grey sandstone \ shales, cement stones, Lower limestone cyprid limestones and " shale, occasional coal seams. The aggregate thickness of the carboniferous series of the centre of Scotland gives a section of from 8,000 feet to 9,000 feet, the greater part of which is regarded as of marine origin. The lowest series, the calciferous sandstones, maj^ be described as being composed of a lower group of red sandstones and another group, the characteristic feature of which is the presence of bitu- minous shale. Next in order of occurrence ascending appears the carboniferous limestone series, divisible into three well-marked groups. First, an upper group, consisting chiefly of sandstone, &c., and with some three or more seams of limestone ; the second, a middle group of sandstones and argillaceous shales, with numerous seams of coal and ironstone, but no limestone; and the third, a lower series or group of strata, with seams of coal and ironstone and a variable number of limestones. The lower group is very variable as regards the number and quality of its coal, ironstone, and limestone seams, and the absolute thickness in which these occur. In some districts, as in Ayrshire, one or two limestones occur in a thickness of eight or ten fathoms of strata, and not unfrequently no coal or ironstone 256 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part i. seams of commercial value. In other localities, as at Carluke, and along the southern borders of the Lanarkshire coal-field, no fewer than eleven limestones occur in a thiclmess of 35 fathoms of strata, while at the same time occur a number of excellent bands of argillaceous ironstone. The middle group of the lime- stone series is characterised by the presence of numerous coal and ironstone seams, and by the total absence of limestones. One or two seams of black-band ironstone appear in this horizon, and about midway, between the top and bottom of the series, occurs the celebrated Lesmahago gas-producing coal, yielding 13,500 cubic feet of gas, of a high illuminating power, from one ton of coal. The upper limestone group, of the carboniferous series, as exhibited in Lanarkshire, has a great sameness of character in all the localities where it occurs. Usually it contains three limestones, and here and there one or two lenticular and inconstant seams of the same mmeral, of variable qualities and thickness. Mr. James Geikie, in his interesting i^apers on the " Coal and Ironstone-bearing Strata of Scotland," from which many of the foregoing facts are drawn, considers that the numerous coal seams point to the frequent occurrence of a land surface, and the gas coals and ironstones to the former existence of numerous wide lakes and lagoons. It is not uncommon to find lines and ribs of gas coal associated -with seams of splint, and even with seams of common coals. Gas coals are not unfrequently found to pass into common coals, or into black shales, and sometimes into black band ironstone, and thus the same mineral seam may be alternately a common splint or gas coal, an oil shale or a black-band ironstone, according as the physical condition varied at the time of its formation. The millstone grit, reposing on the carboniferous limestone series above referred to, occasionally yields clay ironstone of good quality, the Curdly seam being the best known, and is an iron- stone of variable thickness and purity, occurring in nodular masses. The coal measures at the top of the series, reposing on the millstone grit, consist of two groups, the upper consisting of a series of red sandstones, with intervening sandj^ marl and impure fire clays, resting unconformably upon the coal-bearing strata, and in the deeper parts of the Lanarkshire coal-field attaining a thickness of upwards of 700 feet. The lower or coal- bearing group, rich in coal, containing 18 workable seams; it CHAP, xviii.] THE COAL-FIELDS OP SCOTLAND. 257 also contains several important seams of black-band and clay- band ironstones, which have been extensively wrought, and some nearly exhausted. The black-bands vary considerably, and do not often exceed 18 inches in thickness. In one locality, how- ever, the Crofthead slaty-band is said to have reached the thick- ness of six or seven feet. In the Western coal-fields of Scotland seven principal black- band measures are known, occurring in the following order : — THICKNESS. Palace Craig, blach-band Airdrie, black-band. . . . . Sellside, black-band Kiltoneue, black-band Calderbank or Kennelburn, black-band . "Upper slaty, black-band ... ... Lower slaty, black-band Ft. In. 1 2 1 4 6 8 6 1 3 8 The above thicknesses are, however, subject to considerable variation, and the same seam is rarely continuous over any large area. Thus, at Airdrie, it occurs in workable quantities over an area not exceeding ten square miles, but its equivalent, in the form of a thin seam of coal, extends over an area of between 50 and 60 square miles. In Linlithgowshire the equivalent of the black-band ironstone is found in the celebrated Boghead cannel coal, or as it is also known by the name of the Torbane Hill mineral, which some years ago gave rise to much litigation. The foregoing brief sketch of the carboniferous series of Scotland shows generally the geological features bearing on the occurrence of the coal seams and ironstone measures ; some of the more important of the latter, as they occur in the Western coal-fields, being noted above. The next subject to follow will be the several coal-fields of Scotland. Clyde Basin Coal-field. — This important coal-field, the largest in Great Britain, is traversed throughout its entire length by the Clyde, and includes the greatest part of the Shires of Eenfrew, Dumbarton, Stirling, and nearly the whole of Lanark. The coal- bearing series are 4,000 feet thick, divided into upper, middle, and lower, and respectively 840 feet, 960 feet, and 2,200 feet thick, the base of the whole being the calciferous sandstone. The upper and lower series are the chief repositories of the coal seams. The upper series has ten seams of coal exceeding two feet in thickness, and three valuable bands of ironstone. The 258 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part i. lower series contain three courses of ironstone, and several valuable beds of coal, west of Glasgow. The black-band ironstones occasionally pass into coal seams, the carbonaceous matter gradually replacing the argillaceous carbonate of iron. The following section, communicated to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow by Mr. William Moore, shows the order of occurrence of the coal and ironstone series in that part of the coal- field lying in the valley of the Clyde : — Coal ahd lEowsToifE Series. DEPTH IN THICKNESS. FATH0M9. Ft. In. 42. Palace Craig Ironstone (impure) 48. Upper Coal (good) 3 ft. to 4 6 63. Ell Coal (good) 4 ft. to 8 67. Pyotshaw Coal (splint) average . . . . .40 68. Main Coal (good soft quality) . . . SJ ft. to 5 76. Humph Coal 18 81. Splint Coal (for iron smelting) . . . . ..30 84. Sour Milk Coal (variable) 3 103. Mushet Black-hand Ironstone 14 106. Soft-band Ironstone 18 120. Curly-band Ironstone 5 127. Virtue Well Coal 2 6 132. Bellside Ironstone 7 134. Calderbrae Ironstone 8 136. Kiltongue Coal (variable') 5 148. Drumgray or Coxrod Coal 2 203. Slaty Blaok-band Ironstone 4 6 208. Boghead Gas Coal (1 to 20 in.) 10 447. Possil Ironstone 10 467. Lesmahago Gas Coal . . . . . . .10 602. Govan Band Ironstone 10 Analyses of the Coal. — The brown Cannel coal known as the Torbane Hill Mineral, and previously referred to, occurs in the upper coal measures, immediately above the millstone grit, having a thickness varying from 16 inches to 2 feet, in contact with shale and clay ironstone, and resting on a bed of underclay, after the manner of ordinary coal. The principal localities in which it occurs is at Torbane, Inchcross, Boghead, Cappers, and Bathvale near Bathgate. It is the most valuable mineral known for making gas and paraffin oil. Dr. Andrew Fyfe, who ex- amined and determined its composition, obtained from a single ton 14,880 cubic feet of gas, of an illuminating power equal to 7"72 spermaceti candles, besides 700 lbs. weight of coke ; it also yields, on distillation, 125 gallons of paraffin oil per ton. A CHAP. XVIII.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. 259 striking characteristic of this Cannel is its indestructibility under atmospheric exposure, which does not depreciate its value in its gas-giving powers. Out of Scotland the only other localities in which Cannel coal is worked is at Leeswood (south of Mold), in Flintshire ; Wigan, in Lancashire ; and at Newcastle. The following table shows the results of Dr. Fyfe's examination of the Torbane Hill Mineral in comparison with other well-known Cannel coals. In Scotland the term " Parrot Coal " is applied to Cannel coal, from the loud crackling noise with which it flies to pieces, when placed upon the fire : — Cubic feet of gas per ton Durability of gas per foot Uluminaung power per ) foot, candles . J Grains of sperm per foot Value of coals in pounds ) of sperm . . J Comparative value of ) the coals . . ) LEESWOOD. Lancashire Wigan Cannel. Torbane or Boghead Cannel. Smooth Caunel. Curly Cannel. 9-972 55-05 8-2 0-981 1401-7 5-610 14-280 82-30 1-09 1-308 2668-3 5-025 12-100 48-35 5-00 0-36 617-00 14-880 84-400 10-300 1-242 2736-000 2-86 Other analyses of coal, made by Mr. Lewis Thompson, exhibit the following constituents ; of these the Lesmahago Cannel is thus described : " massive, dull black ; principal fracture, slaty conchoidal ; cross fracture, conchoidal and angular ; streak, black and somewhat shining : thrown on the fire, decrepitates slightly ; does not split or fuse ; colour of ash, white, with nitrate of cobalt, dirty blue ; specific gravity, 1220 " : — Constituents. Lesmahago. Boghead. Capeldrea. Lochgelly. Volatile matter 49-60 68-40 54-50 33-50 Coke 50-40 31-60 45-50 66-50 Ash ... . 9-10 22-80 10-50 13-10 Sulphur in coal . . . 2-23 0-53 0-65 0-75 Sulphur in coke . 1-14 0-08 0-20 0-25 Sulphur in volatile matter 1-09 0-45 0-45 0-50 Ash in coke per cent. 18-05 70-25 23-07 29-70 The average yield of gas in cubic feet per ton of the above coals appears as follows: Lesmahago, 18,500 ; Capeldrea, 14,000 ; B 2 260 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part 1. and Lochgelly, 9,500. The above results were obtained after three distinct experiments were made upon each variety of Cannel operated upon. Another variety of Cannel, the Pirnie, at Methill, gives on analysis the following results : — Eesttlts. Specific gravity 1'126 Gas, per ton 13-500 cubic feet Uluminating power 28 candles Coke and ash 36 '00 percent. Hydrocarbons 20 '00 Sulphuretted hydrogen Carbonic acid Carbonic oxide Volatile matter in coal Specific gravity of gas •50 4-'75 7-75 65-00 •700 In the annexed statement appears the respective yield per ton in cubic feet of Cannel coals, extensively used in the manufacture of gas in Great Britain : — Boghead or Torbane Mineral Lesmahago MethiU Pirnie Overtown . Wemyss . Arniston . Eamsay . Kirkness . Capeldrea Skatrig Lochgelly Eigside Eoohsoles Leeswood (smooth) (curly) Wigan Ince Hall Pelton Leverson Washington Counties. Linlithgow Lanark . Fife . Lanark . Fife . Midlothian Kinross . Fife . Lanark . Fife . Lanark . Fliiit ,, • Lancashire ,, Durham . Cubic Feet per Ton. 14,880 13,500 13,500 13,000 14,300 12,600 10,300 12,800 14,000 10,400 9,500 10,400 11,900 9,972 14,280 12,100 11,673 11,500 11,600 10,500 The quantity of coal used in Scotland in gas manufacture, as determined by the Eoyal Coal Commission in the year 1867, amounted to 263,261 tons, and in the year 1868 to 299,919 tons. The celebrated Lesmahago gas coal, yielding 13,500 cubic feet CHAT. XVIII.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. 261 of gas, of a high iUuminating power, exhibits the following con- stituents on analysis by T. H. Eead, Esq. : — EESTJLTS TABtTLATED. Carbon 36-70 Volatile material . 56-23 Sulphur -55 Ash 4-30 Water 3-15 Total 100-93 The coals used in iron smelting and manufacturing pur- poses in Scotland, are numerous and various. In iron smelting, the Splint coal is generally employed in the furnace without previous coking, and from the following selected analyses it will be seen that these coals do not vary to any considerable extent in composition. The Splint coal is a variety of bituminous (Cannel) coal, with a slaty structure ; its constituents appear in the annexed analyses : — Constituents. , 1. 2. 3. 4. Carbon in coke Volatile products . . Sulphur .... Ash Water .... Total . . . Coke per cent. Specific gravity . . . 52-83 35-57 •36 2-38 8-86 54-25 32-95 -20 3-25 9-35 52-04 39-14 -11 1.07 7-6 53-77 31-07 -34 4-27 10-55 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 55-35 1-31 57-58 1-293 54-05 1-255 58-45 1-240 Coal for domestic purposes is extensively furnished by the following coal seams : the Ell, Main, Pyotshaw, Virtue Well, Kiltongue, and Drumgray. The last-named give the constituents following, on analyses : — Eesttlts Tabttlated. Carbon 55-8 Hydrogen and Oxygen 5-4 Sulphur 2-0 Nitrogen 34-0 Ash 2-8 100-0 263 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part i. The coals of the above-named seams are also employed for steam purposes. As it might be interesting to view the quantity of coal ia the Kght of the power it is capable of giving out, Mr. Ralph Moore, H.M. Inspector of Mines, illustrates the point. He states that a steam engine of average quality consumed ten pounds of coal per horse-power per hour, or it consumed 100 lbs. every day of ten hours while it did the work of a horse. A ton of coal would supply a horse's power for 24 days, and the quantity of coal raised in Great Britain, say 125,000,000 tons, would supply the power of 10,000,000 horses, or five times as many men. The coal annually exported, say 15,000,000 tons, would supply the power of 6,000,000 men. Taking the consumption of coal at 12 tons for the power of five men, and the coals at 10s. per ton, the power of five men could be obtained for £6 per year, or a man's power could be obtained for 25s. per year, 6d. per week, or Id. per day, and thus the coal raised in the United Kingdom would be equal to an army of 50,000,000 of men, giving out their work at one penny per day.* The ]Kid-I^oth.iau, Haddington, and Edinburgh Coal-field.— This triple coal-field on the south-western side of the Firth of Forth, the waters of which separate it from the Fifeshire coal- field, possesses much interest geographically and physically, and with the Fifeshire area are the most interesting of the Scotch coal-fields. This triple coal-field, described by Professor Hull as a double trough, the deeper of which lies in Edinburghshire on the west, and the shallower on the east in Haddingtonshire, has nearly 50 seams of coal of varying thickness, giving in the aggregate 122 feet of solid coal. Celebrated amongst other coals here occur the 8-feet " Great Seam," and the " North Greens," 1,500 feet below the " Great Seam," yielding the well-known Parrot coal, having a thickness of 3 feet, and greatly esteemed as a coal for the manufacture of gas. Both the above-named seams occur in the carboniferous limestone, which has, in a sec- tion of 1,600 feet, 17 workable seams of coal ; the coal measures proper, reposing on the miUstone grit, having a thickness of 1,220 feet, in which are found 11 seams of coal. This coal-field has an area of 64 square mUes, and the following section, taken from the centre of the coal-field near Dalkeith, shows the various coal- seams and their order of occurrence. * Lecture by Mr. Moore. See Report, " Mining Journal," 4th March, 1876, p. 259. CHAP, xviii.] THE COAL-FIELDS OP SCOTLAND. 263 Coal Seams op Mid Lothian. Ft. In. Sandatxine and sbale 346 Clay Knowes Coal ......... 3 6 Splint Coal 3 10 Beefie Coal 3 6 Jewell Coal 4 Coal 2 8 Co-wpit's Little Splint 2 2 Cowpit's Pive-foot 5 6 Glass Coal 2 Burr's Coal 4 Cowpit's Three-foot 3 Cowpit's Six-foot 4 6 MiUstoneGrit 340 In this same area the carboniferous limestone series has a thickness of 1,590 feet, in which appear numerous seams of coal upwards of 2 feet thick, and in the same section are recognised nine seams of ironstone, of 2 inches thick and upwards : — * CAKBONirEEOUS LIMESTONE OOAL SeAMS. Ft. In. Cowden Deception Coal 2 2 „ Cryne 2 6 ,, Mavis 2 8 ,, Great Seam 8 ,, Diamond 2 7 Lilla Willie 5 1 ,, Blackbird Seam 3 11 „ Coronation 3 10 „ Hard Splint 3 3 „ Smithy Coal 2 9 „ Bryant's Splint 5 8 „ Aleck's Coal 2 7 ,, Coal 2 6 Little Splint 2 1 Cowden Coal 2 1 „ Parrot Seam 3 ,, Chalkieside Lime Coal 3 The Jewell seam, in the Mid Lothian section (Edinburghshire), 4 feet in thickness, and the Coronation seam, in the carboniferous limestone series, 3 feet 10 inches in thickness, both seams worked at Dallceith, have been examined and reported upon in the " Third Eeport of Coals Suited to the Steam Navy," it being observed, during the experiments on these coals, " that they lighted easily, and burned freely, without the production of much smoke. They also required little stoking, and left but an incon- siderable quantity of incombustible matter." * " Coal Fields of Great Britain," 4th edition, p. 305. 264 COAL AND IKON INDUSTEIES. [PABT I. EeSTJLTS TABtlXATED.* Constituents. DALKEITH. Coronation Seam. Jewell Seam. Carbon . . . . Hydrogen Nitrogen . ... Sulphur . ... Oxygen Ash . . . . Total Yield of coke . Specific gravity . Weight of cubic loot of coal Space occupied by one ton . . 76-94 5-20 trace 0-38 14-37 3-11 74-55 5-14 0-10 0-33 15-51 4-37 100-00 10000 53-5 1-316 55-16 lbs. 43 -36 c.f. 49-8 1-277 49-8 lbs. 44-98 c.f. Tlie East Lothian Coal-field (Haddingtonshire), with an area, of 30 square miles, possesses ten seams of coal of varying thickness. The strata in which they occur is carboniferous limestone, which completely encircles the coal-field on the east and south-east. The coal and ironstone of this area are regarded as the equivalents of the edge-coals of Mid Lothian. The follow- ing is a section of the coal series of East Lothian : — t Goal Series of Bast Lothian. Coal " Great Seam " Strata . . ..... SpUnt Coal . . • Strata . from 7 it. to Parrot Coal Strata from 7 ft. to Three-foot Coal Strata . . Four-foot Coal from 3 ft. 8 in. to Strata .... Five-foot Coal Strata with Black Band Ironstone . about Panwood Coal Strata Splint and Eough Coals (16 ft. apart) . Strata 100 Haughielin Coals (sometimes " Parrot Coal ") 16 in. to Strata .... The above series repose on the Lower Limestone group, con- * Keport on Coal suited to the Steam Navy, p. 9. f " Geology of the East Lothian Coal Field," by Messrs. Howell, Geikie, and Tonng, 1866, p. 57. Ft. In. 7 50 4 18 1 8 34 2 6 9 4 11 118 4 130 1 6 72 4 100 1 6 35 CHAP. XVI II.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. 265 sisting of three principal beds of limestone. These limestones form a broad zone, encircling the coal-field on the east and south- east; and underneath occur the calciferous sandstones, rich in its fauna and flora. PifesMre Coal-field. — Situated on the north side of the Firth of Forth, for nearly a distance of 30 miles, but with a varying width, possesses some important seams of coal, and some anthra- cite, valuable for household purposes, gas manufacture, iron smelt- ing, and steam purposes. In this coal-field occur 29 coal seams, having an aggregate thickness of 120 feet. Nearly the whole of the seams enter the sea between Kirkaldy and East Wemyss, and many of these are of high quality for the purposes above enumerated. The following analyses exhibit generally the constituents of the coals examined and extensively raised in the Fifeshire coal- field. The first analysis refers to the " Fordell Splint Coal," from the colliery of the same name. The seam varies from 4 to 4^ feet in thickness, and is raised from the " Splint seam," at a depth of from 50 to 80 fathoms from the surface. This coal is described as hard, bituminous, and lively in bm-ning, and when broken divides into rhombic fragments ; spots of pyrites sometimes occur, but not in any considerable quantity. The second analysis, the "Elgin Wallsend," raised in the Balmule ColHery, a steam coal, resembles much in appeai-ance the Fordell Splint, is described as a caldng splint coal of cubical texture, burning freely with a strong flame. The, third is an analysis of " Splint Coal," raised at the Wellwood Colliery, and used for raising steam and iron smelting : — * Constituents. KltJiMllIRE COALS. Fordell S|iliTitOoal. Balmule Elgin Wallsend. Wellwood Splint Coal. Carbon .... Hydrogen . Nitrogen Sulphur . . . Oxygen . Aflh . Total . Yield of coke . . Specific gravity 79-58 O-50 1-13 1-46 8-33 4-00 76-09 5-22 1-41 1-53 5-05 10-70 81-36 6-28 1-53 1-57 6-37 2-89 100-00 100-00 100.00 52-03 1-25 58-45 1-20 59-15 1.27 * Report on Coal suited to the Steam Navy, p. 9. a66 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [past i. Clackmannanshire Coal-field. — This coal-field extends along the northern and eastern banks of the river Forth, and is in three divisions, separated by formidable faults. The southern portion is much exhausted ; the middle area has long been, and still is, extensively worked, and the northern field is comparatively entire north of the river Devon. The following is a section of the coals, in descending order, at Old Sauchie : — * Ft. In. Coal 2 6 Three-foot Coal 3 Upper Five-foot 5 Four-foot Coal 4 Nine-foot Coal 9 McNishCoal 2 9 Mosie Coal 2 Lower Five-foot 6 SpKnt Coal 2 9 Coalsnaugliton. ..46 Total 40 6 Ayrshire Coal-field. — This productive area is separated from the Clyde basin by the Dunlop HiUs and rocks of trap of Devonian age. Much, however, of the minerals have been destroyed through the agency of intrusive, igneous masses and dykes of dolerite and basalt, which also interferes to a great extent with the prosecution of successful miaing operations. The Girvan Valley, an important district, has an elongated coal-field about four miles long and half a mile broad, the greatest depth being probably 150 fathoms, embracing six seams of coal, of which much is already worked ; these are : — THICKNESS. Ft. Ft. In. The Main Coal 10 to 12 Little Coal 3 „ 4 Cannel Coal 3 ,, 5 Coral Coal 3 6 Craigie Coal • ..39 Eotten Coal 6 In the Dalmellington, Patna, and Littlemill districts, some extensive seams occur. At the Dalmellington Iron Works the Patna seams, three in number, and 21 feet thick, are chiefly used. In the New Cumnock district some important seams are being wrought in a section at Colburn. There are nine seams, giving an aggregate thickness of 23 feet ; and at Pathhead seven seams, * Mr. John Geddes, M.B., Coal Commission Report, vol. i., page 76, 1871. CHAP. XVIII.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. 267 giving a thickness of 27 feet 11 inches. Other sections at Muirkirk and Lugar, important districts in the coal-field, give the following seams and thicknesses : — MumKIHK. Coke Yard Seam EU Coal . Splint Coal . Seven-foot Coal. Nine-foot Coal Soft Coal . Catchyburn Coal Macdonald Coal 5 ft. THICKNESS. Ft. In. 5 3 2 4 8 9 4 3 to 9 . 4 6 LUGAE. THICKNESS. Ft. In. EUCoal 3 Main Coal . Coal Main Coal . Coal Mussel Coal Coal . Coal . In the districts of Kilwinning, Dreghorn, and Kilmarnock, the section of coal is various ; at Kilwinning, nine seams, of a total thickness of 21 feet 9 inches ; at Dreghorn, 6 seams, 20 feet 7 inches ; and at Kilmarnock, nine seams, 28 feet 7 inches in thickness ; the Five-quarter coal, at Dreghorn, attaining a thick- ness of 4 feet 6 inches. Of the coals of the Ayrshire coal-field, valuable alike for house- hold purposes, for the manufacture of gas, and steam purposes, the annexed analyses of the coal raised at the Hurlford and Sker- rington collieries of Messrs. GUmour & Co., and at the Eglinton Colliery of Mr. Archibald Kenneth, show the respective com- position of the Main seam in each colHery, as follows : — Constituents. Hurlford, &c. Eglinton. Carbon Hydrogen .... Nitrogen Sulphur Oxygen Ash Total .... Yield of coke .... Specific gravity . . . . 79-82 5-82 -94 •86 11-31 1-25 80-08 6-50 1-55 1-38 8-05 2-44 100-00 100-00 49-30 1-241 54-94 1-25 Lesmahago Coal Basin, a detached area seven and a half miles from east to west and from north to south, belonging to the carboniferous limestone series. It is said that three-fomihs of this area is stored vyith coal of second-class quality, giving, at 268 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt i. Ponfrich, an aggregate thickness of 53 feet, enclosed in a vertical section of 1,200 feet of strata. Several valuable seams of coal occur in this area, the coal being in good request, owing to its large yield of gas for illundnating purposes. Analyses of the Lesmahago and other Cannel coals will be found at page 259. Other small areas of coal occur at Canobie, in Dumfriesshire ; at Campbeltown, in Argyleshire ; at Brora, in Sutherlandshire ; and in the Isle of Skye, all of considerable importance in their respective districts. The Brora coal-field appears to have been worked as far back as the year 1598, when the first pit was opened by the then Countess of Sutherland ; the coal of the Brora area, it is under- stood, was extensively wrought, at an early period, chiefly in connection with salt manufacture, and was discontinued about the year 1832, probably because of its ceasing to be profitable after the duty was taken off salt. The coal of Brora is of oolitic age ; the seam is 3 feet 6 inches thick, and it is generally regarded as the only deposit of the kind worked. It is a valuable coal in that northern district of Britain, and is found to be con- stituted as follows, the analysis being made from an average sample : — Ebstjlts Tabtoated. Fixed carbon Volatile matter Sulphur Moisture Ash . 49-24 26-50 6-40 4-20 13-86 100-20 When coked, it yields 62'90 per cent., the ash contained in coke amounting to 21"71 per cent. ; sulphur, 5*08 per cent. ; specific gravity of coal, 1-38; and the approximate heating power, "685. Frodnctiou and Distribution of Coal. — The pages of the " Coal Commission Report " contain much interesting information, bearing on the early history of coal-mining in Scotland, of the Charters granted in successive reigns, from a.d. 1189, when the earliest record appears, of a grant to work coal to the Abbey of Newbattle by Sayer de Quinci, Earl of Winchester. Details are, however, absent showing the early development of the coal-fields OHAP. xviii.] THE COAL-FIELDS OP SCOTLAND. 269 of Scotland, The earliest returns available, showing the number of collieries and the production of coal, commenced about the year 1854. Various estimates had appeared in previous years, prepared by experienced authorities conversant with the develop- ment of the coal-fields of Great Britain, but, at the best, they were but approximations. In the year 1854, Mr. Kobert Williams, H. M. Inspector of Mines, made a careful inquiry, and found that 397 collieries were in active operation, winning coal, in that year, to the amount of 7,448,000 tons in Scotland. In the year 1855 there were 403 collieries, the output of coal amounting to 7,325,000 tons, showing a falling off, compared with the previous year, of 123,000 tons. The great bulk of the production of 1855 was consumed in the numerous industries of Scotland. The blast furnaces reducing the ores of iron to a metallic state, consumed 2,152,800 tons ; in the conversion of pig into malleable iron 867,200 tons were used; and in manufactures, steamboats, and the domestic consumption of Glasgow, 2,853,427 tons were employed, the remaining quantity, amounting to 1,951,573 tons, being distributed by rail- way and conveyed to ports of shipment for conveyance coastwise and for exportation, the former amounting to 530,971 tons, and the latter to 444,760 tons. The coal-fields of Scotland ai'e, for purposes of inspection, divided into an eastern and western division, the former under the inspection of Mr. Ealph Moore, and the latter under Mr. William Alexander. The following are the districts under the inspection of the above-named gentlemen, comprising coal areas in the shires named : — WESTERKT DIVISION. Lanarkshire (West division). Ayrshire. Stirlingshire (West division). Dumbartonshire. Renfrewshire. Argyleshire. Dumfriesshire. BASTEKN DIVISION. Lanarkshire (Bast division). Fifeshire. Clackmannanshire. Haddingtonshire. Edinburghshire. Linlithgowshire. Stirlingshire (East division). Perthshire. Sutherlandshire. Following the growth of the coal industries of Scotland, since the year 1855, the annexed abstract shows the number of collieries and the output of coal in each inspection district : — * * Keports of H. M. Inspectors of Coal Mines. ^70 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. Year. EASTERN DIVISION. WESTERN DIVISION. Number of Coal Number of Coal. Collieries. Collieries. Tons. Tons. 1856 199 4,512,000 206 4,500,000 1857 210 4,598,000 215 5,613,473 1858 214 4,598,000 203 5,620,000 1859 219 4,750,000 194 6,550,000 1860 228 5,150,000 199 5,750,000 1861 226 5,225,500 198 5,855,000 1862 247 5,300,000 201 5,775,000 1863 270 5,250,500 212 5,850,000 1864 274 6,250,000 223 6,150,000 1865 274 6,400,000 223 6,250,000 1866 263 6,350,000 218 6,275,000 1867 263 7,897,368 218 6,228,575 1868 230 8,456,084 203 6,253,875 1869 211 7,879,500 201 6,537,650 1870 207 8,595,238 204 6,339,315 1871 216 8,883,926 204 6,564,365 1872 252 9,046,814 201 6,336,795 1873 260 10,142,039 239 6,715,733 1874 320 10,182,326 234 6,606,335 1875 334 11,419,619 232 7,177,888 1876 334 11,667,648 232 6,997,964 1877 305 11,452,373 222 6,867,701 1878 304 11,667,559 230 6,169,723 1879 361 11,300,567 312 6,169,360 1880 361 12,019,443 290 6,255,443 Summarising the above returns, the total coal produce of Scotland appears as follows in each year since 1855 : — Year. Number of Collieries. Coal. Year. Number of Collieries. Coal. Tons. Tons. 1855 383 7,325,000 1868 433 14,709,959 1856 405 9,012,000 1869 412 14,417,150 1857 425 10,211,473 1870 411 14,934,553 1858 417 10,218,000 1871 490 15,438,291 1859 413 10,300.000 1872 453 15,383,609 1860 427 10,900,000 1873 499 16,857,772 1861 424 11,081,000 1874 554 16,788,661 1862 448 11,076,000 1875 566 18,597,507 1863 482 11,100,500 1876 566 18,665,612 1864 497 12,400,000 1877 527 18,320,074 1865 497 12,650,000 1878 534 17,837,282 1866 481 12,625,000 1879 673 17,469,927 1867 481 14,125,943 1880 650 18,274,886 CHAP, xvm.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. 271 For comparison, it may be stated that the total amount of coal raised in Great Britain, in the year 1856, was 66,645,500 tons, increased to 84,042,698 tons in the year 1860 ; ten years later, 110,431,192 tons ; and in the year 1880 to 146,969,409 tons, or 75 per cent, increase in a period of twenty years. Of the coal raised in Scotland, in the last three years, the following table shows the quantities raised in each of the principal coal-producing districts : — Counties. 187S. 1879. 18S0. Tons. Tons. Tons. The Western District— Benfrew . . . 163,450 134,872 108,250 Argyle 105,596 107,111 113,411 Ayr . . . . 3,184,429 3,203,052 3,106,965 Dumbarton 210,520 216,282 234,556 West Lanark . . . 2,253,660 2,250,504 2,399,840 West Stirling . 252,068 257,539 292,421 The Eastern District— Clackmannan . . 273,213 271,664 268,090 Edinburgh . 725,122 758,371 793,804 Fife . 1,676,901 1,726,701 1,930,511 Haddington 221,639 233,276 243,302 East Lanark . . . 7,683,595 7,135,416 7,627,159 Linlithgow. 394,721 464,823 448,955 East Stirling . . . Total . 692,368 710,316 707,622 17,837,282 17,469,927 18,274,886 In the eastern division of the coal-fields of Scotland, the Inspector in his report for the year 1880 gives some particulars showing the proportion of coal raised by the two methods of working coal in his district, namely, the " Long Wall " and " Stoop and Boom ; " and remarks, that taldng the quantities raised by each method, there ^ere 26 per cent, less accidents by the " Stoop and Eoom " than by the " Long Wall " system. The total output of the district in 1880 was 12,019,443 tons, of which quantity 5,834,296 tons were obtained by the " Long Wall," and 6,185,147 tons by the " Stoop and Room " mode of working.* Having thus far traced the output of the collieries in the eastern and western inspection districts, it will be interesting to summarise the returns and indicate the respective quantities produced in each county in Scotland in each of the above years, and, for comparison, the quantities raised in the year 1874 ; the details are as follows : — * Ecports of H. M. Inspectors of Mines, 1880, p. 192. 27-Z COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. 1874. 1878. 1879. 1880. Counties. Quantities. Quantities. Quantities. Quantities. . Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Lanarkshire . . 9,461,682 9,937,255 9,385,920 10,026,999 Ayrshire . 3,148,922 3,184,429 3,203,052 3,106,965 Pifeehire . . 1,390,678 1,676,901 1,726,701 1,930,511 StirlingsHre . 948,664 944,436 967,855 1,000,043 Edinburghshire 567,998 725,122 758,371 793,804 Linlithgowshire 454,566 394,721 464,823 448,955 Haddin gtonshire 193,964 221,639 233,276 243,302 Dumbartonshii'e 141,988 210,520 216,282 234,556 Perth, Kinross, \ Clackmannan and Suther- 197,774 273,213 271,664 268,090 landshire j Eenfrewshire . 181,678 163,450 134,872 108,250 Argyle and ) Dumfries . J Total . . 100,749 105,596 107,111 113,411 16,788,661 17,837,282 17,469,927 18,274,886 Mr. Ealph Moore, in his " Eeports of the Eastern District of Scotland," gives some very interesting facts concerning the collieries in his inspection, and the production of coal, not only of the large companies, but also of individual firms. These facts appear in the annexed figures for the years 1874, 1878, and 1879, showing the number of mines of all kinds, shafts, collieries, pits, and companies working coal under the Coal Mines Regulation Acts, 1872, and the Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts, 1875. 1874. 1878. 1879. Nos. Nos. Nos. Mines of all kinds . 366 348 361 Shafts of all kinds . . . 744 695 686 Collieries 336 293 305 Coal pits 660 611 601 Companies working Coal . 230 191 191 From these reports, the number of companies working coal shows that the collieries are gradually increasing in extent, and becoming larger. This is clearly apparent in the Inspector's returns for the years 1875 and 1876, which were as follows, show- ing that in the last-named year 25 companies, in the eastern district, raised upwards of 50 per cent, of the total production : — THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. 273 TOSS. 670,000 410,000 1,050,000 500,000 300,000 1,000,000 1,050,000 600,000 1,760,000 1,360,000 5,900,000 The greatest quantity of coal, at this period, put out of a single shaft, was, in 1876, 136,000 tons, compared with 145,000 tons in the previous year, while the greatest quantity of coal put out of a pair of shafts in 1876 was 212,000 tons, compared with 210,000 tons in the previous year. In the year 1879 and pre- vious year, the details under the same head were as follows : — CHAP. XVIII.] TI 1876. 1 firm raised over 1 ,. 3 firms 2 „ 1 firm 5 firms 7 „ 5 „ 22 „ 34 „ 135 „ 1875 TONS. 1 firm raised over 630,000 1 ,, 440,000 1 „ 340,000 3 firms 900,000 2 „ 500,000 4 „ 800,000 7 „ 1,050,000 1-1 M 1,680,000 18 „ 1,440,000 23 „ 900,000 144 „ 5,760,000 1879. TONS. 1878. TONS. 2 firms raised over . 400,000 each 1 firm raised over . 480,000 Ifirm . 360,000 1 „ . 450,000 2 firms . 300,000 each 2 firms . 350,000 each 2 „ . 250,000 „ 1 firm . 300,000 5 „ . 200,000 „ 2 firms . 260,000 each 8 „ . 150,000 „ 5 „ . 200,000 „ 7 „ . 120,000 „ 8 ;, . 150,000 „ 18 „ . 80,000 ,, 9 ., . 120,000 ,, 39 „ . 40,000 „ 19 „ . 80,000 „ 107 „ , under 40,000 „ 37 „ . 40,000 „ 107 „ , under 40,000 ,, Distribution of Coal. — Very full and complete information, showing the distribution of coal, sent coastwise and exported to foreign countries, appears in the Parliamentary Eeturns (annual) of coal, cinders, and culm. From these returns the following facts have been prepared, showing the quantities thus distributed before the year 1800 : — Year. Coastwise. Exported. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1790 74,925 33,416 108,341 1791 82,446 36,679 119,125 1792 71,073 29,752 100,825 1793 67,396 20,062 87,458 1794 61,687 30,062 91,739 1795 56,014 20,107 76,121 1796 71,891 31,115 103,006 1797 52,745 19,431 72,176 1798 58,923 24,849 83,772 1799 52,029 11,838 66,863 274 COAL AND lEOK INDUSTRIES. [p.iKT I. The principal ports of shipment on the western coast of Scotland are Glasgow, Ayr, and Greenock. Irvine was also a shippifig port of considerable importance from the year 1833 to the year 1864, since which latter year the port has disappeared from the list as a port of shipment. In the annexed abstract appear the aggregate quantities of coal shipped coastwise and exported from the western ports of Scotland in each of the years named : — Western Ports of Scotland. Year. Glasgow. Irnne. Ayr. Greenock. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1830 3,167 5,847 12,102 1835 85,382 150,127 54,021 14,533 1840 112,245 272,102 91,638 28,094 1845 96,351 215,383 81,892 23,886 1850 108,306 264,087 72,264 21,382 1855 136,818 312,882 64,426 27,300 1860 159,989 497,118 66,863 63,805 1865 205,364 *280,616 126,597 92,684 1870 314,758 102,668 145,863 1875 599,706 ... 279,499 248,368 1876 548,355 285,014 178,772 1877 586,379 332,686 162,320 1878 566,720 • .. 384,846 150,254 1879 528,105 ... 362,530 137,435 1880 484,023 311,660 123,931 Turning to the jjorts on the eastern coast of Scotland, the more important of which are Grangemouth, Borrowstowness, Kirk- caldy, and Leith, all of which have, in a gi-eater or less degree, contributed to the distribution, coastwise and to foreign countries, the following figures show the quantities sent away in each of the years named. The other ports shipping coal on the eastern coast are those of Dundee, Granton, and Alloa, while on the western coast, in recent years, Troon and Ardrossan have become im- portant ports of shipment. The two last-named ports shipped the annexed quantities in the four years ending 1880 : — Year. Troon. Ardrossan. 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 551,045 457,391 502,476 433,783 Tons. 247,005 238,236 287,867 227,236 Return for the vear 1864. CHAP. XVHI.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. 275 Eastekn Poets or Scotland. Year. Grangemouth. Borrowstownes.s. Kirkcaldy. Leith. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1830 1,670 15,344 2,550 2.872 1835 81,784 134,256 51,606 51,285 1840 92,487 169,947 63,137 42,959 1845 16,953 141,311 65,884 18,552 1850 26,373 116,991 84,943 13,843 1855 55,410 146,978 67,731 40,254 1860 64,208 276,327 117,597 42,289 1865 121,155 250,394 180,561 104,916 1870 111,490 293,308 264,971 117,494 1875 199,544 347,033 323,701 375,807 1876 207,051 386,599 342,302 336,611 1877 179,853 270,327 362,008 309,131 1878 174,526 277,249 431,103 201,276 1879 142,388 298,080 551,529 196,132 1880 126,883 325,153 545,925 215,404 The above figures indicate, in a decided manner, the develop- ment and distribution of the production of the collieries of Scot- land during the past half century. Other ports, in late j^ears, have contributed to ' increase the distribution of the coal, and iin the following abstract, prepared from official returns, the total quantities of coal sent coastwise and to foreign countries appear.. The same years as those in the two previous summaries have been selected for comparison, and side by side, as far as possible,, the production of coal in Scotland has been given : — Year. Coastwise. Exported. Total. Produce of Scotland. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1830 47,080 ... 1835 557,043 71,671 628,714 1840 723,534 156,792 880,326 .. . 1845' 530,388 465,173 1,095,561 ... 1850 463,123 336,453 799,576 ■ .. 1855 530,578 436,888 967,466 7,325,000 1860 743,214 653,432 1,396,646 10,900,000 1865 863,291 983,255 1,846,546 12,650,000 1870 1,061,586 1,338,127 2,399,713 14,934,553 1875 1,408,352 2,283,745 3,692,097 18,597,507 1876 1,307,296 2,335,660 3,642,956 18,665,612 1877 1,278,703 2,063,770 3,342,473 18,320,074 1878 1,325,617 1,918,954 3,244,571 17,837,282 1879 1,422,073 2,012,785 3,434,858 17,469,927 1880 1,215,816 1,935,333 3,151,149 18,274,886 In the last-named year, the total quantity of coal sent coast- wise in the United Kingdom was 12,061,183 tons ; that exported T 2 276 COAL AND IRON IND0STEIES. [part i. to foreign countries, 16,442,296 tons ; the declared value of the exported coal amounting to £7,206,799 ; the total output of the collieries of the United Kingdom amounting to 134,008,228 tons, an increase of 1,400,362 tons on the previous year. Railway Distribution. — In the early returns of coal conveyed by railway in Scotland, all minerals, comprising coal, ironstone, iron ore, limestone, &c., were included. In the j'ear 1854 the following statement shows approximately the quantities of coal carried by the Caledonian Railway, received at the stations named, and amounting to 251,932 tons ; the total quantity of all kinds of minerals, including coals, forwarded by the system in the same year, being set down at 404,168 tons. The details of coal carried appear as under : — STATIONS. TONS. Edinburgh 24,034 Glasgow 54,466 Gi-eenoot 54,024 Carlisle 4,751 Barrhead 49,163 PoUockshaws 10,982 Eolytown 42,414 GreenhOl 12,098 Total 251,932 It is not again until the year 1858 that returns are available ; •we then have the distribution of coal in Scotland for that year. The annexed statement shows the distribution under the respec- tive heads ; the total produce of Scotland in that year being 8,926,249 tons :— HOW DISTEIBUTED. TONS. Consumed in ironworks ....... 3,750,200 Exported coastwise 665'672 Exported to foreign countries 543 377 Consumed in manufactories 1,750000 Employed in steam vessels '602*000 Employed in locomotives aud railways . . ^ . 465,' 000 Colliery consumption and domestic use .... 1^250* 000 Total 8 ,926,249 In the year 1867, and since, the coals carried by the several railway systems traversing the coal-fields have been regularly published ; in this year the quantities carried were as follows : ciiAr. xviii.] THE COAL-FIELDS OP SCOTLAND. 277 RAILWAYS. TONS. Caledonian 3,198,960 North Biitisli 2,739,940 Glasgow and South Western 1,738,787 Of the coal carried by the Caledonian railways, the coal-fields of Lanarkshire contributed 3,133,035 tons ; Stirlingshire, 17,444 tons ; and Renfrewshire, 48,481 tons ; while of the coal conveyed by the North British railways, the great bulk was contributed by the Lanarkshire and Fifeshire coal-fields. Of the coal carried by the Glasgow and South- Western Eailway, 897,999 tons were taken to the coast for shipment ; 340,912 tons deposited at the several stations on the line ; and 499,976 tons conveyed to ironworks. In subsequent years, since 1869, the quantities by the several railways appear as follows : — Year. Caledonian. North British. Glasgow and South Western. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1869 4,023,209 3,907,064 1,690,207 1870 4,648,665 3,197,001 1,841,571 1871 5,014,894 3,600,618 1,937,177 1872 5,229,093 3,797,249 2,084,894 1873 6,305,060 4,016,331 2,163,263 1874 5,443,525 3,841,836 2,042,358 1873 5,942,943 4,358,098 2,335,294 1876 6,106,495 4,693,068 2,225,318 1877 6.646,254 4,682,128 2,446,585 1878 6,319,498 4,615,407 2,097,825 1879 5,*3,056 5,375,494 2,537,576 1880 6,142,584 5,753,779 2,493,192 Comparing the above returns of the Caledonian Eailway for the years 1870, 1878, and 1880, the annexed abstract will show the respective increase in each of the coal-producing districts traversed by this railway : — Coal Fields. 1870. 187S. 1880. Tons. Tons. Tons. Lanarkshire . 4,400,585 5,988,915 5,736,794 Stirlingshire . . . 17,732 61,545 81,599 Edinburghshire 173,991 88,135 122,016 Renfrewshire . . . 566 9,508 1,237 Ayrshire • •■ 73,175 74,512 Linlithgowshire . . • •• 65,048 86,770 Seaborne coal shipped ) inland . . ) Total . . . 55,791 33,172 39,656 4,648,665 6,319,498 6,142,584 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part I. The North British Railway exhibits in each of the same years an increase, though in a lesser degree than tliat of the Caledonian system. The details are as follows : — Coal Districts. 1870. 1878. 1880. Canobie. Pifeshire .... Monklands . Plashetts . . . . The Lothians. Other Collieries on ) Border Section . ) Total coals carried Tons. 54,828 944,483 1,636,299 46,934 428,183 86,274 Tons. 38,928 1,339,225 2,556,363 20,294 564,338 96,259 Tons. 42,627 1,639,094 3,252,810 12,962 720,589 85,697 3,197,001 4,615,407 5,753,779 Following up the comparison in the distribution by the Olasgow and South Western Eailway, the annexed statement shows the quantities retained for home use, and sent for ship- ment, in each year since 1869 : — Year. For Home Use. For Shipment. Tons. Tons. 1869 848,779 841,428 1870 944,170 897,401 1871 1,040,742 896,435 1872 1,095,281 989,613 1873 1,190,046 973,217 1874 1,129,806 »12,552 1875 1,397,331 937,963 1876 1,308,305 917,013 1877 1,152,253 1,294,332 1878 939,758 1,158,027 1879 892,300 1,645,276 1880 927,537 1,565,655 Prices of Coal and Cost of Production. — In the western district of Scotland, in the year 1860, the average cost of getting a ton of coal did not exceed 2s. 8d. This did not include value of property, rent, and other charges. The average price per ton of coal at bank, in the same year, did not exceed 4s. ; cartage, 6d. per ton per mile ; railway charges, for short distances. Is'. per ton for six miles, and Id per mile for longer distances ; the average price of coal in Glasgow at this period being about 8s. per ton. Since the " Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1872," has been in operation, the annual reports of the inspectors give many ■ HAP. xviii.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. 279 valuable details on both points, more especially prices and wages. Mr. Ealph Moore, in charge of the eastern district of Scotland, in his Eeport for the year ending 1874, states that in the two preceding years there were periods of great prosperity in the mining industries. A decline, however, set in about the beginning of 1874, continuing to the end of the year, when prices reached nearly an ordinary rate. Thus the market price of screened coals in Glasgow, in December, 1873, was 16s. per ton, compared with 88. 9rL per ton in December, 1874 ; dross, 6s. per ton, compared with Is. 6d. per ton ; miners' wages, in 1873, varying from 9s. to 10s. per day, compared with 5s. to 6s. per day in 1874 ; while the cost of hewing coal in 1873, in December and January, 1874, was 3s. 4d. per ton, declining to Is. lOd. per ton in December of the same year. Prices in 1876 were somewhat lower, coals, in Glasgow, being quoted at from 68. 8d. to 7s. per ton ; wages at this period being 4s, 6d. per day. Mr. Moore, in his Report for 1876, gives some interesting details of the wages of two miners in Lanarkshix-e, the one of an average man, the other of a first-class man. The first worked 299 days in the year, and sent 1,026 tons of coal to bank, receiving wages amounting to £71 5s. 5d., exclusive of deductions, giving an average rate of wages of 4s. 9d. per day. The first-class miner worked 300 days, sending 1,150 tons of coal to bank, receiving £88 138. 3d. wages, also exclusive of deductions, giving an average rate of wages of 5s. lid. per day. Notwithstanding the steady declme of prices and wages, the production of coal has been steadily maintained. In the year 1878 the highest price of Ell or household coal, free on board at Glasgow, was 9s, 8^d. per ton ; splint coal, 8s. ; main coal, 7s. 4d. ; the lowest ]3rices being 6s., 6s. 6d., and 5s. 6d. per ton respectively. Comparing with prices in 1880, highest of EU coal, per ton, 9s. Od. ; splint coal, 98, Od. ; and main coal, 8s, Sd. per ton; the lowest prices being 6s, 9d. and ^ 5s. 9d. These prices include the railway dues. The actual prices realised at the pit's mouth would be about 2s. 6d. per ton less than the above quotations. Miners' wages in 1878, in the beginning of the year, were nominally 4s. 6d. per day, falhng, as the year advanced, to 3s. 9d. and 3s. 6d. per day, while in 1879 the average wages varied from 3s. 3d. to 3s. 9d. per day. 280 COAL JlSID iron INDUSTKIES. [PAUT I. In the annexed summary appears the average rate per day of miners' wages in each year since 1855 : — * Year. Miners' Wages. Year. Miners Wages. s. J. s. d. 1855 4 4 1867 4 9 1856 4 3 1868 3 9 1857 4 1869 3 9 1858 3 1870 4 1859 3 3 1871 4 6 1860 3 6 1872 7 3 1861 3 1873 8 6 1862 3 6 1874 6 6 1863 3 6 1875 5 1864 4 1876 4 6 1865 4 6 1877 4 3 1866 5 6 1878 3 3 Population employed in Coal-mining. — Previous to the year 1864, the information on this subject is more or less of an ap- proximate character. In the year 1861, however, the Census re- turns show that in the eastern district of Scotland 18,091 persons were employed, and in the western district, in the same year, 17,795 persons, or a total of 35,886 persons employed in the collieries then in operation. In 1864, and subsequent years, the total number of male persons employed in the collieries of Scot- land were as follows ; t side by side, the total of coal raised in each year is given, and the average quantity raised per man : — PERSONS EMPLOYED. Year. Coal Eaised. Average per Man. EastciTi. Western. Total. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1864 21,150 18,073 39,223 12,700,000 323 1863 21,150 18,375 39,525 12,800,000 324 1866 21,200 20,046 41246 12,034,638 292 1867 29,000 21,075 50,073 14,125,943 282 1868 29,000 21,160 50,160 14,709,959 293 1869 28,000 20,007 48,007 14,637,043 305 1870 27,330 19,654 46,984 14,934,553 317 1871 27,300 19,561 46,861 15,438,291 329 1872 30,000 20,639 50,639 15,383,609 303 Since the passing of the " Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1872," which came into operation the following year, the numbers of * Messrs. James Watson & Co., Glasgow. + EetuTQs of H.M. Inspectors of Coal Mines. CHAP, xvni.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF SCOTLAND. 281 persons emplo3'ed above ground and under ground are sepai'ately given, distinguishing those engaged in coal mines from those employed in ironstone and shale workings. The numbers of persons working in coal mines, in the two districts of Scotland were as follows, with the total output of coal, and the average output per man in each of the same years : — EASTEKX. WESTERN. Year. Total. Coal Raised. Average per Under Above Under Above Han. Ground. Ground. Ground. Ground. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1873 29,880 5,854 19,365 3,426 58,525 16,857,772 288 1874 31,294 6,254 19,020 3,600 60,168 16,788,661 278 1875 29,321 6,080 17,507 3,489 56,397 18,597,507 330 1876 28,765 6,139 16,342 3,294 54,540 18,665,612 342 1877 27,422 5,798 15,516 3,332 52,068 18,320,074 351 1878 28,616 5,802 14,534 2,913 51,865 17,837,282 344 1879 29,289 5,831 14,899 2,812 52,831 17,469,927 330 1880 29,559 5,980 14,703 2,888 53,130 18,274,886 344 The returns of the number of persons employed in the coal mines of Scotland, in 1879, show an increase of 766 over 1878, although the qutiintity of coal produced shows a decrease of 367,355 tons. "While comparing the average produce per man, an increase is shown from 1873 to 1877, since which date a falling off appears, due to strikes and restriction of output on the part of the miners. The respective ages of all persons employed in coal-mining in Scotland, in 1879, were as under : — * All Ages. EASTEBN. WESTEKN. Total. Under Ground. Above Ground. Under Ground. Above Ground. Prom 12 to 13 . „ 13 to IG „ 13 to 16 . Above 16 . . . „ 16 . . . . Total. Nos. 224 2,973 26]092 Nos. 2 351 81t 4,847 550t Nos. 119 1,498 13]282 Nos. "ioG 9t 2,606 41t Nos. 345 4,978 90t 46,827 591 29,289 5,831 14,899 2,812 52,831 Besonrces and probable Duration of the Scotch. Coal-fields. — Referring to the labours of the Eoyal Coal Commission, ap- pointed in the year 1866 " to investigate the probable quantity of • H.M. Inspectors of Coal Mines Report. t Females. 283 COAL AND IE.ON INDUSTEIES. [rAiix i. coal contained in the coal-fields of the United Kingdom, and to report upon the quantity of such coal which may he reasonably expected to be available for use," we have the following summary of results, showing the quantity of coal available for future use in the coal-fields of Scotland in 1870 :— * Summary. TON*. Edinbui-gli 2,153,703,360 Lanarkstire 2,044,090,216 Fifeshire 1,098,402,895 Ayrshire 1,785,397,089 East Lothian 86,849,880 Firth of Forth 1,800,000,000 Dumfriesshire 358,173,995 West Lothian 127,621,800 Perthshire 109,895,040 Stirlingshire 106,475,436 Claokmannaushire 87,563,494 Dumbartonshire 48,618,320 Eenfrewshire 25,881,285 Argyleshire 7,223,120 Sutherlandshire 3,500,000 Eoxhurghshire 70,000 Total .... 9,843,465,930 The total here arrived at is the quantity available to a depth of 3,000 feet. Taking the production of the Scotch coal-fields in the same year, amounting to 14,934,553 tons, and assuming the same annual average output, the coal-fields would not be exhausted for 660 years. The total quantity of coal raised in Scotland during the ten years ending 1879 amounts to 174,293,288 tons ; this, deducted from the original estimate of 1870, leaves 9,669,172,642 tons, which, at the average jDroduction of the past ten years (17,429,328 tons) would afford supplies for the next 555 years, a period short by 105 years of the estimated duration from the j'ear 1870. * Mr. John Geddes' Report, vol. i. " Coal Commission Eeport," p. VI. CHAPTER XIX. THE COAL-FIELDS OF IRELAND. Description— Northern (Bituminous) Group— Counties of Leitrim, Tyrone, and Antrim — Analyses of Coal — Southern (Anthracitie) Group, Leinster and Munster — Analyses of Coal — Production of Coal — Population employed in Coal Mining — Resources of Coal-fields. The Coal-fields of Ireland. — The coal deposits of Ireland are divided by Professor Hull into two groups, the line of demarca- tion being drawn from Galway Bay on the west to Dublin Bay on the east. The coal-fields north of this line produce coal of a bituminous kind, those of the southern area being anthracitie in character. The northern coal-fields are those of Leitrim in Connaught, and Tyrone and Antrim in Ulster. The southern coal-fields extend through the counties of Clare, Limerick, and Cork, stretching both to the north and south of the estuary of the river Shannon, and the Leinster coal-field, the most important in the south of Ireland, occupj'ing an extensive tract in the Queen's County, Kilkenny, and Tipperary. But little can be said relative to the coal of Ireland as com- pared with the richer deposits of England and Scotland. The time was when Ireland was two-thirds covered with coal-beds ; now only a few patches or outliers are left as evidences of former wealth, nearly all the coal measures having been denuded from the limestone and other " bases," leaving the great central lime- stone plain of Ireland beneath the drift, a now coal-less tract. The coal-fields already named being all that remains of what was once a widely-sj)read and extensive formation, the lower portion only being left. The total production of coal in Ireland in 1880 was but 133,702 tons, the greater proportion of which was anthra- citie, compared with 128,560,821 tons in England and Wales, and 18,274,886 tons in Scotland. The output of coal and ironstone in Ireland being so limited, a general sketch of the more important areas in which they occur. 284 COAL AND lEON INDUSTEIES. [past i. and of the seams and bands of ironstone wrought, together with analyses, will here suffice, referring our readers to the authors and their works, which treat in detail of the mineral resources of Ireland.* ITortlierii Group of Coal-fields. — The bituminous coals, as previously stated, are found in the northern group of the coal- fields of Ireland ; of these the several tracts of the Leitrim coal- fields are of considerable importance, those of Aughabehy, Arigna, and the coal-basin of Altj-gowlan, being the most important, the last-named coal-field being separated from the former by the river Arigna, and both coal-fields lying to the west of Loch Allen. The general succession of strata on this district is as follows : — Lower Coal Measures. Millstone Orit. Yoredale Beds. C'arlioniferous Limestone. In a section of strata at Kilronan, some two miles south of Aughabehy, m the lower coal measures, occur three seams of coal, one of which, 18 inches thick, known as the " Top Seam," is most valued. Towards the top of the series of coal measures of a maximum thickness of 453 feet, shale occurs, varying in thickness from 100 to 200 feet, and in this shale are foimd numerous bands of ironstone of a similar kind to that found amongst the Yoredale beds below. In a section of strata sunk at Arigna to a depth of 111 feet, when the main seam of coal, 2 feet 6 inches thick, was reached, the annexed shows the rocks passed through, with their respective thicknesses, the iron ore here being found withia 3 feet of the surface. Section- or Strata at Aeigna CoLLiEEiES.f Ft. In. Surface Bed of iron ore Deep bog 15 Gravel 30 Slate 27 Eook 24 Slate 15 Coal seam 2 6 * "Industrial Eesources of Ireland," by Sir Eobert Kane, M.D., 18-U. Second Edition ; " Kcport on the Connauglit Coal-fields (Arigna) Districts," by Sir Richard Griffiths, presented to the Koyal Dublin Society, 1818. t By W. J. Hughes, Esq., C.E., deposited in Mining Eecord Office. Museum of Practical Geology. CHAP. XIX.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF IRELAND. 285 Analyses of the Goal. — Sir Robert Kane, who has examined several varieties of coal raised in this and other districts in Ireland, describes the Aughabehy coal as follows : — " A rich black coal, easily broken. Its specific gravity, 1'274. When heated it gives off a good deal of inflammable gas, and leaves a light, porous, grey, coherent coke." Another, the " Rover" Coal, is thus referred to : — " This coal is rather brown in aspect, and has a remarkable tendency to split into cubical fragments. The specific gravity is 1'287. When ignited it gives off gas, but does not froth. Its coke is porous, slightly coherent. It contains less foreign matter than any of the other kinds." The chemical com- position of these coals is as follows : — * Eestjlts Tabulated. Constituents. Augbftbehy. Rover. Carbon .... Hydrogen. . . . Oxygon .... Aeli 79-69 6-24 3-32 10-75 81-04 4-91 6-64 7-41 100-00 100-00 It is thus seen that the Aughabehy is a much more bituminous coal than the Rover, which approaches nearer in its character to the anthracites of -the south. The Tyrone Coal-field. — Also producing bituminous coal, is situated north of the town of Dungannon in the county Tyrone, the village of Coal Island occupying the centre of the coal-field, a smaller district, the Annahone, having an area of above 320 acres. Mr. E. T. Hardman, of the Geological Survey of Ireland, who has examined this coal-field, observes, that although occupy- ing but a small area, the coal measures are about 2000 feet thick, and contain from 22 to 24 seams, all of them of fair and some of them of excellent quality, varying in thiclmess from 10 inches to 9 feet. Mr. Hardman gives the following section, showing the more important coals : — » " Industrial Eesources of Ireland," second edition, 1845, p. 24. 286 COAL AND IROSr INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. Table of the Coals at peesekt being Woeked. Dungannon Coal Field. ( Annagher Coal Bone Coal . . • • ■ • Shining Seam Brackaville Coal Gortnaskea Coal (with 22 in. Cannel) . ^ Beltiboy Coal Derry Coal . . . . 3 6 to Yard Coal Middle Coal Measures (Coal Island series) Ft. In. 9 2 10 3 5 G 3 3 Position uncertain . Greenagh Coal (-with 14 in. Cannel) . 4 6 Zoiwer Coa^ilfeasjtresj Main Coal of Drumglass . 4 10 to 6 (Drumglass series) . t Lo-vrer ,, ,, . . 1 6 ,, 2 Mr. Hardman accompanies his paper by a series of analyses of the following seams : — * LcwER Coal Measures. No. 1. Main Coal or Drumglass Coal, Lurganboy (Top). „ 2. Main Coal, Lurganboy (Bottom). ,, 3. Greenagh Soft Coal. ,, 4. Greenagh Cannel Coal. Middle CoAi Measures. No. 5. Derry Coal (Annagher Coal Island). ,, 6. Beltiboy Coal, Gortnaskea. ,, 7. Gortnaskea Coal. ,, 8. Annagher Coal (Brackaville). Analyses of the Coals oi THE Dungannon Coal-field Constituents No. 1. 1 No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. No. S. Volatile matter . „„, „ Fixed Carbon . ^"^^ \ Ash ■Water at 212° F. . . Sulphur Ash in Coke . . . Specific gravity . 48-00 47-43 4-57 37-19 51-63 11-28 43-40 39-80 16-80 62-87 34-18 12-95 26-43 55-57 18-00 49-40 48-17 2-43 45-62 62-46 1-92 100-00 100-Of 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 2-49 2-90 9-05 1-295 5-72 1.65 17-95 1-385 7-46 1-94 21-30 1-452 3-20 1-94 30-02 1-396 24-65 1-499 4-30 1-52 4-86 1-266 9-89 2-56 3-55 1-250 The analysis of the Gortnaskea coal (No. 7) was only a partial one. The seam is six feet thick, including 22 inches of cannel at the top, the cannel giving 4"06 of ash, its specific gravity being 1'232. It is remarked of this coal that it is rare to find a cannel with such a small percentage of ash. "Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.'" Second Scries, vol. ii., p. 529. mvi'. XIX.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF IRELAND. 287 The above analyses give a veiy fair idea of the character of the coals of the Dungannon coal-field ; and it will he seen that many of these hear favourable comparison with the best English coal in point of purity and heating power. They are all highly bituminous, and > yield such a quantity of gaseous matter, that Mr. Hardman considers that any of them except the Derry Coal might be used with great advantage in Ireland for gas manu- facture, with profit both to the colliery proprietor and the gas company. The heating power of these coals is extremely high ; 10 to 11 lbs. of water evapoi-ated is considered veiy good work for 1 lb. of coal; nearly all the above give over 12 lbs., the best of them nearly 13 lbs. Antrim Coal-field. — Situated at Ballycastle, at the northern extremity of Antrim, is found a small coal-field yieldmg coal of a bituminous character in quantities not exceeding a few thousand tons annually. It is recorded that the oldest colhery wrought in Ireland was at Ballycastle, where, during the year 1770, some miners exploring the levels broke through an old gallerj', the walls of which were lined with stalactites, evidently of gi'eat age ; and antique mining tools were found therein. The residents in the district had never heard of a ti-adition of the mine having been anciently worked, and the excavation therefore must have been made at a very remote period. About the year 1830 there were twelve coal-pits in this coal-field, four of which were then in oj)eration, the coal seams being wrought to a considerable distance imder the sea. This coal-field is about four miles in length, and has an average width of 1 J miles. Professor Hull gives the annexed section of the coal series at Ballycastle Bay, as ascertained at the mines now at work, as follows : — Ft. In. Top or First Goal (Splint Seam) 3 Sandstones and shales 30 Second Goal (Hawksnest Seam) 3 Strata with black-band ironstone 240 Third Coal (Main Seam) . 4 Strata with black-band ironstone below the main coal in some places) GO Limestone 8 Strata (shales and sandstones) 240 Lower (black-band ironstone by boring) . . . . 10 Total 589 388 COAL AND lEO]!^' INDUSTEIKS. [part l The coal of the Ballycastle coal-field is thus described by Sir Robert Kane : — " Dull, black in colour ; its specific gravity, 1'279. On ignition it gives out much gas, frothed very much, and left a porous coke." Its constituents ai-e as follows : — * Volatile matter 36-96 Pure coke 45-94 Ashes 17-10 100-00 One part of it gave 25 of lead, hence 100 parts of it corre- sponded to 71*4 of pure carbon. The coal is considered in its economical relations suitable for industrial purposes of all kinds ■where coal is employed. Southern Group of Coal-fields. — The most important in the south of Ireland, yielding anthracite, is that of Leinster, com- prising a great area of the county of Kilkenny, Queen's County, and a part of Carlow. A portion of the same coal-field extends into the county Tipperarj'^, and is separated from the Killienny ■coal-field by an intervening neck of limestone. The Leinster coal-field is some 20 miles in length between Ballyroan on the north, and Growran on the south, its greatest width at Castle- comer being about 14 miles. The isolated coal-field of Tippe- rary extends about 20 miles in length from Freshford to near Cashel, and is about six miles wide, the towns of Killenaule and New Birmingham occupying its centre. The following is given by Professor HuU as the general series of coal in the Castle- comer coal-basin. Some measures of ironstone also occur.t Ft. In. TTppermost beds about 12 Peacock Coal 1 10 Strata 45 Stony Coal 3 Strata 21 Double Seam 5 Strata and shales 120 Three-foot or Old Colliery Coal . . . ' . . . 3 Strata 180 Pive-foot Coal . . i 3 6 Strata 300 Upper and Lower Towlerton Coals . . 1ft. 6iu. to . 2 Plag series, about 650 Black Shale series ......... 600 Upper Carboniferous Limestone * " Industrial Eesources of Ireland," second edition, p. 26. + " Coal-fields of Great Britain," 4th edit., p. 327. CHAP. XIX.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF IRELAND. 289 Analyses of tlie Coal. — The coal of the Slievardagh coal-field in the County Tipperary reported upon * is described as highly anthracitic. The specimen examined was obtained from the 3 feet vein at a depth of 26 yards from the surface, the vein itself having an inclination of 1 in 5, and situate in soft shale and sand- stone, both easily worked. The mean composition of this coal is as follows per cent. : — * Eestixts Tabtjlated. Carbon 80-03 Hydrogen 2-30 Nitrogen 0-23 Sulphur . . 6-76 Sr^} 10.80 100-12 Specific gravity 1-69 Coke per cent 90-10 The average weight of a cubic foot of this coal is 62*8 lbs. ; the space occupied by one ton 35"66 cubic feet ; while 1 lb. of the coal will evaporate 9*85 lbs. of water from a temperature of 212° Fahr. The coal of the Slievardagh district is worked by the Mining Company of Ireland, who raised 25,276 tons of anthracite in 1879, compared with 28,503 tons in 1880. Sir Kobert Kane,t who has examined specimens of the follow- ing coals raised in the Leinster and Munster coal-fields — The Eushes Coal, Queen's County ; The Pollough Coal, Castlecomer ; The Sweet Vein, Kanturk, Munster — remarks that " the anthracites have no tendency to froth or cake in coking. They give off little or no inflammable gas on being ignited, but usually the masses break up quite small, especially if the heat be suddenly applied. The ashes are almost always red, owing to oxide of iron remaining after the combustion of the pyrites, which the anthracite usually contains." By the ordinary analysis for carbon and ash these coals yielded : — * First Beport, " Coals suited to the Steam Navy," p. 12. + " Industrial Resources of Ireland," 2nd edition, p. 27. 290 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. Constituents. Bushes. PoUough. Sweet Vein. Volatile matter Pure Carbon . . . Ashes .... 9-85 86-42 3-73 10-40 79-71 9-89 10-35 81-13 8-52 100-00 100-00 100-00 The pure anthracite of the same veins considered separately from ashes and sulphur giving the annexed results : — Constituents. Rushes. PoUough. Sweet Vein. Carbon .... Hydrogen . . . . Oxygen. 93-53 3-63 2-84 92-37 2-40 5-23 94-39 4-05 1-56 100-00 100-00 100-00 The Eushes coal is generally considered as representing the usual composition of these varieties of coal. The Munster Coal-field. — In this coal-tract is comprised a considerable area of the counties of Clare, Limerick, Cork, and Kerry; and in each of these counties coal has been discovered and worked, the most important localities being situated between the Eiver Blackwater and Kanturk in the County Cork. The coal lies in a series of troughs, the hills usually striking from east to west, the strata dipping on either side north and south at considerable angles, often perpendicular. Sir Richard Griffiths gives the number of coal seams in this coal-field as six ; of these, three of the most valuable are locally known as theBulkVein, Rock Vein, and the Sweet vein. Coal has been extensively worked in the Barony of Dunhallow, County Cork, also in Clare, but the seams of coal in the latter county, although extending over large areas, are com- paratively thin, and the character of the coal is softer and more slaty than that obtained in the Kilkenny and Tipperary districts. On the contrary, the seams in the Dunhallow district. County Cork, vary from two to three feet in thickness, and produce anthracite of an excellent description. Analyses of these coals will be found with those of other coals in the Tipperary extension of the Leinster coal-field. Frodnction of Coal. — The total production of the Irish coal- fields is shown in the subjoined table, distinguishing the anthra- citic and bituminous coal to the end of 1868 : — OHAF. XIX.] THE COAL-HELDS OF IJRELAND. 291 Year. CoIlleriOB. Anthracite. Bitnminons. Total CoaL Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1856 22 96,220 40,415 136,635 1857 45 80,420 40,210 120,630 1858 47 79,500 41,250 120,750 1859 45 78,250 42,150 120,300 1860 46 70,250 49,175 119,425 1861 46 72,570 50,000 123,070 1862 46 73,000 64,500 127,500 1863 46 72,550 54,500 127,050 1864 41 70,000 55,000 125,000 1865 39 70,000 53,500 123,500 1866 39 68,750 55,000 123,750 1867 34 75,000 50,000 125,000 1868 34 74,500 52,450 126,950 From 1869 to 1880 the total quantity of coal raised is alone given, the separation of the two varieties not being satisfactory: — Tear. Collieries. Total Coal. Year. Collieries. Total Coal. Nos. Tons. Nos. Tons. 1869 33 127,923 1875 53 127,950 1870 32 141,470 1876 55 124,936 1871 30 165,750 1877 49 138,722 1872 29 103,436 1878 60 121,976 1873 34 103,466 1879 47 129,000 1874 42 139,218 1880 30 133,702 Population employed in Coal Mining in Ireland. — In 1873 the total number of persons engaged in coal-mining amounted to 1,950, of whom 1,209 were engaged under, and 741 above ground. The details of recent years ending 1880 appear in the annexed summary : — * Year. PEBSONS EMPLOYED. Total. Coal Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 1,209 1,120 1,069 946 883 841 819 777 Nos. 741 531 475 419 365 381 296 294 Nos. 1,950 1,651 1,544 1,366 1,248 1,222 1,115 1,071 Tons. 135,731 139,213 128,207 126,195 140,181 122,051 129,003 133,702 Tons. 79 84 83 90 112 100 116 124 Reports of H.M, Inspectors of Mines. IT 2 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT In each of the same years the quantity of coal raised in each of the four provinces of Ireland was as foUows, also the number of persons employed in each province : — Tear. CONUAUGHT. ULSTER. LEINSTEE. UimSTER. Nos. Coal. Nos. Coal. Nos. Coal. Nos. Coal. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 376 111 84 99 78 75 88 87 Tons. 11,021 5,108 4,772 5,203 6,477 6,456 9,600 8,506 391 321 261 183 "180 217 165 175 Tons. 18,105 17,810 15,869 15,335 15,398 12,407 17,066 21,203 777 828 866 798 713 663 624 689 Tons. 61,425 73,302 66,876 72,025 88,095 74,474 77,061 75,490 406 391 333 285 277 267 238 220 Tons. 45,180 43,993 40,684 32,632 30,211 28,714 25,276 28,503 Resources of the Coal-fields of Ireland. — The investigation as to the quantity of coal remaining in the coal-fields of Ireland by the Eoyal Coal Commission was entrusted to the late Mr. J. B. Jukes, F.E.S. ; on that gentleman's decease, Professor Hull, who succeeded him as Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland, continued the inquiry with the assistance of Messrs. G. H. Kinahan and J. O 'Kelly, officers of the survey. In the tabulated statement annexed showing the total quantities of coal unworked, and the net tonnage available for future use, the respective quan- tities are thus distributed amongst the several coal-fields : — * Districts. Coal Unworked. Coal available for use. 1. Ballycastle, Oounty Antrim 2. Tyrone (visible and concealed) . 3. Queen's County, Kilkenny, and Carlow (Leinster) . 4. Tipperary 5. Clare, Limerick, and Cork (Mun- ster) 6. Oonnaught (Arigna district) Tota,lR .... Tons. 18,000,000 36,950,000 1 86,202,000 29,500,000 I 23,000,000 12,000,000 Tons. 16,000,000 32,900,000 77,580,000 25,000,000 20,000,000 10,800,000 205,652,000 182,280,000 Taking the net tonnage of coal available for use and deducting therefrom the production of the ten years ending 1879, amount- * " Coal Commission Report," vol. i., p. 78. CHAP. XIX.] THE COAL-FIELDS OF lEELAND. 293 ing to 1,296,921 tons, there remains for future use 180,984,079 tons. Of the coal thus available it is generally assumed that the proportion of anthracite is two-thirds, that of bituminous coal being about one-third of the total quantity. Prices of Coal at the Pit Moutli. — The prices of coal in the years 1879 and 1880 show but little variation ; the average may be taken as about lis. lOd, per ton — the highest price of anthra- cite £1 3s. 4d., the lowest of bituminous coal 6s. Sd, per ton ; the coal of the Leitrim district varying from 5s. to 10s. per ton. The BaUycastle district in the County Tyrone, slack, 4s.; coal, 10s. per ton. In the Leinster district slack sold for 6s., and coal 15s. to 20s. per ton ; the highest prices quoted being the produce of the collieries of the Mining Company of Ireland, situated in the Slievardagh district, 75 per cent, of their coal averaging in prices from 5s. to 8s. 4d. per ton, the remainder from 15s. to 23s. 4£i. pertonin 1880. CHAPTEK XX. THE COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. General Summary — Areas of Coal-fields — Production of England, Wales, Scotland, ajid Ireland — Distribution of Coal by Railway — Coal brought into London — Coal sent Coastwise and exported to Foreign Countries — Population employed in Coal Mining — Eesources and probable duration of Coal-fields. General Summary. — Having previously considered each coal-field in the United Kingdom, it only remains to summarize aU available information under the following heads : — I. Areas of the Coal-fields of the United Kingdom:— OOAL-WBIBS. England, Durliam and Northumberland Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire Cumberland Lancashire and Cheshire .... Leicestershire Warwickshire Shropshire North Staffordshire South StafEordshire North Wales, Anglesea ,, Denbighshire ,, Flintshire South Wales, Monmouthshire , , Glamorganshire . ,, Brecknockshire ,, Oaermarthenshire ,, Pembrokeshire Gloucestershire (Forest of Dean) ABEA. IN SQUABS MILES. 796 800 25 220 15 30 28 Y5 93 \0i\ 518 m 228 76; 90 1,000 34 Somersetshire (Bristol) 150 Scotland 1 720 Irelamd 2 800 Total Area 7,876 II. Production of Coal in Great Britain. — Towards the close of the past century and previously, from careful estimates appearing in the pages of the Eeport of the Coal Commission, it is shown that the total production of the collieries of the kingdom in each of the following years amounted to : — * Estimated area. CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, 295 YEAB. QUANTITIES. 1660 2,148,000 tons. 1700 2,612,000 „ 1750 4,773,000 „ 1770 6,205,400 „ 1780 6,424,976 „ At this period the Durham and Northumberland coal-field furnished 25 per cent, of the total production. In the year 1785, and until the year 1800, the output of the collieries of the United Kingdom is given approximately as follows : — TEAB. QT7AHTITIE3. 1785 6,888,712 tons. 1790 7,618,760 „ 1795 10,681,728 „ 1800 10,080,300 „ Advancing to the year 1816, it appears from evidence given before a Committee of the House of Lords, appointed to take into consideration the state of the coal-trade of the United Kingdom,* and on the authority of the eminent engineer, Mr. Buddie, that the quantity carried by canals and railways, in different parts of the kingdom, amounted to 4,078,508 chaldrons (the Newcastle chaldron being 53 cwt.). The total production of the kingdom for the same year (1816), as given by Samuel Salt, in his " Statistics and Calculations," amounted to 27,020,115 tons, in the following details : — COAL FIELSS. TONS. Yorksliire 2,563,626 Derbyshire 942,218 Nottinghamshire 494,665 Leicestershire 176,665 Warwickshire 431,849 Staffordshire 795,000 Quantity that passed towards the Eastern seas . . 5,404,023 Quantity believed to pass towards the Western seas . 5,404,023 Quiintity carried by canal and railway . . . 10,808,046 Total production in 1816 . . 27,020,115 Between 1816 and 1854 many returns are met with, chiefly esflmates of the probable quantities raised ; in the last-named year, however, the annexed return appears, showing the quantity of coal raised from the 2,397 collieries then in operation in the United Kingdom, producing 64,661,401 tons. The details of production are as follows : — * Eeport of Select Oomroittee, House of Lords, dated 15 June, 1829. 296 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. Coal-flelds. Number of Collieries. Production of Coal. Coal-fields. Number of Collieries. Production of Coal. EngloMd— Northumberland and Durham Cumberland Yorkshire Derbyshire . Nottinghamshire ■VTarwickshire . Leicestershire . . Staffordshire and Worcestershire Lancashire Cheshire Shropshire 1 225 23 276 123 17 15 U 1 516 333 30 48 Tons. 15,420,613 887,000 7,260,600 2,406,696 813,474 256,000 439,000 7,500,000 9,080,500 786,500 1,080,000 Brought forward England — continued. Gloucestershire .- . Somersetshire . Devonshire . , . . Wales— Anglesea, Flintshire, and Denbighshire . Monmouthshire . Glamorganshire Pembrokeshire . Scotland Ireland . Total . 1,617 1" } 60 1 246 368 19 Tons. 46,929,286 1,492,366 1,143,000 8,500,000 7,448,000 148,750 Carried forward 1,617 45,929,28-5 2,397 64,661^^ Since the year 1854 the production of coal, with the number of collieries, has been as follows, the produce of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland being separately distinguished, the output increasing upwards of two-fold since 1854. Statement showing the PRODroxioN of Coal in the United Kingdom since 1854: — No. of Colleries. Year. 2,397 1854 2,613 1865 2,816 1856 2,871 1857 2,941 1858 3,009 1859 2,949 1860 3,052 1861 3,088 1862 3,160 1863 3,268 1864 3,256 1866 3,188 1866 3,258 1867 2,922 1868 2,862 1869 2,861 1870 2,760 1871 3,001 1872 3,627 1873 4,112 1874 3,933 1876 4,002 1876 3,770 1877 3,768 1878 3,877 1879 3,904 1880 England. Tons. 47,421,661 47,306,189 49,043,216 48,885,800 47,545,861 60,297,116 t64,117,460 ±66,274,123 62,125,383 66,419,584 71,327,873 75,482,580 77,423,351 78,786,987 76,969,748 81,647,654 83,726,369 90,127,987 97,878,524 97,764,017 96,629,867 100,171,743 100,373,692 101,038,052 99,600,027 101,063,222 112,434,790 Wales. Tons. 9,643,000 9,677,270 9,965,600 8,176,804 8,417,789 11,262,350* 8,906,313 8,661,021 8,309,456 8,645,081 8,935,060 9,894,507 11,458,443 11,463,560 11,344,500 11,334,830 11,628,800 11,620,000 10,131,720 12,291,523 12,610,186 12,969,905 14,180,586 15,113,916 15,148,582 16,346,079 16,126,031 Scotland. Tons. 7,448,000 7,325,000 7,600,000 8,211,473 8,926,249 10,300,000 10,900,500 11,081,000 11,076,000 11,100,500 12,400,000 12,650,000 12,625,000 14,125,943 14,709,959 14,417,150 14,934,553 16,438,291 16,383,609 16,857,772 16,788,661 18,597,507 18,665,562 18,320,074 17,837,282 17,469,927 18,274,886 Ireland. Total of the United Kingdom. Tons. 148,750 144,620 136,635 120,630 120,750 120,300 119,425 123,070 127,500 127,060 125,000 123,500 123,760 126,000 126,950 127,923 141,470 165,750 103,463 103,435 139,213 127,960 124,936 138,722 121,976 129,000 133,702 Tons. 64,661,401 64,463,079 66,645,450 65,394,707 65,008,649 71,979,765 84,042,698 86,039,214 81,638,338 86,292,215 92,787,873 98,150,587 101,630,544 104,500,480 103,141,167 107,427,557 110,431,192 117,352,028 123,497,316 127,016,747 125,067,916 131,867,105 133,344,766 134,610,763 132,607,866 134,008,228 146,969,409 * Including production of Monmouthshire. + Including 4,000,000 tons wasted on fire-heaps. J Including 2,404,000 tons wasted on fire-heaps. CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 297 Following the production of the coal-fields of the United Kingdom, the annexed details for the years 1860, 1870, and 1880, afford the required data for comparison, showing the output of the collieries of each coal-field in the years given : — Coal Fields. I860. 1870. 1880. • England — Northumberland, North and South Durham . . . Tons. Tons. Tons. 18,244,708 27,613,539 34,913,508 Cumberland . . . . 1,171,052 1,408,235 1,680,841 Westmoreland .... 1,950 Oheshire 750,500 929,150 681,000 Lancashire, North and East 1 Lancashire, West . . J 11,350,000 13,810,600 19,120,294 Yorkshire, North Riding . 5,270 West Biding . . 9,284,000 10,606,604 17,468,536 Derbyshire . . . . } 4,940,000 ( 5,102,265 I 2,115,372 7,903,834 Nottinghamshire ■ ■ i 4,432,393 Warwickshire . . . . 545,000 647,540 1,101,386 Leicestershire .... 730,000 699,450 1,063,382 StaflEbrdshirejNorth and South, and Worcestershire 7,648,300 13,230,062 13,734,800§ Shropshire .... 850,500 1,343,300 905,000 Gloucestershire, Somersetshire 15,503,400 1,955,910 1,953,732 Monmouthshire . . . . 4,364,342 5,039,549 Wales, North— Flintshire, Denbighshire . 1,750,500 2,329,030 2,429,315 Wales, South— Q-lamorganshire, Brecknock- shire, Pembrokeshire, and 6,254,813 9,299,770 16,126,031 Carmarthenshire Scotland — Eastern District . . . ) Western District . • • ) 10,900,500 14,934,553 18,274,886 Ireland .... Total of the United Kingdom 119,425 141,470 133,702 184,042,698 110,431,192 146,969,409 III. Distribution of Coal by Railway. — Hitherto the quanti- ties of coal carried from our several coal-fields by Eailways have received attention ; it is now desirable to follow up this inquiry by ascertaining the total quantities of coal carried by each of the great railway systems, giving the aggregate in each year, and with this view the following tables have been prepared, commencing with — No. 1. North Eastern Railway System:— * According to returns of H.M. Inspectors of Mines, 1880. t Including the produce of Monmouthshire. + Including 4,000,000 tons wasted on fire heaps. § Including 1,429,000 tons the produce of Worcestershire in 1880. 398 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. Year. Prom Durham and From Lancashire Total. Northumterland. and Yorkshire. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1854 2,671,064 338,777 2,909,841 1855 2,547,931 312,369 2,860,300 1856 1,753,045 287,144 2,040,189 1857 2,554,330 357,656 2,911,986 ♦ 1858 2,402,011 341,375 2,743,386 1859 2,383,765 334,838 2,718,600 1860 2,575,303 412,097 2,987,400 1861 2,650,430 403,825 3,054,255 1862 3,826,590 391,097 3,217,687 1863 4,866,393 361,860 5,228,253 1864 6,744,501 456,320 6,200,821 1865 7,069,656 469,080 7,638,636 1866 7,350,956 527,887 7,878,843 1867 7,503,152 572,808 8,085,860 1868 7,357,266 606,688 7,963,954 1869 8,280,310 675,378 8,955,688 1870 8,999,784 866,422 9,866,206 1871 10,089,217 1,064,407 11,163,625 1872 10,486,168 1,134,543 11,620,711 1873 10,792,280 1,067,651 11,869,931 1874 10,689,846 1,105,021 11,794,867 1875 11,032,299 1,281,248 12,313,547 1876 10,535,438 1,240,645 11,776,083 1877 10,439,768 1,318,887 11,758,655 1878 9,907,829 1,344,318 11,252,147 1879 9,320,511 1,455,895 10,776,406 1880 11,661,676 1,583,942 13,245,618 The extent of the distribution of the Durham and Northum- berland coal appears in the annexed statement showing the details of its movement in each of the years named : — Distribution. I860. 1870. 1880. The quantity of Ooal carried over the North.-Fiaaterii Eailway for local con- sumption and land sale from the Durham and Northumberland Coal Fields, and which was distributed over the districts Berwiot and Kelso in the North, Oarhsle and Tebay in the West, and Leeds, Knottingley, Doncaster and Altofts in the South Shipped at Hull, Ooal . For North-Eastern Company's use The quantity of Coal passed over the North-Eastem Eailway to districts Carried Forward . . . Tons. 1,673,278 98 43,780 Tons. 4,907,714 362J866 Tons. 5,935,937 101 610,364 1,717,156 5,270,580 6,546,402 CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OP THE UNITED KINGDOM. 399 Distribution. I860. 1870. 1880. BroTight Forward . South of Altofts, Knottingley, Don- caster and Leeds, and afio of Coal to places North of Kelso and Berwick, and West of Morpeth, Hexham, Carlisle, and Tehay, being the entire through traflSo of Coal . . . The quantity of Coke carried over the North-Eastem Eailway for local consumption and land sale between Kelso and Berwick in the North, Carlisle and Tebay in the "West, and Leeds, Knottingley, Doncaater, and Altofts in the Soutii Shipped at HuU, Coke . . . For North-Eastern Company's use. Coke. ..... The quantity of Coke carried over the North-Eastem Eailway to districts South of Altofts, Doncaster, Knot- tingley and Leeds, and to places North of Kelso and Berwick, and North and West of Morpeth, Hex- ham, Carlisle and Tebay, being the entire through traffic of Coke . Total carried, Coal and Coke . Tons. 1,717,156 149,552 145,722 166 169,870 392,837 Tons. 5,270,580 703,715 1,909,442 93 128,276 987,678 Tons. 6,546,402 398,257 2,780,148 31 7,012 1,929,826 2,575,303 8,999,784 11,661,676 The distribution of coal, the produce of Yorkshire and Lan- cashire collieries, in each of the same years, was as follows, over the North Eastern Railway system : — Distribution. 18G0. 1870. 1880. Tons. Tons. Tons. The quantity of Coal carried over the North-Eastem Eailway from York- shire and Lancashire Collieries for consumption at places on the North- Eastem Eailway .... 354,385 663,474 *952,764 For shipment at Hull, Coal . . 57,502 184,602 572,835 Do. Do. Coke 2,001 419 Do. at Goole, Coal . . • 11,778 57,031 Do. at Selby, Coal Total Coal and Coke . . 210 4,567 893 412,097 866,422 1,583,942 * This quantity includes 203,560 tons carried for consumption to places off the North-]^astern system. 300 COAL A.ND IKON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. No. 2. Midland Railway System. — From the following re- turns since the year 1856, a remarkable development of the coal industries of those districts traversed by the system, appears, showing a five-fold increase. Coal carried by the Midland Railway System in each year since 1856 :— Tear. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1856 2,449,552 1869 6,532,521 1857 2,525,751 1870 7,370,987 1858 2,695,584 1871 8,255,469 1859 3,158,020 1872 8,963,170 1860 4,001,270 1873 9,891,661 1861 4,048,071 1874 9,615,186 1862 3,738,833 1875 10,627,117 1863 4,330,022 1876 10,057,896 1864 5,198,890 1877 10,384,244 1865 5,470,735 1878 11,063,877 1866 5,521,180 1879 12,078,084 1867 5,927,004 1880 12,383,910 1868 5,822,494 The annexed details of quantities carried by the Midland system in 1860, 1870, and 1880, exhibits clearly the increase in the movement of coal in each of those years : — Coal Districts. I860. 1870. 1880. Derbya>iire . . ) Nottmghamshire . . . ) Yorkshire .... Leicestershire . . . . Gloucestershire . . ) South Wales ... J Durham South Stafifordshii-e . . ) Warwickshire . . . j Lancashire . . ... Somersetshire .... Cumberland . . . . Scotland Total . . . Tons. 2,230,275 483,693 717,633 227,275 255,163 80,104 7,127 Tons. S 4,079,447 \ 471,118 1,382,808 966,830 j 219,010 ( 4,730 112,801 ( 42,305 \ 75,863 16,075 Tons. 5,603,872 1,614,377 2,408,650 1,066,861 223,098 660,872 147,692* 189,247* 308,697 130,216* 19,626* 8,345* 2,357* 4,001,270 7,370,987 12,383,910 No. 3. London and North Western Railway. — The earliest return available, for the year 1854, shows that a total quantity * Quantities received from other lines and carried over Midland system. CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 301 of coal was carried by this system, amounting to 1,960,238 tons ; since 1856 the quantities have been as follows : — LoHDOif Airo North WnaTEEN Eailwat. Year. Coal Carried. Tear. Coal Carried. Tons. Tons. 1856 2,241,541 1870 7,165,371 185V 2,468,451 1871 7,755,657 1859 2,721,000 1872 8,193,991 1862 2,861,667 1873 8,299,491 1863 3,756,111 1874 7,541,425 1864 3,179,910 1875 9,077,654 1865 6,032,578 1876 9,496,171 1866 4,639,461 1877 9,687,999 1867 5,887,003 1878 9,701,965 1868 5,668,071 1879 10,828,393 1869 6,488,207 1880 11,100,891 The details of the quantities carried in the years 1860, 1870, and 1880, from the coal-fields traversed by the London and North Western system being as follows : — Coal-flelds, I860. isro. 1880. Tons. Tons. Tons. Lancashire 1,411,000 4,967,785 7,024,080 South Staffordshire . 94,000 665,720 1,511,099 South Wales . . . 219,000 70,321 903,335 North Wales . . . . 376,512 304,609 Warwickshire . . . 54,000 187,931 306,252 Yorkshire .... 108,000 203,205 236,648 Cheshire 160,000 104,484 184,815 North Staffordshire . ■ •* 60,833 79,595 Shropshire ... 117,317 106,333 Leicestershire . *• • 44,838 Derbyshire 675,000 66,217 27,632 Cumberland .... Total . 345,046 371,755 2,721,000 7,165,371 11,100,891 No. 4. The Great ITorthera Railway. — Commencing with the year 1857, when the total weight of coal carried by this system amounted to 968,125 tons ; the quantity carried from Yorkshire was 895,767 tons, and from Derbyshire, 72,358 tons. Since 1857 the quantities carried are as follows : — 302 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. ■ Gbeat Noetheen Eailwat. [PAET I. Tear. Coal Carried. Tear. Coal Carried. Tons. Tons. 1857 968,125 1870 2,276,312 1860 985,588 1871 2,403,926 1861 1,076,673 1872 2,553,051 1862 1,068,917 1873 2,545,278 1863 1,148,681 1874 2,307,024 1864 1,751,105 1875 2,696,645 1865 2,097,809 1876 2,658,102 1866 2,212,893 1877 2,873,158 1867 2,343,755 1878 2,992,642 1868 2,113,290 1879 3,475,343 1869 2,121,541 1880 3,627,756 The total weight carried from each coal-field in the years 1860, 1870, and 1880, by the Great Northern Eailway, will be seen in the annexed table : — Coal-fields. I860. isro. 1880. Durham .... South Yorkshire . West Yorkshire N. and S. Lincolnshire Derbyshire London N. Western . North Staffordshire . South Wales Leicestershire . Eetford .... Tons. 18i,'560 611,112 159^412 33,504 Tons. 524,695 551,348 443,261 573^261 6,561 177,186 Tons. 210,083 863,575 971,074 161,860 896,636 35,917 13,547 23,550 1,829 *449,685 Total 985,588 2,276,312 3,627,756 Ho. 5. The Great Western. Railway. — The total quantity of coal carried in the year 1857 was 382,104 tons, from the following coal districts : — TOHS. South Wales 120,080 North Wales 93,985 Vale of Neath 24,772 Eadstock 143,267 Total .... 382,104 The total quantities carried in later years being as follows :- * Carried to London and North-Western Eailway ma Market Harborough. CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OP THE UNITED KINGDOM. 303 Year. Coal Carried. Year. Coal Carried. Tonn. Tons. 1857 382,104 1873 5,411,103 1860 542,199 1874 5,546,865 1862 713,501 1875 5,469,506 1865 2,182,739 1876 6,053,806 1869 3,683,640 1877 6,412,798 1870 3,791,532 1878 5,938,534 1871 3,962,647 1879 6,481,342 1872 4,296,597 1880 6,909,968 The coal thus carried in the years 1860, 1870, and 1880, was derived from the following coal-fields traversed by the Great Western Eailway system : — Goal-flelds. I860. 1870. 1880. South Wales Forest of Dean Vale of Neath . North Wales . Badstock .... Bristol .... South Staffordshire Tons. 204,082 122,530 185,363 30,224 Tons. 2,850,412 646,810 294,310 Tons. 5,384,411 960,934 258,482 306,"l41 Total 542,199 3,791,532 6,909,968 Wo. 6. TafF Vale Railway. — Total quantities of coal and coke conveyed over the Company's lines in each year since 1841 : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1841 41,669 1861 2,297,250 1842 114,516 1862 2,540,657 1843 152,100 1863 2,722,011 1844 187,740 1864 2,842,049 1845 265,040 1865 2,855,138 1846 294,175 1866 3,248,235 1847 360,324 1867 3,381,045 1848 502,029 1868 3,540,324 1849 530,145 1869 3,310,067 1850 594,222 1870 3,943,661 1851 612,716 1871 3,593,932 1852 711,692 1872 4,213,506 1853 874,362 1873 4,527,641 1854 1,025,145 1874 4,352,778 1855 1,155,904 1875 3,776,813 1856 1,394,394 1876 4,879,150 1857 1,468,627 1 1877 5,170,953 1858 1,445,157 1 1878 5,613,639 1859 1,759,422 1879 5,849,184 1860 2,132,995 1880 6,894,403 804 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAUT I. This railway, though inconsiderable in extent compared with the several systems previously referred to, exercises an important influence in the movement of coal in the eastern extremity of the South Wales Coal-field which it traverses. Its total length is but 86 miles, 28 miles of which are single lines, the remaining 58 being double. In the 86 miles above referred to is included those other lines leased or worked by the Taff Vale Company, which are as follows : — The Aberdare, Cowbridge, Dare Valley, Llantrissant and Taff Vale Junction, Penarth Extension, Penarth Harbour Dock and Eailway, and the Ehondda Valley and Hirwain Junction Eailways. The extent of the traffic of coal and coke will be seen in the annexed table for the four decennial periods ending 1880 :— Railway Distribution. 1860. 1860. 1870. 1880. To Cardiff and Penarth Junction Sold retail To Quaker's Yard Junction . To Mountain Ash Junction . . . Conveyed over by other railways To Brecon and Merthyr Junction To Walnut Tree Bridge Junction . Totals Tons. 664,698 29,624 Tons. 1,929,525 203,470 Tons. 3,415,193 363,226 81,050 6,685 77,507 Tons. 6,955,457 356,691 135,419 4,006 345,757 97,010 63 694,222 2,132,995 3,943,661 6,894,403 No. 7. The Coal Cousnmed in the Metropolis, amounting to upwards of 13 per cent, of the total produce of Great Britain during the year 1880, was conveyed to London in the following proportions by sea, railway and canal in 1880 and previous years since 1823 : that brought by sea being the produce of the Durham and Northumberland Coal-field : — Coal bkought into London by Sea, Oanax, akd Railway since THE Tear 1823. Year. Sea. Canal. Eailway. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1823 1,574,412 993 1,575,405 1824 1,828,177 1,695 1,829,872 1825 1,870,349 1,658 1,872,007 1826 1,813,757 1,686 1,815,443 1827 1,985,969 2,149 1,988,118 1828 1,960,559 647 1,961,106 1829 2,018,975 2,018,975 1830 2,079,275 2,079,275 1831 2,045,292 10,742 2.056,034 1832 2,139,078 6,905 2,145,983 1833 2,010,409 4,395 2,014,804 CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OP THE UNITED KINGDOM. 305 Goal brotjght iwTO London 3INCB 1823— continued. Year. Sea. Canal. Bailway. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1834 2,078,635 1,862 2,080,497 1835 2,298,812 1,004 . 2,299,816 1836 2,402,474 1,199 . 2,403,673 1837 2,543,742 2,324 , 2,546,066 1838 2,518,085 1,686 2,519,771 1839 2,625,323 12,933 2,638,256 1840 2,566,899 22,188 2,589,087 1841 2,909,144 33,594 2,942,738 1842 2,723,200 31,519 2,754,719 1843 2,628,520 34,593 . 2,663,113 1844 2,490,910 72,275 . 2,563,165 1845 3,392,512 60,310 8,377 3,461,199 1846 2,920,376 21,872 11,698 2,953,946 1847 3,280,420 22,005 19,336 3,321,761 1848 3,418,340 19,918 37,888 3,476,138 1849 3,339,146 19,222 19,639 3,378,007 1850 3,553,304 29,479 55,095 3,637,878 1851 3,236,542 29,434 247,908 3,507,884 1862 3,330,428 33,913 377,907 3,742,248 1853 3,373,266 21,644 629,712 4,014,612 1854 3,399,561 32,153 945,056 4,376,770 1855 3,016,869 23,250 1,137,835 4,177,954 1856 3,119,884 25,401 1,246,299 4,391,584 1857 3,133,459 26,295 1,206,775 4,366,529 1858 3,266,446 20,244 1,190,521 4,477,191 1859 3,299,170 16,964 1,191,169 4,507,303 1860 3,573,377 19,593 1,477,545 5,070,515 1861 3,567,002 18,217 1,642,502 5,227,721 1862 3,442,402 11,651 1,513,296 4,967,349 1863 3,335,174 9,226 1,775,487 6,119,887 1864 3,116,703 8,902 2,342,440 5,468,045 1865 3,161,683 8,532 2,733,056 5,903,271 1866 3,033,193 10,176 2,969,896 6,013,265 1867 3,016,416 9,965 3,295,662 6,322,033 1868 2,918,230 9,527 2,979,333 5,907,090 1869 2,873,688 6,941 3,341,585 6,222,214 1870 2,993,710 7,301 3,758,089 6,759,100 1871 2,762,712 6,615 4,449,141 7,218,468 1872 3,648,918 8,236 4,999,268 7,556,422 1873 2,665,680 11,195 5,147,413 7,824,288 1874 2,727,719 5,982 4,689,786 7,423,486 1873 3,134,846 4,594 6,065,452 8,204,892 1876 3,273,442 4,696 5,173,297 8,461,375 1877 3,170,601 4,608 6,416,474 8,591,683 1878 3,198,309 2,977 6,593,290 8,794,576 1879 3,508,526 2,910 6,547,375 10,058,811 1880 3,714,708 4,470 6,196,310 9,915,488 The earliest account met with of coal brought to London by railway is for the year 1845, when 8,377 tons were conveyed into the Metropolis, increased in 1880 to 6,196,310 tons. The 806 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. annexed returns for the years 1860, 1870, and 1880, give the quantities carried by the several railway companies into London, to which are also appended th'e quantities brought by sea, and the ports from which received, in each of the said years : — By Eailway and Canal. I860. 1870. 1880. , Tons. Tons. Tons. London and North- ) "Western Eailway . ) 693,419 835,281 1,436,338 Great Northern RaUway 502,813 978,049 949,740 ■ Great Western Eailway 63,944 470,853 1,055,609 Great Eastern Eailway . 121,226 507,344 669,288 Midland Eailway . 58,490 923,660 1,999,668 London and South- ) Western Eailway ) 17,589 27,560 59,369 South-Eastem Eailway . 14,585 10,482 20,196 London, Chatham, and ) Dover Eailway 104 4,572 6,007 London, Tilbury, and ) Southend . . ) Total . . . 958 262 94 l,477,545t 3,758,089t 6,196,309 Canals Total . . . By Sea. 19,593 7,301 4,471 1,497,138 3,765,390 6,200,780 Newcastle 1,347,574 1,507,078 2,005.064 Seaham . . . . 210,418 107,798 225,914 Sunderland . 977,519 769,243 948,151 Middlesbro' . . . 61,183 72,830 17,809 Hartlepool and West ) Hartlepool . ( 703,836 409,754 286,294 Blyth .... 40,986 3,562 200 Scotland 13,002 39,902 63,379 Wales .... 130,009 25,937 94,638 Torkshire 45,230 40,966 22,632 Duff . ... ..i 230 Small Coal 25,047 8,432 41,956 Culm .... 1,902 444 Cinders . 16,671 6,962 '6[070 Colonial . . . Total . Total by Eail, Canal, ) and Sea . . j ... ... 2,350 3,073,377 2,993,710§ 3,714,70811 5,070,515 6,759,100 9,915,488 * From Mr. James E. Seott's "Coal and Coke Returns" published by the authority of the Corporation of London. f Including 4417 tons carried by the Hereford and Luton Eailway. $ Including 26 tons carried by the Loudon and Brigbton Eailway. § Including 802 tons from Lancashire. II Including 21 tons of foreign coal. CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 307 ITo. 8, Coals, Cinders and Culm. — An account of the quan- tities shipped at the several ports of England, Scotland, and Ireland, coastways, since the year 1834, to other ports of the United Kingdom (from Parliamentary Eeturns) : — Year. England. Scotland. Ireland Tons. Tons. Tons. 1834 5,280,632 538,771 3,168 1835 6,558,345 567,043 2,605 1836 6,921,245 548,(576 3,083 1837 6,638,906 547,680 4,105 1838 6,572,635 613,875 3,923 1839 6,521,577 699,348 2,088 1840 6,749,690 723,534 2,653 1841 7,020,289 • 627,060 2,650 1842 7,079,588 567,036 2,845 1843 6,906,316 639,156 1,612 1844 6,731,647 644,388 1,827 1846 8,191,772 530,388 1,308 1846 7,838,668 465,173 1,601 1847 8,442,667 431,308 724 1848 8,676,148 496,816 1,116 1849 8,082,200 469,918 588 1850 8,901,885 463,123 2,770 1851 8,319,956 496,106 476 1852 8,567,985 601,413 179 1853 8,594,063 476,767 154 1864 8,796,135 476,772 268 1855 8,322,403 530,678 161 1856 8,670,489 639,407 180 1857 8,934,906 598,569 201 1858 8,960,026 565,704 81 1859 9,636,913 570,790 130 1860 9,977,397 743,214 106 1861 10,266,228 726,249 120 1862 10,016,420 857,786 70 1863 9,634,888 753,244 120 1864 10,099,834 870,877 ■ •■ 1865 10,064,966 863,291 1866 9,901,676 819,029 120 1867 10,295,042 1,004,348 ... 1868 9,652,234 923,001 40 1869 9,534,957 917,178 • .. 1870 10,042,973 1,062,693 ... 1871 9,615,760 1,115,558 ... 1872 8,966,457 1,171,340 1873 9,143,820 1,324,986 1874 8,502,257 1,079,792 1875 9,301,352 1,408,516 ... 1876 9,692,397 1,307,296 ... 1877 9,686,801 1,278,703 80 1878 8,732,399 1,325,698 1879 10,623,380 1,421,743 330 1880 10,602,908 1,215,816 70 Total. Tons. 5,822,561 6,117,993 6,472,404 7,090,691 7,190,433 7,223,013 7,475,877 7,649,899 7,649,469 7,447,084 7,377,862 8,723,468 8,305,442 8,874,699 9,074,079 8,562,706 9,367,778 8,816,638 9,069,677 9,070,984 9,273,165 8,853,142 9,110,076 9,533,676 9,526,811 10,107,833 10,720,716 10,992,597 10,874,276 10,388,252 10,970,711 10,928,257 10,720,824 11,299,390 10,675,275 10,452,135 11,106,666 10,731,318 10,136,797 10,468,805 9,582,049 10,709,867 10,999,693 10,966,604 10,058,097 12,045,453 11,818,794 X 2 808 COAL AND lEON IKDUSTEIES. [rAKT I. KTo. 9. Coal Exported to Foreign Countries. — From a Par- liamentary paper published in the year 1831,* it appears that the total quantity of coals, cinders, and cuhn exported to foreign countries amounted to 237,657 tons ; of this quantity 217,681 tons were conveyed in British ships, and 19,976 tons in the ships of foreign nations. In subsequent years, till 1829, the following quantities were annually sent out of the country, with the amount of duty paid thereon : — Year. IN BRITISH SHIPPING. IN FOREIGN SHIPPING. Quantity. Duty. Quantity. Duty. 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 Tons. 217,681 220,811 221,703 202,156 221,080 236,085 251,702 217,256 221,484 235,298 278,588 288,071 294,727 283,574 £ s. d. 61,253 3 50,262 16 5 43,103 11 37,654 1 6 39,970 17 2 43,506 4 9 42,775 5 7 34,550 14 8 29,584 5 4 29,774 5 5 28,849 18 3 30,008 13 4 30,239 4 29,143 4 1 Tons. 19,976 32,330 50,753 36,084 29,860 26,884 35,694 36,741 60,531 77,948 69,693 80,608 63,137 87,696 £ s. d. 7,286 17 7 10,301 15 11 16,556 8 4 11,208 6 5 8,388 6 7 7,405 8 4 9,996 10 10 9,470 1 13,238 6 3 13,646 16 4 11,703 19 5 15,173 15 11 11,190 8 2 14,739 11 11 The quantities of coals, cinders, and culm exported from the United Kingdom in the three years ending 1832, with the amount of duties received thereon, were as follows : t — Year. Quantities. Value. 1830 1831 1832 Tons. 504,419 510,831 588,446 £ s. d. 63,889 17 6 55,237 5 10 56,706 2 10 The duty levied on coals at this period to foreign countries was 3s. id. per ton in British ships, and 6s. 8d. per ton in other ships ; small coals, cinders, and culm paying 2s. per ton in British ships, and 4s. per ton in other ships. In the year 1833 the total * No. 287. "Aocount of the quantities of Coal exported to Foreign Countries," House of Commons paper, printed 25th March, 1831. ■f Ibid., No. 586. 29th July, 1833. CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 309 exports of coals, cinders, and culm amounted to 634,448 tons, the duty paid on the same amounting to £65,008 8s. 6d. The particulars are as follows : — Description. Qaantities. Duty. Coals .... Small coals . . . Culm .... Total . . . Tons. 409,665 223,819 964 £ s. d. 41,677 1 23,296 19 6 34 8 634,448 65,008 8 6 Between the years 1833 and 1850, in which latter year the duty on coal exported to foreign countries and British settlements was wholly repealed, the exports were as follows : — Year. Coals. Cinders. Cnlni. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1834 609,756 3,654 1,845 615,255 1833 729,478 3,964 2,618 736,060 1836 910,773 5,191 904 916,868 1837 1,106,020 6,447 1,143 1,113,610 1838 1,303,384 9,693 632 1,313,709 1839 1,431,861 17,163 393 1,449,417 1840 1.592,283 13,783 247 1,606,313 1841 1,831,554 16,514 226 1,848,294 1842 1,975,280 23,434 790 1,999,504 1843 1,820,284 42,698 3,229 1,866,211 1844 1,698,391 49,389 6,391 1,754,171 1845 2,442,740 84,556 3,986 2,531,282 1846 2,432,382 95,554 3,172 2,531,108 1847 2,390,087 88,884 4,190 2,483,161 1848 2,699,468 82,908 2,924 2,785,300 1849 2,730,567 95,630 1,842 2,828,039 1850 3,211,619 137,348 2,913 3,351,880 Since the abolition of the duties on coal and cinders* in 1850, a greatly increased demand for British coal has arisen, the exports increasing from 8,851,880 tons in 1850 to 18,702,551 tons in 1880, showing an increase of upwards of 500 per cent, in a period of thirty years. In the annexed statement is given the total quantities exported, of coal, cinders, and culm, its de- clared value at the port of shipment, and the average value per ton in each year since 1850 : — • The duty was wholly repealed by Act 18 & 14 Vict. c. 95, From Hth August, 1860. 3i0 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT I. Year. Quantities. Value. Price per Ton. Tons. £ s. d. 1850 3,351,880 1,284,224 7 8 1851 3,468,545 1,302,473 7 6 1852 3,640,194 1,372,114 7 6 1853 3,935,062 1,604,591 8 2 1854* 3,359,575 2,164,405 10 1855 5,061,762 2,605,326 9 9 1856 5,949,241 2,869,230 9 7 1857 6,821,750 3,264,098 9 7 1858 6,597,128 3,088,747 9 3 1859 7,082,029 3,315,279 9 4 1860 7,412,575 3,371,631 9 1 1861 7,934,832 3,652,164 9 2 1862 8,380,673 3,798,727 9 1 1863 8,342,500 3,752,308 9 1864 8,900,872 4,220,883 9 6 1865 9,283,214 4,496,567 9 8 1866 10,142,260 5,218,498 10 1 1867 10,565,829 5,488,945 10 5 1868 10,967,062 5,487,922 9 11 1869 10,744,945 5,165,668 9 7 1870 11,702,649 5,638,371 9 8 1871 12,747,989 6,246,133 9 11 1872 13,198,494 10,442,821 16 10 1873 12,617,566 13,188,651 20 11 1874 13,927,205 11,984,621 17 3 1875 14,544,916 9,658,088 13 3 1876 16,265,839 8,901,716 10 11 1877 15,420,050 7,844,486 10 2 1878 15,483,816 7,321,424 9 5 1879 16,442,296 7,206,799 8 10 1880 18,702,551 8,378,944 8 11 Considerable quantities of coal are annually shipped from the ports of Great Britain for the use of steamers engaged in the foreign trade. The shipments for the year 1874 were 3,140,383 tons. Since that date the quantities are as foUows : — Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1875 1876 1877 3,278,249 3,564,524 3,661,552 1878 1879 . 1880 4,018,010 4,401,120 4,926,076 Coal, Coke, Cinders aud Manufactured Fuel exported from Great Britain, and the countries to which exported, in each of the years 1860, 1870, and 1880 : t— * Patent fuel not included between the yeais 1854 and 1860. + According' to " Trade and Navigation Eetums." Manufactured fuel exported is included in the returns for 1880. CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 311 Countries to which Exported. I860. 1870. 1880. Tons. Tons. Tons. Russia 356,147 829,514 1,498,426 Denmark . 418,163 695,704 860,373 Sweden 385,763 1,317,274 Prussia . 399,174 547,541 • • • Hanse Towns 539,477 800,240 HoUand . 316,768 412,833 498,049 Prance 1,393,330 2,082,224 3,711,720 Spain and Oanaiies . 452,436 584,310 895,239 Turkey- 196,119 ... 289,152 United States . 309,870 106,494 Italy (Sardinia) . 387,165 1,531,009 Brazil 271,573 369,193 British India 426,575 854,784 Germany . 2,239,947 Egypt . 649,846 Malta . . ■ . 388,057 Other Countries . 2,966,844 3,965,156 3,609,482 Total .... 7,348,328 11,495,092 18,702,551 Declared Value ) • £3,321,539 £5,506,890 £8,378,944 No, 10. Patent Fuel Exported from Great Britain to foreign countries, with the declared value at port of shipment, and average value per ton. In the year 1854 the quantities exported amounted to 50,320 tons, of the value of £37,249, giving an average value of 14s. lOd. per ton. Since that date the returns are as follows : * — Average Average Year. Quantities. Value. price per Ton. Year. Quantities. Value. pnce per Ton. Tons. £ s. d. Tons. £ s. d. 1855 84,860 58,985 13 10 1868 129,258 85,397 13 2 1856 69,462 42,648 12 4 1869 156,520 97,878 12 6 1857 84,032 53,437 12 8 1870 198,377 123,742 12 1858 67,645 43,313 12 2 1871 198,115 125,034 12 1 1859 75,080 45,266 12 1872 207,241 189,335 18 3 1860 90,743 55,350 12 2 1873 278,410 317,878 22 10 1861 79,717 47,374 11 10 1874 309,894 310,917 20 1862 78,821 47,860 12 2 1875 253,331 203,681 16 1 1863 67,288 38,510 11 5 1876 231,968 164,738 14 2 1864 90,964 55,110 12 1 1877 205,511 114,313 11 1 1865 112,737 69,390 12 3 1878 221,867 118,730 10 8 1866 188,548 115,693 12 3 1879 356,776 181,196 10 2 1867 150,051 96,493 12 10 1880 385,993 197,360 10 3 * " Trade and Navigation Eetums." 312 COAL AND IRON IND0STEIES. [part I. Population Employed in Coal-mining in the United Kingdom. — All the early returns on this subject were careful estimates made by the Inspectors, each in his own district. Since 1872, when the " Coal Mines Regulation Act " came into operation, very complete returns have been published in the annual reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines, in which the numbers engaged under and above ground are separately distinguished, together with the quantity of coal raised, which appear in the annexed table, to which is added the average production per man in each year :— PERSONS EMPLOYED. Average per Man. Year. Under Above Total. Coal Raised. Ground. Ground. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1873 407,808 106,341 514,149 128,680,131 250 1874 428,611 110,218 638,829 126,590,108 235 1875 427,017 108,828 535,845 133,306,485 245 1876 409,229 105,303 614,532 134,125,166 266 1877 395,025 99,366 494,391 134,179,968 278 1878 382,979 92,350 475,329 132,612,063 279 1879 385,179 91,631 476,810 133,720,393 280 1880 391,381 93,552 484,933 146,969,409 303 These figures indicate the increased efficiency of the coal- miner in recent years. When, in 1873, the year of the Co^l Famine, the average output per man was 250 tons per annum, a less number of persons were employed than in the succeeding year when the average fell to 235 tons per man, the diminished production being due to the larger amount of unskilled labour emploj^ed. Since 1874, however, the efficiency of the coal-miner has gone on increasing, till, in 1879, the average amounted to 280 tons, and in 1880 to 303 tons per annum. Of the population employed in coal-mining, the annexed ab- stract will show the numbers and respective ages of all engaged under and above ground in the collieries of the United Kingdom in the year 1873, when the first return appeared, and for the years 1879 and 1880 ; the last-named year showing an increase of 8,123 persons employed in excess of the previous year, and an increase of 23 tons per man : — CHAP. XX.] COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 313 1873. 1879. 1880. Persons Employed. Persons Employed. Persons Employed. Nos. Nos. Nos. XlTider Ground — From 10 to 12 1,202 446 428 „ 12 to 13 . 11,309 4,881 4,868 „ 13 to 16 45,931 35,993 36,162 Above 16 . 349,366 343,859 349,923 Above Ormind — Males, 10 to 13 . . 2,070 671 552 Females, 10 to 13 31 9 10 Males, 13 to 16 6,957 6,572 7,037 Females, 13 to 16 790 502 364 Males, above 16 . . 91,110 79,546 81,323 Females, above 16 Total . . . 5,383 4,331 4,276 514,149 476,810 484,933 Resonrces and Probable Dtiration of the Coal-fields of the ITnited Kingdom. — The total quantity of coal ascertained by the Royal Coal Commission as available for future use, amounts, in the aggregate, to 146,180,285,398 tons. Of this quantity 90,207,285,398 tons exist at depths not exceeding 4,000 feet in known coal-fields, and 56,273,000,000 tons as the probable amount of coal, under Permian and other overlying formations, at depths of less than 4,000 feet ; 40 per cent, being deducted for loss and other contingencies. The details of quantities under the first head, visible coal-fields, appear in the annexed table from the Coal Commission Eeport.* Side by side are given the quantities of coal remaining and available for future use from 1880, amounting to 79,015,613,038 tons, divided as follows in the visible coal-fields of the United Kingdom : — T0N3. England and Wales 69,192,056,317 Scotland 9,669,172,642 Ireland 154,384,079 Total known coal-fields .... 79,015,613,038 Concealed coal-fields .... 56,273,000,000 Total coal available, 1880 . . . 135,288,613,038 With these available resources, and an annual output of nearly 147 millions of tons, supplies are yet ensured for 920 years hence. * Vol. L, p. 9. C. 435. 1871. 814 COAL AND lEOK" INDUSTRIES. [PAET I. Amount of Coal in statute tons, to depths not Amount of Coal remaining and available for Commission. No. Name of Coal-field. exceeding 4000 feet, and after the necessary deductions. future use fi-om the year 1880. Tons. Tons. England and Wales. Messrs. yivian and Clark 1 South Wales 32,456,208,913 32,302,046,783 Mr. Dickinson 2 Forest of Dean 266,000,000 267,623,705 Mr. Prestwicli 3 Bristol 4,218,970,762 4,207,076,209 Mr. Woodliouse 4 Warwickshire . . . 468,662,714 450,179,268 Mr. Hartley . . 5 South Staffordshire . ) Coalbrookdale and Forest i. ofWyre . . l Clee Hills . . . ) ;i 1,906,119,768 1,789,674,293 Mr. Woodhonse 8 Leicestershire . . 836,799,734 826,799,734 Mr. Dickinson . . 9 10 North Wales Anglesea 2,005,000,000 5,000,000 1 1,980,229,493 1,784,377,741 Mr. BlHot . ' . ' 11 North Staffordshire . 8,825,488,105 Mr. Dickinson 12{ Lancashire and "(^ Cheshire . > ' 6,546,000,000 ( 6,270,686,699 t 192,104,295 Mr. 'Woodhoxise . 13 Midland . 18,172,071,433 17,928,908,710 14 Black Burton . . . 70,964,011 70,964,011 Messrs. Forsterand Elliot 15 j 16 Dm-ham and Northumber- ■) land . . ) 10,036,660,236 9,734,261,887 M Cumberland . . . 405,203,792 391,123,499 Scotland. Mr. Geddes . n Edinburgh . 2,163,708,360 18 Lanarkshire . 2,044,090,216 19 Fifeshire 1,098,402,896 20 Ayrshire . . . 1,785,897,089 21 East Lothian 86,849,880 22 Frith of Forth 1,800,000,000 23 Dumfl'iesshire . 368,173,996 24 25 West Lothian Perthshii-e . 127,621,800 109,896,040 -9,669,172,642 26 Stirlingshire . ... 106,476,436 27 Clackmannanshire 87,663,494 28 Dumbartonshire . 48,618,320 29 Benfl'ewshire 25,881,286 3D Argyleshire . 7,223,120 31 Sutherlandshire . 3,500,000 32 Eoxburghshire . . . Ireland. 70,000 / Professor Jnkes* and) Professor Hull . ) 33 Ballycastle (Antrim Co.) . 16,000,000 \ 34 Tyrone .... 6,300,000 36 Leinster (Queen's Co.) 77,580,000 ■ 164,384,079 I) )i 36 Tipperaly . 26,000,000 )> • 37 Munster (Clare, &c.) 20,000,000 " '* 38 Connaught . Total 10,800,000 90,207,286,398 79,016,613.038 Tlie details of coal remaining umvrought, as estimated by Professor Eamsay, and contained under the second head, * The estimate of the quantity of coal in Ireland, commenced by Professor J. B. Jukes, F.R.S., was on the decease of that gentleman completed by Professor E. Hull, F.E.S., author of " The Coal Fields of Great Britain." CHAP. XX. ] COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 315 under Permian and other overlying formations, amounting to 66,273,000,000 tons, is as follows : *— Square Miles. Warwiokshiie Warwickshire, south of Kiugsbury . Warwickshire, north of Atherstone. Leicestershire, Moria District . Leicestershire, C'oleorton District . District between the Warwickshire and South Staffordshire Coal- field District between South Stafford- ) shire and Shropshire Coal-fields j Between the South Staflfordshire and Coalbrookdale Coal-fields, to the Cheadle and North Staf- fordshire Coal-fields East of the Denbighshire Coal-field. West and South- West Border of ) the North Staffordshire Coal-field J Cheshire, West of the Kerridge Cheshire, between Woodford Fault ) and Denton . . . . f Lancashire, East and West of) Manchester . . . . ) Lancashire, West of Eccles and \ Stretford, to Prescott, Euncom, [ and Hale-on-tlie-Mersey . I The Wirrell, the Mersey, and ) country to the North . . ) Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Not- tinghamshire Vale of Eden .... Ingleton and Burton Severn Valley .... Scotland Ireland, Tyrone . . . . j Permian New Eed ,) Permian New Eed Permian and New Eed New Eed Permian and New Eed New Eed Marl Permian New Eed Marl 73 5 6 15 25 to 28 116 195 200 50 50 9 36 30 130 216 900 40 3 45 t 4 L Total of concealed coal-fields . 2,165,000,000 150,000,000 179,000,000 1,000,000,000 790,000,000 3,400,000,000 5,800,000,000 4,580,000,000 2,489,000,000 1,500,000,000 62,000,000 1,790,000,000 350,000,000 3,883,000,000 3,000,000,000 23,082,000,000 1,593,000,000 33,000,000 400,000,000 t 27,000,000 56,273,000,000 * " Coal Commiesion Report," Vol. I., p. xi. + No estimate. THE COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES OP THE UNITED KINGDOM. PART II. lEON INDUSTRIES. THE COAL AND lEON INDUSTEIES OP THE UNITED KINGDOM. PAET II. IRON INDUSTRIES. INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE. THE MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERS OF THE PRINCIPAL IRON ORES. By frank RUTLEY, Esq., F.G.S. Thk principal ores of iron are oxides and carbonates, which fre- quently contain various impurities ; the carbonates especially being often rendered impure by a large admixture of argillaceous matter. Pure metallic iron is very seldom found, except in meteorites, and must be regarded as a mineralogical raritj'. Arsenic is derived from mispickel, the bisulphide and arsenide of iron, and sulphur is sometimes procured from pyrites, although native sulphur is the principal source of supply. Alum is also manufactured from pyritous shales, the pyrites by its decomposi- tion and oxidation giving rise to sulphuric acid, which acts upon the shales and, with the addition of potash compounds, results in the formation of hydrous sulphate of alumina and potash. The following ores, which are useful to the iron-smelter, are here briefly described : — Oxides. Magnetite, Hematite, Limonite, GotMte. Oarlonates. Spathose Iron Ore or Chalybite, Clay Ironstones. Magnetite (FegO^). — Approximate composition, Peroxide of Iron = 69, Protoxide of Iron = 31. The iron is sometimes partly replaced by a little magnesium or titanium. It crystallizes in the cubic system, commonly in the form of the octahedron or of 320 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. the rhombic dodecahedron. The cleavage is parallel to faces of the octahedron. It is also found in granular and massive con- ditions, and occasionally in the form of sand, in which case it is readily separated from foreign admixtures hy means of magnets. Magnetite is iron-black in colour and opaque. Its lustre is metallic or sub-metallic. The streak is black; the fracture sub- conchoidal ; the hardness, S'S to 6-5 of Moh's scale, and the specific gravity, 4*9 to 5-2. It is strongly magnetic, and frequently shows polarity, but loses its magnetic properties when heated in the oxidising flame of the blow-pipe. Magnetite is very difficultly fusible before the blow-pipe. With borax, in the oxidising flame, the bead is yellow when hot and colourless when cold. The addition of considerably more of the powdered mineral renders the bead red when hot and yeUow when cold. In the reducing flame the bead becomes green (the colour of ordinary bottle glass). Magnetite is soluble in hydrochloric acid. It becomes reduced by the action of organic matter to the condition of protoxide, which may be converted into the carbonate (Chalybite or Siderite). Further oxidation of magnetite results in the formation of hematite, the sesquioxide, which, in its hydrated condition, constitutes limonite. Hematite, Sesquioxide of Iron (Fe^O^). Oxygen = 30, Iron = 70 per cent. — Titanium and magnesium sometimes replace part of the iron. Hematite occurs in massive, granular, columnar, stalactitic, reniform {"Kidney ore "), micaceous and earthy {Reddle) conditions. It also occurs crystallised {Specular iron) in the rhombohedral system, commonly in modified rhombo- hedrons. The cleavage is parallel to faces of the rhombohedron and to the basal plane, but is frequently indistinct. Hematite is, under ordinary conditions, opaque and dark steel-grey or iron- black, but in very thin scales or crystals it appears blood-red to orange-red by transmitted light. This may be well seen in the microscopic crystals which occur so plentifully in the CarnaUite of Stassfurth. The fracture is sub-conchoidal or uneven, and the streak is chen-y-red. The lustre is metallic and sometimes splen- dent, as in the specular varieties ; but the impure and ochreous conditions have a dull or earthy appearance. The hardness ranges from 5*5 to 6"5, and the specific gravity from 4"2 to S'S. It is sometimes attractable by the magnet and at times shows magnetic polarity. Hematite occasionally contains a considerable admixture of argillaceous or siliceous impurities. IRON INDUSTRIES. 821 Before the blow-pipe it is infusible. When heated on charcoal in the reducing flame it becomes magnetic. In the borax bead it behaves like magnetite. It is soluble in strong hydrochloric acid. Limonite. — Hydrous Sesquioxide of Iron, having the formula 2 Fe^Og, 3 HjO. — It occurs in stalactitic and mammillated forms with a radiating fibrous structure like that of the reniform varieties of hematite. It is usually of a brown colour, sometimes yeUowish-brown, and has a rather dull sub-metallic or silky lustre, often with a shiny black coating. It is also met with in an earthy and porous condition, called bog-iron-ore or morass- ore, from its occurrence in swamps, and it is occasionally pisolitic in structure (pea-iron-ore). The earthy varieties also constitute brown and yellow ochres, which are employed as pigments. Impure argillaceous varieties are known as clay-ironstone, a name also used to designate the impure argillaceous varieties of chaly- bite, siderite or spathose iron. Limonite may be distinguished from hematite by giving a yellowish-brown streak. The hardness of limonite is 5 to 5*5, and the specific gravity 3'6 to 4. It affords the usual iron re- actions before the blow-pipe, and yields water when heated. Limonite is often associated with manganese ores. Gothite. — Hydrous Sesquioxide of Iron, having the formula FCjOg, HjOj. — It frequently contains some sUica and man- ganese, and occasionally traces of phosphorus. The water usually amounts to about 10 or 11 per cent. It crystaUizes in the rhombic system, generally in right rhombic prisms longitu- dinally striated and often tabular in form. It is likewise met with in fibrous, reniform, stalactitic, and earthy conditions. It is blackish-brown, yellowish or reddish in colour. The streak is brownish yellow, and the lustre adamantine. Gothite has & hardness of 5 to 5 "5, and its specific gravity ranges from 4 to 4"4. It is often associated with limonite and hematite. Heated in the closed tube gothite gives off water and is converted into red sesquioxide. With the fluxes it affords the usual iron, and some- times the manganese reaction. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid. Frankliuite. — A Sesquioxide of Iron and Manganese, with over 11 per cent, of oxide of zinc, is an important iron ore in America, but has not been met with in Great Britain. 822 COAL AND IROW INDUSTRIES. Spathose Iron Ore (Chalybite, Siderite). — Carbonate of Iron (Fe CO3). — Often with a little ' lime, magnesia and manganese. Crystallizes in the rhombohedral system, the common form being the rhombohedon, the faces of which often show a well-marked curvature, similar to that seen in crystals of pearlspar and dolo- mite, in which minerals the isomorphous substances, lime and magnesia, take the place of the peroxide of iron. Spathose iron ore also occurs in massive and crystalline-granular conditions, as in the ore from the Brendon Hills and Tintagel. Its colour is pale brown or yellowish, sometimes brownish-red and brownish- black. It is generally opaque, but occasionally crystals are trans- lucent. It is brittle and the fracture is uneven, but it often breaks up along well-marked cleavage planes, which coincide with the faces of the rhombohedron. The lustre is pearly, sometimes vitreous. The hardness is 3'5 to 4"5, and the specific gravity, 3"7 to 3'9. Before the blow-pipe, alone, it blackens and becomes magnetic, and with the fluxes affords the usual iron reactions. In hot acids it effervesces rapidly, but is only slowly affected by them in the cold. Clay Ironstone is an impure massive variety of the pre- ceding mineral and, as its name implies, contains a considerable admixture of argillaceous matter. In the coal measures it occurs in bands, usually of a dark brownish or blackish colour, containing carbonaceous matter, and known as " black band," and also in nodules of spherical or lenticular form ; frequently with rusty surfaces, and with a concentrically-zoned structure; while, at times, a curious structure, known as " cone in cone," is developed, in which case the block, when broken, reveals more or less regular cones lying side by side, their apices directed towards the same point and their surfaces marked by irregular transverse corrugations, and these cones contain other smaller ones, which may easily be detached or picked out when loosened by a blow. The clay ironstone of the Middle Lias commonly shows a fine oolitic structure, and in the Cleveland district constitutes a valuable ore, which, however, sometimes contains siliceous im- purities. The pisolitic iron ore of Eosedale in Yorkshire consists in great part of carbonate of iron, but also contains a considerable amount of the magnetic oxide. The titaniferous iron ores, although worked in other countries do not occur in the British Isles in sufficiently large deposits to IRON INDUSTRIES. 323 render them a matter of commercial interest. Titaniferous iron is of frequent occurrence as a constituent of many of our eruptive rocks, but it is disseminated through them in such minute crystals and grains that it needs no further mention in this work, and the same may be said of the microscopic crystals of magnetite which occur under similar conditions. T 2 CHAPTEE . I. DURHAM AND NORTHUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. Ironstone of the Coal measures and analyses — Iron-ores of the Carboniferous Limestone and analyses — Production of Iron ore— Population employed in Iron Mining — Pig iron manufacture, early history — Production of Durham and Northumberland— Malleable Iron Works — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig iron manufacture — Quantities of Iron ore employed and Sources of Supply. Ironstone of the Coal Measures and Analyses. — The coal measures yield two kinds of ironstone known as " Clay Band " and " Black Band," the former is an argillaceous carbonate of iron generally occurring in nodular masses ; the latter term is applied to bands of carbonaceous matter, largely mixed with carbonate of iron. Formerly, the first-named variety furnished nine-tenths of the iron produced in Great Britain ; it does not, however, exist abundantly in the Great Northern, or Lancashire and Cumberland coal-fields. At present the Clay Bands and Black Bands furnish one-fourth of the annual produce of the pig-iron of the kingdom. The coal-fields in which they are ex- tensively worked being Shropshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, North and South Staffordshire, South Wales, and Scotland, the iron- stone being found in irregular nodules, interspersed through the clays and shales of the coal measures, and being often woi'ked in conjunction with coal seams in the same pits. Ironstone has been worked from time to time, though in in- considerable quantities, in the Wear district ; occurring in a con- tinuous band above the seam of coal known as the High Main, and separated from it by a distance of 18 inches. This iron- stone measure is 4^ inches thick, and was formerly worked on Waldridge Fell for the WhitehiU ironworks, and subsequently at Urpeth and its vicinity for the blast furnaces at Birtley, long since dismantled. At Wylam, upwards of forty years since, ironstone of very fair quality was obtained, yielding from 35 to 37 per cent of metallic iron, and at that time said to CHAP. I.] DURHAM, ETC., IKON INDUSTEIES. 325 cost lis. 6d. per ton. This measure has a thickness of 10| inches, contained in fom* bands occurring in a section of four feet. Another measure is stated to have cost 7s. 6d. per ton for working; the ironstone yielding an average of 30 per cent, of metallic iron. At Shotley Bridge, again, on the western edge of the coal-field, and consequently low down in the series, is a deposit of iron- stone which has been far more extensively worked than any other seams found in the coal measiu:es. According to a description given by the late Mr. "WiUiam Cargill, in a working having a section of about 7 feet in height, from 12 to 15 inches of stone were obtained from six or seven bands, the ironstone costing from 7 to 8 shillings per ton. At a depth of 4| fathoms below it and lying above 20 inches of coal, is a bed of shale about 3 feet thick, containing from 6 to 7 inches of ironstone. The total yield of these two seams contained in an acre of ground has been estimated at 5,324 tons. At Stiddle Moor, near Bellingham, and at Eidsdale, ironstone, in the carboniferous limestone series, as well as in a few other localities (as at Brinkbum and Eothbury), has been wrought in recent years. The quantities obtained are, however, unimportant, not exceeding 5,000 tons per annum. Clay ironstone in smaller quantities occur frequently in the shales of the carboniferous limestone series of Northumberland ; and at numerous places over the western moorlands there are slag heaps showing the sites of ancient furnaces. These are of very ancient date, some of them being believed to be Roman, charcoal being the fuel with which the ore was smelted. In a general sense, as has been already stated, the argillaceous ironstone of the coal measures in the Great Northern Coal-field contributes in a very small degree at the present time to the requirements of the 74 blast furnaces built in Durham and Northumberland, many of which have a height exceeding 100 feet, and of immense capacity, producing annually, when in full work, from 15 to 16 thousand tons of pig-iron, and sometimes even more. The measures of ironstone existing in this coal-field are few and limited in extent. One of the many advantages possessed by Great Britain in the manufacture of iron arises from the number and variety of argillaceous and black band ironstones, which alternate with the beds of coal in many of its coal-fields, and, in consequence of which, the same localities, and, in many 326 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [part ir. instances, the same mineral working, frequently furnish both the ore and the fuel required to smelt it. These conditions as regards clay ironstone in the Durham and Northumberland coal-field do not exist, inasmuch as in this coal-field these measures of iron- stone are almost absent ; the same may be said of Lancashire, while in the coal-fields of Scotland, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, North and South Staffordshire, North and South Wales, and Shrop- shire, the ironstone measures are numerous, and afford an abundant supply of ironstone. The yield of ironstone varies according to the thickness and regularity of the beds, and the regularity with which the nodules of ironstone are disseminated. The ironstone of Ridsdale, Hareshaw, and from Consett, near Shotley Bridge, in the coal measures, previously referred to, have been examined by Dr. Richardson, with the following results : — Constituents. Ridsdale. Hareshaw. Sliotley Bridge. Iroii Lime and magnesia . . . Clay Loss by heat . . . . 34-86 9-00 14-00 31-02 36-51 11-90 7-15 34-07 36-68 4-65 15-05 31-91 It would appear that the samples from which the above analyses were made, were perfectly clean and free from adhering shale, which will account for the difference of metal between the analyses and the actual yield in the furnace, which did not exceed 26 per cent. Iron Ores of the Carliouiferous Limestone, and Analyses. — In Alston Moor, many of the naineral veins traversing the limestone contain a considerable quantity of a hydrated per- oxide of iron, as well as amorphous carbonate of iron. These ores were formerly worked to a limited extent at Nent Head by the Messrs. Bell Brothers, and smelted at their works at Wylam. The iron obtained from these, as well as from similar ores of the same district, was of excellent quality ; but unfortu- nately the supplies were too uncertain and the working too costly. The ore in the veins themselves was at one time a tolerably pure carbonate, yielding, perhaps, 30 per cent, or more of iron, but it gradually passed into carbonate of lime from which it was with diificulty distinguished. In the lead-mining district of Allen- CHAP. I.] DURHAM, ETC., IRON INDUSTRIES, 327 heads, sparry iron ores occur, both in the regular lodes and in the flats which insinuate themselves from them laterally iato the limestone. "Adjoining Weardale this character is still more pro- nounced, and in the neighbourhood of Stanhope Burn the veins are so * ridered ' — so chai'ged with the ore — that at a spot where several of them occur in close proximity, and interlacing ' strings ' additionally enrich the ground. The whole surface has been re- moved from a large area by the Weardale Iron Company, and the rock absolutely quarried away, a considerable amount of lead ore being separated during the operation." * The ores raised by the above-named company are smelted at the Tow Law Iron Works, near Darlington. The following table gives the production and value of the Spathose ore raised in the Weardale district since the year 1870, the average price during the past few years being estimated at 12s. per ton : — Year. Ore. Value. Tons. £ 1870 100,332 25,083 1871 88,449 22,112 1872 97,963 36,730 1873 99,393 39,813 1874 85,491 51,388 1875 34,828 21,626 1876 24,202 14,521 1877 51,344 30,806 1878 35,619 21,371 1879 16,679 10,007 1880 41,357 24,814 The ore is wrought in open quarry worldngs as weU as mined in underground levels, and includes in these quantities some siliceous hematite. Analyses of these ores. In the Iron Ores of Great Britain f appears the following, giving the 'composition of the Weardale ore. The first, from " West Level," made by Mr. John Spiller, is thus described : — " An altered Spathose ore, in which the greater part of the carbonate of iron has been converted into hydrated peroxide, which in many places stiU shows the structure of the original ore. The portions which are undecomposed occur in iiTcgular nodular- like form, of a pale brownish-grey colour ; these are surrounded * " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part I., p. 19. + Ibid, p. 55. 828 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii* by a mass varying from crystalline to earthy, of which the colour is from a snuff-brown to a dark purplish-brown. The streak varies with the colour from yellowish to reddish-brown. " A small quantity of fluor spar was attached to one side of the specimen, but was not included in the portion selected for analysis." Eesitlts Tabulated. Peroxide of iron 49'50 Protoxide of iron 10'77 Protoxide of manganese 3"06 Alumina 0-43 Lime . , 5"6S Magnesia l"2ft Silica 0-29 Carbonic acid 14-49 Phosphoric acid 0-01 Suphuric acid trace Bisulphide of iron 0"0S Water hygroscopie 1'81 ,, in combination 6-6S Organic matter trace Insoluble residue 6'90 100-80 iKSOLrBLE Eesidue. Silica 6-35 Alumina 0-41 Peroxide of iron 0-07 Lime 0-01 Magnesia 0-01 Potash • 0-05 6-90 The total amount of metallic iron contained in this ore amounts to 43"02 per cent. A trace of lead was found in 400 grains of the ore. Another variety of Weardaie ore from the Rispey vein near Rookhope is thus described by Mr. A. Dick : — " Spathose ore : easily scratched by the file ; lustre, semi-vitreous ; colour, yellowish grey ; streak, white ; fracture, crystalline. Some portions are much darker than others. When a mass of the ore is digested in hydrocholoric acid till all carbonates are dissolved, there remains a skeleton of quartz, having the shape and size of the original mass, containing casts of the crystals which have been dissolved. The dark-coloured parts of the ore leave a dark CHAP. 1.] DURHAM, ETC., IRON INDUSTRIES. 829 skeleton, which, when exposed to the vapour of hydrofluoric acid till all silica is removed, leaves a small amount of matter, having a dark grey colour. When this is washed with hydrochloric acid and water, there remains a very small amount of black matter, which bums when heated in the au-, and leaves no residue. It is therefore carbonaceous matter." Eesitlts Tabulated— Oee Dried above 100° C. Protoxide of iron 49'47 Protoxide of manganese 2*42 Alumina trace Lime 3-47 Magnesia 3'15 Carbonic acid 37'71 Phosptoric aoid trace Silica 1-20 Sulphiiric acid trace Bisulphide of iron 0-08 Organic matter trace Insoluble matter 3"77 101-27 The insoluble residue contained of silica 3'73 per cent., and of alumina containing a trace of iron 0"06 per cent. ; the iron con- tained in the ore being equivalent to 38"56. In a note appended to the analysis it is stated that no metal precipitable by sul- phuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution of 1,000 grains of ore was detected. Persons employed in Iron-mining in Durham. — Iron-mining has been chiefly confined to the district of Weardale, where a spathose and siliceous variety of hematite has long been wrought. The number of persons employed in 1854 amounted to 610. The quantity of ore rhised at that time has not been recorded. In recent years the Eeports of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Mines aflbrd the necessary data, showing the numbers employed under and above ground, with the quantity of iron ore raised. These returns, it should be explained, only include those mines coming under the operation of the " Mines Eegulation Act, 1872 and 1875," and do not include those workings above ground. The total output of the iron-mines of the county has already appeared under production of iron ore : — * * Reports of H.M, Inspectors of Mines. 330 COAL AND lEOlir INDDSTB.IES. [I'Aur II. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Averaize Tear. TotaL Iron Ore Raised. Ijer Man. Under Above Ground. Ground. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1873 266 47 313 55,981 178 1874 224 39 263 54,660 207 1875 195 29 224 45,317 202 1876 9.3 14 107 14,961 140 1877 118 21 139 31,858 229 1878 99 17 116 19,204 166 1879 63 10 73 8,508 116 1880 96 9 105 24,439 232 Pig Iron nEanufacture. — In the Report of the British Asso- ciation for the year 1863, at the Newcastle-upon-Tj'ne meeting, fimong the many interesting papers, appears one hy Mr. Isaac Xiowthian Bell, who gives a historical accoiint of the manufacture of pig iron in the north of England, from which many of the following facts have been drawn. Notwithstanding the varied character of the different ores of the district under review, and the want of indication of metallic contents of some, the property that even these have of " rusting " on exposure to air and moisture appears to have made known the existence of all at a very early period of our history. The labours of Hodgson, Wallis, and others, leave little doubt that the smelting or reduction of iron ore was carried on to a considerable extent in this part of the country during its occupation by the Homans. Vast heaps of iron scorise may be seen on the moors in the parishes of Lanchester and Chester-le-Street, in the county of Durham, and in the valleys of the Reed and the Tyne on the mountain limestone in Northumberland. It is remarkable that none of these are very remote from one or other of the Roman stations which are scattered over these two counties. Hitherto all these smelting operations have reference to the small bloomery or hearth, in which a little ore was smelted by the use of charcoal, the fire being urged bjj^ the wind in ex- posed situations, or subsequently by rude bellows, that a "bloom" of malleable iron was obtained. The German colony of iron- workers at Shotley Bridge was established in the reign of William III., and at some time or other afterwards, a small high blast furnace, five or six feet in the boshes, was ei'ected, the ciiAP. I.] DURHAM, ETC., IRON INDUSTRIES. 331 remains of which, according to reliable information, are stUl visible. Wallis, in his History of Northumberland, published in 1769, mentions an iron work which existed some years previously at Lee Hall, near Bellingham, under the management of a Mr. Wood, who made a good deal of bar iron, but charcoal becoming scarce, he removed to Lancashire. Although bar iron only is mentioned, there is no doubt from the remains existing, that pig iron was also produced here. Charcoal iron was also smelted from some of the bands of clay ironstone at Bedlington, where the old calcining kilns were until recently visible. No iron, how- ever, has, as far as can be ascertained, been made there for more than a century. The inroads which iron- smelting and other metallurgical operations, &c., had made upon the forests were such, that in the reign of Queen Elizabeth four Acts of Parliament were passed, to restrict the consumption of timber iii the manufacture of iron. Towards the close of the last centurj', Mr. J. Cookson, who had recently purchased the Whitehill Estate, near Chester-le- Street, was the first to erect and work a blast furnace in the North of England with coal previously coked. The Whitehill furnace was 85 feet high, 12 feet across the boshes, and produced 25 tons of iron per week. The blast was supplied by a bellows worked by a water-wheel placed on Chester Burn. The iron made at the Whitehill fm-nace was used for colliery castings and Government ordnance. Frequent interruptions through want of water to drive the wheel led at length to the furnace being "gobbed"* and ultimately abandoned about the close of the last century. Whatever advantages in point of materials any district might be possessed of, its power for turning them to j)rofitable account depended, at that time, on the existence of a fall of water sufficient to drive the necessary blowing apparatus. The dis- coveries of Watt prevented the want of hydi'auHc power being anj' longer an impediment, and in a short time the obedient steam-engine was appointed to supply the necessary blast to iron furnaces. Commencing with the present century : in the year 1800 the * " Gobbed " or " Gobbing," a term in Metallurgy, the stopping of the blast furnace by the agglomeration of the charge within it. 332 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. T3'ne Iron Company erected two blast furnaces at Lemington in Northumberland and a steam blowing-engine to impel the blast. The make of one of these furnaces in 1812 was 2,547 tons, when cold blast alone was employed, the ironstone used being obtained from the thin bands of the coal-measures of the district. It was about this period that iron works were established at New- burn, some five miles distant from Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which in recent years have attained considerable importance. These works, now known as the Newburn Steel Works, are surrounded by much that is interesting : originally established about the year 1810 as a file manufactory by the father of the present pro- prietors, Messrs. John Spencer and Sons, it may be regarded as one of the oldest works in the North of England. Some of the plant put down at the period referred to yet remains, and is utilised ; and an old overshot water-wheel which was originally the motive-power used, is still employed in turning a grinding- stone in the modern rolling-mill, which has taken the place of the original one. This firm, at an early period, in addition to other branches of industry, commenced the manufacture of steel by the cementation process, and in 1876 they went largely into the manufacture by the Siemens and Siemens Martin process. The three furnaces at present in operation are capable of pro- ducing 200 tons of steel per week, while two crucible furnaces of 24 pots each, equal to a production of 24 tons per week; in addition to which are also auxiliary coke crucibles of two j)ots each. This firm was originally the sole manufacturers of the volute springs, now so extensively used on railways as a buffer draw-spring, and still enjoys a high reputation. The neighbourhood of Newburn possesses much of interest beyond its steel works. It was here that Stephenson lived for many years ; Locke also sprung from that part, as did also the Hawthorns. Close alongside Newburn was the Wylam wagon way, which was the first plain plate railway line ever laid down. The first springs for railway purposes were made at these works, and for many years the surrounding firms were supplied with them, as well as many railways throughout the country. They were invented about the year 1847, by Mr. Baillie, also of New- castle, who subsequently went out to Austria as chief of the state railways. At the period referred to the material employed was Swedish iron, but with the introduction of the Siemens Martin «HAP. I.] DURHAM, ETC., IRON INDUSTRIES, 333 process, a few years since, the firm were no longer dependent on other sources of supply. The Lemington furnaces already referred to produced in the year 1823 some 2,379 tons of pig iron, from which it may be inferred that both furnaces were in blast but a part of the yeai-. In the year 1825, iron rose in value to the unprecedented price of £12 per ton, and, a few years later, the Messrs. Perkins, Hunt, and Thompson, who were extensively engaged in coal-mining, erected two furnaces at Birtlej', in Durham, near Chester-le- Street. These were put in blast in the year 1829, and in the following year produced 8,080 tons, the make of the Lemington furnaces the same year being 2,247 tons, or a total make of four furnaces in both counties of 5,327 tons. In the year 1881 the hot-blast was introduced into the works at Birtley, and in 1885 to those at Lemington, where, in the same year, was made 4,390 tons of iron, the cost of which, taken from the cost-book of the company, was as follows per ton of iron : — £ s. d. Ironstone 1 18 IJ Hux(olialk) 027 Coal (5 or 6 tons) 7 Oi labour, &c 11 2j Sundiies 14 2 Total 3 16 1 The growing demand for ii'on about this period was such, that the ore obtained from the coal-measures was insufficient to meet the requirements of the iron master, and attention was directed to other sources of supply ; these were found at Grosmont, near "Whitby, and in 1886 a cargo of this stone was received at the Tvorks at Birtley. Subsequently attention was directed to the ■deposits of ironstone occurring in the mountain limestone. Eidsdale was the place selected, from the circumstance that coal could be obtained from a seam from 2 feet to 2^ feet thick, situated in the same geological formation. Before the year 1889, the Eidsdale Company put their first furnace in blast, increasing the number to three in the year 1841. In the same year another company sprung up at Hareshaw, working the same beds of iron- stone and coal, and commenced operations with one furnace, subse- quently adding two to the number. The iron produced at both of the above-named works was of a good quahty; but the distance of the works from railways and markets added so considerably to 334 COAL AND IKOIf INDUSTRIES. [part ii. the cost of the iron that they could not compete with other works, and after a few years both works were closed and finally dismantled. The Wylam furnace was put in blast in the year 1836. About the year 1840, Messrs. Bigge, Cargill, Johnson, and others, who had purchased from the projectors of the Eidsdale Works that con- cern, had their attention directed to the beds of ironstone described as lying in the coal-measures near Shotley Bridge. A pair of furnaces were speedily erected and put in blast ; a larger company was formed, and an immense establishment constructed. Twelve blast furnaces were built, large roUing-mills, and all the neces- sary mines, mining vUlages, &c., followed in rapid succession. Until the year 1850, the furnaces went on devouring the iron ores foimd in the neighbourhood at an alarming pace, having in the meantime made extensive trials of those from the lead veins of Weardale. In the year 1850, the discoveries, in Cleveland promised relief from the impending famine, and in a very short time, in spite of a distance of about 60 miles, the ironstone of that district, with some hematite for a mixture, entirely superseded the iron- stone lying adjacent to the furnaces. The Walker Works of Messrs. Losh, Wilson and BeU, estab- lished about the j^ear 1827 for the manufacture of bar iron, were enlarged in the year 1842, when the firm extended their opera- tions by the erection of a blast-furnace for producing forge pig by smelting their mill furnace cinders with Whitby ironstone, and this was followed by a second furnace in the year 1844. These furnaces were the first ever built for smelting the recently discovered ironstone of Whitby. About the year 1844, the Stanhope furnace, built by Mr. Cuthbert Eippon, was put in blast, and five others were erected at Tow Law by the Weardale Iron Company, for smelting the " rider ore " (carbonate and oxide of iron) from the lead veins. There is no doubt that owing to the extreme irregularity of this kind of material, immense labom' and expense were at first incurred ; and, as regards the quality of the produce, frequently with very unsatisfactory results. Better acquaintance, however, with the veins and their contents has enabled that firm to produce iron of a very high class ; so good, indeed, as closely to resemble in composition and quality the celebrated German iron. For bar iron purposes it bears a high name, and has, hlte its prototype in Germany, been found weU adapted for the manufacture of the CHAP. I.]; DURHAM, ETC., lEON INDUSTRIES. 33& finer kinds of steel ; an application, as is well kno^wn, confined exclusively to the purer descriptions of metal. The Witton Park "Works were erected in the year 1846, in the Auckland district, by the Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughan for smelting ironstone expected to be obtained in that vicinity. These hopes were not, however, realised, and the neighbourhood of Whitby was resorted to, as it had been by almost every furnace owner in the North. To render available the bed of ironstone occurring in the mountain limestone, furnaces were erected at Brinkburn, and also at Haltwhistle ; but after some experiments both works were abandoned. Again, at Bedlington, two furnaces were erected, to smelt the same ironstone formerly used at the Charcoal Works in that locality, with an admixture of Yorkshire stone, mill cinder, and other materials ; but these, also, were only a short time in operation. The following list will show the works existing and in opera- tion in the year 1851 in both counties, with the number of furnaces built and in blast : — Northumberland. TVoi-ks. Owners. TURNACES. Built. In Blast. Hareshaw* . Eidsdale*. . . . Tyne or Lemington Walker .... Witton Park . Wylam .... Hareshaw Iron Co. . Eidsdale Iron Co. . . . Tyne Iron Co. . Losh, Wilson, & Bell . . Bolckow & Vaughan. Bell Brothers . . . Total . 3 3 2 2 4 1 2 2 3 1 15 8 DXTRHAM. Works. Owners. FURNACES. Built. In Blast. Birtley .... Consett and Crookhall . Stanhope* Towlaw . ... Birtley Iron Co. Derwent Iron Co. . . . Weardale Iron Co. . Weardale Iron Co. . . Total . 3 14 1 5 1 7 1 2 23 11 • These iron works ara situated in the Carboniferous Limestone District ; the others on the Coal measures. 336 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. fPAKT II In the year 1830, as previously stated, the make of pig iron in the above counties was 5,327 tons. In the same year the make of pig iron in England and Wales was 615,917 tons, the yield of 333 furnaces ; Scotland in the same year, with 27 furnaces, pro- ducing 37,500 tons. In 1889 the five furnaces in operation in the neighbourhood of Newcastle-upon-Tyne produced 13,000 tons, giving an average yield of 2,600 tons per furnace. About the years 1840 and 1841, a general depression of trade came about, the quotations of pig iron being very low, and prices unremunerative. Happily this state of things was of brief dura- tion, and in the year 1844 was succeeded by a period of activity, when a great expansion of the railway system of the United Kingdom took place, causing a large demand for iron of all kinds and producing better prices. The demand for iron continued, and caused inquiries for iron ore and stone to meet it ; hence the exploration of old areas, and search for new ones, containing deposits of ironstone, resulting many years later in the discovery and development of the vast fields of argillaceous corbonates of the has in the North Eiding of Yorkshire, and the hydrated peroxides of Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire. The first- named district having since greatly supplemented the require- ments of the furnaces of Durham and Northumberland. During the years from 1844 to 1847, Parliament sanctioned the ■construction of 9,379 miles of railway in the United Kingdom. With this, increased activity ensued to such an extent that in the last-named year the furnaces of these two northern counties pro- duced 99,840 tons of pig iron, the details of which, with the make of each works, appear as follows : — NOETHUMBERLAND. Works. FURNACES. Make of Pig-iron. Built. In Bla.rt. Hareshaw* .... Eidsdale* .... Tyne Walker Wylam Total .... 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 Tons. 8,320 8,320 8,320 8,320 4,160 11 9 37,440 " Furnaces erected in Carboniferous Limestone District. CHAP. I.] DURHAM, ETC., IRON INDUSTRIES. Dtjbham. 337 Works. STIBlfACES. Make of Pig Iron. Built. In Blast. Birtley Consett and Orookhall . . Stanhope * . . . . Towlaw WittonPark Total .... 3 14 1 3 4 2 7 1 2 3 Cons. 8,320 29,120 4,160 8,320 12,480 25 15 62,400 In the same year the make of the furnaces of Great Britain was 1,999,608 tons, 433 furnaces being in blast of the total 623 built at that period. Scotland of this quantity with 89 furnaces made 539,968 tons, while England and Wales with 344 furnaces contri- buted 1,459,640 tons, giving an average of 4,620 tons per furnace. Advancing to the year 1852, Braithwaite Poole in his " Statistics of Commerce " gives the following details of the make of pig iron in that year in the several iron-making districts in Great Britain : — Districts. FURNACES. Pig Iron Made. In. Out. Total. Durham .... . Northumberland . . . North Staffordshire . South Staffordshire . . North Wales . South Wales . . . Shropshire South Wales, Anthracite Yorkshire and Derbyshire. Scotland Total . . . Nos. 18 7 17 127 6 135 27 12 35 113 Nos. 8 6 4 32 7 27 13 23 7 31 Nos. 26 13 21 159 13 162 40 35 42 144 Tons. 110,000 35,000 90,000 725,000 30,000 635,000 120,000 31,000 150,000 775,000 497 158 655 2,701,000 Comparing the returns of 1852 with those for 1847, the average increase in the make rose from 4,260 tons to 5,200 tons, showing an increase of 580 tons per furnace. In the annexed table appears the number of furnaces in blast, and the make of pig in both counties in each year since 1856 : — * Furnaces erected in Carboniferous Limestone district. COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Year. DURHAM. • HOBTBOJtBBRLAHB. Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron. Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron. Tons. Tons. 1856 40 269,250 8 62,120 1867 35 284,500 6 63,250 1838 44 265,184 6 45,312 1859 46 370,339 6 31,600 1860 37 340,921 7 69,093 1861 32i 312,080 7 73,260 1862 33j 337,218 6 46,586 1863 47 468,318 7 40,916 1864 42 466,980 7 55,467 1865 47 476,767 7 49,290 1866 47 298,867 6 60,466 1867 39 477,834 3 31,027 1868 35} 499,592 1 17,495 1869 40 658,506 1 15,942 1870 50i 676,964 3 33,623 1871 44 759,244 3 34,165 1872 49 760,172 4 38,766 1873 49f 799,573 4 44,807 1874 49 829,285 2 33,142 1875 53 786,206 2 • 22,870 1876 50} 806,706 1 16,466 1877 40 734,438 1 * 1878 33 660,323 1 * 1879 31 557,255 2 * 1880 30 750,262 2 * It will be seen from the above statement that Northumberland is passing from the Hst of iron-making districts ; most of the works are standing and many have been dismantled, indeed the only establishment now in operation is that of Sir William G. Armstrong and Co., at Elswick. Durham, on the other hand, has greatly augmented her resources. In the annexed table appears the list of iron works in the past year, showing the number of furnaces built and in blast : — NOETHUMBERLAiro . No. Name of Works. Owners. FURNACES. Built. In Blast. 1 2 Elswick, Newoastle-on-Tyne . Walker, Sir W. G. ArmBtrong & Co. Bell, Brothers, Limited Total Nos. 2 2 Nos. 2 4 2 * Included in the return for Durham. CHAP. I.] DURHAM, ETC., IRON INDUSTRIES. DlTBHAM. 339 No. Name of Works. Owners. FURNACES. BuUt. In Blast. 1 2 3 i B 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U 16 16 CarltoTi, Stookton-on-Tees Port Clarence, Middlesbro'- ( on-Tees . . . . ) Consett, Durham . Ferry Hill Jarrow-on-Tyne Middleton, Darlington Norton, Stockton-on-Tees South Durham, Darlington Towlaw, Darlington Tudhoe, Spennypoor . "Wear, Washington . West Hartlepool . . . . Witton Park, Bishop Auckland Stockton, North Shore . Teea Bridge, Stockton . The Carlton Iron Co., Limited . Bell, Brothers, Limited . . . Oonaett Iron Co^^ Limited . ( Bosedale and Ferry Hill Iron 1 Co., Limited . Palmer's Iron Co., Limited . George Wythes & Co. . Norton Iron Co., Limited . Watson, Kipling & Co,, Limited. South Durham Iron Co., Limited Weardale Iron Co., Limited Bell, Brothers,'kimited West Hartlepool Iron Co., Lim. Bolckow, Taughan & Co., Lim. Stockton Iron Furnace Co., Lim. Tees Bridge Iron Co., Limited . Total . Nos. 3 12 7 10 3 4 6 2 3 4 2 1 3 6 3 3 Nos. 3 12 6 3 3 3 72 30 , Malleable Iron Works and Coal used. — Mills and forges : — The production of the various forms of malleable iron in the north of England may be said to date from the middle of the last century. Coming down to more recent times, Mr. Isaac Lowthian Bell, in the year 1863, remarks,* " It is obvious that in a country where, comparatively speaking, there would be a considerable consumption of wrought iron, there was necessarily thrown into the market a con-esponding quantity of old or scrap iron. With cheap fuel, and water power in sufficient quantity to drive small hammers, forges were erected at various suitable localities, such as Smallwell by Messrs. Crowley and Co. ; Beamish and Lumley, by Messrs. Hawks ; Bedlington, and at various other places." The last named works were projected about the year 1809 ; and it was at these works in the year 1820 that malleable iron rails were fir^t rolled by the invention of a Mr. Birkenshaw. The works at Bedlington were laid down by a Mr. Longridge, the Eiver Blythe supplying the necessary motive power. The next stage in the manufacture of malleable iron, following the introduction of small hammers and forges, was the erection of slitting mills. It is stated by Mr. Stephen Hawks that these " BritiBh Association Papers on the Manufacture of Iron." z 2 340 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. slitting mills were first used at the Gateshead Iron Works about the year 1772, and were brought from London, and probably were manufactured in Wales or in the Midland Counties. Slit rods, it appears, were first made in the north of England from hammered bars. The late Mr. William Losh, one of the founders of the firm of Losh, Wilson and Bell, erected a slitting mill near Newcastle ; the iron he used was imported from Sweden ; this was about the year 1800. Cort patented the rolling of bar iron in the year 1783, and Mr. Stephen Hawks in an old letter book of 1799, finds Mr. William Hawks writing : — " We will certainly roll the iron to the dimensions you mention ; " so that probably rolling mills were introduced into the neighbourhood of Newcastle- upon-Tyne a very short time after their invention by Cort. In the year 1800 a small mill appears to have been erected at Lemington. In the year 1827 Messrs. Losh, Wilson, and Bell, erected what was at that time considered in the North a powerful mill at Walker, capable of rolling from 80 to 100 tons of bars per week. Here, as at all the other works, old scrap iron, or common Welsh bars, cut up for re-rolling, were the raw materials used. This firm led the way in extending the operations to the puddling of pig iron, a process adopted by them in the year 1833. The rapid progress in Scotland of the manufacture of pig iron from black band ironstone by means of hot-blast, and the cheapness of coal on the Tyne, induced Messrs. Losh, Wilson, and Bell, to increase their roUing power. A second miU was erected in the year 1838, where rails of the largest dimensions, and tyre-bars for the wrought iron wheels, invented by Mr. Losh, were manu- factured. The old house of Hawks and Company soon after added largely to their means of producing wrought iron. In this they were speedily followed by the Derwent Iron Company, who erected immense rolling-mills at Consett, near Shotley Bridge, and increased largely the capabilities of the Bishop- wearmouth Iron Works which they had previously purchased. There would be in the district previous to the year 1850 about 800 puddling furnaces, capable of turning out about 150,000 tons of finished iron per annum. The foregoing works and others, subsequently established from time to time, increased their appliances for producing the various forms of malleable iron, until, in the year 1862, there appear to CHAP. I.] DURHAM, ETC., IRON INDUSTRIES. 341 have been 17 works in operation, possessing an aggregate of 646 puddling-furnaces, the producing power of these works being estimated by competent authorities as being equal to the manu- facture of 340,000 tons of finished iron, and probably the actual make during the year 1862 may have reached 300,000 tons. It further appears that in addition to the iron obtained by the puddling process, a considerable weight of iron is also manu- factured in these works from old iron imported into the district from various parts of the kingdom. Without going into details as to the precise date at which the several important works established in recent years were pro- jected and erected, contributing so much to the welfare and prosperity of the north of England, the year 1872 may be taken as one of great prosperity. At this time there appear to have been 22 works in Northumberland and Durham, making the various forms of malleable iron, plates, rails, angles, sheets, &c., possessing 1189 puddling furnaces and 66 rolling mills, and at the Tudboe Works of the Weardale Iron and Coal Co., Bessemer plant consisting of four convertors, each with a capacity of 50 cwts. In all these works in 1872 the ascertained quantity of coal employed was 1,259,000 tons. In the year 1873 the same works numbered 1194 puddling furnaces, the roUing mills and Bessemer convertors stood as in the previous year, the quantity of coal used in manufacture increasing to 1,264,000 tons. In the year 1877 the number of works stood at 28, of which 22 were more or less actively employed, with 1319 puddling furnaces, and 89 rolling mills. The British Iron Trade Association, in their report for the year 1877, give the total production of manufactured iron in Great Britain as 1,794,000 tons, of which quantity Northumber- land, Durham, and Cleveland produced 405,000 tons ; South Staffordshire, 365,000 tons; Scotland, 218,000 tons; Lancashire, 200,000 tons ; Leeds, Bradford, Sheffield, and Eotherham, 266,000 tons ; and other districts the remainder. The production of 1878 and 1879 was somewhat in excess of the preceding year. The returns for the Dm'ham and Cleveland districts in 1880 amounted to 508,000 tons, an increase of 200,000 tons over the production of 1879. In the year 1880 the works erected and in operation, with the names of proprietors and resources of mills and forges, were as follows : — 842 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. DUEHAM AND NOKTHtJMBBEIiAND. [FART II. No. STame of Works. Name of Film. Nearest Port or Railway Station. No. of Puddling Furnaces. No. of Rolling Mills. 1 Auckland Thomas Vaughan & Co. . Bishop Auckland . 2 Whesaoe ). )» Darlington 3 Hartlepool f Hartlepool Boiling Mills Co., Limited I West Hartlepool . 34 2 4 Jarrow \ Palmer's Shipbuilding and Iron Co., Limited j Newcastle 72 7 6 Albert Hill . Darlington Iron Co., Lim. Darlington ,. B Springfield », »» ,, .. T Birtley Birtley Iron Co. Chester-le-street .. 8 Consett Consett Iron Co., Limited Durham . 167 6 9 Fence Houses . Hopper, Radcliffe, & Co. Fence Houses 10 Oateshead . Hawks, Crawshay, & Sons Gateshead 65 '5 H Hive John Elliot & Son . Bast Jarrow . 12 Monkwearmouth . Samuel Tyzack & Co. . Sunderland 27 '2 13 Tudlioe . \ Weardale Iron and Coal Co., Limited • Spennymoor 14 Skeme . { Skeme Iron Works Co., Limited . . . . Darlington 72 4 15 West Hartlepool 1 WestHartlepoolIronCo., Limited Hartlepool . 16 Rise Carr Fry, Janson & Co. Darlington . 32 3 17 Stranton . Robert H. Charlton West Hartlepool . 18 Stockton 1 Stockton Malleable Iron Co., Limited . . . 1 Stockton . 78 10 19 Park John Abbot & Co., Lim. Gateshead . 32 3 20 Albion (FeUing Shore) j Fellling Coal, Iron, and Chemical Co. , Limited ! >■ 21 Thomaby W. Whitwell & Co. . Stockton . 31 6 22 Carr House . 1 Dunlop, Meredith, & Co., Limited .... Iwest Hartlepool . Walker 23 Walker Bell, Brothers . 24 Witton Park 1 Bolckow, Vaughan, & Co., Limited. . . . I Stockton South Hylton 104 6 25 South Hylton . Raine, Brothers 20 Richmond R. Jaques & Co. Stockton 24 '3 27 West Stockton { West Stockton Iron Co., Limited . 1 '■ 28 Stockton . 1 Total of County . R. S. Johnson & T. M. Eeay \ " 22 3 761 59 In considering the resources of the mills and forges in the north of England, it appears that the majority of the works, em- ploying about two-thirds of the puddling furnaces, are more or less dependent upon the open market for the purchase of aU their materials, being exclusively finished iron works, without the ad- juncts of blast furnaces, mines, or collieries ; while the remaining works have the command of their own pig, and, in some cases, their own coal, which gives these latter works a more favourable basis for operation. In the years 1872 and 1873 the quantities of coal used in the malleable iron works were approximately ascertained ; since that date, however, the data available are not so complete as could be desired, in a great measure due to the general depression pre- vailing ; however, it may be generally stated that in the north of CHAP. I.] DURHAM, ETC., IRON INDUSTRIES. 343 England each puddling furnace, when actively employed, con- sumes from 1,200 to 1,800 tons of coal, and will yield 500 tons of bars or rails per annum with the consumption of this quantity of fuel. Coal and Iron Ore nsed in MannfactTire. — In considering the question of the quantities of coal and ore used in the make of pig iron, it wiU be convenient to deal with the two districts col- lectively rather than make each the subject of a separate inquiry. About the year 1840 Mr. William Jessop, of the Butterley Iron Works, Derbyshire,* in his inquiry, ascertained that in each ton of pig iron made in those districts, 3 J tons of coal were employed. The result of the Royal Coal Commission inquiry determined the average quantity employed throughout the country, all purposes included, did not exceed 3 tons, while the returns of later years to the Mining Record Office exhibit a still greater economy. In the year 1873 the average did not appear to exceed 45 or 46 cwts., in these districts, the average for Great Britain probably not ex- ceeding 57 cwts. in the same year. The economy in the con- sumption of fuel has thus within a few years greatly increased, and since special interest now attaches to this subject it may be reasonably expected that the returns of each successive year will exhibit further economy in the coal used in this important branch of our iron manufactures. In the table below appear the total quantities of pig iron made, and of coal and ironstone used in Durham and Northumberland in each year since 1872 : — Year. Pig Iron. Coal Used. Iron Ore. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 798,938 1,890,766 2,623,895 1873 844,380 1,949,447 2,870,791 1874 862,377 2,047,768 2,917,683 1875 809,076 1,908,240 2,784,428 1876 823,172 1,895,402 2,829,669 1877 734,438 1,656,056 2,407,834 1878 660,323 1,386,601 2,097,430 1879 529,559 1,161,587 1,487,202 1880 750,262 1,420,766 2,069,243 An examination of the above figures shows some interesting facts ; thus, in the year 1872 and 1873, the average make of the * For details of Mr. Jessop's return, see Appendix, pp. 835, 836. 344 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [part II. furnaces was in the Durham District 15,574 tons and 16,071 tons respectively, compared with 18,366 tons in the year 1877, and 19,421 tons in the year 1878. The proportion of coal in 1872 to each ton of pig iron made was a consumption of 47J cwts., comparing favourably with the return of the years 1878 and 1879, when 42 cwts. of coal previously coked was the amount employed, all purposes included, in the production of each ton of pig iron. The great bulk of the ironstone now smelted in the Durham furnaces is obtained from the Cleveland district ; the other ores employed in admixture are obtained from the west coast hema- tites of Lancashire and Cumberland, the local ores from Wear- dale, and some small quantities from distant districts and foreign countries. The Cleveland ore so extensively used would, if alone employed, require 70 cwts. of raw uncalcined stone to produce 20 cwts. of pig iron, but with the admixture of foreign ores, rich in metallic iron, the actual quantities in 1872 and 1873 did not exceed from 67 to 68 cwts., while in the year 1878 the quantity, as shown by the figures above, amounted to but 63^ cwts. of iron- stone of all varieties to each ton of pig iron made. The sources from whence the ores used in the years 1872 and 1873 were obtained were as follows. Side by side appear corre- sponding data for the four years ending 1880 : — Localities. 1872. 1873. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cleveland . 2,100,000 2,392,000 1,972,395 1,642,149 1,253,850 1,603,905 Cumlierland 85,139 44,281 46,087 37,896 8,203 8,289 Lancashire . 58,096 37,821 10,897 19,992 2,753 23,904 Northamptonsliire 20,000 25,000 * * * 1,106 Weardale, &c. . 128,471 123,282 115,523 40,144 16,461 41,367 Foreign ores 182,189 188,407 142,932 210,685 131,487 342,150 Other ores Total 50,000 60,000 120,030 146,564 74,448 48,532 2,623,896 2,870,791 2,407,834 2,097,430 .1,487,202 2,069,243 The last item, " other ores," includes ores derived from various localities not ascertained, also " purple ore," an oxide of iron, obtained from the metal extraction works, and containing from 62 to 67 per cent, of metallic iron. Quantities included under other ores. CHAP. I.] BURHAM, ETC., IRON INDUSTRIES. 345 The foreign ores enumerated above were received at the fol- lowing ports in the years stated : — Ports. 1872. 1873. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Berwick 150 , , 70 Hartlepool . . 33,413 13,850 401 2,341 1,038 327 Newcastle . 82,979 114,966 70,097 134,320 62,613 152,664 Shields, North . 9,662 15,044 6,987 6,618 5,171 12,770 Shields, South . 20,149 20,564 21,802 13,950 22,263 44,413 Stockton 2,229 440 420 1,919 9,046 59,367 Sunderland . Total . . 33,857 23,393 43,225 51,537 31,356 72,649 182,189 188,407 142,932 210,685 131,487 342,150 The total imports of iron ore into the United Kingdom in each of the same years with the declared value at the port of import being as follows, showing the high character of the ore — the value exceeding 20s. per ton : — Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ 18'72 576,264 671,926 1873 967,536 1,278,278 1874 754,147 1,021,481 1875 458,673 583,571 1876 672,235 795,516 1877 1,142,308 1,256,069 1878 1,173,411 1,162,851 1879 1,083,692 1,037,719 1880 2,634,401 2,792,717 Spain, in 1880, furnished the great bulk of the ores imported. The ore is of carboniferous limestone age, and is extensively developed in the Sommorrostro Mines, near Bilbao, as weU as in other districts. The extent of the industry will be understood from the fact that during the year 1878 the total quantity of iron ore exported from the port of Bilbao amounted to 1,224,730 tons, of which quantity England received 856,038 tons and Scotland 47,445 tons, according to a Spanish official return. In the year 1870 the Spanish ores imported amounted to 179,083 tons, of the value of ^146,717, compared with 99,816 tons, valued at ^78,134, in the previous year. In subsequent years the total quantities and values of Spanish ore imported into Great Britain is re- corded as under,* the diminished imports in the intervening * Trade and Navigation Returns. 346 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT II. years being accounted for by the disturbed state of that country : — Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ 1871 302,382 284,255 1872 631,134 705,441 1873 790,891 1,000,720 1874 541,963 665,614 1875 250,641 273,757 1876 622,383 556,756 1877 990,029 983,556 1878 1,088,862 1,021,455 1879 1,007,617 918,276 1880 2,278,962 2,270,462 Official returns recently published show that in the year 1880 the total iron ore exported from Bilbao amounted to 2,345,598 tons. Of this quantity 1,557,000 tons were conveyed to England, and 112,000 tons to Scotland, the remainder being sent coastways and exported to other countries. The first half of the year 1881, ending June, according to the Customs returns of Bilbao, show the iron ore industries to be in a flourishing state ; up to that date 1,325,000 tons having been exported, the average prices delivered F. 0. B. varying from 8'50 to 8*75 francs per ton. CHAPTEE II. TOEKSHIRE (WEST RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. Ironstone of the Coal Measures — Analyses and Production of Ironstone — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — ^Annual Production — Works in operation- Bessemer Steel Works — Coal and Iron ore used in Manufacture of Pig Iron. Torkshire (West Biding) Ironstone Measures. — Independent of the coal seams, and interstratified with them, are numerous bands or seams of ironstone, in the northern divisions of the coal-field situate in the West Eiding of Yorkshire. In the neigh- bourhood of Bradford and Leeds the mineral field is well developed, and has given rise to the establishments of Bowling, Low Moor, Bierley, and others. The more important of the ironstone measures in the districts above referred to are those of the White Bed Mine (Bierley) ; and the Black Bed Mine, or Low Moor bed of ironstone worked extensively between Low Moor and Leeds ; there is however considerable irregularity in the thickness of these beds, and in the distribution of the nodules, and hence a variation in the yield of ironstone. The White Bed Mine at Bierley yields an average of 1,200 tons of ironstone per acre ; the Low Moor Bed is much more productive. These beds of ironstone consist of a series of bands known as follows : — White Bed Mine. Black Bed Mine. BISBLET. LOW UOOR. Top Flatts. Top BaUs. Low Flatts. Plat Stone. White BaUs. Middle BaUs. Middle Balls, I^ougIl Measure. Low Measure. Low Measure. Basset Stone. Beneath these beds of ironstone of which the White Bed Mine is uppermost, lies a seam of coal not exceeding two feet in thick- ness, locally known as the " better bed," remarkably free from impurities, more especially iron pyrites, and consequently con- taining but a small percentage of sulphur, which renders it of 348 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [paet ii. great value in the manufacture of iron. Beneath the "better bed " coal occurs a valuable seam of indurated fire clay, varying from two to three feet in thickness. This fire-clay furnishes a superior quality of fire-brick, and is also much used as a lining in the blast furnace. Southwards, by "Wakefield, Bamsley, Kotherham, and Shef- field, this mineral field is extremely rich in its ironstone and coal, to a depth of upwards of 300 yards. In the top of the series occurs the Bamsley Thick Coal, which varies in thickness from 6 feet to 9 feet 6 inches, and at the bottom occurs the SUkstone seam of coal 4 feet thick. Between the above named seams of coal are others of less thickness, and the following ironstone measures in descending order : — 1. Swallow Wood Mine (Mjlton). — Consisting of three bands, of Platts, Balls, and Bottom Measures, and yielding about 1,500 tons of iron- stone per acre. Swallow Wood Goal. 2. Lidgate Mine (Milton). — Consisting of three bands, Platts, Balls, and Bottom Measures, and yielding 1,800 tons of ironstone per acre. 3. Tanhersley Mine (Milton). — Consisting of Top, Middle and Bottom Measures, and yielding from 2,000 to 3,400 tons of ironstone per acre. Deep End Coal. 4. Thorncliffe or Old Black Mine (Parkgate). — Consisting of Balls, Holing Measures, in aU 11 inches of ironstone, and yielding 1,500 tons of ironstone per acre. Parkgate or Manor Coal. 5. Thorneclijfe, White Mine (Parkgate). — Consisting of Platts, Balls and Holing Measures, and yielding 1,500 tons of ironstone per acre. Thorncliffe Thin Coal, 6. Black or Clay Wood Mine (Parkgate). — Consisting of Balls, Brown George, and Whetstone Measures. Silkstone Goal. Analyses of the Ironstones. — These clay ironstones, or argil- laceous carbonates of iron, in the districts above referred to vary but little in their general character and composition ; they have all been carefully examined and the results published in the "Memoirs of the Geological Survey."* The analyses were made by Mr. John Spiller, in Dr. , Percy's Laboratory of the Eoyal School of Mines, by whom the several measures are thus described and the composition determined. White Bed IVEine — The sample examined consisted of equal weights of five specimens of this ironstone measure, described as * " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part I., 1856, pp. 66, 69. CHAP. II.] YORKSHIRE (wEST RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 349 a " clay ironstone of varying colour, from a light brown gray to black gray ; " the shades deepening in intensity with the order of the specimens selected. Two of the samples exhibited a con- choidal fracture, had a closer texture, and were harder than the others ; in another a vein of iron pyrites occurred. Black Bed Miue, Low Moor. — The sample examined con- sisted of six specimens of this measure, in the proportion of equal weights ; all the samples are described as " dark blackish gray clay ironstones," two varieties being harder than the rest, one variety showing thin films taking the form of shells and containing iron pyrites. The analyses exhibit the following constituents : — Ebsttlts Tabttlated. Constituents. White Bed Mine. Blank Bed Mine. Protoxide of iron . 35-38 36-14 Peroxide of iron . . 1-20 0-61 Protoxide of manganese . 0-94 1-38 Alumina 0-80 0-52 Lime . . . . 2-78 2-70 Magnesia . Carbonic acid . . . 2-22 2-05 25.41 26-57 Phosphoric acid ■ 0-48 0-34 Sulphuric acid . . . trace trace Bisulphide of iron . 0-18 0-10 Water hygroscopic . . 0-74 0-61 „ combined . l-ll 1-16 Organic matter . . . 0-23 2-40 Insoluble residue . 28-00 25-27 99-47 99-85 IsrSOLTJBLE EESmUE. Silica .... 19-13 17-37 Alumina 6-83 6-22 Peroxide of iron . . 0-57 0-84 Lime .... 0-11 trace Magnesia . . . • 0-07 0-12 Potash .... Metallic iron . . . 0-78 0-65 27-49 25-20 28-76 29-12 A distinct trace of copper was detected in 500 grains of the White Bed Mine, while in 600 grains of the Black Bed Mine 350 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II, none of the metals precipitable by sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution were found. The ironstone measures in the southern division of the West Eiding of Yorkshire worked at Parkgate, very similar to those above described of Bierley and Low Moor, have been also ex- amined, the samples in each case consisting of equal weights of each ore : the composition of each mine being as follows : — * EESTJLTS TABrLATED. Constituents. THOBNCLIPFE. FABEGATE. Old Black Mine. Wiite Mine. Black or Clay Wood. Protoxide of iron . 41-77 39-38 39-87 Peroxide of iron . . 1-96 1-24 0-53 Protoxide of manganese. 1-13 0-95 1-38 Alumina . . . . 0-58 0-82 0-74 T;iTne 2-55 2-26 2-12 Magnesia . . . . 3-71 3-72 2-64 Carbonic acid 31-39 29-38 28-47 Phosphoric acid . . 0-75 0-47 0-69 Sulphuric acid trace trace Bisulphide of iron . . trace trace 0-05 Water hygroscopic 0-55 0-68 0-59 „ combined . . 1-15 1-41 1-21 Organic matter 0-86 0-54 0-83 Insoluble residue . . 14-16 19-35 20-30 100-56 100-20 99-42 Insolttble Eesidue. Silica . . . . 8-93 12-16 13-50 Alumina 4-21 5-60 5-39 Peroxide of iron . . 0-43 0-45 0-77 Lime .... trace trace trace Magnesia . . . . 0-14 0-17 0-13 Potash . Metallic iron . . . 0-43 0-37 0-18 14-14 18-75 19-97 34-16 31-82 31-92 The average yield of the ironstones wrought in the West Eiding of Yorkshire may be taken at 32 per cent, of metaUic iron. These ores, before calcination takes place, are usually exposed to the air, when the adhering particles of shale disin- * " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part 1., 1856, pp. 71 73, 75. CHAP. 11.] TfORKSHIflE (west RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 351 tegrate, and their removal is easily effected. In the operation of calcination they lose from one-third to one-fourth of their weight, the loss consisting of carhonic acid and water. Thirty years ago the argillaceous ores of the coal measures furnished between 60 and 70 per cent, of the ores smelted in our iron works ; since that period, with the development of the deposits in the carboniferous limestone of the West coast in Lancashire, and Cumberland, and of the Liassic and Oolitic formations in the North Riding of Yorkshire and Northampton- shire, new sources of supply have opened up, supplemented by the imports of valuable hematites from foreign countries, so much so, that the proportion of clay ironstone now employed does not exceed 36 per cent, compared with 60 or 70 per cent, in the year 1850. The clay ironstones available for reduction in 1879 amounted to 5,130,849 tons, other ores 9,248,886 tons ; while the ores imported amounted to 1,085,045 tons, of the value ot £1,050,167 ; making a total of 14,379,735 tons operated upon in the blast furnaces of the United Kingdom. Production of Ironstone. — The earliest returns of the pro- duction of the ironstone measures in the West Riding of York- shire were published for the year 1855,* when the total quantity raised amounted to 255,000 tons. In the year 1856 the produc- tion was but 242,100 tons, of which quantity the collieries in the neighbourhood of Leeds produced 42,600 tons. In subsequent years the returns appear as follows : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantitie.s. Tons. Tons. 1857 207,500 1865 575,000 1858 189,750 1866 357,000 1859 175,000 1867 579,000 1860 255,700 1868 785,028 1861 235,500 1869 230,905 1862 350,500 1870 307,717 1863 475,000 1871 407,997 1864 555,000 1872 466,305 These returns show great fluctuations, the year of greatest production being 1868, since which date a considerable falling off appears. The details of production for the three years ending 1872 appear as follows : — * Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom. 353 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. District or Mine. 1870. 1871. 1872. Tons. Tons. Tons. Bowling 36,221 36,083 46,651 Farnley . . . . 14,000 25,983 26,759 Kimberworth. 2,496 1,730 Low Moor. . . . 68,000 75,437 80,000 Thornoliffe . • . . 15,497 West Ardsey 37,000 White Horse . 18,764 17,398 Sundry Mines . . . Total . 160,600 250,000 280,000 307,717 407,997 466,305 Since 1872 the ironstone raised is seen in the following quan- tities, together with its value : — Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ 1873 407,388 122,216 1874 370,960 154,074 1875 353,582 159,089 1876 381,463 228,877 1877 402,746 241,647 1878 370,405 185,202 1879 321,789 160,894 1880 286,698 143,349 From the above it appears the average value of these argilla- ceous ores varied from 6s. per ton in 1873, increasing to 12s. per ton in 1877 and 1878, and since that date show a falling off to 10s. per ton. Pig Iron nCauufactiire. — The early history of this industry is closely identified with the town of Bradford. Although evidence exists of the smelting of the argillaceous ores of the coal measm'es at a remote period, on a limited scale, yet it may be said in modern times to date from the year 1780 or 1781, when the Bowling Company purchased the Manor of Bowling, with its ancient hall, and laid the foundation of the works which in sub- sequent years have attained such a wide-spread reputation. The operations of the company in the early years of its existence were confined more especially to foundry and smith's work. It was not tUl the year 1788 that the furnaces erected under the super- intendence of Mr. John Sturges, of Sandall, near Wakefield, were put in blast and the smelting of iron ore commenced. And here it will be interesting to note a few facts showing the magnitude CHAP. II.] YORKSHIRE (wEST RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 353 of the Bowling Works in the present day. These works comprise six cold blast furnaces, from which a;bout 860 tons of pig iron are run per week, 5 refineries, 21 puddling furnaces, 40 heating furnaces, an extensive forge, a tyre mill for rolling steel and iron weldless tyres, one guide mill, one bar mill, with 15 in. rolls and tin plate mills. The Bowling estate itself supplies almost aU the coal and ironstone which the company consumes, its collieries extending five or six miles in various directions, and the main pits being con- nected together and with the iron works by tramways worked with wire ropes. The total length of these tramways is 21 miles, the number of pits 42, and the number of hands employed in them is more than 2,000. To work the pits 61 steam-engines are re- quii'ed, having cylinders varying from 7 to 70 inches in diameter ; and to supply them with steam 81 boilers are required of from 10 to 50 horse power each. In the iron works are three blast engines, with blowing cylinders, varying from 76 to 84 inches in diameter ; and 14 engines, of from 20 to 60 horse power, to give motion to the various machines, besides numerous small steam- engines driving separate machines, and pumping water for the boilers. The number of steam-hammers is 13, and helve hammers 2. The supply of steam is maintained by 33 boilers of from 20 to 50 horse power each. The number of hands employed at the iron works is upwards of 1,000, thus making a total of 3,000. There is also an extensive steel works for making crucible steel, having about 100 pot furnaces, besides furnaces on the Siemens and Siemens Martin principle, worked by the Siemens regenerative gas furnace.* The distinguishing quahties of the Bowling iron are hardness with great pliability, homogeneity, and imiformity of texture, capability of withstanding the action of fire, and receiving a brilliant polish; these special qualities cause the iron to be in gi'cat request in the numerous industries abounding in Sheffield, where it is extensively employed. Mr. Wilcox, in his interesting paper referred to, concludes by remarking, " that works esta- blished in the infancy of the iron trade, and producing a superior quality of metal — quahty being always preferred to quantity whenever the alternative presents itself — must naturally be dis- * Mr. Joseph Wiloock's paper on " The Bowling Iron Works," British Associa- tion Reports, 1873. Bradford Meeting. A A 354- COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ir. posed to conservatism. Besides, repeated experiences have proved the necessity of keeping to the original mode of working with the minerals and iron. It is rarely known to what purposes or tests, the iron may he put on leaving the premises, but it is known it will have to withstand usage such as common iron, or any other iron but charcoal iron perhaps could do, and it was for the latter that the Bowling iron was originally manufactured as a substitute." Eeturning to the founding of the iron works in the "West Eiding of Yorkshire, as previously stated, the Bowling works were pro- jected in the year 1780. The Low Moor works were established in the year 1790 ; and a writer in London Society* gives the following interesting sketch of its founder, Mr. Joseph Dawson : — " It was probably due more to the investigation and recom- mendation of Mr. Dawson than to anything else that the Low Moor enterprise was entered upon. Mr. Dawson was an inti- mate friend of Dr. Priestly, and a man of high scientific attain- ments. He had given much attention to metallurgy and chemistry, and had watched the progress of scientific discovery in regard to the working of iron with keen interest. He was a man of great vigour of mind and originality of character. In 1768 he was ordained minister of Upper Chapel, Idle ; and was then in his twenty-ninth year, and had just been married. Born in very humble circumstances he was led to make energetic eiforts to educate himself and attracted the notice of a gentleman, who generously took him by the hand and found the funds for the lad's educational training at the Daventry Academy. Mr. Dawson did not make a successful minister ; his mind was too much occupied in scientific speculation, and in the promotion of his material prosperity. He established some coal mines on the hill-side near his chapel and worked them with profit. It was averred that his spiritual ministrations and his commercial engagements trenched so closely upon each other that he used frequently to be found paying his colliers their wages on the Sunday morning before service ; after which he would slip into the little chapel and read to his handful of hearers a few pages from a sermon book that had previously been placed in readiness in the pulpit. He was a farmer as well as a colliery proprietor, and minister of the Gospel. His hens were penned in the chapel * October, 1S79. CHAP. II.] YORKSHIRE (WEST RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 355 grave-yard, and the fodder for his cattle was stowed away in a portion of the chapel itself. His duties and engagements were, indeed, of a multifarious character, and he was looked up to by the villagers for assistance and counsel in all kinds of difficulties. He was skilled in the profession of medicine, and was regularly called upon to prescribe for the benefit of his neighbours in times of sickness. It was no wonder that a man who had so many engagements apart from his ministry, should find his congrega- tion gradually dwindling. The Sunday attendance in the chapel was sometimes not more than half a dozen, and so matters went on until the Low Moor enterprise began to occupy his thoughts, when he relinquished his spiritual charge and thenceforth was to all intents and purposes a man of business." Following the Low Moor Works, those at Shelf, near Halifax, were projected about the year 1795, commencing the manufacture of pig iron ; these works were acquired at a later period by the Low Moor Company, while in the year 1797 the Eotherham Works were established. The make of pig-iron in the West Riding of Yorkshire in the year 1740 was but 1,400 tons, presumably charcoal iron, the yield of six furnaces. In the year 1788 there appears to have been one furnace making charcoal ii'on, and six furnaces making coke pig iron, the former producing 600 tons and the latter 4,500 tons, or a total of 5,100 tons in 1788. Another return gives the make of the Bowling furnaces, between the years 1795 and 1798, as about 2,000 tons per annum. The make of the Low Moor furnaces about the same period being 2,573 tons in 1795, and 2,658 tons in the year 1798 ; the works at Shelf in 1798 are stated to have made 3,442 tons, while those at Eother- ham produced 3,000 tons. The total make of pig iron in England and Wales in 1788 was 61,300 tons, of which 13,100 tons were charcoal pig and 48,200 tons coke pig iron. The information arising out of the inquiry instituted in the year 1796, when Mr. Pitt proposed to levy a duty on coals at the pit's mouth, presents the following facts bearing on the make of pig iron at this period. The return referred to appears under three heads, the figures in the last column being accepted as the quantities produced. The names of the Yorkshire works, and the number of furnaces are also given with details of production : — A A 2 356 COAL AND IRON IKDUSTEIES. [PAKT II. Works. Number of Furnaces. Excise. Supposed. Exact. Bowling . Wibsey Moor Shelf. Birkenshaw . Thomoliffe Elseoar . Bretton Holmes . 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 Tons. 2,000 2,000 1,000 780 1,092 800 250 6,000 Tons. 2,000 2,000 1,000 780 1,092 800 250 6,000 Tons. 2,000 2,500 1,140 846 712 950 250 2,000 Total . 13 13,922 13,922 10,398 1 Ten years later another return is available, giving the number of furnaces in the district as 26, of which 22 were in blast, making 27,646 tons of pig iron. In the return for 1796 the total production of the furnaces of Great Britain as ascertained appears thus, giving an average per furnace of 1,000 tons per annum : — Furnaces. Pig Iron. Excise .... Supposed . . . . Exact .... Nos. 124 124 124 Tons. 167,311 152,545 125,079 The following gives the works, furnaces, and owners, as well as the make of pig iron at each works in the year 1806 : — FURNACES. Pig Iron Made. Built. In Blast. Sheffield Park. Chapel Town' and Swallow Hill . ThornoHffe . Bowling Low Moor Shelf . Birkenshaw . Banishaw . Elsecar . Bretton Holmes and Milton Calden . Fieldhead . ] Booth & Co. . Swallow & Co. . Chambers & Co. Sturges & Co. . Jarratt & Co. Haydon & Co. . Emmett & Co. Appleby & Co. . Darwen & Co. Cook & Co. Walker & Co. Emmett & Co. . Parker & Co. Nos. 1 3 2 3 4 3 1 1 2 1 3 1 Nos. 1 1 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 Tons. 1,905 3,737 2,500 2,473 5,143 2,716 612 975 2,495 250 3,000 1,040 800 Total . 26 22 27,646 cii.vr. II.] YORKSHIEE (WEST EIDING) IROJf INDUSTRIES. 357 The Eenishaw Works clearly belong to Derbyshire, and diminish the make of pig u'on in Yorkshire by 975 tons, giving a total of 26,771 tons, and the nmnber of furnaces as 21, being an average of 1,275 tons per furnace. The make of pig iron in Great Britain in the same year was 243,851 tons, there being 161 furnaces in blast, of the 216 furnaces built. Not again until the inquiry instituted by the Government and presided over by Mr. F. Finch, in the years 1831-32, does any record appear indicating the progress of the iron industry. The result of Mr. Finch's inquiry does not show any great expansion of the iroh trade since the year 1806, which wiU appear from the following returns of production for each of the years 1823 and 1830 in the Yorkshire furnaces : — 1823. 1830. Furnaces. Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Nnniber of Furnaces. PiR Iron Made. Bowling Brierley . Chapel Town . Elsecar Holmes . Low Moor Shelf . Milton Sheffield Park Thorncliffo Worsborough 3 1 1 3 3 4 3 2 2 3 1 Tons. 5,366 2,450 1,400 1,400 2,000 6,200 2,"i87 2,018 2,909 1,381 3 2 1 3 3 4 3 2 2 3 1 Tons. 5,117 4,590 1,631 1,460 1,000 7,480 1,715 2,081 2,188 1,664 Total . 26 27,311 27 28,926 The total make of pig iron in Great Britain in 1823* was 455,166 tons and 678,417 tons in 1830, the number of furnaces in each of the same years being respectively 266 and 372, showing an increase in seven years of 106 furnaces and 223,251 tons ; the increase in Yorkshire being one furnace and 1,615 tons. Advancing to the yeai^ 1839, Mushet t gives the make of 22 fur- naces as 52,416 tons. In 1840 Mr. WiUiam Jessop, of the Eutterley Ii-on Works, Derbyshire, ascertained that the Yorkshire furnaces, * For details, see Appendix II., p. 834. t Papers on " Iron and Steel," p. 421. 858 COAL AND IRON INDUSTKIES. [part II. '25 of which were in blast out of 32 huilt, made 56,000 tons of pig iron ; the total make of pig iron in Great Britain the same year being 1,396,400 tons, the yield of 402 furnaces out of a total of 490 furnaces buUt. A few years later, in 1843, the returns show a falling off in production to the extent of 181,050 tons, the make in 1843 being 1,215,350 tons compared with 1,396,400 tons in 1840 ; the only districts in which an increase appears were those of Northumberland and North Staffordshire, amount- ing to but 16,000 tons. On the other hand in South Stafford- shire the falling off was 106,900 tons, and m. South Wales 47,650 tons in the period referred to, which was one of great commercial depression. With the development of our railway system about this time a new impulse was imparted to the iron industries throughout the land ; for in 1847, the Yorkshire furnaces, 23 of which were in blast out of a total of 28 built, produced 67,600 tons, or an average of 3,073 tons per furnace ; the make of the 433 furnaces in Great Britain, out of a total of 623 built, being 1,999,608 tons. In the year 1851 the following list of works in operation in the northern and southern divisions of the West Biding of Yorkshire shows the resources of these establishments, cold blast being principally employed in the furnaces : — Northern Division. Southern Division. Works. TURN ACES. Works. PDRNACKS. Built. In Blast. Built. In Blast. Bowling . Bierley . . . Parnley . Low Moor . . . New Begin . Shelf. . . . Total . Nos. 4 1 3 2 1 Nos. 3 3 1 1 2 Ohapeltown . Elsecar and Milton . Holmes . . . Parkgate Thomcliffe . . . Worsborough Dale . Total . . . Nos. 2 3 2 1 4 1 Nos. 1 1 1 2 16 10 13 5 The make of the furnaces in the northern division in 1851 was 25,000 tons, and in the southern division 40,000 tons, giving an aggregate of 65,000 tons or an average make per furnace of 4,833 tons. CHAP, n.] YOEKSHIEE (WEST EIDINg) IEON INDUSTEIES. 359 Since the above list appeared, the works at Beeston Manor* and Thorpe Hall each commenced operations, the former in 1855 ■with one furnace ; in 1865 the York Eoad and Hepworth "Works, the former with two, and the latter with one furnace. In 1868 the furnaces at Ardsley, near Leeds, of the "West Yorkshire Iron and Coal Company, limited, were blown in, and more recently the Atlas, Aireside, Charlton, and Tinsley furnaces. Eesuming with the production of pig iron in the West Hiding of Yorkshire, the annexed summary shows the number of fui'naces built and in blast in each year since 1851 : — FURNACES. FURNACES. Year. Pig Iron Made. Year. Pig Iron Made. Built. In Blast. 1 Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Nos. Nos. Tons. 1851 29 15 65,000 1867 36 25 109,002 1854 28 21 73,444 1868 38 22 100,050 1855 32 23 90,840 1869 38 23 105,765 1856 34 23 96,200 1870 38 22 77,717 1857 36 23 117,000 1871 39 25 114,549 1858 33 24 65,936 1872 40 29A 148,636 1859 35 25 84,950 1873 40 30 151,511 1860 35 25 98,100 1874 44 31 163,856 1861 34 27 142,865 1875 60 37 267,153 1862 35 26 112,121 1876 49 34 235,451 1863 35 24 104,745 1877 48 30 229,027 1864 35 25 102,093 1878 48 29 219,547 1865 38 29 123,233 1879 49 31 218,805 1866 36 29 119,747 1880 47 33 306,560 In the last-named year the number of furnaces in operation in Great Britain, and the pig iron produced, was as follows : — Number of Fui-naces. Pig Iron. England Wales .... Scotland Total . . . 378 76 112i Tons. 5,752,683 947,550 1,049,000 566^ 7,749,233 From the above it appears that the average production per furnace in 1848 was 2,891 tons, increased to 3,924 tons in 1860, and 9,200 tons in the year 1880, when the following works were in operation in West Yorkshire, giving the number of furnaces built and in blast, as weU as the owners : — * Works now standing, 1881. 360 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. YoEKSHiEE — West Eeding. [PAM II. Name of Works. Owners, I'DRNACES. Built In Blast. Atlas "West Yorkshire, Ardsley Beeston Manor, Ardsley BowHng, Bradford Elseoar, Bamsley . Milton, Bamsley Fai-nley, Leeds Holmes Parkgate, Eotherham Low Moor, Bradford Bierley . Charlton, Sheffield Thomcliffe, Sheffield York Boad, Leeds Aireside, Leeds Tinsley, Sheffield John Brown & Co., Limited West Yorkshire Iron and Coal 1 Co., Limited . . . f A. Harding & Co. Bowling Iron Co., Limited George Dawes . Famley Iron Co., Limited . Parkgate Iron Co., Limited Hird, Dawson, & Hardy Charlton Iron Co. . Newton, Chambers & Co. . York Boad Iron and Coal Co, Aireside Haematite Iron Co. William Cooke & Co., Limited Total of West Biding . Nos. 3 Nos. 3 47 33 malleable Iron Works (Mills and Forges) and Steel Works. • — The manufacture of bar and other forms of iron has long been carried on in the West Riding of Yorkshire ; indeed the works at Kirkstall are amongst the oldest in the kingdom, and they still prosper. A recent contribution to a scientific journal gives the following interesting account of these works : — Situated at Kirk- stall Abbey, near Leeds, and from which there is no doubt but that the monks at that place many generations ago were ac- quainted with the manufacture of iron. The abbey was founded between the years 1147 and 1153 by monks of the Cistercian Order, whose house was not dissolved till the year 1540, its revenue at that time being assessed at from £8,000 to £10,000 per annum. In digging some foundations there was the most complete evidence met with, that iron had been made on the ground some hundreds of years ago ; and there is an old water- wheel that used to work the helves upwards of two hundred years ago. The works as they are now, were established in the year 1779, by the ancestors of the present owners, the Messrs. Butler, and are famous for the production of railway tyres, axles, and bars, and for hydraulic presses, for pressing iron and steel, one having .HAP. II.] YORKSHIRE (WEST RIDINg) IRON INDUSTRIES. 361 been made on the Haswell system, capable of exerting a pressure of something like 1,400 or 1,500 tons. The works are also known in connection with machines for straightening and planishing round bars ; as well as steam-hammers on Naylor's system. The works of the Kirkstall Forge, it may be stated, cover an area of nearly fourteen acres, and when in full operation give employment to nearly one thousand hands. An interesting fact is stated by Mr. Butler of these works, that the Staffoi'dshire iron trade in some measure sprang from them, inasmuch as two lads went from Kirkstall forge into Staffordshire, and there set up a small establishment, where they made bullet-iron. These lads it appears were the Thorneycrofts, a name so well known in connection with the Staffordshire iron trade. Again, it is stated of the firm of Messrs. Bolckow and Vaughan, that the father of the latter turned rolls at Kirkstall forge before going farther north. The Works and the Abbey are amongst the most inter- esting objects to be seen near Leeds, and showing the antiquity of the works in connection with the ruins, there is a cast-iron mullion to be seen in one of the windows, which must have been made centuries ago. At the present time there are in the imme- diate vicinity of Leeds and Bradford 14 extensive iron works, and in the districts of Sheffield and liotherham 16 works, with an aggregate of 497 puddling furnaces and 129 rolling mUls, of which the following is a list : — Leeds aotj Bkadford Disteict. No. Name of Works. Naaiie of Firm. Neiu'est Poi-t or Eailway Statiou. No. of Puddling Furnaces. No. of Boiling ; Mills. I Normanton . Hunslet Forge Clarence Famley . Kirkstall Forge Leeds Monk Bridge Thomliill Perseverance Bowling . Low Moor . Thornton Road Calder Vale . U Horbury Junction Total of District . ( Noi-mauton Iron & Steel ) } Co. . . . f Coghlan & Dury Taylor, Brothers, & Co Famley Iron Co. The Kirkstall Forge Co, S. T. Cooper & Co. . Monk Bridge Iran Co. E. T. Ingham . J. Whitham & Son Bowling Iron Co., Liin. Hird, Dawson &, Hardy Perkins, Son, & Barrett Samuel Whitham ( Horbmy Junction L'on I Co., Limited Normanton Leeds Bradford Wakefleld 25 17 IS 28 IS 27 9 20 38 213 I 51 362 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [PAET ir. Sheftieud and Eothbeham District. No. Name of Works. Name of Firm. Nearest Port or Eailway Station. No. of Puddling Furnaces. No. of Boiling Mills. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 j Atlas Steel and Iron ) i (Swinton). J Cyclops . Gremisthorpe (Yorkshire Steel and) / Iron Works, Peni- l stone . . .J Millsands . Wortley . . . Midland . ... Phoenix Bessemer Steel Works .... Park Gate . Northfield Elseear Milton .... Stockbridge Kelham . . . . Tinsley Iron and Steel Charlton Total of District . John Brown & Co., Lim. Ch. Cammell & Co., Lim. ( Sheffield Forge and ) t HoUingMiUs Co., Lim. ) Thomas Andrews & Co. . Midland Iron Co., Lim. . Steel, Tozer, and Hamp- ton, Limited Park Gate Iron Co., Lim. Neill, Johnson & Edgar . George Dawes . Samuel Fox & Co., Lim. Kelham HoUing Mills Co. William Cooke & Co., Lim. Charlton Iron Works Co. Sheffield Eotherham . Sheffield . . . >» Bamsley Sheffield ' . '. CO 61 16 34 60 26 19 9 1 4 S 4 4 4 6 7 3 5 297 74 Coincident with the development of our railway system Shef- field more especially became the seat of many new branches of iron and steel manufacture, such as rails, tyres, axles, wheels, girders, railway waggons, and all forms of forgings and castings for fixed and rolling stock, armour plates, &c. In this neigh- bom-hood are situated the gigantic establishments, the Atlas and Cyclops, wliich have for years exercised such an important influence in connection with the national defences of the empire. The Atlas works commenced operations about the year 1857, under the auspices of Messrs. John Brown and Co., who initiated the manufacture of those vast plates of iron which have in modern times contributed to the armoured covering of our iron- clads, besides other heavy iron and steel works. A few years later the Cyclops steel and iron works were founded by Messrs. Charles Cammell and Co., and these two firms stand unri- valled in the resisting power their armour plates offer to the heaviest ordnance directed against them. The Messrs. Cammell and Co. have other works on an extensive scale at Gremisthorpe and Penistone, at the former of which the manufacture of cast steel is carried on, also the manufacture of steel by the Siemens Martin process, while at the Penistone Works, known as the Yorkshire Steel and Iron "Works, steel is made by the Bessemer process, which has rapidly extended of late years in the neigh- CHAP. 11.] YOEKSHIKE (WEST EIDING) IKON INDUSTRIES. 363 bourhood of Sheffield and Ebtherham. The followiBg is a list of those important establishments, with the names of the firms and the number and capacity of the convertors as they stood in the beginning of 1881 : — "Works. Situation. Finns. Capacity. Atlas Bessemer . Attercliffo . Cyclops Phoenix . Stockbridge Yorkshire . Sheffield .. ! .. ! ■• 1 " i J) - 1 John Brown & Co. , Limited Henry Bessemer & Co. Limited . Brown, Baily, & Dixon Limited . Charles Cammell & Co. Limited. Steel, Tozer, & Hampton Limited . Samuel Fox & Co. . Charles Cammell & Co. Limited No. 4 2 2 2 2 4 Tons. C^vt. 7 10 10 3 5 4 8 4 8 6 2 5 5 7 Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture. — ^In the year 1840, according to Mr. Porter, F.R.S.,* the quantity of pig ii'on made in Yorkshire was 66,000 tons, consuming 306,500 tons of coal in its manufactui'e, being an average of near five and a-half tons to each ton of pig iron made. In the year 1873, Mr. Joseph Wilcock,t chief engineer of Bowling iron works, states the fol- lowing as the relative quantities of materials employed for pro- ducing one ton of " Bowling pig iron :" — MATERIALS. Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. Eaw ore 3 3 3 27 Calcined ore 2 7 1 26 Limestone 18 2 12 Coke 2509 The raw ore containing 32 per cent, of metallic iron, increased to 42 per cent, by calcination. The coal employed is known to yield on the average 60 per cent, of coke, which would, convert- ing the above named quantity into coal, give an average of 75 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made. Since the year 1872 the quantities of coal and iron ore used in • "Progress of the Nation," G. E. Porter, F.K.S. t Paper read at Bradford Meeting of British ABSOciation for the Advancement of Science. 364 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. manufacture were as follows ; the pig iron made also appears. The increased consumption of coal in the West Eiding furnaces it will be remembered is due to the employment of cold blast, still extensively used in the district : — Year. Pig Iron. Coal Used. Ore Used. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 148,636 443,654 490,000 1873 151,511 493,976 499,000 1874 163,856 549,363 525,000 1875 267,153 695,557 825,000 1876 235,451 655,230 730,000 1877 229,027 635,712 712,500 1878 219,547 612,504 695,000 1879 218,805 556,775 692,000 1880 306,560 769,519 945,000 Taking the years 1872 and 1873 the average consumption of coal to each ton of pig iron made was 65 cwts., the average of the iron ore (uncalcined) being about 66 cwts. The economy in the use of coal ig observable here as in other districts ; thus, in 1877 the average was 55i cwts. ; in 1878 increased to 56 cwts. ; while in the past year it did not exceed 50 cwts. throughout the district; in some of the works however a higher average was consumed. In the consumption of iron ore the proportion is fairly maintained, the returns not exhibiting the same fluctua- tions from year to year, as with the coal, due to the fact that as regards the iron ore the returns give the raw material while the coal used is occasionally recorded as coke, its equivalent in all cases being subsequently ascertained. CHAPTEE III. YORKSHIRE— NORTH-RIDING (CLEVELAND DISTRICT) IRON INDUSTRIES. Geology of — Analyses, production and average prices of Ore — Output of tiie more important Mines — Magnetic Iron ore of Rosedale — Mines in Cleveland District — Ironstone Mining — Distribution of Ironstone — Population employed in Iron Mining — Barrow's Views on the Mineral Resources of the district — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early history, production, distribution, and average prices of Cleveland pig — Coal and li-onstone used in manufactui-e — Malleable Iron and Steel Works — Production and average prices of rails, plates, bars, and angles — The Thomas Gilchrist process of Steel manufacture. Torhshire, Worth Riding (Cleveland District). — The exist- ence of an iron ore on the North-Eastern coast of Yorkshire appears to have been long known ; indeed the constant discovery of iron slag on the hiUs of Cleveland shows clearly that ores were worked in a remote antiquity. About thirty years since some local iron-masters began to employ the Cleveland ore, to supplement the supply of ores to their furnaces. It answered well, and when the increased demand for iron ore stimulated inquiry, it was found that the Cleveland Hills were full of iron. Then began that remarkable development of the district which can scarcely find a parallel in the history of any British industry. The area of the Cleveland Hills containing the deposits of iron ores, extend on the northern escarpment from Ormesby, near Middlesborough, to the coast, and southernly to the Eskdale and Eosedale valleys ; the workable portion of the iron ore being found most fully developed in the north-west portion of the area, diminishing both in the thickness of the beds and the quality of the ore in the south and eastern part of the area. The main ironstone seam of Cleveland occurs at the top of the " Middle Lias," or marlstone rock, and consists of a bed of ironstone with beds of shale above and below ; a lower seam, known as the "Bottom Seam," of fair quality also occurs. This seam is comparatively unimportant in the area of greatest 366 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. development of the main seam, but acquires considerable import- ance in the neighbourhood of Grosmont, south-east of Whitby, where it contrasts favourably with that bed. At Eston, near Middlesborough, on its northern outcrop, the main seam attains its greatest thickness, varying from 12 to 17 feet. Throughout the main seam occurs the well known (Pecten sequivalvis), from which it is called Pecten bed. The same strata in the south, in the neighbom'hood of Gros- mont, attain a thickness of 12 feet of ironstone, but with shaly partings of nearly 30 feet in thickness, the ironstone thinning out towards the south, where at FeUxkirk, three miles north-east of Thirsk, it has been proved to exist in beds of six and seven inches, with shale partings of three feet. The main seam at Upleatham is 13 feet in thickness and undivided; it however exhibits various appearances throughout the mass, not as separate bands, but one structure graduating into the other. In the Yorkshire Lias the following detailed section of the ironstone series at Upleatham is given, which ma}' be generally regarded as a standard of reference.* Top Block or Boof, 3 feet thick, consisting of: — 1. A brownish, compact argillaceous ironstone with diffused oolitic green grains. 2. Eather more oolitic than No. 1, the argillaceous matter more diffused; small phosphatic nodular particles scattered through the mass. 3. Similar to No. 1 but more oolitic. • 4. Sulphur bands. — A rock composed of oolitic grains, consisting chiefly of iron pyrites. An analysis gives 30 '25 per cent, of sulphur — corresponding to 56'71 per cent, of bisulphide of iron. (This band was formerly worked at Eston, and applied at the Chemical Works at Washington, and subsequently at Middles- borough as a substitute for ordinary pyrites. It generally separates in loose ground from the underlying main block in the process of mining, and when sound makes an excellent roof ; but its extreme liability to disintegrate on the action of moist air necessitates caution in placing reliance upon it.) "WorkaTjle Main Seam, 10 feet thick, consisting of : — 5. Top part of main block. — A greyish to bluish stone colour, not uniform, somewhat compact, with pebble-like lumps of an earthy substance of a much lighter colour than the ore and zinc blende, occupying centres of the more argillaceous parts, very fossiliferous. * " The Yorkshire Lias." Tate and Blake, p. 119. CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (NORTH EIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 367 6. Middle part of maia block, about 5 feet thick. — A light blue stone, oolitic in structure, but the grains of variable size, with crystals of carbonate of iron and carbonate of lime. The dissolution of the crystals having left cavities in the stone, imparts a cinder-like aspect to this part of the seam by which it may easily be recognised. 7. Lower part of main block. — A. greenish blue stone, rather close in texture, and of a finely oolitic structure. A strong parting separates it from the underlying stratum near the outcrop. 8. Bottom block of main seam, 2 feet thick. — A compact earthy splintery rook of a dark green colour, partaking of the character of a hard mudstone, and perfectly devoid of ooUtio structure, which prevails in all the higher parts of the seam. (Analysis shows it to be rich in alumina and silica, but the per- centage of iron does not fall much below the average of that of the main block; it is however rejected by most iron smelters. It is called by the miners " black hard.") 9. A bed of shale 1 foot thick, which underlies and is called from the prevalence of Khynchonellae, which are occasionally aggregated in stony lumps, the " cockle- bed." It yields as much as 21 per cent, of metaUio iron, the other chief matter being alumina, silica, and lime. 10. Hard shale 4 feet. 11. Bottom seam of ironstone. — A dense blue clay ironstone, speckled with white and green — 2 ft. 8 in. Fossils not abundant. Pectea Aequitalvis and others. 12. Shale. The main seam, near Guisborougli, at the Chaloner Mines, has a thickness of 13 feet ; at the Normanby Mines, near Middlesborough, it is 11 feet ; while at the Whitecliffe and the IJiverton Mines, near Loftus, it is 9 feet 6 inches, with a shale parting in the middle. Again, at Ailesbury, near Swainby, it varies from 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 6 inches. Below the Middle Lias, at the top of which is the ironstone main seam above referred to, succeeds the Lower Lias, and immediately above occur the shales of the Upper Lias, in which exist the beds of alum shale and jet, which have given rise to these important industries, of which Whitby may be regarded as the centre. Above the Upper Lias, and situated at the base of the sandy ■estuarine beds of the Inferior Oolite, occurs the top seam of iron- stone, known as the "Dogger bed," and which has, and still is, acquiring much importance from its highly magnetic character, in the Kosedale Abbey Mines, where the seam is upwards of 368 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ir., 20 feet thick. This toj) seam is regarded as the equivalent of the Northampton sand, and yields a much higher percentage of metallic iron than that of the main seam of Cleveland. The Cleveland district has an area of not less than 500 square miles, and reliable authorities affirm that every acre of this vast area contains ironstone, though it remains to be proved what propor- tion is workable. The system of working is both by drifts from the outcrop and by shafts, which are sunk in places dependant upon the position of the ironstone, which is usually wrought by the bord and pillar system. Analyses of the Ironstone. — The Cleveland ore of Eston, examined in Dr. Percy's laboratory in the Royal School of Mines by Mr. A. Dick, is thus referred to.* " Description : chiefly a carbonate of protoxide of iron ; lustre, earthy ; colour, greenish grey ; streak, similar ; fracture, uneven ; showing here and there small cavities, some of which are filled with carbonate of lime. Throughout the ore are diffused irregularly a multitude of small oolitic concretions, together with small pieces of an earthy sub- stance resembling the ore but lighter in colour. When a mass of the ore is digested in hydrochloric acid till all carbonates and soluble silicates are dissolved, there remains a residue having the form of the original mass of ore. It is extremely light, and falls to powder unless very carefully handled. It contains the oolitic concretions or else skeletons of them, which dissolve completely in dilute caustic potash, showing them to be silica in a soluble state. Under the microscope some of them are seen to have a central nucleus of dark colour and irregular shape, but none of them present any indication of organic structure or radiated crystallisation." " If the residue, after having been digested in caustic potash, be washed by decantation, there remains a small number of naicro- scopic crystals ; some of these, which are white, are quartz, and others, which are black and acutely pyramidal, consist chiefly of titanic acid. Professor Miller, of Cambridge, succeeded in measuring some of the angles of the crystals containing titanic acid, and found that they correspond to similar angles in anatase. The green colour of the ore seems to be due to a silicate con- * Memoirs of the Geological Survey, " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part I., p. 95 (out of print). CHAP. HI.] YORKSHIRE (NORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 369 taining peroxide and protoxide of iron, but this could not be exactly determined, because it was not found possible to dissolve out the carbonates without at the same time acting upon the silicate of iron. The constituents are as follows : — Results Tabulated. — Obe Dried at 100° C. Protoxide of iron 39-92 Peroxide of iron 3'60 Protoxide of manganese 0-95 Alumina .......... 7 "86 Lime 7'44 Magnesia 3'82 Potash 0-27 Carbonic acid 22-85 Phosphoric acid 1'86 Silica soluble in hydrochloric acid 7 '12 Sulphuric acid trace. Bisulphide of iron O-ll Water in combination 2-97 Organic matter trace. Insoluble residue (of which 0-98 is soluble in dilute caustic potash) and consists chiefly of oolitic concretions . 1'6-i 100-41 Iron, total amount 33*62 Insoluble Residue. Silica _ 1-50 Alumina, with a trace of peroxide of iron . . . . 0-10 Titanic acid about 0"03 Lime trace. 1-63 A note appended to this analysis states that " No metal pre- cipitable by sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution of about 1,200 grains of ore was detected." Other analyses of the main seam of ironstone worked at the Normanby mines of Messrs. Bell Brothers, and situated to the south-east of Eston, and at the Upleatham mines of Messrs. J. W. Pease and Co., situated about three miles to the north-east of Guisborough, where it is found under the most favourable conditions as regards richness of metal, give the following con- stituents, the metallic iron contained in the Normanby ore amounting to 31 '42 per cent., and the Upleatham ore yielding 31'97 per cent. : — 370 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET ir. Eesdclts Tabtjiated. Constituents. Normanby. Upleatham. Protoxide of iron 38-06 37-07 Peroxide of iron . 2-60 4-48 Protoxide of manganese . 0-74 ... Alumina .... 5-92 12-37 Lime .... 7-77 4-67 Magnesia _ . Carbonic acid . 4-16 2-69 22-00 23-46 Silica 10-36 10-63 Sulphur .... 0-14 Phosphoric acid . 1-07 1-17 Water .... 4-45 3-36 97-27 99-90 The iron ore obtained from the Belmont Mines, near Gruis- borough, is very similar in character to the preceding, but from its greater density and compactness it would seem to have been derived from a lower measure. The ore employed at the South Bank FmTiaces, Middlesborough-on-Tees, is described as: "A dull green, earthy, carbonate of iron, with silicate, containing abundance of small oolitic concretions, a few belemnite stems, and other fossil remains. Small crystals of quartz of zinc blende, and apparently also of titanite, were found in the specimen examined."* The composition of these ores is represented by the following analyses : — Eestjlts Tabulated. jDonstituents. Belmont. South Bank. Protoxide of iron Peroxide of manganese Protoxide of iron Alumina Lime Magnesia Carbonic acid . Phosphoric acid . Silica (soluble) Silica as quartz . Titanic acid Sulphide of zinc . Water hygroscopic . Water in combination Organic matter 39-00 3-50 1-30 7-46 7-44 3-82 23-06 1-60 I 9-46 I 3-66 43-02 2-86 0-40 5-87 5-14 5-21 25-50 1-81 ) 7-12 ( 0-05 traces. ( 0-34 ( 3-14 0-15 100-30 100-61 ' Papers : Cast-iron Experiments," 1858, pp. 40 and 34. CHAP, in.] I'ORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 371 The metallic iron contained in the Relmont ore amounts to 82*78 per cent., and in the Cleveland ore, employed in the South Bank Ironworks, then helonging to Messrs. Samuelson & Co., 35"46 per cent. ; it heing observed of the latter ore that it does not contain any appreciable amount of sulphur nor of heavy metals. The ironstone raised at Hutton Low Cross, near Guisborough, was examined by Mr. Crowder. The samples selected of the ore from three parts of the bed, are described : (a) as grey, hard, compact and heavy, and with very few oolitic grains ; {b and c), as a softer stone, uneven in fracture, and containing many oolitic grains. Eesttlts Tabulated. Constituents. (t. t. c. Protoxide of iron . . . 35-55 35-75 40-86 Seaquioxide .... 1-70 1-80 4-26 Aluimna 3-79 4-95 3-44 Lime 4-20 7-39 3-80 Magnesia 1-12 2-98 3-70 Sulphuric acid .... trace. 007 0-30 Silica 20-90 15-65 7-20 Carbonic acid .... 25-18 23-47 32-50 Phosphoric acid . . . . 2-66 5-05 0-96 Bisulphide of iron . trace. trace. 1-60 Water Iron, total amount . 4-90 4-89 1-45 100-00 102-00 100-06 28-84 27-45 34-75 An average analysis of the same ironstone, by Richardson, gives the constituents as under : — Eesttlts Tabulated. Peroxide of iron 42-08 Protoxide of iron 0-68 Alumina 10-40 Lime ........... 5-48 Magnesia 1-84 SiHca 14-00 Sulphur Phosphoric acid Carbonic acid ] 24-22 Water .J 98-70 Iron, total amount . . .. 33-09 B B 2 372 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAKT 11. Mr. John Pattinson, of the Clarence Ironworks, gives the following as the results of his examination of the Cleveland raw ironstone, and of the same ore after calcination : * — Constituents. Raw Stone. Calcined Stone. Protoxide of iron Peroxide of iron . Protoxide of manganese . Alumina .... Lime .... Magnesia .... Carbonic acid . Silica Sulphur .... Phosphoric acid . Organic matter Combined water . Water expelled by drying at 212 34-04 3-74 0-38 9-32 5-08 3-65 20-09 10-04 0-13 1-13 0-36 2-53 9-50 58-'30 ^ 0-53 13-07 7-12 5-12 14-08 0-18 1-69 99-99 99-99 The amount of metallic iron in the raw stone giving 29"09 per cent. ; concentrated in the calcined stone to the extent of 40"81 per cent., the loss by calcination being 28"71 per cent. The magnetic ironstone of Eosedale has been wrought in two localities, namely, at Eosedale Abbey, East and West Mines, and at Sheriffs' Mines. The first two analyses are those of Mr. W. Crowder and Mr. J. Pattinson, and the third was made in the Clarence Laboratory of Messrs. BeU Brothers. The Eosedale Abbey stone is chiefly smelted at the Ferry Hill Ironworks, Durham, and to some extent as a mixture at other works. In quality the iron is stated to be Kke that which is obtained from the main beds of ironstone in Cleveland. The Ingleby stone occurring among the oolitic rocks being thin and expensive to work has long since been abandoned. Mr. I. L. Bell states a few hundred tons were smelted without admixture at the Clarence Works. " The content of iron was verified as being superior to the ordinary Cleveland main seam, but the metal in quahty did not differ from the usual make of the district." Transactions of South Wales Inatitute of Mining Engineers, vol. vi. p. 285. cHAr. in.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 373 Eesxjlts Tabttlated. ROSEDALE ABBEY. Constituents. Ingleby Stone. Black Stone. Blue Stone. Protoxide of iron 33-85 41-14 Peroxide of iron .... 64-90 32-67 7-07 Peroxide of manganese . ■ •> 0-69 0-94 Alumina 9-25 3-15 4-71 Lime 3-53 2-86 3-32 Potash 0-20 Magnesia .... 0-99 1-59 3-34 Silica 5-70 6-95 7-37 Loss by heat .... 16-15 Carbonic acid . . . . ... 10-36 26-00 Phosphoric acid 1-41 1-36 Bisulphide of iron . . . 0-03 0-08 Water 4-60 4-24 100-52 98-16 99-77 The metallic iron contained in these ores amounts respec- tively to 45-48 per cent., 49"20 per cent., and 36-95 per cent. The Rosedale ore, employed some years since at the works of the Consett Iron Company in a calcined state, gave very satis- factory results : 632 tons 8 cwts. of calcined stone produced 344 tons 13 cwts. of pig-iron ; and at the Park Gate Ironworks, near Rotherham, the raw stone was found to yield 45 per cent, of metallic iron. The Pecten and Avicula beds of ironstone are worked by the Messi-s. John and Thomas Bagnall, also the Dogger bed, at Grosmont. The two first-named beds are well developed at Grosmont Hall, about six miles south-west of Whitby, and one mile south-east of Eston, in the following section : — SrocESSioif OF Beds.* Ft. In. 1. Shale and bands and doggers of ferro-argiUaceous stone 27 2 2. " Main " or " Pecten Seam " of Ironstone . . ..46 3. Shale and doggers 31 4. "Bottom "or "Avicula Seam" 3 9 Total thickness 66 5 These ironstones, examined by Mr. Charles Tookey, in Dr. Percy's laboratory, exhibit the following constituents : t — * " The Yorkshire Lias," Tate and Blake, p. 147. t Dr. Percy's Metallurgy, " Iron and Steel," p. 223. 374 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II, Ebsults Tabulated. Avicula Bed. Pecten Bed. DOGGER BED. a. 6. C. Protoxide of iron . Protoxide of manganese Alumina . Lime .... Magnesia Carbonic acid Phosphoric acid "Water Ignited insoluble solution 33-17 0-50 3-92 11-90 4-52 28-00 0-48 3-65 13-22 34-98 0-48 3-20 11-96 4-51 29-20 1-30 3-30 10-04 32-78 0-45 1-18 6-44 4-58 26-13 0-19 2-80 24-10 22-30 0-50 2-10 11-80 3-96 24-40 0-30 3-20 30-96 40-77 0-67 1-32 4-08 5-34 31-80 0-06 2-70 12-36 99-36 98-97 98-65 99-52 99-10 Ignited Insoluble Solution. SiHca 9-42 8-00 18-12 23-10 8-80 Iron, total amount . 25-80 27-21 25-50 17-34 31-71 In the following table will be found some of the more im- portant localities in Cleveland in which ironstone is raised, and which has been examined, together with the name of the analyst and the amount of metallic iron : — Name of Mine. Analyst. Metallic Iron per cent. Eston Normanby . Upleatham Belmont South Bank Hutton Low Cross (a.) „ (b.) (c.) Hutton Low Cross . Cleveland fEaw) ,, (Calcined) Bosedale 01ack Stone) ,, (Blue Stone) Ingleby Stone Grosmont (Avicula Bed) (Pecten Bed) Dogger Bed (a.) :: U .• Spa Wood . Kirkham . Sleight's Bridge Grosmont Tunnel . Mr. A. Dick Mr. I. L. Bell Professor F. A. Abel Mr. W. Crowder t> Mr. Eichardson Mr. John Pattinson Mr. I. Lowthian Bell Mr. Charles Tookey Thomas Allison Mr. W. Crowder 33-62 31-42 31-97 32-78 35-46 28-84 27-45 34-75 33-09 29-09 40-81 45-43 49-20 36-95 25-80 27-21 25-50 17-34 31-71 31-00 34-00 29-83 28-60 CHAP, in.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 375 Production of Ironstone. — Originally it appears that the iron- stone of Cleveland was collected on the beach, and this was done fi'om an early date. Mr. I, Lowthian BeU mentions * that for the Whitehill Furnace, built in 1745 and abandoned before the end of the last century, ironstone was gathered in Eobin Hood's Bay and conveyed by water to Picktree-on-the-Wear,near Chester-le-Street, and carted from that place to the works. Soon after the year 1800 the Tyne Iron Company obtained ironstone in a similar way from the beach between Scarborough and Saltburn ; and accord- ing to Bewick, in his work on the Cleveland ironstone, the firm commenced between the years 1815 and 1820 to tear up the stone from its bed at different parts of the coast. It is stated that the discovery of the ironstone was due to a Mr. Wilson, then a partner in the Tyne Iron Company's Works, who pointed out its position at Grosmont, about five miles from Whitby, about the year 1836. The seam being 4| feet thick was cheaply worked, the stone sent down the railway and shipped at all seasons for the Tyne, where it would at that time cost about 9s. per ton. It is probable that ultimately as much as from 80,000 to 100,000 tons of it were annually smelted in the North-country furnaces. The Whitby Stone Company commenced operations on the Grosmont Seam, known as the " Pecten Seam," and in May, 1836, sent their first cargo of 55 tons to the Birtley Ironworks. A second quantity was subsequently received by the same company but rejected; however the stone was again tried, and finally permanent contracts were entered into in 1838. About the same time this ironstone was also wrought at two villages, Kettleness and Staithes, the one about five and the other ten miles nearer the mouth of the Tees than Whitby ; and about the year 1842 a blast furnace was erected at Walker, being the first specially constructed for smelting what was then known as Whitby or Yorkshire stone. In the meantime, that is in the year 1840, Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan established themselves as bar-iron manufacturers at the town of Middlesborough, and five or six years afterward, like others elsewhere before them, mistaken in the extent of local deposits of ironstone, were induced to erect four blast furnaces * " Manufacture of Iron, Tyne, Wear, and Tees : " British Association Report, 1863. 376 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. on the South Durham Coal-field at Witton Park, about 25 miles west of their works at Middlesborough. Avery short time sufficed to dispel the illusion, and about the year 1846 they also became dependent upon Whitby for their supplies of ore. The mineral was conveyed thence by vessel to their works on the Tees, unloaded, sent up by rail to Witton Park, and brought back to Middlesborough in the form of pig-iron; although a bed of stone identical with that from which it was worked lay within four miles of the wharf where they were unloading the sea-borne cargoes from Whitby. Previous to the ironstone being worked from the seams at Kettleness and Staithes, that which had been gathered on the beach consisted chiefly of water-worn masses. So far back as 1822 the series of beds of ironstone at Boulby were estimated by Young and Bird to have an aggregate thick- ness of 15 feet ; but the main deposit itself appears to have been mistaken by those writers for limestone. Guided probably by detached masses which had fallen from the cliff along which it runs, the Great Cleveland ironstone was discovered about 1849 by John Eoseby, a practical miner, in the valley of Skinningrove. In September, 1850, the first ton of ironstone was worked from Eston Hill for trial at the Witton Park works. Previous to this the Valley of the Esk, and, to a small extent, the coast, furnished the necessary ironstone. Subsequently the quantity raised on the coast was increased a little in consequence of the seam near Skinningrove being recognised as containing more iron. Commencing with the year 1854, when returns of production first appear, 650,000 tons of ironstone were raised in the Cleve- land district, increased to 865,300 tons in 1855, and 1,148,488 tons in 1856. Additional quantities were obtained in each of the same years from the Esk Valley, and the coast, amounting in 1855 to 105,000 tons, and in 1856 to 98,124 tons ; bringing up the total production of Cleveland in 1855 to 970,300 tons, and in 1856 to 1,246,612 tons. The detailed production of the mines for the year 1856 are thus given by Mr. John Marley in his paper.* This memoir contains much important matter, and gives an account of the ironworks then in operation, and the several mines in Cleveland from whence the works received their supply of ironstone : — * " Memoir on Cleveland Ironstone, &c.," 1857. CHAP, in.] YORKSHIEE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. S77 NAMES OF HIKES. Eston .... Hutton Loworop or Codhill TJpleatham Normanby .... Belmont or Belmont Bank Eosedale Cliff and Staithes South of Staithes . Biaithwaite Sleight's Bridge Eskdale Iron Company Whitby Stone Company " The Quarry," Eosedale . Total QUANTITIES. 568,156 tons. 21'7,253 „ 171,360 „ 131,575 ,, 73,164 ,, 23,500 „ 12,500 „ 5,916 ,, 11,250 „ 5,438 „ 22,500 ,, 4,000 ,, 1,246,612 In the following year (1857) seven new mines were in operation, increasing the production in that year to 1,414,165 tons, of which 7,500 tons was magnetic ore obtained from the deposits at Eose- dale Abbey. In 1857 and subsequent years the production of the Cleveland Hills will be seen in the annexed table, with the number of mines producing ironstone in each year : — Number of Iritnstniie Year. Number of Ironstone Mines. Raised. Mines. Raised. Tons. Tons. 1857 17 1,414,155 1869 16 3,094,678 1858 17 . 1,367,395 1870 17 4,072,888 1859 15 1,520,342 1871 21 4,581,901 1860 17 1,471,319 1872 31 4,974,950 1861 17 1,242,514 1873 35 5,617,014 1862 16, 1,689,966 1874 36 5,614,322 1863 13 2,078,806 1875 39 6,121,794 1864 14 2,401,890 1876 36 6,562,000 1865 20 2.762,359 1877 33 6,284,545 1866 19 2,809,061 1878 29 5,605,639 1867 17 2,739,039 1879 29 4,750,000 1868 15 2,785,307 1880 29 6,486,654 Considerable difficulty stands in the way of getting the exact value of the ironstone raised in Cleveland, chief among them being the large proportion which is consumed in the furnaces of the mine owners, and in regard to which there is therefore no sale, and the further large proportion which is to be delivered under contracts made many years since and having many years to run, at prices which are no guide to the existing values. Iron- stone was selling in Cleveland in 1860 at 6s. per ton, ten years later the average price was 5s., at which price it continued during 1871, rising in the following year to 7s. 6d. per ton, the highest average price ever reached. During 1874 it averaged 6s. per ton, and since that date has continued to fall. 378 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II In the year 1875 the question of value was carefully considered by " The Mine Owners' Association," and the average price given was 4s. per ton net at the mines. Again, in 1876, the average price was given as varying from 3s. 4d. to 3s. 9d. per ton ; and in 1877, from 3s. to 3s. 6d. per ton ; the same prices existing in 1878. When, in 1877, it became difficult to work the mines to advantage, and this, with a decreasing demand, led to the closing of many of them, prices again fell, and in 1879 the average prices given were from 2s. 9d. to 3s. 3d. per ton, increased in 1880 to from Bs. 3d. to 3s. 9d. per ton, these prices having been adopted as the nearest approach to the correct value that could be arrived at. The detailed production of the mines in Cleveland in the year 1880 is given in the following statement, showing an increase over the previous year of 1,736,654 tons : — No. Names of Mines. Quantities. Value. Tons. Cwts. £ !. rf. 1 Ailesbury (Swainley) . 66,042 -, 2 Belmont (Guisborough) . . 110,148 15 •^ Boosbeok ,, 486,695 12 4 Brotton (Saltburn) . . . 510,302 4 5 Cbaloner (Guisborough. *260,000 6 Cragg'sHall,, . . . 257,491 18 7 Carlin How „ . 115,465 12 8 Clifl „ . . . 58,332 10 9 Eston (Middlesborough) 1,037,654 10 Grosmont (York) . . . 134,671 11 Huntclifle (Saltburn) . 173,157 7 12 Lane Head (Eosedale) . . 3,109 16 13 Lingdale (Guisborough) Lofthouse (Loftus) . . . 98,531 6 14 584,049 16 15 Long Acres (Saltburn) . 240,315 1,135,164 12 16 Normanby (Middlesborough) 160,405 6 i7 Ormesby ',, 144,609 12 18 Kirkleatham (Eedcar) . . 92,616 7 19 Park Pit . . . . 393,787 6 20 Port Mulgrave and Grinklo . 170,576 21 Eosedale West 6,079 22 Slapewath (Guisborough) 47,114 18 23 Spa ,, 108,055 19 24 Spa Wood „ . . 15,271 9 25 Skelton (Marske) . 117,182 19 26 Skelton North (Saltburn) . 247,735 3 27 Stanghow (Saltburn) . 29,541 16 28 Upleatham (Marske) . . 794,886 15 29 Sundry Mines Total of North Hiding of) Yorkshire . . . j 22,826 12 J 6,486,654 18 1,135,164 12 Estimated. CHAP, in.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 379 As showing the extent of production in some of the miaes wrought for a quarter of a century, the following have been selected, viz., Eston, Normanby and Upleatham, giving the total output in each year since 1856 : — Year. Eston. Normanby. Upleatham. Tons. Tons. Tons. i 1856 568,156 131,575 171,360 1 1857 562,473 159,898 171,366 1858 507,265 166,785 190,306 1859 638,620 204,260 265,524 1860 613,391 186,152 391,410 1861 565,285 83,471 288,191 1862 608,420 235,758* 433,139 1863 633,206 140,348 573,613 1864 639,404 148,417 689,940 1865 685,980 139,417 719,998 1866 710,156 147,213 753,022 1867 665,975 t ■ 840,577 1868 715,248 169,769 872,335 1869 761,594 t 892,771 1870 831,787 215,615 959,648 1871 532,821 256,023 1,034,530 1872 t 254,272 811,579 1873 705,228 221,485 711,360 1874 569,240 224,821 585,416 1875 571,621 238,107 640,905 1876 581,978 < 199,254 662,200 1877 592,478 238,152 613,744 1878 557,982 228,430 732,139 1879 540,749 239,098 714,075 1880 1,037,654 160,405 794,886 The mines above referred to belong respectively to Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan, Messrs. J. W. Pease & Co., and Messrs. Bell Brothers, who also possess many other mines in the district. During the past few years the mines in the neighbourhood of Saltburn-by-the-Sea and Guisborough have produced ironstone in the following quantities : — Saltbton-bt-the-Sea. Tear. Brotton. Cragg's Hall. Huntcliffe. Skelton. North Skelton. South Skelton. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 392,783 196,508 180,473 ... 166,419 4,034 1873 375,334 169,507 173,221 157,755 165,279 133,492 1874 337,783 198,000 184,425 158,636 157,755 182,253 1875 384,436 217,539 145,487 148,776 137,133 314,237 1876 403,309 179,639 121,613 206,003 278,097 437,872 1877 468,163 175,211 166,326 20,549 297,193 379,112 1878 481,631 171,992 190,716 ... 191,732 236,582 1879 410,334 167,675 198,895 10,029 201,843 133,403 1880 510,302 257,492 173,157 ... 247,735 117,182 Including Skelton. + Included in other returns. 380 COAL AND IRON INDTJSTEIES. [PAET II. Those named around Guisborough being as follows, in each of the years since 1872 : — Tear. Boosbeclc. Chaloner. Slapewath. Spa. Spa Wood. Belmont. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 *.. 15,831 47,547 ... 181,068 18Y3 4,785 100,513 52,000 ... 134,965 1874 133,316 150,393 25,000 ... ... 172,805 1875 222,637 207,694 51,368 111,861 83,536 161,185 1876 237,978 207,894 73,298 91,270 69,301 117,000 1877 265,870 234,995 78,001 75,662 45,303 57,301 1878 288,210 322,332 80,542 60,825 83,536 8,967 1879 318,659 261,392 26,236 64,556 3,698 34,352 1880 486,695 260,000 47,119 108,056 15,271 110,148 Other mines have exceeded the output of many of the above, notably the KLrkleatham at Redcar, the Loftus at Lofthouse, and the Liverton at the same place. The Eosedale Abbey Estate, which has acquired some celebrity from its possession of rich and extensive deposits of magnetic iron ore, occurring in pockets, has an area of 5,530 acres, of which 2,830 acres are under cultivation. Of this estate a wi'iter in the New- castle Chronicle says : " Not until the North Yorkshire and Cleve- land Eailway had been transferred to the North-Eastern in 1859, and the latter company began to carry out to completion the line by extending it from Stokesley to Grosmont, and by forming the Rosedale Branch to Ingleby a year after the date last named, was there any likelihood of enlarged mineral traffic from the dale. In 1861 the Rosedale Branch was completed, and from that date, for years, the mineral output of the mines began to increase." This development appears in the following table, the output of the year 1857 amounting to 7,500 tons : — Year. Quantities. Yeai-. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1861 79,786 1871 314,394 1862 219,123 1872 303,205 1863 224,889 1873 560,668 1864 297,580 1874 , 473,140 1865 250,000 1875 383,914 1866 230,382 1876 383,827 1867 178,227 1877 344,487 1868 210,082 1878 234,150 1869 269,595 1879 25,592* 1870 317,000 1880 9,188 * Mines closed in March, 1879, and operations resumed by a new company in 1880, when the above quantity was raised, the value at the pits being about 3*. per ton put in trucks. CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 381 The ironstone mines of Cleveland, their situation and proprie- tors, were as follows in the yeax 1881 : — Olevelaitd and Whitbt District. No. Name of Mine. Situation. Name of Proprietor or Company. Name of Manager or Agent. Ailesbury . Huntcliff . CUff . Carltn How . Normanby Park, in Cleveland Skelton Chaloner . Eston . Longacres . Skelton, North Cragg's Hall . Lingdale Lofthouse . Tocketts Upleatliam Whitecliflfe Liverton North Loftus . Port Mulgrave and Grinkle . Eosedale Abbey.East ,, West „ Shen-iff Grosmont . Brotton . Califuniia . Belmont . Spawood Kirkleatham Boosbeck Slapewatli Ormesby Skelton, Soutli Spa Lane Head Wintergill . Stanghow . Swainby . . ■< Saltbum-by-the-Sea . Middlesbro' . . . Skelton . Marske-by-the-Sea . Guisborough • J Middlesbro'-on-Tees Saltburn . Guisborough Loftus Guisborough Marske-by-the-Sea Saltburn Loftus Saltburn Near Saltbui-n - by - the-Sea Pickering .1 Grosmont (York) -j Saltburn Brotton . . Grosmont . Guisborough . •! Redcar . i Guisborough Middlesboro* . Saltburn Guisborough . Rosedale Abbey . Egton Lythe . Saltburn Carlton Iron Ore Co., Limited . Bell Brothers, Limited Bolckow, Vaughan Co., Limited . J. W. Pease & Co. Liverton Ironstone Co., Limited . . . Skinningrove Iron Co., Limited . Palmer's Shipbuilding and Iron Co., Ltm. Rosedale and Ferryhill Iron Co., Limited, Martin Morrison, manager . Giai'Ies and Thomas BagnaJl, junr. Morrison & Co. . Weardale Iron and Coal Co., Limited . . Kirkleatham Ironstone Co. . Stevenson, Jaques & Co. B. Samuelson & Co. Cargo Fleet Iron Co The Owners of Clay Lane Iron "Works Gjers, Mills & Co. Robt. Hansel! J. Foster and Son . Stanghow Ironstone Co. f Tliomas Bell, junr. ( A. L. Steavenson. I Thomas Lee. J. Thompson. George Robinson. Wm. France. Christopher Heslop. Wm. France. Wm. Walton. W. Moore. William Prance. G. Lee. Francis Fox. \ J. Westray. A. S. Palmer. John Roscamp. Charles Parkin. ( W. Armstrong. J Francis Lord. D. W. Dixon. j-Thos. Allison. j William Walker. Wm. Charlton. William Walker. I John Thompson. John Tate. Robt. Hansen. E. Hamilton. Having considered the vast deposits of ironstone in the Cleveland district, it will now be a fitting time to refer generally to some of the difficulties met with in ironstone mining, and of the machinery employed to aid the miner in the operation. A writer in the Colliery Guardian,* well acquainted with the district and quoting from Mr. A. L. SteaVenson's interesting paper "Iron- stone Mining in Cleveland,*' t says that, " owing to the irregular * Nov. 26th, 1880. t "Journal of the Iron and Steel Institution," 1874, p. 329, 382 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. character of the strata in some pai-ts and the configuration of the country in others, the mining of these immense deposits of iron- stone is carried on under various conditions. At the outcrop of the main seam at Eston it is 300 feet above the level of the sea, and dips thence at the rate of three inches to the yard until it is 100 feet below sea level under the centre of the hill, whence it rises as rapidly tiU it crops out again at the other side of the hiU, not to mention several faults or dislocations of considerable mag- nitude. In other parts, such as at the Kilton Winning, large feeders of water, amounting sometimes to 1,000 gallons per minute, make both sinking and working an operation of more than ordinary difficulty. Perhaps the largest feeders of water have been encountered at the North Skelton Mines. At a depth of 64 fathoms the ' Top seam ' was reached, 3 feet 6 inches thick, but even at that depth the water had to be forced at the rate of 3,000 gallons, or nearly 15 tons a minute. Incidentally it may be observed, that towards the end of 1880 the depth attained at this mine exceeded 720 feet, when the ironstone was reached and is now worked." " When the extraction of ironstone began in 1850 at Eston it was only necessary to uncover the outcrops and then quarry it out in large quantities, but as the covering increased in thickness as the working proceeded, drifting became necessary ; and ultimately as the water feeders increased deep shaft sinking had to be adopted. Both drifts and shafts are now extensively in use, the expediency of adopting the one or the other being determined by the nature of the local circumstances. The getting of the ironstone is mostly accomplished by blasting, and for this purpose gunpowder is the best explosive. Many other kinds of explosives have been tried, but the oldest is stiU considered the best. The operations of the miners are facilitated by the occurrence, often at short . distances apart, of joints called ' backs.' The mode of operation is as follows : Cylindrical holes are drilled, varying from two to five feet deep. The boring of these holes is the chief work of the miners, less skUled men beiag employed to break up the stone and fiU it into waggons. A good miner can drill a hole of 5 feet ia an hour. Different kinds of machines have been tried for the purpose of drilling these holes, but none of them have been so successful as to entirely supersede hand labour. Probably 15,000 tons of gunpowder are consumed yearly in blasting the ironstone CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 383 of Cleveland. The vise of such large quantities of this explosive adds considerably to the impurity of the atmosphere in the mines ; hence various mechanical appliances are generally employed to improve the ventilation." The importance of suitable machinery to aid the miner in his labour of getting the ironstone is a point of especial interest. Mr. "Windsor Eichards recently, in his address to the members of the Cleveland Institution of Engineers, remarks, " There is no industry of more importance to this district than that of the iron- stone mining, and the economical production of ironstone can scarcely be over-rated when it is remembered that about 3^ tons are necessary for the manufacture of a ton of pig-iron. Machinery has already been introduced for winning the stone, and its im- provement and extension are weU worthy of careful attention." ] Mr. Bichards continues his observations by the following in- teresting sketch of rock driUs and their adoption at the North Skelton Mines. He says, " I believe that Mr. William Walker, of Saltburn, was the first to introduce machinery into the Cleve- land mines. He adopted the ordinary rotary spiral drill, driven by a pair of small engines worked by compressed air. Before deciding on the land of drill to be adopted at the North Skelton Mines, where the ironstone is extra hard, he carefully investigated many of the rock driUs in use, and finally determined upon the percussive system, the drills being of simple forms, i-equiring such slight repairs as can be effected by the ordinary black- smith at the mine. At the North Skelton Mines there are at present seven machines at work, which are distributed over certain districts. Each district consists of ten working places. A direct-acting horizontal engine, fixed on the surface, having 20-inch steam and 22-inch air cylinders, 4-feet stroke, supplies air to the machines at a pressure of about 70 lbs. per square inch. The engine is sufficiently powerful to work twelve machines. The compressed air is forced down the shaft and along the main roads, east and west, in 6-inch pipes. The pipes along the roadway are 4-inch diameter. The machines have 2-inch and the working places 1-inch wrought-iron galvanised pipes. At present each machine only produces about 50 tons of ironstone per shift of eight hours, but a machine has occasionally got 75 tons, and in a few instances 96 and even 107 tons in eight hours. For 50 tons of ironstone got, about 25 holes 1 inch in 384 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. diameter have to be bored to a depth varying from 3 feet to 5 feet, according to the hardness of the stone, or about 100 feet depth of ironstone pierced per machine per eight hours. After being placed in position the drill bores the stone at the rate of 16 inches per minute, or a hole 4 feet deep can be readily made in six minutes, including the time for changing the drills ; whereas an ordinary miner would take fuUy sixty minutes to put in a hole 4 feet deep by 'tamping' or 'jump- ing ' with a bar in the usual way ; so that the machine does easily the hardest and most fatiguing work of the miner. One machine employs two miners and a boy, who attend to the drilling and blasting, and four labourers, who break up and fill the stone into the tubs or waggonettes. Ironstone mining by machinery is comparatively new in the district, and the miners have not yet got well into the way of using it; but there can be no doubt that with ordinary diligence one machine can produce from 70 tons to 80 tons of stone per eight hours' shift. The kind of machine adopted at North Skelton is that known as the ' Burleigh,' the principal parts of which are the cylinder, piston, the cradle, with guide stays in which the cyhnder travels, and the drills. The piston travels backwards and forwards at a rate which gives 300 blows per minute, and for eighteen blows given it revolves once. The cylinder moves along the cradle, and is fed by a screw worked by hand, automatic gear for this purpose having been found so far unsuitable, owing to the various degrees of hardness of the stone to be bored. As soon as the drill has been fed in the 2-feet length of screw it is withdrawn, and a longer drill substituted. Drills are made of different lengths, and the points of various forms. The half-moon shapes are very suitable for the first and second drills to a depth of 3 feet. The air exhausted from the machines has a beneficial effect in venti- lating the working places. The success of this machine, or, indeed, of any other, depends upon the handiness and simplicity of the carriage on which it is mounted. The carriage has received very careful attention from Mr. Chisholm, the engineer of the mine, and is very ingeniously arranged and well adapted for its work. The carriage must be constructed so that it can be very quickly brought up to its work, and be quickly removed to another working place. It must allow the driUs to work at any angle, and to drill at any point of the working face." CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDINg) IRON INDUSTRIES. 385 Bistribntion of Cleveland Ironstone. — The great bulk of the ironstone raised in the Cleveland Hills is reduced to the metallic state in the furnaces of Cleveland and those of Durham and Northumberland, ample facilities for its transport being afforded chiefly by the North-Eastem Eailway and its numerous branches. The total quantities of Cleveland ore carried in each year by the above-named railway include those hematite ores carried from the north-west coast of Lancashire and Cumberland, and other districts, while the annexed statement, showing for a few years the quantities used in the furnaces of Durham and Cleveland, and the total quantities of all kinds of iron ore carried by the North-Eastem Railway, will indicate generally the distribution of the ironstone : — Year. Cleveland Furnaces. Durham Furnaces. Total carried by Nortli Eastern Eailway. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 2,955,000 2,100,000 4,652,052 1873 2,920,000 2,392,000 4,928,458 1874 2,980,500 2,280,000 4,904,279 1876 3,296,824 2,050,852 5,306,113 1876 3,524,962 2,030,000 5,426,576 1877 3,980,770 1,972,395 5,647,821 1878 3,850,045 1,642,149 4,999,448 1879 3,380,016 1,253,860 4,190,050 1880 4,463,229 1,603,905 5,785,724 Considerable quantities of iron ore wiU also have been carried direct from the mines to the furnaces without passing over the North-Eastern system. Population Employed in Iron Uining. — Until the year 1873 our information of the number of persons employed in the North Eiding of Yorkshire or Cleveland district was not accurately known. In 1873 it was, for the first time, ascertained that the number of persons engaged in iron mining amoxmted to 9,350, of whom 6,947 were engaged in imderground operations, and 2,403 above ground ; producing * 5,435,233 tons of ironstone, or an average of 581 tons per person. Since 1873 the numbers em- ployed, the ironstone raised, and average output per man, have been as follows : — Reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. c 886 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAUT II. Year. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total. Ironstone Baised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 6,947 7,571 7,660 7,810 6,983 5,654 6,031 6,500 Nos. 2,403 2,274 2,128 2,041 1,586 1,137 1,128 1,472 Nos. 9,350 9,845 9,788 9,851 8,569 6,791 7,159 7,972 Tons. 5,435,233 5,428,487 6,085,541 6,564,101 6,289,745 5,316,477 4,714,535 6,441,783 Tons. 681 651 623 667 735 784 695 808 In the last named year there were 44 iron mines in the district comprising 53 separate pits or drifts, but of the mines 8 were standing, compared with 18 in the previous year. Resources of the Cleveland Ironstone District. — According to Bewick, who first directed attention to this subject, the estimated area of the main bed of Cleveland ironstone was 420 square miles, and taking the average yield per acre at 20,000 tons, he estimated the contents at 5,000,000,000 tons. In 1863 Mr. I. Lowthian Bell, in his paper on " The Manufacture of Iron," read before the British Association,* basing his calculation on the researches of Messrs. Hugh and J. T. Taylor and T. Young HaU, &c., estimated the resources of the Durham and Northum- berland Coal-field at six thousand million tons for future use, so that there is sufiicient fuel in the one district — ^reserving it for that purpose exclusively — to smelt the ironstone of the main seam of the other. The subject was again considered in the year 1871 by the "Iron Ore Committee of the Iron and Steel Institute," who reported as follows. They said, "It is now tolerably weU known that after leaving the Eston Hills, the ironstone in which has occupied three square miles, the district from which the chief supply of stone is to come for the next century comprises a length of nearly six miles from the vicinity of Guisborough, south-east to the coast, with an average width of four miles. It has been proved that over the greater part of this area the main seam occurs in an unbroken state, varying in workable thickness from 9 to 13 feet, and having about the same * " British Association Papers, 1863," p. 60. CHAP. HI.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIBING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 887 per centage of metallic iron throughout. Towards the south the stone does get slightly leaner however, by from one to two per cent., and it also steadily thins off; but for the purposes of this estimate the whole district may be taken collectively, and the stone regarded as uniform throughout. The total area of this tract, including the Eston Hills, is 27 square miles, or 17,280 square acres. It is calculated that from the discovery of the Cleveland ironstone to the end of 1870, the total quantity of stone smelted has been 45,000,000 tons, which at 80,000 tons per acre, gives 1,500 acres worked out in twenty years, of which the greater portion has been in the locality a few miles of Middles- borough. The present rate of working is at the rate of 160 acres per annum, and this will be rapidly increased. But the mining- field under notice yet contains say, 16,000 acres untouched, so that at the rate of extraction prevailing in 1870 there is a supply of stone, in this part of Cleveland alone, sufficient to last 100 years, without taking into consideration the iron ores of Eosedale and other places outside the locality in question. But there is every reason to believe that beyond the boundaries of this known district the main seam extends underneath the whole country as far as Whitby and the Valley of the Esk, although it is impos- sible to speak with any certainty as to the changes that may occur in the quality or thickness of the seam in the direction indicated." Now, accepting the estimates of the " Iron Ores Committee " and making necessary deductions for production of the past ten years, the acreage now available (1880) would not exceed . 14,000 acres of the main seam of Cleveland, which at the present rate of exhaustion would afford supplies for seventy years to come. Recently the resources of the Cleveland district have been treated in an exhaustive paper read before the Cleveland Institution of Engineers, Middlesborough,* and the results arrived at generally coincide with those of the Iron Ores Committee as to the contents of the main seam. Mr. Barrow's investigations are embodied in the following account. He says : — " There are, in Cleveland, two distinct classes of iron-stone, the better being blue, very oolitic, and comparatively free from aluminous matter, yielding about 30 per cent., or rather more, * By Mr. George Barrow, F.G.S.,of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, C C 2 388 COAL AND IRON INDCJSTRIES. [pakt ii. of metallic iron ; tlie second-class stone is of a dull yellowish tinge, not so oolitic, and contains alumina in place of the iron, which is lost, 28 or 29 per cent, beiug as much iron as is usually- extracted from it. This deterioration in quality of the stone is accompanied by a serious drawback to its being cheaply worked, for, towards (slightly below) the middle of the seam, a band of shale gradually comes ia, thickening in a southerly direction till it reaches its maximum thickness of 2 feet, which is the amount of shale between the upper and lower parts of the main seam at Grosmont, the seam being quite unworkable in that district, " In order to fix the limits of the good stone, it is necessary to know its outcrop, and also the line marking the limit of the shale band in the middle of the seam. The former I have carefully mapped out on the six-inch maps of the district. The limit of the shale band, in the middle of the seam, may be roughly described by a line joining the road at Spa Wood, near Guis- borough, to the north side of South Skelton shaft, thence on to Hummersea on the coast, a Httle more than a mile east of Skin- ningrove Beck. All the good stone lies north of that line in an area consisting of three distinct parts : Eston, Upleatham, and the Skelton and Huntclifie district. " Commencing with the Eston outlier, Eston may be considered as consisting of Eston Eoyalty proper, and the smaller Royalties of Normanby, Ormesby, and Dunsdale, calculating the seam as of so many ' foot-acres,' i.e., acres one foot in thickness. " Eston, then, consists of 24,000 foot-acres, very nearly. The specific, gravity of the stone is about 2"6, and, as a cubic-foot of water weighs 1,000 ounces, a foot of stone weighs 2,600 ounces, and an acre one foot thick weighs 3,610 tons. Hence we have roughly 86,640,000 tons in Eston Eoyalty, " Similarly, there are 2,300 foot-acres in Normanby, and 8,300,000 tons of stone. Also in Ormesby there are 720 foot- acres and 2,600,000 tons of stone. There are 900 foot-acres in Dunsdale, or 3,250,000 tons of stone. In order to tell how long these miaes will last, it is necessary next to know the average amount of stone taken yearly out of each, and the total taken. " In consequence of the Mining Record Office returns, prior to 1865, being incomplete, it is obvious that the total obtained from this source of information will be much under the mark, in the case of Eston, Upleatham, and Normanby, as in 1865 they were CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 389 in full swing, turning out almost as much stone as at present. Still, I shall make the calculation from 1865, making a small allowance for cases when considerably more stone has been taken than is represented by this total." " From such information, then, we arrive at the following result : — The yeaiiy output of Eston is 800,000 tons ; of Nor- manby, 225,000 tons ; of Ormesby, 75,000. The total of iron- stone removed in Eston, 16,000,000 tons ; in Normanby, 5,000,000 tons ; in Ormesby, 500,000 tons. Now, if we deduct the total taken out from the whole of the stone in a mine, and take away at least one-tenth for loss in working, we have for the quantity now left — TONS. In Eston 00,000,000 ,, Normanby 2,500,000 ,, Ormesby 1,800,000 Hence, dividing these totals by the average yearly output, we find, for the continued duration of each mine, — For Eston 75 years. ,, Normanby 8 ,, ,, Ormesby 15 ,, " Proceeding in a similar way for the Upleatham district, the total stone amounts to 10,000 foot-acres, or 36,100,000 tons. The yearly output is 700,000 tons, and the total taken out con- siderably over 12,000,000 tons, so that its duration wiU be some 80 years, or rather less — between 25 and 30. " The area of good stone left in Skelton and Huntchffe districts consists of 48,000 foot-acres, or 173,280,000 tons. The yearly output is about 1,800,000 tons, and the total output 24,190,000 tons, or more. Hence the workable quantity left is about • 145,000,000 tons, which would, at this rate, last 80 years. But, taking into consideration the increased call 30 years hence, 60 years would be a fair limit to put to the duration of the stone. " Now, the main seam in the poorer districts may be said to consist of a strip 13 mUes long, by about 2J miles wide. South of this the seam is very poor and thin, and consists of 4 feet of stone, with a two-feet shale parting in the middle. Before it would pay to work this, other seams will be wrought ; in fact, these seams will be worked beforn many years, because, though 390 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [paut ii. thin, their quality is better than any, except the very best stone. The total amount in this strip, then, of the inferior stone, which pays to work now in fairly good times, is, roughly, 375,480,000 tons, and, at the present rate of output, would last some 130 years ; but this period would be much lessened, as in 30 years the output would be more than doubled to compensate for the exhaustion of the Upleatham and other mines." Mr. Barrow subsequently considers, in detail, the district in which the main seam occurs, where it is at present regarded as almost valueless, "and defines the area of the poorer stone 13 miles long and 2J miles broad, as extending in a line roughly drawn from Kildale, south of Guisborough, to Kettleness, north of "Whitby, as its southern boundary. At Kildale, the section of the seam consists of 4 feet of stone, with a. shale parting of 14 inches, and again, on the Commondale shaft the seam may be said to consist of three-two's. At Grosmont, the seam has become so thin as to be almost unrecognisable. It must be borne in mind that this bed is in aU cases of a decidedly poor quality, and so up to Kettleness, where the average yield is 26'5 per cent, of iron. South-east of Kettleness iron has not been seen or proved. " Taking into consideration the poverty of the seam in Hawkser, south of Whitby, where the seam is represented by a few doggers, it is evident it wiU not be used as a source of iron for many years to come, if ever. Coming to the consideration of the other seams of ironstone in Cleveland not usually worked, examining the main seam at Eston, it would be found, at the base as at present worked, to consist of a greenish, shaly stone, having a rather mottled appearance. Before reaching the south or east face of the hiU, a shale-band comes in between the oolitic stone and green stone, but only the oolitic was taken up in a long drift which was made some time ago on the Chaloner property, the shale and underlying shelly bed being left. The shelly bed is contained over a very large area, and is in fact the Pecten seam at Grosmont, and in future it would be far safer to restrict the term to this bed, calling the thick, blue stone usually found the main seam! It is usually of a poor quality, yielding about 27 per cent, of iron, or slightly less. It is difficult to estimate the amount of ironstone in this seam, because it varies very much according to presence or absence of the shaJey streaks. It probably cannot be worked separately under Eston, nor in the CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 391 Upleatham district, but at the Old Hutton mines it seems to have been taken near the outcrop, its thickness being 3 feet 6 inches, at a depth of about 4 feet from the base of the seam. "Again, at Kildale the shale is 2 feet 6 inches thick, and this belt is exposed at Spa Wood railway cutting, where its thickness is 4 feet. At Huntcliffe, and at Brotton, it is very thin, but at Longacres Pit it is 3 feet thick. At Grosmont its thickness varies from 2 feet 4 inches to 2 feet 6 inches of stone, with a shale parting in the upper part. Calculating that it covered an area of 60 square miles, with an average thickness of 2 feet 6 inches, it was estimated that there should be a total of 400,000,000 tons of ironstone from this seam, which was, how- ever, of poor quality, and not always reliable. About 5 feet 6 inches below the Pecten seam occurs a bed of stone, remarkable for its uniform thickness and its good quality. In many places, such as Normanby and Brotton, it seemed to be equally rich in iron with the main seam, its thickness usually being about from 1 foot 10 inches to 2 feet. It maintains this thickness over a very large area, being 2 feet 6 inches at Kildale ; 1 foot 10 inches at Guisborough ; and 2 feet 2 inches at Hob Hill, " On the coast at Staithes the seam shows signs of thinning, being about 1 foot 8 inches, so that they might put its south- eastern limit about three ; but it continues some distance in the Stokesley range of hiUs, being worked for some time in the Ingleby Mine, after the main seam had been abandoned. The estimated area of this seam would be about 60 square miles, with an average thickness of 2 feet. It is mostly a clean stone, and will yield a total of about 380,000,000 tons of first-class stone. "Below this seam is the 'Avicula' seam so well known at Grosmont. The avicula seam is very permanent, but its thick- ness varies very much over the whole of Cleveland, ranging from 3 feet at Grosmont, to as little as 1 foot 6 inches at Staithes, its average yield of iron being about 27 per cent. This seam also extends into the Stokesley Hills down Bilsdale, but it would be hazardous to say that it could be worked for a great distance from any given point. Its estimated area would extend over 100 square miles, and the probable amount of stone would be somewhere about 600,000,000 tons, probably more, but its working, except where it could easily be proved first, would be very venturesome. This concludes the account of the seams of ironstone in the Hassic 392 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. beds, and it only remains to consider those ironstone seams in the oolitic beds. Of these there are but two, one being the Dogger, or top bed, and the other the Eller Eock. The Dogger occurs at the top of the Alum shale, and as a general rule it may be defined as a sandy ironstone or a ferruginous, impure limestone. It is always re- markable for the so-caUed pebbles in it. At Eston, Upleatham, Guisborough, &c., it may be practically said to be non-existent. " From the peak at Robin Hood's to Runswick Bay, on the coast all along Eskdale, Glaisdale, Muske, Esk, &c., it is a highly siliceous, oolitic ironstone, varying from 2 feet to 16 feet thick. It has often been tried at Eskdale, Grosmont, and Muske Esk, but has always failed. About Staithes, Boulby, Huntcliffe, and Liyerton, the Dogger consists of a hard band of very fine clay ironstone, containing about 40 per cent, of iron, resting upon a ferruginous marl, often containing as little as 25 or 26 per cent. One of the most characteristic features of the top bed is its fickleness, being unreliable for any gieat distance. The per centage of impurity in the two marly beds will determine whether this seam can ever be worked, and the same remarks will apply to Huntcliffe, where the section is much the same. At Boulby Alum Works the seam is slightly thinner, but presents the same general characteristics ; at Grinkle Park the seam is very thin and sandy ; it is apparently absent at North Skelton Shaft, and is entirely wanting at the Hagg Alum "Works, near Saltburn. The area, over which this seam may possibly be worked in Cleve- land at some future time, is between four and five square miles, its average thickness being 3 feet 6 inches. In the Stokesley Hills the main seam occurs in cuticular patches, lying in eroded hollows in the alum shale. In all cases it contains much lime and silica, which in Bilsdale has been burnt for limd. "At Limekiln Bank, over Swainby, it becomes 28 feet thick, valueless as a source of iron, and at Catcliff Bank, near North ^yierton, the seam attains, in one place, a thickness of nearly 20 feet, but there are shaly partings in it, and most of the iron- stone is of poor quality ; in fact, it is of no value as iron ore. In Kosedale, however, a wedge of ironstone, formed similarly to that referred to in Bilsdale, occm's, in which all the lime has been probably replaced by iron, and where a rich iron ore has been found, but its extent has not hitherto been ascertained." Pig Iron JVEauufactnre. — The ironstone deposits of Cleveland CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH EIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 893 were first developed about the year 1850, and the smelting of the stone in the district soon followed, and so rapidly, that in the year 1855 there were 23 furnaces built, 21 of which were in blast and produced 84,600 tons of pig-iron. The early furnaces erected in the district varied in height from 42 to 50 and 55 feet, their capacity varying from 5,000 to 6,000 feet ; about the year 1861 fturnaces of greatly increased capacity were erected at the Thornaby Ironworks by Mr. WUliam Whitwell, three in number, each of a cubical capacity of 12,778 feet ; these furnaces were 60 feet in height and 20 feet diameter in the boshes. Consider- able economy was secured in the consumption of fuel in manu- facture by these larger furnaces, so much so, that in 1866 the Messrs. Hopkins, Gilkes & Co., at their Tees Side Ironworks, erected two furnaces, each 75 feet in height and 24 feet in the boshes, and a capacity of 20,000 cubic feet. The results attained by these large furnaces were so encourag- ing that still larger ones were erected, one having a height of 105 feet, and a cubical capacity of 41,150 feet. But it has since been determined that with these extraordinary dimensions the limit of economical working has been exceeded. In the year 1855, above referred to, the works and fii'ms in operation, with the number of furnaces built and in blast, were as follows, the make of pig-iron being, as previously stated, 84,500 tons :— No. Name of Works. Name of Firm. FURNACES. Built. In Blast. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tees . Eston . . . Cleveland . Mlddlesborough . Ormesby South Bank . . Gilkes, Wilson & Co. . Bolokow & Vaughan . T. L. Elwen & Co. . Cochrane & Co. . . Bolckow & Vaughan . B. Samuelson & Co. . Total . 4 6 3 3 4 3 4 6 2 3 3 3 23 21 Several new works were projected and commenced about this period. The works of the Clay Lane Iron Company began the manufacture of pig-ii-on, towards the close of 1858, with one furnace, blowing in a second in the following year. The Tees Side furnaces of Messrs. Snowden & Hopkins followed in 1859, 394 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES, [pam ir. and in 1860 the furnaces of the Whitby Iron Company were put in blast ; the total number of furnaces built in the district at this time being 33, of which number 25 were in blast, the works previously established in the mean time adding to their number of furnaces, and thus increasing their resources for production in the future. The works at Normanby, of Messrs. Jones, Dunning & Co., commenced operations, in 1861, with two furnaces, followed in 1863 by the Grosmont Works, of Messrs. Charles and Thomas Bagnall, with two furnaces in the early part of the year ; and the Newport Works, of Messrs. B. Samuelson & Co., with three furnaces in August of the same year. The works at Cargo Fleet, of Messrs. Swan, Coates, & Co., were completed towards the close of 1865, and in June, 1866, two furnaces were blown in. These were succeeded by the Linthorpe Works, of Messrs. Lloyd & Co., where four furnaces were blown in about August of the same year. In the following year the Glaisdale Works, of Messrs. Firth & Hodgson, and situated near Whitby, were put in operation. Other works followed : the Ayresome, of Messrs. Gjers, Mills & Co., in 1870 ; the Carlton, of the Industrial Iron Company, and the Norwegian, of the Titanic Iron Ore Company, with one furnace ; and those at Ayresome and Carlton with two each in the same year, when the total number of furnaces in the Cleveland district was 74, of which number 67 were in blast, producing in that year 916,970 tons of pig-iron. In 1871 the Lackenby Iron Company, with two furnaces, com- menced the manufacture of pig-iron, a third being in course of erection ; and in 1873 the Coatham Works, of Messrs. Downey & Co., with two furnaces; these were followed, in 1874, by the Acklam Works, of Messrs. Stevenson, Jaques & Co., with four furnaces ; the Loftus, Eedcar, and Stockton Ironworks ; and in 1875 by the Thomaby Ironworks, of Messrs. William WhitweU & Co., each with two furnaces. The Loftus Ironworks have recently been acquired by a new company, and are now known as the Skinningrove Works, the company being incorporated on the 8th June, 1880, since which date a few changes of proprietor- ship have occurred in other works. In the annexed table is given the numbers of furnaces built and in blast, the make of pig-iron, and the average yield per furnace in each year since 1856 : — CHAP, in.] YORKSHIBE (nORTH EIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 895 FURNACES. Year. Pig-iron made. Average per Funiace. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1855 23 21 84,500 4,024 1856 •31 23 179,400 7,800 1857 32 23 179,838 7,816 1858 30 20 189,320 9,466 1859 30 23 216,127 9,400 1860 33 25 248,665 9,946 1861 33 26 234,656 9,025 1862 32 28 283,398 10,121 1863 42 33 315,197 9,551 1864 47 41 409.106 9,979 1865 65 53i 486,421 9,011 1866 67 551 546,091 9,839 1867 67 50| 640,892 12,699 1868 69 50 699,494 13,989 1869 69 51 766,410 15,027 1870 74 67 916,970 13,686 1871 75 70 1,029,885 14,713 1872 81 73| 1,122,114 15,215 1873 78 76 1,156,431 15,216 1874 97 85 1,158,471 13,629 1875 87 73 1,240,243 16,990 1876 86 •75 1,261,013 16,813 1877 89 75 1,374,582 18,314 1878 90 67 1,358,442 20,275 1879 90 70 1,210,091 17,287 1880 91 72 1,666,156 23,141 The apparent want of constancy in the average yield per furnace in 1879 is due to the fact of several of the furnaces being but partially in operation during that year. Bearing upon the production per annum per furnace of this district, Mr. Windsor Richards, recently in his address to the Cleveland Institution of Engineers, refers to the Cleveland furnaces in these words ; he says, " Some years ago this district took the lead in blast furnace construction and practice, and may still be proud of its best examples of blast furnace plant, but latterly few improvements have been made. In 1876 the output of Cleveland pig-iron per furnace per week amounted to 330 tons ; in 1877, to 317 ; in 1878, to 406 tons ; and in 1879, to 417 tons ; and this year (1880) the output will be about 427 tons, showing but small progress. Some few furnaces in the district have made regularly over 500 tons per week. The manufacture of Bessemer pig-iron, Spiegeleisen, and ferro-manganese, is becoming a large industry 896 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. in Cleveland. Before 1876 there was no separate account kept of Bessemer pig-iron made in the Cleveland district. Since that date the production has been as follows : — TEAR. TONS. 1876 125,000 1877 200,000 1878 339,131 1879 274,939 " The falling off in 1879 was owing to the Durham miaers' strike, and bad trade, and this year (1880) it will probably be 600,000 tons. The total production of the blast furnaces of the North of England district wiU probably reach the enormous total of 2,490,000 tons." Mr. "W. Eichards gives some interesting details showing the efficiency of the metallurgical operations at the Consett Ironworks in Durham, and says: "A blast furnace practice, in the manu- facture of Bessemer pig-iron, worthy of imitation, is that of Mr. William Jenkins, of Consett, who, at my request, furnished me with the following information, and the results show what I believe to be the best blast furnace in England. The figures are for eight consecutive weeks in hematite pig-iron : — Iron produced, 6,454 tons 13 cwts. ; average per week, 806 tons 17 cwts. ; 53 per cent, of the make being No. 1 quality. Coke used per ton of iron made, 19*21 cwts. The furnace is 56 feet high, 20 feet diameter at the bosh; 8 feet hearth; 7 tuyeres; 4-inch muzzles ; blast, 45^1bs. pressure per square inch. There are four Whitwell stoves, 22 feet diameter, 28 feet 6 inches high, each stove having a heat- ing surface of 8,200 feet; temperature of the blast averages 1,200 deg. Fahr. Mr. Jenkins attributes these good results to the better distribution of the blast, large hearth, better lines of furnace, and good heat." According to Mr. W. Eichards, the average yield of the furnaces of the Cleveland district has been as follows during the ten years ending 1879 ; output per annum per furnace — Year. Tons. Tear. Tons. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 14,491 15,196 15,146 15,148 16,009 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 17,653 18,693 20,045 20,645 20,016 CHAP, in.] YOKKSHIRK (nOETH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 397 It only remains to append the following list of works and owners, with the number of furnaces bmlt and in blast in the year 1880 :— No. Name of Works. Acklam, Middlesbro' Ayre8ome,Middle8bro'-oii-Tees Cargo Fleet, „ „ Clay Lane, Eston Junction Coatham, Middlesbro' Middlesbro' Eston (Iron and Steel) Glaisdale (Yarm) Grosmont, Whitby . Laokenby, Middlesbro' Linthorpe ,, Skinningrove Newport, Middlesbro' Normanby, ,, Ormesby, „ Bedcar . . i . South Bank, Middlesbro' Tees, Middlesbro' Tees Side, „ Thomaby, Stockton . Owners. Stevenson, Jaques & Co. . Gjers, Mills & Co Cargo Fleet Iron Co. . Owners of Clay Lane Ironworks . Downey & Co Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., Lim. { South Cleveland Ironworks Co. ( Limited . . . . ) Chas. and Thos. Bagnall, jun. . Downey & Co Edward Williams The Skinningrove Iron Co., Lim. B. Samuelson & Co. . . . Jones, Dunning & Co. Cochrane & Co Walker, Maynard & Co. . Bolckow^aughau & Co., Lim. . Wilson, Pease & Co. . Tees Side Iron & Engine Works | Co / William Whitwell & Co. . Total of North Eiding . . FDENACES. BuUt. In Blast. i 4 i 4 5 4 6 3 2 2 3 3 11 11 3 ,, 3 2 3 3 6 3 2 2 8 8 3 3 4 4 4 4 8 8 5 5 4 4 3 3 91 80 Distribution of Cleveland Fig-Zron. — The pig-iron is widely distributed at home and abroad, and is increasing yearly. The total quantities shipped to foreign countries, and to other parts of the United Kingdom, from the port of Middlesborough during the four years ending 1880, were as follows : — * Year. Foreign. Coastwise. Total. 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 321,946 337,559 395,658 495,638 Tons. 460,390 422,480 419,905 464,943 Tons. 782,336 760,339 815,563 960,581 The foreign countries receiving the shipments in each of the same years appear in the annexed statement : — * Cleveland Iron Masters' ABSooiation Returns, 5 Jan., 1881. 398 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. Countries. 1880. 1879. 1878. 1877. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Germany 110,611 106,681 96,801 90,368 HoUand . 69,684 68,732 72,930 67,660 France . 68,085 53,809 61,297 68,946 Belgium . 73,144 44,565 50,270 41,620 Sweden ■ 12,487 8,776 10,162 11,290 Norway . 5,385 7,758 6,763 12,763 Spain . 18,696 23,223 12,311 9,377 Portugal . 6,328 10,250 11,592 4,901 Bussia . 33,454 22,060 9,000 7,199 Denmark . 4,243 3,162 1,883 3,720 Italy . 1,645 2,967 3,495 3,987 Jersey 75 80 • ■> India 250 270 125 Japan 900 550 ... China . 300 • *• Austria 140 600 B. N. America • •• 1,000 205 U. S. America . 90,087 42,000 ... Egypt . 200 ... ... ... Total . 495,638 395,658 337,559 321,946 The shipment coastwise, and the respective ports receiving the same, were as follows in each of the same years : — Ports. 1880. 1879. 1878. 1877. Scotland Wales .... Newcastle Other ports . . . Total . Tons. 283,463 89,204 52,332 39,944 Tons. 285,846 70,267 35,492 28,300 Tons. 330,554 58,740 30,716 32,470 Tons. 317,249 60,339 48,478 34,324 464,943 419,905 422,480 460,390 Average Price of Cleveland Pig-iron. — Following the pages of those journals devoted to the progress of the iron trade, evidence is afforded of the very low prices of pig-iron in recent years. In 1873 the highest price that Cleveland pig attained in the market was reached, namely, £5 9s. 2d., since which date it has receded, till in July, 1879, it was sold (No. 3) at 32s. per ton. An improvement appears in 1880, when the average of the year's quotations shows an increase of nearly 10s. per ton. The variations in previous years were as follows : — CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 399 Year. Average. Highest. Lowest. £ 0. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 1868 2 3 2 2 9 6 2 3 1869 2 5 9 2 10 2 3 1870 2 10 3 2 13 2 7 6 1871 2 9 8 3 5 2 6 6 1872 4 17 1 5 15 3 5 1873 5 9 2 6 5 4 7 6 1874 3 10 11 4 7 6 3 1876 2 14 6 2 19 2 9 1876 2 7 10 2 13 6 2 5 1877 2 2 1 2 6 2 5 1878 1 18 2 2 1 1 14 6 1879 2 1 2 2 15 1 16 6 1880 2 10 6 3 9 2 2 The lowest price previous to 1873 was in 1868, when the average was but £2 8s. M. ; and it is only necessary to add that the average price in 1879 increased, owing to the sudden impulse imparted to the iron trade in the last quarter of the yeai', when prices rose from 33s. to 55s. per ton. Coal and Ironstone used in Manofactore. — Mr. Windsor Eichards, who has carefully consided the question of fuel used in manufacture, and who has followed its economy, says, that " the improvements most conspicuous in recent blast furnace practice are to be found in the better means adopted for heating the blast in the Cowper and Whitwell firebrick stoves. It is difficult," he adds, " to ascertain the amount of coke consumed to make a ton of Cleveland iron, as blast furnace managers are very- reticent on this point, but there is little doubt that the consump- tion of coke has of late years increased and is increasing, and the matter is so important to us as a district in the severe competition we have to contend with, that the foUowing detaUs, describing the alterations recently made in these stoves, to render them efficient and economical, will be interesting " : — " The Cowper stove is made much higher than formerly, so giving largely-increased heating surface, which reduces the temperature of the escaping gases at the chimney valve to about 400 degrees Fah., after having been on gas for three hours, thus utilising to the fullest practicable extent the waste gases of the former. The stoves are now made up to 25 feet diameter and 54 feet high, and have the enormous heating surface of 75,000 feet. With two such stoves to a large furnace the heat may be kept on 400 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii for four hours, with a loss of heat not exceeding 150 degrees. The combustion chamber, or flame flue, has been moved from the centre to the side of the stove, whereby the whole surface of the brickwork is rendered effective for absorbing and giving up heat. The gas is admitted at the bottom of this combustion chamber, and is split up into three parts so as to attain a more complete mixture of air and gas, which, in the increased diameter of the chamber, enables more gas to be consumed, giving a better flame to the centre of the flue. The simple means adopted of clearing the dust from the stove during tapping time (the man-hole floors are hinged, and can, by the aid of a long lever, be readily opened and closed) and the sudden letting out of the compressed air through these openings clears away some of the dust. Any dust which may be lodged in the stove can be got down by hght charges of gunpowder fired through the ' sight-holes.' If these simple expedients are regularly attended to the stove can be kept continuously at work for many months together. There is also a specially constructed down-comer for the gas, with a contrivance for trapping some of the dust, and so prevent it from entering the stove. The bricks used in the regenerator are made larger than formerly, the size now preferred being 2 inches by 5 inches by 12 inches. There are also tiles placed over the very many passages to distribute the products of combustion equally over the whole regenerator. By these means the blast may be readily heated up to 1,500 degrees Fah. The hot-air valve, which used to be very troublesome in these stoves when they were first designed, now works very weU, and without any water for keeping it cool." Mr. W. Eichards further remarks, in reference to the Whitwell stoves, that at several works which he lately visited — CockerU, in Belgium ; Denain, in France, and Millom — he noticed that the Whitwell stoves are being increased in height. Mr. Massicks, of Millom, has raised a set of stoves for one furnace from 28 feet to 40 feet, and finds that the temperature of the escaping gases from the 40 feet stoves, taken at the chimney valve, is 360 degrees Fah., and that of the 28 feet stove, taken under exactly similar circumstances, is 495 degrees Fah. Both of these were taken after having been on gas for three hours. This alteration, by increasing the heating surface, gives greater regularity of work in the blast furnace. These stoves are now being built ruxp. HI.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDINg) IRON INDUSTRIES. 401 15 feet, 18 feet, and 22 feet diameter, by 40 feet, 50 feet, and 60 feet high, according to circumstances; and in America Whitwell's stoves are being constructed 21 feet in diameter and 70 feet high, each stove having 30,900 feet of heating surface. The advantages of these high stoves are increased heating surfaces, more perfect combustion, and reduced number of stoves, consequently reduced space and cost per furnace. The gases enter the large combustion chamber, where they are mixed with hot air, drawn by a new arrangement through the bottom brick- work of the stove. The flame rises to the top of the combustion chamber, then descends three smaller chambers at the same time, where it is mixed with more warm air ; it again ascends through two or three chambers at a time, and finally descends the three or four remaining chambers, having been mixed with air at each ascent and descent. It then escapes at the chimney valve at a very low temperature, say from 300° to 400° Fahr. Doors allow access for the scrapers for removing the dust from the walls of the chambers, and other doors, six in number, allow of the dust which has fallen from the walls being readily removed from the bottom of the stove. This scraping and cleaning of the stove need not occupy more than six hours every three or four months, and there is no necessity for cooling down the stove for cleaning, for directly the blast is shut off the operation of clean- ing can be immediately commenced. There is a disadvantage in having several firebrick stoves working into one large main flue leading to a single chimney, as it necessitates the stoppage of the whole of the blast furnaces during the time the main flue is being cleaned. Perhaps a better arrangement would be to erect a wrought-iron chimney for each stove, just high enough to convej' the waste gases over the heads of the men charging the blast furnaces. The chimney could be secured to the stove itself, and the waste heat is so low that no damage would result to the plates of the chimney. The united improvements of these hot-air stoves in recent years, and the adjustment of the blast fm-nace to the largest capacity, consistent with economy, for smelting the ore of Cleveland, have mainly contributed to economy in the use of fuel. In 1860 the consumption of fuel was an average of 38 cwts. of coke, or 63 cwts. of coal per ton of iron, the coal yielding 60 per cent, of coke. As 403 COAL AND lEOO^ INDUSTRIES. [part II. a matter of general practice, Mr. I. Lowthian Bell * says " that a capacity of 12,500 cubic feet, with air at 1,000° Fahr., is regarded as effecting all that can be hoped for in reducing the coke required for the blast furnace. Other considerations connected with labour, &c., have led many ironmasters to think that a furnace 80 feet high, with a diameter of 25 feet, and containing therefore 25,000 cubic feet, when supplied with air at 1,000 degrees Fahr., is as economical a form as can be devised for smelting the iron- stone of Cleveland. The weekly make of a furnace of the above dimensions is said to be 400 tons." Following the consumption of fuel in the manufacture of pig- iron, the annexed statement gives, for the nine years ending 1880, the pig-iron made and the coal and ironstone used in its manufacture : — Year. Pig-Iron Made. Coal Used. Ore Used. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 1,122,114 2,'533,781 3,493,000 1873 1,156,431 2,643,997 3,489,383 1874 1,158,471 2,896,177 3,504,660 1875 1,240,243 2,875,357 3,740,300 1876 1,261,013 2,923,870 3,807,800 1877 1,374,682 3,220,616 4,339,907 1878 1,358,442 2,934,634 4,234,017 1879 1,210,091 2,589,660 3,699,108 1880 1,666,156 3,611,543 5,044,420 An analysis of these figures shows that in 1872 and 1873 each ton of pig-iron consumed 46 cwts. of coal ; in 1876 and 1877 it was slightly above this average, while in 1878 and 1879 the average was about 41| and 42f cwts. of coal respectively to each ton of pig-iron made. In 1872 the average of the kingdom was 51 cwts. of coal to each ton of iron made, compared with 44 cwts. in the year 1880, showing economy to the extent of 7 cwts. of coal to each ton of iron made, equivalent to a saving of nearly 14 per cent, iu a period of nine years. The average amount of metallic iron in the ores of Cleveland is about 30 ,per cent., and where the ore alone is employed 70 cwts. of raw stone is required to each ton of pig-iron. The ironstone is previously calcined in suitable kilns — the mineral * "Notes on the Progress of the Ii-on Trade."— y/ieJrora and Coal Trade Meview June 7th, 1878, CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 403 being thus concentrated, 100 tons of raw stone yielding on calcination from 70 to 75 per cent, of metal, and even more. In the calcination of the ironstone, in Gjer's calcining kihis, largely employed in the district, having a capacity of 5,500 cubic feet, about one ton of coal slack is required for each 20 tons of iron- stone, while in kilns of larger capacity the consumption of fuel is reduced to one ton per 25 tons of ironstone. As previously stated, 70 cwts. of raw Cleveland stone is re- quired for each ton of pig-iron made ; considerable quantities of richer ores are, however, employed ; these are the hematites of the west coast, and of Spain, containing from 50 to 60 per cent., and even more, of metallic iron, which, when used in admixture with the Cleveland stone, greatly diminishes the quantity of ore employed in making each ton of iron, which does not exceed from 60 to 62 cwts. Eeferring to the question of fuel and ore used in the Cleveland furnaces, it only remains to add that the coke employed is obtained from the Durham coal-field, the iron ore employed, as already stated, being derived from various localities; the great bulk being obtained in the district. Of the iron ore thus employed, the statement below, prepared from numerous sources, will show approximately the quantities used, and from whence derived, in each year since 1872 : — Tear. Cleveland Cumber- Lancashire Foreign other Total Iron Ironstone. land Ore. Ore. Ore. Ores. Ore used. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 2,955,000 32,498 17,502 58,000 430,000 3,493,000 1873 2,920,000 32,629 30,250 64,280 442,224 3,489,383 1874 2,980,500 57,668 11,210 49,379 404,903 3,504,660 1875 3,296,824 32,438 10,000 27,523 373,515 3,740,300 1876 3,524,962 38,736 21,600 94,269 108,233 3,807,800 1877 3,980,770 40,087 25,945 133,562 159,543 4,339,907 1878 3,850,045 37,578 25,430 178,982 135,982 4,234,017 1879 3,380,015 37,896 31,694 112,247 137,256 3,699,108 1880 4,463,229 35,298 22,646 430,212 93,035 5,044,420 The quantities in the column " other ores " include ores from various localities, Cornwall, Devonshire, «fec. ; also forge and null cinder from the maUeable-iron works and " purple ore." Ualleable Ironworks and Steelworks. — The Middlesborough Bar Ironworks were projected by the Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan about the year 1840, and twenty years later consisted of D D 2 404 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. 70 puddling furnaces and 6 rolling mills. In the year 1852 these works turned out no less than 56,000 tons of plate, rails, and other kinds of finished iron, including angle-iron of aU sizes. In 1860 the works and their resources were as follows, giving an aggregate of 116 puddling furnaces and 16 rolling miUs : — Name of Works. Name of Finn. Number of Puddling .Furnaces. Number of Boiling Mills. Middlesbro' . Tees .... Tees Side Bolckow & Vaughan . / Gilkes, Wilson, Pease ) 1 &Co. . .J Hopkins & Co. . Total. . . 70 5 41 6 6 4 116 16 Recently, in the pages of the Colliery Guardian,* appeared an interesting account of the finished iron trade of Cleveland, from which many of the following facts and figures are drawn. The puddling furnace and the rolling miU inevitably followed in the train of the blast furnace, and as the number of the latter multiplied so also did the former increase. During the decade 1860 — 1870, the height and economy of the blast furnace was the aU-absorbing question in the district, and after came that of mechanical puddling. In 1870 there were 20 works in Durham and 11 in Cleveland, with a total of 1,582 puddling furnaces and 97 rolling mills, of which 629 puddling furnaces and 30 roUing mills were in Cleveland, the remainder being in Durham, giving an average of 51 puddling furnaces and 3 rolling mills to each concern. The works and firms in operation in 1870 were as follows : — Name of Works. Name of Firm. Situate. Puddling Furnaces. Boiling Mills. North Tortnhire Cleveland . Middlesbro' . Witton Park Tees Side Newport Stockton Thomaby . Yorkshire Westboume West Stockton North Yorkshire Iron Co., Lim. . Bolckow & Vaughan . J) j» ... Hopkins, Gilkea & Co., Limited . Fox, Head & Co Stockton Malleable Iron Co. William Whitwell & Co. Eiehardsou, Dack & Co. John Holdsworth cfe Co. . West Stockton Iron Co. Total of District . . . Middlesbro' Stockton )) )) Nos. 58 175 102 64 66 31 9 21 23 Nos. 1 8 5 2 5 3 2 1 3 529 30 17th December, 1880, p. 971. auj^. III.] YOJKKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 405 About this time, and until 1873, trade was in a buoyant state, but the resources for manufacture also increased, several new works being projected ; however, towards the close of the last- named year prices began to decline, and this told heavily upon the department of trade in the district ; indeed, no other department and no other district felt it so heavily. Towards the close of 1879 only one-half of the works for the manufactm-e of finished iron were in operation. Of the works in this district and Durham 22 were standing in 1879, representing a total of 1,328 puddling furnaces, and in October, 1879, Mr. Wm. Whitwell gave the following as the condition of these furnaces : — FUBNAOKS. Failed and not since restarted 821 Pulled down for steelworks 67 Standing possibly temporarily 432 Working 830 Total furnaces .... 2,130 The depression in the finished iron trade was decisively shown in 1876, when there was a great falling off in the production. In 1877 this was made manifest by a decrease in the number of works employed in that department of the trade. Not the least remarkable feature of the trade is the fact that the production of finished iron decreased while that of pig-iron increased. There is no means of ascertaining correctly the quantity of finished iron made annually, statistics not being collected in this branch of the iron trade. There is, however, one reliable source of information. Since the year 1872 the firms on the north- east coast, that are associated with the Board of Arbitration for the district under review, have given annual returns of their pro- duction. It is believed that between the years 1872 and 1877 the firms in association produced nine-tenths of the total finished iron in the district, but since 1877, owing to some large firms having withdrawn from that board, the statistics issued under its auspices are said now to represent only three-fourths of the total production. From the returns of the Board of Arbitration, in each of the following years, wiU be seen the proportion of the several varieties of finished iron, and the fluctuations to which each of these branches of the trade has been subject : — 406 COAL AKD IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT II. Year. Bails. Plates. Bars. Angles. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 330,000 194,857 82,653 63,967 671,477 1S13 356,884 182,151 87,368 48,843 675,246 1874 291,520 196,099 100,157 54,450 642,226 1876 270,828 190,757 111,800 45,369 618,754 1876 118,615 189,611 97,133 57,930 463,289 1877 40,425 236,195 84,844 73,738 435,202 1878 25,973 280,754 93,937 105,178 505,842 1879 8,460 217,121 76,848 61,114 363,543 1880 27,414 316,720 71,377 92,897 508.434 The branch of the finished iron trade that has shown the greatest diminution is the manufacture of iron rails, and Mr. Edw. "Williams, President of the Iron and Steel Institute, explained the cause of the decay of the industry clearly in a recent address, when he said : " That for rail making the pud- dling forge has disappeared, and it is highly improbable that it will return. The place of it has been entirely taken by the Bessemer pit, which, in principle, general arrangement, and the most minute details, remains as it came from the hands of the inventor, and seems scarcely to admit of much improvement. "If it be true that iron rails are doomed to ultimate disuse, it is no less true that the present year has witnessed the begianingj in Cleveland, of the manufacture of steel rails from its own native iron, the cheapest in the world. The basis of a new industry has been laid in this department of the trade under the most favourable auspices. The firm of Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan, who were the pioneers of the Cleveland iron trade, and who now produce one-third of the total quantity of the iron produced in the district, have also taken the lead in the establishment of steel works. In the year 1877 they opened the Eston Steelworks, which had been about eighteen months in course of construction. They were started especially for the manufacture of steel rails, and for that purpose Spanish hematite was imported in consider- able quantities. Since then the discovery of the basic process of dephosphorisation last year, and its successful application more recently at the above-named works, wiU probably prove the com- mencement of a new and more promising era in the history of the finished iron trade of Cleveland." The successful issue of the experiments made in this direction CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDIKG) IRON INDUSTRIES. 407 are thus referred to by Mr. E. W. Richards, in his address to the Institution of Cleveland Engineers, in November, 1880. The Thomas-Gilchrist Process. — He said : " A short history and description of a process which has created so much interest in the metallurgical world during the last two years will no doubt be of interest to you. Messrs. Thomas and Gilchrist made numerous experiments on a small scale at the Blaenavon Iron- works, where they were assisted by the manager, Mr. Edward P. Martin, and they tried also a couple of casts in a large converter at Dowlais. They prepared a paper, giving very fully the results of their experiments, with analyses, which was intended to be read at the autumn meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute in Paris in 1878 ; but so little importance was attached to it, and so little was it believed in, that the paper was scarcely noticed, and it was left unread till the spring meeting in London in 1879- Mr. Sidney Thomas first drew my particular attention to the subject at Creusot, and we had a meeting a few days later in Paris to discuss it, when I resolved to take up the matter, pro- vided I received the consent of my directors. The consent was giveu, and on the 2nd of October, 1878, accompanied by Mr. Stead, of Middlesborough, I went with Mr. Thomas to Blaenavoa. Arrived there, Mr. Gilchrist and Mr. Martin showed me three casts in a miniature cupola, and I saw suf&cient to convince me that iron could be dephosphorised at a high temperatiire. I visited the Dowlais Works, where Mr. MenelauS informed me that the experiments with the large converter had failed, owing to the lining being washed out. We very quickly erected a pair of 30 cwt. converters at Middlesborough, but were unable for a long time to try the process, owing to the difficulties experienced in making basic bricks for lining the converter and making the basic bottom. The difficulties arose principally from the enormous shrinkage of the magnesian limestone when being burnt in £ kiln with an up -draught, and of the failure of the ordinary bricks of the kiln to withstand the very high temperature necessary for efficient burning. The difficulties were, however, one by one surmounted, and at last we lined up the converters with basic bricks, when, after much labour, many failures, disap- pointments, and discouragements, we were able to show some of the leadiag gentlemen of Middlesborough two successful opera- tions on Friday, April 4th, 1879. The news of this success spread 408 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. rapidly fiar and wide, and Middlesborough was soon besieged by the combined forces of Belgium, France, Prussia, Austria, and America. We then lined up one of the 6-ton converters at Eston, and had fair success. The next meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute in London, under the presidency of Mr. Edward Williams, was perhaps the most brilliant and interesting ever held by the Institute. Messrs. Thomas and Gilchrist's paper was read, and the explanations and discussions by other members of the Institute were listened to with marked attention. Directly the meeting was over, Middlesborough was again besieged by a large array of Continental metallurgists, and a few hundred- weights of samples of basic bricks, molten metal used, and steel produced were taken away for searching analysis at home. Our Continental friends were of an inquisitive turn of mind, and, like many other practical men who saw the process in operation, only believed in what they saw with their own eyes and felt with their own hands — and were not quite sure then, and some are not quite sure even now. We gave them samples of the metal out of the very nose of the converter. Our method of working at that time was to charge the additions of oxide of iron and lime at the same time into the converter, and pour the molten metal upon thei}i. The quantity of additions varied from 15 to 25 per cent, on the metal charged, according to the amount of silicon in the pig-ijon used. We soon found that the oxide of iron was imnecessary ; besides, it cooled the bath of metal, and we afterwards used lime additions only. After about three minutes under blow, a samplq of metal was taken from the converter, quickly flattened down under a steam hammer, and cooled in water. The fracture gave clear indications of the malleability of the iron. When the bath was sufficiently dephosphorised to give a soft ductUe nfetal, the Spiegel was added. Other firms have taken up the manufacture of steel on the basic system, notably the Hoerde Company, in Westphalia, and Messrs. Brown, Bayley & Dixon, of jShef&eld. Very interesting papers on the subject have been! read by Messrs. Pink and Messenez and Messrs. Holland and Cooper. On Monday, the 23rd of August last, I visited the Hoerde Works with a few friends, and saw two successful casts in ' a small converter. Imitating the good example set me, and having good friends in Messrs. Messenez and Pink, I took a sample of the re- melted pig as it was running from the cupola to the converter, CHAP. III.] YOEKSHIKB (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES, 409 and a sample of dephosphorised metal and of the steel. Mr. Cook's analysis is : Re-melted pig — Combined carbon, 2"75 ; manganese, "50 ; silicon, "9 ; sulphur, "SI ; phosphorus, 1'51. This analysis agrees with that given by Mr. Messenez in his paper read before the Institute. The metal, after three minutes' after-blow, gave phos- phorus, "13, and a further 25 seconds gave phosphorus "10; carbon, a trace ; manganese, '17 ; sulphur, •12. At this stage of the operation a large quantity of slag was poured out of the converter, and then the Spiegel was added. The steel contained carbon, '19 ; manganese, '57; sulphur, "10; phosphorus, "10. The steel worked well under the steam hammer. The slag was of the following composition : — Iron, 10"20 ; lime, 46"94; silica, 9"67 ; phosphoric acid, 9"70. On Thursday, the 20th August, I visited the Rhenish Steel- works with several members of the Iron and Steel Institute, and the samples brought home were analysed by Mr. Cook, who shows re-melted metal to contain — Combined carbon, 2*90 ; manganese, 1"10 ; silicon, "46; sulphur, '16; phosphorus, 2"03. The after-blow was very long, being nearly 4^ minutes before the first sample was taken, and a further three-quarters of a minute before the second sample was taken — in all five minutes. The carbon lines appeared on the spectroscope in a few seconds after the converter was tui'ned up. The steel contained : — Carbon, "28; manganese, "56 ; sulphur, '08 ; phosphorus, 'OS — the metal, before the addition of the spiegel, having P, '07. In a second cast the steel gave— C, -27; M, -40; S, "07 ; P, 'lO. The slag here is not passed off before the spiegel is added. The sample of slag analysed by Mr. Cook is almost identically the same as that given above from the Hoerde Works. Another cast, made when about 150 members of the Institute were present, contained, I am informed, P, "13. It was most difficult to get near the workmen who were testing the samples, so great was the crush and the desire to obtain a piece of metal, and the wonder was that the metal was so well blown and so low in phosphorus, considering the circumstances under which the operation was conducted. At the meetings of the Institution in December last I mentioned that Messrs. Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., Limited, were about to erect some large converters at the Cleveland Steelworks of a size and form which they expected would enable them to overcome some of the difficulties which they experienced when working with the old converters on the basic system." 410 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. Mr. Eichards next directed attention to a new converter ; con- tinuing, he said : " This converter is concentric, whilst the old converters are eccentric. During the operation of blowing, the lime and the metal are lifted by the force of the blast, and when that force is somewhat expended the materials faU again on to the bottom in the new form, whilst in the old form some portions would cling to the nose. The ' concentric ' form has also another advantage ; it gives a much larger area of floor to work in, by enabling the metal to be poured into the converter when turned on its side with the nose pointing away from the converter ladle crane, just the contrary of the present practice. On the 18th October last this converter was set to work on the basic system^ and was quite successful, answering the purpose well, and showing no more symptoms of gathering at the outlet than when making ordinary steel. Our plan of operation is exceedingly simple* The converter, as is usual, is first heated up with coke so as to prevent the chilling of the metal. Then a measured quantity of weU-burnt Ume, about 16 per cent, of the weight of molten metal, mixed with a small quantity of coal or coke, is charged into the converter, and blown till the lime is well heated. The molten metal is then poured on the hme additions, the blast of 25 lbs. pressure is turned on, and the carbon lines disappear m about ten minutes ; then after about 2^ minutes over-blow the converter is turned down, and a small sample just made, which is quickly beaten into a thin sheet under a small steam hammer, cooled in water, broken in two pieces, and the fracture shows to the experienced eye whether the metal is sufficiently ductile. If it is not so, then the blowing is prolonged, after which the Spiegel is added, and is now beiag poured into the ladle, not into the converter. For the basic process the initial bath should be low in silicon, because silicon fluxes and destroys the lining, and causes waste of metal ; it should be low in sulphur, so that the metal may not be red short. Nearly one-half the sulphur is ehminated by the basic process. In order to work economically the metal should be taken direct from the blast furnace, so as to avoid, first, the cost of re-meltiag in a cupola ; and, second, to avoid further contact of the metal with the sulphur and impurities of the coke. It is not an easy matter to accomplish, in a blast furnace, the manufacture of a metal low in silicon and at the same time low in sulphur. It would, no doubt, very much help to CHAP. III.] YORKSHIRE (NORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 411 keep sulphur low if maganese was added in the blast furnace, but maganese is a costly metal. At present we have succeeded in making a mottled Cleveland iron with 1 per cent, of silicon and •16 sulphur, and white iron with "5 silicon and '25 sulphur, which, taken direct from the blast furnace, have both made excellent steel. But we have another method of operating, which relieves us from the necessity of making a particular quality of Cleveland pig-iron. We call this second mode of working the transfer system, because we transfer the metal from the acid to the basic converter. The transfer system enables us to take any grey iron direct from the blast furnace to the converter without any consideration as to the per centage of sulphur, which is always low in grey iron. This grey metal is poured into a converter with a silicious lining, and desihconised, when, after say twelve or fifteen minutes' blowing in the ordinary manner, it is poured out of the converter into the ladle, and poured again from the ladle into a converter lined with dolomite, taking care that the highly silicious slag is prevented from entering the basic-lined converter. Then in the second converter it is only necessary to add sufiftcient lime for the absorption of the phosphorus of the metal, and the blowing then need not occupy more time than is necessary for the elimination of the phosphorus, say about three minutes. This mode of operation will no doubt give the basic lining and bottom a much longer life, but we have not yet been long enough at work to obtain the necessary experience to determine which is the better system of working, but both are good and effective, and have given excellent results. I have thus summed up in ten minutes what has taken about two years of constant work, and the expenditure of large sums of money, to accomplish. I am now able to say that the basic process has been brought to a technical and commercial success at the Cleveland Steelworks of Messrs. Bolckow, Vaughan & Co. One featm-e in this new process seems to have been lost sight of by those who have written on the subject, namely, the possibility or otherwise of being able to eliminate phosphorus before the carbon flame drops so as to avoid the after-blow. Few give any hope of this being accomplished, but when we remember that few gave any hope of the basic process, or any other process, being successful in ehmi- nating phosphorus at the high temperature of the Bessemer converter, we should not abandon research or relax efforts. It 413 COAL AND lEON INDUSTEIES. [PAET II. has been said, over and over again, that the basic process was a failure, and would never succeed. It is a grand trait in the character of oiu' Englishmen, that of not knowing when they are beaten. If the after-blow could be avoided, the wear of the lining and bottoms would be very much reduced. We know already that the basic lining will not be anything like so enduring as the acid lining, so special means have been adopted to quickly change a converter. An overhead steam-travelling crane, capable of lifting sixty tons, is being erected, so that directly a converter lining has worn out the crane will remove the worn converter out of the way, and bring in a re-lined one dried and ready for working. A very ingenious plan for quickly changing the con- verter, without removing the trunnion, is that patented by Mr. HoUey, the weU-known American engineer and metallurgist. The converter, freed from the trunnion, is lowered to the floor by means of the hydraulic ram. Then a re-lined and dried converter is placed on a four-wheeled bogie, and ran from the repairing and drying shed into position on the top of the hydraulic ram, which is placed directly under the trunnion. The water is tm-ned on, and the converter is raised into position, and is then fastened by a dozen cotters to the trunnion, and is thus got very quickly ready for work." The following is a list of the maUeable-iron works in Cleveland in 1880, with the number of furnaces and mills in operation : — No. Name of Works. Name of Firm. Nearest Port or Railway Station. No. of Puddling Furnaces. No. of Rolling Mills. 1 Ayri»n Rolling Mills . Jones Bros. & Co., Lim. . Stoekton-on-Tecf 29 2 2 Bowesfield Bowesfield Iron Co. S3 3 3 Britannia Dorman, Long & Co. . Erimua Iron Co., Lim. Middiesbro' 60 1 t Eriraus . . . _ 5 Eston Grange Eston Grange Iron Co. . 7t 6 North Yorkshire . ( North Yorkshire Iron ( ( Co., Limited . . \ Stockton-on-TeCh . 7 Carlton The Carlton Iron Co. , Lim. 8 Cleveland Bolckow & Vaughan , " 3 9 Middlestao' . „ 1 10 Tees Side . Hopkins, Gilke's & Co., 1 Limited. 11 Danks's ]" ,, 80 4 11 Newport Fox, Head & Co. 46 4 12 Yorkshire J South Yorkshire Iron ) t Co., Limited . j 1, 13 Westbonrne . John Holdsworth & Co. . 22 2 14 West Marsli . Dorman, Long & Co. 20 2 16 Hull . ( East Biding Malleable ^ 1 Ironworks . . j Hull .... 16 Imperial (South Bank) Jackson, Gill & Co., Lim, 33 3 17 Star Total of District . star Rolling Mills Co. Middiesbro' ' 3is 25 CHAr. in.] YORKSHIRE (nORTH RIDING) IRON INDUSTRIES. 413 Considering the consumption of fuel in these works, it was ascertained that in the year 1872 some 640,000 tons of coal were used, increased to 660,000 tons in the following year; since that date the fuel consumed annually in these works in Cleveland has fallen off considerably, and in the year 1879 did not exceed 405,000 tons. It has been observed that when the manufacture of iron rails in Cleveland saw its best days, that district produced, it is estimated, nearly one-third of the rails made in the United Kingdom. The success which has attended the process of dephosphorising Cleveland iron brings it within the bounds of possibility that that district may before long occupy as prominent a position in the manufacture of steel rails as of old it held in the iron rail trade. Already the leading firm is re- ported to be producing steel at the rate of 150,000 tons per annum, nearly double the total quantity produced last year in the whole district, and if that is mostly made into rails, the revival of that industry is as rapid as was the decline of the iron rail trade. Prices of Malleable Iron and Fuddlers' Wages. — These have been subject to great fluctuations; the average prices of rails, plates, bars, and angles, in 1879, were about one-half of the prices current in 1873, and wages showed a corresponding fluctuation. From the Board of Arbitration retm'ns in each year since 1872 the average selling prices of iron, including rails, plates, angles, and bars, were as follows ; and side by side appears the average puddlers' wages, in each of the same years : — Year. Average Selling Price. Average Pucldlers' Wages £ s. d. s. d. 18'72 9 3 11 6 1873 11 9 1 13 1874 10 9 5 11 7 1875 8 1 9 4 1876 7 2 2 8 3 1877 6 15 3 8 3 1878 6 2 7 7 8 1879 5 8 6 7 1880 6 3 9 7 9 The highest price reached was in the year 1873, when pud- dlers' wages were 13s. 3d. during nine months of that year. 414 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Prices fell in the following year, and wages increased somewhat. The rate of wages changed four times in 1874, and three times in 1875. During 1876 and 1877 it remained stationary, since which, in 1878 and 1879, the tendency was downwards. However, in the first half of 1880 the wages of puddlers gave an average of 8s. Qd., while the realised prices per ton fell to £5 5s, 6d. Following the prices of each variety of iron since the year 1872, the annexed statement, based upon the retm'ns of the Board of Arbitration, will indicate those of plates, bars, and angles, which were as follows : — Plates. Bars. Angles. Average. Average. Average. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 1872 10 6 1 9 16 4 9 1 11 1873 12 6 1 12 5 3 11 11 1 1874 11 6 4 10 15 7 10 11 10 1875 8 14 ■O 8 9 8 8 3 6 1876 7 9 9 7 1 8 7 4 1877 6 19 8 6 16 2 6 8 1 1878 6 6 9 6 4 6 5 13 2 1879 5 10 10 5 8 11 5 1 3 1880 6 9 5 6 7 9 5 14 9 From the ainnual Report of the British Iron Trade Association, for the year 1879, some very interesting facts are obtained, show- ing the average prices, in each of the above years, of iron rails, as compared with steel rails, the former being, in 1872, £9 6s. per ton, compared with £4 18s. 3d. in 1879 ; while steel rails were, in 1872, current at £13 17s. 6d. per ton against £5 2s. Qd. per ton in ] 879. The average prices are as follows : — Year. Price of Iron Rails. Price of steel Eails. Difference. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 1872 9 6 13 17 6 4 11 6 1873 11 4 4 15 10 4 5 8 1874 8 9 9 17 6 18 6 1875 6 19 6 8 7 6 1 8 1876 6 10 7 2 6 1 1 6 1877 5 15 3 6 7 6 12 3 1878 5 2 1 5 12 6 9 11 1879 4 18 3 5 2 6 4 3 1880 6 3 4 7 7 6 14 2 CHAPTER IV. CUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. Description of Iron Ore Deposits around Whitehaven — Alston Moor — Eskdale and Millom — Analyses, production and distribution of Ore — Population em- ployed in Iron Ore Mining— List of Iron Mines — Pig-iron Manufacture — Charcoal Furnaces, their Early History — Steelworks — Ironworks — Pig-iron made — Coal and Ore used in Manufacture — Works in 1880 — Malleable-Iron Works and Coal employed. Iron Ore of the Carliouiferous Limestone. — By far the largest proportion of the Cumberland hematite occurs in the Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone. Around Whitehaven, where the carboniferous formation is well developed, it consists in its lowest part of about 250 feet of massive limestone, in immediate contact with that division of the Lower Silurian system known as the Skiddaw Slates. Above this massive lime- stone are a number of thin beds of limestone, shale, and sand- stone or " Whirlstone," making together a series of about 150 feet thick ; these beds are foUowed by a succession of sandstones and shales varying in thickness from 180 to 800 feet. The hematite occurs chiefly on two horizons, one in the lower massive limestone and the other in the thin beds of limestone and shale. Although the ore is often found in large irregular deposits in the limestone, and occasionally in the form of fissures, it is more commonly spread out in the shape of flat deposits, foUowiag more or less closely the general dip of the beds, this inclination being usually about 12° or 18° to the west, or filling caverns in the limestone. In thickness the ore deposits vary from 30 feet to 100 feet and up- wards ; a deposit sometimes suddenly enlarges or diminishes in thickness, thus producing what the miners call "rolls"; the deposits are frequently cut off by faults. In some cases, as in the Cleator Mines, the body of ore is divided into distinct masses by pillars of rock extending from sole to roof. The roof is generally hard, and consequently large excavations are rendered 416 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. possible without much artificial support. Although the forms of the deposits are very irregular, it has been remarked that they correspond in their extension with the direction of the magnetic meridian, but this has no relation to the run of the deposits. Some of the deposits of ore occupy a large superficial area ; that at Parkside, for example, and the adjoining mines, where the deposit was above 70 feet thick, extending over about 60 acres. At the mines of the Crossfield Iron Ore Company near Whitehaven, the iron ore is found in the mountain limestone, in faults or dislocations, running north and south, although it is also found lying in irregular masses and preserving a marked parallelism, with a bearing of about 12° N.W. The distribution of the ore deposits is very irregular, and their existence is only determined by borings, which have to be made almost at random. In the Whitehaven district the ore is dis- tributed over an area extending about eight miles, from south- west to north-east, with an average width of one mile. At Millom the ore-bearing Hmestone occupies an area of only about one and a half square miles, or between 900 and 1,000 acres. In addition to the deposits of the mountain limestone, there are veins of hematite in the Lower Silurian rocks of Cumber- land; in some cases these occur in the Skiddaw slates, as at Kelton and Knockmurton; in others, in the series of green slates, as at Dunnerdale ; and in others again, in the Coniston limestone, as at Waterblean. Nor should mention be omitted of veins of hematite in the granite of Eskdale. For the most part these veins in the older rocks have a general north and south trend, with a dip varying in direction and degree ; whilst in thickness the ore, though often but a few inches, may reach as much as 12 or 14 feet. The geological position of the Cumber- land hematites has been well described by Mr. P. Wurzburger, of Dalton in Furness, and by Mr. J. D. Kendall, from whose valuable papers the foregoing facts have been gathered. The iron ore of Cumberland is exclusively of that kind which is known mineralogically as red hematite ; it is chemically an anhydrous peroxide of iron (ferric oxide), containing about 70 per cent, of iron, but the ore is, of course, rarely, if ever, found in a state of chemical purity. Most of the Cumberland hematite is of the hard variety known as "blast ore," although in some places, as at Kelton and the adjoining mines, the soft varieties are CH.u>. IV.] CUMBERLAND lEON INDUSTRIES. 417 found. The hard hematite occasionally occurs in masses pre- senting a finely lobed surface, whence the name " Kidney ore ; " whilst, in rare cases, brilliant lenticular crystals of " specular iron ore " have been found. Associated with the hematite the following minerals occur: — quartz, calcspar, brown spar, heavy spar, peroxide of manganese, and iron pyrites. The red hematites of Whitehaven, in Cumberland, and Ulverstone, in Lancashire, are by far the richest raised in the United Kingdom. The ore, since the introduction of the Bessemer process, has been in great demand, from the high character and purity of the pig iron pro- duced from it, and it is largely exported into other iron-making districts in the kingdom, where it is extensively employed in admixture with other ores, giving an improved quality of iron. Brown hematite has, from time to time, been wrought at Alston Moor and at Nenthead, in the limestone at Kilhope Fell. This limestone bed corresponds with the Fell Top limestone of the district, which, in this locality, becomes ferruginous, probably owing to its being intersected by a considerable number of small veins carrying iron " riders." The brown hematite ore occurring in this limestone varies from 3 to 7 feet thick, and is of good quality. At Nenthead, in the little limestone of the district, a bed of brown hematite occurs, about 7 feet in thickness ; the quality of the ore, however, is very variable. Similar ore is met with in the Silly Hole, Manor House, and Nenthead veins of Alston Moox\ In Eskdale, some seven miles from the terminus of the Kavenglass and Eskdale Eailway, in the Manor of Birker, at Ore Gap, some lodes of brown hematite are known to occur. The district was examined a few years since by Mr. Eobert Woodley, of the Birker Moor Iron Mines, who reports as follows : " That in Yeasty Eigg Gill, out of Green Hole Glen, 1,400 feet above the level of the sea, there are two large and powerful hematite lodes in the Ash rocks and felstone, one on each side of the GUI. On the west slope, the first lode, some 50 feet wide, is visible at the surface, and can be traced by outcrop and excava- tions for about three-quarters of a mile through Ore Gap to the Keswick side of the mountain. It takes a course a few degrees west of south. The second lode, on the eastern slope of the Gill, is equally large, and bears a little west of north, forming a junc- tion with the first lode in the GiU, whence they pass together 418 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [pabt ir. through a wide gap in the Fell, very appropriately called Ore Gap, which is 2,600 feet above the sea level, and situated between Bow Fell and Sea FeU Pikes." " In this gap the united lodes have thrown up to the surface a curious back of hematite of the finest quality, composed of hard blue, kidney and puddle ore many fathoms in width and at least 300 fathoms in length from the junction of the lodes. A deep trench has been driven across this magnificent deposit, and pits have been opened on either side of it, showing the beds of hard ore embedded with the soft decomposed hematite. As the lodes forming this deposit are traceable in the glen called " Green Holes," at a level 1,200 feet below Ore Gap, the cubic contents of this deposit must be reckoned by millions of tons ; for a deposit only 100 fathoms in length by 20 fathoms in breadth would yield 500,000 tons for every 10 fathoms in depth, reckoning only 3 tons of ore to each cubic yard. And the upper part of this deposit can be worked on the most extensive scale by open cutting, and broken and loaded into trucks, and sent by a self-acting incline to the foot of the mountain in Green Holes, at a cost not exceed- ing 2s. 6d. per ton. About 100 fathoms on the east side of this deposit a great lode of 20 or 30 feet in width, enters the mountaia through a great fissure above Angle Tarn, and throws up to the siu;face another bank of hard blue hematite. This lode, which bears a little east of north, forms a junction with the two first named lodes about the middle of Yeasty Eigg GiU. A fourth lode, coming from the Rest Gill, and bearing south of east, forms a junction with the two largest lodes at the southern end of Yeasty Eigg Gill, where its broad red back is visible, showing every appearance of being rich in iron. This can be worked with the greatest facility by a series of levels driven into the feU just above Green Holes, whence also as many as twenty levels can be driven into the above-mentioned lodes below the surface- workings." Another interesting feature in Mr. Woodley's report of the Eskdale district, comprises a recommendation for the develop- ment of the iron ore deposits by a line of railway through the fell land to connect with the Eavenglass and Eskdale line. Analyses of the Camberland Ore. — The hematite of the Whitehaven district, as previously stated, occurs in the car- boniferous limestone, near the outcrop or surface of the slaty fllAP. IV.] CUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. 419 rocks upon which that formation rests. The ores raised at Cleator Moor, rich in metallic iron and valuable for the manu- facture of steel, are thus described * by Mr. A. Dick : — " Compact red hematite ; easily scratched by a file ; lustre, earthy; colour, purplish grey; streak, bright red; fracture, uneven ; containing cavities lined with crystals of specular iron, and containing, in some cases, quartz." The first analysis consisted of a sample composed of a mixtm'e of the above ore and of another variety, thus described, resembling the former : " It is harder, being scarcely scratched by a file, more lustrous and darker in colour, the cavities contain more quartz, but the substance of the ore seems purer." The second analysis, given also of hematite from Cleator Moor, is very similar in character, but does not contain quartz visibly diffused through it. The sample examined is also a mixture of varieties, the one compact, the other unctuous, more lustrous, and redder in colour than the compact variety. The constituents of the two samples are as follows : — Eesults Tabulated— Oms Dried above 100° C. Constituents. No. 1. ' No. 2. 1 Peroxide of iron . Protoxide of manganese . Alumina .... Lime .... Phosphoric acid . Sulphuric acid . Bisulphide of iron Magnesia. . Insoluble residue 95-16 0-24 Q-'o1 trace trace trace 5-68 90-36 0-10 0-37 0-71 trace trace 0-06 0-06 8-54 101-15 100-20 Insoluble Eesidue. Silica . . . Alumina (containing a trace ) of iron) . . . . ) Peroxide of iron Lime 5-66 0-06 7-05 1-06 0-19 trace 6-72 8-30 The metallic iron contained in these ores were equivalent to 66'60 and 63"25 per cent, respectively ; it being further remarked • " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part I., pp. 60, 62. (Out of print.) E E 2 420 COAL AND IKON INDUSTKTE3. [part II. that a trace of lead was detected in 400 grains of the first sample of ore and in 500 grains of the second. The hematite of Eskdale has been examined by Mr. Watson, of Braystones, who gives analysis of a sample from Ore Gap, as follows : — Eesttlts Tabulated. Peroxide of iron 94-00 Oxide of manganese 1*20 SiUca 4-00 Magnesia ........•• trace Moisture 0"80 lOOjOO Production of Iron. Ore. — In the year 1849 there appears to have been in the Whitehaven district thirteen mines, producing hematite amounting to 100,000 tons : the details are as follows* : — Firm. -Number of Mines. Quantities. Messrs. Ainsworth & Co. . Messrs. TTill & Co. . . . Mr. John Lindow . Messrs. Tulk & Ley . . . Messrs. Atwood & Co. Total .... 2 4 3 2 2 Tons. 30,000 20,000 20,000 15,000 15,000 13 100,000 The total quantity of iron ore produced from the mines of the United Kingdom in the same year was but 500,000 tons, contri- buted as follows from the several hematite producing districts : — District. Number of Mines. Quantities. Lancashire .... Cumberland . . . . Forest of Dean Corn-wall, Somerset, and Devon Isle of Man .... Ireland Scotland Total .... 17 13 8 17 2 1 2 Tons. 182,000 100,000 95,000 118,000 2,500 1,500 1,000 60 500,000 * "Bralthwaite Poole, Beport to the Directors of the Lancaster and Carlisle Eailway on Iron Ore." 1850. CHAP. IV.] CUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. 421 The estimated value of this ore set down at the works of the consumer was not less than 208. per ton. In subsequent years the returns show a large increase, amount- ing in 1855 to 200,788 tons ; increasing in 1856 to 259,167 tons, and in 1857 to 823,812 tons ; the distribution of which was as follows in 1856 and 1857 :- Destination. 1866. 1867. South Wales .... StaflfordBhire . . Scotla,Tid Newcastle, &c France Ironworks Total .... Tons. 124,630 26,768 15,865 51,470 817 39,617 Tons. 163,354 36,758 22,377 44,489 323 56,511 259,167 323,812 The only ironworks in operation in Cumberland in the year 1857 were those of Seaton, Harrington and Cleator Moor, in which hematite ore alone was employed. The annexed summary gives the output of the mines of Whitehaven and the value of the ore in each year since 1858 : — Yeoi*. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ 1858 331,544 182,349 1859 400,306 220,168 1860 466,851 256,768 1861 472,095 259,650 1862 633,120 306,544 1863 690,083 414,083 1864 784,174 489,008 1865 678,831 441,240 1866 706,505 459,228 1867 709,037 478,600 1868 725,248 489,542 1869 848,974 594,281 1870 1,014,143 760,606 1871 976,874 1,074,561 1872 954,505 1,193,121 1873 1,021,690 1,277,115 1874 901,667 1,115,685 1875 935,360 701,520 1876 1,082,812 806,278 1877 1,081,256 762,656 1878 1,082,924 713,885 1879 933,369 513,586 1880 1,148,246 914,377 COAL AND lEON INDUSTKIES. [PABT II. The condition and importance of the iron ore industries of Cumberland appear in the relative prices of the ore from time to time. Glancing generally at the above quantities and values in 1858, the figures give an average price of lis. per ton ; this average is fairly maintained for a few years. With the prosperity of the iron industries in the year 1870, the values of these ores show a great increase, the average price showing 15s. per ton. In succeeding years this is exceeded ; thus, in the year 1873, one of great commercial prosperity, these ores realised 25s. per ton, receding to 24s. 9d. in the following year, and to 15s. per ton in the year 1875, since which date the same average prices have ruled with little variation until 1880, when an increased value appears. In the year 1880 the following mines were producing ore, in the quantities and values given, to which is appended the dis- tribution by railway and ship in the same year : — Name of Mine. Quantities. Value. Tons. Cwts. £ s. d. Bigrigg (Leconfield) Wyndham Pit 14,179 10,698 „ Lady Pit . . 27,846 21,000 Birks (Frizington) 6,192 15 4,334 8 Cleator Moor (Leconfield) York Pit ,, ,, James Pit 28,287 1,514 19,700 18 1,060 Cleator (5 Pits) „ . . . 40,286 32,680 10 Crossfield (8 Pits) . . . . 98,000 78,400 CrossgiU (Maxyport H. Iron Co.) 16,237 12,207 10 Dyke Nook ... 731 456 17 Egremont 12,738 11,782 £heu (Egremont) 19,850 17,372 10 Eskett and Salter . . . . 47,567 37,053 6 Eskett (Eskett Iron Ore Co.) 45,000 38,250 Eskett (Postlethwaite) . . . 40,192 32,153 Goose Green (Frizington) . 12,436 10,948 Gillfoot Park (Egremont) . . 72,880 5 58,304 Gutterley (Ma,ryport Hematite ) Iron Co.) .... 5 6,850 5,479 10 High House (Frizington) . . 64,978 45,484 12 Hodbarrow 343,194 240,236 Holebeck and Eattenrow . . 5,957 3,872 1 Jacktrees No. 3 Pit (Oarron Co.) . „ No. 2 Pit (Oarron Co.) . 3,133 2,349 15 21,534 16,150 Kelton and Knookmurton . . 47,705 18 47,705 Lonsdale Nos.2 & 3 (S.& J.Lindow) Longlands (S. & J. Lindow) 6,175 4,631 5 15,616 11,712 Montreal 210,894 158,170 10 Murton Carried forward . 950 712 1,210,922 18 922,903 12 CHAP. IV.] CUMBERLAND IKON INDUSTKIES. 423 Name of Mine. 1 Quantities. Value. Brought forward . Mowbray Moor Eow (Moor Eow Mining Co.) ,, (Maryport H. Iron Co.) Nabb Gill . . . . : Park Side (Frizington). Park (Bain & Co.) .... Salter Hall Sir John andBigrigg(S.&J.Lindo-«'} Scalelands Winder (Frizington) . . . Winder Gill .... Woodend (Bain & Co.) . . . Whioham (SUoroft) . Wyndham (Egremont) . . . Total of Cumberland . Tons. Cwts. 1,210,922 18 35,660 16,638 24,137 7,812 11,303 3,283 38,100 13,798 1,500 33,000 3,886 45,902 26,830 18,669 £ I. d. 922,903 12 26,745 17,955 24,137 5,275 8,477 5 2,463 30,480 10,937 10 1,200 29,700 3,108 34,426 22,805 14,001 5 1,491,440 18 1,154,613 12 CUMBEELAND OkE CAIUIIED BY THE FUENESS RAILWAYS. TONS. TONS. For shipment at Barrow-in-Furness . . 5,665 ,, Whitehaven . . . . 52,304 58,169 By rail sent away to Durham, &c. . . . 66,722 ,, to furnaces in district . . . . 911,297 978,019 Total of Cumberland ore caiTied . . . 1,036,188 CrMBERLAK-D OkE SHIPPED FROM WhITEHATEN. TO TONS. Cardifl 8,839 Newport 21,102 Ditton Brook 790 Eunoorn 145 Garston .... 2,256 Liverpool . . 338 Bowbng 250 Glasgow 272 Swansea 193 Total shipments 34,205 Shipped from other ports 52,692 Iron Ore Deposits at MiUom. — Eesembliug the flat deposits of the Whitehaven district is the large deposit of Hodbarrow Mines near Millom. Overlaid for the greatest part by limestone, it is from east to west about 470 yards long by 170 to 240 yards in width, the thickness of the ore being in the eastern part from 72 to 90 feet. The dip of the deposit is at an angle of 12° to the west. At some distance to the north-west a second deposit is being 424 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paut ir. explored which is probably connected with the first one, and is, perhaps, of still greater dimensions. The second deposit is overlaid by loose masses of drift. Since the year 1864 the Hod- barrow Mines at MiUom have yielded hematite in the following quantities and values : — Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ 1864 78,993 39,496 1865 117,330 70,397 1866 131,542 78,925 1867 181,504 90,752 1868 201,380 120,828 1869 198,705 139,093 1870 174,943 122,460 1871 207,146 227,860 1872 211,771 264,713 1873 203,791 254,739 1874 201,663 252,078 1875 202,817 152,112 1876 271,098 189,768 1877 270,195 202,645 1878 274,962 185,599 1879 293,637 161,500 1880 343,194 240,236 Cumberland in the year 1878 stood as the second most im- portant iron ore producing district in the kingdom, Cleveland being the first, with a production of 5,605,640 tons of argillaceous carbonate of iron, of the value of £910,739, or an average vary- ing from 3s. to 3s. 6d. per ton of stone at the mines. In the following summary the total ore produced in Cumber- land appears, showing the yield of each district since 1869 : — CUMBEELAND IeON OrE. Whitehaven HodbaiTOw Alston Moor and Distiict. District. other Mines. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1869 848,974 198,705 140 1,047,819 1870 1,014,143 174,943 32,217 1,221,303 1871 976,874 207,146 118,683 1,302,703 1872 954,505 211,771 2,000 1,168,276 1873 1,021,690 203,791 4,345 1,229,826 1874 901,667 201,663 16,332 1,119,662 1875 935,360 202,817 9,791 1,147,968 1876 1,082,812 271,098 1,353,910 1877 1,081,246 270,195 1,351,441 1878 1,082,924 274,963 1,357,887 1879 933,369 293,637 • ■■ 1,227,006 1880 1,148,246 343,194 ... 1,491,440 f'HAr. IV.] CUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. 425 The hematitic ores of Cumberland have from an early period been extensively raised for shipment to the ironworks of York- shire, Staffordshire, and North and South Wales. In quality these ores may be considered as the best in the kingdom, and the supplies which these districts are calculated to produce are very great. The lai'ge per centage of metallic iron which they contain, from 60 to 65 per cent, and even more, and their superior quality, enables them to bear the cost of transport to distant places, where the ore is in great request. The returns of individual mines were not obtainable imtil the year 1872, since which date the details have been regularly pub- lished.* The detail of distribution of the (Whitehaven) Cumber- land ore for a few years will show generally its destination : — Destination. 1808. 1870. 1 1872. 1874. South Wales, by ship . Staflfordshire '\ ' Lancashire \ by ship North Wales ) Lancashire . . \ Carnforth and Millom ( Scotland, by rail . . by ship . Newcastle and i Middlesborough by rail districts . > Workington, Maryport, Harrington, and Cleator districts . > Total of Whitehaven ore Tons. 162,811 26,287 4,108 107,580 31,358 141,054 252,050 Tons. 195,659 18,401 84,367 107,457 36,993 155,433 414,522 Tons. 107,554 561 113,901 68,489 6,532 85,139 572,329 Tons. 113,191t 101,321 69,402 63,385 554,368 725,248 tl, 014,143 954,505 901,667 In subsequent years the distribution of the ore of Whitehaven is obtained from returns furnished by the Whitehaven, Cleator and Egremont Railway Company. This company was amalga- mated in 1877 with the London and North- Western Railway, and in June, 1878, became the joint property of it and the Fumess Company, from which date it has been T^orked jointly. The details of distribution in each year appear as follows since 1876:— * For which see " Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom," by Robert Hunt, Ii\B.S. t This quantity includes all shipments in 1874. J Including 1,311 tons sent to France. 426 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. How Distributed. isre. 187V. 1878. 18T9. 1S80. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. "Whitehaven shipments 167,529 143,061 88,961 71,864 52,692 „ LoDBclale Iron Co. 88,392 103,768 95,468 102,003 131,977 1 Cleator Moor 46,135 37,987 60,192 61,093 70,674 j Distington . , , '^1^1 43,020 i Parton . . 25,377 3,769 , , 2,970 28,657 Haningtoii 66,858 80,162 80,036 73,694 109,623 Workington 269,520 249,299 271,671 269,163 415,320 Maryport 169,732 252,799 249,746 237,219 229,616 Scotland ... 146,723 121,013 49,869 19,746 44,648 Camforth and Fumcss 73.191 127,187 1,466 883 4,185 Barrow and MUlom . , , 102,845 22,723 74,033 South of Camforth 24,674 35,072 22,263 30,653 19,713 East Coast, via Carlisle 48,936 62,709 226 20 ,. „ riu Penritli Total ■• 39,268 4,628 10,431 1,117,067 1,216,816 1,052,001 901,339 1,234,389 1 In the year 1878 tlie Hodbarrow ore was distributed as follows : Shipped at the Company's private harbour, 121,914 tons; to Millom Ironworks, 61,539 tons ; carried by Fumess Eailway, 87,069 tons ; the remaining 4,440 tons being disposed of locally. The following presents a complete list of the iron mines of Cumberland, their situation, and the names of the proprietors working the same iii the year 1881 : — Ctjmbeklahd Ieon Mines. Name of Mine. Situation. Kame of Proprietor or Company. | Birks, 3 Pits . . Wliitehuveii . Joseph Fearon ^BL ] If Egremont, Friz- ?^& -8 Pits- •! ington, and Lousdale A elector. . > Longlands 1 \ S. and J. Lindow Bigrigg . 1 Wyndham Pit CllL^Moir. • . ^^teHaven . . Lord Leoonfield York Pit . Crowgaitli Cleator, 4 Pits . Cleator Iron Ore Co. Crossfield, 8 Pits . . 31 Crossfield Iron Ore Co. Montreal . John Stirling Dyke Nook . . . Frizington Dyke Nook Mining Co. High House, 4 Pits . St. Bees, Carnforth . Fletcher & Hodgetts CrossgiU. . . . Frizington Samuel Wagstaff Smith Egremont . ■WhiteKaven . . Egremont Iron Ore Co. Ehen .... Egremont E len Mining Co. Eskdale Eavenglass . . ( "Whitehaven Iron Mines ( Co., Limited CHAP. IV.] CUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. 427 Cumberland Iron Mines — continued. Name of Mine. Situation. Name of Proprietor or Company. Eskett, 3 Pits . . Salter and Eakett, 3 ) Kts . . J Eskett, PoBtlethwaite. Frizington Parks, 2 Pits Goose Green Woodend . . . Hodbarrow, 7 Pits . Holebeok and Eatten- ) row . . . i Selton Millom . Winder Mowbray, 1 Pit Moor Eow . Nabb Gill . New Parkside . Parkside, 7 Pits . Salter Hall Steel End . Waterblean, 1 Pit Winder . WindergUl . Wyndham Yeathouse . Whitehaven Frizington . Egremont . Holborn Hill Lamplugh Millom Prizington ( Moor Eow.Whitc- } \ haven . f Eskdale . . . Whitehaven . Cleator Moor . Green Eoads, Millom Millom . Winder . . . Egremont Whitehaven . . Eskett Iron Ore Co. ( Salter and Eskett Park : I Mining Co. I J. Fostlethwaite, junr. James Bain & Co. j The Hodbarrow Mining ( Co. ) The DalmelUngton Iron 1 Co. W. David & Co. George J. Eveson Winder Iron Ore Co. j Mowbray Iron Ore Co., ( Limited Moor Eow Mining Co. (Whitehaven Iron ( Mining Co. j New Parkside Iron j Mining Co., Limited ( The Parkside Iron \ Mining Co. Thos. Dixon & Co. Steel End Mining Co. G. J. Eveson ( Maryport Hematite ( Iron Co. \ Wyndham Mining Co., \ Limited yeathouse Mining Co. Population employed in Iron Mines in Cumberland. — The coal-field of Cuinberlaaid is barren of those argillaceous ores of iron which are found so abundantly in Staffordshire and other Qoal-fields, a very thin band only being found near the Parkside Mme. On the other hand, their absence is more than compen- sated for by the red hematite deposits of iron ore in the carboni- ferous limestone. As recently as the year 1854, the number of persons employed in Cumberland in u-on mining did not exceed 369. In later returns, and until the " Metalliferous Miaes Regu- lation Act, 1872," came into operation, those employed in coal and iron mines were not separately distinguished. Since the year 428 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. 1873 reliable returns are available,* showing the numbers employed under and above ground, also the output of the mines, and the average produce of ore per man ; the details are as follows : — Year. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total Employed. Hematite Ore Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 3,438 4,108 4,217 4,620 4,826 4,502 4,088 4,880 Nos. 1,004 1,179 1,345 1,803 1,551 1,467 1,393 1,620 Nos. 4,442 5,287 5,562 6,423 6,377 5,969 5,481 6,500 Tons. 917,452 1,204,802 1,130,201 1,377,412 1,478,338 1,322,028 1,223,338 1,525,084 Tons. 206 227 205 215 232 221 223 234 Pig Iron Manufacture. — The earliest facts bearing on this industry in Cumberland appears in Hutchinson's + history of that county, in which it is stated that " between Workington and Seaton, on the banks of the Derwent, are considerable iron- works, planned and built under the direction of that eminent engineer, the late Thomas Spalding, of Whitehaven, in the year 1763. They have two blast furnaces for the smelting of iron ore, a mill for slitting and rolling of bar iron, a double forge for refining and drawing of bar iron, a foundry, with several small furnaces, wherein they make camion and cast-iron works of all sorts, a boring mill for boring cannon, cylinders, &c., a grinding house and turning house and many other conveniences for carrying on a very extensive iron manufactory. These works are carried on under the firm of Speddhig, Hicks and Company." In the year 1796, two years after the publication of the volume from which the above is extracted, a return to Parliament, on the authority of Dr. M'Nab, shows that at that time there were two blast furnaces in operation, named Bearpot and Duddon, the latter, no doubt, being in the occupation of the ancestors of the present proprietors, Messrs. Harrison, Ainslie & Co. The early history of the iron industries of Millom present some interesting features. The Huddlestons, of Millom Castle, had one or more charcoal blast furnaces near a stream still known * Eeports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines. t " History and Antiquities of Cumberland." Hutchinson, Carlisle, 1794. CHAP. IV.] CUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. 429 as Furnace Beck, and about a mile north-east from the castle, where, when the site had been ploughed, slag and pieces of iron were found. At Duddon Bridge a charcoal furnace is standing which is used from time to time as charcoal can be obtained, as are also those at Newland and Backbarrow, both in Furness. A fourth exists at Warsash in Hampshire, near Southampton, and a fifth at Lorn in Argyleshire. The Backbarrow furnace was in operation in the year 1745, also the Duddon, both furnaces being marked on Speed's Map of Cumberland, and they had probably been at work for years previouslj'. These furnaces belonged to the family of" Lathom, of Broughton in Furness, from whom they passed early in the present century to the old established firm of Harrison, Ainslie & Co., by whom they are stiU owned. Mr. Thomas Massicks, who has gleaned many important facts connected with the district, possesses, it is said, a pig of the iron made in Millom, and branded a.d. 1783, which was found doing duty as a lintel in a cottage at Hodbarrow. These are the only charcoal furnaces traced in the Millom district ; and Mr. Massicks is of opinion that no part of the Tast deposits of Hodbarrow were touched tiU about fifty years ago, when a small quantity was worked near the shore, and that the Huddlestone furnaces were partly suppHed from a small vein in limestone close by, the remainder being brought from Furness. The production of charcoal pig iron at the works of Bearpot and Duddon in 1796 was 2,080 tons and 1,664 tons, or a total of 3,744 tons. These charcoal furnaces, except the Bearpot, are still in existence, and in the year 1855 produced 16,574 tons of charcoal pig from hematite ore. The demand for this quahty of iron at the period was considerable, it being extensively used in Birmingham for saddlers' ironmongery, where it was smelted in crucibles and run into small moulds ; these castings were subse- quently decarbonised by being placed in layers, with powdered hematite ore, in cylindrical pans, and exposed to a sufficient heat in suitable ovens, until all became malleable. The iron thus made has a wide reputation, and is only inferior to the best charcoal iron of Sweden, Eussia and Norway. Blooms and bars were made at the Backbarrow works in Lancashire in 1855 ; the manufacture was, however, discontinued, through the failure of wood for making the charcoal. 430 COAL AND IRON INDUSTKIES. [part ir. In the year 1851 the production of pig iron in Cumberland was very limited, being confined to the Cleator Iron Company, near Whitehaven, who had three furnaces in operation, and the small charcoal furnaces already referred to. The make of pig iron in 1854 did not exceed 20,000 tons ; about the year 1857 the works fit Harrington of Mr. C. H. Plevins and those at Seaton of the Messrs. Smith and Co., were put in blast ; in the following year the works of the Workington Iron Company commenced the make of hematite pig, with two furnaces. And in the year 1863 the West Cumberland Iron and Steel Company blew in three furnaces. Again, in the year 1870, the Maryport, Millom and Solway Companies commenced operations. At this period there were 33 furnaces built, of which 24 were in blast, making 255,178 tons of pig iron. Other works followed, at Moss Bay and Workington, in 1872, while the works of Parton commenced, active operations in the year 1874. The Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute gives ample details in its pages, not only of the Cumberland ironworks, but of others throughout the kingdom ; those of the west coast springing up in recent years so rapidly have a special interest, and the following account will show generally their extent and appliances. " In the works of the West Cumberland Hematite Iron and Steel Cojqapany, the largest and, in many respects, the most modern establishment in the Workington district, there are here six blast furnaces, each 55 feet in height, and varying from 18 to 21 feet in the diameter of the boshes, or widest part. The furnaces are blown by a pair of beam engines, having a blowing cylinder of 8 feet in diameter, and a steam cylinder of 3 feet 8 inches in diameter ; the stroke of the piston being 8 feet 6 inches, and the engine working at the rate of 20 revolutions per minute. The oldest furnaces of the company were erected about the year 1860, in which year the blast engines were also erected. The blast furnaces are all fitted with the bell mouth and hopper apparatus, patented by Head, Wrightson & Co., for the utilization of the waste gases, which are conducted to the heaters and boilers in the usual way. The hoists used for the eleva- tion to the top of the furnaces of the raw materials are also on a principle patented by Mr. Wrightson of the above-named firm, and well known both in the Cleveland district, where it has been extensively adopted, also in Wales, Staffordshire, and, more recently, in Scotland. .•HAP. IV.] CUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. 431 " Within a few miles of their furnaces the West Cumberland Company are working a coal roj'alty, which produces a quality of coal suitable for the manufacture of coke. This coal is brought to the blast furnaces in its raw state, and on either side of the yard separating the blast furnaces from the steel works of the comi^any there are a large number of coke ovens at work. The coke is said to be of good quality, although it must come far short of the South Durham coke, seeing that the latter is always preferred for any special brand, and that there are other firms in the district that use no other. The production of the West Cumberland blast furnaces averages from 200 to 250 tons per week each. The general character of their arrangements is very much similar, apart from height and capacity, to those built in the Cleveland district. The company possess manifest advantages in the near proximity to the sea, which is within one hundred yards of the furnaces, and furnishes an illimitable tip for the slag, a boon which many ironmasters, occupying a more insular situation, and therefore, at a great loss in disposing of their waste viti-eous produce, would highly appreciate. " The steel works of the West Cumberland Company are sepa- rated by a distance of some three hundred yards from the blast furnaces, part of the intervening space being occupied with a small forge and workshop. With the exception of the works of the Barrow Company, these are undoubtedly the finest steel works on the west coast. Here there are found Bessemer convertors in operation, two having a capacity of 8 tons, and other two of 6 tons each. The operation of casting the ingots of steel is performed here in the ordinary way. In the subsequent pro- cesses, however, the rails are drawn out in lengths of 48 feet, and then in their red-hot state they are brought to a guillotine and cut into lengths of 21 feet each ; so that for every two rails there are only two crop ends. In some cases it is found possible to draw out lengths of from 60 to 64 feet, thus allowing only two crop ends for three rails ; but in general practice it is foimd better to keep to the shorter and more wieldy length of 48 feet. " The Moss Bay Company's iron and steel works, situated near Workington, may be referred to as possessing all the modem improvements, and it was at these works that the appliances now nearly universally employed for utilizing the waste gases were first introduced into this district. A forge is attached to these 43a COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. works, where a puddling furnace on a new principle is employed, patented by Mr. Kirk, the manager. These new furnaces work with a consumption of not more than 15J cwt. of coal to the ton of puddled bar." In the table below appears the number of furnaces built and in blast, with the make of pig iron in each year since 1857 : — FURNACES. Year. Pig Iron Made. Average per Furnace. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1857 8 6 30,515 5,083 1858 8 5 26,264 5,253 1859 12 7 50,097 7,157 1860 12 8 87,950 10,993 1861 12 8 55,165 6,895 1862 12 7 103,455 14,779 1863 14 10 106,090 10,609 1864 15 11 141,033 12,821 1865 15 9 107,430 . 11,935 1866 17 12 136,343 11,362 1867 17 81 109,839 12,553 1868 17 8 116,864 14,608 1869 17 9 129,107 13,234 1870 27 24 255,178 10,632 1871 34 28f 336,569 11,707 1872 37 33i 440,575 13,250 The variation in the average yield of the furnaces, it should be stated, is due to the circumstance of some of the furnaces being in blast but a part of the year. In considering the quantity of coal used in the manufacture of pig iron, the average amount used about the year 1869 was 60 cwt., subsequently it was deter- mined by inquiries specially made, that in the year 1873 the average did not exceed 51 cwt. in Great Britain ; while in this district, where the Durham coke is extensively employed, the average did not exceed 47 cwt., all purposes included ; and in all cases where coke was returned its equivalent in coal has been taken. Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture. — In the year 1872 inquiries were first instituted with a view of ascertaining the quantities of fuel and ore used in the manufacture of pig iron. The results appear in the annexed table giving the number of furnaces built and in blast in Cumberland, the make of pig iron, and the coal and iron ore employed : — CHAP. IV.] CUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. 433 Vpjit FURNACES. Pig Iron Made. Coal Used. Ore Used. Built. In Blast. ^ Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 37 33i 440,575 1,077,783 850,500 1873 39 33^ 456,877 1,079,118 865,172 1874 51 30| 390,840 1,010,125 738,490 1875 51 31f 486,112 1,089,000 846,000 1876 47 25 436,887 936,929 783,456 1877 50 26} 538,156 1,027,869 956,834 1878 51 27 542,904 1,019,957 976,059 1879 51 27i 531,638 1,005,497 930,247 1880 51 40 790,343 1,604,097 1,475,280 In the year 1872 the coal used in pig iron manufacture, all purposes included, was 49 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made, compared with 47^ cwts. in the following year ; successive years show improved economy. Taking the years 1879 and 1880 the average varies between 38 and 40 cwts. The works and furnaces in operation in Cumberland during the year 1880 were as follows ; producing, as stated, 790,343 tons of pig iron suitable for the manufacture of steel : — OtTMBEKLASD. No. Name of Works. Owners. rnRNACES. BoQt. In Blast. Nos. 3 1 Nos. 3* i 3 4 3 6 4+ 2 6 6 6 4 3 2 4 5', 6 5* 4 3 11 4 3 61 40 Derweut Buddon f Harrington Hsematite, 1 { Whitehaven . . J Lonsdale, Whitehaven . . Lovrther, Workington Maryport MUlom Moss Bay, Workington . . Parton, Whitehaven Solway Hssmatite, Maryport . f West Cumberland Iron and { Steel, Workington . . . f Whitehaven Haematite, Cleator ( Moor Workington . . . Derwent Hsematite Iron Co., Lim. Harrison, Ainslie, & Co. . . James Bain & Co. Lonsdale Hsematite Iron & Steel Co. Lowther Hsematite Iron Co., Lim. Maryport Hasmatite Iron Co. . . f Cumberland Iron Mining & ) \ Smelting Co., Limited . j I Moss Bay Haematite Iron & i \ Steel Co ) Parton Hsematite Iron Co., Lim. Solway Hsematite Iron Co., Lim. West Cumberland Iron & Steel ) Co., Limited . . . i Whitehaven Hsematite Iron Co., j Limited . . . . j Workington Iron Co., Limited . Total of Cumberland . * One furnace for six months. + One furnace for seven and a half months, t Another furnace for six weeks. § A third furnace for three mouths. II One furnace a part of the year only. F V 434 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. As to the ore employed, all varieties included give an average in 1872 and 1873 of about 38 cwts., compared with 36 cwts. in , recent years. The great bulk of the ore reduced in the Cumber- land furnaces is the produce of the district, the other ores im- ported and used in admixture were derived from the following sources in each year since 1875 : — 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. Hffimatite Foreign . . Irish Other ores Totals . Tons. 809,703 16,178 21,119 Tons. 740,710 23,500 14,029 5,217 Tons. 906,991 28,776 17,487 3,58p Tons. 914,475 29,000 18,633 13,951 Tons. 890,456 16,308 15,791 7,692 Tons. 1,350,410 79,424 28,206 17,240 846,000 783,456 956,834 976,059 930,247 1,475,280 The Irish aluminous ore is used with considerable advantage as a flux in the smelting of the hsematite, as it contains from 20 to 35 per cent, of alumina, and from 35 to 40 per cent, of metallic iron ; there was also employed a small amount of forge and miU cinder, containing from 40 to 70 per cent, of metallic iron. Malleable Iron and Steel Works. — In the year 1872 there were five works engaged in the manufacture of malleable iron, employing 83 puddling furnaces and 11 rolling mills, to which should be added the Bessemer Works of the West Cumberland and the Moss Bay Iron and Steel Companies, situated near Workington. The coal used in the above works in the years 1872 and 1873 amounted to from 100,000 to 110,000 tons, whereas the total quantity of coal employed in the malleable iron works of Cumberland in 1880 and two preceding years has not exceeded 35,000 tons per annum. The following is a list of the works, with the number of puddling furnaces and rolling miUs in operation in the year 1880 : — Name of Works. Name of Firm. Puddling Furnaces. Rolling Mills. West Omnberland Derwent EoUing Mills New Yard . . . Marsh Side Ellen Eolling MiIIr . ( West Cumberland Iron & ) ( Steel Co., Limited . .) Moss Bay H. Iron & Steel Co. Tfirk Brothers & Go. Penton, Hampton, & Jackson Total . Nos. 13 7 8 *13 Nos. 3 2 1 1 2 41 1 9 * Works standing. CHAP. IV.] CUMBERLAND IRON INDUSTRIES. 435 The four first named works are situated near Workington, and the last near Maryport, which has been standing for some years. The production of Bessemer steel in the Cumberland works in the year 1879 amounted to 127,163 tons of ingots, increased in 1880 to 140,869 tons of ingots, showing an increase of 13,706 tons of ingots over the previous year. The production of Bes- semer steel rails ui 1879 amounted to 103,969 tons, and in 1880 to 114,096 tons, showing an increase of 10,127 tons in the last- named year. The total output of Bessemer steel rails in Great Britain in the years 1879 and 1880, according to the annual reports of the British Iron Trade Association for those years, being respectively 519,718 tons, and 739,910 tons, giving an in- creased production in 1880 of 41 per cent, over the previous year. F p 2 CHAPTER V. LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Sesoription of Iron Ore deposits in Fumess— Analyses, production and distribution of Ore — Iron Mines in Lancashire — Population employed in Iron Mining — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early history — ^Barrow andWigan Coal and Iron Co.'sWorlcB — Production of Pig Iron — List of Iron Works — Malleable Iron and Bessemer Steel Works, and Coal employed— Mersey Steel Works — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture — Sources of Iron Ore. Lancashire. Iron Ore Deposits. Carboniferous Limestone. — So closely do the iron ores of North Lancashire resemble those of Cumberland, both in their mineralogical character and in their mode of occurrence, that little need be added to what already has been said on the deposits of similar character in the adjoining county of Cumberland. Whilst the Cumberland haematite is for the most part a hard ore, the predominating mineral in the Furness district is a soft haematite, often contain- ing, however, embedded pieces of a compact variety ; most of this soft ore is used for fettling puddling furnaces. It is notable that many of the irregular deposits of ore in the carboniferous or " Mountain Limestone " of Furness extend upward to the level of the limestone, and are overlain merely by deposits of drift ; from such a mode of occurrence it may be naturally inferred that the denudation which the ore-bearing rocks have suffered has renjoved the upper portions of the deposits, and that the drift was accumulated upon the exposed surface of ore. Some of these mineral deposits in Furness are of considerable extent ; for example, the ore worked at Park, and at the Eoanhead Mines, forms a deposit extending for upwards of 500 yards in length, its width varying from 120 to 240 yards. As in the Whitehaven district, so in Furness, the ore is not confined to irregular deposits in the limestone, but is found also in more or less regular fissures, which generally have a north- west and south-east strike, with a dip to the south-west. Thus the mines at Stank, which are the deepest in the Furness district. cHAi'. v.] LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 437 are worked upon one of these fissures of haematite, dipping 45° to the south-west ; this is known to extend for a length of more than 500 yards, and is in part as much as 30 yards in width. Mr. P. Wurzburger gives further interesting details of the deposits in this district in his paper read before the Barrow-in- Furness meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, in August, 1874. Analyses of the Ore.* — The haematite of the Lindal Moor Mines, near Ulverstone, of Messrs. Harrison, AinsHe, and Company, and worked extensively, has been examined by Mr. John Spiller, who described it as follows : — " The sample was selected from a large quantity of ore, consisting of fragments of various degrees of hardness, the majority of which were of the hard compact variety, deep grayish purple in colour, and covered with a brownish red unctuous powder; there were also small quantities of fibrous haematite and specular iron, together with quartz and a little earthy matter." Restjlts Tabulated. Peroxide of iron 94-23 Protoxide of manganese 0'23 Alumina 0-51 Lime 0-05 Magnesia trace. Phosphoric acid minute trace. Sulphuric acid 0-09 Bisulphide of iron 0'03 Water, hygroscopic 0-39 Water, combined 0'17 Insoluble residue 6-18 Total 100-88 Insoluble REsmuE. Silica 4-90 Alumina 0-12 Peroxide of iron and lime traces. Total 5;02 The total amount of metaUic iron contained in the ore being equivalent to 65'98 per cent., a distinct trace of arsenic being detected in 1680 grains of the ore. The haematite raised at Gilbrow,* also near Ulverstone, ex- amined by Mr. A. Dick, is thus referred to : — " Description. — Eed haematite ; unctuous ; easily scratched by the file ; lustre, * " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part I., p. 66. 438 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAIIT II. sub-metallic; colour, purplish red; streak, bright red; frac- ture, uneven and minutely crystalline ; pieces of carbonate of lime and other minerals occur in it, which getting coloured by the powder, cannot be seen until the specimen is washed. Total amount of metallic iron contained in the ore is equivalent to 60-55 per cent." Eesthts Tabulated. — Oee Dried above 100° 0. Peroxide of iron 86'50 Protoxide of manganese . . . • • 0'21 Lime • • 2'77 Magnesia 1'46 Carbonic acid 2'96 Phosphoric acid trace. Sulphuric acid O'U Insoluble residue 6'55 100-O6 Total .... Insoluble Eesidue. Silica 6-18 Alumina containing a trace of iron 0'30 Total 6;48 A whitish metal, precipitable by sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution, was found. The quantity ob- tained from 500 grains of ore was so small that it could not be identified. The poorer ores in the Furness district average 45 per cent, of metallic ii'on,while 50 per cent, of iron are found in similar ores in the Whitehaven district. The following series of analyses, by Richards, shows the constituents of some of the best haematite ores of Barrow-in-Furness, employed in making Bessemer pig- iron in the Barrow Works : — Constituents. Park. Whitiiggs. Mouzell. Peroxide of iron . 94-88 83-33 83-94 Alumina . . . . 0-07 0-75 0-70 Protoxide of manganese 0-04 0-08 0-28 Lime . . . . 0-34 4-10 0-85 Magnesia trace. 0-15 0-09 "Water .... 0-47 1-97 2-28 Phosphoric acid 0-03 ... 0-03 Sulphuric acid . . . >• J trace. ... Car )onic acid • > • 2-53 ... Silica .... Total . 4-55 6-59 12-46 100-38 99-50 100-63 CHAr. v.] LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 439 The Park ore gives 66'42 per cent, of metallic iron, the Whit- riggs and Mouzell yielding respectively 58"33 and 58-76 per cent. The ore used at Askam has the following composition : — Peroxide of iron 83'00 Silica 15-50 Carbonate of lime trace. Moisture .......... 1*50 Total 100-00 And yielding of metallic iron 58*10 per cent. It may he remarked, regarding these ores, that the harder variety is inva- riably used in the manufacture of haematite pig-iron, and is therefore called blast ore. The average yield of the Lancashire haematite may be taken as 64 per cent. The following are analyses of other ores smelted at the Barrow Haematite Iron and Steel Company's works, and obtained from the localities named : — Constituents. Lindal Moor (Blast Oro). Lindal Cote (Puddling Ore). Lindal Moor (Puddling Ore). Dalton (Blast Ore). Newton (Blast Ore). Sesquioxide of iron . . 78-61 77-24 86-20 67-14 77-G4 Phosphoric acid 0-03 ... ... Phosphorus . . . 0-01 ..< ... trace. Sulphuric acid Carbonic acid . . . 0-04 0-04 trace. ... 4-19 1-43 4-45 trace. Silica .... 0-04 0-09 0-08 0-01 Alumina . . ■ . trace. 0-24 0-43 6-25 0-15 Protoxide of manganese 0-24 0-11 trace. 0-08 0-13 Lime . . ■ ■ 0-57 6-00 2-23 6-02 1-09 Magnesia 0-19 0-41 0-59 0-15 0-14 Water .... 2-02 2-82 3-35 1-80 3-08 Insoluble residue . Total . 18-31 9-07 6-50 19-77 17-94 100-06 100-17 100-85 99-66 100-18 Insoluble Eesidtje. Silica .... 16-11 7-27 5-58 19-09 15-44 Alumina 1-67 1-47 0-58 0-51 2-13 Lime . . . • 0-03 0-08 05 0-12 0-06 Magnesia Total . Metallic Iron 0-05 trace. trace. trace. trace. 17-86 8-82 6-21 19-72 17-63 55-03 54-07 60-34 47-00 54-35 uo COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET ir. Frodnctiou of Haematite. — Taking a retrospective view of the iron trade in Barrow and the Furness district in the beginning of this century, it appears, according to the books of the Harbour Trustees, that the total quantity of ore sent from the port of Barrow, in the year 1800, was but 1,200 tons, compared with 146,000 tons in the year 1849, when Mr. Braithwaite Poole made a report on iron ore to the Directors of the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway Company. At this period, according to the above report, there appears to have been, in Great Britain, 60 mines in operation, the output of ore amounting to 500,000 tons per annum, and employing miners', bankmen, carters, and others, to the number of nearly 3,000 men, while the value of the ore thus raised annually was estimated to reach £500,000. The mines and firms raising haematite, in Lancashire, in 1849, were as foUows, producing in the Furness district 182,000 tons, of an average of 64 per cent, of metallic iron : — No. Mines. Proprietors. Tons. 3 3 4 3 1 2 1 Lindal Moor Cross Gates . Lindal Cote Mouzell . Haulme Stainton . Elliscales . Harrison, Ainslie, and Uo. Town and EawHnson . Ulverstone Mining Co. . Schneider, Davis, and Co. . Charles Kennedy George Huddleston George Ashburner . 55,000 42,000 29,000 25,000 12,000 12,000 7,000 17 Total . 182,000 Of this quantity 146,000 tons were shipped at Barrow, 33,000 tons disposed of by the Ulverstone Canal, the remaining 3,000 tons being consumed in the district in the works of Messrs. Harrison, Ainslie, and Co, The distribution of the ore was as follows : — DISTRIBBTION. TOUfi. South Wales 87,000 Staffordshire 84,000 Purness district 3^000 Yorkshire s'ooo North Wales and Salop 2,000 Scotland 2 000 Newcastle and Durham 1 000 Total of Furness Ore . • . . 182,000 CHAP, v.] LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 441 The average selling price at Barrow at this period was 10s. 6d. per ton ; the cost of getting and other incidental charges heing shown in the annexed items : — s. d. Royalty 16 Working 2 6 Propwood 10 Interest of value of stock 10 Carriage (cartage) . • 14 Railway to Barrow 19 Profit, including mining risks, bad debts, &c. . . .15 Selling price at Barrow, per ton . . . .10 The cost of carriage from Barrow to South Staffordshire by canal and railway appears in the following items, long weight of 2,400 lbs. to the ton :— BY SBA AND OANAl. S. d. Freight from Barrow to Ellesmere Port . . . .26 Charges wharfage and porterage at ditto . . ..13 Town dues 3 Canal charges (say to Spring Vale) * 7 Loss of ore by laying in open wharves at 2J per cent. . 3 Total long weight BY RAILWAY. Freight from Barrow to Fleetwood or Poulton Charges, wharfage and porterage at ditto . Railway charges (say to Golds Hill) t Short weight v. long weight = l-14th . Total long weight 11 3 s. d. 1 6 9 8 9 11 Five years later, in 1854, the united production of the Lanca- shire and Cumberland mines amounted to 579,924 tons. Most of the mines producing this ore have since acquired a high repu- tation, on account of the vast deposits discovered, and the supe- rior character of the metal produced therefrom, more especially since the introduction of the Bessemer process. The ore raised in 1854 was distributed thus : — to the Newcastle district, 6,785 tons ; North Wales, 13,380 tons ; South Staffordshire, principally by the London and North- Western Eailway, 300,000 tons ; and * Mr. George Jones' Iron Works, near Wolverhampton. t Messrs. BagnaU k Sons' Iron Works, near Tipton. These two works being at an average distance. 442 COAL AND IKON INDUSTEIES. [PAUT II. by ship coastwise to South Wales, 150,000 tons ; showing how great was the demand at this time for these ores, to augment the supplies to other iron-making districts, the high per centage of metallic iron they contained enabling them to bear a considerable cost for transport to remote districts. In subsequent years the production of the Lancashire mines is separately distinguished from those of Cumberland, amounting in the year 1855 to 336,829 tons, the total output of the mines of Great Britain the same year being 9,553,741 tons. The only ironworks existing in Lancashire at this period being those of Messrs. Harrison, Ainslie and Co., at Newland and Backbarrow, previously referred to, where the ores obtained from their Lindal Moor mines were smelted and pig-iron made with charcoal. In the annexed table is shown the output of Lancashire haema- tite, in each year since 1855 : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1855 336,829 1868 767,625 1856 464,853 1869 784,507 1857 592,390 1870 871,938 1858 438,456 1871 931,048 1859 445,046 1872 909,077 1860 520,829 1873 975,826 1861 519,180 1874 914,357 1862 659,391 1875 834,484 1863 658,642 1876 908,664 1864 691,421 1877 993,012 1865 607,439 1878 984,781 1866 685,726 1879 976,822 1867 667,356 1880 1,266,503 In considering the value of these ores it may be stated that in the year 1871 and the two following years prices ranged from 19s. 9d. per ton in 1871, to 28s. 6d. per ton in 1872 ; and even this was eclipsed in the year 1873, when prices rose to 32s. per ton. In subsequent years prices have gradually diminished, thus, in the year 1878, the following are a few of the more important quotations of Lancashire ore delivered ia trucks at the pits ; Lindal Moor, 15s.; Askham, 14s. 6d. ; Eoundhead, 13s. to 14s. ; the lowest price quoted being 10s. 9d. per ton. The average price of ore in 1878, through and through, was 12s. 6d. per ton compared with 13s. 6d. in 1880. In the an- CHAP, v.] LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 443 nexecl table appears the output of each iron mine in Lancashire in the year 1880, with the value of the ore : — Name of Mine. Quantities. Value. Askham (Furness Iron and Steel Co. luli.s. 2,303 Cwts. a s. a. 1,381 16 Dalton 45,468 27,280 8 Dalton (Myles Kennedy) . 7,236 4,532 10 EUiscales .... 22,908 15 13,744 16 Highfleld '6,462 4,696 10 Lindal Cote, Eure pits, &o. 29,998 20,247 13 Lindal Moor (Eurness Iron and Steel Co.) .... 1 16,031 10,820 12 Lindal Moor.Whitriggs and Gilbrow 257,696 173,944 16 Lindal and Ousby . 1,831 1,098 12 Lindal-in-Furness (Wigan Coal and Iron Co.) . ' 644 386 8 MouzeU 92,597 53,264 5 Newton (Barrow H. S. Co.) 1,858 1,300 Old Hills ,, „ . . 3,575 2,502 10 Park 305,415 213,790 Stank ,, „ . . 127,910 89,538 10 Pennington (Parkside Mining (Ju.) 29,326 20,528 Boanliead and Askham 218,363 152,854 Stainton (Stainton Mining Co.) 4,304 19 3,013 10 Whitriggs (Barrow H. S. Co.) . 43,335 30,334 10 Yarlside (Paikhouse) Total of Lancashire 49,242 35,700 1,266,503 14 860,959 6 Since the year 1872 the mines of the Barrow Haematite Steel Company have produced ore in the following quantities : — Year. Newton. Olil Hills. Park. Stank. Whitriggs. stainton. Tous. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tous. 1872 6,300 ♦ 262,305 6,052 10,965 1,770 1873 4,339 * 283,496 13,246 16,185 2,347 1874 0,234 2,296 270,469 22,285 14,252 2,721 1875 6,254 *■ 245,045 50,891 19,981 2,043 1876 5,626 4,338 232,374 67,420 27,471 111,875 1877 6,200 3,441 219,462 77,151 29,902 229 1878 5,269 6,417 208,329 110,917 29,961 1,400 1879 1,656 2,632 226,107 114,936 30,445 727 1880 1,858 3,575 305,415 127,910 43,335 ... In the annexed table the Eoanhead Mines, the property of Messrs. Denney and Co., the Lindal Moor of Messrs. Harrison, • Included in Whitriggs. 444 COAL AND IRON" INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Ainslie and Co., and the Askham, Lindal Moor and Dalton Mines of the Furness Iron and Steel Company, produced ore in the following quantities since the year 1872 : — Year. Askham. Lindal Moor. Dalton. Eoanhead, &c. Lindal Moor. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons, Tons. 18'72 5,718 4,407 170,769 158,341 1873 25,881 45,005 199,017 153,138 1814: 23,679 32,749 29,154 187,455 160,474 1875 16,571 8,138 8,616 131,210 167,049 1876 11,215 13,276 5,334 129,508 193,040 1877 10,050 10,787 13,996 134,670 219,812 1878 10,154 12,346 28,406 134,464 224,389 1879 8,795 15,368 47,315 138,452 225,827 1880 2,303 16,031 45,468 113,551 257,696 The average prices in 1879 from these mines varied from 10s. to 15s. 6d. per ton, and in 1880 about 13s. 6^^. per ton. Distriliutioii of the Ore. — Except some inconsiderable quan- tities of ore carried in a few localities to the ironworks by road, the great bulk of the ore is distributed by the Furness Eailway, either to Barrow for shipment to other ports, or by rail to York- shire, Staffordshire, &c., and to the ironworks of the coimty. The earliest return published for the year 1855 gives the an- nexed account of the distribution of ore in that year : — DISIKIBUTION OP THE ORE. QDANTITIKS. Tons. Shipped at Barrow 313,797 ,, to Scotland 1,470 ,, for Yorkshire, &c 1,500 By rail to Yorkshire, Staffordshire, and Wales . . . 17,711 Constuned in district 2,351 Total production in 1855 . . . . 336,829 Lancashire, with her valuable resources of rich red haematite, was not destined to remain a repository only for the supply of other districts ; as time rolled on a remarkable development took place, and in due course some of the best arranged smelting works were established, and a great industry was created, absorbing in 1880 nearly three-fourths of all the ore raised. This will appear in the annexed table, showing the respective quantities sent by ship, rail, and to the iron furnaces of the district in each of the years since 1856, by the Furness Eailway : — OHAV. v.] LANCASHIKE IRON INDUSTRIES. 445 Year. By Ship. By Rail. To Furnaces. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1856 461,303 ... 3,550 464,863 1857 574,952 14,729 2,709 ■ 592,390 1858 367,568 69,028 1,950 438,466 1859 305,136 130,896 9,014 445,046 1860 269,477 181,712 79,640 520,829 1863 238,882 205,701 204,059 658,642 1866 163,725 188,701 333,300 686,726 1869 96,322 177,630 510,555 784,507 1871 74,732 253,478 602,838 931,048 1873 73,164 239,669 662,993 975,826 1875 63,926 118,459 628,230 810,616 1876 65,423 106,677 662,566 833,666 1877 42,657 97,767 762,412 902,836 1878 25,356 120,737 733,387 879,480 1879 30,981 95,200 787,746 913,926 1880 60,557 139,328 939,858 1,129,743 The following account gives the details of the distribution of the ore by rail and ship in the year 1880 : — Shipped at Barrow to South Wales ■ ,, Lancashire, North Wales, &c. ,, Scotland .... ,, Foreign Parts TONS. 12,102 20,652 16,542 1,361 Shipped at Ulverstone Oanal By rail to Lancashire, Yorkshire and Staffordshire . 139,328 ,, furnaces in district ..... 939,858 50,557 1,079,186 Hotal by sea and rail 1,129,743 Beyond the above quantities, 136,760 tons of ore were conveyed to the ironworks by road, compared with 62,896 tons in 1879. Examining the quantities appearing under the respective heads in the above table, some interesting facts appear, deserving of attention. Already the increased consumption of the blast fur- naces has been referred to : a glance at the quantities carried to the shipping ports and sent coastwise to distant iron districts, shows a remarkable decline from 574,952 tons in the year 1857 to 25,356 tons in the year 1878. The quantities sent out of the district by rail on the other hand has not varied to any great extent since the year 1859, except between the years 1871 and 1873j which wiU ever be remembered in the history of the coal 446 COAL AKD IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. and iron industries as a time of great prosperity ; thus, in 1859 the ore sent out of the district reached 130,896 tons, compared with 253,478 tons in the year 1871, and 233,238 tons in the year 1872, since which the quantities sent away show little variation. The diminished export of ore from the Furness deposits to other districts, where it was in great request, has been to some extent accounted for by the additional imports from foreign countries, particularly from Spain, amounting in the year 1880 to 2,278,962 tons, of the value of .62,270,462, giving an average of 20s. per ton ; the total imports of iron ore the same j^ear being 2,632,601 tons of the value of £2,789,929. Examining the distribution of the Furness ore, the following figures for a few years will show the falling off to those districts formerly receiving it in considerable quantities by both sea and rail: — Destination. 1868. 1873. 1878. 1880. By Sea. South Wales . LancasHre and North ) Wales . . . S Tons. 78,338 47,339 Tons. 50,777 18,194 Tons. 11,750 7,098 Tons. 12,102 20,552 Scotland Foreign Parts . . . 4,365 130 4,138 55 5,731 777 16,642 1,361 By Bail. Lancashire, Yorkshire, ) &c ] 82,978 198,911 120,737 139,328 Scotland . . . . Newcastle, Stockton, &c. Total . . 350 48,057 2,937 37,821 261,557 312,823 146,093 189,885 Recent explorations of the iron ore deposits of Furness have disclosed some interesting facts, showing that they are far more important and extensive than was formerly considered. The Mouzell Mine, near Dalton-in-Furness, was surrendered to the owner in December, 1877, by the Barrow Haematite Iron and Steel Company. Subsequent explorations, conducted by the manager for the owner, have resulted in the discovery of an exten- sive basin at least 70 yards in length, and varying in width from 30 to 40 yards, and in depth from 20 to 30 yards. The mines, situation, proprietors or companies and chief agents, now in operation in Lancashire, are as follows : — CHAP, v.] LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 447 No. Name of Mine. Situation. Name of Proprietor- or Company. Name of Manager or Agent. 1 Askam . . . . Askam-in-Fumess . ( *Fumess Iron and [ Steel Co., Limited . j Henry Mellon. 2 Crossgates Near Dalton ^ ^^ 3 Dalton . • 4 Llndal Moor Ulverston . 6 Martin . J 6 Qoldmire . " " 7 Pennington , " 8 Plumpton . J, g Thwaite Flatt Dalton . _ 10 Btainton . 1, (Barrow Hssmatite I Steel Co., Limited . 1 WiUiam Kellett. H Newton 12 Park . ' 18 Old HiUs . , 14 Whitrigg.s . i> ^ 15 16 Pennington . Urswick . Stank .... Lindal . Parkside Mining Co. . George Secular. 17 Dalton . (Barrow HBematite 1 Steel Co., Limited . 1 William KeUett. IS Stainton . ,, (The Wtainton Mining I Co. . James Garstang Brogden. 19 Bercume Ulverston Rigg & Co. . Captain Goldy. 20 Mouzell . Dalton John Clegg . James Ashworth. 21 Dalton . 1, Myle-s Kennedy . . Miles Kennedy. 22 Elliscales . >> ... Elliscales Mining Co. . Joseph Askew. 23 ( Lindal Cote, Eure ( Pits and Crossgates „ , offices Ulver- ston . ... The Ulverston Mining Co., Limited . . j J. G. Brogden. 24 Lindal Moor . . M Harrison, Ainslie, & Co. Edmund Ray, 25 ( Gilbrow and Wliit- l riggs . } " ■ ("Cumberland Iron < Mining and Smelt- ) 26 Highfleld . Dalton VThomas Massicks. 1 ing Co., Limited f 27 Longlands )» Duke of Buccleuch . Edward Wadham. 28 Koanhead and Askam ,, ... Kennedy Brothers Myles Kennedy. 29 Urswick . . . Ulverston Begbie & Co. H. D. V. Begbie. 30 Lindal and Ousby . Little Urswick . ( Lindal and Ousby 1 Iron Ore Co., Lim. . 1 Hy. Postlethwaite. 31 Yai-lside . . . Dalton . ( Thos. Storey and Wm. ( Boulton j Wm. Boulton. Population employed in Ironstone Mining. — The earliest return published for* the year 1873 shows that of 3,222 persons employed in Lancashire in the Haematite Iron Mines 1,890 were employed underground, and 1,332 above ground, producing 852,064 tons of iron ore. These returns refer only to those mines imder the operation of the " Metalliferous Mines Eegula- tion Act, 1872 ;" the total iron ore produced in Lancashire in the same year was 928,174 tons, the difference, 76,110 tons, being the output of mines not coming under the operation of the above- named Act. The annexed table, constructed from the Annual Eeports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines, gives the total numbers of persons employed under ground and above ground in each of the years, with the total output and average produce per man : — In liquidation. 448 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. Year. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total Employed. ' I Iron Ore Baised. Average per Man, Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1,890 2,135 1,812 1,950 2,061 2,194 2,008 2,807 1,332 1,462 1,275 1,247 1,162 1,121 1,140 1,426 3,222 3,597 3,087 3,197 3,223 3,315 3,148 4,233 Tons. 852,064 934,234 882,840 858,894 913,060 906,994 979,659 1,188,543 Tuns. 264 260 286 268 283 273 311 280 The steady working of the ironstone miner is apparent in these returns, showing an increase in the eight years of 16 tons per man, equivalent to 7 per cent. Pig Iron nCanofacture. — As far back as the year 1788 evi- dence appears of the existence of small furnaces in Lancashire, where iron ore was smelted with the aid of charcoal ; these were situated and known as the Newland, Backbarrow, and Leighton furnaces, and their production is recorded in the year named as 2,100 tons, or 700 tons per furnace. Another return for the year 1796 records the make of the two first named as 700 tons, and the Leighton furnace as 780 tons, or an aggregate for that year of 2,180 tons, being an increase of 80 tons in six years. The total make of pig iron in 1788 was of charcoal pig iron 13,100 tons, and of coke pig iron 48,200 tons, giving an aggre- gate of 61,300 tons to England and Wales ; and a further sum of 7,000 tons to Scotland, of which 1,400 tons were charcoal pig and 5,600 tons coke pig iron, making in all 68,300 tons. Again, in 1796, according to the return prepared by Dr. Macnab and presented to a committee of the House of Commons, the details of which return wiU be found in another page, the total make of the furnaces of Great Britain amounted to 125,079 tons, of which 3,780 tons were charcoal pig and 121,299 tons coke pig iron. In 1806 the Leighton furnace was alone in operation ; as far as can be ascertained the make of pig iron for that year was 780 tons, as in the year 1796. Some years later Mr. David Mushet ascertained that the quantity of charcoal iron made in Lancashire did not exceed 800 tons ; this was about the year 1839, the works producing this quantity being those at Newland • and at cnAP. v.] LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 449 Backbarrow, as previously stated, of Messrs. Harrison, Ainslie, and Co., the firm having others at Duddon in Cumberland, at Lorn near Bunawe in Argyleshire and at Warsash in Hampshire ; these furnaces still exist, though only in operation at intervals, and are the only remaining charcoal furnaces in Great Britain. The firm above-named was, until the year 1858, the only one in Lancashire making pig iron; it was in that year that the Wigan Coal and Iron Company, at their works at Kirkless Hall, •Ince, near Wigan, put two furnaces in blast, the make of pig iron in Lancashire at this period was 2,840 tons, which includes the charcoal iron made at the furnaces of Messrs. Harrison, Ainslie, and Co. The Messrs. Schneider and Hannaj', in the year 1859, at their works at Barrow put three furnaces in blast, increasing the number in the county to seven, the aggre- gate make of which in the same year amounted to 26,491 tons. Advancing to the year 1860 the Wigan Company put another furnace in blast, making 10 built in the county, of which eight were in operation, producing 81,250 tons of coke and charcoal pig iron. About this time other works already projected com- menced ; the Camforth Hematite Iron Company in the year 1866 blew in two furnaces ; the Ditton Brook Company three in the year 1868 ; and the Furness Iron and Steel Company the same nmnber in the year 1871. The Darwen Iron Company commenced operations in the year 1874 with two furnaces; and the Outwood Iron Company at OutWood, near EatcHffe, with one furnace the same year ; while in the year 1875 the North Lonsdale Hematite Iron Company added two furnaces to the district, bringing the total number of those erected up to 50, of which 31 were in blast. Returning to the production of charcoal pig iron in Lanca- shire, an occasional return is met vdth showing the quantities made. In the year 1857 the works at Newland and Backbarrow produced 1,233 tons ; in 1859 the same works produced 720 tons. The make of these furnaces since that date is included in the jdeld of the Lancashire furnaces, but it is estimated that the malce of charcoal pig iron in Lancashire is not less than 1,400 or 1,500 tons per annum. Since the year 1860 the number of furnaces built, and in blast, the pig iron made, and the average yield of the furnaces have been as follows : — G G 150 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [part II. FUKNAC£S. Year. Pig Iron made. Average per Furnace. Built. In Blast. No. No. Tons. Tons. 1860 10 8 81,250 10,156 1861 12 10 109,377 10,937 1862 14 11 138,563 12,597 1863 17 a 164,110 14,270 1864 17 195,460 14,478 1865 24 16| 204,925 12,420 1866 25 19 268,680 14,141 186Y 25 19 318,801 16,780 1868 28 22i 325,367 14,460 1869 30 27 436,662 16,173 1870 33 27 422,728 15,656 1871 41 34 520,359 15,300 A brief description of the Barrow Hematite "Works and of the Erkless Hall Works wiU indicate the magnitude and extent of these important metallurgical establishments.* " At the works of the Barrow Hematite Steel Company there are altogether 16 blast furnaces, 14 of which are built in a single row, whUe the remaiti- ing two are distant about half a mUe. The weekly production of the blast furnaces averages 5,500 to 6,000 tons ; but it is always calculated that two or three furnaces ai'e out for alteration or repairs." The average height of the furnaces is about 63 feet, some of them being 62 feet and others 65 feet high. The first furnaces, built in 1859, were only 45 feet high; but these furnaces liave recently been raised to 62 feet. The average consumption of fuel is one ton of coke per ton of pig iron made. The ore, which is obtained at the Company's own Mines, near Ulverston, averages 60 per cent, of metal. The consumption of limestone is about 9 cwts. per ton of iron made. The blast is heated to a temperature of 900° to 1,100°, according to the quality, of the iron required. Each furnace is fitted with six tuyeres, the diameter of the nozzles being 3J inches to 4 inches. The larger furnaces have a bosh of 20 feet diameter, and the smaller ones a bosh of 19 feet. The blast is partly heated by Cowper's and partly by Gjers's stoves. The engines that blow the blast are a remarkable feature of the ironworks. There are three beam and 18 grasshopper engines. Of the latter kind, not less than 10 are in one engine-house, which is said to be the largest engine-house in the world. With the exception of the * " Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute," 1874, p. v. appendix. CHAP, v.] LANCASHIKE IRON INDUSTRIES. 451 buildings that contain the beam engines all the engine-houses are built parallel with the blast ' furnaces on the contrary side from the pig iron beds. The beam engines have double-acting high- pressure steam cylinders, 48 inches diameter and 9 feet stroke, the blowing cylinder being 72 inches diameter. The hoists are inclined planes, and are worked by special engines, there being a separate engine for each of the six inclines that are attached to the 14 furnaces. The hoist engines are of the ordinary reversing kind, worked by frictional gearing. The drum is 12 feet diameter, and the cylinders of the engines are 16 inches, with two feet length of stroke. Most of the engines have been made by Perry and Sons, of Bilston. All the furnaces are fitted up with the apparatus for the utilization of the waste gases, which are sufficient to supply all the heaters and boilers without any other fuel. The blast furnaces are distant about 200 yards fi'om the steel works, the intervening space being occupied by sidings and filling sheds, and a spacious cast-iron bridge, spanning the whole of these sidings, connects the one department with the other. The steel works are in three large bays or roofs, each 700 feet in length. The pig iron on being brought from the blast furnaces is stored here in rather a ipecuhar manner; the first cast of the week is j)ut down in a row of perhaps 150 to 200 yards in length, and the next day's cast is placed on the top of the first day's, and so on to the end of the week, when the pigs are cleared from top to bottom of the heap, thus giving a week's average of the iron, and preserving a uniform consistency and quality of steel. " The productive capacity of the steel works is 3,500 tons per week. Eails constitute the principal branch of manufacture, there being three large rail mills, one plate miU, and one smaller mill for merchant steel. There are 18 converters at work, and 12 steam hammers made by John Musgrave and Sons, of Bolton. One of the rail mills is driven by a Eamsbottom reversing engine. The other rail mills are on the three-high principle, and are worked by beam engines, supplied by Hick, of Bolton, while an ordinary horizontal engine, with a 40 inch cyUnder, works the merchant mill. The total engine power of the works is equal to 4,000 horse power. Most of the boilers are of the ordinary Cornish pattern, but there are also 13 of Howard's patent boilers fired by "Vickers' mechanical appliance." It has been estimated that the Barrow furnaces produce upwards of a quarter of a a G 2 452 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. million tons of pig iron annually with a consumption of upwards of 370,000 tons of coal, and 470,000 tons of hematite. " The Ironworks of the Wigan Coal and Iron Company at Kirkless consist of 10 blast furnaces, 5 being 65 feet high, and 5 80 feet high. Two of these latter are of recent construction, and are built upon the most improved principle. The furnaces have closed tops, and the gas is conveyed by a tube 8 feet in diameter to 18 double-flued boilers, 28 feet long and 7 feet 6 inches in diameter, which stand opposite the engine-house. The Wigan Company manufacture their own coke from the slack raised from their pits. At present there are 460 coke ovens, but the number is insufficient to supply the requirements of the furnaces. For some time past the slack after being washed has been crushed, which makes the coke much harder than formerly, and enables the furnaces to turn out more iron than under the old system. The crushing machines are of special construction, and were designed by the coke works manager. They are simple in design, and do their work regularly and efficiently. The works have ample waterway and railway accommodation. The canal immediately adjoins the works on one side, and they are also connected by private railways with the London and North- Western and Lancashire and Yorkshire Railways. The ore is brought in the railway waggons and emptied into bunkers running the whole length of the furnaces. The ore is taken from the bunkers in barrows, and with the coke and other materials used in the manufacture of iron is hoisted to the top of the furnaces by four vertical engines. About 400 men are employed at the furnaces, which manufacture four special brands, viz., the Kirkless foundry and forge, and the hematite and mes- selmoun brands. The engine-house stands at the end of the row of blast furnaces and is 100 feet long, 56 feet wide, and 70 feet high, with a tower 100 feet high. There are three pairs of compound engines, the high pressure cylinders being placed on one side of the building and the low pressure on the other, each pair being connected by a 36 foot beam. The high pressure cylinders are 45 inches, and the low pressure 66 inches in diameter, with a 12 foot stroke. The blowing cj'linders, of which there are six, are each 100 inches in diameter. The steam pressure is 45 lbs., and the blast 3 lbs. " The Wigan Coal and Iron Company have produced as much as 2,500,000 tons of coal and 150,000 tons of pig iron per annum. (11 A r. v.] LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 453 The seams worked by the company include one of Cannel Coal, and also the well known Hartley Mine, and other portions of the Lan- cashire coal beds. The coking coal obtained from this district contains a certain percentage of sulphur, which if not removed or greatly reduced would render the coke unfit for producing the best marks of Bessemer pig, which forms the staple product of the company, and this has led to the extensive employment of coal washing machinery as already mentioned. The coal, after being crushed by crushing roUers, is lifted by elevators, and delivered into washing chambers or bashes, in each of which the water is made to rise and fall rapidly by the action of a piston working in a cj'linder connected with the chamber, this piston being 86 inches in diameter, and making 150 strokes per minute. The length of stroke is 3^ inches. The coal rests on perforated copper sieves, and by the pulsatipg action of the water the good coal is washed over the edges of the sieves, while the pyrites being heavier, remain in the latter, and are removed at suitable intervals. The loss by washing is about 10 per cent., and the washed coal is coked in eight ton ovens, the coking process occupying five days. The iron ore used consists principally of the well known red hematite of the Ulverstone district, but a per- centage of argillaceous Belfast ore is also employed for the purpose of bringing some alumina into the charge, thus forming a flux. Limestone is also added, the proportion of this latter material used when making Bessemer iron being very considerable." Resuming with the production of pig iron in Lancashii-e the following shows the results attained since the year 1871 : — rUKNACES. Year. Pig Iron made. Average per Furnace. Built. In Blast. Ku. No. Tons. Tons. 1872 41 34| 524,041 15,080 1873 44 36 529,271 14,702 1874 47 33 488,672 15,800 1875 50 31 558,780 18,025 1876 50 30 552,984 18,432 1877 50 33 684,189 20,733 1878 50 30 616,255 20,542 1879 49 36 631,343 *17,537 1880 49 37 750,884 20,294 * The falling off in the average yield of the furnaces in 1879 is due to the fact that six of the furnaces were only in blast for a few months. 454 COAL AND IROX INDUSTHIES. [i'AET ir. The furnaces of Lancashire work with great regularity, and when fully employed produce from 400 to 460 tons of iron weeldy, of a quality suitable for conversion into steel by the Bessemer process. A glance at the returns of the past few years confirms the above statement. The following details illustrate clearly the proportion of the several parts of a furnace of the Furness Iron and Steel company at Askham, 67 feet in height, the capacity of which is 13,100 cubic feet : — DESCKIPTION. DIMENSIOHS. Height of furnace 67 ft. Diameter at boshes 19 ,, ,, throat 18 ,, „ hearth . . . . . . . 7 n Heating surface 5,500 sq. ft. Number of tuyeres ... ... 6 Aiea of blast inlet 76 sq. in. "Pressure of blast at engine . . . . , . . 2| lbs. „ tuyeres 3 ,, Area of gas inlet 1 8 sq. ft. Diameter of charging bell 12 ft. 6 in. Weekly make of iron 400 to 460 tons. The works and furnaces built and in operation in the year 1880 were as follows : — Lancashiei;. No. Xanic of Works. Owners. FURNACES. Built. In Blast. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ban-ow Hematite Iron & Steel Camforth . . . | Darwen Ditton Brook, Widnes Askam, Askam-in-Fumess . . KirklessHalljInce. Newland Ulverston . . \ Baokbarrow, „ . . / North Lonsdale, Ulverston . j Outwood, Katcliffe . Barrow Hematite Steel Co., Lim. Camforth Hematite Iron Co., 1 Limited . . . . / Darwen Iron Co., Limited . Ditton Brook Iron Co., Limited . Furness Iron & Steel Co., Lim. . Wigan Coal & Iron Co., Lim. Harrison, Ainslie, & Co. . . North Lonsdale Iron and Steel ) Co., Limited . . . ) Outwood Iron Co., Lim. Total of Lancashire . . 14 6 2 6 4 10 2 4 1 13 4 2 3 li 3 1 49 37 ncills and Forges, and Steel Works. — In the year 1873 there were in Lancashire 23 malleable and six steel works, these latter making steel by the Bessemer process; the resources of the above 23 works numbered 350 puddling furnaces and 81 rolling 'iiAr. v.] LANCASHIRE lEOK INDUSTRIES. 455 mills, the Bessemer plant amounting to 42 convertors of a imited capacity equal to 228 tons, the annual consumption in all the above works in the year 1873 being estimated from reliable sources as 330,000 tons of coal. Already a brief account in a previous page described the Barrow Iron and Steel Works, the next most extensive steel works in the district are those of the Mersey Steel and Iron Company,* " situated near Liverpool, and covering an area of about eleven acres. These works comprise a plant of five pairs of six ton convertors, three pairs being arranged in one group, the other two pairs, each pau' being placed by itself. Formerly the Mersey Steel and Iron Company were large steel manufacturers, and they were extensively engaged in the production of puddled steel prior to the develop- ment of the Bessemer process. For the past two years or so, however, they have discontinued the manufacture of steel rails, and their Bessemer plant has only been occasionally worked for the manufacture of the steel used for making the bars they are now using in the production of steel forgings." " The ingot moulds used are all close-topped, and run from the bottom in groups, generally eight in a group. The central git used is of small diameter and is higher than the tops of the sur- rounding ingot moulds. The blowing engines connected with the Bessemer plant are contained in two engine-houses, one large engine-house adjoining the group of three pairs of con- vertors containing a pair of horizontal blowing engines by Messrs. Rothwell and Co., of Bolton, and also the engines for supplying water to the hydraulic cranes, &c., and three smaller blowing engines. In the other engine-house connected with the Bessemer department of the works, there is a pair of horizontal engines made by Galloways, of Manchester, which have piston valves on the blowing cylinders. To enable any pair of convertors to be blown from either engine, the air ways of the two engine-houses are connected." " In the mill department there is a three high coggmg-mill, a two high reversing rail mill used for bars, angles, and buU- headed rails. A new forge is now, however, in course of con- struction, to which the latter will be ultimately removed, and where also a three high cogging mill, driven by a paii- of hori- zontal engines, and a two high reversing train driven by a pair of * " Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute," 1879, p. 621. 456 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [I'AKT II. vertical reversing engines, have been fitted up. Adjoining the forge are two machine shops, separated by the offices which stand between them — the one containing a good heavy plant of tools adapted for sharpening large forgings, such as stem posts, &c. — and includes an exceptionally large planing machine with two tables, which can either be run together or separately. The other machine shop is specially laid out for dealing with large crank shafts and contains an excellent plant for this purpose, including large lathes, and one of Messrs. Craven Brothers' crank pin turning lathes, in which the shaft to be turned is stationary, the tool being carried round it. The whole shop is commanded by a fine travelling crane worked by a fast running rope. In this division of the works, besides the forge and machine shops, there is a range of Siemens gas producers and a group of nine Lancashire steam boilers, for supplying steam to the steam hammers, &c. Passing through a tunnel another similar group of boilers is reached, these being adjacent to the engines of the steel works, but the steam pipes being connected, so that either division of the works can be supplied with steam irom either group of boilers. The foUowing is a list of the steel works employing the Bessemer process in Lancashire, distin- guishing the number and capacity of the convertors " : — Name and Situation of Works. Number of Converters. Capacity of Convertors. Carnforth Hematite Iron Co., Carnforth . . Bolton Iron and Steel Co., Bolton . Manchester, Shefaeld, and Lincolnshire Kail- ) way Co., Gorton Works, near Manchester . ( Mersey Steel and Iron Works, Toxteth Park, [ Liverpool ( Manchester Steel and Eailway Plant Co., Gib- 1 raltar Works, Newton Heath, Ma,nchester . ) Barrow Hematite Steel Co., Barrow 2 4 4 10 4 8 Tons. Cwts. 6 5 3 10 6 3 7 A careful examination of the quantity of fuel consumed in the iron and steel works in Lancashire for a few years, gives the fol- lowing results. These figures are obtained from a large number of returns since the year 1871, and to render them available for comparison, the number of puddling furnaces and rolling mills in operation is given for each of the same years : — CHAr. v.] LANCASHIRE IROK INDUSTRIES. 457 Year. Puddling Furnaces. Boiling Mills. Coal Used. No. No. Tons. 1873 350 81 330,000 1874 37G 69 348,000 1875 434 69 465,455 1876 421 78 380,000 1877 389 77 363,125 1878 285 68 376,193 1879 353 82 542,247 1880 373 86 599,740 This description of the iron industries of Lancashire would be incomplete without the following list of mills and forges in the year 1880, which brings the information up to date : — Lancashire. No. Namo of Works. Nttine of Firm. Nearest Port or Railway Station. No. of Puddling Furnaces. No. of Rolling Mills. Atherton Quay Albion, Aspull Atlas Forge Barrow Bewsey . Dallam . Moss Side Bolton . Bradford . Canifortli Gars ton . Gidlow . Gibraltar . Globe . Gorton . Hartford Forge luce Hall Mersey . Openshaw Park Bridge Pendleton f Perseverance, Peudle- \ ton . Preston . \ ■I Wigau Rolling Mills | Wliite Cross . j Total of County . Monks, Hall, & Cu., Lim. Edward Hale . Thomas Walmsley &■ Sons Barrow Hematite Steel Co., Limited . . . The Pearson and Knowles Cojil and Iron Co. , Lim. Bolton Iron uiidSteel Co., Limited Richd. Johnson and Nepliew . . . . Carnlorth Hematite Iron Co Liverpool and Gai'ston Steel and Iron Co. . Thomas Gidlow Railway Steel and Plant Co., Limited . . . John Summei-s M. S. and Lincolnshire Railway Co. . . . Piatt Brothers & Co., Limited Ince Hall Rolling Mills Co., Limited . . . Mersey Steel and Iron Co., Limited Ashbury Rail way Carriage and Iron Co., Limited. H. Lees & Sons . . . William Bai-ninghani & Co., Limited Maybury, Marston, and Sharpe . . . . North of England Rail- way Carriage and Iron Co The Wigau Rolling Mills Co., Limited . . . White Cross Wire and Iron Co., Limited Wan'ington . Wigau Bolton . I Ulverston { Wan'ington . Wigau I Bolton > Manchester . I Camfoi-th > Garstou Wigan Manchester ) Stalybridge I- Manchester . } Oldham . j- Wigau . j- Liveri)ooI |- Manchester . Ashton I Manchester . ]■ Pendleton Preston ( i j Wigan t WaiTiugtou . 26 22 1() 127 3 12 10 1 24 6 12 24 458 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [rAKT II. Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture. — The total quantity of pig iron made in the furnaces of Lancashire in the year 1872 was 524,041 tons, consuming in its manufacture 911,869 tons of coal and 998,000 tons of ore of all varieties. Since that year the following quantites show approximately the consumption of coal and iron ore in the manufacture of the crude metal : — Year. Pig Iron. Coal Used. Iron Ore Used. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1873 529,271 1,108,192 1,020,000 1874 488,672 930,849 895,130 1875 558,780 956,033 1,040,000 1876 552,984 991,377 1,029,000 1877 684,189 1,069,443 1,250,400 1878 616,255 1,044,114 1,143,351 1879 631,343 1,167,408 1,144,155 1880 750,884 1,362,154 1,344,093 An analysis of the above return for the year 1873 shows the actual quantity of coal used to each ton of pig iron made as averaging 42 cwts., all purposes included ; this quantity is the equivalent of the coke, which is alone used in the Lancashire furnaces, where great economy is also secured in the utilization of the waste gases. Of the hematite smelted in Lancashire in the same year, Lancashire furnished 720,000 tons, Cumberland 128,960 tons, foreign ores principally from Spain and Elba 47,831 tons, and 123,209 tons made up of Cornish, Staffordshire red mme, the aluminous ores of L'eland, forge and mill cinder from the malleable iron works, and purple ore from the metal extractioltt works. The hematite ore was in the proportion of about 32 cwts. and of the other ores employed 7 cwts., in all 39 cwts. nearly of all lands of ore to each ton of pig iron made, the proportion of coal as already stated being about 42 cwts. In the following statement the source from whence the ore employed is derived appears, showing approximately the respec- tive quantities : — Description of Ore. 1870. 1S77. 1S7S. 1S79. ISSO. Hematite (Local) . Irish Ore .... Foreign Dree . Other Ores, &c. Total . Tons. 862,870 25,000 28,000 112,530 Tons. 1,028,426 39,804 36,900 165,270 Tons. 946,351 28,000 35,000 134,000 Tons. 965,580 28,460 24,538 123,577 Tons. 1,226,163 16,093 34,669 67,168 1,029,000 1,250,400 1,143,351 1,144,156 1,344,093 CH.vr. v.] LANCASHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 459 The hematite includes the produce of both Lancashire and Cumberland, the average produce of which may be taken as from 64 to 66 per cent, of metallic iron. It only remains to be obsei-ved that in recent years the quantity of ore employed, of all kinds, has not exceeded 37 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made. In the consumption of coal a marked economy appears in Lancashire ; thus -while in the year 1873 the average of coal used was 42 cwts., the returns for the years 1879 and 1880 show the average as not exceeding 87 cwts. and 36 cwts. of coal respectively to each ton of pig iron made in those years. In some districts a far greater quantity is used, notably in those where cold blast iron is made, as in tlie "West Riding of Yorkshire, where, in the year 1878, the average was 56 cwts., and in Scotland where raw uncoked coal is chiefly employed, — though not to such an extent as formerly, — 49|^ cwts. appear as the average, while in Lancashire as in Cumberland the rich Durham coke being principally employed the diminished con- sumption appears in the average of 36 cwts. in Lancashire and 39 cwts. in Cumberland to each ton of pig iron made in the year 1880. CHAPTEE YI. CHEHHIEE IKON INDUSTKIES. Description of the Engineering and Metallurgical Works of the London and Korth- Western Railway, Crewe. Tte Iron and Steel Industries. — The great engineering and metallurgical works of the London and North-Western Eailway at Crewe call for a brief notice. They have the reputation of being the largest in the world, comprising steel works in which the Bessemer and Siemens processes for the manufacture of steel are employed on a large scale. The Crewe works were projected in 1843 for the purpose of repairing the locomotives of what was at one time the Grand Jimction Eailway; some years later machiaery for the manufacture of rails was introduced, and when in the year 1857 the amalgamation of the Northern with the North-Eastern division of the system took place, the works at Crewe became the centre of the locomotive and carriage depai-tments of the northern division of the line; In 1864 works were erected for the manu- facture of steel by the Bessemer process, and about 1870 an open hearth steel-making plant was added, which has siace been largely used in the production of steel for locomotive purposes. Upwards of 2,000 locomotives have been made at the Crewe works, and as many as 146 in one year. No other works in the world have made and used steel so extensively for railway purposes. The works as a whole cover an area of 27 acres, and employ over 5,000 hands. The Bessemer Steel Converting Works consist of four 5-ton converters. The pig-iron is first melted in an ordinary cupola, to which the air is supplied by a Eoots Blower, whence it is run into one of the converting vessels ; the air is supplied to the converting vessels by a pair of horizontal blowing engines of 440 horse-power. The cogging mills, tyre- rolling mills, plate-rolling mills, merchant mills, and mills for rolling spring steel, &c., possess all the modern improvements CHAP. VI.] CHESHIKE IRON INDUSTEIE.S. 461 and are complete in every meclianical arangement. The boiler department is a very important branch of the works; here a building 300 feet long and 107 feet wide is devoted to the manu- facture of boilers for locomotive and stationary purposes, the material employed being steel. The great requirements of the London and North-Western Railway may be gathered from the extent of its permanent way, and the rolling stock necessq,ry for the efficient carrying out of its passenger, mineral, and general traffic. It was recently stated by Mr. F. W. Webb, the manager of these works : That if the engines and tenders of the Company were extended in line they would reach a distance of 18 miles ; the carriages would occupy 30 miles, and the waggons 130 miles, or nearly the distance between the works at Crewe and London, The resources of the Company are such that on a recent occasion they had turned out a complete engine, ready for the steam, in the short time of 25 hours and a half. CHAPTEE yil. DEKBYSHIEB IRON INDUSTEIES. Description of Ironstones of the Coal Measures — Analyses and production of Iron- stone — Pig Iron Manufacture in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire — Early History of the Industry — Production and Works in operation — Malleable Iron Works in 1811 — Puddling Furnaces and Rolling Mills in recent years and Coal consumed — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture — Districts fur- nishing Iron Ore. Ironstones of the Coal measures. — The southern extension of the Great Midland Coal-field, in the counties of Derby and Not- tingham, like the northern division in the West Eiding of York- shire, is equally rich in its resources of coal measure ironstone ; but while the beds of coal throughout the area present more or less regularity in regard to thickness and production, the measures of ironstone, on the other hand, exhibit much irregu- larity in tliickness, frequently thinning out within comparatively short distances. In the northern division of the Great Midland Coal-field, in the West Eiding of Yorkshire, the two principal seams of coal, at the top and bottom of the coal-measures, are known as the "Bamsley" and the " Silkstone" seams, between which are distributed, inter stratified with less important seams, numerous measm'es or bands of ironstone, especially the Low Moor beds immediately north of Leeds. The principal seams of coal in the Wentworth district, near Eotherham, have a thickness, the former varying from 6 feet to 9 feet G inches, while the latter is four feet. In Derbyshire the " Barnsley " and " Silkstone " seams are identified re- spectively as the " Top Hard " and " Black Shale," or Clod Coal, the first-named seam at Staveley, near Chesterfield, being 6 feet, and the latter 5 feet thick. Between these seams of coal in Derbyshire, as in Yorkshire, the more important measures of ironstone occur. In Derbyshire these measures are known as " Eakes," in which the ironstone is distributed in the form of nodules, frequently lying in such thickness as only to be wrought CHAP. VII.] DERBYSHIKE IRON INDUSTRIES. 463 to advantage by open ■workings, or, as they are locally called, "Bell Pits." Where such a mode of working is adopted a con- siderable production of ironstone is secured. The following are the more important ironstone measures in Derbyshire, occurring in descending order between the " Top Hard " and *' Black Shale " seams of coal : — The uppermost of these measures is known as the " Buff or Cement Eake" in the Alfreton district, consisting of three bands in a section of 9 feet, and yields 1,800 tons of ironstone per acre. The " Pinder Park Rake " at Staveley, also consisting of three bands in a section of 6 feet, yields of ironstone 2,000 tons per acre, while the " Browii Rake " at Butterley, in the Alfreton district, yields 2,500 tons per acre. The " Black Rake " measure also in the same district and below the " Brown Rake," consisting of five courses or bands, yields 2,000 tons per acre. The " Do<7 Tooth Bake " next occurs, consisting at Staveley of 5 measures in a section of 8J feet, and yielding 2,000 tons of ironstone per acre. This important measure, well exposed in a section at Unstone near Dronfield, shows the annexed succession of strata with Gray Shale and ironstones of the open workings in that neighbourhood : — Succession of Strata. Ft. In. Dog Tooth, measure 24 Bearstone or band of cone-m-cone structure . . ..09 Shales 9 Blueish bind with two courses of ironstone . . ..40 Coal .12 Hardfloor with Stigmarise abundant, very similar to Ganister 1 Fire clay 4 Coal 19 At Butterley this same ironstone is known as " WaUis's Rake," south of which it does not prove. Below occurs the " Nodule Rake," at Morley Park, yielding 1,600 tons per acre ; south of Clay Cross it is known as the " Dog Tooth Rake," below which the most productive ironstone measure in the district occurs, the " Black Shale Rake " consisting of 16 bands. In the neighboiu:- hood of Chesterfield these bands are divided into top and bottom measures by 12 feet of bind. The Black Shale Rake here yields j6.-om 4,000 to 7,000 tons of ironstone per acre. Another measure 464 COAL AND IROK INDUSTRIES. [part ir. below, Icnown as the " Striped Bake," at Kirk Hallam, yields 2,500 tons per acre. The "Black Shale " coal occurs some 16 feet below, having a thickness of five feet, below which and before the millstone grit is reached, a series of beds occurs, known as the Ganister series, of considerable thickness. In the upper part of this series, and before the Kilburne coal is reached, are some bands of ironstone, principally worked in the districts of Morley Park and Alfreton ; they are known as the " Green Close Rake " and the Holly Close Rake," yielding from 1,000 to 1,200 tons per acre. The "Black," or " Kellands Rake," at Morley Park, and the "Yew Tree Rake," j'ielding respectively 3,000 tons and 1,000 tons per acre. Below the Kilburne coal which here occurs appear the " Honey- croft Rake " and the " Civilly Rake," the former consisting of 8 bands, and at Stanton yielding 6,000 tons, the latter of 5 bands, and yielding in the same neighbourhood 4,000 tons of ironstone per acre ; while the " Dale Moor Rake," a measure of 5 bands occurring below the Fm-nace Coal (a seam 2 feet 3 inches thick), 3'ields 3,000 tons per acre of ironstone. The total thickness of the measures above enumerated is 1,600 feet, to which may be added 400 feet for the strata occupying the several seams of coal and ironstone. Analyses of the Ironstone. — ^Very complete analyses of the ironstone measures worked in Derbyshire, in the Butterley and Staveley districts, have been published in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain.* The " Brown Rake " of Butterley is described as follows, and generally illustrates the character of the other measures of the district : — " Colour, pale brownish- grey, inclined to red in some parts from peroxida- tion; very thin seams of a bluish shale are irregularly inter- stratified with the ore ; fracture usually rough." A second variety of the same measure is described as " Colour blackish- grey, of various degrees of intensity, in irregular bands parallel to the plane of stratification. The ore containing an abundance of fossil shells incrusted with ochrey peroxide of iron." These ores, and others in the annexed table, in the Butterley district, consisted of equal weights of two ores selected for analysis, and are thus constituted : — * " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part I. (out of print), 1856. CHAP. VII.] DERBYSHIEE IKON INDUSTRIES. 465 EE8ULT8 Tabulated. Constituents. Brown Rake. Brown Rake. Black Bake. Protoxide of iron 37-99 35-74 33-56 Peroxide of iron . . . . 1'04 1-26 1-66 Protoxide of manganese . 1-51 1-23 0-96 Alumina . . . . . 0-41 0-47 0-73 Lime 4-63 2-94 3-02 Magnesia 3-30 2-70 2-81 Carbonic acid .... 29-92 26-74 25-63 Phosphoric acid . . . . 0-80 0-66 0-79 Sulphuric acid .... trace. trace. trace. Bisulphide of iron . . . 006 0-05 0-26 Water hygroscopic . 0-74 0-68 0-74 ,, combinec 1-47 1-49 1-51 Organic matter 1-42 0-76 1-57 Insoluble residue . . . 16-35 24-83 26-46 99-54 99-55 99-70 iNSOLtfBLE EESIDTJE. Silica 10-04 16-07 17-13 Alumina . . . . . 5-16 6-62 7-76 Peroxide of iron 0-45 0-92 0-50 Lime 0-06 0-07 0-15 Magnesia 0-07 0-26 0-25 Potash Metallic iron .... 0-55 0-66 0-74 16-33 24-60 26-53 30-60 29-32 27-61 A note appended to these analyses states that in the first a trace of reddish metal, too small to examine, was detected in 1,200 grains of the ore, while as regards the others, distinct traces of lead and copper were found in 600 grains of the one and 700 grains of the other. The measures wrought in the Stanton district are thus described : — " The Swallow "Wood Eake" easily scratched, light drab in colour, one sample a shade darker; all have a rough non-crystaUine fracture, and are readily reduced to powder. The sample analysed consisted of equal weights of three of the ores. The " Honey croft Eake," of Stanton, examined by Mr. John Spiller, consisting of eight bands of the measure, the sample taken for analysis consisting of equal weights of the several ores. The " Civilly Eake " and the " Dale Moor Eake," the former 466 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES, [PAET II. consisting of five measures and the latter a similar number, equal parts of each in weight being taken for analyses. The results given are as follows : — * Ebsuits Tabtjiated. Constituents. Swallow- wood Bake. Honeyoroft Bake. CiviUy Bake. Dale Moor Rake. Protoxide of iron . Peroxide of iron . . Protoxide of manganese Alumina . . . . Lime .... Magnesia . . . . Carbonic acid Phosphoric acid . . Sulphuric acid Bisulphide of iron . . Water hygroscopic ,, combined . . Organic matter Insoluble residue . . 33-72 i-01 0-67 3-99 5-43 28-64 0-41 trace. 0-13 0-57 0-87 0-36 23-55 40-01 1-60 1-26 0-58 2-78 2-88 29-72 0-34 trace. 0-09 0-45 1-12 1-38 17-84 33-31 1-47 2-18 0-95 2-32 2-44 24-83 0-62 trace. 0-13 0-70 1-87 1-85 27-42 39-55 2-71 1-50 1-14 3-32 2-85 28-63 1-12 trace. 0-05 0-51 1-24 1-14 15-80 99-35 100-05 100-09 99-56 Insoluble Eesidtje. Silica .... Alumina . . . . Peroxide of iron . Lime . . . . Magnesia Potash .... Iron, total amount . 16-02 5-74 0-79 trace. 0-06 0-47 11-19 5-33 0-70 trace. 0-17 0-34 17-24 7-90 1-22 0-27 0-49 10-22 4-51 0-78 0-06 0-03 0-48 23-08 17-73 27-12 16-08 26-79 32-73 27-79 33-20 Notes appended to these analyses state that none of the metals, precipitable by sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydro- chloric acid solution, were detected in 560 grains of ore of the Swallow Wood Eake ; minute traces of copper were found in the other samples, with the addition of zinc blends in the Dale Moor Eake. The " Dog Tooth Rake," extensively worked in the neighbour- hood of Staveley, is also reported upon in the " Iron Ores of Great Britaia." The ironstones are described as of the same colour, light brownish-grey, rough in fracture, easily scratched * " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part I., pp. 78, 90, 92, and 91. OUAP. YII.] DERBYSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 467 by a steel point. Another variety contains a few shells irregularly diffused. The second analysis of the ironstone of the same measure, described as a " Clay ironstone," consisting of two samples, both light brownish-grey in colour, and containing abundance of fossil shells, which in the case of one sample are large and confusedly packed together, though generally lying parallel to the plane of stratification; while in the other they occur as a more irregular deposit made up in part, apparently, of fragments of shells. The hardness of the ore is such that they are not easily scratched by a steel point ; fracture compact and irregular, the surface of fracture being influenced by the position of the contained shells. In each analysis the sample consisted of a mixture of the two ores in equal weights : — * Eestjlts Tabxtlaikd. Constituents. Dog Tooth Rake. Staveley. Dog Tooth Rake. Staveley. Protoxide of iron Peroxide of iron . . . . Protoxide of manganese . Alumina Lime Magnesia . . . . . Carbonic acid .... Phosphoric acid . . . . Sulphuric acid .... Bisulphide of iron . . . Water hygroscopic . ,, in combination . . . Organic matter Insoluble Residue . . . 38-97 0-88 1-09 0-38 1-58 4-62 30-14 0-48 trace. 0-05 0-64 1-02 0-30 19-10 28-27 1-01 1-02 0-33 13-94 9-18 37-61 0-74 trace. 0-04 0-18 0-73 0-92 6-39 99-25 100-36 IwsoLTjBLE Residue. Silica Alumina Peroxide of iron .... Lime Magnesia Potash Metallic iron . . . . 11-90 5-55 0-59 0-04 0-20 0-67 3-55 1-98 0-41 trace. 0-09 0-16 18-95 6.19 31-34 22-98 " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part I., pp. 86, 8S. H H 2 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. A note appended to the first analysis states that a minute trace of copper was found in 630 grains of the ore, and that a minute trace of a white metal, too small to examine, was found in the second in 460 grains of the ore. Taking an average of the amount of metallic iron contained in the foregoing analyses, 29"15 per cent, will fairly represent the yield of the ironstone of Derbyshire. In the annexed table is given the several ironstone measures above enumerated, the analyst, and percentage of metallic iron in each : — Ironstone Measures. Analyst. Iron per Cent. Brown Hake (Butterley) . Mr. John SpiUer 30-60 Brown Eake „ . . . 29-32 Black Eake „ ... 27-61 SwaUow "Wood Eake (Stanton) 26-79 Honeycroft Eake 32-73 Civilly Eake 27-79 Dale Moor Eake „ . . 33-20 Dog Tooth Eake (Staveley) . 31-34 Dog Tooth Eake ,, 22-98 Production of Ironstone. — The yield of the ironstone measures of Derbyshu-e has been as follows since the year 1855 : — Year. Quantities. , Tear. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1855 409,500 1868 368,440 1856 392,400 1869 352,072 1857 350,000 1870 384,865 1858 328,950 1871 492,973 1859 325,500 1872 307,183 1860 387,500 1873 365,127 1861 396,520 1874 239,292 1862 345,450 1875 218,132 1863 350,500 1876 199,908 1864 325,600 1877 206,247 1865 350,000 1878 176,260 1866 . 329,500 1879 146,341 1867 350,000 1880 150,248 The quantity raised in the year 1880 amounted to 150,248 tons, of the average value of 10s. per ton. The quantities raised in 1873 and 1874 (the last detailed returns published), when the average value was 12s. per ton, was obtained in the localities named are given on the next page : — CHAP. VII.] DEEBYSHIRE IBON INDUSTRIES. 469 District or Mine. 1873. Quantities. 1874. Quantities. Alfreton BlackweU Butterley Clay Cross . . . _, . . Morley . . . 7 . Eenishaw Biddings ,•.... Staveley Sheepbridge .... Wingerworth . . . West Hallam . . . . Sundry pits Total .... Tons. 14,854 71^165 13,353 10,500 173^664 12,446 14,771 18,917 35,457 Tons. "300 55,439 794 13i754 19,511 13,077 134,000 365,127 239,292 Derbyshire (including Ifottiugliamshire} : Fig Iron Manu- facture. — The smelting of the ores of iron in Derbyshire with coke dates from about the year 1780 ; previously numerous small bloomaries existed in various districts, where cast and bar iron were made with charcoal, but these gradually dis- appeared, and in the year 1788 the last ceased working. The blast at these works was secured by means of a water-wheel. With the use of coal or coke a great change took place in the form and construction of the blast-furnace ; hitherto when char- coal was employed, they were square in form, subsequently those erected were circular and of increased height and capacity. With th^se changes came most opportunely the improvement in the steam-engine by Mr. James Watt, which our ironmasters were not slow in adopting, and thus considerably and in a very short period increased the productive power of their establishments. In the year 1740 there appear to have been two furnaces in Derbyshire, making charcoal pig iron to the amount of 550 tons or 225 tons per furnace. The first furnace erected in Derby- shire in which coke was exclusively employed in the make of pig iron was at Morley Park in the year 1780, where also a few years later the steam-engine was successfully introduced, in working the blast the original proprietor being a Mr. Francis Hurt ; these works were succeeded in the same year by two others situated at Chesterfield, known as the Grifiin, or New Brampton, and the Stone Gravel, located on the Chesterfield Canal. The first-named works were projected by Messrs. E. Smith and Co., and the latter by Messrs. Smith and Armitage. The works at Winger- 470 COAL AJSD IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. worth followed by Mr. Joseph Butler, and in 1786 the Staveley Works commenced operatipns by Messrs. Ward and Low. In 1788 works were established at Dale Abbey by Messrs. English and Co., which a few years later were dismantled and subsequently pulled down. The year 1792 was marked by the establishing of the Butterley and Eenishaw Works by Messrs. Outram & Co., at Eckington, and Messrs. Appleby & Co. at Alfreton, and these were succeeded by others; the Alfreton Works by Messrs. Oakes, Ed- wai'ds, & Co., at one time known as the Somercotes Works, and situated on the banks of the Cromford Canal; the Hasland, or Grass Hill, by Mr. John Brocksop, and in 1799 the Duckmanton (or Adelphi) Works by Messrs. Smith & Co. ; the two last-named works have long since been abandoned and dismantled. It was at the Somercotes Works above referred to that Mr. David Mushet introduced his system of making coke on a large scale for the blast furnace, known as the " Close Way," as distinguished from the old method in use at the beginning of the present century, of making a large heap of coals, which beiug set fire to, were subsequently extinguished by a stream of water when the coking was complete. The make of charcoal pig iron in Derbyshire in the year 1788 by the only remaining charcoal furnace at Wingerworth, is stated to have been 300 tons. In the same year 7 furnaces producing coke pig iron in Great Britain made 4,200 tons, giving an average per furnace of 600 tons. Advancing to the inquiry instituted by Dr. MacNab for the year 1796, it appears that the make of pig iron in Derbyshire in that year amounted to 9,666 tons. The following is a list of the works then in operation, with the number of furnaces and the yield of pig iron : — Works. Furnaces. Pig Iron. Butterley. Chapel .... Chesterfield Dale Abbey- Little Brampton Morley Park Eenishaw. Staveley . • . . Park .... Wingerworth 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 Tons. 936 1,456 940 443 1,560 728 705 761 853 1,274 Total . 12 9,656 CHAP. Yll.] DERBYSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 471 The total make of pig iron in Great Britain was, according to MacNab's inquiry, 125,079 tons, there being in the same year 124 furnaces in operation. Farey, in his " Survey of Derbyshire," written in the beginning of the present century, gives a very complete account of the works and furnaces built and in operation in the year 1806, with the in- dividual production of coke pig iron in each works as follows : — Works. FURNACES. Pig Iron Made. Built. 1 In Blast. Alfreton Butterley Chesterfield (Griffin) ,, (Stone Gravel) . . Dale Abbey .... Duckmanton . . . . Hasland Morley Park . . . . Eenishaw .... Staveley "Wingerworth .... Total .... 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 "i 1 1 1 1 1 Tons. 1,450 1,766 1,700 700 900 723 700 975 596 819 18 12 10,329 The make of coke pig iron in Great Britain in 1806 was 250,406 tons, and of charcoal pig iron 7,800 tons, giving a total production of 258,206 tons of pig iron, which, when compared with the production of the year 1788, shows an increase fourfold. The Butterley Company about the year 1811, extended their powers of production by the erection of the Codnor Park Works with two blast furnaces, to which a third was added in the year 1825. This Company has long been celebrated for its massive and magnificent castings, examples of which may be seen in the iron bridge over the River Thames at Vauxhall, the colonnade in front of the Opera House in the Haymarket, and in numerous bridges and roofs in the West India and other docks ; while north of the Tweed, the bridge at Leith Harbour and others, and lock-gates on the Caledonian Canal may be referred to. The next account of pig iron manufacture in Derbyshire is for the years 1823 and 1830, prepared by Mr. Frederick Finch, who as- certained that the make of 15 furnaces in the year 1823 amounted to 14,038 tons ; and in the year 1830, of 18 furnaces, to 17,999 472 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [part II. tons, showing an increase in the seven years of 3,961 tons or 28 per cent. The details of Mr. Finch's returns for Derbyshire appear ia the annexed statement, with the number of furnaces in each works, and the make of pig iron : — 1823. 1830. Furnaces. Pig Iron. Furnaces. 1 Pig Iron. Alfreton Brampton . Butterley Oalow Oodnor Park . Duckmanton . Morley Park . Eenishaw . Staveley 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 Tons. 2,690 , 1,807 2,639 2[096 1,091 544 2,120 1,051 2 2 3 1 f 2 2 2 Tons. 2,950 1,245 3,981 123 2,455 1,446 1,428 2,810 1,561 Total . 15 14,038 18 17,999 Advancing to the year 1839, when Mr. David Mushet gave the production of pig iron as 1,248,781 tons, the make of 378 fur- naces ; the Derbyshire furnaces, of which 14 were in blast, pro- duced 34,372 tons. Again in the years 1840 and 1843, the respective production amounted to 1,396,400 tons and 1,215,350 tons, of which Derbyshire contributed respectively 31,000 tons and 25,750 tons. The late Mr. Samuel H. Blackwell, in the year 1851 entered very fully into the iron making resources of the United Kingdom, and furnished the following list of works in Derbyshire, the number of furnaces built and in blast, and the production of pig iron, amounting to 60,000 tons : — FURNACES. Works. FCBNAOES. Built. In Blast. Built. In Blast. Alfreton . Brimington Moor Butterley Oodnor Park Clay Cross Duckmanton Morley Park . 3 1 3 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 Newbold Eenishaw . . . Stanton . Staveley . . . Tinstone . West Hallam . . Wingerworth . 1 2 3 4 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 CHAP. VII.] DERBYSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES, 473 The average yield of the furnaces at this period was 8,158 tons per annum. In subsequent years the production of the Derbyshire furnaces appears as follows, and for comparison it will be convenient to give side by side the production of the furnaces in the West Riding of Yorkshire (which occurs within the area of the northern division of the Great Midland Coal-field of Yorkshire, Derby- shire, and Nottinghamshire) : — FURNACES, Derbyshire. W. Riding of Yorkshire. Year. Built. In Blast. Pig Iron. Pig Iron. Tons. Tons. 1855 33 24 116,550 90,840 1856 33 26 106,960 96,200 1857 34 25 112,160 117,000 1858 34 28 131,577 85,936 1859 36 27 139,250 84,950 1860 37 23 125,850 98,100 1861 37 24 129,715 142,865 1862 44 32 131,005 112,121 1863 42 31 170,026 104,745 1864 43 31 174,743 102,093 1865 41 34 189,364 123,233 1866 42 33 199,867 119,747 1867 43 30 160,028 109,002 1868 42 28 159,312 100,050 1869 43 31 188,353 105,765 1870 43 30 179,772 77,717 1871 46 38 270,485 114,549 1872 46 38 283,375 148,636 1873 47 39 296,468 151,511 1874 50 38 301,687 163,856 1875 51 38 272,065 267,153 1876 54 35 300,719 235,451 1877 53 47 328,203 229,027 1878 55 38 306,141 219,547 1879 53 35 291,455 218,805 1880 54 40 366,792 306,560 Taking the average yield of the furnaces in Derbyshire, a steady increase appears; thus, in 1855, the average was 4,856 tons, increased to 5,428 tons in 1860, and 5,570 tons in 1865 ; again, in 1870, the average was 5,992 tons ; in 1876, 7,160 tons, and in 1880, 9,369 tons, comparing favom-ably with the year 1851, when the average was but 3,158 tons per furnace. The respective works and firms, with the numbers of furnaces built and in blast in the year 1880, were as follows : — 474 . COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES, [PAEl- II. Derbtshiee. No. Name of Works. Owners. Furnaces built. rumaoes in blast. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 li Alfreton .... Butterley, Alfreton . . . Codnor Park Clay Cross . . Denby, Derby Morley Park, Belper . . Newbold, Chesterfield . Kenishaw, Eokington Sheepbridge, Chesterfield Stanton, Nottingham Staveley, Chesterfield . "West Hallam, Ilkeston . ■Wingerworth, Chesterfield Erewash Valley, Ilkestone . James Oakes & Co. . The Butterley Co. The Clay Cross Co. . George Dawes . Henry Cathrow Disney Newbold Iron and Coal Co. F. E. Appleby & Co. . Sheepbridge Coal and Iron ) Co., Limited* . j Stanton Iron "Works Co. f Staveley Coal and Iron Co., | \ Limited. . . . / "West Hallam Coal and Iron Co. Wingerworth Iron Co., Limited Erewash Valley Iron Co. Total . 3 3 4 3 4 2 1 3 6 8 8 2 3 4 3 1 2 3 3 3 5 7 7 1 3 2 54 40 Mills and Forges. — Farey, in Ms " Survey of Derbyshire," published in 1811, states that " Until about forty years ago (1771) small furnaces and bloomaries, heated by charcoal, were alone used, for the making of either cast or bar iron in these districts. At Wingerworth one of these charcoal furnaces con- tinued in some use, blown by means of a water-wheel, until the year 1784 ; this work, or others on the site of it, ha-ving been used for more than 180 years ; and at Walley in Bolsover another was used until about the year 1770." Farey gives a list of 23 localities, where he had observed the slag and remains of old bloomaries and charcoal furnaces, and he further supplements the list by another, of the forges and puddling works where bar iron was made in Derbyshire and adjoining counties as follows : — t Mills and Poeges in Deebtshiee. Alderwasley, near Wirkswortli (two formerly) ; Francis Hurt. Brightside, near Attercliffe, Yorkshire ; late Swallow & Co. Bugsworth, in Glossop. Chapel-en- le-Fritli. Chapel Mill-town. Chesterfield (New Brampton) ; Ebenezer Smith & Co. Clay Mills, near Burton (on the Dove), Staffordshire. Codnor Lower Park (now erecting) ; Butterley Co. KiUamarsh ; Joseph Butler. Makeney in Duffield (disused). Eotherham ; Walker & Co. Sheffield Town ; Samuel Smith & Co. Shelton & Co. Staveley ; Ward & Barrow. Wichnor, near Burton, Staffordshire ; ThomyweU & Co. Winshill, in Stapenhill (disused). Two furnaces building. + Farey's " Derbyshire," 1811, vol. i., p. 403, CHAP. VII.] DERBYSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 475 Farey * further adds that at " most of the above works they have large rolling and slitting apparatuses, for making plate iron, or bars of different sizes, down to the smallest nail rod ; besides which, there are roUing and slitting mills for such purposes in Derbyshire, in All Saints in Derby, and at Burrowash in Ockbrook." For many years these works have been as foUows, with the respective firms, while, from time to time, their powers of pro- duction have been increased in the number of puddling furnaces and rolling mills to meet the demands of trade. These works stood as under in the year 1880 : — No. Name of Works. Name of Firm. Nearest Port or Railway Station. No. of Puddling Furnaces. No. of Rolling Mills. 1 2 3 4 5 Butterley . Railway (Litohurch) Viotoria . Whittingtou . . Sheepbridge . Total The Butterley Co. . Eastwood, Swingler & Co. Thomas Firth & Sons . J Sheepbridge Coal and \ \ Iron Co., Limited ) Alfreton Derby . ( ,, . . \ Chesterfield 40 86 17 8 7 2 3 2 101 14 Of the coal consumed in these malleable iron works the quan- tities in each of the years 1872 and 1873 did not exceed 130,000 tons, including all the purposes where coal was employed. In recent years the following quantities show the consumption, all purposes included : — Year. Coal Used. Yeai-. Coal Used. 1873 1874 1875 1876 Tons. 130,000 96,350 90,879 83,989 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 85,000 80,487 82,466 90,178 Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture. — Taking up in- quiries on this subject with the year 1840, when Mr. William Jessop of the Butterley Ironworks made a searching investiga- tion on the subject, it was ascertained that four tons of coal were employed in the manufacture of each ton of pig iron. At this period the average quantity used in Great Britain was 3J tons of * " General View of the Agriculture and Minerals of Derbyshire." John Farey, 1811. 476 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAKT II. coal to each ton of pig iron. The total quantitj' of coal used in Derbyshire ia the year 1840 was 129,000 tons in the manufacture of 31,000 tons of pig iron. It is recorded in the pages of the Eoyal Coal Commission, that in the year 1869 the quantity did not exceed 3 tons, while in the year 1872 it had further dimin- ished to 58 cwts. of coal to each ton of pig iron. The total quantities of coal and iron ore used in each year since 1872 appears as follows, together with the quantities of pig iron made : — Yejr. Pig Iron. Coal Used. Iron Ore Used. Tons., Tons. Tons. 1872 283,375 821,833 745,560 1873 296,468 865,350 775,000 1874 301,687 906,951 788,500 1875 272,065 779.100 715,648 1876 300,719 777,772 774,824 1877 328,203 869,368 875,573 1878 306,141 793,028 833,109 1879 291,455 765,821 799,280 1880 355,603 935,913 1,027,657 Thus, in the year 1872, when the average consumption of coal in Great Britain in the manufacture of iron was 51 cwts. to the ton ; the average in the Derbyshire furnaces was about 68 cwts. The increased economy of coal siace that date has been considerable, the average in 1877 being 53 cwts., in 1878 but 51| cwts. ; while in the year 1879 it shows an increase, the average being 52| cwts. In the same way the average coal used throughout the kingdom in iron-making compares favourably in each of the same years, decreasing from 51 cwts. in the year 1872 to 44| cwts. in the year 1878, and about 43 cwts. in the year 1880, when the total quantity of coal used in the smelting of iron ore in Great Britain was 16,682,629 tons. The bulk of production of the clay ironstone measures of Derbyshire is smelted in the furnaces of Derbyshire. The ironstone when used in the raw state requires 54 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made, the Derbyshire stone containing from 22'98 to B3'20 per cent, of metallic iron. Large quantities of iron ore are imported into the country to meet the requirements of the ironmaster, principally from Northamptonshire and Lin- colnshire, and also from more distant places not separately ascer- OH.VP. VII.] DERBYSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 477 tained. These ores being more ricli in metallic iron than the native-mine, are in good request and are advantageously em- ployed. The iron ores employed in the furnaces in the year 1874 and two preceding years were derived from the following districts : — Districts. 1872. 1873. 1874. Derbyshire .... Northamptonshire . . . Lincolnshire .... Other places . . . . Total .... Tons. 317,560 290,500 1,500 136,000 Tons. 320,000 308,700 2,500 143,800 Tons. 305,350 313,924 3,326 165,900 745,560 775,000 788,500 The ores in the last-named quantities are probably derived from Lancashire and Cumberland. The Derbyshire ironstone, by calcination, may be said generallj'- to lose about one-third of its weight, and it appears that as early as the beginning of the present century, according to Farey,* " that this system of concentrating the metal in the ore was carried out in Derbyshire at Somercotes, and some other works, where the ore was roasted in kilns similar to lime-kUns, with considerable saving of time and of coals, but, it is said, with some increased loss of ore, in being crushed to pieces in passing through the kiln, to what happens in the open heaps, like coke-heaps, in which it is usually wasted ; for pieces of roasted iron ore smaller than peas cannot be admitted into the furnace for fear of choking it. The small ore thus sifted out is called Minion and is thrown away, or used for making paths in gardens, &c., in which situation it sets hard and firm." Returning to the quantities of iron ore supplied to the blast furnaces of Derbyshire, the annexed table gives the districts furnishing the same, and the approximate quantities : — Districts. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. Derbyshire . . Northamptonshire . . Lincolnshire . Other places . . . Total. Tons. 220,000 494,402 6,508 53,914 Tons. 238,900 514,803 8,760 113,110 Tons. 215,000 521,308 7,783 89,018 Tons. 180,000 507,226 7,434 104,620 Tons. 165,000 696,903 11,826 153,928 774,824 875,573 833,109 799,280 1,027,657 Farey's " Derbyshire," vol. i., p. 401. CHAPTEE VIII. NOTTINGHAMSHIRE AND WARWICKSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Ironstone of the Coal Measures — Analyses and Production. Nottinghamshire. — Production of Ironstone. — The quantities raised from the ironstone measures in Nottinghamshire have not at any time been considerable ; in 1874 there were but 228 tons returned, the value of £136 being given. Since that date the returns have been as follows, with the values in each year : — Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ 1875 11,750 7,543 1876 15,406 9,243 1877 16,986 10,191 1878 12,250 6,125 1879 20,000 10,000 1880 2,264 1,132 These values show an average price per ton, in 1875, of 12s. 9d., receding to 12s. in 1877, since which date 10s. has been the average. Warwickshire. — Analysis of Ironstone. — The argillaceous ores obtained from this coal-field vary like others in the percentage of iron which they contain. The ironstone obtained from the Bedworth district, near Coventry, may be taken as characteristic of the best description of ores of this class. The annexed analysis shows the composition of the Bedworth ironstone above referred to.* * Mr. S. H. BlackweU's " Iron making Resources of tlie United Kingdom." Lecture, Society of Arts, 1851, p. 151. CHAP, vm.] NOTTINGHAMSHIRE AND WARWICKSHIRE. 479 Eesults Tabtjlated. Carbonate of iron 79-19 Carbonate of manganese 1'45 Carbonate of lime 5.85 Carbonate of magnesia 6'30 Alumina 0-50 Silica 4-85 Phosphoric acid 0-71 Water, bituminous matter, and loss 1-15 100-00 These argillaceous ores usually contain from 30 to 35 per cent., the better varieties ranging as high as 40 per cent., and are but in little demand when foimd to contain less than from 25 to 30 per cent, of metallic iron. The above example gives 37"88 per cent. Production of Ironstone. — But little information on this subject appears before the year 1858. In that year the quantity of iron- stone obtained amounted to 29,500 tons, valued at ^611,060, giving an average of about 9s. per ton. In subsequent years the argillaceous ore of Warwickshire yielded the following quantities and value : — Yeax. Quantities. Value. Tear. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1859 30,500 10,500 1870 17,500 6,126 1860 19,500 5,025 1871 34,075 16,570 1861 15,250 4,000 1872 43,375 16,246 1862 14,750 3,678 1873 43,837 26,302 1863 12,500 3,150 1874 92,214 39,628 1864 15,750 3,939 1876 97,456 48,720 1865 16,500 4,128 1876 92,838 46,419 1866 18,760 4,687 1877 79,965 47,979 1867 15,500 3,878 1878 57,222 28,611 1868 14,795 3,698 1879 16,214 8,107 1869 15,000 3,750 1880 36,972 18,486 For many years the average price of these ores did not exceed 5s. per ton ; about 1870 they rose to 7s., and in 1874 to 10s. per ton, since which date they have shown but little variation. CHAPTEE IX. SHEOPSHIEB IKON INDUSTEIBS. Ironstone of the Coal Measures — Description — Analyses — Production of Ironstone — ^Tield of Measures and Cost of Working — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — Darby's successful application of Coke in the blast furnace at Coal- brook Dale Works — Production of Pig Iron — Malleable Iron Works — Intro- duction of EolHng Mills at Coalbrook Dale — Coal consumed in Malleable Iron Works — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture — Districts supply- ing Iron Ore. Shropsliixe Ironstone Measures. — The upper part of the strata of this coal-field, it appears, is remarkably wanting in workable seams of coal and ironstone. The first ironstone reached in depth is the " Top " or " Chance Pennystone," oceurriag with much irregularity, but possessing a strong, general resemblance to the Main Pennystone, which lies about 200 feet deeper.* The table of strata shows the order of occurrence, in the neighbourhood of Donnington Wood, of the coal and iron- stone seams : — SrccEssioN 01" Stbata. STKATA. Ft. In. Chance Pennystone. Fungous Goal 3 Blackstone. Brick Measure. BaUstone. Top Coal 5 6 Thjee-quarter Coal 2 Double Coal 5 10 Tellow 8tone. Yard Coal . .... .30 Blue Flats. White Flats. Main Pennystone. Sulphur Coal 7 Olunch. Coal 3 Two-feet Coal 2 Clod Coal 2 4 Little Flint Coal 2 Crawstone, Madeley Wood. , Black Flats (position not given). * " Iron Ores of Great Britain,^' Part IV., p. 241. CHAi-. IX.] SHROPSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 481 One of the most interesting features in the Shropshire iron- stone measures is the great variety of fossU remains preserved in the interior of the nodules, exceeding in this respect those of most otlier districts. The following are the principal ironstone measures, in descending order, with the yield of ironstone per acre. The Blackstone measure, an ironstone of dull lustre and irregular fracture, but having smooth, shining, and very biack surfaces above and below the nodules, is highly valued in the district as one of the materials for making the " best best " cold blast iron ; and the measure yields an average of 1,500 tons to the acre. The next measure, the " Brick," is one of secondary importance, existing in the form of flat cakes of a rich brown, with their surfaces very smooth, and of a chocolate colour. Planes of cleavage run very regularly through them, dividing them into brick-like masses, very like the White Flats of South Staffordshire, while a lower measure, the " Ballstone," possesses a brownish- grey colour, and when broken gives a conchoidal fracture ; like the Blackstone, it is extensively used in the make of the best cold blast iron. The "Yellowstone" measure occurs below the Ballstone in lumpy, irregular nodules, with white powdery spots, yielding, when well developed, 1,200 tons of ironstone to each acre, and is used alilce for both hot and cold blast iron. The Blue Plats measure is irregular in its occurrence, the nodules are of a brown-grey colour, and exist interstratified with an indurated clay, yielding 1,600 tons of ironstone to the acre, obtained twenty years ago at a cost of 16s. per ton, whilst the cost of getting, at the same period, did not exceed from 8s. to lis. per ton. The White Flats measure. — The ironstone nodules of this measure is of a brownish-grey colour ; this measure is rich in fossils, of shells, teeth, spines, crustaceans, and plants. The measure yields about 1,500 tons per acre, but does not command so high a price as those already mentioned. The Pennystone measure is a remarkable series of nodules, yielding, where well developed, from 2,200 to 2,600 tons per acre. It is found, however, to thin out in its passage to the southern part of the coal-field, but is no longer wrought to any consider- able extent. The Pennystone nodules are generally small. 482 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. brown, and with an irregular fracture, frequently containing calc spar in thin films filling cracks of contraction, as well as a white powder, which is sometimes sulphate of baryta, at others hydrous silicate of alumina. The lowest measure in the series is the Crawstone ironstone, and was formerly worked in the southern part of the coal-field. It was said to make an unusually strong iron, and in appearance has a singular brownish look, rough- grained nodules occurring embedded in a finely- granular sand- stone, and is no longer accounted an ore of importance. Mr. W. W. Smyth, referring to these ironstones, remarks : — " The exten- sive pUes in which the ironstone is stacked at the surface, in order to allow it by weathering to be easily freed from shale, allow of an easy inspection of large quantities of it ; and perhaps nothing is more striking than the evidence that when in a soft state it has been pierced by burrowing worms, which have left heaps of excre- tions at the doors of their dwellings. The surface, indeed, of some of the flat nodules, diversified by those little mounds, and by tracks and small markings of many kinds, reminds one strongly of the muddy or silty flats on some of our own shores. The tubular cavities are now filled, sometimes with earthy matter and some- times with zinc blende, a metallic mineral which in a brilliantly crystalline state often accompanies the vegetable remains." Analyses of the Ironstone. — The ironstones of Shropshire have been very fully examined and described in the "Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain," Part IV., in which will be found a description of the coal-field,* followed by a series of analyses made in the Eoyal School of Mines in Dr. Percy's laboratory, and from which many of the above facts have been taken ; the analyses having been made by Mr. John Spiller. Tlie Black Flats is thus described : — Clay ironstone, easily scratched by a steel point ; colour, dark grey ; fracture, sub- conchoidal; structure, minutely crystalline. The specimen contains a small quantity of white clay, distributed in the cavities of contraction. The Blue Flats of Donnington Wood, and the White Flats of the same locality, are somewhat similar in character, the former containing veins of clay irregularly disposed, and the latter permeated in some parts by veins of shale. The results of exami- nation appear in the annexed table : — • " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part IV., pf. 242, 245, 246. CHAr. IX.] SHROPSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Eesitlts Tabulated. 483 Constituents. Black Bats. Blue Flats. Wliite Flats. Protoxide of iron 48-28 46-30 44-33 Protoxide of manganese . . 0-82 0-82 1-00 Peroxide of iron 1-06 Alumina 0-67 0-48 0-92 Lime 2-26 , 2-30 2-86 Magnesia Carbonic acid .... 1-83 2-01 1-97 32-98 31-68 30-92 Phosphoric acid . ... 0-26 0-50 0-70 Sulphuric acid .... 0-10 0-11 0-06 Bisulphide of iron . . . 0-19 0-08 0-01 Water hygroscopic . 0-24 0-28 0.35 Water combined . . . . 0-62 0-81 0-95 Organic matter 0-62 0-62 0-38 Ignited insoluble residue . . 11-19 13-24 14-35 100-06 99-23 99-86 Ignited Insoluble Eesidue. Silica 7-36 8-23 9-90 Alumina 3-50 3-78 3-60 Peroxide of iron 0-53 0-69 0-56 Lime 0-08 • trace 0-12 Magnesia trace 0-07 trace Potash Metallic iron .... 0-10 0-33. 0-24 11-57 13-10 14-42 37-92 36-49 35-61 It is observed that none of the metals, precipitable by sul- phuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution, were detected in 820 grains of the Black Flats ore, while a minute trace of a reddish metal, probably copper, though too small to identify, was detected in 480 grains of the White Flats ore. The Pennystone of Donnington "Wood is thus described : — " Nodular clay ironstone, easily scratched by a steel point ; colour, pale brownish-grey ; fracture, sub-conchoidal ; structure, compact. The nodule has veins of contraction, filled with white crystals of sulphate of baryta, and a white pulverulent form of the samf substance ; side by side appear analyses of the same measure at, Madeley Court, and of the Grawstone, at Madeley Wood." I I 2 484. COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Eesults Tabulated Pennystone. Pennystone. Constituents. Donnington Madeley Crawstone. Wood. Court. Protoxide of iron 45-08 44-19 51-45 Peroxide of iron . . . . 0-55 ■ .. Protoxide of manganese . 1-69 0-99 0-54 Alumina 0-43 0-41 0-43 Lime 2-95 1-63 2-13 Magnesia Carbonio acid .... 4-11 3-40 0-42 34-04 32-02 33-31 Phosphoric acid . . . . 0-46 0-29 0-23 Silica soluble in hydrochloric ) acid .... 5 0-57 0-37 ... Sulphuric acid . . . . trace 0-06 <.■ Bisulphide of iron . 0-48 0-43 0-02 Water hygroscopic . . . 0-30 0-45 0-19 Water combined 0-72 1-31 0-54 Organic matter . . . . 0-23 0-42 0-67 Ignited insoluble residue . 8-32 13-50 9-60 99-93 99-47 99-53 Ignited Insoluble Eesidtje. SUica 5-66 7-75 6-S3 Alumina 1-96 4-64 2-42 Peroxide of jron . . . . 0-26 0-55 0-43 Lime 0-16 0-14 trace Magnesia 0-09 0-08 trace Potash Metallic iron . . . . trace 0-33 0-16 8-13 13-49 9-84 35-63 34-75 40-27 A minute trace of a white malleable metal, too small in quantity to identify, was found in 300 grains of the ore in the second Pennystone ; and a trace of lead was found present in the Craw- stone ore in the form of galena. Of other argillaceous ironstones raised in Shropshire,* the fol- lowing analyses, by Mr. Edward Riley, of the " Light Clod," and " Dark Clod," obtained at Billingsley Colliery, at Bridgnorth, mil show the general character of the ironstone raised in the Forest of Wyre. The smelting of these ironstones, it has been stated, was formerly an industry in this neighbourhood previous to the introduction of railways, and it is said that the iron pro- duced was of very good quality : — * " Colliery Guardian," 28th November, 1879, p. 858. OlIAP. IX.] SHBOPSHIEE IRON INDUSTKIES. 485 Eesults Tabulated. Constituents. Light Clod. Dark CSod. Silica 9-99 9-87 Carbonate of iron . . . 73-82 74-72 Alumina 06-02 6-20 Carbonate of manganese . . 1-13 1-16 ,, of lime . 1-16 3-25 „ of magnesia . . 2-21 2-15 Sulphate of Baryta . 3-25 trace Phosphoric acid . . . . 0-21 0-30 Combined water 1-00 1-66 Moisture 0-66 0-72 Sulphur 0-03 Sulphate of lime . . . . trace trace Small quantity of potash and ) organic matter . . 5 Loss by calcination . . . 99-44 100-06 36-20 28-64 Iron in calcined ore . 48-33 50-60 Metallic iron . . . . 35-66 36-01 Froduction of Ironstone. — The great bulk of the ii'onstone employed in the Shropshire furnaces is obtained from the coal measures of the coal-field ; these, in the year 1855, were chiefly obtained from Donnington Wood and its vicinity, and from the neighbourhood of Madeley Wood, Madeley Court, &c., and amounted to 365,000 tons. In subsequent years the production of ironstone appears as follows : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1857 325,000 1869 318,483 1858 150,500 1870 337,627 1859 197,589 1871 415,972 1860 165,500 1872 408,425 1861 223,400 1873 430,725 1862 225,400 1874 303,959 1863 247,200 1875 240,568 1864 454,000 1876 239,183 1865 273,810 1877 270,733 1866 285,907 1878 321,328 1867 250,000 1879 300,391 1868 278,541 1880 226,721 The value of the ironstone delivered at the pit's bank in the year 1857, was about 5s. per ton on the average; in the year 1866, according to a writer in the Colliery Gtiardian, the 486 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES, ' [PAET II. average cost of extracting in the Blue Flat ironstone varied, according to circumstances, from 7s. to 10s. per ton ; during the same year the "White Flats ironstone cost from 9s. to lis. per ton ; and the Pennystone, from 6s. to 9s. per ton. During the years from 1872 to 1876, the average price at the pit's bank varied from 10s. to 12s., while during the past few years the average price may be taken at 10s. per ton. The following details of individual districts show the production in the years named : — Districts. 1875. 1874. 1873. Tons. Tons. Tons. Haycop .... 620 ... Ketley .... 7,673 9,322 9,014 LiUeshaU . 92,160 87,558 102,530 Madeley Court . . . 17,752 18,335 21,414 Madeley Wood 29,902 ... Quinta 20 Sandback 960 Wombridge . . . 10,556 7,242 8,234 Dawley .... ... ... 35,679 Coalbrookdale . . . ... 23,026 Old Park ... 10,828 Pack Moor . . . 9,000 ... Coppice, &c. . Calootts, &o. . . . 120 3,307 ... Sundry mines Total . . . 100,000 150,000 220,000 240,568 303,959 430,725 Yield of Ironstone and Cost of Production. — The principal ironstone measures worked in Shropshire in 1836, according to Thomas Smith,* were as follows, showing the thickness and cost per ton of working, and the yield of ironstone per square yard : — Ironstone Measures. Thickness. Yield per Yard. CostofGettin ; per Ton. Yds. Ft. Tons. Cwts. £ s. d. Pennystone . 2 4 6 3 Black ironstone . . 1 1 8 2 7 Brick measure 5 1 6 3 7 Ball stone . . . . 3 5 4 4 Yellow ironstone . 3 5 2 Blue Hats . . . 2 6 4 2 White Mats . 2 4 6 7 Penny ironstone . . Total . 8 .1 4 5 26 2 3 2 1 14 6 " Miner's Guide," 1836, p. 128. ciiAi'. IX.] SHROPSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 487 The average yield per square yard of the eight measures giving 62 cwts. ; the cost of getting each ton of ironstone heing 8s. l^d., this including dead work, 2«. 6d., and royalty. Is. per ton. The total produce per acre of the measures giving 13,794 tons of iron- stone ; the royalty. Is. per ton ; and per acre, £689 14s. ; the average getting of each man daUy amounting to 24 cwts. 3 qrs. ; and in the week of five days', 6 tons 3 cwts. 2 qrs. Pig Iron Manufacture. — The early history of this industry is intimately associated with Shropshire and especially with the Coal- hrookdale Ironworks. When, in the beginning of the last cen- tury, the exhaustion of our forests and woodlands was imminent, occasioned by the demand for the necessary charcoal fuel, attention was directed to the useful application of coal in the blast furnace. The difficulties, however, were considerable, and it was not until Mr. Abraham Darby, between the years 1730 and 1735, at the Coalbi'ookdale Works, successfully solved the problem, that the use of coal, previously coked, came into use in the reduction of the ores of iron in the blast furnace. The new era opened out by Darby's success in the application of coke renders this a fitting place to give the following account of his early attempts : — * " Young Abraham Darby entered upon the management of the Coalbrookdale Ironworks about 1730. As the supply of charcoal was fast failing, Abraham Darby attempted to smelt with a mixture of raw coal and charcoal, but did not succeed. Between 1730 and 1735 he determined to treat pit coal as his charcoal burners treated wood. He built a fire-proof hearth in the open air, piled upon it a circular mound of coal, and covered it with clay and cinders, leaving access to just sufficient air to maintain slow combustion. Having thus made a good stock of coke, he proceeded to experiment upon it as a substitute for charcoal. He himself watched the filling of his furnace during six days and nights, having no regular sleep, and taking his meals at the furnace top. On the sixth evening, after many disappointments, the experiment succeeded, and the iron ran out well. He then fell asleep in the bridge-house at the top of his old-fashioned furnace so soundly that his men could not wake him, and carried him to his house a quarter of a mile distant." * Percy's Metallurgy, " Iron and Steel," p. 888. 488 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAKT 11. It may also be mentioned that it was at the above-named works that Mr. Abraham Darby's father had previously introduced the art of casting iron, and that at a later period the first iron bridge constructed in this country was successfully carried out, and is that which at the present time spans the river Severn at the thriving town of Ironbridge. Darby, in the year 1735, having succeeded in making pig iron with coke, experienced a new difficulty, that of securing blast of sufficient pressure to ensure the complete utilisation and com- bustion of the hard dense coke in the furnace, and it was not until a quarter of a century later that his difficulty was overcome by the introduction of powerful blowing machinery, in which Smeaton led the way, followed by Watt and others. In the j^ear 1740, when the total production of pig iron in England and Wales was but 17,350 tons, the yield of 59 furnaces, that of the six furnaces then in operation in Shropshire was 2,100 tons, 12 per cent, of all made ; the average yield of each furnace being 350 tons. In the year 1754 the ironworks at Horsehay were established by Mr, Abraham Darby, of Coalbrookdale, already referred to, and two years later the first furnace was blown in. It is recorded that from 20 to 22 tons of coke pig iron were made weeklj% and such was its superior quality that it met with a ready sale. Advancing to the year 1788, when the total production of pig iron was 61,300 tons, of which 13,100 tons was charcoal pig, and 48,200 tons coke pig, the make of the Shropshire furnaces was as follows : — Description. Furnaces. Pig Iron. Coke iron . . •. . Charcoal iron . . . . Total Nos. 21 3 Tons. 23,100 1,800 24 24,900 The fact of the Shropshire furnaces at this period contributmg upwards of 40 per cent, of the iron made in England and Wales shows the importance of the district as a seat of iron manufacture. Towards the close of the last century additional light was thrown on the progress of the iron trade of the country by the fiiAr. IX.] SHROPSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 489 inquiries of a Committee of the House of .Commons, presided over by William Manning, Esq., M.P. From the investigations of this committee, and the authority of Dr. H. G. Macnab, who represented the iron trade, we learn that in the year 1796 the production of pig ii-on in Great Britain was 125,079 tons, of which Shropshire contributed 32,969 tons, nearly 25 per cent, of all made at this period. In the annexed table appear the works in operation in 1796 in Shropshire, the number of furnaces, and their production : — Works. Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Average per Fui'uace. BenthaE Broseley . . . . Coalbrookdale Donningtoa Wood . . Horsehay Jackfield .... Ketley .... Light Moor . . . Madeley Wood Old Park .... Snedshill Willey .... Total. 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 3 2 1 Tons. 1,334 1,076 2,660 3,323 1,458 1,820 5,069 3,499 1,856 5,952 3,367 1,555 Tons. 1,334 1,076 886 1,608 1,458 910 1,689 1,166 1,856 1,984 1,683 1,555 23 32,969 1,433 Thus while in the year 1740 the average make per furnace was 294 tons, it increased in the year 1796 to 1,433 tons, from which fact it will be seen that the furnaces will have been reconstructed and their capacity greatly increased. In 1796, when the produc- tion of the Shropshire furnaces was 82,969 tons, the only other iron making districts in Great Britain exceeding this was South Wales, producing 84,101 tons ; Scotland following with 15,186 tons ; South Staffordshire with 13,210 tons ; the West Hiding of Yorkshire with 10,398 tons ; Derbyshii-e with 9,656 tons ; North Staffordshire with 1,959 tons ; and the charcoal furnaces of Sussex with 173 tons. The beginning of the present century was marked by the establishment of several new works, an increase in number and capacity of the furnaces and production of pig iron. Thus in the year 1806 we have the subjoined details of works, furnaces built, and in blast, and make of pig iron in Shropshire, showing an increase of 21,997 tons in a period of ten years, equal to 66 per cent. : — 490 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. Works. Bainets Leasow BenthaU . BiUingsley . Broseley . Caleott . CleeHiU . Coalbiookdale Cornbrook Donnington Wood Horsehay . Light Moor . Ketley Madeley Wood New Hadley Old Park Queenswood Snedshill Willey . . Wrockwardine Total . Built. Nos, 2 1 2 1 5 1 2 1 3 2 3 4 2 2 4 1 3 1 2 42 In Blast. Nos. 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 2 2 4 1 2 2 30 Pig Iron Made. Tons. 574 1,294 1,430 2,269 303 2,962 292 3,400 3,834 5,601 7,510 2,951 3,612 8,359 2,605 3,950 4,000 54,966 The total production of pig iron in Great Britain, in the same year, was 243,851 tons, distributed as follows : — Districts. PUBNACES. Pig Iron Made. Built. In Bla.st. Out. England Wales, North . . . ,, South Scotland . . . . Total . Nos. 140 4 45 27 Nos. 105 3 35 18 Nos. 35 1 10 9 Tons. 149,163 2,981 68,867 22,840 216 161 55 243,851 Shropshire at this period contributed upwards of 20 per cent, of the iron produced in the kingdom, while the average make of her blast furnaces had increased from 1,433 tons in the year 1796 to 1,832 tons in the year 1806. Advancing to the years 1831 — 32, when an inquiry was con- ducted for the Government by Mr. F. Finch, it was ascertained by that gentleman that in the years 1823 and 1830 the furnaces in operation, and the make of pig iron in Shropshire, were as follows : — OHAP. IX.] SHKOPSHIEE IRON INDDSTEIES. 491 1823. 1830. Works. Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Broseley Bamets Leasow Benthall Calcotts . Ooalbrookdale Dawley Castle . Donnington . Horsehay . Hadley . Ketley Light Moor . Madeley Wood . Old Park SnedshUl . Wombridge . Wrookwardine . Stirohley Lawley Langley 2 2 1 2 2 2 3* 3 2 3 3 3 4 2 2 2 Tons. 2,765 1,833 4,925 8,074 4,854 2,080 4,984 6,052 2,475 6,900 2,786 5,084 5,121 2 2 1 2 2 2 5 3 2 3 3 3 4 2 3 2 4t 1 2 Tons. 270 1,316 4,312 15,110 6,833 5,763 6,194 3,471 15,300 317 7,134 3,073 4,325 Total . 38 57,923 48 73,418 The aggregate production of pig iion in the year 1823, in the works of Great Britain, was 454,866 tons, increased in the year 1830 to 678,417 tons, equal to an increase of 50 per cent., while in the works of Shropshire the increase between the same years was 15,495 tons, or 26 per cent. It was between the above-named years (in 1828) that the Hot Blast, the invention of Mr. James B. Neilson, was introduced ; and returns in subsequent years show the important influence exercised in increased production, more especially in Scotland. Later the system was adopted in England and Wales, though but partially in some districts, as for example the West Hiding of Yorkshire, North Stafi'ordshire, South Wales, and in this district, where some of the works still employ cold blast in the furnace, producing iron of a superior qualitj', which is in great request. The next return is for the year 1839, on the authority of * Two furnaces were built at Donnington in 1828, in the place of the two at Wrockwardine which Were blown out. t The quantity made in 1830 is included in the Old Park return. 492 COAL AND lEON INDUSTKIES. [paet ii. Mr. EobertMashet,* who states that of the 34 furnaces built in Shropshire at that date 29 were in blast, and produced 80,940 tons, giving an average yield to each furnace of 2,791 tons. Again, in 1840 we find, from Mr. William Jessop's inquiries, that of the total furnaces built 24 were active, and produced 82,750 tons of pig iron,' consuming in its manufacture 409,000 tons of coal, the average yield per furnace being 3,448 tons of iron, with an average of nearly 5 tons of coal to each ton of iron made. The returns a few years later show a falHng off not only in Shropshii'e, but in nearly aU the iron-making districts of Great Britain — ^Northumberland and North Staffordshire excepted. Thus in 1843 the production had fallen to 1,215,350 tons, com- pared with 1,396,400 tons in the year 1840 ; the make of the Shropshire furnaces being respectively, in each of the same years, 76,200 tons and 82,750 tons. This falling off was due to de- pression of trade, which was general throughout the industries of the country, ^nd continued from 1840 to 1845, when a reaction set in, due to the extension of the railway system, leading to increased demand for iron of all kinds and more remunerative prices. The results of these changes appear in the returns for the year 1847, when of the 623 furnaces built in Great Britain 433 were in operation, and produced 1,999,608 tons of pig iron, of which the 28 furnaces in blast in Shropshire, out of a total of 34 built, yielded 88,400 tons, or an average of 3,157 tons per furnace. The iron industries of the country since 1847 have bounded forward at a rapid pace, to meet the many requirements to which iron is now so universally applied ; not only in the structural arrangements of our pubKc buildrags, railway, and naval engineering works, but also the many other works of national importance to which it is now so generally adapted. In the year 1852 Mr. Braithwaite Poole, in his " Statistics of Commerce," gives the production of pig iron in Shropshire as 120,000 tons, giving an average of 4,444 tons for each of the 27 furnaces in blast, compared with 3,157 tons per furnace in the year 1847. In 1852 the same authority gives the total production of pig iron in Great Britain as 2,701,000 tons, the make of 497 furnaces then in operation, out of a total of 655 furnaces built. * •' Papers on Iron and Steel," p. 421. CHAP. IX.] SHROPSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 493 Advanting to the year 1854, of the 34 furnaces erected in Shropshire 28 were in blast, the production of pig iron amount- ing to 124,800 tons, being an average of 4,457 tons per furnace. In the annexed table will be found the number of furnaces built, in blast, and the raake of pig iron in Shropshire in each year since 1855 : — FURNACES. F0KNACE3. Year. Pig Iron Made. Year. Pig Iron Made, Built. In Blast. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Nos. Nos. Tons. 1855 34 26 121,680 1868 29 24 145,159 1856 35 27 109,722 1869 29 23 197,443 1857 31 26 117,141 1870 29 22 112,300 1858 32 2j 101,016 1871 25 19 129,467 1859 37 30 149,480 1872 29 22 133,046 1860 32 26 145,200 1873 29 21 135,149 1861 31 22i 140,791 1874 28 20 .126,055 1862 31 23 123,981 1875 26 20 120,996 1863 31 22 135,557 1876 25 16 106,711 1864 30 22f 130,666 1877 23 14 102,180 1865 29 23 117,343 1878 28 11 80,965 1866 29 23 121,161 1879 23 7 60,790 1867 29 22 123,604 1880 24 12 88,338 During the past few years Shropshire shows a decrease in this branch of industry. Of the ironworks it may be remarked that the Lilleshall and Haybridge companies' works, and those at Madeley Court, are the most recently established. These works are of considerable magnitude, the first named, at Prior's Lee, having four furnaces, and the Lodge Wood works five furnaces, making cold blast pig iron. These works are situated near Shiffnall, and possess, in addition to the furnaces, extensive foundries and engineering establishments, where locomotives for colliery purposes are made on a large scale. The works of the Haybridge Company are also situated near ShifiEhaU, while those of Madeley Court are situated near Ironbridge. The year of greatest production appears to have been in 1869, when of the 29 furnaces in the Shropshire works, the 23 in blast produced 197,443 tons, compai-ed with 88,338 tons in 1880, when of the 24 furnaces in the district but 12 were in operation. The following table shows the names of the works, firms, and furnaces built and in operation during the year 1880 in Shrop- shire : — 494 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Works. Owners. PCRNA0E8. BuUt. In Blast. Hinksliay, Shiflhall LightMoor and Dawley Castle *Ketley, ■WeUington . . Lodge Wood, Shiflnall . Prior's Lee, Shiffnall . . Madeley Wood, tonbridge . Madeley Court . . . Old Park .... TTaybridge L:oii Co., Lim. ( Coalbrookdale Iron Co., ) ( Limited . . . ) KetleyCo. Lilleshall Co. . . . ,1 ... Madeley Wood Co. . . William Orme Foster Edward Cheney . . . Total . Nos. 2 4 5 4 3 3 3 Nos. 1 3 3 3 2t 24 12 H/Ealleable Ironworks, Mills, and Forges. — The earliest works established in Shropshire were those of the Coalbrookdale Iron Company, projected about the year 1753. They are situated at Horshay, near Wellington, and comprise forges and rolling mills. "When in 1783 Mr. Henry Cort introduced his system of rolling iron, the works were considerably enlarged and rolling mills erected. The site of the Dale was originally selected for the erection of an iron foundry, on account of the facilities it afforded for water power by the rapid descent of its brook into the river Severn. Water power has, however, long since been almost entirely superseded by steam in these old-established works, which are said to have been in the family of the present proprietors for nearly 180 years, during which period they have been greatly extended. The locality is described as a picturesque and once sequestered valley, now busy with the life and labour of those employed in the foundries and workshops of the company, the latter buildings occupying the larger portion of the bottom of the Dale, while the slopes of the hiUs are occupied by coppice and field, and by the houses and gardens of the workmen employed. A local authority in 1856 estimated the annual production of finished iron at these works at 15,000 tons, consisting of bars of all sizes and sections. It was at Coalbrookdale, it appears, that Cort first system- atically conducted the processes of puddling and of drawing out * Works recently dismantled. t One furnace a part of the year only. 7 Chestertont . . { Chesterton Coal and Iron ) Co., Limited . . \ )» .. , . Chatterleyt . Clough Hall, Kidsgrove . Chatterley Iron Co. . , .. Kinnei-sley and Co. . . . Stoke 56 5 Shelton. Shelton Bar Iron Co. . 87 8 Berry Fill . . . ClifFTale . WiUiam Bowers . . . 22 2 Joseph Bell and Son . 24 3 Silverdale and Knutton . Stanier and Co. . . . n 56 6 Total of North Staffordshire . 850 Zi In the southern part of Staffordshire the same year there were 125 works, with 1,625 puddling furnaces and 311 rolling miUs, consuming approximately 1,667,600 tons of coal. Coal and Iron Ore used in Uannfactnxe. — An interesting Estimated quantities. t Works standing. 510 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. statement, published in the year 1796, gives the following details of the quantity of coal consumed in raising coal, ironstone, and iron ore from the mine, and in the final completion of one ton of iron in rods for the manufacturer : * — PURPOSES TO WHICH APPLIED. ToBS.Cwts. Small coal in the blowing engine 13 to torrify the raw material Oil to work the hammer engine . . . .0 18 to work the mill engine 10 »e coal coked to be used in furnace . . . .85 to refine the pig iron 12 in puddling furnace 13 in the heating furnaces 1 15 in the mill furnaces 7 in workmen's houses' 15 in steam engines to draw the mine and draw the ironstone and coal 19 consumed in pitmen's houses 12 Larg( Total 19 From the above items it is estimated that the quantity of coal 'employed in the manufacture of a ton of pig iron was little short of 10 tons. In the year 1810 it appears, on the authority of Mr. Mushet, that the quantity did not exceed 5 tons. Again, in the year 1840, it is stated on the authority of Mr. WiUiam Jessop, of the Butterley Ironworks, that the quantity did not exceed 4 tons 1 cwt. In the year 1854 a carefuUy written paper by Mr. John Hedley, of the Silverdale Works, on the " North Staffordshire Coal- fields," gives the following as the proportion of coal employed in those works in the manufacture of a ton of pig iron ; namely, 42i cwt. of coal, and 13 cwt. of slack, coked for the furnaces, ■with a further 19 cwt. of slack for the hot blast apparatus and Wast engine, or a total of 74J cwt. of coal to each ton of pig iron made. Already the make of pig iron in North Staffordshire has been given. Since the year 1872 the quantities of coal and iron- stone used in the manufacture of pig iron have been ascertained, and afford reliable data for comparison ; the quantities under each head appear in the annexed table : — * Macnab. " Observations on the Coal Trade, &c., 1801," p. 69. CHAP. X.] NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 511 Year. Pig Iron. Coal used. Iron Ore Used. Tons. Tons, Tons. 1872 275,925 817,753 723,400 1873 283,103 830,119 779,000 1874 273,501 820,514 752,600 1875 241,398 703,000 627,823 1876 213,569 525,387 562,348 1877 256,383 578,428 664,210 1878 231,534 530,594 612,326 1879 210,374 430,432 556,312 1880 225,023 434,171 569,334 In the year 1872 the quantity of coal used in the production of each ton of pig iron, all purposes in the operation included, where heat was required, gave an average of 59 cwt., and in the following year the average was somewhat less, indicating a watch- ful economy in the consumption of fuel. Following the consumption of iron ore in each of the same years, 1872 and 1873, in the make of pig iron, the above quanti- ties give an average of 52| cwt. of raw uncalcined stone to each ton of pig iron obtained from the blast furnace ; the greater proportion of the ore employed being native mine of the district. Other ores are also used in admixture, which are imported into the district, and the annexed statement wiU show approximately the places from which the ores were obtained : — Source of Supply. 1S72. 1873. 1876. 1879. 1880. North StafFordslm-e . Oxfordshire . . . . Northamptonshire . Lincolnshire . . . Various places . Total . . . Tons. 559,000 3,200 4,000 13,450 143,750 Tons. 602,594 357 4,333 1 11,326 f 160,390 Tons. 385,000 25,337 152,011 Tons. 363,200 18,216 174,896 Tons. 364,280 205,054* 723,400 779,000 562,348 556,312 569,334 Of the ore derived from " various places " there is reason to believe that some portion of this quantity in each year is the produce of the district, the remainder being furnace mill cinder, containing a large percentage of metallic iron and some hematite from Lancashire. With regard to the cost of production, it is stated that coal could be mined in 1877 in North Staffordshire at a little over * Including some ore from Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire. 512 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. i'4.nT ir. 4s. per ton, and the ironstone from about 3s. to 3s. 6d. per ton. The work of getting is let out at so much per ton (averaging in 1877 from 2s. to 3s. per ton), the contractor employing miners whose daily wages average 4s. In the same manner, by taking the immediate wages at the blast furnace into consideration, a ton of pig iron could be produced at a little over 4s. a ton for labour. It wiU be remembered that wages have gone down since 1877, and if they have not yet reached the old figure, these ap- proximate prices would have to be reduced still more to arrive at the present cost of production in this district. An average charge of a furnace is as follows, the first being the quantities used for Ked Shag alone, and the second for a mixture of Eed Mine (raw giving 50 per cent.) and Lean Mine (raw giving 35 per cent.). riKST. SECOND. Materials. Cwfc. Ql-s. Materials. Cwt. Qrs Coal . . 29 Coal 22 2 Ore . . 29 f Eed Mine . \ Lean Mine 19 1 16 2 Limestone . . 2 2 Limestone . 5 Plue cinder . ..13 Flue cinder 2 1 The consumption per ton of pig iron is practically as follows : Coal, 35 cwt. 3 qrs. ; ironstone, 34 cwt. ; limestone, 8 cwt. 2 qrs. and flue cinder, 4 cwt. 2 qrs.* » " Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers," Vol. VIII., p. 333. CHAPTEE XI. SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AND WORCESTERSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. Description of Ironstone Measures of Coal Field — Analyses and Production of Ironstone — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — Sturtevant, Ravenson, and Dudley's experiments in the Use of Coal previously coked — Production of Pig Iron — Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture — CaJcination of Ores in Clamps and Kilns — Works in operation in 1880— Malleable Iron Works in 1880, coal used — Prices of Finished Iron. Ironstone Deposits. — The measures yielding ironstone exist abundantly in this coal-field, with their associated beds of shale, in which fossils are found in great profusion. Professor Jukes, in his Introduction to Part II. of the "Iron Ores of Great Britain," remarks that it is the middle part of the coal-field which has ever been largely productive of ironstone, and in a general section of strata gives the following measures of ironstone and the varying thickness of the strata in which they occur : — No. General Section of Ironstone Measures. Thickness. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. vni. IX. X. XI. xn. XIII. XIV. XV. Brooch. Binds Pins and Pennyearth Broad Earth, Catch Earth, &c. . . . Pouncill Batt, Blacktery, and Whiteiy Gubbin, caUed " Little " or " Top " New Mine or White Ironstone , ( Measures containing Penny stone, Ironstone, j called also Bluestone or Cakes . I Measures containing the Fire-clay balls, iron- ( stone occasionally Getting Rook Ironstone (occasional) Poor Eobin Ironstone . . . . Eough Hills White Ironstone (occasional) Gubbin and Balls Ironstone Blue Plats Ironstone Silver Threads Diamonds Feet. 7 to 20 6 „ 30 6„ 14 2„ 8 2„ 8 2„ 10 10 „ 25 2 „ 40 4„ 5 3„ 5 2„ 19 0„ 10 2„ 9 4„ V 2„ 3 It must not, however, be supposed that all these measures are found vertically one under the other in any one part of the coal- 514 COAL AND IRON INDUSTKIES. [paet ii. field. The uppermost are known only in the southern extremity, where they dip to the south. The lowest are either altogether absent there, or do not contain the measures which, a few miles further north, are rich in ironstone. Towards the north, on the other hand, the lowest measures " crop out " or rise towards the surface, and it is therefore not possible that the upper measures should be found there. The section given above is compiled partly from the examination of the southern, partly of the middle, and partly of the northern part of the district, the object being to enumerate every important measure of ironstone and its relative position in the coal-field. Professor Jukes * gives the following description of the above- named ironstone measures, which it will be convenient to take in the order of occurrence : — I. Brooch Ironstone, or Binds — are beds of clay or shale be- neath the Brooch coal, containing ironstone to the south-west of Dudley, where the measures average about 7 feet in thickness. II. Pins and Pennyearth. — These measures take their name from the form of the nodules in which the ironstone occurs. The "Pins" being small, round or cylindrical, and the "Penny- earth," small, flattish nodules, Hke pennypieces. III. The " Ten-foot Stone," and " Backstone." — Knovm also as the Broad Earth, &c., so called from lying immediately above or on the back of the " Thick Coal," in the neighbourhood of Brierley HiU. IV. The " Whitery," or Grains. — These are merely occasional ironstone measures, consisting of light and dark coloured climch, a term applied to course tough clay of the coal measures. These measures are sometimes absent, and where they contain most ironstone rarely exceed 6 or 8 feet in thickness. V. Guhhin. — Sometimes called the " Little," or " Top," or " Thick Coal Gubbin," is one of the most important and widely diffused of the ironstone measures of this coal-field, and yields an average of 1,500 tons per acre, the thickness of the measures varying in different places from 2 to 9 feet. VI. New Mine Ironstone, or Whitestone. — This is another widely diffused ironstone ; it is a light coloured ironstone, oc- curring in large nodules lying in a bed of clay, which is called * "Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part II., p. 108. CHAP. XI.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 515 " clunch," " clod," or " binds," according to its minor varieties. The layers of nodules vary from 2 to 4 feet, and the whole measure from 2 to 10 feet in thickness, the most usual being from 4 to 5 feet. Professor Jukes gives several interesting sections, at Wolverhampton, Bilston, Dudley and Kingswinford, in which these measures occur and from which the above average thicknesses are derived. VII. Pennystone Bluestones, or " Cakes." — The measures in which this ironstone lies are dark clay, sometimes black, the iron- stone occurring in flat, round nodules of a dark colour. In the district of Dudley, to the south-west, ironstone has rarely if ever been found on this horizon, or below it, while it is well-known towards Oldbury, under the names of " Cakes," or " Bkiestone," and between "Wolverhampton and WalsaU as Pennystone. VIII. "Fire-Clay Balls." — This measure is variable and capricious, and the ironstone irregular in its occurrence, and in the form of balls, hence the name, and resting on the fire-clay coal. In the Stow Heath and Priestfield CoUieries, between Bilston and Wolverhampton, where there are many pits within the space of half a mile, these measures vary from a seam of clay 2 or 3 feet in thickness to a mass of sandstone 39 feet thick, with a little fire-clay above and below it. IX. " Getting Rock Ironstone." — This measure, occurring below a bed of fire-clay, varying from 2 to 10 feet in thickness, sometimes contains ironstone worth working in certain localities. It appears to be confined to the neighbourhood of Stow Heath, EttingshaU, Deepfields, and Bradley, and does not always occur even there. X. " Poor Robin." — This ironstone is more widely diffused and persistent than that of the Getting Eock ; the measure is sometimes 3 and 4 feet thick. XI. " Rough Hills Whitestone." — This ironstone is confined to the district between Bilston and Wolverhampton. At Paxkfields the measures are 19 feet thick, containing 11 bands of ironstone from 1 to 6 inches thick, making a total of 32 inches of ironstone. Elsewhere it is not so fuUy developed, not exceeding 3 or 4 feet thick, with not more than firom 6 to 8 inches of ironstone. XII. " Gubbin and Balls." — This measure contains good workable ironstone, occurring principally between Wolverhampton and Walsall and around Bilston. At Chillington Colliery the L L 2 516 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. thickness of the measures is nearly 7 feet, with 4 bands of iron- stone, giving a total thickness of 23 inches. XIII. " Blue Flats." — This ironstone is so called from the flat pavement-like form in which it occurs. At Park Hall, just south of Wolverhampton, in a section of 8 feet 9 inches of measures, are 4 bands of ironstone, giving an aggregate thickness of 16 inches ; while at Eyecroft, near Walsall, the measures are found in a thickness of 18 inches, with 2 bands of ironstone each 3 inches thick. XIV. " Silver Threads." — This measure occurs in the district around Walsall, varying from 4 to 7 feet thick, composed of 2 or 3 bands of ironstone, varying from 1 to 4 inches in thickness, and so named from the little threads of shining spar, which traverse the ironstone. XV. "Diamonds." — This ironstone, the lowest in the series, is confined, like the Silver Threads, as a workable ironstone, to the district west of Walsall, where it occurs from 2 to 4 feet thick, and contains 2 bands of ironstone varying from 2 to 4 inches in thickness. Analyses of the Ironstone. — In the "Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part II., from which the account of the principal iron- stone measures are taken, also appear complete analyses of no less than 30 of the ironstones wrought in the South Staffordshire coal-field. These analyses were made in Dr. Percy's laboratory, and subsequently published in the Memoirs above referred to. It wiU be sufficient, however, to give a description and analysis of some of the more important and characteristic ironstones of the several districts. Those selected in the Dudley district are thus described : — The " Grains,'- (No. IV. of General Section). By Mr. A. Dick. — " Clay iron ore ; colour, greyish black ; structure, compact and homogeneous. The ore is covered in some places with a thin layer of yellowish white matter." " Guhhin Ironstone," (No. V. of General Section). By Mr. A. Dick. — " Clay iron ore ; colour, greyish black ; structure, com- pact and homogeneous. It contains thin veins of white and reddish brown matter, in which zinc-blende, galena, and copper pyrites occur." "Fire-Clay Balls," (No. VIII. of General Section). By Mr. A. Dick. — " Fine grained, crystalline, carbonate of protoxide of CHAP. XI.] SOUTH STAFFOEDSHIEE IRON INDUSTRIES. 517 iron ; colour, greyish brown. It contains veins of calc spar and white pulverulent silicate of alumina, in which occur small, white, crystalline, globular concretions, consisting of carbonate of lime and magnesia. Eesitlts Tabulated.' Constituents. Grains. Gubbin. Fireclay BaUs. Protoxide of iron . . . 54-12 45-86 47-87 Protoxide of manganese . 2-05 0-96 1-12 Alumina .... 0-78 0-42 0-43 Lime .... 2-21 1-17 1-00 Magnesia .... 0-62 1-65 1-27 Potash .... trace Carbonic acid . 35-25 31-02 30-96 Phosphoric acid 0-69 0-21 0-07 Sulphuric acid . trace trace O-OB Silica .... 2-11 0-42 Bisulphide of iron 0-40 0-10 6-17 Water .... 1-07 1-08 1-18 Organic matter . 1-36 0-90 0-41 Ignited insoluble residue . ... 15-90 15-95 Total .... 100-66 99-69 100-51 Ignited Insoluble EEsrouE. Silica ..... 10-26 10-52 Alumina 5-44 5-02 Peroxide of iron 0-40 0-33 Lime 0-20 0-13 Magnesia .... ... 0-20 Potash Total .... ... 6-38 3-43 16-50 16-38 Metallic iron 42-26 35-99 37-47 In a note appended to the analysis of the " Grains," it is stated no separate examination of the insoluble residue was made ; and further, that no metal precipitable by sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution was detected in 900 grs. of this ore, 500 grs. of the Gubbin, or 750 grs. of the Fire-clay ore. In the Darlaston district the measures examined by Mr. Charles Tookey, from the Eough Hay Colliery, are thus described : — " Bough Hill Whitestone," (No. XI. of General Section). — " Clay iron ore ; colour, brown ; structm-e, compact and homo- ' Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part 11., pp. 120, 123, 139. 518 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PABT II. geneous. Veins of hydrated silicate of alumina, peroxide of iron and copper pyrites occur in it." " Guhbin and Balls," (No. XII. of General Section).—" Clay iron ore; colour, greyish black; structure, compact. It is seamed witli greyish white silicate of alumina, in which miaute crystals of zinc-blende, iron pyrites and copper pyrites occur." "Silver Threads," (No. XIV. of General Section).— " Clay iron ore ; colour, greyish brown ; the ore is irregularly seamed, with numerous veius of calcspar, coated with drab coloured ferruginous matter." "Diamonds," (No. XV. of General Section). — " Clay iron ore; colour, dark grey; structure, compact and homogeneous. It contains veias of calcspar and silica of alumina, in which galena, zinc-blfende, copper pyrites and iron pyrites occur." Eesttlts Tabttlatbd. Constituents. Bough Hill Whitestone. Gubbin and Balls ; Gubbin. Silver Threads. Diamonds. Protoxide of iron . 46-56 49-30 40-39 40-01 Peroxide of iron . . 2'80 3-61 2-38 2-46 Protoxide of manganese. 0-65 0-86 0-75 0-75 Alumina 0-70 0-34 0-19 0-46 Lime. . . . . 1-13 0-69 7-30 2-58 Magnesia 1-18 0-45 2-16 2-70 SiKca . . . . 0-54 0-23 0-18 0-27 Potash .... 0-23 0-09 0-07 0-19 Carbonic acid . . . 30-08 32-05 33-35 29-13 Phosphoric acid 0-38 0-23 0-22 0-21 Bisulphide of iron . . 0-13 0-13 0-11 0-06 Sulphide of zinc . 1-27 ... "Water ... {'■01 0-66 6"93 1-11 Organic matter 0-50 0-54 0-80 1-06 Ignitedinsolublesolution Total . . . 13-77 9-42 10-52 18-77 99-72 99-87 99-35 99-76 Ignited Insoluble KEsrorE. Silica .... 7-72 5-99 6-56 13-45 Alumina . . . . 4-70 2-71 3-08 4-22 Peroxide of iron . 0-39 0-21 0-37 0-59 Lime . . . . 0-11 0-17 0-04 0-08 Magnesia 0-15 0-07 0-06 0-14 Potash .... Total . Metallic iron. . . . 0-82 0-21 0-26 0-18 13-89 9-36 10-37 18-66 38-56 41-06 33-44 33-28 CHAP. XI.] SOUTH STAFFOEDSHIEE IRON INDUSTRIES. 519 The presence of copper was distinctly proved in 800 grains of the " Eough Hill Whitestone " ore. In the " Gubbin and Balls," and the " Silver Threads," no metal precipitable by- sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution was detected in 400 grains of the former and 800 grains of the latter ; while in the " Diamonds " traces of lead and copper were found in the hydrochloric acid solution of 800 grains of ore. There is also an ironstone known as " Brown Stone," occurring in the neighbourhood of Bloxwich, some three miles north of Walsall, not previously referred to, which is described as a " Clay iron ore ; colour, various shades of light brown ; structure, compact. Veins of white pulverulent and grey crystalline substances occur in it, containing traces of galena and copper pyrites." The analysis of this ore, by Mr. A. Dick, gives the following results : — * Eesults Tabulated.— Ore Deied at 100° C. Protoxide of iron 46-14 Protoxide of manganese 1"40 Alumina 3"53 Lime ........... 3"43 Magnesia 2'13 Potash 0-41 Carbonic acid 32'04 Phosphoric acid 0-61 Sulphuric acid trace. Silica . . • 8-63 Bisulphide of iron 0-10 Water 0-94 Organic matter 0-98 100-34 Metallic iron 35 -95 Clay after ignition 13-38 It is stated in reference to this analysis that no metal precipit- able by sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution of 550 grains of the ore was detected. Of the ironstone measures examined and published in the "Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part II., some thirty analyses appear; and from these the following abstract has been prepared showing the relative proportion of protoxide of iron, phosphoric acid and metallic iron contained in each sample examined ; preceding which is given the name of each measure and the analysts who examined it. * " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part II., p. 164. 520 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [pabt ii. Ironstone Measures of South Staffoedshiee. Clay Iron Ores. Analyst. Protoxide of Iron. Phospho- ric Acid. Metallic Iron. Brooch, Corngreaves John Spiller . 43-81 0-83 34-35 Pius, Dudley . Penny Eai-th, Dudley . Allan Dick 45-35 0-46 35-74 >) * * 37-69 0-66 29-42 Grains, Dudley J) 54-12 0-69 42-26 Gubbin, Dudley . 46-30 0-74 36-14 Gubbin, Rubble, Dudley . 40-28 0-30 31-70 Whiteatone Bind, Dudley John Spiller . 30-96 0-26 24-88 Bottom Whitestone, Dudley • 48-63 0-31 37-45 WMtestone, Darlaston . Charles Tookey 33-92 0-35 28-87 Cakes or Bluestone, Dudley Allan Dick 50-60 0-23 39-71 ' , 43-55 0-15 34-88 Fire-clay Balls, Dudley . ') 46-39 0-11 36-56 Poor Eobin's, Bunker's Hill . . 47-87 0-07 37-47 . 49-61 0-34 39-62 Eough Hill "Whitestone, (good sam „ „ (bad samp Darlaston g)^ •. / 51 44-20 33-19 0-66 0-50 34-53 26-01 Eough Hill ■Whitestone, Ko Darlaston . ugh Hay, | Charles Tookey 46-56 0-38 38-56 Gubbin and Balls, Bunker's B ill ColKery Allan Dick 39-51 0-31 31-34 ■ 52-04 0-21 40-84 Blue Flats, Darlaston . Charl'es Tookey 42-34 0-25 34-41 Silver Threads, Darlaston • 40-39 0-22 33-44 Diamonds, Darlaston , 40-01 0-21 33-28 ,, 1) Allan Dick . ! 41-90 0-22 32-87 Brownstone, Bloxwich . • )! 46-14 0-61 35-95 From these and other analyses of the argillaceous ores of the district, it has been ascertained that 34"75 per cent, represents the average yield of metallic iron. Froduction of Ironstone.— The production of ironstone in South Staffordshire was returned as follows, in each of the years named : — Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1859 959,000 1870 450,000 1860 785,700 1871 705,665 1861 727,600 1872 640,950 1862 700,500 1873 584,325 1863 850,000 1875 715,451 1864 948,500 1876 645,288 1865 659,500 1877 636,243 1866 599,000 1878 587,874 186Y 525,000 1879 483,507 1868 340,578 1880 362,773 For a few years the individual returns of ironstone were pub- lished, those for the year 1873 are at hand and were as follows ; since 1875 the aggregate production is alone recorded : — CHAP. XI.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 521 District or Mine. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ s. Barber's Field .... 11,011 6,006 12 Barn Farm . , , , 2,690 1,560 BircHU's Hall . 6,206 3,723 12 Bradley 1,897 1,138 4 Cannock Chase 350 210 Coppy Hall . 9,189 5,513 8 Deans 5,287 3,172 4 Friar Park . 5,614 3,368 8 Grace Mary 2,645 1,587 Granville . 3,695 2,217 Haden Hall . 6,480 3,888 Hatherton . 8,298 4,978 16 JeiToise . 2,122 1,273 4 Moxley 1,880 1,128 New Cross 15,503 9,301 16 Old Hall . 7,100 4,260 Parkflelds 5,073 3,043 16 Priestfields . 3,735 2,241 Princes End 3,118 1,870 16 Pearson 2,125 1,275 Biddings . 2,168 1,300 16 Eoughwood . 7,045 4,227 Stow Heath '. 9,404 5,640 )) * 11,312 6,787 4 Shut End 3,971 2,382 12 Tansey Green 2,073 1,243 16 Tipton Moat . 6,374 3,824 8 Wednesbury 5,232 3,139 4 Wednesbury Oak 4,000 2,400 Yeatham . 5,541 3,324 12 Sundry pits 73,191 43,914 12 ,, (estimated) 350,004 210,000 Total of South St af fore is! lire 584,325 349,941 10 The value of these ironstones, between 1860 and 1870, varied from 5s. to 6s. and 7s. 6d. per ton ; the average price in 1880 being 10s. per ton. Pig Iron Manufacture. — The history of the manufacture of iron may be regarded as of two distinct periods — the one ex- tending from the earliest times when charcoal was alone em- ployed ; the other commencing with the successful application of coal previously coked, and dating about the year 1735. In the early part of the 17th century the rapid devastation of our forests occasioned great scarcity in the supply of charcoal to our furnaces, so much so, that three-foiu'ths of the blast furnaces in the kingdom came to a standstiQ ; it was at this period that 522 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. attention was directed to the use of coal previously coked. In 1612 we find Simon Sturtevant, and again in 1613 Eavenson, working towards this end ; they were unsuccessful ; in 1620, however, the use of mineral fuel was proved practicable in the reduction of the ores of iron, and we find Dud Dudley, the founder of the noble house of Dudley, to whom a patent was granted in the same year for smelting iron ore with pit or sea coal, to have so far succeeded as to have made 3 tons of pig iron from a furnace in a week with coke. Dud Dudley, in his book " Metallum Martis," published in 1665, gives an interesting account of his labours and the difficulties encountered by him. His works were swept away by a great flood ; he further tells us that they were repaired, and at a subsequent period riotously destroyed, and he himself utterly ruined by adhering to the royal cause, which disturbed society in those days. With this historical reference we advance to the year 1785, when the suc- cessful application was carried out by Mr. Abraham Darby, of Shropshire, at the Coalbrookdale Works, and from this period may be dated the first great improvement in the manufacture ■of pig iron. In the year 1740, when the production of charcoal pig iron amounted to 17,350 tons, there existed in South Staffordshire 2 furnaces, and a lOte number in Worcestershire, producing 1,700 tons of pig iron : the two former making 1,000 tons and the latter 700 tons. Advancing to the year 1788 the manufac- ture of pig iron with charcoal appears to have been discontinued and coke substituted ; for we find 3 furnaces in operation in South Staffordshire, producing 2,400 tons of coke pig iron. The total production of pig iron at this period in England and Wales was : — Description. Furnaces. Tous. Charcoal iron . . . . Coke iron .... Total Nos. 24 53 13,100 48,200 77 61,300 Some twenty years after the successful application of coal by Darby in the reduction of the ores of iron in the furnace, a new impulse was given to this industry by Smeaton's invention, in CHAP. XI.] SOUTH STAFFOEDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 523 which he applied, with great advantage, his blowing cylinders, worked by water-wheels or by the atmospheric steam engine ; the first of these was erected by him at the Carron Ironworks in Scotland in 1760. This means of increasing the power of the blast in the furnaces was quickly followed by increased production of pig iron. Again, towards the. close of the last century a new era in the manufacture of iron arose, when the steam engine, the invention of James Watt, was made general in its appHcation to the pm'poses both of pumping water from mines and for increasing the intensity of the blast. Cort's inventions, for which he obtained patents in 1783 and 1784, formed another important step in the manufacture of wrought from pig iron, the first for puddling, by which pig iron is rendered malleable, and the second for substituting rollers for the forge hammer for drawing out the balls of malleable iron into bars. The foregoing advantages, together with the high price of foreign iron, largely imported, caused our manufacture to nearly double itself between the years 1788 and 1796, to which latter year attention is now directed. The return for 1796 was prepared for the House of Commons, when Mr. Pitt had it in contemplation to impose a tax on coal at pit's mouth, and the returns were obtained from three sources — the Excise authorities, calculation, and lastly, the quantities really made. The works then existing in South Staffordshire and Worcestershire, with the number of furnaces and make of each works are stated as follows, giving an average yield per furnace of 937 tons : — Works. Number of Fui-naces. Excise. Calciilatea. Actual. Bilston .... Bradley . . . . Brierley Deepfleld .... Dudley Port . Gospel Oak . . . Graveyard Level Tipton .... Total . . . 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 Tons. 2,340 3,640 1,300 2,600 1,040 1,260 1,560 2,082 Tons. 2,340 3,000 1,300 2,600 1,040 1,336 1,560 2,080 Tons. 1,429 1,920 1,0461 2,526 869 1,613 213 1,391 2,203 14 13,210i In the same year, 1796, the production of Great Britain, of 524 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAUT II. 124 furnaces, amounted to 125,079 tons, of which South Stafford- shire contributed upwards of 10 per cent. The returns for the year 1806 show a considerable increase, the 105 furnaces in blast in that year in Great Britain yielding 243,861 tons of pig iron, the production of South Staffordshire being 47,592 tons, or an increase of nearly 400 per cent., when compared with the returns for 1796. The following statement shows the individual produc- tion of the ironworks in 1806, with the respective numbers of furnaces built and in operation : — rOBHAOES. TUTrt 1 Pig Iron. w orKs. Built. la Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Blower's Green . . . 1 1 2,436 Bilston . 3 2 3,550 Bradley . 3 2 2,566 Brierley Hill . 1 1 817 Brierley . 2 Caponfield 2 2 4,600 Deepfield . 2 2 3,660 Dibsdale Bank 1 1 300 Dudley Port . 1 1 1,196 Golden Cross . 1 1 184 Gornal Wood . 1 1 432 Graveyard 2 1 1,274 Gospel Oak 2 2 4,667 Level . 3 2 3,351 MUl Field . 2 2 6,000 Moororoft 2 1 1,955 Netherton . 2 1 1,500 Oldbury and Tipton Park Head 3 3 4,500 1 1 1,404 Eougi TTill . 2 2 3,000 ToUEnd . 2 1 1,200 Wednesbury . Total 1 40 30 47,592 The production of Shropshire and South Wales alone exceeded that of South Staffordshire at this period, the former yielding 54,966 tons, the latter 68,867 tons, while that of Scotland was but 22,840 tons of pig iron. The next return from which infor- mation is obtained was prepared for the Government by Mr. F. Finch, formerly member for V/alsaU, and refers to the production in the years 1823 and 1830, when the number of furnaces in blast and the quantity of pig iron made in this district was as follows : — CHAP. XI.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. South Staitoedshiee. 525 - 1823. 1830. I\imaces. Total Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Total Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Tons. Tons. 1 Bradley. 2 4,195 2 4,194 2 ,, Lower . 1 1,920 1 2,113 3 Birch Hills . 2 ... 2 4 Barbor's Field ... 2 5,720 5 Bilston . "4 7,696 4 4,680 6 „ Brook 2 4,345 2 3,771 7 Broadwaters . 2 * , , • .• 6,368 8 BretteU Lane . . 2 2,949 9 Brierley HiU . 2 4,348 2 10 Blower's Green 2 5,348 2 5,257 11 Buflfery . 3 6,651 3 5,246 12 „ Old 1 2,646 1 2,158 13 Ootham . ... ... ... ... 14 Ooseley 2 5,200 "3 10,140 15 Caponfield 2 2 16 ChUlington CorbynVHaU *•• 2 6,240 17 ... ... 4 7,350 18 Dudley Port 1 2,340 1 2,340 19 »» ... 2 4,060 20 Deepfield . "2 ... 2 21 Deepdale 1 2,084 1 1,634 22 Dudley Wood 4 10,467 4 8,664 23 Eagle . 2.. 4,900 2 6,656 24 Fieiy Holes 1 ... 1 1,634 23 Glebe . 1 1 ... 26 Gospel Oak 2 5,'3i2 4 6,840 27 Gold's Green . 2 4,888 3 9,412 28 Graveyard 1 1 ... 29 Gornal "Wood 1 1,671 1 30 Horseley . 2 4,308 2 4,680 31 Hale Fields . 1 2,454 1 2,454 32 Higb Fields 2 ... 2 ... 33 Lea Brook 1 1 34 Leys . ... 2 4,160 35 Level . 4 6,464 4 36 „ Old . 1 2,072 1 1,62s 37 Mill Fields . 4 6,768 4 8,112 38 Moororoft . 2 3,700 2 4,791 39 Netherton 2 1,406 2 5,033 40 Oldbury . 2 2,600 2 5,720 41 Old Park 1 2,600 2 5,280 42 Priestfield . 3 3,664 3 4,897 43 Parkfield ... ... 4 9,500 44 Parkiead . 1 2,289 1 2,468 45 EoughHUls . 2 2 ... Carried fo rwai d . 71 112,236 92 164,549 526 COAL AND IRON" INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. South Staitoedshiee — continued. - Furnaces. 1S23. 1830. Total Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Total Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Tons. Tons. . Brought forward . 71 112,236 92 164,549 46 Russell's Hall . . . 2 2,080 47 Stow Heath . 3 5,408 48 ToUEnd .... 3 5,075 3 6,112 49 Tipton Company . 3 5,640 3 3,515 50 Tipton .... 1 2,040 1 2,040 51 Union .... ... 2 4,650 52 Wednesbury Oak . . 2 6,240 3 7,684 53 WiUingsworth ... 3 5,704 54 Wolverhampton . . ..• 2 3,200 55 Walbrook . i 2,359 2 2,886 56 Windmill End . . . Total . • 2 3,776 81 133,590 118 211,604 Showing* an increase in seven years of 37 furnaces and 79,014 tons of pig iron, or an increase of 58 per cent. The average yield per furnace in 1823 being 1,640 tons, compared with 1,793 tons in 1830. The works at Barbor's Field were erected between the years 1826 and 1828, and the undermentioned as follows : — Works. Tear. Works. Tear. Brettle Lane Chillington . . . Corhyn's Hall . Dudley Port . . . Levels Parkfield . . j Russell's Hall . 1825 1829 1825 and 1829 1824 1828 1825 and 1827 1827 Stow Heath . . j Union WiUingsworth . \ Wolverhampton . . < Windmill End . . 1824 and 1825 1828 1827 and 1828 1824 and 1826 1825 We have now reached a period when the hot blast was coming into use; this invention of Mr. Neilson was first successfully employed in the fiu-naces of Scotland, and gradually extended into other iron-making districts. In 1880, when the production of South Staffordshire was 211,604 tons, Scotland produced but 37,500 tons ; while the total make of the furnaces in Great Britain did not exceed 652,417 tons. The number of furnaces built and in blast, the make of pig iron, and the average yield per furnace appear in the annexed table : — CHAP. XI.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES, SOTTTH StAFFOKDSHIEE AMD WOEOESTEESHrRE. 527 FURNACES. Year. Production of Pig Iron. Average malte per Furnace. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1840 135 116 407,150 3,610 1847 139 77 320,320 4,070 1851 148 105 600,000 6,714 1852 159 127 725,000 6,693 1854 175 145 743,600 5,128 1855 178 146 754,000 5,164 1856 171 147 777,171 5,287 ■ 1857 180 153 657,295 4,300 1858 186 147 697,809 4,067 • 1859 184 123 475,300 3,864 1860 181 108 469,500 4,347 1861 182 114 395,650 3,470 1862 191 107 610,220 5,703 1863 200 110 691,157 6,283 1864 176 106 628,973 5,934 1865 172 114 692,627 6,075 1866 167 112 532,625 4,755 1867 177 91 515,638 6,666 1868 17.! 89 532,234 5,980 1869 164 95 569,562 6,995 1870 171 114 688,540 5,163 1871 163 108 725,716 6,720 Coal and Iron Ore used in KEaunfacture. — Since the year 1872, information under both these heads is available ; it will, therefore, be convenient to tabulate the returns of production of pig iron in each year since that date, and follow with the quantities of coal and iron ore of all kinds employed ; the returns are as follows : — FURNACES. Year. Pig Iron Made. Coal Used. Iron Ore, &c.. Used. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 145 107 673,470 1,932,509 1,800,000 1873 142 99 673,397 1,968,580 1,800,000 1874 154 81 462,400 1,309,216 1,196,600 1875 155 76 474,640 1,353,850 1,268,000 1876 147 65 466,946 1,262,962 1,235,000 1877 146 57 428,276 1,032,419 1,123,500 1878 147 55 392,949 917,106 1,006,900 1879 140 44 325,780 743,006 830,600 1880 137 45 384,556 878,581 984,600 538 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pabt ii. In the beginning of the present century the average quantity of coal required in the manufacture of a ton of pig iron was ten tons. About the year 1810, Mr. E. Mushet states, in his valuable papers on iron and steel, that half this quantity enabled the ironmaster to produce a ton of pig iron. After the introduc- tion of the hot blast' by Mr. J. B. Neilson, the economy in the consumption of fuel becomes more apparent, for we learn that in the year 1840, on the authority of Mr. William Jessop, that the quantity did not exceed 3 tons 17 cwt. in the works of South Staffordshire ; while the average used in Great Britain the same year wa^ but 4 tons 1 cwt., compared with 10 tons in the year 1800. In the year 1869 the Royal Coal Commission reported on this important question, and ascertained that a further economy had been secured, 3 tons of coal only being required. In the years 1871 and 1872 the average quantity of coal used in South Staffordshire was about 58 cwt. In the furnaces of Great Britain in each of the same years the average was 51 cwt.; while in Scotland, where raw uncoked coal is principally used, 55 cwt. of coal was required to each ton of pig iron made. In most of our iron making districts the waste gases are utilised and great economy secured; here, however, in South Staffordshire, but few furnaces were provided with gas saving apparatus (these arrangements are now being more generally employed), and hence the increased consumption of coal with other districts comparatively. Of the coal employed in iron making, the " Thick Coal " and the Heathen Coal are the most important, the former giving, when coked, 54 per cent., with 0"31 of sulphur and 4'18 of ash ; the latter between 40 and 45 per cent, of coke, 0*51 of sulphur, and 4'58 of ash ; while generally, in the district, the coal is used partly raw and partly coked. The " Native Mine," or clay ironstone of the coal measures of this district, if alone employed, would require from 54 to 55 cwt. of raw uncalcined ore, to each ton of pig iron made, a smaller quantity being required when richer ores used in admixture are employed. It was ascertained approximate^, that in the years 1872 and 1873 the quantity of iron ore of all kinds used in the manufacture of 673,470 tons of pig iron was 1,800,000 tons in each year, the following districts furnishing quantities in the proportion given : — CHAP. XI.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 529 DI8IKI0T3. loira. South Staffordshire 600,000 North Staffordshire 550,000 Lancashire 55,000 Northamptonshire . . 230,000 Oxfordshire 19,000 Various ores 206,000 Forge and mUl cinder 140,000 Total Ore .... 1 ,800,000 The quantity classed as " various ores " includes ores from Wales, Warwickshire, Gloucestershire, Cleveland, and elsewhere, but it has not been possible to distinguish the proportion received from each district. As previously stated the " Native mine " of this district yields an average of 34'75 per cent, of metallic iron, compared with the ironstone of North Staffordshire, which gives 36'50 per cent., and the Churnet VaUey ore nearly 37 per cent. The Northamptonshire and Oxfordshire ores, hy- drated peroxides so valuable in admixture with the coal measure ores as a flux, their siliceous character not being injurious, yield 40 per cent, of metallic iron, the hematite of Lancashire about 64 per cent., and the forge and mUl cinders probably not less than 50 per cent. These cinders are largely employed in the production of common hot-blast pig, while the best mine pig, for which Staffordshire is so justly celebrated, is made from " Native mine," and other selected ores, coal previously coked, and cold air in the blast furnace. In the calcination of the ironstone two modes are practised, namely, in clamps and kilns. In clamp calcining it is customary first to spread a layer of coal in lumps upon the ground and on this to raise the heap of ironstone, interspersing coal occasionally, and then to cover the surface of the heap with slack. In the cal- cination of " black band," the carbonaceous matter it contains is sufficient to effect the operation. The " heaps," or " clamps " are made from 6 to 8 feet high, and vary considerably in area, sometimes having an area of half an acre. In the operation, as in brickmaking, the calcined stone is being removed from one end while the heap is being freshly made at the other end. The heap being ignited burns through in a smoulder- ing way, emitting a good deal of smoke, a little flame breaking through the surface in places. An ordinary-sized clamp takes about three weeks to become thoroughly calcined, and at the end 530 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. of this time it is found to be reduced to about one half its original bult. For calcining in kilns an ordinary open kiln, like a common egg-shaped lime-kiln, is sometimes used ; but for the most part iron cup-shaped kilns, made of iron plates lined with fire-brick, are employed. They are about 24 feet in height, and so arranged that while the ore and fuel can be fed in continuously above, the calciued ore is discharged at the bottom, either upon a raised platform or directly into the waggons that are to carry it away. The kiln once ignited, all that is necessary is from time to time to throw in a layer of coal on the top of a charge of stone. The forge and miU cinder often used as a material for the smelting of pig iron and producing a variety of iron known as " cinder iron," which is made to some extent in South Stafford- shire, calls for a brief notice. The " tap cinder," * as described by Dr. Ballard, " is the slag drawn out from puddling furnaces in which pig iron has been made into malleable iron. It consists mainly of protoxide of iron and siliceous matter, the latter partly derived from the bricks with which the reverberatory furnace is lined. In fact, it is the bath of ' fettle,' rich in peroxide of iron, which in the process of puddling has given up its excess of oxygen to oxidise the carbon, silicon, sulphur, and phosphorus which the pig iron contains, and which have, in the process of puddling, to be, as far as practicable, removed. The tap cinder, in order to fit it again for use in fettling, requires that the iron it contains should be peroxidised." In either case the " tap cinder " requires calcination when it is employed for " fettling," that is, for lining puddling furnaces. With the object above described the calcination is performed in what is termed a " bull dog" kiln, the resulting material going under the technical designation of " bull dog." A bull dog kiln is constructed very much like a Scotch brick-kiln, 9 or 10 feet high, with side walls, having opposite fire openings at intervals, and the tap cinder to be calcined is first buUt up at the bottom so as to form channels or passages from the fire openings on one side to those on the other. The cinder, broken up, is then filled in with alternating layers of coal up to the top of the kiln. The ends are bricked up and the kiln lighted. It burns out in about * Local Government Board. Eighth Report, 1878-79, p. 238. CHAP. XI.] SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE IROIf INDUSTRIES. 531 a week. The fire should not be too fierce or the tap cinder merely melts down and may then form a hard mass which can scarcely be extracted except by blasting. When the kiln has gone out, the calcined material or " bull dog " is found in a coherent mass, which has to be broken down with a pick. I'or making cinder iron it is usual to calcine the cinder in a large «lamp or heap, frequently 25 feet high, and containing many thousand tons. The heap is made much in the same way, with coal at the bottom and interspersed, as an ironstone clamp ; the average consumption of fuel being about 6 or 7 cwt. to each ton ■of cinder, the heaps usually bm-ning out in about a fortnight. The most recent statement showing the works, furnaces built and in blast in South Staffordshire, appears as follows for the year 1880 :— South Staffoedshiiie. No. Name of Works. Owners. Built In Blast. Barbor's Field, Bileton Bovereux, „ Deepfields, „ The Brook, „ Herbert Park, „ Prior Field, ,, MUIfield, „ . Spring Vale, „ Capponfield, „ < Horseley Fields, Wolver- \ hampton . Old Park, „ Chillington, ,, Gold's Hill, West Bromwioh Crookhay, „ j 63 T 3 HaU End . J. T. and W. E. Johnson . ^ 9 2 4 Ridgacre . . . . M »1 ,, 15 2 5 Waterloo )i ,, 12 1 6 Crook Hay . . . W. and G. Firmstone . . _ IS 2 7 Wltton Lane Eoberts & Co. »j - - 11 ^ 8 Excelsior . Thos. P. Allen & Co. . ,, 9 1 9 Eagle . . . . Eagle Coal and Iron Co. . 15 2 10 Staffordsliire Star Iron and Tin Plate Co. ,, 11 Providence . Bridge, Gill, & Bridge ,, 22 '2. 12 Eoway Edward Page 6 Sons . . .1 20 3 13 Stour Valley (Patent Nut and Bolt) \ Co., Limited . i 1. 10. 1 14 Dunkirlc . . . . ( Thos. Jordan and P. ^ i Pearson . . .J ,, 9 3 15 Wellington . Gold's Hill, New Allen & Holden j^ 11 2 16 Thomas Davis & Co. . . 12. 2 ir Bush Farm . John J. Bowater & Sons ,, ... IS Richmond Samuel Downing . . ^ 10 '2 19 Albion . Edward HaU . ,, 20 1, .... Albion Sheet Iron Co. . ,, 21 Britannia Britannia Iron Co. , , , • • io 'i 22 Atlas .... Parkes and Parkes . , 10- 8 23 Babone Bridge Rabone Bridge Iron Co. . Smethwick 24 Excelsior. . . . J South Staffordshire) 1 Joint Stock Co. . j ,1 7 . 1 25 Anchor Batson and Eatcliffe ,, 6 1 26 District .... District Iron and Steel Co. ,, 20 4 27 Cape Town . W. R. Brookes *' j» 7 2 28 Crown Thos. L. Nicklin . . ,, 11 3 29 London and Lion London Works Iron Co. >i • • 9' 3 80 Vulcan . Parkes . • . . J ,. 31 Eegents Grove . Beard and Eberhard is 6 32 Sandwell . . . . Lones, Vernon, & Holden » 16 3 33 f Monmer Lane and ) t Batman's Hill J Monmer Lane Iron Co. . Willenhall . . 24 8 34 Spring Bank . Catherine Tipper ,, 1 35 Dixon's Green Frederick Cresswell Dudley ii 1 36 Dudley Port . . Plant and Fisher 20 4. 37 Groveland . G. H. Hickman . 1, 38 Netherton Noah Hingley & Sons . 41 4 39 Shut End Jno. Bradley & Co. . ,, . . . 28 40 Globe . . . Tividale Iron Co. . . Tipton 41 Tividale ,, ... ^ 42 Alpha Joshua Wilkinson & Sons 's "2 43 Bloomfield . • . Wm. Barrows & Sons n • - 68 8 44 Crown Edward Bayley . . . j^ 7 2 46 Church Lane Hoddell and Whiteliouse ,, 18 1 46 Albert . . . John Gittings & Co. . . » 10 2 47 Gospel Oak . Tipton Iron and Wire Co. , 48 Summer Hill . . . W. Millington & Co. Philip Williams & Sons . ,, '5 '4 49 Wednesbury Oak . ,, . 22 5 60 Portfteld James and Chas. Holcroft 13 4 61 Lea Brook . ChillingtonlronCo., Lim. Wm. Hunt & Sons . 62 Brades (Iron and SteelJ Oldbuiy ' . 's '4 53 Ebenezer . . . Thomas Perry . ti 12 3 64 Park Lane F. B. Simpson & Co. ^ 9 1 55 Great Bridge . . . f Great Bridge Iron and \ I Steel Co., Limited, j Great Bridge 24 2 66 Sheep Wash . Stonehewer and Co. . 57 Gothersley . . . William Ftnnemore . . Stoui'bridge '2 68 Bromley John Eaybould (1 18 2 69 Broadwaters . . . Hatton, Sons, & Co. ,, . . 2 60 Leys .... Brown and Freer . . , 27 7 01 Hyde .... H. 0. Fernestone 32 7 62 Stourbridge . Jno. Bradley • ■ 1-70 ■ >■ Alumina . . . . 12-70 li-io 8-76 10-00 15-13 Silica .... 12-30 15-30 16-30 14-00 11-90 Phosphoric acid . . Sulphur 2-15 2-10 •24 1-50 1-37 trace. trace. 0-33 trace. -62 Carbonic acid and water Total . Metallic iron . . . 19-80 16-30 19-50 19-60 3-50 101-05 98-61 99-40 100-00 99-12 37-90 35-50 37-43 37-20 46-67 The ironstone in the southern part of the county near Culworth, worked but to a limited extent, gives the following results on analysis : — Eestjlts Tabtilated. Peroxide of iron 60-89 Lime 1-12 Alumina 2-80 Magnesia trace. Phosphoric acid 1-27 Sulphuric acid trace. Sand and silicate 19.96 Moisture and combined water 13-04 Loss, &c 0-92 Total IQO-OO N N 546 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. The equivalent of metallic iron contained in the above per- oxide was 42-62 per cent., other analyses of the same stone, made at Birmingham, gave 44"16 per cent. ; at Oxford, 43'07 per cent. ; and in London, 4280 per cent., showing an average of 43 per cent. The ore raised by the Cogenhoe Iron Ore Company gives from 43 to 48"50 per cent, of metallic iron, the latter, of which the annexed is an analysis, giving in the calcined state 55'25 of metallic iron : — * Eesults Tabulated. — Ore dbied at 212° Fahe. Peroxide of iron 69'29 Oxide of manganese 1'02 Alumina 3-08 Lime ........... 1"65 Magnesia 1*08 Sulphur 0.07 Phosphoric acid 0"53 Sulphuric acid 0-43 Silicious matter lO-SO Combined water 12*03 Total .... 99-97 The following analysis, by Dr. Voelcker, F.E.S., of a friable portion of the Northamptonshire iron ore, obtained from a locality situated near Blisworth, shows a great reduction in the quantity of iron, and a considerable increase in the earthy constituents : — Eestji-ts Tabulated, t Protoxide of iron 0"875 Sesquioxide of iron 21-280 Phosphoric acid 1-030 Sulphuric acid 0-219 Silica, lime, alumina, magnesia, &o., not separately deter- mined 76-596 Total lOO'OOO In the following appears a summary of the amount of metallic iron contained in the ironstone of the mines named, and in each case where known the name of the analyst is given : — * The Author was favoured with this analysis by Mr. M. C. Cohen, of the Cogenhoe Iron Ore Company, who is also working the iron ore deposits at Caythorpe in Lincolnshire. t ' Geology of Butland," p. 127. ... ... 48-50 Desborougi . . . 38-00 ,5 . . . Dr. Percy 36-79 Gayton . . . . 42-00 Heyford Mr. Judkins . 39-34 Hardingstone . . . Mr. A. Dick . 52-05 Northamptonshire Ore*. • 28-28 jt )» • ) J • 34-83 Thrapston Dr. Percy Woolwich Arsenal 36-79 Weedon . . , . 39-34 Wellingborough . »i »j 53-20 . . . Mr. John Spiller 37-00 it * • Mr. Edw. Eiley 35-37 Woodford .... Dr. Percy .... 44-00 Towcester Mr. H. Le Neve Foster. 37-90 it .... It >i • • 35-50 )» ... )) )» 37-43 )i • • ■ • >) »» • ■ 37-20 )» ... »j »» 46-67 Production and Distribution of Ironstone. — Dr. Percy relates the following incident showing the circumstances under which the working of the ironstone deposits of the Northampton sand was resumed in modern times : — " The introduction of the North- amptonshire ore is only of recent date. Not long previous to the International Exhibition of 1851, Colonel (now General) Arbuthnot called upon me in Birmingham, where I then resided, and requested my opinion on the specimen of the ore which he left with me. I found it to contain a sensible quantity of sesqui- oxide of iron and a very large amount of silicious sand. I made no quantitative examination of it; and certamly the specimen in question did not prepossess me in its favour. However, I re- ferred the Colonel to my friend, Mr. S. H. Blackwell, of Dudley, who visited the locality of the ore in order to examine it m situ. He obtained samples much richer in iron than that which was placed in my hands. He prosecuted inquiries on the subject with his usual energy, and the result has been the discovery of an Locality not stated. N X 2 548 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAET II. extensive deposit of ore, which has since heen smelted in large quantities in South Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and South Wales." * The deposits in the neighbourhood of Ellsworth and Weedom in the year 1855 produced 74,084 tons, increased to 91,592 tons, in the year 1856 ; of this quantity 1,592 tons was sent out of the- district by canal, and 90,000 tons by rail. Again, in the year 1857 the yield increased to 107,985 tons ; of this quantity 29,550' tons were smelted in the iron works of the county, the remainder being distributed by the London and North-Western and Midland Eailways ; since that date the output of the mines of No-rthaimp- tonshire has been as follows : — Year. ft Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1857 107,985 1869 540,259 1858 140,485 1870 887,020 1859 130,098 1871 914,435 1860 95,664 1872 1,174,211 1861 113,129 1873 1,412,255 1862 116,718 1874 1,056,478 1863 126,678 1875 1,085,898 1864 335,787 1876 1,161,130 1865 364,349 1877 1,049,806 1866 476,981 1878 1,189,443 1867 416,763 1879 1,211.406 1868 449,116 1880 1,550,103 The ironstone is widely distributed, its silicious character rendering it useful as an admixture with the argillaceous ores of the coal measures. The great bulk is sent away to South Wales, Derbyshire, and South Staffordshire, bearing a carriage-rate by railway of from 2s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. according to distance. Like the ironstone of North Lincolnshire it is easily wrought, and is put into railv/ay waggons at the mines at prices varying from 2s. 6d. to 4s. per ton, according to qualitj'-. The Midland Eailway carried ironstone out of the county as follows in each of the years : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1869 319,696 1875 774,560 1870 397,903 1876 775,700 1871 535,099 1877 862,468 1872 681,798 1878 898,384 1873 845,763 1879 846,352 1874 793,048 1880 1,009,143 * Percy's " Metallurgy of Iron and Steel," p. 225. CHAr. xii.] NOKTHAMPTONSHIEE IROX INDUSTEIES. 549 The clestmation of the ore thus distributed does not here appear ; however, the following figures show the quantities carried by the Midland Railway' from their respective stations in each of the later years given below : — stations. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1S80. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Desboiough. . . . 91,948 119,527 103,220 104,186 Eushton 101,325 116,153 138,677 123,498 Grunston . . . . ... •17,365 117,107 Kettering 1,265 33,793 69,879 39,879 Melton . . . . >>• ' 54,826 61,266 >•■ Cranforcl 43,682 53,955 58,981 90,243 Twywell . . . . 169,970 143,034 105,451 125,385 Thrapston 13,400 19,709 14,623 14,078 Isham . . . . 6,914 2,915 143 103 Wellingborough . 406,005 336,604 258,462 376,520 Ircliester . . . . Total . 27,959 17,868 , 18,285 18,144 862,468 898,384 846,352 1,009,143 In the annexed table appears the quantities of ironstone raised from a few of the more extensive workings in the county, which will generally show how largely the ironstone is wrought in the neighbourhood of BHsworth by the Messrs. G. E. Bevan & Co., and others : — Year. Blisworth. Gayton. Duston. Towoester. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1870 59,424 74,866 45,330 ... 1871 64,354 51,578 52,713 . .. 1872 83,514 33,961 150,722 . .. 1873 81,107 76,675 180,934 7,953 IS 74 72,672 22,823 93,907 6,000 1875 39,534 51,677 53,983 43,571 1870 25,559 68,417 54,550 57,684 1877 20,258 72,940 50,136 35,800 1S78 16,114 63,865 13,492 12,719 1879 12,868 65,608 18,024 16,499 1880 52,350 73,350 95,540 51,050 The ironstone raised at Blisworth, Gayton, and Duston, is sent away in considerable quantities by canal and railway to the Midland ii'on districts and to South Wales. The mines in the neighbourhood of "Wellingborough worked by Messrs. Butlin, Bevan & Co., have yielded ironstone in the following quantities in each of the years named : — 550 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PABT II.. Year. Welliiig- borougli. Ringatead. Irchester. Dean and ChapterLanas. WoUaston. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1870 180,127 ... * 1871 152,585 ... 89,266 1872 65,914 43,498 46,961 114,868 ... 1873 175,263 60,058 100,532 87,504 1874 118,579 19,641 81,721 80,538 1875 87,380 22,461 47,749 58,945 66,460 1876 127,324 11,040 33,915 67,487 73,681 1877 111,62a 10,839 28,062 32,776 84,468 1878 65,633 14,454 17,999 26,906 110,931 1879 37,945 5,398 17,329 3,539 68,907 1880 67,482 21,326 16.684 t 112,555 Considerable quantities of ironstone are raised in the neigh- bourhood of Wellingborough, beyond the above, by the Stanton Ironworks Co., who also work stone at Desborough, given below. The Newbridge Iron Co. at Newbridge and Eingstead have for some years produced stone as follows : — Year. STANTON lEOH WORKS CO. NEWBRIDGE TRON UO. Welling'borough. DesboTongh. Newbridge. Eingstead. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1870 5,175 104,060 1871 113,370 52,450 1872 J149,953 127,427 70,000 43,498 1873 150,000 108,535 § 1874 150,000 1875 93,362 90,439 56,157 24,178 1876 113,538 71,824 54,335 22,246 1877 112,000 62,700 60,430 17,289 1878 110,000 79,000 59,490 17,688 1879 101,350 68,459 69,494 11,640 1880 101,070 66,167 77,699 21,326 The other mines to refer to are those lying between Thrapston, Kettering, and Finedon, where the Glendon Iron Ore Co. ar& large raisers of ironstone, principally consumed in their own fiu-- naces. The table below gives the quantities raised in the mines, named, the Glendon return including stone raised at Finedon and Burton Latimer : — * Included in Wellingborough. + Worked out. J Including Ironstone raised from other works in the district of Wellingborough. § Included in Newbridge. CHAP. XII.] NORTHAMPTONSHIKE IRON INDUSTRIES. 551 Year. l8lip. Woodford. Cranford. Glendon Iron Co. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1870 25,000 129,913 21,712 95,964 1871 60,771 64,281 19,549 96,910 1872 35,700 73,502 21,920 98,148 1873 37,500 79,898 21,585 118,328 1874 35,000 69,735 20,786 96,264 1875 63,833 54,580 27,897 81,828 1876 65,000 58,359 27,000 100,000 1877 50,000 57,371 30,000 125,000 1878 50,000 50,000 40,000 130,000 1879 81,495 56,091 160,000 1880 77,666 89,671 159,100 The mines in operation in 1880 were as follows, producing 1,550,103 tons, of the value of £231,359, and exceeding the out- put of the previous year by 338,697 tons : — No. District or Mine. Character of Ore. Quantities. Value, Iron Blisworth (Bevan & Co.) Brixworth Crauford Cransley. f Besborougli (Stanton I "Works Co.) . „ (F. V. Smith) . „ (V. C. Wheldon) Ditchford (Butlin, Bevan, & Co, Uuston Easton ITeston . Finedon £oad Bridge Finedon (Glendon Iron Co.) Burton Latimer Glendon ,, ... Gayton fH. W. "Wheldon) . Gavton (Heyford Iron Co.) . Irchestcr (ButUn, Bevan, & Co.) Islip Himsbury Hill . Newbridge .... Eingstead OTewbridge Iron Co, Eingstead (Butlin, Bevan, & Co, Spratton .... Thrapston .... ( 'Weningboro' (Butlin, Bevan, ) ) &Co i / "Wellingboro' (Stanton lion 1 \ Works Co.) ... J WoUaston (ButUn, Bevan, & Co.) Warren Hill . . . . Sundry Pits Total of Northamptonshii'e . / Hydrated \ oxide Tons. Cwts. 52,350 28,621 89,671 105,780 66,167 18,725 18,000 38,632 95,640 10 61,050 89,167 20,000 9,500 129,600 19,262 64,088 16,684 77,666 18,849 77,699 13,612 21,326 46,420 14,240 67,482 101,070 112,565 47,547 60,000 1,660,103 10 7,862 10 3,677 7 6 11,209 14,647 9,097 19 3 3,276 2,600 6,298 11,942 7,657 13,375 4,000 1,900 25,920 2,939 9,465 2,294 15,533 2,366 9,712 1,857 2,932 5,802 1,780 9,278 15 15,160 16,476 7,118 11 7,500 231,358 17 9 552 ■COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. The iron mines of Northamptonshire, their situation, pro- prietors and chief agents, are contained in the annexed list at the present time (1881) : — No. Name of Mine. Situation. Name of Proprietor or Company. Name of Manager or Agent. 1 Ellsworth . Bliswortli . G. E. Bevan and Co., Lim. Eiehard P. Jones. 2 Brixwoi-th . Brixworth . . Attenborough and Co. . . Eiohard Tirams. 3 Burton Latimer . Kettering . Glendon Iron Co. J George B. ChtcUand. I J. P. Cramp. t George Bond. ; Heniy Westlake, Sec. 4 Cranforcl Staveley Coal and Iron Co., a ■ . Limited . . . 5 Cransley . j> Cransley Iron Co., Limited JohnWaUis. e Cogenlioe . . Northampton . ( Marlcet Ear- f I borough . j Cogenlioe Iron Ore Co. . . Stanton Iron Works Co. ; "> M. C. Cohen. 7 Desborough G. Crompton, Managing l- Director . , , \ John Hickman. 8 • - W. C. Wlieldon W. C. Wheldon. g jj )> F. V. Smith . F. V. Smith. 10 Ditohford . . Irtlilingborough. Butlin, Bevan, & Co. Lewis W. Perrin. 11 Duston Northampton . Hemy Higgins . . . James Saunders. 12 Easton Neston Towoestet . | Easton Estate and Mining ) Co., Limited . . j Sydney J. Bates. 13 Finedon . Kettering . Glendon Iron Co. . . . George E. Checkland. 14 j Finedon Eoad 1 ( Bridge . ; Gaj-ton Finedon . . Rixon & Co. James Rixon. 16 Blisworth . Henry W. Wlieldon . . Henry W. Wheldon. 16 ,, . . >) . • Heyford Iron Co., Trimited WiUiam Smith. 17 Glendou . Kettering . Glendon Iron Co. ( George E. Checkland. ( J. P. Cramp. ( Huilsbur}' Hill Coal and) 18 Himsbmy HiU . Northampton. -< Iron Co., Limited; F. y Lenton, Secretary . ) Thos. Pressland. 19 Irchester . Irchester Butlin, Bevan, & Co. . Lewis W. Perrin. 20 Islip . . . Tlirapston . . Islip Iron Co. . . . 21 Newbridge Twywell . Newbridge Iron Ore Co. . Edward H. Clarke. 22 Eaunds . Tlirapston . j The Eaunds Iron and > Limestone Quaxries Co. ) 23 Ringstead . Ringstead . Butlin, Bevan, & Co. Lewis W. Perrin. 24 1) . . >» • . Newbridge Iron Ore Co. . Edward H. Clai-ke. 25 Spratton . Brixwortli . Attenborough & Co. . Richard Timms. 26 Stanton Gate Wellingborough. Stanton Iron Works Co. . John Hickman. 27 Thrapston . Thrapston . ■ Thrapstone Iron Ore Co^, ) Limited ... John Griffin. George C. Latimer. 28 Warren Hm . . Kettering . Kettering Iron and Coal Co., Limited . ' . / Herbert Sartoris. F. W. Preston. 29 Wellingborougli. Wellingborough . Butlin, Bevan, & Co. . Lewis W. Perrin. 30 ,, j» . . Stanton Iron Works Co. John Hickman.' 31 Woodford . Thrapston Arthur Arbuthnot Samuel Pickett. 32 Wollaston . . Welhngborough. Butlin, Bevan, & Co. . . Lewis W. Perrin. Pig Iron Manufacture. — The first works established in North- amptonshire were those of Messrs. Butlin at Wellinghorough projected by Mr. William Butlin of that firm, an engineer of some eminence, who carried out under his own supervision all the details of construction, and in the beginning of the year 1852 commenced the manufacture of pig iron, from the ironstone of the district, a sample of which it appears was deposited in the Northampton Museum. The Heyford Works succeeded, in the year 1857, under the auspices of Messrs. Pell & Co. ; there were then two furnaces in operation at Wellingborough and one at Heyford, the make of pig iron amounting to 11,500 tons. In the CHAP. XII.] KOETHAMPTONSHIKE IRON INDUSTRIES. 553 year 1866 the Glendon Iron Company blew in their first furnace at Finedon, increasing the number to three in the year 1869. In the year 1867 the Irthlingborough furnaces were put in blast and these possess some interesting features : the furnace casings, instead of being riveted as is usual, are put together by bolts, so that tlie fastenings are more secure and easier joined together and taken to pieces, effecting a saving in labour which more than compensates for the extra cost of the bolts. , The boilers at these works are 30 feet in length and 6 feet in diameter. The blast engine for one furnace is worked with the average daily consumption of 28 cwts. of slack. The great economy gained by the boilers is attributed to the setting, which is a wheel shaft, the flues of which are increased in size as they approach the shaft, with a stack 3J times the length of the boiler, the combustion is therefore complete without the loss of temperature in the shaft, which varies from 350° to 400° Fahr., and theire is little or no smoke made. The Stowe IronWorks near Weedon commenced operations about the year 1867 ; in the year 1871 the works at Islip, near Thrapston, of Mr. C. H. Plevins, were projected, followed by the works of the Northampton Coal, Iron, and Waggon Company, at Hunsbmy Hill, in the year 1873, and the Towcester Works a year or two latei'. The Towcester Works are situated about 4 miles from Blisworth, consisting of two rotatory furnaces and the necessary plant for making iron and steel by the direct process, according to the patent of Dr. C. W. Siemens. By this system, even with the ordinary ores found in the locality, a crystalline iron of great purity as well as toughness is produced. The bars have been sold in Staffordshire and at Sheffield at a high price, being con- sidered equal to Swedish bar as regards toughness and purity. The mode of working appears to be simple, as described by Dr. Siemens himself. A mixture of pulverulent ores combined with fluxing materials and reducing agents in suitable proportions, and of this from 4 to 5 tons are charged from a platform into the heated chamber to the depth of some 12 or 15 inches. Before charging the mixture some coke dust, or anthracite powder, is spread over the bottom and sides of the chamber for the pro- tection of its silica lining. The heat of the furnace is thereupon raised to a full welding heat, care being taken that the flame is as little oxidising as possible. The result is a powerful superficial action upon the mixture, causing simultaneous reduction of the 554 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [met ii. ore and fusion of the earthy constituents. In the course of about two hours a thick skin of malleable iron is formed all over the surface of the mixture, which on being withdrawn by means of hooks, is consolidated and cleared of cinder under a hammer, and rolled out in the same heat into rough sheets or bars, to be cut up and finished in the refinery furnace or charcoal hearth ; one skin being removed, the furnace is closed again, and in the course of one hour and a half another skin is formed, which, in its turn, is removed and shingled, and so on until, after 3 or 4 removals, the furnace charge is nearly exhausted. A fresh charge is then added, and the same operation repeated. The shingled metal so produced forms an excellent melting material for the open hearth or the Siemens-Martin process. At Wellingborough it was at one time intended to roll the iron made there into bars, and for this purpose a large establishment was projected by Messrs. Hipkins & Sons, of West Bromwich, to be called the Wellingborough Bar Iron Company. Considerable progress was made with the erection of the works, plant and machinery were prepared, and puddling furnaces erected, but operations never actually commenced, and the buildings with their lofty chimney-stacks and flues still stand in close proximity to the Irthlingborough Iron Works of Messrs. ButMn and Co. The iron works of the Cransley Ironstone Company, situated near Kettering, were projected about the year 1875, and in 1877 the works of the Kettering Iron and Coal Company at Warren Hill, situated about 2 miles from Kettering, were begun. The works of the district have of late years considerably ex- tended their plant; those of the Glendon Company, the most extensive in the coimty, have now 5 furnaces in operation, draw- ing the necessary ironstone from pits situated near the works ; the plant of the company is at once extensive and complete, there being two powerful engines for the blast, one of them, made by the Lilleshall Company, being something like 150 horse-power, having 12 revolutions per minute. At the Glendon Works the gases from the furnaces are utilised for the stoves and boilers, and re- cently some new pits have been opened in close proximity to the works, affording an abundant supply of ironstone to the furnaces. Near the Finedon Works an establishment has been recently erected, with the necessary appliances for the manufactm'e of glass bottles from the slag of the blast-furnaces ; the works of CHAr. XII.] NOKTHAMPTONSHIEE IKON INDUSTRIES. 555- late have been standing, but a large number of bottles were made, thus demonstrating practically the process. Slag bottle- manufacture would appear to be a profitable one, seeing that the necessary material can be had without cost, the iron-masters being' but too glad to get the slag taken away from their works. The works and companies, with the number of furnaces built, and in blast in the year 1880, were as follows : — Name of Works. Owners. FDBNACES. Built. In Blast. Cransley, Kettering . . . Pinedon, Wellingborough . Irtblingborougb. „ . . Heyford, Weedon Hunsbury Hill, Northamp- ton .... Islip, Thrapston . Stowe, Weedon . . . Kettering . . . j Cransley Iron Co., Limited Cheokland and Pisher . . Thomas Butlin and Co. Heyford Iron Co., Limited Hunsbury Hill Coal and ) Iron Co., Limited . ) Islip Iron Co. . William M'Clure . . . Kettering Iron and Coal } Co., Limited . j *2 *5 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 5 2 2 2 2 2 Total . . 23 17 Eesuming with the year 1858, the following table gives the make of pig iron, the number of furnaces built and in blast, and their average yield ; the figures in the last column are subject to revision, inasmuch as in some years a few of the furnaces were but partially in blast : — FURNACES. YoJlr. Pig Iron Made. Average Make of Furnace. Built. In Blast. Tons. Tons. 1858 3 3 9,750 3,250 1859 4 3 12,800 4,266 1860 4 3 7,595 2,532 1861 4 3 7,730 2,576 1862 4 3 13,471 4,490 1863 5 3 14,590 4,863 1864 5 3 13,323 4,441 1865 5 4 14,700 3,675 1866 9 6 19,174 3,195 1867 9 25,184 5,035 1868 8 6 35,584 5,930 1869 8 H 1 41,500 5,928 1870 10 10 43,166 4,316 1871 12 9 60,512 6,723 * One building. 556 COAL AND lEOK IKDUSTIIXES, [PAKT II. Since the year 1871 information is available, showing the quantity of coal and of ironstone used in the manufacture of pig iron ; in Northamptonshire practically it is found that 60 cwts. of raw stone and a like amount of coal, previously coked, is employed in the production of each ton of pig iron; the coal includes all necessary for heating purposes, such as engine-fires, blowing-engines, &c. In the year 1872 and since, the quantities of pig iron made and of coal and iron used were as follows, together with the furnaces built and in blast : — FURNACES. Year. Pig Iron Made. Coal Used. Ironstone Used. Built. In Blast. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 12 9 59,424 183,523 1873 16 10 58,480 169,592 ni^boo 1874 18 14 53,760 152,138 159,280 1875 18 12 80,689 177,883 229,636 1876 20 11 84,916 212,093 241,958 1877 20 13 106,948 268,124 296,379 1878 20 15 138,370 345,681 391,687 1879 23 17 165,317 428,557 453,460 1880 23 17 178,714 470,165 528,501 The proportion existing in the above years between the iron made and material used, show the economy that has been secured ; thus, in the year 1871, the ' coal and ore used, as abeady stated, was 60 cwts. of each to the ton of iron. In subsequent years less has been required, till in 1877 and 1878 the quantity did not exceed 50 cwts. of coal and from 56 to 67 cwts. of ironstone to each ton of pig iron. Gas-saving apparatus has hitherto been introduced into the metallurgical works of Northamptonshire to a very limited extent ; if it had been adopted a still greater economy would have been attained. Glancing at the returns of production, it will be seen that within a period of 10 years the make of pig iron has increased upwards of threefold, and a saving has been effected of 10 cwts. of coal, equivalent to 18 per cent, on each ton of pig iron made. The fuel chiefly employed in the furnaces of Northamptonshire is obtained from the South Yorkshire coal-field, that formerly used at the Wellingborough Works was Barnsley coal, an average sample of which, without being previously coked, contained of CHAP, xrt.] NORTHAMPTONSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 557 sulphur 0'65 per cent. ; of ash, 4*76 per cent, the ash consist- ing of shale, silicate of alumina, with a little protoxide of iron and traces of lime and magnesia. Coke made fi'om Barnsley coal and used at the Heyford Iron "Works was found to contain 0"52 per cent, of sulphur, and 6'58 per cent, of ash.* Considering the ironstone of Northamptonshire, and its re- duction in the smelting works, various opinions have in recent years appeared relating to its character and the quality of the iron obtained therefrom ; Mr. WiUiam Butlin of the Irthling- borough Iron Works near Wellingborough, who originally de- veloped the ironstone deposits of the county and initiated the manufacture of pig iron thus defends the character of the in- dustries in terms so cogent that they are reproduced here,t being ■worthy of consideration ; he says : — " These ores (brown hematite) are widely distributed through the county, are rich in iron, and vary considerably in their com- position, but if smelted scientifically are capable of producing an excellent metal both for the foundry and the forge." " It has been said of a certain district ' that the iron is made by brute force ; ' this is somewhat sarcastic, but it is to be feared the same remark might apply to this county. " It is true good iron is made jfrom these ores, but the larger proportion is very inferior, and it is the irregular quality produced which brings down the market price and brands it with a nam6 it does not deserve — ' common iron.' " If good work is to be done, and the greatest advantage taken of what Nature has placed within our reach, it is liighly important to have a good knowledge of the composition of the foreign matter in the ores, which, when melted together, constitute cinder, and the knowledge of the circumstances under which the most favour- able results can be obtained. The fusibility of earthy compounds depends upon their chemical relations, and the greatest degree of fusibility that need be desired can be produced by means of clay, silex, and lime. " We have argillaceous, silicious, and calcareous ores, and not unfrequently the various kinds are found in one and the same quarry. We have also an excellent limestone, admirably adapted * For detailed Analyses of Coal of the Bamsley District, see Part I., p. 39. + '■ Iron and Coal Trades Review," Dec. 3, 1880, p. 666. -'558 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [pam ii. for fluxing the ores, both as regards its physical structure and ■chemical composition." Mr. W. Butlin subsequently refers to the suitability of the Northamptonshire pig iron for forge purposes, and its conversion into iron for hoops, sheets, and smaller sizes of bars, when the ores are judiciously selected and skilfully treated, and says : — ■" Iron is iron ; it is not, however, pure metal with which we have io deal, but with the iron of commerce, containing many im- purities more or less injurious, the quality depending pretty much on what is associated with it. The matrix, too, in the ore from which the iron is produced has also an important influence on the practical working of the metal in the puddling furnaces. Hence it is found advantageous to mix iron from different localities to improve the quality. The same rule applies to the puddling furnace as to the blast furnace. Iron made from argillaceous ores is mixed with those made from silicious and calcareous ores. Now Northamptonshire has an advantage in mineral deposits which few iron-making districts possess. As before stated, argil- laceous, silicious, and calcareous ores are found in close proximity, and it requires only scientific selection and careful manipulation to make excellent forge-iron, having all the requisite fluxing •elements and constituents in one pig without any other admixture for producing iron of the best quality and adapted for making Loops, sheets, and small sizes of bars, &c. '^ " Iron, however, when made from tender, friable ores, such as we have in this county, is not suited for manufacturing the larger sizes of iron ; metal from more refractory ores is needed, that wiU stand the higher temperature required in heavy puddling." In conclusion, Mr. W. Butlin suggests the puddling of Northampton iron in the Casson-Darmoy patent gas furnace, which is admirably adapted for the conversion of iron from fusible compounds. " With mild treatment and the use of the furnace," he adds, " iron can and wUl be manufactured of a quality and at a price alike profit- able to the smelter and iron-master."* * " Iron and Coal Trades Review," Dec. 17, 1880, p. 717. CHAPTEE XIII. LINCOLNSHIRE lEON INDUSTRIES. Ironstone Deposits — Geology of North Lincolnshire — Scunthorpe, Frodingham — Analyses, Production, and Distribution of Ironstone — Mines in Operation in 1880 — Pig Iron Manufacture — Production since 1864 — Coal and Ore used in Fig Iron Manufacture. Ijincolusliire Ironstone Deposits. — A quarter of a century since the extensive deposits of iron ore, known as " hyc^rated oxide," and now extensively worked, were comparatively unknown. These deposits, now in process of rapid development, have given rise to the important, thriving, and increasing mining centres of Frodingham and Applehy, near Brigg. Ironstone is also worked in other districts of Lincolnshire, as at Kirton-Lindsey, some eight miles north-east of Gainsborough, on the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Eailway; at Caythorpe, some seven miles north of Grantham; at Claxby, between Market Easen and Caistor, by the West Yorkshire Coal and Iron Company ; and at Monk's Abbey and Greetwell, near the City of Lincoln, by the Mid^Lincolnshire Iron Company. Ironstone, it appears, was extensively worked in olden times in South Lincolnshire, but at present no workings are carried on in that division of the county. The districts in the north-western area of the county, now extensively worked for ironstone, may be described as being within the area bounded on the north by the river Humber, on the west by the river Trent, and on the east by the river Ancholme, Within this area the geological formations dip in a direction from west to 'east, forming three principal escarpments, with long, sloping plains between them ; the westernmost scarp is capped with Lower Lias, the middlemost with Lincolnshire limestone, and the easternmost is the chalk wold. These latter elevations are characteristic features of the country ; the middle 560 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. escarpment, or limestone ridge, is also known as the "Cliff," and runs in a direction nearly due south from the river Humber to Lincoln, and even further southwards. The wold or eastern- most escarpment tends south-east, towards Boston and the Wash, while the westernmost escarpment is the least continuous of the three. The rocks of North Lincolnshire dip in a direction from west to east, and comprise liassic and oolitic strata, occurring in the following descending order, as given by the Eev. J. E. Cross, M.A., F.G.S., in his paper read before the Geological Society of London.* Oornhrash and Oreat Oolite Clay. Lincolnshire Limestone. Upper Lias Clay. Marlatone; " Ehynclionella bed." Caprioornus Olay. " Peoten Bed " Ironstone. Lower Lias ; Scunthorpe Ironstone. Buoklandi Beds. Infra Lias (Ehoetio). Kenper Maria. The Keuper marls, the lowest of the above series of strata in the north-western area of Lincolnshire, occupies the bed of the river Trent. It appears that a few years since some sinkings were put down here for the piers of a railway bridge, and that they all went through this formation. Above the Keuper marls occur a series of clays, containing Ammonites angulatus and Ammonites Johnstoni ; both these ammonites appear in the lowest beds, but the first-named has a higher range in the series of clays through a zone of, say, 150 feet or more. Upon these angulatus beds repose a. series of limestones and clays, distin- guished by the presence of Ammonites Bucklandi. In these and the angulatus beds, occur the vast deposits of ironstone which are worked at Scunthorpe. The bed containing this deposit attains in some places a thickness of 27 feet, and is found cropping out at the surface, and it extends over a large area. The ironstone is wrought in open workings, as in Northampton- shire, and, having a slight " over burden " easily removed, is worked inexpensively. This important ii-onstone deposit, covering the whole wide * " Jonmal of the Geological Society,'' vol. sxxi., 1875. CHAr. xui.] LINCOLNSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 561 plain of the village of Scunthorpe, is described as commencing below with a hard limestone band, and, in somewhat similar bands above, most of the fossils lie. These are intercalated with softer bands of a darker brown colour and rubbly texture, intermingled with a brown earthy deposit. The Lincolnshire ironstone, it may be observed, differs widely from the Cleveland ironstone, and is in fact on a much lower geological horizon. As already stated, the Scunthorpe ironstone occurs in the lower part of the Lower Lias, an occurrence which is believed by Mr. Cross to be almost unique in this country. The Lower Lias clay previously referred to, in which occurs the massive seam of ironstone, has in North Lincolnshire a thick- ness of 90 feet ; no openings, however, of any importance have hitherto been made in depth. Superimposed on the Lower Lias series is the Middle Lias, in which there is a seam of ironstone 4 feet in thickness, in which pectens occur in profusion, and hence it has been designated the "Pgcten Ironstone." The junction between the Lower and Middle Lias is represented by a thickness of some 66 feet, con- sisting of blue clay, containing throughout in the centre of cement nodules a characteristic species, the Amvio7iites viaculatus (Capricornus of Schlotheim). At Santon, in a railway cutting, a good section of this clay is exposed, capped by a thin bed not exceeding 18 inches in thickness, containing a confused mass of broken belemnites and other shells, together with many coprolites and much pyrites, the whole of a bright green colour. The seam of ironstone occurring in the mai'lstone or Middle Lias is sometimes called the " Ehynchonella bed," from the cir- cumstance that fossils of that genus occm* therein in great profu- sion ; the lias bed is described as consisting of a hard, light-grey limestone, weathering to brown, and seems to contain Ammonites spinatus towards the lower part, and A. communis and serpentinus in the upper. Above the Ehynchonella bed occurs the Upper Lias, hitherto but little explored ; it has an average thickness of 60 feet, and consists chiefly of a blue shale, but showing no trace throughout the north-western district of the overlying Upper Lias sands. Extending away to the east, and above the Upper Lias upon which it rests, appears the middle escai'pment previously referred 562 COAL AND IRON INDITSXEIES. [pakt ii. to, occupied by the Inferior Oolite, which in this district is often termed the Jjincohishire limestone. It has an average thickness of 36 feet, including its partings of clay. Next above occurs the Great Oolite, consisting of limestones and clays, the latter in parts of a bright green colour, some 40 feet in thickness, and the representative no doubt of some subdivision of the oolite series. But one other formation, the " Cornbrash," remains to be referred to. The Cornbrash occupies the surface away to the east till the alluvial deposits of the river Ancholine are reached. The foregoing will show generally the occurrence and succession of the strata of the Hassic and oolitic formations in North Lincolnshire, and the position of the ironstone deposits, for a more detailed account of which reference should be made to the Eev. J. A. Cross's paper in the "Journal of the Geological Society of London." * Frodingham, the centre of the iron-mining district of North Lincolnshire, is situated on the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway, which connects it with the ports of Hull and Grimsby. Although ironstone is obtained elsewhere in the county, it is here that the manufacture of pig iron is carried on. About twenty-three years since attention was directed to the deposits by the Messrs. W. H. and G. Dawes, of the Milton and Elsecar Ironworks, Barnsley, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. This firm constructed a railway, from the river Trent to the out- crop of the bed, to facilitate the shipment of ironstone to their works. The ironstone seam is covered by a deposit of drift of varying thickness, being shifted about by high winds, so that the land, from an agricultural point of view, is of little value. Before the discovery and development of the ironstone deposits the district was little more than barren moorland, the village itself at that time being but a hamlet ; of late years it has become a town of some importance, and is stiU steadily extending, while the value of the land has greatly increased. Mr. George Dove, junr., who some years since carefully examined the district, says that " the bed, which is almost entirely free from faults, inclines gently to the east, but where it is now being worked at, and within one and a-half miles of the outcrop, the amount of ' bareing ' required is very small, in no place exceeding 3 feet. The labour * Vol. xxxi., 1875, p. 115. CHAP, xiii.] LINCOLNSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 563 employed in raising the stone is of the commonest and most unskilled description, blasting only being required in getting the stronger portions of the bed ; the whole operation is simply one of quaxrying." Mr. Dove further adds that the deposit is not of very regular formation ; it consists of bands of stone, some con- solidated, others unconsolidated, of various appearances, me- chanical conditions, and compositions, which are again broken up by bands of ferruginous limestone of varying thicknesses. Before proceeding to consider the production of ironstone in this locality, the other districts of Lincolnshire, in which local deposits of ironstone occur, may be briefly referred to, not only of those deposits occurring in strata already referred to, but also in other geological formations of more irecent age. In South Lincolnshire the marlstone rock (Middle Lias) was formerly worked, as also was the ironstone of the Northampton sand ; the latter is of the age of the Inferior Oolite. A band of good ironstone, occurring at the base of the " Upper Estuarine Series," was also wrought in ancient times. Some years back ironstone was worked at Overton, near Peterborough, in North- amptonshire, in the " Great OoHte Clay," which is the equivalent of the Forest Marble of the South of England ; the workings have, however, been long since abandoned, on account of the great thickness of bareing necessary to be removed before the stone was reached. A brown iron ore of oolitic structure, forming a bed 6J feet thick, occurs in the Tealby Series or Middle Neocomian, occur- ring at Tealby, some four miles north-east of Market Rasen, and is much valued for admixture with the argillaceous ores of York- shire and the calcareous ores of Lincolnshire. Ironstone is also wrought at Caythorpe, near Grantham, South Lincolnshire (a hydrated oxide) ; in the year 1880 the quantity raised amounted to 73,680 tons, put in trucks at the workings at an average price of 3s. per ton. This ore is said to contain 31 per cent, of metallic iron, from 18 to 20 per cent, of lime, and from 1"25 to 1"50 per cent, of manganese ; is in good demand, and meets with a ready sale. To those interested in the subject of the occurrence of the ironstone deposits in the liassic and oolitic rocks, the recent work of Professor Judd, F.G.S.,* will possess especial interest. In this * "Geology of Rutland," ProfesBor J. W. Judd, 1875. 2 564 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. important contribution to geological science the author fully discusses the classification and correlation of the Jurassic rocks of the Midland district or counties of England, including Eutland and parts of Lincoln, Leicester, Northampton, Huntingdon, and Cambridge. Analyses of the Ironstone. — The stone raised in the Froding- ham district, like that in other localities in Lincolnshire, has been fully iuvestigated and its constituents determined by Mr. George Dove, junr., of the Eedbourn Hill Iron "Works, from -whose inte- resting paper on the " Frodingham Iron-fields " * the foUowing are selected. In the various mines worked on Mr. E. "Winn's estate the yield of metallic iron varies according to portions of the seam used ; the working face 8f the quarry, from which the samples were taken, has a thickness of 16 feet, increasing to 18 feet and even more. The seam is divided by Mr. Dove into 11 distinct bands ; the ii'on exists in the form of peroxide ; the seam has a maximum thickness of 27 feet, the bands of which it is composed vary in thickness from 9 inches to 3 feet 6 inches, many of them, however, containing stone of very inferior quality, a sort of ferruginous limestone, which it is always desirable to reject. The top band of the seam is described as mechanically very small and friable, resembling in appearance brown, ferruginous sand- stone, highly oxidised and tolerably dry, the other bands containing a large amount of moisture : — Eestilts Tabulated. Constituents. Top Band. Second Band. Fourth Band. Sixth Band. Eighth Band. Peroxide of iron . 61-79 48-71 47-14 47-36 41-14 Protoxide of manganese 2-70 3-05 1-72 2-09 0-79 SiKca_ .... 10-77 12-85 11-95 13-00 24-40 Alumina 6-38 3-85 4-08 4-85 6-62 Lime 1-79 9-58 11-45 10-60 8-18 Magnesia 1-10 2-51 2-97 3-02 2-10 Sulptur . . . . 0-08 0-06 0-10 0-07 004 Phosphoric acid 1-46 1-12 0-87 0-82 1-12 Combined water . . 14-43 12-47 12-40 11-90 10-70 Carbonic acid Total . . Metallic iron, dried stone traces 6-15 6-87 6-74 5-28 100-50 100-35 99-55 100-45 100-37 43-25 34-10 33-00 33-15 28-80 ,, wet stone . 38-94 30-47 29-44 27-08 25-04 Moisture 9-97 10-65 10-79 18-32 13-04 " Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute," 1876. cHAi'. xm.] LINCOLNSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES, 565 Some parts of the great seam are highly manganiferous ; these bands do not appear in the face of the workings from which the above samples were taken for analysis, but appear in another part of the quarry ; these also have been examined by Mr. Dove ; the one sample, consisting of scales of peroxide of manganese, taken of the manganiferous ironstone band, occurring about 13 feet from the top of the bed ; the second sample, from that part of the band, appearing about 7 feet from the top of the bed ; and the third, an average sample of the band itself. The annexed show the results : — Constituents. 1. 2. 3. Peroxide of iron . Peroxide of manganese . Silica _ . . . . Alumina Lime . . . . Magnesia Sulphur . . . . Phosphoric acid Combined water . . Carbonic acid Total . . Iron in dried stone Moisture . . . . 23-71 32-82 14-00 3-09 9-46 6-02 38-07 11-40 18-80 5-01 6-38 2-82 0-04 0-52 14-37 3-02 39-36 3-80 24-67 5-41 6-83 2-27 0-06 0-56 13-27 3-90 ... 100-43 100-13 16-60 10-04 26-65 21-32 27-55 16-41 From an examination of these analyses the variable com- position of the bed will be understood. Mr. Dove further adds that the greatest care is necessary in the selection of the stone before it is charged into the furnace ; and further, that unless this selection be properly understood and attended to, serious disorganization of the working of the furnace must inevitably result. The seam in the neighbourhood of Brigg, a few miles to the south-east of Frodingham, has been reported upon by Mr. Charles Tookey, of the Eoyal School of Mines, giving the following results ; for comparison is appended side by side analysis of the Northamptonshire ore, from the neighbom-hood of Wellingborough : — * Not estimated. 566 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES, [PAET II. Constituents. Lincolnshire, Brigg. Northamptonsliire, Wellingboro'. Sesquioxide of iron . o8-10 50-31 Protoxide of iron . . . trace Peroxide of iron .. . Protoxide of manganese . . 6'88 0-51 Alumina 3-00 7-25 Lime 4-15 11-76 Magnesia 0-96 0-62 Carbonic acid . . . . 1-08 7-98 Phosphoric acid 1-40 1-28 Silica • •• 0-22 Bisulphide of iron . ... 0-17 Water hy groscopi o and combiu ed 16-46 11-00 Ignited insoluble residue . Total . . . Metallic iron .... 13'7o 9-33 99-78 100-43 40-67 35-37 The above residue of the Brigg ironstone is made up of 11 '70 per cent, of silica, of which 7"45 per cent, was in combination, and 4'25 per cent, existed as sand, the remaining 1-95 per cent, consisting of alumina and lime. The ironstone raised at Monk's Abbey, and at Greetwell, near the city of Lincoln, worked by the Mid-Lincolnshire Iron Com- pany, is in great request by the ironmasters of the Frodingham district, who use the stone in admixture with the Frodingham ore, in proportions varying from one-eighth to one-quarter, and with the most satisfactory results, both as regards the regularity of the working of the furnace and low consumption of fuel which are obtained. Since its introduction the difficulties formerly existing in the excess of lime ia the native ore has been much lessened. The following is an analysis of the ore : — MiD-LracoLN Stone. Peroxide of iron 60-91 Manganese - . . traces Alumina 5-47 Lime 1-60 Magnesia 0'06 Phosphoric acid 1-02 Sulphur 0-03 Insoluble matter 15-80 Carbonic acid and water 15-35 Total 100-24 CHAP. XIII.] LINCOLNSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 567 The equivalent of metallic iron contained in this stone is 42*64 per cent., the insoluhle matter consisting of 13'24 per cent, of silica and 2*56 per cent, of alumina. A clay obtained at Santon has sometimes been used in admixture with the ores of the northern districts of Lincolnshire, but, commercially, it does not appear to have succeeded so well as with a certain proportion of the stone obtained near the city of Lincoln. Comparing the constituents of the Frodingham stone with that of Cleveland the results show favourably in an analysis of the latter, published in the "Iron Ores of Great Britain," Parti. Phosphoric acid gives 1"86 per cent., and protoxide of iron 39"92 per cent. Some of the better varieties of Lincolnshire stone, examined by Mr. John Pattinson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, give the following results : — Constituents. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Peroxide of iron . 67-00 72-14 57-86 Protoxide of iron . . nil nil nil Protoxide of manganese 0-31 0-62 0-24 Alumina . . . . 4-20 3-47 7-10 Lime .... 1-82 1-73 2-92 Magnesia . . . . Carbonic acid 0-36 0-34 0-69 1-27 0-23 1-67 Silica . . . . 9-87 8-00 14-17 Sulphur 0-02 0-03 trace Phosphoric acid . . 0-70 0-57 0-80 Combined water . 12-10 11-24 10-24 Moisture . . . . Metallic iron . 2-17 1-59 4-29 99-82 99-96 99-98 46-90 50-50 40-05 Mr. J. Koseby, who has long been identified with the develop- ment of the ironstone of the district, expresses his opinion favourably, stating that a very fine quality of iron, suitable for almost any purpose to which that metal is applied, could be easily produced; all that would be required being care in the selection of the stone. Production and Distribution of Ironstone The develop- ment of the North Lincolnshire ironstone deposits commenced about the j'ear 1858 in the neighbourhood of Scunthorpe, the property of Mr. Eowland Winn, M.P., whose name, with the names of the Messrs. Dawes previously referred to, are so intimately associated with the early history and subsequent 568 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES, [PAKT II. progress of this the most recently discovered ironstone-field in the kingdom. The stone raised at Frodingham and sent out of the county in the year 1859 was smelted at the Milton and Elsecar Works in Yorkshire, in admixture with the clay iron ores of the coal measures of that district, and were found to work well in the furnaces, producing iron of good quality. The output in the year 1859 did not exceed 2,000 tons, increasing in the following year to 16,192 tons, and in the year 1861 to 32,709 tons. In succeeding years the returns of pro- duction appear as follows : — Year. Ironstone. Yeai-. Ironstone. Nos. Tons. Nos. Tons. 1861 32,709 1871 217,767 1862 ,50,323 1872 256,149 1863 69,618 1873 350,281 1864 74,619 1874 463,239 1865 124,958 1873 573,336 1866 175,720 1876 573,374 1867 192,213 1877 508,749 1868 200,699 1878 683,685 1869 220,524 1879 695,326 1870 216,829 1880 1,154,584 The great bulk of production is obtained from the Frodingham district, which includes the stone dug in the Scunthorpe area, where it was first raised. Other deposits discovered at Claxby, and first opened out by Mr. W. Firth, of Leeds, are now largely worked and sent into Yorkshire for the Ardsley Main Works, which belong to the West Yorkshire Iron and Coal Co. The details of production, with the value of the ore, appear below for the year 1880 :— District or Mine. Quantities. Value. Oaythoqje .... Claxby, Oaistor . . . . Crosby, Frodingham Greetwell, Lincoln . . . Gunbrose, Parkgate Iron Co. . Glebe Frodingbam Iron Co. Trent Iron Co North Lincolnshire Iron Co. ^ Appleby Iron Co. . . > EedburnHill . . . ) Normanby, Crosby . . . Total . Tons. Cwts. 73,680 14 27,600 89,130 7 77,638 145,899 47,165 145,642 148,138 357,353 42,438 £ s. d. 11,002 1 9 4,125 13,369 11 15,527 12 21,884 17 7,074 15 21,846 6 22,220 14 53,602 19 6,365 14 1,154,584 1 177,019 9 9 CHAP. XIII.] LINCOLNSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 569 The ironstone worked in the neighbourhood of the City of Lincohi contains silica in considerable quantity, and on this account is valuable in admixture with the Frodingham stone, which is calcareous. The annexed figures for a few years show the quantity raised of the siliceous ores from Lincoln, conveyed to, and used in, the ironworks of North Lincolnshire since the year 1874 : — Year. Tons. Year. ' Tons. 1874 1875 1876 1877 40,888 80,890 96,443 97,977 1878 1879 1880 92,264 76,908 77,638* Distribntion of the Ironstone. — The districts of North Lincolnshire, in which the iron mines are mainly situated, are traversed by the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Eailway, afi'ording facilities for the transport of the ironstone to the north, while a branch of the same system, the Trent and Ancholme Line, puts the district in communication with Barnsley, South Yorkshire, the West Eiding of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire ; the distance from Barnsley not exceeding 35 miles. In the year 1864 the above-named railway carried out of the county 25,363 tons, increased to 28,469 tons ia the year 1865. In later years the following quantities were received by the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Eailway Company, and distributed in districts remote from Lincolnshire : — Year. Frodingham. Holton-le-Moor. Lincolu. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1867 86,587 ... 86,587 1872 138,279 61,097 ... 199,376 1873 205,677 78,489 ... 284,176 1874 141,289 42,731 40,888 224,908 1875 217,630 45,328 80,890 343,848 1876 164,101 47,037 96,443 307,581 1877 172,265 23,195 97,977 293,437 1878 188,209 18,015 92,264 298,488 1879 150,298 2,565 76,908 229,771 1880 262,359 21,937 73,948 358,244 The value of the ironstone at the pits, put into trucks, varies, * Of the value of £15,627, or is. per ton. 570 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAET II. according to quality, from 2s. 9d. to 3s. and 3s. Sd. per ton, the ironstone also bearing a moderate charge for transport. In recent years it has been used in works near Middlesborough, and at Wingerworth and other iron works in Derbyshire, and even in Lancashire. The annexed list shows the localities of the mines, their pro- prietors and managers, in the year 1880 : — No. Name of Mine. Situation. Name of Proprietor or Company. Name of Manager or Agent. 1 2 3 4 6 6 T 8 9 10 U Caythorpe . Norraanljy Frodingham Gunbrose Greetwell Monks Abbey . Trent . . . Glebe. Brigg Market Rasen . Grantham . Frodingham . Brigg . Lincoln . Scunthorpe Frodingham Cliff & Sons .... W. Yorkshire Iron and Coal Co. M. C. Cohen .... William Cook & Co., Limited . Charles Winn Cliff & Sons .... Park Gate Iron Co., Limited . ( Mid Lincolnshire Iron Co. ; ) ( W. J. Eoseby, Man. Partner J Mrs. W. H. Dawes . Staveley Coal and Iron Co. Lim. F. Walsham Dr. England M. C. Cohen C. F. Roseby John Roseby F. Walsham George Reed E. Eamsden J. H.'bawes ( Charles Markham, [ Man. Director. Pig Iron Manufacture. — This industry in North Lincolnshire is of comparatively recent date. About the year 1862 the Messrs. Dawes, of the Milton and Elsecar Iron "Works, near Bamsley, laid down and erected the Trent Iron Works. The same firm had previously been engaged in the development of the ironstone deposits of the district, which were conveyed to the works near Bamsley, above named, and smelted in admixture with the argillaceous ores of the coal measures, producing a quality of iron suitable for miU, forge, and foundry purposes. The Trent "Works commenced operations in 1863. In the j'ear 1866 the Frodingham Iron Company, situated at Scunthorpe, were started by Messrs. Cliff and Hurst, and in the year 1867 this firm had two furnaces in blast. The North Lincoln- shire Iron Company followed about the same date with one furnace, blowing in a second furnace in the year 1871. The next metallurgical works projected were those of the Lincolnshire Iron Smelting Company and the Bedboum Hill Iron and Coal Company, the former about the year 1872, and the latter more recently, in the year 1874, the last works established being those of the Appleby Iron Company, who commenced operations about the year 1877. The Lincolnshire furnaces vary considerably in size and CHAr. xin.j LINCOLKSHIEE IRON INDUSTRIES. 571 capacity ; those of the Trent Company, erected in 1862 and 1863, are 40 feet high and 14 feet in diameter at the boshes ; others erected by the same firm in the year 1875 are 60 feet high and 18 feet in the boshes. Those of the Frodingham Company vary from 63 to 65 feet in height, having a diameter at the boshes of 18 feet. The furnaces of the North Lincolnshire Iron Company, erected in 1865 and 1867, are 70 feet and 52 feet in height, and 20 feet in the boshes ; the furnaces erected by the same company in the year 1875 being 60 feet in height and 20 feet 9 inches in the boshes. The most capacious furnaces in the district are those of the Eedbourn Hill Iron and Coal Company, 75 feet in height and 20 feet diameter in the boshes. The furnaces of the Lincolnshire Smelting Company are 70 feet in height and 20 feet diameter in the boshes, while those of the Appleby Iron Company are 62 feet in height and 18 feet diameter in the boshes. The Eedbourn HiU furnaces, the largest in the district, possess some interesting features, designed by Mr. Dobbs, of Middles- borough, and constructed so as to deal with the excess of moisture contained in the ironstone. The arrangements are thus de- scribed : " The gas may be taken off either at the top or at a point 22 feet lower down, and the arrangement is to take off at the lower point sufficient gas to supply the stoves and boilers, and then to allow the surplus gas to pass through the material above the point, and to escape, with the moisture driven off, through an escape-pipe fixed on the upper gas box." The plan appears to work weU; the lower flue, however, requires attention, as it is quickly choked with dust, and renders frequent cleaning necessary. In the open-topped fm-naces of the district the gas is taken off at distances varying from 8 to 15 feet from the top, and with sufficient draft of cliimney enough can be obtained to do away entirely with the use of coal at either stoves or boilers. The stoves employed throughout the district are of the ordinary Cleveland type, and the temperature obtained varies from 800° to 1000° Fahr. The first ton of pig iron was cast, in the year 1864, at the Trent Works ; in the same year the united production of Lin- colnshire and Northamptonshii'e amounted to 22,823 tons, increased in the following year to 25,728 tons. In subsequent years the furnaces built and in blast, and the make of pig iron. 572 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES.. [PAET II, in Lincolnshire, was as follows till the year 1871, to which is appended the average jdeld per furnace : — FURNACES. Year. Pig Iron Made. Average per Furnace. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1864 5 3 9,600 3,200 1865 5 3 11,028 3,676 1866 6 3 13,765 4,588 1867 6 25,579 5,116 1868 6 5 33,999 6,780 1869 6 5 33,768 6,752 1870 6 4 31,690 7,922 1871 7 4 30,122 7,530 Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture. — The fuel em- ployed is Durham coke, and coke obtained from the South York- shire coal-field, analyses of which will be found in each of those coal-producing districts. In the following table appears the number of furnaces built and in blast, the make of pig iron, and the quantities of coal and ore used in its manufacture, in each year since 1871 : — Year. FtmUACES. Pig Iron. Coal Used. Ore Used. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1871 7 4 30,122 84,000 106,000 1872 9 7 36,989 105,658 130,000 1873 13 9 52,076 142,236 188,050 1874 15 8 67,260 167,188 253,596 1875 21 14 111,683 303,000 393,000 1876 21 16 125,198 297,676 454,836 1877 21 10 116,857 265,232 428,459 1878 21 11 125,043 270,050 453,053 1879 21 14 131,678 261,395 465,818 1880 21 15 207,704 481,807 790,819 The above figures show a varying average ; in the year 1871 there were 56 cwts. of coal, and in 1872, 57 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made, while in 1878 the quantity did not exceed 43 cwts., a saving in seven years of 13 cwts. of coal in each ton of iron made. This economy is mainly due to the more extensive use of Durham coke, and the utilization of the waste gases. The CHAP. xm.J LINCOLNSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 573 foregoing figures are actual returns, and include all coal used in all processes carried out in the works. In the close-topped furnaces of the district it has been determined, all conditions being favourable, the furnace in good working order, that the consumption of Durham coke does not exceed 24 cwts., and even less. This would be equivalent to from 34 to 35 cwts. of coal in the furnace, the remainder being otherwise employed in the works. Again, in the open-topped furnace, using the same class of coke, from 27 to 28 cwts. are employed, equivalent to 40 cwts., taking in each case the yield at 70 per cent., while in the same type of fiu'nace using the South Yorkshire coke the consumption is found to be from 30 to 32 cwts., equal to from 49 to 51 cwts. of coal, the latter yielding of coke 62 per cent. The ironstone, which is chiefly employed in the raw state, requires from 70 to 71 cwts., owing to the lime it contains; when calcined in clump and exposed to the weather it decrepitates, and it has been suggested that this result might be got over if the stone was charged hot from the calcining kiln to the furnace. The amount of moistm-e contained in the raw stone varies with the season, amounting in the winter months to 30 per cent., greatly increasing the consumption of fuel. As already stated, the Lincoln stone is used in admixture with the Frodingham stone ; the Santon clay (worked at Santon, some four or five miles from Brigg), also referred to, is occasionally used as a fluxing material. Its composition is as follows, containing 4"75 per cent, of iron : — Santon Clat. Silica 50-10 Alumina 22-72 Peroxide of iron 6-78 Lime 4-28 Magnesia ... .... 1-56 Water and organic matter 14-33 Total . . . 99-77 CHAPTEE XIV. NORTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. Iron Ore Deposits of Denbighshire and Flintshire — Analyses and Production of Iron Ore-^Population employed in Iron Mining — Succession of Strata in Denbighshire — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — Production — Works in Operation in 1880 — Malleable Iron Works— Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture. Iron Ore Deposits. — Some ten years since a discovery was made of a rich argillaceous iron ore, consisting of 6 or 7 bands ■of a dark ironstone on the out-crop of the Euabon coal-field at Trefechan, and some 90 or 100 yards below the Llwynenion or Half-yard coal of that district. This ironstone does not appear to have been wrought to any extent, though it has been known to yield kon of very good quality. On an adjoining property near Trefechan, it is stated that these ores were successfully reduced by a former proprietor who, between the years 1811 and 1824, produced some 30,000 tons of pig iron from ores raised there, some specimens of the iron referred to showing a curiously close-grained structure. In Flintshire, at the Cwm Mountain, near Prestatyn, a deposit of red hematite occurs, about 1| miles south-east of the far- famed Talargoch lead mine. The ore here occurs almost entirely as a breccia of angular fragments, cemented by crystalline car- bonate of lime. It fills very irregular lodes in the carboniferous limestone, and extends also in an irregular form between the limestone and underlying Silurian rocks to a short distance from the lodes. In the neighbouring hill, Moel Hirradug, several small deposits have been worked, some, it is supposed, at a very early date. The ore occurs in "pockets," produced by the sudden widening out of small joints ia the carboniferous limestone. These deposits have CHAP. XIV.] NOETH WALES IRON IKDUSTKIES. 575 been worked since the year 1870, and appear to contain both nickel and cobalt : an average assay giving cobalt 2'05 per cent., nickel 0*75 per cent, with oxide of iron. Other deposits have been worked at Caerwys, and at Gled-lom, near Ysceifiog, and in all these cases the iron ore is found in the lowest beds of the limestone. A number of similar pockets are being worked in the small patch of limestone near Bodfari. They are here connected with a system of strong joints, having a west-north-west direction. Analyses of tte Ironstone. — The argillaceous ores of Den- bighshire contain from 30 to 36 per cent, of metallic iron. The ironstone raised at Trefechan gives 36-31 per cent, of metaUic iron, and on calcination 51*54 of metallic iron. A complete analysis of this ironstone, by Mr. John CoUins of Bolton, exhibits the following constituents : — Eesults Tabulated. Metallic iron 36-31 Manganese 1-31 Magnesia 3-39 Lime 3-03 Alumina 0'79 Water 0-96 Carbonic acid 33'06 Phosphoric acid 1-09 Sulphuric acid trace Ignited insoluble matter 20-06 Total .... 100-00 It is said of this ironstone that it is unusually free from impurities and comes comparatively clean from the mine, requiring but little preparation for the calcining heap. Production of Ironstone. — The gTeat bulk of the ironstone smelted in the furnaces of North Wales is obtained from the ironstone measures of the Denbighshire coal-field in the neigh- bourhood of Ruabon. The quantity raised in the year 1855 amounted to 65,820 tons ; hematite ores raised in the same year in the neighbourhood of Rh3'l and Cwm Mountain in Flintshire amounting to 1,320 tons. In the years 1856 and 1857 the total quantities of all kinds of iron ore and stone were respectively 65,914 tons and 70,874 tons, the details of production being as follows in each of those years : — 576 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Collieries and Mines. 1856. Quantities. 1857. Quantities. AfonBitba Brymbo .... Bryii Mally Broughton .... Coed Poeth Cwm Mountain (Hematite) . Dolydd .... Ffrwd . . Llwynenion Na,nnerch .... Plasissa .... Quinta .... Trafynant Vron Euabon .... Tons. 367 29,558 1,648 82 1,890 "200 6,000 1,200 6,397 60 1,500 37 16,985 Tons. 367 30,715 1,500 90 1,800 1,650 350 6,000 1,150 1,080 7,142 1,430 100 17,000 Total 65,914 70,374 Smaller quantities obtained from other collieries in 1856 make the total 70,000 tons ; and 20,000 tons, in 1857, brings the total yield for that year up to 90,374 tons. The production of iron ore of aU kinds in North Wales since 1858 has been as follows : — Year. Denbigh- TTlin+aliiTA Carnarvon- Sundry- Total shire. XllILLailllc. shire. Mines. North Wales. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1858 48,935 3,590 1,650 35,000 88,575 1859 38,822 3,500 1,750 39,000 87,073 1860 85,000* 97 ... 85,097 1861 82,500 4,060 ... 86,500 1862 51,700 2,456 54,166 1863 27,550 732 28,282 1864 23,750 5,377 29,127 1865 97,600 750 98,250 1866 55,690 992 56,682 1867 43,582 500 44,082 1868 35,813 500 36,313 1869 33,431 62 33,493 1870 59,140 100 59,240 1871 51,887 57,887 1872 23,045 4,730 27,775 1873 25,000 3,860 9 ,426 38,286 1874 41,157 1,070 42,227 1875 39,907 2,277 42,184 1876 40,952 40,952 1877 41,711 498 42,209 1878 43,082 378 43,460 1879 38,936 392 39,328 1880 41,413 1,603 ... 43,016 Including produce of Flintshire. CHAP. XIV.] NORTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 577 The great bulk of ironstone raised in North Wales is of the variety known as argillaceous carbonate. The average value of the ore in the year 1870 was about 7s. per ton, increased to 14s. per ton in 1872, receding in 1875 to 10s. per ton, since which date it has remained with but little variation. Population employed in Iron Mining in Flintshire. — In the mines raising hematite in two or three localities in Flintshire, the following were the numbers employed in each year since 1873, and although the numbers are small and the produce of iron ore unimportant, it cannot but be interesting to note up all infor- mation bearing on the subject : — * Yeai-. PERSONS EMPLOYED. Total. Iron Ore Raised. Average per Man. Under Ground. Above Ground. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 46 36 19 2 2 9 4 9 Nos. 15 9 4 n 4 9 Nos. 61 45 23 2 14 13 13 9 Tons. 4,730 4,716 1,069 26 498 378 232 950 Tons. 77 104 46 13 35 29 18 105 The Denbighshire iron furnaces are cliiefly supplied by the ironstone measures of the coal-field. In the year 1851 when, as already stated, the late Mr. Samuel H. BlackweU exhibited in the Great Exhibition a most interesting series of iron ores, illustrating the iron making resources of the United Kingdom, the ironstone measures of Denbighshire were thus referred to, showing the following succession of strata in section : — STRATA. THICKNESS. Ft. In. Three-yard Coal 9 Brassey Coal 2 3 C^^er-t/ar^7ro«sfone; four irregular courses averaging about 7 Upper-yard Coal . . . . . . . .26 Bed Coal Ironstone Balls. Med Coal 16 Stone Coal Ironstone ; four courses. Stone Coal. .29 Half-yard Coal 16 * H.M. Inspectors of Mines Reports. p p 578 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. STBAiA (contimied). thickness. Two-yard Coal Ironstone. ^- ^^■ Lower-yard Ironstone. Lower-yard Coal ..30 Wall and Bench Ironstone; six coiu'ses, equal to 12|iii., lying in about 7 ft. of ground. Wall and Bench Coals ..30 Llwynenion Ironstones; fifteen courses, averaging 30 in., all worked with the coal in three lifts ; wiU yield from 8,000 to 9,000 tons per acre. Llwynenion Coal 16 Frodnction of Pig Iron. — As far back as the year 1740, the reduction of the ores of iron appears to have been carried on in North "Wales in Denbighshire. The returns of production for that year show the existence of tw^o blast furnaces, yielding 550 tons of pig iron, the total make of the 59 furnaces in opera- tion in England and Wales at that time being 17,350 tons, giving an average yield per furnace of 294 tons. Advancing to the year 1788, when the aggregate production of pig iron in England and Wales amounted to 61,300 tons, of which 13,100 tons were char- coal iron, and 48,200 tons coke pig iron, the former the yield of 24 and the latter of 53 furnaces, North Wales at this period does not appear to have had any share in the manufacture. Later, in the year 1796, Denbighshire appears to have had five furnaces in operation, yielding 6,230 tons of pig iron. The details of production were the result of an inquiry instituted by the House of Commons, at the time that Mr. Pitt proposed to levy a tax on coal, to be paid, without exception, at the pit's mouth, a measure subsequently abandoned. The works in operation in 1796, with the make of each, is recorded as follows : — TTORKS. TONS. Brymbo 884 Brymbo Grate 728 Pentroba 1,560 Penyvron 1,498 Euabon 1,560 Total 6,230 The total production of pig iron in Great Britain in 1796, according to the returns of the Excise authorities, is set down at 167,311 tons. Subsequent inquiries showed the quantities actually made not to have exceeded 125,080 tons ; even this is a considerable advance on the production of 1788. In the begin- ning of the present century (1806), the two principal u'onworks CHAP. XIV.] NORTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 579 in Denbighshire were those of Ruabon of Messrs. Rowland & Co., and those of Brymbo of Mr. S. WiUdnson ; the Ruabon furnace producing 1,463 tons of pig iron, and the Brymbo, 462 tons, the last named works being in operation but a part of the year. The total make of pig iron in Great Britain in 1806 being 243,851 tons, the yield of 161 furnaces.* Not again until the years 1823 and 1830 are returns available. In the last named year Mr. F. Finch, in his inquiry carried out for the Government, ascertained that the make of 7 furnaces in North "Wales in 1823 was 13,100 tons of pig iron, increased in 1830 to 12 furnaces and 25,000 tons, showing an increase of 12,000 tons in 7 years. Mr. H. Scrivener * gives the following as the number of furnaces and make of pig iron in the years named : — Tear. FuTuacea. Pig Iron Made. 1825 1826 1828 Nos. 1 1 12 Tons. 13,100 15,756 25,168 Advancing to the year 1839, when Mr. David Mushet made his inquiry, the production of Great Britain was 1,248,781 tons, there being at that period 20 furnaces in North Wales, of which 13 were in blast, making 33,800 tons of pig iron, giving an average of 2,600 tons per furnace. Mr. Porter, t in the year 1840, gave the make of North Wales as 26,500 tons, and the make of the kingdom the same year, 1,396,400 tons. Again, in 1847, a return to Parliament gives the number of furnaces in North Wales as 11, of which 5 were active, producing 16,120 tons of pig iron ; the details are as under : — Works. Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Brymbo ..... British Company . . . Coed Talon .... Plasissa Total . Nos. 2 1 1 1 Tons. 6,240 5,200 1,560 3,120 5 16,120 * For details see Appendix II., p. 834. t " Progress of the Nation," by G. E. Porter, F.E.S. p p 2 580 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT II. The total make of pig iron in the kingdom the same year was 1,999,568 tons, the make of 433 furnaces. In the year 1852 the production increased to 2,701,000 tons. The only works of which we have any account at this period in North Wales are those of Brymbo, with two furnaces, and Euabon, with three furnaces. Advancing to the year 1854 the resources of production had greatly increased, there being at that date 7 works in North Wales, with an aggregate of 11 furnaces, 9 of which were active, producing 32,900 tons of pig iron, giving an average of 3,688 tons per furnace. The works and companies in 1854 were as follows : — Owners. FURNACES. Emit. In Blast Brymbo . Coed Talon. Ffrwd Leeswood . Euabon . Plasissa Plaskynaston . The Brymbo Co. . . . Oakley & Co Sparrow & Co. Oakley & Co New British Iron Co. Samuel Gilkes . . . . Moss and Luker Total . . . Nos. 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 Nos. 2 1 1 3 1 1 11 9 In Great Britain at this period the total production of pig iron amounted to 3,069,838 tons, the make of 555 furnaces, of which 307 were in England, 130 in Wales, and 118 in Scotland. The details are as under : — DISTKIOTS. ftUAHTITIES. Tods. Northumberland, Durham, and North Yorkshire . . 275,000 Cumberland and Lancashire 20,000 Yorkshire (West Riding) 73,444 Derbyshire 127,500 Staflordshire 847,600 Shropshire 124,800 Gloucestershire 21,990 North Wales 32,900 South Wales 750,000 Scotland 796,604 Total production in 1854 .... 3,069,838 In subsequent years the number of furnaces built and in blast in North Wales, with the make of pig iron, and the average make per furnace, will be found in the annexed table : — CHAP. XIV ] NORTH WALES lEON INDUSTRIES. yDBNAOES. Year. Make of Average per Pig Iron. Firmaoe. Bviilt. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1855 11 8 31,420 3,927 1856 10 9 47,682 5,298 1857 14 6 37,049 6,174 1858 13 6 28,150 4,692 1859 13 6 26,980 4,496 1860 14 8 49,360 6,142 1861 12 5 46,658 9,331 1862 13 5 31,719 6,344 1863 13 7 51,076 7,296 1864 14 8 61,108 6,388 1865 14 7 51,874 7,410 1866 10 5 25,515 5,103 1867 9 5 32,843 6,568 1868 9 4 37,046 9,261 1869 8 6 38,530 6,421 1870 8 6 42,695 7,116 1871 8 5 41,893 8,378 1872 8 4j 41,464 8,728 1873 9 5 42,773 8,554 1874 9 6 51,868 8,644 1875 9 6 55,099 9,183 1876 U 4 32,723 8,181 1877 11 3i 26,715 7,630 1878 11 3 23,091 7,697 1879 11 3 18,953 6,317 1880 10 7 57,812 8,259 58] The above returns in the years 1874 and 1875 include the production of the Mostyn Coal and Iron Co., Flintshire, who have two furnaces, which were in blast in those years, and con- tinued in operation till March, 1876, since which date they have been standing. The yield of the Mostyn Works in 1872 and 1873 was respectively 13,228 tons and 24,690 tons, which are included in the above returns for those years. The works and furnaces in North Wales in the year 1880 were as follows : — No. Name of Works. Owners. FDENA0E3. Built. In Blast. 1 2 3 1 Denbighshire — Brymbo .... Ffrwd, Wrexham . . . Buabon .... Flintshire — Moatyn Biymbo Iron Co. ... James Sparrow & Son . . . New British Iron Co. . Mostyn Coal and Iron Co., Lim. . Nos. 3 3 2 2 Nos. 2 2 1 2 Total of Denb ighshire and Flmtshii-e . 10 7 582 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. IVEallea'ble Ironworks. — There are five of these establishments in North Wales, situated at Euabon and Wrexham, in Denbigh- shire, possessing considerable resources for the manufacture of the various forms of iron. The works of the New British Iron Co., at Ruabon, contain 34 puddling furnaces and 4 rolling mills ; the Broughton HaU Works, near Wrexham, 10 furnaces and 2 rolling miUs ; the Pontysylle Works of Messrs. Hyde, Jones and Mackay, 13 furnaces and 1 roUing mill ; the Stansty Works of Messrs. Forrest and Co., 6 furnaces and 1 mill ; and the Llay Hall Works at Euabon, where fire-bricks are also manufactured. When in active operation it is estimated that the consumption of coal would not be less than from 60,000 to 70,000 tons per annum. For some years past much inactivity has prevailed in these works, and the returns for 1880 show that all were stand- ing except the Euabon Works of the New British Iron Company, which establishment had 13 puddling furnaces in operation out of a total of 30, and 4 rolling mills, the consumption of fuel probably not exceeding 16,000 tons of coal. Coal and Iron Ore used in IMannfactiire. — It appears, on the authority of Mr. G. R. Porter,* that the coal used in 1840 in the make of 26,500 tons of pig iron in Denbighshire was 110,000 tons, giving an average of 4 tons 3 cwt. to each ton of pig iron made. In the year 1872 and since, the quantities of coal and ore used in the works in North Wales in pig iron manufacture were as under : — Year. Pig Iron. Coal Used. Iron Ore Used. Tons. Tons. Tons. 18Y2 41,464 185,000 1873 ■ 42,773 187,278 143^973 1874 51,868 140,942 127,023 1875 55,099 144,652 139,540 1876 32,723 83,188 66,385 1877 26,715 59,669 51,717 1878 23,091 48,249 -47,234 1879 18,953 35,804 39,500 1880 57,812 139,328 130,676 An examination of the above returns for the years 1872 and 1873 shows a consumption of upwards of 4 tons of coal to each * " Progress of the Nation." CHAP. XIV.] NORTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 583 ton of pig iron made. In 1875 it did not exceed 50 cwt. of coal and 51 cwt. of ii'on ore in the Denbighshire furnaces, while in the Flintshire "Works at Mostyn, where hematite chiefly was smelted, the average did not exceed 41 or 42 cwt. of coal and ore to each ton of pig iron made. The ores employed include argillaceous ores of the district Pottery Mine, North Stafl'ordshire, hematite from Lancashire and Spain, and Northampton ore. The proportion of coal and ore used in 1880 to each ton of pig iron made was respectively 49 cwt. of coal and 45 cwt. of ore, compared with 50 cwt. of coal and 51 cwt. of ore in 1875 ; while in recent years it appears that hematite ores have been more extensively employed than formerly. CHAPTEE XV. SOUTH "WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIEE ipON INDUSTEIES. Ironstones of the Coal Measures — Order of Occurrence — Description' and Analyses — Iron Ore Deposits of the Carboniferous Limestone, Whitchurch, Mwyndy, Hendy, and Wenvoe — Production and Analyses — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History — Monmouthshire, Brecknockshire and Glamorganshire — Account of Oyfarthfa "Works — Anthracite Pig Iron — Early History — Production of Pig Iron in Bituminous and Anthracite Coal districts since 1855 — Mills and Forges and Bessemer Steel "Works and Coal employed — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture in South "Wales. The Clay Ironstones. — Formerly the iron-works of South Wales depended almost entirely upon the clay ironstones of the coal measures (argillaceous carbonates of iron) : these in recent years have become more expensive to raise, as they recede further from the outcrop. At one period two-thirds of the ironstone used in the blast furnaces of Great Britain -were ob- tained from the coal measures, no"w the quantities do not exceed one-third of all the ironstone raised in the kingdom. The late Mr. Samuel Blackwell, of Dudley,* in his report of the iron ores of the kingdom, divides the South Wales coal-field into several districts, in each of which, sections are given distin- guishing the strata, the seams of coal, and measures of ironstone, and the principal iron-works. The districts are enumerated as follows : — The Eastern Outcrop. The North-Eastern Outcrop. The Northern Outcrop. The Central Anticlinal District. The Western or Anthracite District. Southern Outcrop. Eastern Outcrop. — In the district on the eastern edge of the coal basin, the ironstone measures hitherto wrought are at Blae- navon, known as the " Soap Veiu Mine," 6 inches thick, and in * Catalogue of the Great Exhibition of 1851, Vol. L, p. 150. CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 585 descending order, the " Black Pins," " The Three-quarter Balls," the. " Meadow Vein Mine," or Pwl Llaca, and two others of less importance, known as the "Spotted Vein Mine," and the "Bottom Vein Mine." It may be observed that these measures rarely exceed 5 or 6 inches in thickness, and that they are richer in metallic iron on the east, and become less so on the west, although the measures increase in thickness in that direction. Nortli-Eastern Outcrop. — In this district a great development of the ironstone measures appears ; at Coalbrook Vale occurs the " Soap Vein Mine," a measui'e of four courses, equal to 7 inches, and yielding an average of about 2,000 tons of ironstone per acre. Below occurs a vein of black band very locally distri- buted and not generally worked. The " Soap Vein " coal, a seam of 15 inches, intervenes between the "Black Band" seam and the " Black Pins " ironstone. This measure consists of ten irregular courses of nodules in about 15 feet of ground, and yields of iron- stone about 4,500 tons per acre. Next in descendmg order occurs the " EUed Coal," 3 feet 4 inches thick, and the " Big Veui Coal," 5 feet 6 inches thick. The next measure, the " Three- quarter Balls," consisting of three courses, two of which are irregular, yield an average of about 1,200 tons per acre, the measure reposing on the " Three-quarter Coal," with which it is worked. The coal seams below are as follows ; the Ft. In. Bwdellog Coal 2 10 Engine Vein Ooiil , . ..... 3 12 Yard Coal 3 8 Below is the Old Coal, 5 feet 6 inches thick, with which it is worked, a measure of black band of good quaUty but Hmited in area, and regarded as an important measui'e in the neighbour- hood of Beaufort and Nanty-Glo. The succeeding measures in the district before the bottom coal is reached are the " Spotted Pins," at Coalbrook Vale, con- sisting of two courses of 4| inches in 4 feet of ground, yielding about 1,200 tons per acre. The "Little Pins," Nanty-Glo, of two courses, equal to 5 inches in 3 feet of ground, and yielding about 1,400 tons. The " Eed Vein," at Coalbrook Vale, of three com'ses, equal to 63- inches, and yielding 1,800 tons per acre. The lowest measiu'e in this section, at Nanty-Glo, known as the " Big Vein," and worked with the Bottom Coal, consisting 586 COAL ANT) IKON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. of two courses, equal to 6 inches, and yielding per acre about 1,700 tons. The beds of coal in this division of the coal-field are all bitu- minous, while those of the ironstones are principally argillaceous ; but some important beds of black band, or carbonaceous ironstone, are also worked. ITortheru Outcrop. — A well defined section of the measures at Dowlais, from the " Gwrid Mine," at the top of the series, to the " Bottom Eosser Mine," exhibits a thickness of about 320 yards. It is remarked by Mr. Blackwell in this section, that iu the last 100 yards there are five workable beds of coal, varying from 2 feet to 9 feet thick, and 62 distinct courses of ironstone, varying from 1 to 5 inches thick, many of which, hovever, are not necessarily worked. The measures of coal and ironstone succeed, each in descending order, as follows : — Succession op Strata. Gwrid Mine. Soap Vein. — Three courses, equal to 6 inches and worked with Soap Vein Coal. Upper Blach Pins. — Three courses, equal to 4 inches. Lower Blach Pins. — One course, equal to 3 inches. Yard Coal, 3 ft. 6 in. Upper Four-foot Coal, 3 feet. Dowlais Big Coal, 8 feet. Blach Pin Soap Vein. — Five courses, equal to 11 inches, about seventeen yards beneath Big Coal. Eas Las Coal, 7 ft. 9 in. Brass Vein Mine. — Two courses, 3J inches, lying immediately on Brass Vein Coal. Brass Vein Coal, 2 feet. Little Pins. — Eight courses, equal to 16 inches. Three Coals, 3 feet. Little Vein. — One course, equal to 5 inches lying over Little Vein Coal. Little Vein Coal, 3 feet. Big Blue Vein. — Three courses, equal to 8| inches, lying 4 feet above Lower Four-foot Coal, 9 ft. 3 in. Spotted Vein. — Three courses, equal to 13 inches, in 8 feet of ground, and lying about 5 yards below Lower Four-foot Coal. Bed Vein. — Four courses, equal to 11| inches, in 8 feet of ground, and about five yards underneath " Spotted Vein." Little Blue Vein. — Six courses, equal to 14 inches, in about 12 feet of ground. JenJcin Pins.— Eight courses, equal to 12 inches, in about 10 feet of ground. Lumpy Fern.— Three courses, equal to 6J inches, in about 6 feet of ground, and worked with Lumpy Vein Coal, 1 It. 3 in. Top Bosser Mine. — One course, equal to 5 inches. Bottom Bosser Mine. — Three courses, equal to 8 inches, in about 5 feet of ground. CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 587 In the district of the above section are established the im- portant ironworks of Dowlais, Cyfarthfa, Aberdare, Ehymney, Gadlys, and others. Central Anticlinal District. — In the neighbourhood of Llynvi and Cwm Avon occur two important seams of black band, the upper consisting of one course, equal to 20 inches, and worked also at Maesteg; while the lower black band consists of one course of 12 inches. These beds are about 22 yards apart, and for extent of area and general quality are the most important black bands in the South Wales coal-field. At Cwm Avon the black band averages 7 inches, while at Oakwood, the same measure attains a thickness of 22 inches. The coal and mine vein at the bottom of the Llynvi section has a thickness of 27 inches, and between it and the upper black band intervene some 13 seams of coal, varying from 16 inches to 7 feet, besides numerous measures of ironstone ; some of the measures at the outcrop being dug in patches or open works. In the Cwm Avon series the total thickness of the section from the Wernddu Seam to the Lower Four-foot Seam is about 800 yards, in which occur 19 seams of coal, varying from 14 inches to 9 feet, and 10 distinct courses of ironstone. Western or Anthracite District. — The following section presents clearly the order of occurrence and the thickness of the more' important ironstone measm-es in the Ystalyfera and the Ywiscedwin districts, where the beds of coal are exclusively anthracitic : — Succession or Strata. Ft. In. Blachhand, Ystalyfera. — Fourteen inches thick, very local ; yields ahout' 2,750 tons per acre. Blach Pins, Ystalyfera.— Tyfo courses, equal to 8 inches; yields about 2,400 tons per acre. Soap Vein, Ystalyfera.-^Thi^Q courses, equal to 10 inches ; yields about 2,750 tons per acre. Soft Vein Coal. Penny-Pieces, Ystalyfera. — Three courses, with scattered balls ; yields about 3,600 tons per acre. Penturin Coal 3 WJiite Pins, Ystalyfera.— Sometimes called Coedfalda Mine; four courses, about 16 inches, in 14 feet of ground ; yields about 4,800 tons per acre. White Vein Coal 16 Black Vein Mine, Ystalyfera.— Two courses, equal to 8 inches; yields about 2,400 tons per acre. Black Vein Coal 4 588 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. Succession op Strata (continued). Ft. In. LittleVein Mine, Tstalyfera.— Ten couvaes, in 18 feet of ground, got -witi Little Vein Coal; yields 7,400 tons per acre. This is the most important measure of ironstone in this district. Little Vein Coal 3 Billets, Tstalyfera. Harnlo Mine, Tstalyfera. — Two courses. HarnloCoal . . . . . ... 2 Big Vein, Ystalyfera. — Two courses, equal to 6 inches; yielding 1,800 tons per acre, when worked by level ; if worked in patches 16 feet of ground, all interspersed with stone. Big Vein Coal 5 6 Black Vein Coal . . 2 Brass Vein, Ystalyfera. — Five courses, in 13 feet of ground ; yielding 3,500 tons per acre. Brass Vein Coal '.40 Three-Coal Vein 3 Bryalley Vein Coal 3 6 Little Brass Mine, Tniscedvn/n. Little Brass Vein 2 Middle Vein Coal 2 6 Cwm Fit Mine, Yniacedwyn. — Three courses. Lower Vein Coal 3 Little Blue Vein, Yniscedwyn. Big Blue Vein ,, Gnappog Mine „ Pin Mawr Mine „ In reference to the measures of the above series Mr. Blackwell remarks, that they bear the appearance of having been subjected to an extremely high temperature ; which has been, in all proba- bility, the cause of the conversion of its beds of coal into anthracite. Southern Outcrop. — A remarkable series of coal and ironstone measures are developed in this area of the coal-field; the following exhibit their order and thickness : — ■ Section of Strata. thicksess. Ft. In. EockVein 4 Double Vein 4 LittleVein 3 Bridge Vein 16 Lanthern Vein , . .50 Small Bodur Coal 5 Gbeat Bodur Vein 8 Sooty Vein 5 6 North Vawr Vein 12 South Vawr Veia 4 4 Second Vawr Vein 3 Thii'd Vawr Vein 5 6 SlattogVein 2 Six-feet Vein 6 CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 589 Section of Strata {cmtinited). thickness. Ft. In. Nme-feei Balls, Oefn Cwsc—Fom: coui'ses, equal to 9 inclies. South Nine-foot Coal 9 Nine-feet Balls, Cefn Cwse. — Seven courses, equal to 17 inclies. Fiery Vein Coal 4 Fiery Vein Ironstone, Cefn Cwse.— Six. courses, equal to 14 inches. Five Quarter Vein 4 6 Great Gribbur Vein 6 Next follows an interesting section of ironstone measui-es at Cefn Cwse, 18 in number, before the Small Gribbur coal is reached : — Oribbur Balls. — Two courses, equal to 6 inches. Upper Spotted Vein. — Two courses, equal to 4 inches. Spotted Balls. — Two courses, equal to 4 inches. Middle Spotted Vein. — Two courses, equal to 8| inches. Lower Spotted Vein. — Two courses, equal to 4^ inches. Variegated Pin.— Two courses, equal to 5^ inches. Yellow Vein and Balls. — Two courses, equal to 8 inches. Upper Red Vein. — Two courses, equal to 3 inches. Upper Bed Vein Balls. — Two courses, equal to 6 inches. Lowest Bed Vein. — Two courses, equal to 4, inches. Pin Bhyhwr Balls. — One course, equal to 3 inches. Black Balls. — Two courses, equal to 3 inches. Double Balls.— Two courses, equal to 6 inches. Black Pins. — One course, equal to 3 inches. Upper Blue Vein. — One course, equal to 4 inches. Blue Vein Balls. — Two courses, equal to 4 inches. Lower Blue Veins. — Two courses, equal to 3 inches. Lumpy Balls. — One course, equal to 6 inches. Pin Garu Balls. — Two courses, equal to 8 inches. Small Q-ribbur Coal 2 9 Analyses of the Ironstone. — The argillaceous ores of South Wales, like those of other coal-fields in the kingdom, are well represented in Mr. Samuel Blackwell's collection of iron ores previously referred to. Analyses of a large number of these have been made, and the results published in the " Memoirs of the Geological Survey," under the title of " The Iron Ores of Great Britain." From these analyses the following selection has been made, and will illustrate the composition and character of some of the important measures referred to in the several districts of the coal-field. These analyses, it should be stated, were made in the laboratory of the Eoyal School of Mines, under the care of Dr. Percy. The ironstones on the eastern outcrop, at Blaenavon, known as the " Black Pins," " Three-Quarter Balls," and " Spotted Vein Mine," exhibit the following constituents, as determined by Mr. A. Dick : — 590 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. Ore Dried at 100° 0. [PAET II. Constituents. Black Pins. Three-quarter BaUs. Spotted Vein Mine, Protoxide of iron 41-22 36-10 45-22 Protoxide of manganese . . 1'07 0-76 1-05 Alumina ..... 0-59 0-48 0-58 Lime 2-89 1-07 1-63 Magnesia 3-38 4-52 3-04 Carbonic acid . . . . 30 '07 27-33 31-58 Phosphoric acid 0-76 0-18 0-38 Sulphuric acid . . trace trace trace Bisulphide of iron . 0'1.5 0-11 0-71 Water 1-21 1-06 0-66 Organic matter 0-82 0-79 0-64 Insoluble residue . . . Total .... 17-27 27-58 14-50 99-43 99-98 99-99 Insoluble Residue. Silica 11-60 19-90 9-46 Alumina ... 4-29 6-09 4-20 Peroxide of iron 0-45 0-60 0-35 Magnesia 0-30 ... 0-20 Potash ... Total .... Metallic iron . . . 0-48 0-71 0-56 17-12 27-65 14-42 32-44 28-55 35-48 It is further remarked that a minute trace of copper was detected in the hydrochloric acid solution of 900 grains of ore of the " Black Pins ; " while minute traces of copper and lead were detected in similar solutions of 870 grains of the " Three-Quarter Balls," and 905 grains of ore of the " Spotted Vein Mine." * The word mine, it may be observed, is commonly used in South "Wales for ore. The " Black Pin Mine " (Middle Pin), Pontypool, examined by Mr. E. Eiley, is thus described : " Clay ironstone, easUy scratched by a steel point ; colour, blackish grey ; fracture, subconchoidal ; surface of fracture, rough. A very thin vein of carbonate of lime occurs in the sample analysed." A distinct trace of copper was detected in 234 grains of the ore. The results appear as foUows : — ' Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part III., pp. 183, 185, 186. CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 591 Eesults TABrLATED.*— Oue Deied at 100° C. Protoxide of iron 26-98 Protoxide of manganese 0-49 Alumina 1-19 Lime . • 3-11 Magnesia 4-13 Carbonic acid 23-40 Phosphoric acid 0"3o Silica, soluble in hydrochloric acid . . . . 0-50 Bisulphide of iron 0-52 Water in combination O'TS Organic matter 0'82 Insoluble residue 36-51 Total 98-78 Insoltjble EEsmuE. Silica 27-41 Alumina 7-69 Peroxide of iron 0-73 Lime 0-22 Magnesia 0-42 Potash ... 1-18 Soda . 0-16 Total .... 37-81 This ore, as appears from the above results, is not rich in metallic iron, yielding but 21 "49 per cent. ; clay, after ignition, giving 26'16 per cent. The Black Band measures of Pontypool and Abercarne, examined by Mr. W. Ratcliife and Mr. A. Dick, the former giving the following description of the Abercarne measure : " Colour, brownish grey ; compact ; containing thin seams of coal and films of pyrites in some of the joints," show the annexed results. The Abercarne variety giving 36"49 per cent, of metallic iron ; the Pontypool, 24*90 per cent. : — It is observed of the Black Band, Pontypool, that the combined "water could not be determined owing to the large amount of tarry matter evolved when the ore was heated sufficiently to expel the water combined with the clay. Of hygroscopic water, however, it was found that in an analysis of 47 "08 grains of this ore, the loss of water at 100° centigrade amounted to 0"29 grains. * " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part III, p. 191. 592 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ir. Constituents.* Black Band, PontypooLf Black Band, Abercanie. Protoxide of iron 31 '74 43-37 Sesquioxide of iron . . . Oxide of manganese Protoxide of manganese . . Alumina ..... 'i'o6 7'7o 4-10 1-50 6-05 Lime '. 3'84 3-00 Magnesia Potash 3-51 ia2 0-25 0-32 Carbonic acid . 25-03 30-50 Sulpliurio acid trace 1-56 Phosphoric acid Silica 0-35 16-97 traces 2-80 Bisulphide of iron . Hygroscopic water . . . Combined water 0-48 6-27 0-31 Organic matter . . . . Total .... 8-50 6-25 100-35 100-28 Traces of silver and copper were detected in 600 grains of the Pontypool Black Band. North-Eastern Outcrop. — The ironstones of this district are weU represented in the measui-es worked at the Cwm Celyn and Blaina Ironworks in Monmouthshire. The principal ironstones, taken in ascending order, in the section, are as follows : — Red Vein, Spotted Vein, Black Pins, and Soap Vein.t The analyses were made as far back as the year 1860 by Dr. Noad, F.E.S., for Messrs. Levick and Simpson, the then proprietors of the above- named ironworks. It is observed in reference to the constituents of these measures that " Metallic sulphides are very unusual in the ironstones of this eastern extremity of the coal-field, remarkably so as compared with the ironstones of central Engla-nd." On the other hand, these measures frequently contain quartz, and, more rarely, but yet in comparative abundance, Hatchettine and Millerite, or sul- phide of nickel, substances not observed in the analogous deposits of our midland and northern coal-fields. * Iron Ores of Great Britain, Part III., pp. 192-3. f For detailed section of these meaeures, see page 193 of the " Iron Ores of Great Britain ; " where also will be found descriptive notes on the ironstones of tliis and surrounding districts by Mr. W. Smyth, F.R.S. CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 592 KED VEIN MEASURES. Tabulated Results of Analysis. Red Vein. Black Vein. "Jack "in Bed Vein. Grey Vein. SiUca Alumina, insoluble in hydro- chloric acid Alumina soluble in hydrochloric acid .... Carbonate of iron . Carbonate of lime Carbonate of magnesia . Protoxide of manganese Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid Bisulphide of iron . Potash .... Organic matter and -water 8-31 3-13 2-52 73-79 2-95 3-80 0-92 0-53 traces 0-17 0-48 2-36 4-600 2-000 3-600 80-220 4-650 2-910 1-020 0-427 trace 0-123 # 8-130 2-220 5-150 61-120 19-800 11-880 * « 15-240 3-300 2-700 70-500 1-980 3-000 * 0-217 trace 0-119 « * Loss by roasting .... 98-96 99-550 98-300 97-956 24-00 30-700 30-40 28-00 Metallic iron .... 35-625 38-75 24-65 34-00 Tabulated Results of Analysis. BLACK PIN MEASTTRES. SOAP VEIN MEASUEES. Black Pin. Red Pin. Yellow Pin. Top Soap Vein. Bottom Soap Vein. Silica .... 12-000 15-400 25-200 20-000 9-540 Alumina insoluble in ) hydrochloric acid . ( 4-000 J-000 8-200 5-000 4-460 Alumina soluble in j hydrochloric acid ) 1-150 3-520 8-200 2-850 2-500 Carbonate of iron . . 71-700 57-990 48-300 59-610 77-340 Carbonate of lime . 2-640 3-450 1-200 4-500 Carbonate of magnesia . 4-230 8-580 6-000 4-800 0-900 Protoxide of manganese 1-420 0-640 0-327 0-530 Phosphoric acid 0-482 0-750 0-214 0-424 0-576 Sulphuric acid . . . trace trace trace trace trace Bisulphide of iron . trace 0-241 0-124 0-246 0-192 Potash .... 0-489 0-450 0-389 0-444 0-530 Organic matter and water Loss by roasting . Metallio iron . . . 1-645 2-340 1-320 1-442 2-240 99-756 98-361 99-474 99-316 98-808 28-00 26-80 22-70 25-20 29-90 34-60 28-00 23-30 28-75 37 -.30 Q Q 594 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES, [PAET II. The following ironstones worked in the Blaenavon district, and employed at the Blaenavon Ironworks,* by Messrs. Thomas, exhibit the annexed results. They are thus described : — 1. Black. Pins. — A nodular form of clay ironstone, having cracks of contraction partty filled with a white crystalline sub- stance, composed of the carbonates of iron, lime and magnesia. 2. Pwl Llaca. — A clay ironstone, brownish grey in colour, and homogeneous. The seam measures 2|- inches barely. 3. Bottom Vein. — A clay ironstone, light brownish grey in colour, homogeneous. The seam measures 3 inches. • 4. Ball Mine. — Brownish grey clay ironstone, containing a few very thin seams of limespar. 5. Grey Vein. — A clay ironstone, brownish grey in colour, with very rough surface of fracture. The seam measures 2 inches. Constituents. Black Pins. Pwl Llaca. Bottom Vein. Ball Mine. Grey Vein. Protoxide of iron . 47-02 47-60 42-04 51-28 39-80 Oxide of manganese . . 1-00 0-46 0-87 1-11 1-17 Lime .... 2-57 0-77 1-03 0-78 2-41 Magnesia . . . . 3-23 2-30 2-51 0-53 3-30 Carbonic acid 34-30 32-90 29-52 33-32 30-04 Phosphoric acid . . 0-92 0-71 0-90 0-74 1-02 Bisulphide of iron . 0-25 0-08 0-06 0-06 0-05 Water hygroscopic . . 0-34 0-32 0-36 0-18 0-54 Water in combination . 1-58 1-28 2-00 1-67 2-12 Organic matter . . . 0-40 0-30 0-30 0-35 0-45 Olay ignited . Metallic iron . 8-63 13-60 20-87 10-33 19-40 100-24 100-32 100-46 100-35 100-30 36-77 37-32 33-20 40-12 31-45 1 The ITorthern Oatcrop. — A series of the ironstones raised and smelted at the extensive ironworks at Dowlais,t Merthyr Tydfil, was analysed for the proprietors by Mr. Edward Eiley, who has determined the constituents of the following measures : — The Doiolais Rosser Vein Mine. — This ironstone is above the Lower Rosser Vein, and occurs in balls, with a very stony appearance and fracture. The sample was taken as an average : — * See return to House of Commons, , " Cast Iron Experiments," report made to War Office, 29th July, 1858, p. 148. t See for detailed section the "Iron Ores of Great Britain," p. 200. CHAP. XV,] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 595 SoiTjBLE IN Acids. GEAINF, Silica 0-27 Protoxide of iron 41 -03 Alumina 0-23 Protoxide of manganese O-oo Lime 2-83 Magnesia 3-11 Carbonic acid 28'49 Moisture 0'57 Combined water 1-36 Phosphoric acid 0-70 Organic matter O'O" Insoluble in Acids. Silica 13-08 Alumina o'o6 Peroxide of iron 0*41 Lime 0-17 Magnesia . ; 0-25 Potash . 0-86 Total 99-54 Metallic iron 32-18 The Dowlais Spotted Vein Mine. — This measure consists of three bands of ironstone, but that to which the analysis refers is only the lower band, consisting of large bails or roundish nodules, termed " riders," which sometimes amount to 10 or 12 inches in thickness. They are often very cavernous, and exhibit in abundance crystals of quartz, carbonate of iron, and miUerite, or sulphide of nickel. The yield of metallic iron of this measure is, in the calcined state, 53-6 per cent. Its constituents are as follows : — Eestjlts Tabulated. Silica 8.38 Alumina 5-79 Peroxide of iron 76-61 Eed oxide of manganese 1-21 Lime 3-13 Magnesia 3-96 Phosphoric acid 0-'57 Potash 0-87 Sulphur 0-06 Total 100-58 Another measure, the " Gwr Hyd Mine," is of considerable value, the top vein of which is argillaceous, described as a " hard stone of a brownish hue and with granular fracture. The bottom vein of this Gwr Hyd Mine is a black band ironstone containing sufficient carbonaceous matter to eifect its calcination without the Q Q 2 596 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part n. aid of additional fuel. The top and bottom veins of the Gwr Hyd Mine yield as follows : — the first named giving of metallic iron 30'33 per cent., increased in the bottom or black band vein, to 37-80 per cent. Central Anticlinal District. — The ironstones of this district are illustrated by analysis of the Sulphury Mine, Cwm Avon. This measure occurs between the Finery and the Sulphury seams of coal, and enjoys a high repute as a good ore. It consists of three courses averaging about 7 inches in thickness together. The top vein is a I'ough granular stone, of blackish grey tint, showing, on fracture, vertical lines of carbonate of lime and iron. The middle is very similar, showing also occasional crystals of blackish quartz in the cavities. The bottom vein is more compact, and breaks with irregularly angular fracture. Eettjuns Tabtiated.— Oee Dried at 100° 0. Protoxide of iron 40-30 Protoxide of manganese l-OS Alumina . . 1-43 Lime 1*44 Magnesia 2*77 Carbonic acid 28-23 Phosphoric acid 0"88 Sulphuric acid trace Bisulphide of iron 0-09 Water 0-74 Organic matter 0-29 liisoluble residue 22-48 Total .... 99-68 Im-soltjble Eesidub. Silica 14-43 Alumina 6'47 Peroxide of iron ... .... 0-34 Magnesia 0-17 Potash • . . 0-82 Total 22-23 The metallic iron amounted to 31"63 per cent., and a trace of copper was detected in 800 grains of the ore. The above analysis, and the following, in the Western district, were made by Mr. A. Dick, who describes the " White Pins," Ystalyfera, sometimes called the Coedfalda Mine, as follows : — "This measure consists of balls and pins, or roundish nodules and flat courses ; although called white they are generally of a dark grej' colour, and have fretjuent cracks, filled with carbonate of lime CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 597 and iron, which in the iron fracture give a vertical lenticular section : — Eesults TABtTLATED.— Ore Dried at 100° 0. Protoxide of iron 29-34 Protoxide of manganese 0'73 Alumina 0'96 Lime 0-84 Magnesia 5*63 Oai-bonic acid 24-56 Phosphoric acid 0'14 Sulphuric acid trace Bisulphide of iron O'OS Water 1-00 Organic matter 0-33 Insoluble residue 35-73 Total .... 99-3 4 Insglxtble Eesidtje. Silica_ 24-98 Alumina 9-75 Peroxide of iron 0-53 Magnesia 0-20 Potash 1-00 Total ..... 36-46 The metallic iron in this ore is equivalent to 23 "22 per cent. ; a trace of lead being detected in 910 grains of the ore. Another clay ironstone of the Ystalyfera district, known as the " Cheese Mine," published in the " Eeturns of Cast-iron Experiments " previously referred to, is thus described : " The sample from which an average was selected for analysis, consisted of a nodule of clay ironstone, dark grey in colour, and intersected by numerous veins of calcareous iron spar, in which a few crystals of quartz were discovered." Eesults Tabulated. Peroxide of iron 42-72 Oxide of manganese 0-46 Lime 4-66 Magnesia 5-73 Carbonic acid 35-70 Phosphoric acid 0-40 BisulpHde of iron ) ^^^^^^ Silica, as quartz ) Water hygroscopic 0-26 Water in combination 1-54 Organic matter 0-30 Clay ignited 8-23 Total 100-00 598 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. The metallic iron contained in the above was equivalent to 33'45 per cent. The annexed summary exhibits, at a glance, the amount of metallic iron contained in those measures of the South Wales coal-field contained in the foregoing analyses, and others : — Ironstones. Analyst. Metallic Iron. Monmouthshire — 1 Spotted Veins, Blaenavon A. Dick . 35-48 Three-qiiarter Balls, ,, . >3 • • 28-55 Black Pin, >» 32-44 Spotted Vein Balls, Pontypool . E. Eiley . . 34-96 Meadow Vein, ,, A. Dick . 26-01 Three Cakes, , , ») 20-95 Black Pin, E. Eiley . 21-49 Black Band, ,, A. Dick . . 24-90 ,, Abercarne . W. Eatclifife . 36-49 Eed Vein, Cwm Celyn Dr. Noad . . 35-62 Black Vein, ,, 38-75 " Jack "in Eed Vein, Cwm Celyn 24-65 Grey Vein, ,, 34-00 Black Pin, „ . 34-60 Eed Pin, 28-00 TeUowPin, „ . 23-30 Top Soap Vein, ,, 28-75 Bottom Soap Vein, , , . 37-30 Glamorganshire — Eosser Vein, Dowlais . E. Eiley . 3218 Spotted Vein, ,, 53-60* WelshLittle Vein, ,, . • 30-43 Welsh Lumpy, ,, 34-72 Gwr Hyd Mine, ,, . 30-33 Black Band, 37-80 Sulphury Mine, Cwm Avon . A. Dick . 31-63 White Pins, Ystalyfera . 23-22 Cheese Mine, ,, E. A. Abel ' '. 33-45 Black Band Lower, Llynvif 3608 Black Band Lower, ,, 36-80 Black Band Tipper, ,, 31-36 Pembrokeshire — Oatshole, Saundersfoot . W. EatcUflfe . 26-39 Kilvelgj', ,, . . j> • 29-15 Production of Ironstone. — There does not appear to exist any reliable information before the year 1857. Occasional returns for a few districts are met with, but they fail to represent anything like the yield of the ironstone measures of South Wales. For » In calcined stone. t Used extensively for making iron In the Llynvi and Maesteg districts. CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES lEON INDUSTRIES. ;99 1857, however, there appears a return amounting to 1,013,941 tons of argillaceous ironstone, and a further quantity of 24,300 tons of brown hematite, also raised in the South Wales area from the carboniferous limestone and Permian series, to which attention will be called further on. The production of 1857 appears in the annexed details : — OOUHTY. DISTRICT. QUANTITT. (JBANTITT Tona. Tons. Monmouth, Abersychan .... . 43,098 „ Blaenavon . . 80,111 ,, Blaina ,, Coalbrook Vale [• . . 73,207 ,, Owiu Celyn ) EbbwVale . . 37,567 ,, Pontypool .... . 41,200 ,, Sirhowey .... . . 65,886 ,, Tredegar .... . 86,182 „ Varteg and Q-olynos . . 56,133 VartegHill .... 60 „ Victoria .... 15,852 Total of Monmonfh 499,296 Brecknoch, Beaufort .... . 74,600 „ Clydach . 34,000 Total of Brpc'kTinolr 108,600 J.\JUniJ. \JX. JJ.L cUJXJLLUL'A. • Olamwgan, Aberamman .... . 32,812 ,, Dowlais .... . 145,036 Gadly's .... . 17,468 ,, Llynvi .... . 49,481 ,, Maesteg .... . 65,000 ,, Penydarren . . . . . 80,617 Tondu . 15,631 Total of Glamorgan . 406,045 . . Total of South Wales 1,013,941 Again, for the year 1858, the production was 752,231 tons, of which 24,635 tons were brown hematite, raised at Llantrissant, Mwyndy and Wenvoe. Kegarding the value of these and other iron ores employed in the ironworks on the eastern edge of the coal basin in Monmouthshire at that time, the following were the prices of the several varieties delivered at Newport, per ton : — COUNTY. IRON ORE. S. d. Devonshire, Brixbam. 13 ,, Prawle 13 Somersetshire, Honeymead 10 „ AshtonVale 10 South Wales, Argillaceous 11 ,, Llantrissant (Brown Hematite) . . . . 15 600 COAL AND IRON INDTJSTEIBS. [PAUT II. The charge of conveyance from Newport to the ironworks varying from 2s. Sd. to 2s. 6d. per ton. It need scarcely be said that the ironstone obtained annually in South Wales is totally in- adequate to the requirements of the blast furnaces ; on the other hand, the abundance of fuel enables the ironmaster to increase his supplies by importing rich and valuable ores from the hematite districts of Cumberland, Lancashire, the Midland and South- Western districts of England, bearing a high rate of carriage, and he is further in a position to supply his wants by the favom-- able geographical situation of the district, which enables him to import ores from Spain and other foreign countries. Since 1859 the production of clay ironstone in South Wales has been as follows : — There is every reason to believe, however, that these figures fall short of the actual quantities raised ; this conclusion is arrived at by a comparison of the annual yield of the blast furnaces, for which reliable data exist in the quantities of the ores employed and their yield of metallic iron : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1859 649,758 1870 560,005 1860 630,705 1871 969,714 1861 545,705 1872 1,247,594 1862 472,053 1873 943,926 1863 420,017 1874 661,616 1864 468,355 1875 •495,840 1865 387,742 1876 476,285 1866 368,692 1877 367,316 1867 501,186 1878 318,399 1868 712,680 1879 299,000 1869 715,001 1880 278,361 The value of these ores in 1872 averaged 12s. per ton ; while during the year 1878 the price did not exceed 10s. per ton. The production of ironstone in South Wales in the year 1880 amounted to 278,361 tons, of the value of £139,180, or 10s. per ton. Iron Ore Deposits of the Carboniferous Iiimestoue. — At Whitchurch, near Cardiff, in Glamorganshire, and at Pentyrch, at the mouth of the Taff Valley, deposits of brown hematite occur at the base of the carboniferous limestone, in nearly vertical * In the above return till 1875 are included the hematite ores raised in Wales, after 1875 the quantities above include clay iron ores only. CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 601 fissures in the limestone, with an underlay of from 3 to 7 degrees south. The ore wrought at Pentyrch has been extensively employed in the works of the same name, in the manufacture of sheet iron and tin plates, and has long enjoyed the reputation of being amongst the best brands in the kingdom. Again, in the lower bed of the Permian series, brown hematite ore exists. These deposits occm- locally in hoUows or basins ; these basins at Mwyndy, near Llantrissant, assume wedge- like shapes at the outcrop, the ore occmTing in hollows in the upturned edges of the underlying rocks. Similar ore is also wrought at the Bute Mine, near the same place. Another deposit exists west of Llantrissant, at Quay-Coch, two miles north of Porth Cawl, where it lies over the carboniferous limestone, having a thickness of five feet. Of the hematite ore raised in Glamorganshu-e the following gives the production in each of the years named. Formerly hematite was wrought to a limited extent at Hendy and Wenvoe, and recently at Llwynsaer by the Mwyndy Iron Oi'e Company. The ore raised at Llwynsaer in 1880 amounted to 12,315 tons, of the value of £6,773. Year. Mwyndy. Bute. Garth. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1858 12,500 . 12,500 1860 29,217 29,217 1862 27,260 16,633 . 43,893 1864 50,401 13,168 63,569 1866 41,387 26,000 67,387 1868 60,660 22,875 , 83,635 1870 66,191 22,530 , 88,720 1871 58,723 24,601 , 83,324 1872 49,661 23,105 . 72,766 1873 52,816 339 , 53,155 1874 68,787 36,558 15,545 120,890 1875 67,697 16,057 16,536 100,290 1876 61,618 8,525 13,421 •83,970 1877 49,084 7,581 9,861 t77,320 1878 30,451 8,375 7,828 156,639 1879 20,986 985 6,695 §53,811 1880 43,095 191 9,966 1165,567 * Including 405 tons raised at Eudry. f Including 10,794 tons raised at Llwynsaer. J Including 9,894 tons raised at Llwynsaer and Trecastle. § Including 20,986 raised at Trecastle. II Including 12,315 tons raised at Llwynsaer. 602 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. The value of these hematite ores for some years past shows little variation, the average price being from 12s. to 14s. per ton. The mines raising hematite ore in South Wales, their situation, proprietors, and chief agents are as follows during the year 1880 :— No. Name of Mine. Situation. Name of Proprietor or Company. Name of Manager or Agent. 1 2 3 4 6 Bate Hematite . Llwynsaer . . f Mwyndy and ) I Treoastle j Melyn Griffith . Garth . Llantrissant . . Cardiff Dowlais Iron Co. MwjTidy Iron Ore Co., Lim, T. W. Booker & Co., Lim. John Powell. WiUiam Vivian. David Evans. E. D. HoweU. Analyses of these Iron Ores. — The ore raised at Mwyndy, near Llantrissant, is thus described by Mr. W. Eatcliffe : " Com- pact hematite ; easily scratched by a file ; lustre, earthy ; colour, deep red yellow ; streak, brown red ; fracture, uneven, showing numerous cavities lined with crystals of quartz ; the ore contains minute particles of quartz, visibly diffused through it. Some specimens selected from large solid masses of the ore are scarcely scratched by a file ; colour, bright purple blue. Particles of quartz are diffused through these, and are only plainly visible by the aid of the microscope. The samples analysed were composed of a mixtm'e of these varieties." Eesults Tabulated. Sesquioxide of iron 70'o72 Oxide of manganese 0'522 Silica 18-362 Alumina . ^ 1-572 Lime 3-562 Magnesia 1-311 Potash ;. • . 0-317 Sulphuric acid 0-451 Phosphoric acid 0'132 Carbonic acid 1-716 Water 0-660 Total ■ 99-177 The total amount of metallic iron contained in this ore is equivalent to 48-934 per cent. ; it further appears that a trace of cobalt was detected in 300 grains of the ore. The calcareous hematite of Whitchurch, also examined bv CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 603 Mr. "W. Eatcliffe, gives the following results. The ore is thus described :— " Compact ; soft ; lustre, greasy to dull ; colour, dark red on outside ; on the fracture, blackish red ; streak, bright red, soils the fingers, and makes a red streak on paper; structui-e, oolitic and sometimes pisolitic." Results Tabtjiated. Sesquioxide of iron Protoxide of iron Oxide of manganese Alumina . Lime . Magnesia Silica . Potash Soda . Carbonic acid Sulphuric acid Phosphoric acid Organic matter Water (total) . Ignited insoluble residue Total . 66-554 1-131 1-127 1-753 8-547 1-116 0-312 0-190 0-068 5-733 1-309 1-017 0-376 2-118 10-356 101-707 Ignited Insoluble Eesidue. Silica ■ . . . . 8-589 Alumina (with a littlo iron) .... 1-042 Lime 0-850 Magnesia 0-272 Potash 0-235 Soda 0-076 Total 11-064 The total amount of metallic ii'on contained in this ore is equivalent to 47'468 per cent. A note appended to the analysis states,* that " No metal precipitahle by sulphuretted hydrogen from the hydrochloric acid solution of 300 grains of ore, was detected. The Mwyndy Company previously referred to possesses an estate at Trecastle containing some valuable deposit of iron ore ; the mines are situated near the Llantrissant station and on the Cowbridge line, three miles distant from Mwyndy. Of late these deposits have not been worked except in a limited manner. The following analyses of two samples of this hematite, by Mr. ' Iron Ores of Great Britain," Part III., p. 217. 604 COAL AlfD IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT II. John Pattinson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, show the subjoined results : — Constituents. Trecastle. No. 1. Trecastle. No. 2. Peroxide of iron 87-43 74-71 , Protoxide of manganese . . 0-24 0-19 Alumina ..... 0-24 1-90 Lime 0-28 5-56 Magnesia .... 0-27 0-94 Oxide of copper . . . . trace trace Carbonic acid .... ... 4-90 Silica 1-97 3-86 Sulphur 0-02 0-02 Phosphoric acid . . . . 0-01 0-01 Combined water 9-29 7-64 Moisture ..... 0-21 0-24 99-96 99-97 The high character of these ores appears in the fact that the iirst gives 61"20 and the second sample 52-30 of metallic iron. Pig Iron Maniifactiire. — On the northern and eastern out- crop of the South Wales mineral basin, in the shires of Monmouth and Brecloiock, are established some of the oldest and most ■extensive iron works in the kingdom. About the year 1755 it appears that a Mr. Anthony Bacon acquired an extensive mineral property in the neighbourhood of Merthyr, for a term of 99 years, at the moderate rental of £200 per annum, and it was upon this same property in later years that many of the present iron works of the above named districts were established. Previously, in the year 1565, it is known that a Mr. Capel Hanbury erected a charcoal blast furnace at Pontypool, which place is regarded as one of the earliest seats of the iron trade ; and there is reason to believe that the Eomans worked iron ore in those hills then covered with wood, as they undoubtedly did in Dean Forest, ancient heaps of slag being occasionally struck upon. In consequence of the destruction of timber for fuel being carried to a serious extent in the reign of Elizabeth, Acts were passed prohibiting the erection of iron works except in districts specified ; so that in the year 1740 the aggregate yield of charcoal pig iron amounted to but 17,350 tons, the yield of 59 furnaces distributed over the kingdom as follows : — CHAT. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 605 County. No. of Charnoal Furnaces. Pig Iron. South Walea— Tons. Brecon .... 2 600 Caermarthenshire . . . 1 100 Glamorganshire . 2 400 Monmouthshire . . . 2 900 North Wales— Denbighshire 2 550 England — Cheshire . . . . 3 1,700 Derbyshire .... 4 800 Gloucestershire . . . 6 2,850 Hampshire .... 1 200 Herefordshire . . . 3 1,350 Kent 4 400 Nottinghamshire . . . Shropshire .... 1 200 6 2,100 Staffordshire . . • . 2 1,000 Sussex .... 10 1,400 Warwickshire . . . 2 700 Worcestershire . 2 700 Yorkshire . . . . Total . 6 1,400 59 17,350 Thus of the make of charcoal iron in the year 1740 South Wales with its seven furnaces produced 2,000 tons. Advancing to the year 1788* there appear to have heen but 24 furnaces in England and Wales making charcoal pig iron amounting to 13,100 tons, and 53 furnaces making 48,200 tons of coke pig iron, the former giving an average of 545 tons per furnace, compared with 294 tons per furnace in the year 1740. Of the production of 1788, seven furnaces were in South Wales, producing 4,300 tons of charcoal pig, and eight furnaces making 8,200 tons of coke pig iron, giving a total of 12,500 tons of pig iron, the make of fifteen furnaces in South Wales, amounting to nearly one-fourth of the total production of the kingdom at this period. As this period marks a new era in the history of pig iron manufacture, and the more general use of coke as a reducing agent in the blast furnace, it wiU be a fitting place to record the quantities of charcoal, and coke pig iron produced in Great Britain, viz., for the year 1788, which were as follows : — * " Histoiy of the Iron Trade," by H. ScriTener, 1854, p. 87. -606 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. Chaecoal Pig Ieon. [PAKT II. No. of Make of each Total. Furnaces. Furnace. Tons. Tons. South Wales — Caermarthenshire 1 400 400 Glamorganshire . . . 3 600 1,800 MonmoutlisliirG . 3 VOO 2,100 England — Oumberlancl . . . . 1 300 300 Derbyshire .... 1 300 300 Gloucestershire . . . 4 650 2,600 Lancashire . . ■ . 3 700 2,100 Shropshire . . . . 3 600 1,800 Sussex .... 2 150 300 Westmoreland . . . 1 400 400 Yorkshire .... 1 600 600 North Wales— Merionethshire . . . Total . 1 400 400 24 13,100 In the same year the make of coke pig iron in England and Wales was as follows : — Coke Pig laoiir. No. of Make of each Total. Furnaces. Furnace. Tons. Tons. South Wales Brecknockshire , 2 800 1,600 Glamorganshire . . . 6 1,100 6,600 England — Cheshire .... 1 600 600 Cumberland . . . . 1 700 700 Derbyshire. 1 600 4,200 Shropshire . ... 21 1,100 23,100 Staffordshu-e 6 750 4,500 ,, .... 3 800 2,400 Yorkshire .... Total . . . 6 750 4,500 53 48,200 Scotland produced in the year 1788 from two furnaces in Argyleshire, situated at Goatfield and Bunawe, 1,400 tons of charcoal pig iron and 5,600 tons of coke pig iron, from four furnaces erected at the Carron Works in Stirlingshire, and two CHAP. XV.] SOUTH WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 607 furnaces erected at Wilsonstown or Cleugh, in Lanarkshire. Summarising the above returns for 1788 the result is as shown: — Districts. No. of Furnaces. Pig Iron. South Wales . . . England North Wales . . . Scotland South Wales . England . . . . Scotland Charcoal furnace. >> ■ • it ' • Total . Coke Pig . . )) • Total . 1 2 Tons. 4,300 8,400 400 1,400 26 14,500 8 45 6 8,200 40,000 5,600 59 53,800 Presenting a total for Great Britain of 85 furnaces and 68,300 tons of pig iron, the average yield of the English furnaces being 796 tons, compared with 875 tons, the average yield of the Scotch furnaces. The three charcoal furnaces in operation in Monmouthshire in 1788 were situated at Pontypool, Tintern Abbey, and Monmouth. Passing on to the date of the erection of coke furnaces it appears that the first furnace using coke was erected at the Sirhowey works, by the Messrs. Atkinson and Co., in 1788, and in the year 1796 produced 1,930 tons of coke pig iron. The Blaenavon works followed in the same year with three furnaces, and in the year 1796 made 4,311 tons of coke pig iron ; while in the same year the works at Blaendare, near Pontypool, and the Ebbw Vale Works put their first furnaces in blast; the former in the year 1795 making 1,500 tons, and the latter 1,660 tons of coke pig iron. Other works succeeded with rapidity ; those at Nantyglo were founded in 1795, Varteg in 1803, and the works at Tredegar in 1805. In Brecknockshire the Beaufort Works were laid down by the Messrs. Kendall and Evans, in the year 1780, the furnace producing in the year 1796 some 1,660 tons of coke pig iron. Towards the close of the past century much anxiety was shown by the coal and iron masters of the kingdom at Mr. Pitt's projects to increase the revenue — the first in 1796, by a tax on coal at the pit's mouth, and the second in 1797, on pig iron of 20 shillings 608 COAL AND IRON INDTTSTflTES. [PAKT II. per ton ; considerable opposition was shown to both those measures. A committee of the House of Commons was appointed, presided over by William Manning, M.P., and the whole subject very fully considered, the result being the abandonment of both measures. The inquiry was not however barren in results, as it brought out some very important and interesting facts upon the condition of the iron works in Great Britain at this time. These were embodied in a statement prepared by Dr. H. G. McNab,* of Severn House, Shropshire, and addressed to the chairman. In this statement a complete list of all the furnaces in Great Britain appears, with the return given by the Excise of the quantity of pig iron made in the year 1796 ; the quantities supposed and calculated upon, by three gentlemen whose initials alone appear, and a third statement of the quantities reaUy made. The works in operation at this period in Monmouthshire and Brecknockshire were those named in the following table : — Names of Furnaces. No. of Furnaces. Excise Ketum. Supposed Quantities. Exact Eetum. Monmouth Mre Blaendare Blaenavon . . . Ebbw Vale Sirhowey . . . Total . Brecknockshire — Beaufort . . . Clydaoh . TTirwain . . . Total . 1 3 1 1 Tons. 1,404 5,460 1,560 1,820 Tons. 1,404 5,460 1,560 1,820 Tons. 1,500 4,318 397 1,930 6 10,244 10,244 8,145 1 1 1 1,560 1,820 1,400 1,560 1,820 1,400 1,660 1,625 1,050 3 4,780 4,780 1 4,335 The three sources of information are given for comparison ; the exact returns however give a total production in the two districts of 12,480 tons, the make of nine furnaces, showing an average make per furnace of 1,387 tons. This return for the year 1796 possesses so much interest as con- taining the detailed list of iron works existing in the kingdom, and for purposes of comparison will be so frequently referred to in subsequent pages, that the annexed table has been prepared from * MoNab on the " Coal Trade," 1801. CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 609 the original of Dr. Macnab, intending to show the number of furnaces and the make of each district in the kingdom ; these were as follows : — No. of Excise Supposed Exact Furaaces. Return. Quantities. Return. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cumberland . 2 3,744 1,600 565 Derbyshire . . . 12 10,300 10,200 9,656 Gloucestershire 2 380 380 380 Herefordshire . . . 4 2,070 2,070 1,749 Lancashire . 3 2,180 2,180 2,249 Mid Wales . . . 1 200 200 150 Shropshire . 23 68,129 43,360 32,969 Staffordshire, North . . 2 4,700 2,200 1,959 South 14 15,820 15,256 13,210 Sussex . . . . 1 172 173 173 South Wales . 24 38,508 39,808 34,101 Wales, North . . . o 6,230 1,560 1,144 „ West . 1 1,056 1,056 290 Yorkshire, West Eiding 13 13,922 13,922 10,398 Scotland 15 ..• 17,040 15,186 ,, charcoal . . Total . 2 ... 1,600 900 124 167,311 152,605 125,079 Towards the end of the year 1800 the total number of furnaces was increased by 40, of which 21 were in blast and 19 in course of erection in Great Britain, distributed as follows : — Districts. In Blast. Building. Durham .... Gloucestershire . Shropshire Staflordshire, North . South South Wales Scotland .... Nos. 1 5 2 7 5 1 Nos. 1 2 1 11 4 Total 21 19 Beginning with the present century, a reliable som-ce of information is at hand ; one return in 1806, prepared by an iron- master conversant with the iron industries of the kingdom, shows the production of the Brecknockshire furnaces as 7,998 tons, and those of Monmouthshire as 22,950 tons, giving a total of 30,948 tons for both counties. From the return referred to, the annexed statement has been prepared, showing the works and furnaces in operation and details of production : — 610 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. FURNACES. Districts. Kg Iron Made. Built. In Blast. Tons. Brecknockshire — Beaufort . . . . 2 2 4,696 Olydach .... 2 1 2,802 TTirwain Total . Monmouthshire — 1 1 500 5 4 7,998 Blaendare .... 1 Blaenavon . . . . 4 3 7,846 Bishop's Wood . 1 1 653 EbbwVale . . . . 2 1 3,664 Nantyglo . . ... 2 Pontypool . . . . 1 1 600 Su'howey .... 2 2 3,700 Tintern Abbey . . . 1 1 987 Tredegar .... 2 2 4,500 Varteg Total . 1 1 1,000 17 12 22,950 In the same year the total production of the 161 furnaces in Great Britain amounted to 243,851 tons, being an average make per furnace of 1,515 tons. Advancing to the year 1811 there appears to have been 24 furnaces in blast in these districts, giving an average yield per furnace of 2,000 tons, or a total pro- duction of 48,000 tons of pig iron. A paper in the Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine* affords information of the production of Great Britain in the year 1827, when 284 furnaces were in operation, yielding 690,000 tons of pig iron. The general pro- duction appears to have been as follows : — Districts. Furnaces. Tons. StafifordRhire Shropshire South Wales North Wales . Yorkshire .... Derbyshire Scotland .... 95 31 90 12 24 14 18 ,216,000 78,000 272,000 24,000 43,000 20,500 36,500 Total . 284 690,000 ' The Iron Trade of Great Britain," 1828, p. 115. CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 611 It is here shown that the yield of the South Wales furnaces gave upwards of an average make of 3,000 tons, compared with 2,000 tons in 1811, and 1,515 tons in 1806. The Government instituted an inquiry in the year 1831, which was intrusted to Mr. F. Finch, formerly member for Walsall. This inquiry embraced all the iron producing districts of the kingdom, for the years 1823 and 1830. From this statement it is gathered, that the total yield of the Brecknockshire and Monmouthshire furnaces in the above named years, were 102,260 tons, and 156,277 tons ; the number of furnaces in operation being respectively 35 and 68, in each of the same years. Districts. 1823. 1830. Furnaces. Pig Iron. Furnaces. Pig Iron. No. Tons. No. Tons. Srecknockshire — Beaufort . 3 5,243 4 7,276 Olydach . . . 2 5,200 9 10,190 Hirwain . 2 4,160 4 9,360 YnisoedwjTi. . . Total . Monmouthshire — 1 1,498 2 2,111 8 16,101 19 28,937 Abersychan ... ... 6 10,640 Blaenavon. . . . 5 16,882 o 13,843 Elaiaa ■ •• ... 3 4,905 Coalbrook Vale . . 1 2,704 2 2,780 JEbbwVale & Sirhowey 6 20,425 6 26,020 Pentwyn . . . ... 3 5,391 Ebynmey . ... 1 220 Etymney and Bute . 3 5,500 6 7,608 Tredegar . 5 16,385 5 18,514 Varteg. . . . 2 6,513 o 13,536 Nantyglo . Total . . 5 17,750 "' 23,883 27 86,159 49 127,340 Comparing the totals there is shown an increase of 33 furnaces and 54,017 tons of pig iron, equivalent to 50 per cent. The result arrived at by Mr. Finch shows that in 1823 the 266 furnaces in operation in Great Britain produced 455,166 tons, compared with 372 furnaces and 748,417 tons in the j^ear 1830. It thus appears that between the years 1823 and 1830 the increase in production was twofold, while the average yield of K K 2 612 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [I'AET II. each furnace increased from 1,736 tons in 1823 to 1,828 tons in the year 1830. About this period so^e interesting returns are at hand showing the make of pig iron in some of the more important works in these districts, which compare favorably with earlier returns of the same works in previous years. , These are as follows : — MONMOUTHSHIEE. Year. Blaenavon. Tredegar. Nantyglo. Blaina. Ebbw Vale. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1829 9,135 13,379 17,436 5,137 17,082 1830 9,401 12,335 17,536 4,292 18,258 1831 9,714 13,339 17,955 2,894 19,077 1832 9,066 13,372 21,333 8,058 18,347 1833 8,709 12,340 21,023 5,062 19,905 1834 8,391 12,920 22,663 6,074 20,240 1835 9,036 13,917 24,997 8,581 24,994 1836 7,596 12,133 25,407 9,020 22,957 1837 7,512 12,661 23,972 6,380 20,035 1838 8,085 15,538 25,241 7,458 23,320 These quantities refer solely to the works named. The Beau- fort and Clydach works of Brecknockshire in each of the same years produced pig iron in the following quantities : — Bkecknockshiee. Year. Beaufort. Clydach, Tons. Tons. 1829 7,102 7,431 1830 6,005 7,573 1831 5,153 7,031 1832 6,882 6,542 1833 7,522 7,384 1834 9,808 6,262 1835 12,979 7,562 1836' 14,567 7,738 1837 11,162 7,087 1838 Total . . 10,917 9,282 92,097 73,892 In the period between 1830 and 1840 the iron industries of the county received a great impetus from the expansion of our Tail way system ; all possible skill was brought to bear on the CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OP SOUTH WALES. 613 improvement of the furnace, the quantity and quality of the iron. The old charcoal furnaces of small dimensions gave way to others of larger capacity, coke being employed ; in height the charcoal furnaces varied from 12 to 18 feet, and even 28 feet where good water power existed, those of the coke furnaces being 40 and 50 feet, and even more in height, the width of the boshes vary- ing from 10 to 15 feet. The production of the Monmouthshire and Brecknockshire furnaces till the year 1857 are included in the production of South Wales ; after 1857, the number of furnaces and production of each district is separately distin- guished. Before giving this summary the annexed statement, prepared from reliable sources, wiU show the total production of the several works in both Monmouthshire and Brecknockshire between the years 1829 and 1838 inclusive : — MONMOTJTHSHIEB. WOKKS. PIO IBOK. Tons. Blaenavon 86,646 Blaina 62,956 Coalbroook Vale 29,889 Bute 72,040 EbbwVale 204,215 Nantyglo 217,563 Pontypool 48,835 Tredegar 131,934 Varteg 113,941 Brecknockshibe. Beaufort 92,088 Clydaob 73,892 Mr. Francis Foster, writing about the year 1830, in his ob- servations on the South Wales Coal Basin,* remarks " that the quantity of iron annually made in South Wales is calculated at 270,000 tons, three-quarters of which, it would appear, was con- verted into bars, and one-quarter into pigs and castings. The average quantity of coal required included that used by engines, workmen, &c., being about five and a half tons for each ton of pig iron made." From the year 1857 the following table exhibits at a glance the number of furnaces built, in blast, and make of iron in each district : — » Pamphlet, " South Wales Coal Basin," June, 1830. 614 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Monmouthshire. Bbecbnookshiee. PURNACES. rDBNACES. Year. Pig Iron Made. Pig Iron. Built. In Blast. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Nos. Nos. Tons. 1S57 68 54 399,649 16 14 70,779 1859 59 42 327,300 19 14 59,600 1861 74 54 338,439 17 10 43,300 1863 67 46 349,387 17 8 35,700 1865 68 45 367,656 17 10 49,750 1867 71 50 418,235 15 5 29,443 1869 59 44 472,450 17 6 39,201 1870 59 45 472,450 17 6 32,000 1871 62 47 470,982 17 4 30,086 1872 63 49 465,603 17 6 28,504 1873 62 42 360,583 1874 62 41 360,480 1875 62 37 262,253 1876 62 35 413,946 1877 61 30 368,480 1878 57 29 373,744 1879 57 27 337,684 1880 56 35 448,823 Brecknockshire has of late years disappeared from the pub- lished return as an ii-on producing district, and many of the fui'naces have been dismantled. Some interesting facts may be gathered from the above, show- ing the increased capacity and production of the furnaces during the past twenty years; thus in Monmoiithshire in 1857 the average yield per furnace did not exceed 7,400 tons per annum, -while in the year 1878 an average is shown of nearly 13,000 tons per furnace. The success of the Blaenavon Works in the early part of the present centurj'- gave a great impetus to the iron trade in the Monmouthshire Hills, and a range of works sprung up to thg westward, almost in a line near the heads of valleys that stretch towards Merthyr. Before giving the annexed statement showing the number of furnaces built, in blast, the respective firms, and the producing power of the works in the year 1880, the following dates, showing the establishment of some of the Monmouthshire works, wiU indicate the growth of the iron trade. The Beaufort, Ebbw Vale, Clydach, and Varteg works were in operation in 1803, Tredegar in 1805, Blaina and Coalbrook Vale before 1823, Abersychan in 1827, and Victoria in 1838. CHAP. XV.] lEON INDUSTKIES OF SOUTH "WALES. Monmouthshire . 615 No. Name of Works. Owners. FURNACES. Built. In Blast. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10 11 12 Abersychan Pontypool . . Sirhowey . Ebbw Vale . . Victoria . Blaenavon . . Cwmbran ■Nantyglo . . Blaina Coalbrook Vale Ehymney Tredegar . . Ebbw Vale Steel, Iron, and Coal Co., Limited . . ( Blaenavon Iron and Steel ( Co., Limited . Patent Iron and Bolt Co. Nantyglo and Blaina Iron Works Co., Limited Ehymney Iron Co., Limited. Tredegar Iron Co., Limited . Total of Monmouthshire . ( 6 4 4 4 . 2 1 ' 2 r 3 3 ^ 1 9 9 4 2 4 4 2 o 2 6 6 56 35 Glamorganshire. — In considering the production of pig iron manufacture in Glamorganshire, it will he convenient to consider the early history and progress of those works in which the reduc- tion of the ores of iron is effected hy coal of a bituminous character, and subsequently of those districts in which anthracite is exclusively employed. As early as the 15th century evidence exists of the ores of iron being smelted in Glamorganshire, the furnaces being erected on the mountain tops, exposed to the wind, charcoal being alone used ; at a later period the furnaces were erected on sites in the valleys where water power could be advantageously employed. The great consumption of charcoal necessary for iron smelting led to great scarcity of this necessary material ; so much so that in the year 1740 the manufacture of iron was nearly extinct in South "Wales, there being in that year but seven charcoal furnaces in operation, producing 2,000 tons of pig iron ; of these two were in Glamorganshire and one in Caermarthensliire, making 500 tons, the others in Monmouthshire and Brecknockshire, four in number, making 1,500 tons. The total make of the 59 furnaces at that period amounting to 17,350 tons. The Dowlais Iron "Works, situated near Merthyr, were estab- lished by Messrs. Lewis and Guest about the year 1757 ; about 1776 Mr. A. Bacon erected a smelting furnace at Cyfarthfa, and 616 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. a forge for the manufacture of bar iron. In 1784 the Penydarren works were laid out by Messrs. J. Homfray and Co., and were a source of great profit. A few years later Mr. Homfray was the projector of a canal to Cardiff, which however was constructed under the direction of Mr. Eichard Crawshay, who, on the demise of Mr. A. Bacon, toward the end of the century, became sole proprietor of the Cyfarthfa works, which he rapidly extended; other works succeeded, and in 1790 the Plymouth works were established. The production of charcoal iron in 1788 from three furnaces in Glamorganshire and five in Caermarthenshii'e amounted to 2,200 tons, the make of coke pig iron in the same year in Gla- morganshire being 6,600 tons, the yield of six furnaces. Advancing to the year 1796, when Dr. Macnab's return ap- peared, the works showing the number of furnaces and make of pig iron in Glamorganshire were as follows : — GlAMOEGANSHrBE. Works. No. of Furnaces. Excise Returns. Supposed Quantities. Exact Returns. Caerphilly . . . Cyfarthfa Dowlais . . . . Ennisygedyr . Llanelly . . . . Neath Abbey Penydarren . . . Plymouth MeHncourt . . . Total . 1 3 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 Tons. 600 6,000 4,100 1,352 1,664 3,120 4,000 2,000 648 Tons. 600 6,000 5,400 1,352 1,664 3,120 4,000 2,000 648 Tons. 695 7,204 2,800 . 800 1,560 1,759 4,100 2,200 503 15 23,484 24,784 21,621 The total yield of the 124 furnaces in blast in Great Britain the same year being 125,079 tons, giving an average make of 1,008 tons per furnace, compared with 796 tons per furnace in the year 1788. In the interval before the next returns appear in 1806 the iron works of the Aberdare Company were established, adding to the works already existing. From the returns for that year the following abstract has been prepared, showing the number of blast furnaces built, in operation, and the make of pig iron in Glamorganshire, when of the 25 furnaces built, 21 were in blast, and produced 40,009 tons of pig iron, giving an average make of 1,905 tons per furnace : — CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 617 FURNACES. Works. Kg Iron Made. Built. In Blast. No. No. Tons. Aberdare 2 2 3,586 Abemant 2 1 4,376 Caerphilly .... 1 1 1,000 Cyfarthfa 4 4 9,000 Dowlais 3 3 6,000 Ennisygedyr . . . . 1 1 1,000 LlaneUy 2 2 2,267 Melinoourt 1 1 1,000 Neath Abbey .... 2 Penydarren 3 3 6,780 Plymouth .... 3 3 6,000 Penraton Total .... 1 ... 25 21 40,009 It is a notable fact that at this period the only other districts in the kingdom exceeding the production of Glamorganshire were those of Staffordshire with 32 furnaces, yielding 60,002 tons, and Shropshire with 30 furnaces yielding 54,996 tons. Mr. David Mushet, who made a special inquiry bearing on the production of pig iron in Great Britain, writes : — " In a survey I made of the iron works in 1820, my computation of the annual quantity of pig iron manufactured" was as follows, of which South Wales produced 150,000 tons : — South "Wales, &c. . Staffordshire and Shropshire Yorkshire and Derbyshire . Scotland and other places Total (jnANTIIIES. Tons. 150,000 180,000 50,000 20,000 400,000 Mr. Frederick Finch, in his return prepared for the Govern- ment, of the make of pig iron for the years 1823 and 1830, gives the total production of the furnaces of South Wales in each of those years as follows : — Year. Furnaces. Pig Iron. 1823 1830 Nos. 72 113 Tons. 182,325 277,643 618 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. These figures show an increase in seven years of 41 furnaces and 95,318 tons, equivalent to 28 per cent. The average yield per furnace in 1823 was 2,532 tons, compared with 2,333 tons in 1830. The Glamorganshire works produced pig iron in the following quantities in each of the same years according to Mr. Finch's statement : — Name of Worlcs. 1S23. 1830. No. of Furnaces. Pig Iron. No. of Furnaces. Pig Iron, Tons. Tons. Aberdare 3 2,838 3 6,285 Abemant . . . . 3 2,838 3 6,285 Oyfarthfa 8 24,200 9 29,000 Dowlais . . . . 8 22,287 12 32,611 Gadly's .... ... 1 Maesteg . . . . ... 1 2,430 Pentyrcb 1 1,235 1 2,412 Plymouth. . . . . 3 6,387 5 18,582 Penydarren . 5 15,547 5 17,015 Cwm Avon . . . 1 1,560 1 1,950 Neath. Abbey . . • ... 2 2,374 Eace Total . 3 3,173 3 2,421 35 80,065 46 121,365 Comparing the aggregate returns an increase is shown of 11 furnaces, and 41,800 tons, equivalent to 50 per cent. About the year 1839 an interesting pamphlet appeared " On the State and Prospects of the Iron Trade in Scotland and South Wales."* The writer, in referring to the iron works of South "Wales, gives some interesting facts and figures, showing the extent and capacity for production of pig iron of the works in Glamorganshire from which the following details are drawn. The Aberdare Company's works in 1839 consisted of six fur- naces in blast, two blown with hot air, and four with cold air, and producing from 350 to 400 tons of cast iron per week. The Cyfarthfa Iron "Works, belonging to Messrs. Crawshay and Sons, and the Hirwain "Works of the same firm, situated about six miles from Merthyr, possess 14 blast furnaces, all blown with cold air, the 12 in operation producing weekly from 850 to 900 tons, the greater part of which is converted into malleable iron, of which they produce from 600 to 650 tons per week. * By John Johnson, Esq., Iron Merchant, of LiTerpool. CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 619 The Dowlais Works of Sir John Guest, Lewis and Co., had at this period 15 furnaces in full operation, and 4 others in course of erection ; those in blast averaging 90 tons per week, giving a total weekly production of 1,350 tons. The Plymouth Iron "Works of Messrs. Eichard and Anthony HiU consisted of 7 furnaces, all blown with cold air and making 700 tons of ii'on per week, 600 tons being converted into bar. The Penydarren Iron Company have seven furnaces, six of which were in blast, making an average of from 400 to 500 tons of cast iron weekly, nearly the whole being converted into malleable iron. The Pentyrch Iron Works of T. W. Booker, Esq., near Cardiff, have two blast furnaces blown with cold air, and yielding an average of 150 tons weekly of pig iron. The returns from 1829 to 1839 of pig iron production, will show the magnitude of the iron works of Glamorganshire at this period ; they are as follows : — Year. Abenlare. Cyfarthfa. Dowlais. Plymouth. Penydarren. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1829 8,644 24,768 23,352 13,534 10,085 1830 6,765 19,892 27,647 12,177 11,744 1831 6,903 15,465 22,075 10,198 11,819 1832 5,997 22,668 29,395 9,200 10,582 1833 6,964 37,380 35,072 12,093 12,150 1834 8,497 34,952 33,477 12,073 12,752 1835 9,261 35,090 39,145 12,631 12,834 1836 9,981 34,654 39,286 13,573 12,537 1837 9,830 33,580 38,914 15,353 12,834 1838 12,247 36,986 39,361 16,143 12,707 1839 11,307 37,009 40,495 15,762 15,540 Total 96,396 332,444 368,219 142,737 135,584 Much light is thrown upon the progress of the South Wales iron industries in the following returns : — Year. FUENACES. Pig Iron Made. Built. In Blast. 1839 1840 1848 1852 Nos. 101 163 196 162 Nos. 99 132 151 135 Tons. 388,100 505,000 706,680 635,000 €20 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. Eesuming with the year 1854, it appears that there were 154 furnaces built in South Wales, including Monmouthshire ; of ■these 100 were in blast, making 750,000 tons of pig iron ; the total production of the furnaces of Great Britain in the same year, when 565 were in blast, being 3,069,838 tons. In the year 1857 and since, the production of the Glamorgan- shire furnaces is separately distinguished, and appears in the following table, with the average make per fui-nace : — Glamorganshibe. FURNACES. Year. Pig lion Made. Average Make per Fui'nace. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. 1857 87 76 436,859 5,748 1858 89 78 451,043 5,795 1859 89 73 539,470 7,390 1860 89 64 517,525 8,087 1861 82 59 453,821 7,692 1862 82 61 441,869 7,244 1863 82 60 439,722 7,349 1864 82 64 461,822 7,216 1865 81 64 408,416 6,384 1866 83 63 455,000 7,222 1867 76 49 403,050 6,226 1868 75 48 399,291 8,318 1869 79 53 348,475 6,575 1870 75 74 478,243 6,382 1871 72 53 510,087 9,064 1872 71 51 462,041 9,060 1873 78 51 424,384 8,321 1874 78 40 330,484 8,257 1875 78 35 249,667 7,133 1876 59 28 321,754 11,491 1877 76 26 342,478 13,172 1878 75 24 *367,392 15,308 1879 75 23 *332,174 14,442 1880 74 30 •440,915 14,697 The falling off in the average yield per furnace in 1880, being due to the additional furnaces being in operation for a part of the jear only. The works, owners, and number of furnaces built and in opera- tion in the year 1880 were as follows : — * This quantity includes the production of anthracite pig iron. CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 621 GLAMOEGANSHrRE. No. Name of Works. Owners. FURNACES. Built. In Blast. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 U 12 13 14 15 Brynamman .... Llwydcoed . . .1 Abemant and Taffvale . | Briton Fen-y . . . . Cwm Avon, Port Talbot { Cyfarthfa, Merthyr* . 1 "Xnisfach ... ' Dowlaisf Llynvi, Maesteg . . | Gadlys, Aberdare . . | Melin Griffith and Peutyi'oh . Plymouth, Merthyr . Penydarren . ( Forest Iron and Steel, 1 I Pontypridd. . . ) Tondu, Bridgend . . | Total of Glamorganshire . Amman Iron Co The Aberdare and Plymouth Co., ) Limited . . . . j Townshend, AVood & Co. . Governor and Go. of Copper 1 Miners in England . . J Crawshay Brothers Dowlais Iron Co Llynvi, Tondu, and Ogmore 1 Coal and Iron Co., Limited j "Waynes Merthyr Steam Coal ) and Iron Works, Limited . j Thos W. Booker & Co., Limited . The Aberdare and Plymouth Co., \ Limited .... J Forest Iron and Steel Co., Lim. . Llynvi, Tondu, and Ogmore ' Coal and Iron Co., Limited . Nos. 3 5 2 2 10 17 6 4 3 10 7 3 2 Nos. li 2 2 6 13 li 1 2 1 74 1 30 The following account of the Cyfarthfa Iron Works, from " Wilkin's History of Merthyr," written a quarter of a century since, will possess much interest, inasmuch as the works have been recently restarted, after an interval of five years' inactivity: — " Cyfarthfa Works now employ 4,000 to 5,000 men, who at a rough average, may he said to support 20,000 souls. There are eleven furnaces, seven miue pits, eight coal pits, and the yield of coal is 1,000 tons per foot thick per acre. The steam and water power used is equal to more than 4,000 horses, and the works in full force can produce 1,300 tons of pig iron, 1,000 to 1,100 tons of finished bars and railway iron weekly. Such is the result of a minute investigation of these magnificent works, so admired for their order and completeness. Seen by night by the traveller entering Merthyr from the Breconshire valley the picture is grand in the extreme. The border of the scene cast into deeper darkness by the brilliancy of the glare in turn adds to the fiery glow by its gloom. Forked tongues of flame leap up defiantly, * Operations resumed in December, 1879, the works having been standing for several years. In the beginning of 1881 the manufacture of Bessemer pig iron -was commenced. f One furnace building. 622 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. and the very smoke is forced upwards, as it were, tinged with a ruddy glow. Here and there the molten iron sends forth an intense heat; myriads -of fiery stars rush into the open air, and the clang and roar, the whirl of monster wheels, and shrill escape of steam, comhine to form one of the grandest pictures of the terrible it is possible to conceive. Entering the works the force of the picture is enhanced. Standing by the rolls on each side are hardy, muscular men, wiry and active, whose duty seems to •consist ia pushing long red hot iron rails now through one roUer and then through another, until they become of the required form and size. The dexterity with which the raUs are handled is most startling. One moment's hesitation and nervousness would be followed by an accident, but there is no hesitation or nervous- ness there. Ribbon in a Coventry factory, calico on a Manchester loom, cloth in a Gloucestershire miU, wind not through with more "care, nor are they handled with greater freedom and sang froid, though the rail is 600 pounds weight and of an intense white heat ; watching this process for a minute, we see one of the men •suddenly seize hold of the 600 pound rail with a pincers, pull it vigorously towards him and then, by the aid of a roller, run away with it as though it were a plaything, to a place where a saw, ■worked by machinery, cuts it to the required measurement, scat- tering with a hideous noise a thousand fiery sparks around. Then two men rush to each end and fashion them off smoothly, and the tortured iron is drawn out to cool. Every moment this process is carried on. There is no hesitation. Every man takes Tip his task like an automaton, little speaking is heard, but the toil and wear of the human machinery in this hard labour must be most excessive." Anthracite Pig Iron. — The reduction of the ores of iron, by the agency of anthracite in the blast furnace, is of comparatively recent date, and the industry in Great Britain is confined exclu- sively to the western district of the South Wales Coal Field. The successful appUcation of anthracite as a reducing agent dates from the year 1836, and its use is intimately associated with the names of Mr. James Palmer Budd, of the Ystalyfera Iron Works, and of Mr. George Crane, of the Yniscedwyn Iron Works. The anthracite furnaces of South Wales are of small volume and height compared with the furnaces of other districts; their average height may be taken as from 36 to CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH "WALES. 633 40 feet ; of late years, however, there is a tendency to increase not only the height but the capacity of those furnaces in which anthracite is employed. Anthracite in high furnaces is found attended with considerable difficulties, mainly due to its decrepi- tation tending to impede the smelting operation ; this difficulty is overcome by increasing the density of the blast ; the pressure employed varies from 4 to 6 lbs. to the square inch, while the heated air of the blast ranges from 320° to 500° C Mr. Crane, in his early operations at Yniscedwyn in 1837, produced by the aid of anthracite in a furnace of the above named works 36 tons per week. In the following year it appears the industry was carried to the far west by a Mr. David Thomas from South "Wales, who erected a furnace in the United States of America, at Maunch Chunk, in the Lehigh Valley, State of Pennsylvania. Eesuming with the anthracite districts of South Wales, the production in 1839, the first on record, it appeai-s that of the 26 furnaces built, 23 were more or less actively employed, making of anthracite pig iron 65,780 tons, giving an average make per furnace of 2,860 tons, while in the same year the powers of pro- duction were being increased by the erection of eleven new furnaces. The make of pig iron in Great Britain in 1839 is shown in the annexed table : — FURNACES. Districts. Pig Iron Made. Built. In Blast. Tons. Derbysliire .... 16 14 34,372 Durham and Northumberland 5 5 13,000 Gloucestershire 8 5 18,200 Lancashire (charcoal) . . . 2 2 800 Shropshire .... 34 29 80,940 Staffordshire, North . . . 10 3 18,200 StaflFordshire, South . 226 120 346,213 Wales, North .... 20 13 33,800 Wales, South .... 101 99 388,100 Wales (Anthracite) . . . 26 23 65,780 Yorkshire .... 29 24 52,416 Scotland (coke iron) . . . 60 54 196,560 Scotland (charcoal) . Total .... 2 2 400 539 393 1,248,781 Advancing to the year 1848, there appears to have been eight 624 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET U. works engaged in this manufacture, with 31 furnaces built, 14 of which were in blast, producing, as has been ascertained from reliable sources, between 60,000 and 65,000 tons of pig iron. The average make per furnace at this period may be taken as about 4,000 tons per annum. In the subjoined list appears a complete account of the works in South "Wales in 1848, in which anthracite was employed as a reducing agent, together with the number of furnaces built, in blast, and the owners. Name of Works. Owners. FUBNACZS. Built. In Blast. Brecknockshire — Ynisced-wyn. Oaermarthenshire — Gwendraeth . . . Trimsaren . Bryn Amman . . . Glamorganshire — Banwen OnUwyu . . . . Venalt. Tstalyfera . . Total . Yniscedwyn Iron Co. T. Watney & Co. E. H. Thomas L. Llewellyn & Co. . . Joint Stock Co. John WiUiams . . . Aberdare Iron Co. . Ystalyfera Iron Co. . . 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 11 3 2 2 2 5 31 14 ■ For a few years the production was well maintained, until 1857, since which it has gradually diminished, so much so that in the year 1880 the only furnaces producing anthracite pig iron were those of Ystalyfera, with eleven stUl standing as in 1848, of which four only were in blast, the estimated production not exceeding 14,000 or 15,000 tons of pig iron. It has been observed that some varieties of anthracite decrepi- tate in a surprising degree when heated. Dr. Percy refers to specimens which he received from Neath, which, on the applica- tion of sudden heat, were reduced to absolute dust ; and it is further remarked that the great difficulty experienced in the use of anthracite arises from the running together of the slag and the decrepitated particles of anthracite into an infusible mass, and gobbing up the furnace. Following the production of anthracite pig iron in South "Wales, the annexed table shows the number of furnaces built, and in blast, in each year since 1855, with the make of pig iron, and side by side the average yield per furnace. CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. Antheaoite Pig Ikon. 625 FURNACES. South Wales. Year. Average make per Furnace. BuUt. In Blast. Pig Iron. Tons. Tons. 1854 34 21 1855 34 19 52,755 2,776 1856 36 21 62,400 2,971 1857 36 20 63,440 3,172 1858 36 16 60,774 3,173 1859 36 18 58,920 2,162 1860 35 16 52,260 3,266 1861 31 14 50,740 3,643 1862 32 9 30,375 3,374 1863 31 9 22,944 2,549 1864 29 9 26,595 2,965 1865 29 9 29,213 3,246 1866 24 11 34,516 3,138 1867 25 11 36,506 3,228 1868 23 11 38,143 3,468 1869 23 9 27,909 3,101 1870 23 9' 28,500 3,166 1871 19 8 34,761 4,345 1872 13 8 25,678 3,209 1873 13 8 32,822 4,103 1874 13 7 23,760 3,394 1875 13 7 29,889 4,270 1876 13 6 20,421 3,403 1877 13 4 * ,., 1878 11 4 * ■ •• 1879 11 4 * ... 1880 11 4 * ... As previously remarked, the height and capacity of the anthra- cite furnaces have increased in late years ; this is best shown in the average yield per furnace, taking the year 1855, when 19 furnaces produced 52,755 tons, the average yield was 2,776 tons, compared with 4,270 tons per furnace ia 1875, when the make of 7 furnaces was 29,889 tons. The only works since 1876 engaged in South "Wales in the production of anthracite pig iron, are those of the Ystalyfera Iron Company, the Yniscedwyn Company having discontinued the manufacture in the above named year. Having generally traced the production of pig iron in the South "Wales area, distinguishing that made in the bituminous and anthracite districts, as weU as in each county, in the coal- fields in which the iron industries are located, it only remains Estimated production between 14,000 and 15,000 tons. s B 626 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. to summarise the returns of each district and arrive at the total yield of the furnaces in South Wales. To this table is appended, the total number of furnaces, buUt and in blast, ui each of the same years ; the result being as follows : — Tear. BITtlMINOtrS DISTEICT. ANTHRACITE DISTRIOT. Total, Sodtb Wales. FURNACES. Monmoutli- shire. Brecknock- shire. Glamorgan- shire. Glamorgan, Brecknock. Pig Iron. Built. In Blast Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. No. No. Tons. 1854 ... ... ... >.■ 121 750,000 1855 * * 787,'315 52,755 148 840,070 1856 * * 814,750 62,400 I'gb 162 877,150 1857 399,649 70,779 436,859 63,440 207 164 970,727 1858 315,124 69,537 451,043 50,774 199 147 886,478 1859 327,300 59,600 539,470 58,920 213 147 985,290 1860 349,670 49,570 517,525 52,260 214 139 969,025 1861 338,439 43,300 453,821 50,740 200 137 886,300 1862 382,065 39,000 441,869 30,375 197 125 893,309 1863 349,387 35,700 439,722 22,944 197 123 847,753 1864 415,174 34,260 461,822 26,595 197 133 937,621 1865 357,656 49,750 408,416 29,213 195 128 845,035 1866 410,000 27,750 455,000 34,516 193 132 927,454 1867 418,235 29,443 403,050 35,506 185 115 886,234 1868 427,821 29,000 399,291 38,143 184 108 894,255 1869 392,387 32,201 348,475 27,909 178 112 800,972 1870 440,450 32,000 478,243 28,500 174 114 979,193 1871 470,982 30,086 510,087 34,761 167 112 1,045,916 1872 481,342 28,504 465,603 25,678 154 114 1,002,643 1873 360,583 nil 424,384 32,822 148 101 817,789 1874 360,480 nil 330,484 23,760 139 88 714,724 1875 362,253 nil 249,667 29,889 153 79 541,819 1876 413,946 nil 321,754 20,421 134 69 756,121 1877 368,480 nil t342,478 150 60 710,958 1878 373,744 nil t367,392 . .. 145 57 741,136 1879 337,684 ml t332,174 145 54 669,858 1880 448,823 nil t440,915 141 69 889,738 The returns for the years 1871 and 1872 show a great increase, due, as it may be remembered, to the prosperity reigniag in those years ; the causes of decline would in themselves present an interesting chapter ; however, happily a new state of things now prevails, and a return of prosperity to the iron and other industries of the kingdom is, it is to be hoped, now set in. Moumontlisliire Mills and Forges, and Bessemer Steel Works. — These important works have existed from an early period in the * Production included in the Glamorganshire retui-ns in 1855 and 1856. t Production of anthracite pig iron included in this quantity. ^HAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 627 Monmouthshire extension of the South Wales coal-field. The earliest forges in operation employed charcoal and were esta- hlished in the neighbourhood of Pontypool as far back as the 16th century : at a later period numerous works were established ■on the banks of the Ebbw river, Tredegar Park, and Machen. In the early part of the present century there existed eleven such works in Monmouthshire in which charcoal was exclusively em- ployed, of which the following is a list :* — FOKGBS. PROPRIETOKS. Aberoarne Benjamin HaU & Co. Bassoleg Harfords & Co. Caerleon T. Buller & Co. Gellywasted Harfords cS: Co. Machen Monmouth Assignees of David Tanner. Llanvillio Newport Sir EobertSalisbury & Co. Pontypool Capel Leigh & Co. Tintern Abbey Thomson & Co. Trostre Harvey & Co. Of these works those at Abercarne and Tintern Abbey pos- sessed furnaces, and wire-works, in addition to the forges. Not again until the year 1860, when the first published list appeared in the " Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom," is any reliable information available ; in that year, however, there were 16 works, of which 13 were in Monmouthshire and 3 in Breck- nockshire, with a total of 345 puddling fiirnaces, and 40 rolling mills. Since 1860 the powers of production of many of these ■works have been greatly increased, while a few have been stand- ing and others dismantled. The works and their resources stood as follows in each of the years named : — Year. No. of Works. Puddliug Fui'naces. EolUng Mills. 1865 1870 1875 1880 16 12 13 13 570 577 597 209 60 49 54 41 The annexed list gives the several works in Monmouthshire and Brecknockshire, with the numbers of puddling furnaces and roll- ing mills in operation in the year 1880 : — * See " General View of the Agrionlture of the Cotmty of Monmouth," by Charles Hassall, 1812. S S 2 628 COAL AND IKON INDTJSTEIES. [PAET II. No. Works. Name of Firms. Paddling Furnaces. Boiling Mills. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 Monmouthshire — Abersyohan . Victoria . . Bbbw Vale . Pontypool . . Blaiaa . Nantyglo Blaenavon Pontnewynydd Ehymney Tredegar . . Oakfields Cwmbran Ebbw Vale Iron Co. j» )> 1 Nantyglo and Blaina Iron ) 1 Works Co., Limited ) )) I Blaenavon Iron and Steel ) ( Co., Limited . . \ W. T. Henley Ehymney Iron Co., Limited ( Tredegar Iron and Coal Co., ) ( Limited . . . j James C. TTill & Co., Lim. . Patent Nut and Bolt Co. . 64 20 18 72 12 23 17 4 "7 5 4 4 Total Monmouthshire 209 41 Brechnochshire — Coedcae The Welsh Iron Works Co. . The only works in Monmouthshire where steel is produced by the system associated with the name of Sir Henry Bessemer are those of the Ebhw Vale Company ; these works were established in the year 1866, and at the present time possess six convertors, four of which have a capacity of eight tons and two a capacity of ten tons each ; six cupolas being employed for supplying molten metal to the convertors. When actively employed these works can produce 1,000 tons of steel ingots per week, while one of the rail mills have been known in a single week to turn out 800 tons of finished rails. It was at these works that " speigelcisen " was first manufactured in this country, due to the energy and activity of Messrs. Eichards and Parry, the engineer and chemist to these extensive works. Coal used in. Mills and Forges.— In these and the Tia Plate Works in Monmouthshire and Brecknock in the year 1873, the total consumption of coal may be set down as not less than 600,000 tons, but it will be remembered that during a period of three months the tin plate works were affected by a strike, which had the effect of diminishing the consumption of fuel by at least 100,000 tons ; while in the year 1880 it probably did not exceed 460,000 tons. The average consumption of coal in the puddling CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 629 furnaces of this district may be set down as varying from 1,000 to 1,100 tons per annum. Glamorganshire Mills and Forges. Bessemer Steel Works. — Here, as in Mbnmouthshire, mills and forges were in active operation cotemporary with the great iron works which have long flourished. In the year 1860 there were 16 of these malleable works in operation, with 628 puddling furnaces and 69 rolling miUs ; the resources since that period have been greatly augmented. The extent to which the works in Great Britain have extended from 1860 to 1875 is considerable, in the first named year, 208 works were in operation, increased to 314 in 1875, the number of puddling furnaces increasing from 3,462 to 7,575, and the rolling mills from 432 to 909 in each of the same years. Of the iron works established since 1860 many have been closed for the past four or five years, and some have been entirely dismantled. The depreciation in the finished iron trade referable to Glamorganshire, may be gathered from the fact, that in 1870 there were 668 puddling furnaces in operation, compared with 340 in the year 1877, and 308 in the year 1880. The Dowlais Iron Works are the most extensive, with 150 puddling furnaces and 15 roUing mills ; of these 65 furnaces and 15 mills were in operation in the year 1880. The Dowlais Company also possess important Bessemer steel works, the first introduced into this country. These were started in June, 1865 ; they at the present time consist of six convertors, two with a capacity of five tons, two of six tons, and two of seven and-a-half tons, or a total capacity of 37 tons, together with the usual blowing and hydraulic machinery. The Dowlais works in activity are capable of pro- ducing 1,500 tons of steel per week, consisting chiefly of railway bars and fastenings. In addition to which there are six furnaces Ifconstructed on the Siemens Martin system ; the steel made by "this process is employed for aU purposes in which soft steel is ordinarily applied. In England it is used for casting screw pro- pellers, and for various other high class steel castings. At the celebrated French works at Creusot, steel containing 10 per cent, of carbon is manufactured by this process, and is used for piston rods, and other parts of steam engines, boiler plates, and more recently for shipbuilding. Another important establishment to refer to, is the Landore Sie- mens Steel Company Works, situated at Landore, near Swansea : 630 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. ![PAKT II. the works consist of: — Two blast furnaces with Cowper's patent stoves, turning out when fully occupied 600 tons of pig iron per week ; 24 Seimens' regenerative steel melting furnaces, making on an average 65 tons of steel per week ; eighl^ steam hammers of eight tons each, one four tons, and one two tons for making blooms for rails, tyres, &c., and for forgings; two rail mills complete with saws, straightening and other machines capable of making 1,300 tons of finished rails per week ; beyond these are a tyre mill complete, bar mill for steel bars of all kinds, wire mill for rolling wire rods; 33 Siemens gas heating furnaces, for heating ingots and blooms for hammer and mills, with producers for making the necessary gas ; 100 coke ovens for supplying coke to blast furnaces ; brick-works for making the necessary bricks for the melting and other furnaces. The company also employ 64 steam engines of all sizes, besides five locomotives, foundries for casting both in steel and iron, and fitting shops. The coal properties of the company comprise all varieties of coal, coking coals, and anthracite, ensuring an unlimited supply of fuel ; and in the steel works, when actively engaged, upwards of 2,000 men are employed. Coal used in Mills and Forges (G-lamorgausliire). — In the years 1872 and 1873, when it was first attempted to gather information on this subject, it was ascertained that not less than from 750,000 to 800,000 tons were employed, including that used in tin plate manufacture, and even this last quantity is believed to fall short of that actually consumed ; it is, however, stated on reliable authority that the average consumption of coal in the mills and forges of Glamorganshire is about from 1,200 tons to 1,300 tons per annum in the manufacture of 500 tons of bars or rails, it being also generally regarded that from five to five and-a-half tons of coal are required to bring each ton of bars or rails into their finished state. The works of Glamorganshire, showing the number of puddling furnaces and rolling mills, were as follows in the years given : — Tear. No. of Works. Puddling Furnaces. Rolling Mills. 1870 1875 1880 17 18 18 568 526 308 90 85 72 The list of the works in the last-named year, with the numbers CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 631 of puddling furnaces and rolling mills in operation, appear in the annexed table : — G-LAMOEGANSHrEB. No. Name of Works. Name of Finn. Nearest Port or Railway Station. No. of Fuddling Furnaces. No. of Boiling MiUs. 18 Brynamman Margam, Taibach Clydacli . Gadlys . . . Llyuvi ( Abemant/TaffVale^ I and Lewydooed J Aberaman . j Melin Griffltli and I I Pentyrcli . ) Fenydarran Briton Ferry . . Cyfartlifa . Dowlais . . Flymoutli . Cwm Avon, Taibach Ystalyfera Fontardawe . Tondu, Bridgend College . . . . Amman Iron Co. Robt. B. Byass & Co. . j Bymmawr Coal and Iron Co., I 1 Limited ... J I Waynes Merthyr Steam Coal ) i and Iron Works Co., Lim. ( i Llynvi, Tondu and Ogmore ) I Coal and Iron Co. . .J Aberdare Iron Co. Powell DufCrjTi Steam Coal Co. Tlios. W. Booker & Co. . ( The Aberdare and Plymouth j I Co., Limited . . . j Townsend, Wood & Co, . Eobt. Crawshay . . . Dowlais Iron Co. j The Aberdare and Plymouth 1 ( Co., Limited . . . ) j Governor and Company of 1 ( Copper Miners Successors j Ystalyfera Iron Co. . . . W. Gilbertson & Co. . . 5 Llynvi, Tondu and Ogmore ) ( Coal and Iron Co. . J j Thomas Protheroe Gwillein I i and Thomas Williams . ) Llanelly . Aberavon . Abergavenny Aberdare . Bridgend Aberdare . Cardiff . Briton Ferry Merthyr Tydfll Port Talbot Swansea . >) Tondu Llandatf . 10 33 43 61 65 42 12 23 12 4 6 15 16 Total of County 308 Coal used in Pig Iron Manufacture (Monmouthshire). — In all the early returns hearing on the use of coal, the returns of Mon- mouthshire are included in those of South Wales. In the year 1828, however, it was ascertained that five and-a-half tons of coal was used in each ton of pig iron manufactured. The results attained by the Eoyal Coal Commission show that in the year 1869 the average quantity employed did not exceed three tons, which included the necessary fuel for raising steam, engine fires blowing the blast, &c. About the year 1873 a select committee of the House of Commons was appointed to inquire into the high price of coal. It was at this juncture that the Mining Eecord Office, at the direction of the committee, made a special inquiry with a view of ascertaining the actual quantity of coal used in the iron manufactures of the kingdom, and the result was most satisfactory, inasmuch as it showed that considerable economy in the use of coal in the blast furnace had been secured. In the Monmouthshire furnaces in 1873 it was subsequently » Four double and three single furnaces. 632 COAL AND IKON INDUSTKIES. [PAET II. ascertained that 48 cwts. of coal was the average quantity used in the manufacture of each ton of pig iron ; in the Glamorganshire furnaces 49 cwts. was the average ; while in the anthracite fur- naces it amounted to 50 cwt. ; and taking all the iron works in the kingdom it did not exceed 51 cwts. ; while ia Scotland, where raw coal was exclusively employed, the average reached 55 cwts. of coal to each ton of pig iron made. As the consumption of fuel in the manufacture of pig iron will form the subject of inquiry in a future page it wUl be only neces- sary here, as in other districts, to record carefully the actual quantities employed, as they appear in the official returns, noting the average consumption of fuel to each ton of pig iron made, at the same time observing that in all cases where coke has been employed its. equivalent in coal has been computed; thus, in the following years, the annexed figures show the quantities of pig iron made of coal used and the average quantity of coal to each ton of pig iron made, which includes all purposes in which heat is required, also the economy secured by the utilisation of the waste gases, which of late years have been considerable : — MONMOTJTHSHIEE (BITUMINOUS). Year. FURNACES. Pig Iron Mads. Coal Used. Coal, per ton. Built. In Blast. 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 63 62 62 62 62 62 57 57 56 49 42 41 37 35 30 29 27 35 Tons. 465,603 360,583 360,480 262,253 413,946 368,480 373,744 337,684 448,823 Tons. 1,117,626 867,640 901,200 577,272 879,732 832,723 879,721 769,894 1,045,449 Cwts. 48 48 50 44 43 45 47 45^ 46 Coal used in Maunfacture (G-lamorgaushire). — In the furnaces of Glamorganshire, in the bituminous coal districts, it has been ascertained that about the year 1830 four tons of coal were consumed in the manufacture of each ton of iron. In South Staffordshire in the same year the average varied from six to six- and-a-half tons, while in Scotland where raw coal was chiefly employed, the quantity varied from seven-and-a-half to eight tons. A very different state of things now exists, increased economy CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 633 being secured, by the many improvements introduced into the smelting operations of the blast furnace since that date, aU of which win be generally referred to. With the year 1872 fairly reliable information is at hand, show- ing the consumption of fuel, and in the following summary will be seen the proportion of fuel consumed to each ton of pig iron made in the furnaces of Glamorganshire in which bituminous coal was ex- clusively used : — GLAMOaaANSKEIlE (BlTUMIIf OUS) . rUKNACES. Year. Pig Iron Made. Coal Used. Coal per ton. Built. In Blast. Tons. Tons. Cwts. 1872 71 51 462,041 1,172,453 50 1873 78 51 424,384 1,047,245 494 1874 78 40 330,484 668,769 40 1875 78 35 249,667 531,036 42i 1876 59 28 321,754 660,558 41 1877 76 26 342,478 739,274 43 1878 75 24 367,392 755,126 41 1879 75 23 332,174 684,249 41i 1880 74 30 440,915 922,155 4l| Some little variation appears in the last column in the average quantities of coal used to each ton of iron made ; however the figures as a whole show economy. In Brecknockshire in. the year 1872, the last year in which it appears as an iron producing district, the 28,504 tons of pig iron made in the Beaufort furnaces, with the expenditm-e of 88,519 tons of coal, gives an average of 62 cwts. of coal to each ton of pig_iron made. Coal used in Manufacture (Anthracite Furnaces). — Atten- tion has been already called to the use of anthracite as a reducing agent in the smelting of the ores of iron in the blast furnace, and accomplished at the Yniscedwyn Iron Works by Mr. George Crane, in the year 1836, and by Mr. J. Palmer Budd, of the Ystalyfera Iron Works in the same year. Anthracite possesses many characteristics, and these are clearly described by Dr. Percy, in his recent Metallurgical volume on Fuel: — "It is very compact, deep black, both when massive and in powder ; bright, occasionally somewhat bronzelike, or sub-metallic in lustre, brittle, uneven, or conchoidal in fracture ; it does not soil the fingers ; it burns with a feebly luminous flame, and is much less 634 COAL AND IRON INDTJSTEIES. [pakt ii. easily combustible than other kinds of coal, and when heated does not in the least sinter; some varieties decrepitate con- siderably, even when gradually heated." When converted into coke, the small is selected and in admixture with caking coals, pitch or coal tar, in varying proportions, is heated at a high temperature. Anthracite, owing to its density and purity, yields pig iron of good quality, and in order to overcome its decrepitation in the furnace, and secure satisfactory results, hot blast of a high pressure must be employed. The average quantity of anthracite used in the manufacture of pig iron is variously stated; some twenty-five years since it exceeded 50 cwts. ; but in recent years, as far as can be ascertained, it has varied from 48 cwts. to 50 cwts. In one instance at the Yniscedwyn works, it appears on the authority of Mr. S. Kenyon Eogers, that his uncle, Mr. Black- well, at the above-named works, made pig iron with a consumption of 18 cwts. 2 qrs. and 9 lbs. of anthracite per ton. In the anthracite furnaces of South Wales a pressure of blast of from 4 to 6 lbs. is used ; while in the anthracite furnaces of Pennsyl- vania, in the United States, of larger capacity, the pressure varies from 6j to 7^ lbs. pressure on the square inch. In all the computations where fuel is used in the manufacture of pig iron, it will be understood that the quantity for heating the blast, &c., is included ; in the case, however, above referred to, of Mr. Blackwell's experiment, in addition to the 18 cwts. 2 qrs. and 9 lbs. employed in the blast furnace, a further amount of 8 cwts. 3 qrs. and 11 lbs., was used for the heat- ing of the boilers in raising steam, making the total quantity of anthracite used 27 cwts. 1 qr. 20 lbs. to each ton of pig iron made. The pig iron thus manufactured, it should be stated, was particularly suitable for conversion into steel, on account of the freedom of the anthracite from sulphur. An average sample of anthracite employed in smelting, contains of sulphur 0*70 per cent., of ash 9'14 per cent. ; the ash consisting of silicate of alumina, a small quantity of lime, and a trace of peroxide of iron. Sulphur is always present in coal, in combina- tion with iron pyrites, or bisulphide of iron, from which no coal is entirely free, and is either disseminated through the mass, so as to be invisible, or occurring in laminsB of a brass yellow colour, and sometimes in layers or nodules of considerable size. CHAP. XV.] lEON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES, 635 Previous to the introduction of apparatus at the mouth of the blast furnace, for the collection and utilisation of the waste gases, it has been estimated that fully two-thirds of the total quantity of heat produced in the blast furnace escaped and was lost. The problem was solved at the Ystalyfera Iron Works by Mr. Budd, and considerable economy has been the result. It would appear that the first idea for utilising the heat of the gases and vapom-s escaping from the funnel head, was to conduct this hot air through the hot air stove, and use it instead of coal for heating the air which was to be blown into the fiu'nace. In carrying out this arrangement Mr. Budd states that he constructed his stoves for heating the blast in such a manner that a portion of the hot gaseous escape from the top of the furnace was drawn through them and thus economised ; previous to the introduction of this arrangment the three stoves required to heat the blast at the Ystalyfera furnaces consumed 35 tons of coal a-week, and required the attendance of two men. These gases, it should be stated, entered the stove at a tem- perature of 1800° Fahr., and left it at about 800° Fahr., while the temperature required for the blast did not exceed 600°; thus it will be seen that the heated gases above, without any access of air, supplied more than the heat required, the gases, it must be remembered, escaping at such a temperature that if air was ad- mitted to them they would at once burst into combustion, and thus form another source of heat which has been utilised in many of the iron works of the kingdom in raising steam, and experience shows that the higher the temperature of the blast employed in the furnace the less fuel will be required, while in every case the waste gases from the blast furnaces would be found sufficient to heat the blast, and produce all the steam requu-ed for the blast fm-naces, and that in addition they might be used to calcine the mine.* Taking the actual returns of pig iron made in the anthra- cite furnaces in the year 1872, when eight fm-naces produced 25,678 tons, consuming 72,392 tons of anthracite, an average consumption of 56 cwts. appears to each ton of iron made : this appears excessive ; however it doubtless includes aU fuel used. In the annexed table is given the number of furnaces built and * A term commonly ussd ia South "Wales for ore. 636 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAKT II. in blast, the pig iron made, coal used, and the average quantity per ton, in the anthracite furnaces : — Glamoeganshieb (Awtheaoite). Year. FDRNACES. Pig Iron Made. Coal Used. Average of Coal per BuUt. In Blast. Ton. No. No. Tons. Tons. Cwts. 1872 13 8 25,678 72,392 56 1873 13 8 32,822 81,837 50 1874 13 7 23,760 57,240 49 1875 13 7 29,889 61,169 41 1876 13 6 20,421 52,997 51 1877 13 4 * 1878 13 4 * 1879 13 4 * 1880 11 4 * ... The average consumption of coal used as stated above in the year 1875 as 41 cwts. is clearly far below the quantity employed, however, it appears, that if the average be taken at 50 cwt. it wiH be very near the exact quantity. Coal used in Pig Iron Manufacture in South Wales. — The production of pig iron and of coal used, in each division of the South Wales mineral field, has been considered ; namely, the bituminous districts of Monmouthshire and Brecknock- shire, Glamorganshire, and the district in which anthracite is exclusively employed. The next step will be to foUow the production of pig iron and of coal used in South Wales as one district, and trace the progress of the economy in the use of fuel. It has been previously stated that about the year 1830 four tons of coal was the average quantity employed in producing each ton of pig iron in South Wales. Since the year 1872, when special attention was devoted to this important subject, by the Mining Eecord Office, much additional light has been thrown upon it. In the annexed summary is shown the number of furnaces built a,nd in blast, and the proportion of coal to iron used in the South Wales furnaces. In the year 1873 the total number of blast furnaces in Great Britain numbered 683 in blast, the number built being 892, the make of pig iron was 6,566,457 tons, the coal used 16,718,532 tons ; taking these figures the average con- * The estimated production in each of those years did not exceed from 14 000 to 15,000 tons. CHAP. XV.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SOUTH WALES. 637 sumption of coal appears to have been 51 cwts, to each ton of pig iron made, comparing favourably with the year 1869, when the average amounted to 60 cwts. : — SoriH WAIES (iNCLTJDINa Monmotjthshise). Tear. FTJBNA0E3. Pig Iron Matle. Coal Used. Average Coal per Built. In Blast. Ton. No. No. Tons. Tons. Cwts. 1872 154 114 1,002,643 2,450,990 49 1873 148 101 817,789 1,996,722 48* 1874 139 88 714,724 1,627,209 45* 1875 153 79 541,819 1,169,477 43| 1876 134 69 756,121 1,593,487 42 1877 150 60 710,958 1,571,997 44 1878 145 57 741,136 1,634,847 44 1879 145 54 669,858 1,454,143 43J 1880 140 68 889,738 1,967,604 43^ The utilisation of the waste gases, introduced by Mr. Budd, of the Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea, some years after the applica- tion of the hot blast by Mr. Neilson, has been a fruitful source of economy, from four tons of coal to each ton of iron made in 1830, to 51 cwts. in the year 1872. Various arrangements have been successfully applied towards this end, all of which will be found fully described in the works of the great authorities on metallurgy, the matter being generally referred to here as a cause for the diminution in the consumption of fael in iron making. On the continent of Europe, where fuel was more expensive, the utilisa- tion of the waste gases was introduced at an earlier period than in this country; however, at present the system is, with few exceptions, universally adopted in all our iron-producing districts. Iron Ore used in the Manufacture of Pig Iron. — The total quantity of ironstone of all varieties used in the make of pig iron in the blast furnaces of Monmouthshire in the year 1873 was 792,094 tons. The ironstone or " mine " of the district when smelted alone yields from 32 to 33 per cent, of metallic iron, and in this proportion would require for each ton of pig iron made, from 60 to 62 cwts. The admixture of other ores obtained from Lancashire and Cumberland, as well as ores imported from Spain, all rich in metallic iron arid extensively employed in the district, reduce the bulk of ore required to an average of about 44 cwts. of raw stone to each ton of pig iron made. The iron 638 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ir. •ore smelted in this district in 1873 may be approximately stated as follows : — BISTEIOTS. TONS. Native mine 002,734 Foreign ores 140,000 Somersetshire 29,360 Porest of Dean Northamptonshire 120,000 Cornwall Lancashire Ireland . Total 792,094 The metallic iron contained in the foreign ores vary from 50 io 60 per cent., the hsematite ore of the Forest of Dean from 62 to 63 per cent., the Northamptonshire ore 40 per cent., the Cornish ores from 50 to 60 per cent., the rich red ores of Lanca- shire and Cumberland from 60 to 64 per cent., and the alumi- nous ores from the North of Ireland, from 35 to 40 per cent. In subsequent years since 1872 ores of all kinds in the following quantities have been smelted in the furnaces of Monmouth- shire : — Year. Pig Iron. Iron Ore. Tons. Tons. 1873 360,583 792,094 1874 360,480 760,600 1875 262,253 536,367 1876 413,946 828,865 1877 368,480 719,869 1878 373,744 749,588 1879 337,684 644,248 1880 448,823 811,743 The argillaceous ores of the coal measures, or native mine, when calcined, lose from 27 to 30 per cent., an amount that is made up of the water and carbonic acid that is driven oif, diminished by the oxygen taken up in the conversion of the protoxides of iron and manganese into magnetic oxides. As far as can be ascertained in the years 1878 and 1879 the iron ore reduced in the Monmouthshire furnaces, was derived from the following districts. The total production of iron ore in 1880, in South "Wales, amounted to 343,927, of which 278,361 tons were argillaceous, and 65,566 tons hematitic : — CHAP. XV.] IKON INDUSTRIES OP SOUTH WALES. 639 Districts. i 1878. 1879. Native mine .... Foreign ores . . Somersetshire .... Forest of Dean . . . ) Northamptonshire . Cornwall, Ireland, &o. . ) Lancashire and Cumberland . Tons. 276,974 326,614 40,000 106,000 ... Tons. 253,789 308,299 21,736 20,000 40,424 Total .... 749,588 644,248 In the Glamorganshire furnaces in the year 1873 the quantity of iron ore smelted amounted to 854,171 tons, producing 424,384 tons of pig iron ; and as far as can he ascertained this quantity was obtained from the following sources : — Argillaceous ores (Native mine) Foreign ores (ascertained^ Various (British and foreign) TONS. 248,777 155,082 450,312 Total 854,171 In the metallurgical works of this district in late' years the main bulk of the ores smelted consist of foreign ores ; in one establishment from 30 to 34 cwts. of these rich ores yield one ton of pig iron, in other works the quantity varies according to the admixture of ores employed, ranging from 38 to 40, 44 and 47 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made, a careful examination of the quantity showing that the average consumption of ore to one ton of crude metal may be taken as 40 cwts. 1 qr. As far as can be ascertained the following quantities represent the total tons of aU kinds of ore used in each of the years since 1873 in the Glamor- ganshire furnaces, the pig iron made being also given : — Year. Pig Iron. Iron Ore. Tons. Tons. 1873 424,384 854,171 1874 330,484 638,359 1875 249,667 479,612 1876 321,754 640,768 1877 342,478 667,619 1878 367,392 699,769 1879 332,174 643,398 1880 440,915 787,279 64,0 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. In the Anthracite district in the year 1873 the total quantity of ironstone of all kinds employed in the manufacture of 32,822 tons of pig iron, was 77,000 tons ; the great hulk of this ore was ohtained from foreign countries, the ironstone of the district did not exceed 20,000 tons of the quantity ; the Spanish ores as pre- viously stated yielding from 50 to 60 per cent, of metallic iron. Taking all the facts ohtainable the average quantity of ore of all kinds used in this district in obtaining one ton of pig iron may be set down as 48 or 49 cwts., and it may be observed that under the most favourable circumstances it rarely happens that the whole of the metal contained in the ore is obtained, a portion remaining in the cinder. In each of the years since 1873 the annexed quantities show generally the proportion of u'on ore to the pig iron obtained in the anthracite furnaces : — Year. Pig Iron. Iron Ore. 1873 1874 1875 1876 Tons. 32,822 23,760 29,889 20,421 Tons. 77,000 53,487 61,780 56,263 The annual production of anthracite pig iron since 1876 has not exceeded 15,000 tons, the iron ore employed amounting to about 40,000 tons. Having generally considered the quantites of iron ore and ironstone of all kinds employed in the blast furnaces of South Wales, it only remains to summarise results and tabulate the quantities in the aggregate ; thus in each of the years since 1872 the annexed table shows the make of pig iron in South Wales and the total quantities of iron ore employed : — South Wales (includih-g Monmottthshire). Tear. Kg Iron. Iron Ore. Tons. Tons. 1873 817,789 1,723,265 1874 714,724 1,452,446 1875 541,819 1,077,759 1876 756,121 1,525,896 1877 725,958 1,427,488 1878 756,136 1,529,357 1879 669,858 1,287,646 1880 889,738 1,699,022 €HAP. XV.] SOUTH "WALES IRON INDUSTRIES. 641 An examination of the above figures shows that since the first- named year the foreign ores have been more extensively employed in the furnaces of South Wales ; this is apparent in the increased quantities imported ia each of the years 1878 and 1879. It is also a matter of fact that dm'ing the same years the argillaceous ores of the district have been somewhat less employed. This wiU be better understood when the figures are reduced to an average, from which it appears that 42 cwts. were required to make a ton of pig iron in the year 1873; 40^ cwts. in '1878; 38|- cwts. in 1879, and but 36J cwts. in the year 1880. CHAPTEE XVI. GLOUCESTERSHIBB IKON INDUSTRIES. lion Ore of the Carboniferous Limestone — Description of Deposits — Mines in Operation in 1880 — Analyses and Production of Brown Iron Ore — Output of the more important Mines — Distribution of the Forest of Dean Ore — Pig Iron Manufacture— Early History — Production and Yield of Furnaces — Malleable Iron Works, eaxly history — Quantities of Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture. Iron Ore Deposits. — The valuable ores of iron occurring in the carboniferous or mountain limestone, in the Forest of Dean, appear to have been worked about the year 1650, and again, though on a limited scale, in the beginning of the present cen- tury ; this latter fact we glean from the " Survey of Gloucester- shire," by Mr. Thomas Eudge, who states that in the year 1806 the greater part of the ore employed in the blast furnaces, was obtained from Lancashire, and that the ironmasters found it more profitable to import this ore, notwithstanding the high rate of carriage then charged, rather than employ the ores of the dis- trict. As the rich character of the Forest hematite became better known the deposits were more fully developed. The year of greatest production was 1871, when the output of the iron mines in the Forest reached 170,611 tons, of the value of ;£127,957. In the millstone grit formation the ore is worked but ver}' locally, the principal masses being found in the mountain lime- stone, where it exists in irregular chambers or "chums," some of which are of considerable extent, yielding many thousands of tons, and having the additional advantage of being worked eco- nomically, from the circumstance that no timbering or other sup- ports for the roof is required. The ore is in good request in the ironworks of South Wales and other districts ; the quantities, however, sent out of the Forest of Dean have decreased con- siderably of late years. CHAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTEESHIEE IRON INDUSTEIES. 643 Most of the coal-fields of Great Britain possess in a greater or less degree productive measures of ironstone ; in the years 1879 and 1880 upwards of one-third of the ironstone raised in the United Kingdom was derived from the argillaceous ores of the coal measures. South Wales, Staffordshire, Derhyshire, York- shire and Shropshire, North Wales, and Scotland, are amongst our coal-fields most abundantly supplied with these ores, while, on the other hand, in the coal-fields of Durham and Northum- berland, Lancashire and the Forest of Dean, these argillaceous ores of iron are of rare occurrence ; their absence, however, in Gloucestershire is amply compensated for by the almost un- limited deposits of brown hematite, occurring in the carboniferous limestone — a rock of a tough crystalline character, bluish-grey in colour, and emitting when fi:actured a sulphurous odour, due to the presence and decomposition of iron pyrites. This limestone is of considerable value commercially, being used as a flux, and employed as a road metal. The principal deposits of brown hematite in the Forest of Dean occur in the carboniferous or mountain limestone in ex- tensive hollows, or chambers, caverns, or chums. The mines are situated for the most part on the outcrop or basset of the mineral basin, and many of them are worked to a considerable depth. At the Buckshraft Mine, one of the earliest wrought mines in the Forest on the eastern side, the hematite is worked at a depth of 250 yards below the level of the outcrop. Various opinions have been recorded as to the extension of these valuable deposits of brown hematite in depth. The Forest of Dean was examined and reported upon some years since, in 1835, by Thomas Sop- with, Esq., F.E.S., one of the Commissioners on behalf of Her Majesty's Commissioners of Woods and Forests ; the results of this survey were at a later period delineated in a most interesting and instructive model of the Forest of Dean, now deposited in the Museum of Practical Geology, in Jermyn-street. Again, in the year 1855 the officers of the Geological Survey surveyed the Forest, acting under the direction of the late Sir Henry de la Beche. Generally it may be regarded that the greatest depth of the coal measures in the Forest mineral basin does not exceed 500 yards from the high water level of the Eiver Severn, while the iron ore deposits, if they occur, are not more than 100 yards T T 2 644 COAL AliTD lEON INDUSTMBS, [paet ii. below the coal measures; doubtless, with the winning of the brown hematite at this great depth, considerable difficulties wiU be experienced in the matter of drainage, from the accumulation of water which would be met with in sinking to the deep of the miaeral basin through the coal measures. It is stated that in the Shakemantle Pit, in the Buckshraft Mine, at the depth of 120 yards, the quantity of water encountered does not exceed 2,000 gallons per minute in the worst season of the year. This pit is considerably below the level of the Eiver Severn, draining, probably, the whole of the waters from the outcrop, a distance of nearly three miles north and south. The cylinder of the pumping- engine employed at the above-named pit by Messrs. Crawshay has a diameter of 60 inches, and successfully keeps the mine free of water. The dip of the strata of the mineral basin near the outcrop on the eastern side of the Forest is about 45 degrees, decreasing gradually towards the centre of the basin, tiU it reaches the Light Moor CoUiery, where it diminishes to 4 degrees, rising again towards the westward, where the strata have the same inclination as on the eastern outcrop. The question of the occurrence in depth of the brown iron ore is an all-important one ; it does not appear improbable, that it wiU be found deep, and so far as the subterranean operations of the district have been carried, no diminution is apparent either in the quantity or character of the ore wrought. The question has received much attention, and will probably be determined at no distant period, inasmuch as on the eastern side of the Forest, immediately adjoining the Cinderford property of Messrs. Crawshay & Co., are a series of " gales," or royalties, of iron mines known as the Polar Star, Duke of Gloucester, Emperor Napoleon, Berkeley Castle, and Elephant, comprising an area of upwards of 2,000 acres, or 3 square miles, and situated some 6 miles north of Lydney, i^ miles east of Coleford, and 2j miles west of Newn- ham, and favourably situated in regard to railway communication, being intersected by two Hnes. Within the above-named area it has been recommended that shafts be sunk in suitable positions by the aid of Messrs. Kind's and Chaudron's pit sinking machinery, iron tubbing being employed to deal more effectually with the influx of water expected to be encoimtered in these operations. An important CHAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTEilSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 645 and extensive work of this kind must of necessity be attended ■with considerable outlay of capital, and calls for the employment not only of large resources, but of great engineering experience and sound judgment in its accomplishment. It is well deserving the attention of the ironmasters connected with these industries, in view of securing future supplies to supplement the diminishing resources of the blackband ironstone, to aid in the solution of the problem, namely, the discovery of the rich brown hematite deposits, supposed to extend to the centre of the mineral basin in the Forest of Dean. Before passing on to the analyses of the ores, a list of the iron mines in the Forest of Dean, their situation, and the firms working the same, may be found convenient for reference ; they were as follows in the year 1880 : — No. Name of Mine. Situation. Name of Proprietor or Company. 1 Bucksliraft Cinderford Hy. Crawshay and Son. 2 Coleford Coleford Coleford Iron Co. 3 Easter " • { Easter Haimatite Iron Ore Co., Limited. i Forget-me-not . . Bream . . . J. W. Blanch and Wood. 5 6 Oakwood Mill Upper 1 New China Level . > Noxon . Forest Hicmatite Iron Ore Co., Limited. 7 New China Engine ) 8 Oakwood Deep I/evel . Bream . . William James. 9 New Dun Pit . Coleford . Coleford Iron Co. 10 Lydbrook . . . Noxen Park Lydney Thomas Smith. 11 Bream . Grreat Western Iron Co., Lim. 12 OldBowandTufthom Clearwell Meend . G. Atkinson. 13 Old Ham Pit . . li )' William Henry Fryer. 14 Old Sling Pit . >» >) • • Blanch and Wood. 16 Old Park Bream . 16 Park Hill . Lydney H. Crawshay and Son. 17 Perseverance . . . Newnham »» i» 18 Shravea Bream Thomas Hewlett. 19 St. Annals Oak Pit, 1 Shraves . . / „ ... J. Hewlett. 20 Westbury Brook ^ Dean's Meend . ( SjS [ Mitcheldean . . Dowlais Iron Co. 21 " 1) )» 22 Slope Pit . (gw Staunton . . ; ) Coleford . . . William James. 23 \ Staunton Highmeadow Iron Mining Co., Limited. William James. 24 Soar Pit . . . Bream . 25 Lufton Frog Pit )» ... )» »» 26 Kingsmoor Noxon . Great Western Iron Co., Lim. 27 Tew Tree Shraves . . Bream John Shingles. 28 Tufton . ' . Coleford . Great Western Iron Co., Lim. 29 Lambs Quay . . . Clearwell Meend . W. H. Fryer. William James. 30 Lower Oakwood Mill . Bream 31 Lydney Park . . J) • * • ■ Lydney and Wigpool Iron Ore Co. H. Crawshay and Sons. 32 Saint Annals Cinderford 33 f Wigpool Belt and ) ( Injunction Belt . J Mitcheldean Meend ( Lydney and Wigpool Iron Ore I Co., Limited. 646 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. Analyses of the Forest of Dean Brown Iron Ore or Limonite.— The hematite of this district, as far as it has been worked, has been thoroughly examined, and numerous analyses are at hand to show the composition of the several varieties. The varieties may be classified as foUows : first, a very compact close-grained black ore, of high per centage, locally termed " Brush Ore," sometimes met with in large lumps weighing from two to three tons, but more generally in small masses mixed with the other ores ; — secondly, a cellular or spongy variety, often tough, also black and very rich, and occasionally occurring in large quantities ; and thirdly, a broken, earthy-looking ore, assuming, on exposure in heaps to the air, a deep red colour, not very rich in itself but extensively used in admixture with the two previous varieties, and it appears to form nearly two-thirds of the bulk of the ore raised, in the district. In the smelting of the ores of this locality considerable facilities are afforded by the abundance of good and cheap fuel from the Forest collieries, and when fluxing material is required, from the limestone of the neighbouring hills. On the principal floor of the Museum of Practical Geology will be found in the wall cases numbered 48 and 49 a large collection of the ores of iron wrought in Dean Forest, described as Brown Iron Ore, one variety dis- tinguished as very compact " Sandstone Ore " ; a second from the Moimtain Limestone, locally called "Grey Ore"; a third, provincially called " Smith Ore " ; and a fourth of a cellular or tubiporous variety, raised at the Easter Mine, near Coleford.* An examination of two varieties of ore by Mr. Charles Green- ham, of the Park End Ironworks, made some years since, the samples submitted to analyses being described as foUows : " first, the " Brush Ore," the sample was composed mainly of fragments of the purple-brown hydrated peroxide of iron, having the peculiar stalactitio structure which characterises this ore. A smaller quantity of the brown pulverulent variety was intermixed with the former, and therefore included in the " sample analyses." Another variety, the " Grey Vein," is thus referred to : this ore appears to have been derived from the brush ore by the partial filling up of the cavities, with a crystallised carbonate of lime and magnesia." The following shows the constituents of each of the varieties : — * " Catalogue, Mineral Collection, Museum of Practical Geology," 1864:, p. 5. iiAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTEESHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 647 Constituents. Brush Ore. Grey Vein. Peroxide of iron Protoxide of iron Oxide of manganese Carbonate of lime Phosphoric acid Water Sfl.nd and clay . Carbonate of magnesia 90-70 ■ traces. • 0-07 8-87 0-60 41-86 traces. 30-40 0-13 4-65 1-32 21-50 Total . 100-24 99-86 Of these ores the " Brush Ore " yielded of metallic iron 63*50 per cent., and the " Grey Vein " 29'30 per cent. It is further observable that neither of the above samples contains any ap- preciable amount of sulphur. The Forest of Dean ores have also been examined in Dr. Percy's laboratory of the Eoyal School of Mines by Mr. A. Dick, whose results are shown in the annexed statement ; the ores examined being those known as the " Brush Ore " and the " Smith Ore," the latter being a more earthy variety derived from the carbonife- rous rocks : — Constituents. Brush Ore. Smith Ore. Peroxide of iron Protoxide of manganese Lime .... Alumina .... Magnesia Phosphoric acid . Water .... Insoluble residue 90-0O 0-08 0-06 6-20 0-09 9-22 1-07 89-76 0-04 0-49 0-63 0-40 0-13 7-05 2-57 Total 100-77 101-07 The " Brush Ore," in the foregoing analysis, was found to contain 63'04 per cent, of metallic iron, while that of the Smith Ore was equivalent to 62'86 per cent. These hematites compare favourably with those of Llantrissant, siHceous in character, yielding an average of 41 "34 per cent, of metalHc iron. In the north-western district of the Forest there are two descriptions of ore worked, known locally as " Brandy Brush " and " Grey Ore," the former distinguished for containing a high per centage of silica, and the latter of carbonate of lime and silica. 648 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. The " Brandy Brush " ore also appears in a few other localities, while the Grey Ore chiefly appears on the western side of the mineral basin near Coleford. The following gives the com- position of each variety of these ores ; the examination was made in the laboratory of the Eoyal School of Mines : — Constituents. Brandy Brush. Grey Ore. Sesquioxide of iron . Protoxide of iron Protoxide of manganese . Alumina .... Lime .... Magnesia .... Potash .... Silica Carbonic acid . Phosphoric acid . Sulphuric acid . Water hygroscopic Organic matter Ignited insoluble matter 32-76 trace. 0-05 0-25 0-25 6-67 6-69 trace. 3-55 63-38 48-98 0-24 0-16 0-12 14-07 10-21 20-75 0-06 trace. 5-18 6-86 Total 100-40 100-63 Ignited Insoltjele Eesidtje. Silica Alumina ... Sesquioxide of iron . . . 63-45 traces, traces. 0-79 0-05 0-01 Total 63-45 0-85 The metallic iron contained in these ores are equivalent respectively to 22"93 and 34"46 per cent. The ores raised on the eastern side of the Forest, at the well- known mines of Buckshraft, Findall, and Westbury Brook, appear to be more easily dealt with in the blast furnace than the ores obtained on the north-western side ; this is due to the fact that the great bulk of the ore is found in a pulverised condition, and freed from the presence of silica and other injurious elements, while the deposits referred to on the western side occur in a hard compact condition, requiring much blasting in the operation of mining, and containing a high per centage of silica and carbonate of lime. On the eastern side of the Forest, adjoining the property of CHAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTEESHIEE IRON INDTTSTKIES. 649 Messrs. Crawshay, at Cinderford, explorations recently made have attracted some attention. The royalties referred to are those "Gales" or "Setts" previously referred to and known as the Polar Star, Duke of Gloucester, Emperor Napoleon, Berkeley Castle, and Elephant Iron Mines. The annexed analysis of the hematite ore raised in the above gales compares favourably with the best quality of similar ores, not only in the Forest but in other parts of the kingdom : — • Eesults Tabxtlated. Peroxide of iron 82-64 Silica and lime o'07 Alumina 1'09 Phosphoric acid 1*05 Sulphur 0-06 Loss in calcination 10-68 Total 100-59 The amount of metallic iron contained in the above peroxide is equivalent to 57'85 per cent., while in the calcined ore the metal is concentrated to the extent of 64'77 per cent. The analysis above noted was made in Dr. Percy's laboratory of the Eoyal School of Mines. Production of Brown Iron Ore. — The ore raised from the mines of the Forest of Dean is a stalactitic brown hematite, locally known as " Brush Ore ; " the more earthy varieties being distinguished as " Smith Ore." The earliest return accessible is for the year 1854, when the production amounted to 86,506 tons, the output of the following iron mines then in operation : — NAME OE MINE. WHEKE SITUATED. Buckshraft Cinderford. Dean Pit ClearweU Meend. New China Level .... Noxon Park. Old Park Oakwood near Bream. Old Sling Pit Lydney Old Park. Perseverance and Findall . . . Soudley. Westbury Brook .... Edge Hill, near Mitoheldean. The returns, since 1854, of the Forest of Dean ii-on mines are as follows, and side by side appears the distribution in each of the same years, with the quantities used in the iron works : — «50 COAL AND IRON INDUSTBIES. [PAET II. Year. DISTKIBDTION OF THE CHE. Used in Tron- worlis. Total of Dean Forest. South Wales. Staffordshire. Bristol. 1855 . 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 Tons. 20,810 39,450 49,049 34,652 22,587 10,572 34,024 Tons. 31,042 12,000 21,773 16,288 18,524 11,131 483 Tons. 1,726 767 3,444 Tons. 40,756 57,818 56,732 56,712 63,455 67,996 62,468 Tons. 92,608 109,268 127,554 107,652 106,292 90,466 100,419 The total of Dean Forest for the year 1861 includes 1,004 tons •carried from the western side of the Forest to the BuUo Pill Junction in that year. Other deposits of hematite in Gloucestershire, occurring at Frampton Cotterell, near Bristol, were opened out ahout the year 1861 ; these deposits occur in the Pennant Grit, an arenaceous rock interposing between the upper and lower coal measures, and have produced ore in the following quantities. The works have been abandoned since the year 1875 : — Feampton Ootteeell Mines. Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1862 5,107 1869 6,773 1863 6,000 1870 15,249 1864 11,000 1871 8,487 1865 8,000 1872 9,201 1866 6,000 1873 13,682 1867 6,100 1874 14,842 1868 6,566 1875 8,845 The other places yielding brown hematite in Gloucestershire occur at Iron Acton, Saint Pierre, Hopewell, Noxon Paxk, High Meadow, and Lydney Park. The three latter on the estate of the Countess of Dunraven, have from time to time produced ore in some quantity. Iron ore is also known to occur at Cotswold, Eldon Eedding, Hoxenwall, Midsummer Norton, Pensford, and Temple Cloud, where pits have been sunk, and the ore occasion- ally worked. The returns of Noxon Park, High Meadow, and Lydney Park Mines, are as follows in the years given : — CHAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTERSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 651 Year. Noxon Park. High Meadow. Lydney Park. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1865 22,000 1866 19,126 1867 16,480 . . . 1868 25,093 1870 30,000 1871 28,500 • .. 1872 10,000 1,668 15,695 1873 10,000 2,703 12,000 1874 4,309 5,950 1875 3,500 3,105 1876 6,626 6,755 1,186 1877 4,927 3,944 1878 561 1879 299 1880 7,028 1,555 ... Following the returns of Dean Forest since the year 1861, up to which time they have been given, it will be convenient to continue the returns published since the year 1862, which enables fi comparison to be made of the produce of Dean Forest, and the total ore raised in Gloucestershire, together with the respective values in each year. It will be understood that the total, of Gloucestershire includes in each year the produce of the outlying •deposits previously referred to. The quantities and values of the ^res are as follows : — Year. DEAN FOREST. TOTAL OF OlOUCESTEESHIRE. Quantities. Value. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1862 158,908 71,508 164,015 73,806 1863 121,397 54,627 127,497 57,372 1864 130,482 68,723 141,843 63,830 1865. 142,807 64,526 152,710 68,983 1866 156,079 70,236 162,129 72,982 1867 156,069 70,231 156,169 70,271 1868 160,722 72,324 167,288 75,333 1869 134,595 60,567 172,023 77,460 1870 138,254 62,214 183,503 82,576 1871 170,611 127,957 207,598 155,060 1872 162,888 122,166 199,453 149,585 1873 163,660 98,196 199,342 125,447 1874 110,203 82,653 171,428 148,910 1875 92,825 62,500 111,825 71,760 1876 98,133 66,285 114,728 77,394 1877 80,555 55,219 92,974 63,261 1878 69,034 41,440 74,761 44,877 1879 52,061 31,237 58,552 35,091 1880 83,198 49,918 92,159 55,174 652 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II, The value of the ore delivered into trucks at the mines in 1862 did not exceed 9s. per ton, increasing to 14s. per ton in 1873 ; as a general average some varieties did not bring more than 10s. per ton ; in the year 1876 the average was 13s. 6d., and in 1880 about 12s. per ton. The detailed production of the mines in the last-named year was as follows : — GioucESTERSHiEB Ieon Mjites, Poeest op Dean. No. Names of Mines. Quantities. Value. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Buckshraft (Cinderford) . China Engine (Noxon) . . . Coleford (Coleford) .... Deans Meend (Mitcheldean) . . Easter (Coleford) .... Forget-me-not (Bream) . . . Lambsquay (Clearwell Meend) Lydbrook New China Level (Noxon) New Dun Pit Oak Pit Old Ham Pit (ClearweU Meend) . OldEowPit Oakwood Mile (Noxon) . . . Old SUng Pit (Clearwell Meend) . Old Park (Bream) .... Parktiill (Lydney) .... Perseverance (Newnham) . . . Saint Annals (Bream) . Shraves ,, . . . . Slope Pit Westbury Brook (Mitcheldean) . . "WigpoolBelt Tew Tree (Bream) .... Total of Forest of Dean Ore Highmeadow (Coleford) . . . EingweU and GatteU Noxon Park (Bream) . . . . Total of Gloucestershire . Tons. 17,641 610 84 3,685 8,994 200 167 6 4,372 213 131 1,071 16 3,233 9,986 1,008 596 1,537 4,621 592 983 12,413 10,750 389 £ .. d. 49,918 6 83,198 49,918 6 378 1,555 7,028 106 16 933 4,216 6 92,159 55,174 8 Before considering the distribution of the Forest of Dean hematite, it will interest those familiar with the district and con- nected with its mining operations to have for convenient reference reliable data, showing the produce of some of the more important mines in the Forest. With this object in view, the following abstracts have been prepared, showing the annual produce of the CHAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTEESHIRE IKON INDUSTRIES. 653 mines named, and giving the returns as far back as possible. The first group to which attention is directed includes those mines in the neighbourhood of Cinderford, on the eastern side of the Forest, from which mines the blast fmnaces of the district have received their supplies of hematite ; they are as follows : — Year. Buckshraft. Pinclall, &c. Westhnry Brook. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1863 44,219 9,678 13,659 1864 39,770 9,416 20,501 1865 46,127 13,947 33,822 1866 48,735 10,738 35,495 1867 48,659 15,079 21,810 1868 47,649 14,983 28,060 1869 42,096 11,443 25,825 1870 38,639 8,471 26,352 1871 37,694 8,117 16,005 1872 34,409 3,939 14,693 1873 30,706 4,472 14,112 1874 15,631 9,239 25,200 1875 21,008 ...* 12,518 1876 21,139 8,245 23,798 1877 17,783 9,020 10,976 1878 27,212 3,077 17,781 1879 19,041 ■ •• 8,730 1880 17,641 ... 12,413 Turning to the western side of the Forest, in the district of ClearweU Meend, the mines have produced hematite in the following quantities : — Tear. Olearwell. Old Bow Pit. Easter. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1863 1,309 ... 11,398 1864 4,693 ... 9,495 1865 ■ •■ ... 4,548 1866 306 ■ •• 5,728 1867 1,254 ... 10,435 1868 2,151 2,981 10,409 1869 4,925 4,317 11,013 1870 1,765 6,691 9,968 1871 4,861 5,181 17,619 1872 3,858 7,131 14,726 1873 5,331 5,230 13,675 1874 3,255 3,234 7,077 1875 2,330 257 6,974 1876 2,331 682 7,633 1877 340 631 3,345 1878 602 184 1,859 1879 1,559 1880 16 8,994 No return. 634 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT IT. A falling off aj)pears in the output of the above mines, due to the depressed condition of the iron industries of late years. The following mines in the neighbourhood of Lydney audi Coleford gave tonnages as follows in each of the years named : — LYDNEY. COLEFOBD. Oakwood. Old SlUg. Shraves. CroVs Nest. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 18G3 4,227 16,904 380 300 1864 6,145 15,940 1,093 4,868 1865 6,484 12,380 353 ... 1866 8,742 8,519 819 158 1867 10,251 11,583 866 5,342 1868 2,981 9,952 431 1,109 1869 3,018 4,671 175 4,790 1870 6,804 6,887 756 3,390 1871 6,858 6,285 823 6,782 1872 8,750 7,233 2,295 4,404 1873 9,960 4,988 2,704 6,230 1874 5,445 5,916 2,341 870 1875 2,121 6,465 863 ... 1876 765 5,343 503 ... 1877 408 3,603 689 ... 1878 4,334 3,479 102 ... 1879 3,501 881 37 >•■ 1880 3,233 9,986 592 ... The Deen's Meend Mine of the Dowlais Iron Company, situated near Mitcheldean, and the Wigpool and Saint Annal's Mines, the last-named situated near Cinderford, produced the following quan- tities in each of the years named : — Year. Wigpool. Deen's Meend. Saint Annal's. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1863 13,180 .. . 1864 14,768 1866 '462 12,233 1867 124 8,421 1868 122 9,813 1869 8,622 1870 6,815 6,231 1871 19,792 5,336 3,214 1872 11,729 3,256 9,811 1873 22,106 3,491 10,874 1874 ... 3,555 9,620 1875 6,844 2,380 11,112 1876 4,378 2,686 3,806 1877 10,535 2,490 . .. 1878 2,665 2,810 ... 1879 2,848 2,385 1880 10,750 3,683 4,621 CHAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTERSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 655 Distribution of tte Forest of Dean Ore. — The early returns showing the distribution of the ore to the year 1861, being intimately associated with the production, have already appeared. It will now be desirable to follow the inquiry, and note for subsequent years the quantities sent into other iron-makmg districts, notably South Wales, Staffordshire, and Somersetshire, distinguishing the quantities retained in the Forest for consump- tion in the ironworks : — - Tear. South Wales. Stafford- shire. Bullo Pill Junction. Bristol. Used in Forest. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1862 49,718 978 8,617 • .• 99,595 158,908 1863 45,946 665 13,450 ... 61,336 121,397 1864 51,210 32 14,741 335 64,164 130,482 1865 43,152 ... 9,170 3,354 87,131 142,807 1866 57,904 • • . 6,000 2,074 90,101 156,079 1867 53,114 ... 1,644 101,311 156,069 1868 50,068 251 ... 110,403 160,722 1869 29.794 ... 104,801 134,595 Of the ore raised in the Forest of Dean, the respective quanti- ties sent from the eastern and western sides appear as follows for each of the years given : — Year. Eastern Side. Western Side. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1856 55,450 53,818 109,268 1857 56,475 71,079 127,654 1858 71,098 36,554 107,652 1859 62,557 43,735 106,292 1860 46,661 , 43,805 90,466 1861 64,758 35,661 100,419 1862 98,431 60,477 158,908 1863 94,601 26,796 121,397 1864 95,858 34,624 130,482 1865 108,985 33,822 142,807 1866 109,503 46,576 156,079 1867 123,838 32,231 156.069 1868 50,649 110,073 160,722 1869 34,407 100,188 134,595 In the above returns, the ore consumed in the iron furnaces for the years 1868 and 1869 is included in the western side, while in previous years it is included in the eastern side of the Forest. 656 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET ir. Since the year 1869 the Severn and Wye Railway have for- warded ore in the following quantities : — Forwarded. 1870. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1876. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. By Water to Wales 21,211 35,540 12,632 2,233 By Eail to Wales . . 15,734 12,154 12,864 ByEailtoBulloPill . 14,291 12,057 43,252 1,445 By Rail to StaffordsMre . 12 3,855 ... [26,437 250 By Water to Bristol 148 446 150 Jby Water to (JHouoester . Total . 3,389 728 ... 51,462 67,441 56,762 28,670 14,559 In the year 1876, and since, the distribution of ore appears in the following quantities by the Great Western Railway : — TEAB. GREAT 'WESTEKir. Tons. 1876 73,286 1877 73,236 1878 56,111 1879 37,586 1880 45,014 In the year 1876 the Severn and Wye Railway carried out of the district 8,005 tons. Pig Iron Manufacture. — The Forest of Dean has for many centuries been associated with the iron manufactures of Great Britain, in many localities in the Forest, near the sites selected by the Romans for the erection of their altars dedicated to Mars, the god of battle, numerous remains of scorise or slags have been found, and containing so large an amount of metallic iron, that for many generations it has been found profitable to re-smelt them. In other districts in this country similar remains have been discovered — as, for example, at Bierley, near Bradford, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, and again on the Brendon HiUs, in Somersetshire. It is stated that during a period of three centuries about 20 small charcoal furnaces existed in the Forest of Dean, engaged in the re-smelting of these rich slags, said to contain from 30 to 40 per cent, of metallic iron. It is no less remarkable that it was on the hills that these Roman slags were invariably discovered, leading to the inference that bellows were not then employed, but that the furnaces were so constructed as fitAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTERSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 657 to utilise the wind by suitable channels, through which it was conducted, always taking advantage of the natural cui-rents. These furnaces, or air bloomeries, were hollows dug out at the top of a hill, with covered channels leading to the hillside in the direction of the prevailing wind, which would blow through them into the fire, the latter being kept up with wood or charcoal, the iron ore being introduced into the burning mass. The early process thus referred to was of a very primitive character, and was attended with very great loss of metallic iron remaining in the rejected slags. Similar air furnaces, it is stated, were em- ployed in Derbyshire in the 17th century for the reduction of the ores of lead. As soon as bellows were introduced, about the 8th century, a new impulse was given to the iron industries generally; instead of hollows these so-called bloomeries were built up walls, which were gradually heightened till they attained an elevation of from 5 to 6 feet, the diameter also augmenting to 3 and 4 feet, thus becoming wolf furnaces, and furnaces of this description were employed in America and Hungary until less than 100 years ago, and are now in use at the present time in the East, in India and Turkey. Originally these furnaces were rectangular in form, but after the 16th century they became elliptical, and eventually in the last century circular in section. They were not, however, in such a condition as to produce a fusible cast iron, as they could only deliver lumps, " wolves," or pigs of half malleable wrought iron. Previous to the introduction of bellows, as already stated about the 8th century, we find the valleys selected for the sites of blast furnaces or bloomeries, where water power was obtainable, and could be made available as a motive power in impelling the blast ; with this change the manufacture was carried on under more favourable circumstances. In the Forest of Dean, about the beginning of the 16th century, charcoal blast furnaces, it appears, were introduced from the iron districts of the Ehine ; these furnaces were 6 feet wide at the boshes and 15 feet high, and we have the authority of Mr. David Mushet, who found the remains of two such furnaces, having probably been built during the reign of Edward VI., and about the year 1550. Again, in the reign of Elizabeth, it is known that the art of iron casting had in this country attained a certain degree of perfection, as cast-iron ordnance were then largely exported to the Continent, and the annual production of charcoal 658 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [part ir. pig iron at this period was estimated at not less than 180,000 tons per annum. The great drain on our forests at a subsequent period to furnish the fuel — charcoal — for the reduction of the ores of iron in the blast furnace, nearly brought the iron industries of England and "Wales to a standstill ; indeed, not less than three- fourths of the blast furnaces then erected were inactive. As a matter of history, it may be here stated that Oliver Cromwell was an ironmaster in the Forest of Dean about the middle of the seventeenth century. Not until the year 1740 have we any information to refer to, showing the production of pig iron in the Forest of Dean, although ample evidence exists of the industry being carried on at a very much earlier period. Dealing, however, with the statistical facts available for the j^ear 1740, we find in Gloucestershire, pre- sumably in the Forest of Dean, four furnaces producing 800 tons of charcoal pig iron, being an average make of 200 tons per furnace. At this period the production of charcoal pig iron in Great Britain amounted to 17,350 tons, the make of 59 furnaces. Charcoal continued to be vised in the Forest of Dean furnaces, for in the year 1788 we find four furnaces in operation, producing 2,600 tons, giving an average yield of 650 tons pet- furnace. In this last-named year 24 furnaces using charcoal were^ in operation in England and Wales, making 13,100 tons of iron, and 53 furnaces using coke making 48,200 tons of iron, or a total make in 1788 of 61,800 tons of pig iron, to which should be added the production of Scotland, amounting to 5,600 tons of coke pig, and 1,400 tons of charcoal pig iron ; the Scotch furnaces being those of the Carron Company, and other works situated at Wilsonstown and Cleugh. The total iron made in Great Britain at this time, 1788, being 68,300 tons.* Advancing to the year 1796, the only furnaces in operation were situated at Flaxley, and produced in that year 380 tons of pig iron ; the number of blast furnaces in England and Wales being 104, and the production of pig iron 167,321 tons, while in Scotland the same year 17 furnaces produced 16,086 tons, giving the total yield of the furnaces of Great Britain as 183,407 tons. At the end of the last and beginning of the present century it is quite certain the iron industries of Great Britain were far from * For details, see Appendix II., p. 831. CHAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTEESHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 659 being in a prosperous condition ; indeed, it is stated by some ■writers that at the period referred to, the iron trade of the Forest of Dean was nearly at a standstill. Other periods of depression ensued, while in later years more prosperous times succeeded, and when about the year 1826 the works and furnaces at Park- end commenced operations, a new era was inaugurated. The Parkend works were projected and carried out by Mr. Moses Teague, who at a later period established the works at Cinderford. The above-named gentleman has the distinction of being the chief agent in promoting the successful development of the iron industries of Dean Forest. Considerable obscurity surrounds the progress of iron manufacture in the Forest between the years 1796 and 1839. In the last-named year the furnaces in operation were those of the Parkend and Cinderford companies, the former having three, and the last-named, two blast furnaces at work, producing 18,000 tons of pig iron, giving an average yield of 3,600 tons per furnace. The return here referred to was prepared by Mr. David Mushet, who made in the same year a survey of the iron industries of the Uniied ICingdom, ascertain- ing the number of furnaces in operation as 396, and the produc- tion of pig iron 1,248,781 tons.* Again, in the year 1840 the four furnaces in operation in the Forest produced 15,500 tons. From the investigation made in the same year by Mr. William Jessop, of the Butterley Iron- works, who pursued his inquiries to all the iron-making districts of Great Britain, it was ascertained that of the 490 furnaces built 402 were in blast, making 1,396,400 tons of pig iron, and consuming 4,877,000 tons of coal in its manufacture. Advancing to the year 1851, the total production of pig iron in the five, furnaces working amounted to 30,000 tons. At this period the Darkhill and Oakwood Vale furnaces were in course of erection ; the former by Messrs. Mushet, the latter by the Ebbw Vale Iron Company ; and in the year 1855 the works at Soudley were erected by Mr. B. Gibbons, junr. In subsequent years the furnaces built and in operation, with the production of pig iron and average make per furnace, appear as foUows, the production increasing from 21,990 tons in 1854 to 34,927 tons in 1863, and the average make per furnace from 4,395 tons to 5,821 tons : — * For details, see Appendix II., p. 835. V V 2 660 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. FUENACES. Year. PiK Iron Made. Make per Funiace. Built. In Blast. Tons. Tons. 1854 7 5 21,990 4,395 1855 7 4 19,500 4,975 1856 10 5 24,132 4,826 1857 10 5 23,882 4,776 1858 10 4 23,580 5,895 1859 10 6 31,750 5,292 1860 9 4 26,458 6,614 1861 9 3 23,163 7,721 1863 9 6 34,927 5,821 Since the year 1863, and until 1871, the production of the Forest of Dean furnaces are included with the furnaces of Wilt- shire and Somersetshire, and appear in the following table : — Year. Forest of Dean. Wiltshire. Somersetshire. Pig Iron. FOENACES. FURNACES. FURNACES. Total. Built. In Blast.' Built. In Blast. Built. In Blast. 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 9 6 6 I 6 6 7 7 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 7 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Tons. 65,312 65,471 59,817 71,186 75,847 81,306 93,601 99,997 In the year 1872, and following years, the production of the Forest of Dean furnaces is separately distinguished, and appears in the annexed table ; side by side the average yield of each furnace is given : — Year. FURNACES. Pig Iron. Average per Furnace. Built. In Blaat. 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 10 10 10 10 10 9 6 6 6 6 5 4 Tons. 46,226 44,049 43,139 27,088 28,108 25,602 Tons. 7,704 7,341 7,186 4,514 5,621 6,400 CHAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTERSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 661 In the years 1878, 1879, and 1880, the yield of the Forest of Dean furnaces did not exceed 15,000 or 16,000 tons ; those in operation heing the Cinderford Works, of Messrs. Hemy Craw- shay & Co., the production of which is included in the returns of Wiltshire and Somersetshire. The Ebhw Vale Company's Works at Oakwood, it may be noted, were a few years since closed, and the furnaces dismantled. The works in Gloucestershire in 1880, with the names of the companies and number of furnaces built and in blast, were as follows : — No. Names of Works. Owners. FURNACES. Built. In Blast. 1 2 8 Cinderford . Park End, lydney . . Great Western, Soudley. Henry Crawshay and Co. . Forest of Dean Iron Co., Limited Great Western Iron Co., Limited 4 3 2 2 Total of Gloucestershire . . . . 9 2 malleable Ironworks, Mills, and Forges. — The early history of the Malleable iron trade is more or less historically identified with the early records of the Forest of Dean. According to Scrivenor, in his "History of the Iron Trade," it appears probable that shortly after the Emperor Adrian visited this country (a.d. 120), accompanied by the sixth legion of Roman soldiers, a great military forge — Fabrica — was by his direction established at Bath, for the purpose of manufacturing war im- plements for the various troops in Britain, and for some bodies of Roman soldiers on the Continent. This branch of manu- facture was of considerable importance at that time, and the regulations for the management of the Fabrica, or College of Armourers, were most systematic and complete. The iron used for the manufacture of the military weapons at this establishment is supposed to have been obtained from the Forest of Dean and the hills of Monmouthshire, where the ore was dug up and smelted, the iron taken across the Severn at Lydney, landed at Aust, and taken to Bath by a military way almost parallel with the Upper Bristol Road. Again, we have it on the authority of the Domesday Book that bolts and bars of iron required by King Edward's shipbuilders were obtained from the city of Gloucester, which from its close proximity to the Forest 663 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. of Dean reasonably induces to the inference that they were pro- duced there. Slags and cinders occur in various places in the Forest of Dean and in the Brendon Hills, in which pottery and Eoman coins have been discovered, tending to establish the fact of the existence at an early period of ironworks and foundries, in which charcoal had alone been employed. It also appears that at an early period the monks of Flaxley, located in the Forest of Dean, established forges in various places where wood, iron ore, and water were abundant, power being secured for the primitive mechanical appUances then in use, by the flowing streams in the sites selected. • From an original document in the possession of Samuel Tim- mins, Esq., of Birmingham, and supposed to have been prepared about the middle of the last century, 1760, we learn that about that period there were five works in operation in Gloucestershire, producing 1,120 tons of bar iron per annum. The works were as follows, with the individual production of each : — NAME OF WOKKS. MAKE OP BAK IRON. Tons. Lidney 350 Lidbroob, Three Eorges . . . . 350 TJpleaden 120 Tortworth 150 Plaxley 150 Total 1,120 More recently, in the beginning of the present century, about the year 1805, the principal works existing were situated at Froombridge, in the parish of Frampton, where iron and brass wire was made, and at Framilode, in the parish of Eastington, a manufactory of tin-plate was in operation. Again, at Flaxley and at Lydney works of an extensive character are known to have been in existence, both for the reduction of the ores of the dis- trict and the manufacture of malleable iron, the first-named of the above works having then, as now, the reputation of making iron of a character knoWn as " red short," especially celebrated and in great request for the manufacture of tin-plate. The works at present and for many years in operation in the Forest of Dean are those at Park End, formerly belonging to the Forest of Dean Iron Company, and now to Messrs. Crawshay and Sons, consist- CHAP. XVI.] GLOUCESTEESHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 663 ing of three puddling furnaces and two rolling mills, and the works of the Great Western Iron Company, Limited, situated at Soudley, with one rolling mill. Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture. — Mr. William Jessop, of the Butterley Ironworks, a gentleman previously referred to as being intimately acquainted with the iron industries of Great Britain, ascertained that in the year 1840, in Dean Forest, the quantity of coal consumed in the manufacture of each ton of pig iron was 67 cwts. The Eoyal Coal Commission, in the year 1869, after a careful inquiry, found that the consump- tion did not exceed 66 cwts. Since the year 1872 the exact proportions have been ascertained and appear as follows, of pig iron made and of coal and ore used in its manufacture : — Year. Pig Iron. Coal Used. Iron Ore. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 46,226 125,461 119,485 1873 44,049 134,019 94,019 1874 43,139 137,413 92,150 1875 . 27,088 87,051 75,975 1876 28,108 89,318 79,541 1877 25,602 77,196 68,520 The quantities of hematite above referred to are exclusively the produce of the Forest mines ; other ores are employed, also a small proportion of mill cinder ; of these latter the quantities are not considerable. Taking the ores throughout, [including the mill cinder used, the average employed varies from 55 to 60 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made. In the preparation of these ores before smelting it is usual to subject them to the process of roast- ing or calcination, by which the metal is concentrated into a smaller weight by the removal of water, carbonic acid, &c. In the higher class of hematite ore raised from the Forest of Dean mines, the iron is concentrated by calcination to the extent of from 10 to 12 per cent., the fragments being rendered more porous and susceptible of change in the subsequent operations of smelting in the blast furnace. Taking the consumption of coal in pig iron manufactm'e in the Forest of Dean, the average may be generally regarded as shghtly in excess of 61 cwts. of coal to each ton of pig iron made ; the 664. COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [rAKT II. ores of all kinds, as already stated, varying from 55 cwts. to 60 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made. For a few years the details in the annexed table show the quantities of ore conveyed to the several ironworks for reduction since 1856 : — Year. Cinderford. Parkend. Soudley. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1856 28,000 29,818 • • . 57,818 1857 29,000 27,732 56,732 1858 40,000 16,712 ... 56,712 1859 44,000 17,655 1,800 63,455 1860 43,700 16,796 7,500 67,996 1861 42,300 19,640 528 62,468 1862 64,625 17,100 17,870 99,595 1865 ... ■ •> ..> 87,131 1867 61,311 30,000 10,000 101,311 1869 54,793 38,508 11,500 104,801 1871 60,000 52,725 20,600 133,325 1872 51,748 44,137 23,600 119,485 1873 74,019 1874 92,150 1875 75,975 1876 ... 79,541 1877 68,520 1878 41,312 1879 47,000 1880 ... Hf From the above table it will be seen that from 1867 to 1872 was a period of great activitj", since which latter year a great falling off is shown. * Not ascertained. CHAPTEE XVII. SOMEESETSHIEE IKON INDUSTRIES. Description of the Spatliose Iron Ore Deposits of the Brendon and Eisen Hills — Early explorations at Gupworthy Mine — Analyses and Production of Iron Ore — Pig Iron Manufacture — Mills and Forges. Iron Ore Deposits of the Brendon Hills. — The district known »s the Brendon Hills extends nearly east and west at about six miles south of that part of the coast in the Bristol Channel lying^ between Watchet and Minehead, and terminates in a deep valley near Eisen Hill, where deposits of iron ore also occur. The Brendon Hills rise boldly on the north side, but on the south side the decline is easier, and they merge into numerous small valleys and gentle elevations ; the highest ground in this range of hills is about 1300 feet above the level of the sea. The variety of iron ore occurring in the Brendon and Eisen Hills is that known as Spathic, or cai-bonate of iron, and brown iron ore ; it is also known as Siderite, and forms an important ore and source of metal. These spathic ores are rich in manganese and valuable for conversion into spiegeleisen ; the only other deposits of this kind known to exist in this country are those of Weardale in Durham, where the ore is associated with ores of lead and zinc, at Exmoor in North Devon, the Exmouth and Frank Mills mines near Exeter, the Duchy and Peru, and Perran mines in Cornwall. The ferruginous deposits of the Brendon Hills occur in the upper division of the middle Devonian rocks, known as Morte slates, composed of clay slate. At the surface the clay slate is of a greyish colour, but in depth it invariably acquires a blue or greenish colour. At a distance of two miles north of the most elevated part of the hills at Treborough, lower beds of this slate (Ilfracombe type) associated with limestone are extensively 666 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. quarried, and yield a good roofing material. The ore wrought in the Brendon Hills may be generally referred to the following varieties : first, a "white ore," a spathose ore, generally crystal- line in character ; secondly, a red ore consisting of decomposed spathose ; and thirdly, other varieties known as " black ore," "brown ore," and "potty ore," composed of dark brown ores, more or less cellular. The above varieties occur in the form of pockets, which some- times exist in close proximity to each other, admitting of their being worked from one mine. The term "lode," it should be observed, in this district is applied to any metalliferous part of a vein, while the unproductive parts of the lode are said to be "dead;" again, when the sudden enlargement of a lode or pocket takes place, it is designated a bunch of ore. Numerous indications of old workings in the Brendon Hills point to the fact of there having been extensive explorations in ancient times ; it is, however, within the last twenty-five years that they have been opened up on a large scale, growing from insignificant workings to important mines. The iron deposits of the Brendon Hills are the property of the Ebbw Vale Company, the ore raised from the mines being sent to the works of the Company in Monmouthshire. The most ancient workings appear at the eastern end of the Brendon Hills, known as the Colton Pits, and were wrought horizontally of a zig-zag form; further to the east these old workings are again met with, clearly showing that the ancient miners selected localities in which the ore existed most abun- dantly ; further to the west the Roman and Carew mines occur ; these have of late years been further explored and worked on a limited scale. Taking a westerly direction, is the Raleigh Cross Mine, situated and adjoining the Carnarvon Mine, with which it is connected by a heading ; the first drift sunk on the lode at the Carnarvon Mine did not reveal a favourable condition; later, in the year 1866, a new drift was commenced, and the more productive part of the lode was opened. Other workings appear to the west at the Burrow Mine, near "Wiveliscombe ; the ore here wrought is at times hard and red, and occasionally possesses a rich bli;ie colour. The next workings are those at Florry Mine, where the ancient workings were found to have a depth of 30 feet, below which the lode appears to yield a hard red ore; again, in the Bearland Wood CHAP, xvii.] SOMEKSETSHIRE IKON INDDSTEIES. 667 Mine to the west, are found some extensive explorations, the lode yielding large quantities of a soft red ore. The Gup worthy Mine was the first opened in the Brendon Hills of which there is any account, and it appears to be the locality from which the first undecomposed spathose ore was obtained. Mr. Morgan Morgans, in an interesting paper on the Brendon Hills spathose ii'on ores and mines, read before the South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers, in 1868, gives the following account of the history of the discovery which led to the development in the Brendon Hills : — " Many years ago a Mr. Tibbets, of Cornwall, being convinced from the nature of the ground, old surface worldngs, and small mineral specimens found in the latter, that a copper lode existed below, began exploration bj"^ driving an adit at Gupworthy. This adit intersected the iron lode, which at this point (20 fathoms deep) was very excellent, compact, and undecomposed spathose. " Some years later the deposits of the Brendon HiUs attracted the attention of the late Mr. Ebenezer Rogers, of Abercarne, who was struck with the similarity of the continental ores and those raised at Gupworthy, a collection of which had been previously made and exhibited in the Great Exhibition of the year 1851 from this and other districts. He subsequently more fuUy ex- plored the deposits, ascertaining their extent and importance, and eventually transferred his interest to the Ebbw Vale Iron Company, who set to work vigorously and developed the deposits, a considerable portion of the lode of which had a thickness of 20 feet. Further to the west explorations were made at Kennesome Hill and Goose-Moor Mines in the Brendon HiUs, beyond which ore has not hitherto been wrought to any extent, until Eisen Hill is reached, where, as previously stated, valuable pockets of ore occur." Analyses of the Spathose Irou Ore of the Brendon Hills. — This ore, especially rich in manganese, has attracted considerable attention of late years, the pig ii'on made therefrom being of ex- cellent quahty, and suitable for conversion into Bessemer steel. The ore has been examined by Mr. John SpiUer, and is found occasionally streaked with red hematite. At the outcrop of the veins the spathose ore is invariably found to be converted to a considerable depth into brown hematite by the influence of air and water. The following shows the composition of the ore : — 668 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. EESrLTS TABtlXATED. Protoxide of iron 43*84 Protoxide of manganese 12-64 Peroxide of iron 0"81 Lime 0-28 Magnesia 3'63 Carbonic acid 38"86 Total 100-06 The equivalent of metallic iron determined by the above analysis is 34'65 per cent., and of manganese 9*73 per cent.; the spathose ore of Weardale giving 38"56 per cent, of metallic iron, and 1"86 per cent, of manganese. The ore by calcination exhibits the following constituents, the loss in weight by the process being equivalent to 34'29 per cent. : — Results Tabulated. Magnetic oxide of iron 47"87 Sesquioxide of manganese 14-06 Lime 0-28 Magnesia 3-63 Insoluble residue 0-08 Loss bj' calcination 34-40 Total 100-32 The metallic iron contained in the calcined ore is equivalent to 34*16 per cent. The following analyses, composed of a burthen of Brendon Hills ore and Welsh Mine, is given by Dr. Percy in his " Metallurgy of Iron and Steel," the yield of metallic iron re- presenting 32'18 per cent. The details of analysis are as follows : — Eesults Tabulated. Protoxide of iron 41-03 Peroxide of iron 0-41 Protoxide of manganese 0-55 Alumina 5-79 Lime 3-00 Magnesia 3-36 Potash 0-86 Silica 13-35 Carbonic acid 28-49 Phospioric acid 0-70 Water 1-93 Organic matter 0-07 Total 99-54 CHAP. XVII.] SOMERSETSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 669 The calcined ore of the Brendon Hills is concentrated to the extent of 51 per cent, in the raw state, it varies between 34 and 35 per cent. Thus, to make a ton of pig iron, 2-89 tons of raw ore would be required, while in the calcined state 1*96 tons would be the quantity required. Mr. John Spiller, who has carefully examined these ores, iii Dr. Percy's laboratory, gives the follow- ing elementary analysis of the ore after calcination, including the insoluble residue : — Eesitlts Tabulated. Metallic iron 50-9971 combined with oxygen Oxygen manganese calcium magnesium silica aluminium Total 50-9971 14-9130 0-3044 3'31o0 0-0509 0-0079 30-7739 100-3622 21-8559 6-4840 0-1222 2-2100 0-0549 0-0069 30-7339 The ore thus calcined is sufficiently rich in manganese to yield a spiegeleisen containing 20 per cent, of that metal. Production of Iron Ore in Somersetshire. — The spathic ores of the Brendon Hills are worked extensively, as they have been for some years by the Ebbw Vale Iron Company. The ore raised from the mines is conveyed by railway to the coast, shipped to Newport in Monmouthshire, and forwarded from that port to the works of the Company for reduction. The ore was originally obtained from the Carnarvon and Ealeigh Cross Mines and shipped from the district ; but about the year 1864 a line of railway was constructed over the hills, from the top of the Brendon Hills to Gupworthy, giving increased facilities for send- ing the ore out of the district. Iron ore has also been raised from time to time at Yatton, Winford, and in the Mendip Hills, being distributed by the Bristol and Exeter Kailway for shipment to Bristol, Highbridge, and Bridgewater. The following statement shows the production of the Somersetshire mines from 1855 to 1858 inclusive : — Year. Brendon Hills. Tatton. Wlntord. Bristol. 1855 1856 1857 1858 Tons. 4,940 7,620 9,642 19,018 Tons. . 5,o6o 6,000 767 Tons. 1,560 1,200 Tons. "560 7,500 1,200 670 COAL AND IRON" INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. The ore raised at Yatton, Winford, the Crescent at Bristol, and Ashton Hill Mines, is brown hematite, that at Ashton Vale, clay ironstone from the coal measures. In the year 1858, quantities in addition to the ahove were pro- duced, namely, at Honeymead, 2,000 tons ; Ashton Vale, 2,616 tons; and Ashton Hill, 2,000 tons. The total production of all varieties of ore in each of the above years was 4,940 tons in 1855, increased in 1856 to 14,620 tons, in 1857 to 25,342 tons, and 26,041 tons in 1858, the value at the place of production in the last-named year being about 10s. per ton. In subsequent years the mines of Somersetshire produced ore in the following quantities : — Year. Brendon and Eiseii. Yatton. Ashton Vale. Ashton Hill. Bristol. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1859 23,183 1,580 2,000 750 1,507 1860 18,072 569 3,960 ... 1,500 1861 23,787 175 7,300 1,500 1862 29,321 * . • 342 > .. 1,750 1864 36,385 74 12,965 * 3,500 1865 27,541 6,348 620 3,475 1866 29,468 2,720 635 2,500 1867 32,525 2,350 . •■ 2,000 1868 27,925 2,760 > .. 1,765 1869 23,458 1,646 626 1,500 1870 14,603 2,110 2,051 975 1871 27,556 1,673 2,654 1,000 1872 27,913 2,000 1,000 1873 28,982 620 15,800 1,012 1874 38,316 952 500 1875 41,793 l,674t 1,015 550 1876 41,351 2,761t ... 1877 46,895 o,033t 1878 40,115 1879 14,100 ... 1880 27,668 The aggregate returns of production of iron ore in Somerset- shire as detailed in the above abstract, a few occasional parcels being omitted, appear in the following total, with the value in each year at the place of production, the years of greatest pro- duction being 1873 and 1877, increasing from 46,532 tons in the former to 51,927 tons in the last-named year : — * Included in Ashton Vale return. f Winford Mines (a variety of ore known as paint ore). j Including Winford and Exford Mines. CUAP. XVII.] SOMERSETSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 671 Year. Quantities. Value. Tear. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1857 25,342 12,671 1869 27,230 7,980 1858 26,041 13,020 1870 19,739 6,908 1859 29,083 14,501 1871 32,888 32,883 1860 24,101 12,450 1872 30,913 30,163 1861 32,763 16,381 1873 46,532 42,149 1862 31,443 15,182 1874 41,342 30,588 1863 34,709 17,354 1875 45,166 33,186 1864 54,925 26,868 1876 44,299 31,110 1865 37,984 18,992 1877 51,927 36,348 1866 35,323 17,661 1878 43,115 30,180 1867 36,875 17,952 1879 14,100 10,147 1868 32,450 12,168 1880 29,318 23,127 The average value of the ores from 1858 to 1867 appears to be about 10s. per ton ; during the years 1871 and 1872 a period of commercial prosperity reigned, not only in the iron and coal, but in other industries, and at this period the value of the ore was greatly augmented, averaging 20s. per ton. Since that date a gradual diminution in value is apparent ; thus, in the yeai- 1874, the average price per ton was nearly 15s., receding in the year 1876 to 14s., since which the same price may be said to have ruled. The mines producing iron ore in Somersetshire in 1880 are given in the annexed table, with the respective quantities and value : — No. District or Mine. Character of Ore. Quantities. Value. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Brendon Hills . Dolberrow (Lyncombe) Harptree, E. & W. (Mendips) Michael Hobbs (Winford) . Tallards (Winford) . . Tarn (Winford) . Spathose . Brown Hematite it 3) Tons. 27,668 450 100 925 125 50 £ s. 22,134 8 270 60 555 78 30 Total of Somersetshire . 29,318 23,127 8 Pig Iron Manufacture. — About the year 1857 works were erected at PennyweU Road, near Bristol, by Messrs. Langford & Co., commencing the make of pig iron ; the quantity made did not exceed 300 tons, the furnace being in blast but a few months ; in the year 1858 the make of the furnace increased to nearly 5,000 tons. In the following year the works at Ashton Vale were *72 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [paet ir. projected by Messrs. Kaight & Co., and in 1860 produced 1,960 tons of pig iron. The Pennywell Road Works were for many jears standing, and finally abandoned about the year 1865. The returns of production of the Ashton Vale Works in subsequent years until 1871 are included in the Gloucestershire returns, and until 1876 in the Wiltshire returns, since which the works have been standing. The malleable iron works, mills, and forges are represented in Somersetshire, by the establishment at Ashton Vale,* conducted by Mr. Joseph Trun, and possessing 10 puddling furnaces and 3 rolling mUls. * Standing in 1880. CHAPTEE XVIII. WILTSHIRE, DORSETSHIRE, OXFORDSHIRE, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, HAMPSHIRE, AND THE ISLE OF WIGHT IRON INDUSTRIES. Iron Ore Deposits of the Lower Greensand, Coral Rag, and Marlstone rocks of these Counties — Analyses and Production of Ore — Pig Iron Manufacture in Wilt- shire, at Westbury and Seend — Production of Pig Iron in Wiltshire (including Gloucestershire and Somersetshire) — Charcoal Pig Iron Manufacture in Hamp- shire — Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture. Wiltshire and DorsetsMre Iron Ore Deposits. — The form of iron ore known as brown hematite, existing abundantly in this country in the Lias, Oolitic, and Lower Greensand formations, has in recent years given rise to the important iron-producing districts of Middlesborough, Lincoln, Northampton, and Wiltshire. These extensive deposits extend almost continuously from the northern parts of Wiltshii'e, in the south of England, to the East Riding of Yorkshire, passing through the counties of Oxford, Buckingham, Northampton, and Lincoln. The ores are for the most part of an impure and sandy character, inexpensively wrought and largely employed in admixture with other ores in South Wales, Derby- shire, and Staffordshire. In Wiltshire the principal deposits of ore occur at Westbury, Seend, and Heywood. At Westbmy and at Heywood, in the coral rag, a division of the Middle Oolite ; at Seend in the Lower Greensand. The coral rag consists of beds of fossiliferous limestone, containing corals and shells generally in a fragmentary state ; the thickness of the deposit at Westbury, where the iron furnaces are erected, is about 15 feet, and it has been traced from the junction of the Salisbury branch of the Great Western Rail- way to Warminster, which is below the Westbury station, up through Steeple Ashton in Oxfordshire, by Eowde, north of Devizes, and to Kemby, the high ground south of Chippenham. At Seend, the deposits of iron ore, as previously stated, occur X z 674 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. in the Lower Greensand formation, and are very similar in character to the ores raised in the north of France, in the neighbourhood of Marquise, which are smelted at the ironworks at Outreau, on the river Lianne, near Boulogne. The deposits at Seend are said to occupy an area of 150 acres and upwards, containing an enormous mass of ore, and easily wrought with a pick and shovel ; the over- burden in some places not exceeding 1 or 2 feet, which is easily removed, enabling the ore to be wrought inexpensively. Opera- tions have been suspended at these mines since 1874, when Messrs. Malcolm and Co. had two furnaces in blast, after which it passed to the Ducal Iron Company. Some years since the Seend ore was in request in South Staffordshire, and at that time bore a carriage of 7s. per ton. Iron ore of a similar character to that occurring at Westbury in Wiltshire is found in Dorsetshire^ at Abbotsbury.* The deposit is described as being " in the upper part of the coral rag, contain- ing oolitic grains of oxide of iron imbedded in a calcareous base and forming an iron ore," of which the following is an analysis by Gr. D. Livering, Esq., of St. John's College, Cambridge. A portion was taken at random, pounded up, and a part of the powder analysed, so as to give as near the average as possible : — Sesquioxide of iron 43-97 Silica 42-60 Magnesia 1-40 Lime trace Common salt „ Water 11-88 Total 99-85 This is equivalent to about 34 or 35 per cent, of iron in the roasted state. At Eedlake, a little beyond the village, the ore is of a deep rusty red colour, forming incoherent and heavy masses. About half a mile to the west, on the road to Gorwell, there are bands containing a larger proportion of metaUic iron. In the former place it exists to a considerable extent, but in the latter it is less abundant. Other parts of the coral rag in the neighbourhood of Weymouth are more or less ferruginous, as may be seen in the rusty-looking * Damons' " Handbook of the Geology of Weymouth and the Island of Portland." 1860, p. 48. CKAP. XVIII.] WILTSHIEB IRON INDTJSTEIES. 675 cliff near Sandsfoot Castle, but nowhere is it so rich in iron as at Abbotsbury. At some period these beds may probably be turned to account, either by the erection of furnaces on the spot, or by the conveyance of the raw materials to existing furnaces elsewhere. Production of Ironstone. — Attention was first directed to these deposits about the year 1855 ; iu 1856 Wiltshire produced 15,000 tons of brown hematite, 5,000 tons being raised at Westbury, and 10,000 tons at Seend, and in the following year this was increased to 15,500 tons. The following table gives the returns of production since the year 1858, the ore raised at Westbury being smelted at the iron- works of the Westbury Iron Company ; the ore at Seend being also smelted on the spot : — Tear. Westbury. Seend. Heywood. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1858 5,719 4,103 .. . 9,822 1859 16,947 1,381 10,665 28,993 1860 40,112 32,000 4,088 76,200 1861 37,529 15,000 3,250 55,779 1862 47,900 47,900 1863 72,612 > .. 72,612 1864 79,918 79,918 1865 77,291 77,291 1866 75,645 * .. 75,645 1867 82,586 82,586 1868 75,084 75,084 • 1869 104,795 • . • 104,795 1870 101,423 ... 101,423 1871 109,151 50,743 159,894 1872 95,117 1,000 96,117 1873 105,929 34,200 140,139 1874 86,120 500 86,620 1875 87,152 87,152 1876 83,957 83,957 1877 79,176 79,176 1878 84,756 84,756 1879 47,623 47,623 1880 67,500 ... ... 67,500 The average value of the Westbury ore may be taken at about 4s. per ton, the ore raised at Westbury being smelted at the iron- works of the same name. A glance at the above table will show that Westbury has been the only locality in Wiltshire in which iron ore has been raised since the year 1874. Analysis of the ore. — The ore raised and smelted at the z X 2 676 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Westbury Ironworks is of two varieties, known locally as " brown " and " green " iron ore ; the general appearance of the ore is of a dark ochreous character, which, when freshly broken, yields a greenish tinge. The following will show the constituents, of each variety, the first-named yielding 41-99 per cent, and ther latter 38 per cent, of metallic iron : — Constituents. Brown Ore. Green Ore. Metallic iron . Oxygen .... smca .... Alumina .... Carbonate of lime . Magnesia .... Combined water Protoxide of iron Peroxide of iron Carbonic acid Sulphuric acid . Phosphoric acid . Organic matter Loss 41-99 17-94 18-99 2-79 3-29 0-54 13-70 6-73 14-720 5-462 1-327 trace 47-250 1-325 29-237 0-105 trace 0-365 0-209 99-97 100-000 The ore worked at Seend, near Devizes, and, as previously stated occurring in the Lower Greensand, has been examined by Mr. Edward Eiley, F.C.S., who has determined its composition as follows ; side by side appears for comparison an analysis of the iron ore raised from the Northampton sands of the Great Oolite, near "Wellingborough, examined by Mr. John Spiller, formerly of the Eoyal School of Mines : — Constituents. Seend Ore. Wellingborough Peroxide of iron Alumina . . Protoxide of iron Lime ..... Magnesia . . Phosphoric acid . Carbonic acid . Silica Sulphur .... Water ..'... 64-61 3-85 6-64 0-20 0-64 18-02 li-85 52-86 7-39 0-51 7-46 0-68 1-26 4-92 13-16 0-03 11-37 99-81 99-64 CHAP, xviii.] OXFORDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 677 The amount of metallic iron contained in the Seend ore is equivalent to 45'22 per cent., that contained in the Welling- borough ore amounting to 37 per cent. Oxfordshire Iron Ore Deposits. — The " Marlstone," or Middle Lias is the chief repository of the ferruginous ores in this county. The principal localities in which the ore has been wrought, being Fawler, Charlbury, Aynho, Steeple Ashton, Adderbury, and in the neighbourhood of Banbury and Woodstock. As far back as the year 1860 Professor Hull read an interesting paper on the Blenheim iron ore before the meeting of the British Association, in which he remarked "the existence of highly ferruginous beds in the direction of Banbury and Deddiugton, which had been known for some years, and had to a small extent been quarried and smelted ; these are of two varieties, a siliceous ore occurring at the top of the sands which form the lower zone of the Great Oolite, and a calcareous ore forming the upper rock bed of the Marlstone or Middle Lias." During the progress of the geological survey in the neighbourhood of Woodstock, the existence of this latter ore was ascertained in several places, but in particular along the valley of the Cherwell, west of Charlbury ; Mr. Hull subse- quently gives the following details concerning its nature and stratigraphical position. The Blenheim ore is identical in geo- logical position, and almost in its nature, with the Cleveland ore of Yorkshire. It forms the rock bed at the top of the Marlstone, which, in Gloucestershire and elsewhere produces the tabulated promontories, which jut out from the flanks of the Oolite escarp- ment. At Fawler it rests upon soft sands, composing the lower division of the Marlstone, and is surmounted by the clay of the Upper Lias. It varies in thickness from 10 to 15 feet of a nearly uniform composition throughout, except where there occurs bands of fossils, with an excess of carbonate of lime. The shells are marlstone species, as " KhynconeUa tetrahedra," " Terebratula punctata," &c. At the outcrop the rock presents a rich ferruginous aspect, but when reached at positions where it has been pro- tected from atmospheric influences its colour is deep olive green, and the gradual change may be observed in blocks newly split. In its latter state it appears to be oolitic under the magnifying glass. The character of the iron before oxidation is probably that of carbonate and silicate of iron, the latter imparting the green tinge ; when exposed it passes into a hydrated peroxide oi 678 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [part ii. iron. The following gives the order of occurrence of the strata near Fawler, where the Marlstone rock bed gives a thickness of 8 feet :— Great Oolite, WMte Shelly OoKte. Inferior Oolite, Coarse Eubbly Oolite (6 feet thick). Upper Lias, Grey shales and clay (5 feet thick). Marlstone Bock Bed, Iron ore (8 feet thick). Marlstone Bands, Fine sands with balls of concretionary iron ore (15 feet). The outcrop of the rock may be traced along the valley of the CherweU at Fawler, on the estate of the Duke of Marlborough. The Marlstone rock bed as seen in the cuttings of the railway between Fawler and Charlbury exhibits in section a thickness of nearly 10 feet. Kecently a considerable tract extending over 500 acres is said to haye been acquired by the Ducal Coal and Iron Company, in the neighbourhood of Charlbury, to work the iron ore deposits known as the " Fawler Mines ; " it has been contemplated to erect blast furnaces to smelt these ores in admixture with other ores known to exist in the Mendips in Somersetshire, the ore being described as a siliceous hematite containing from 42 to 47 per cent, of metallic iron, and from 20 to 25 per cent, of silica. Already the ores raised from the Fawler and Mendip deposits have been smelted in South Staffordshire at the Hange furnaces of Messrs. Round Brothers at Tipton, in the proportion of three tons of Fawler ore to one ton of Mendip ore, the pig iron pro- duced being of good quality. The ironstone at Adderbury lies beneath the soil at depths varying from 6 to 8 inches to depths of as many feet. The beds of stone themselves varying from 2 to 10, and in some localities to 12 feet in thickness, and is in some places so compact that the pick which is ordinarily employed is laid aside and blasting re- sorted to, the deposits assuming the character of a solid rock. The cost of production is moderate, the stone being loaded into trucks at the mine at from 3s. 6d!. to 4s. 6d per ton of 2,400 lbs. ; the ore is said to be comparatively free from impurities, and is chiefly sent into South Staffordshire, where it is used as a mixture in making forge iron of the best quality. These ores were first wrought about the year 1859 ; the details of production appear as follows : — CHAP. XVIII.] OXFOEDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 679 Year. Fawler. AaaeAuiy. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1859 2,000 3,410 6,030* 1860 4,683 1,260 5,833 1861 5,600 5,600 1862 2,244 2,244 1863 4,803 4,803 1864 6,666 6,666 1865 2,557 • .• 2,657 1866 1,552 1,562 1869 10,167 10,167 1870 38,442 38,803+ 1871 ,. 26,230 28,330t 1872 66,536 63,536§ 1873 49,962 49,962 1874 38,608 38,608 1875 34,568 34,668 1876 26,140 26,140 1877 14,661 14,661 1878 6,240 6,240 1879 1,233 1,233 1880 8,360 8,360 At Steeple Ashton the ore deposits also occur in the Marlstone, an upper bed having a thickness of 14 feet and a lower bed of 12 feet thick, reached by a shaft some 30 yards from the surface, said to be in the Oxford clay. The mines are situated about 6 miles north-east of "Woodstock, but of late years the deposits have not been wrought. Analyses of the Ores. — The Fawler ore very much resembles the yellowish-brown variety raised in Northamptonshire from the Marlstone between the Upper and Lower Lias. In the following analysis from a sample consistiag of several specimens the results below appear, and side by side an analysis of the Northampton variety, yielding 39'34 per cent, of metalhe iron compared with 81*94 per cent, the yield of the Fawler ore, which, by calcination, is increased to 41 per cent. The last-named analysis is by Mr. Charles Tookey, and was made in Dr. Percy's laboratory, who remarks, as regards the Fawler ore, that "the phosphoric acid is only present in a small quantity as compared with specimens of the Northamptonshire ores which have been examined in this * Including 620 tons raised at Steeple Ashton. f Including 361 tons raised at King's Sutton. J Including 2,100 tons raised at King's Sutton. § Including 7,000 tons raised at King's Sutton. 680 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. laboratory ; the absence of this ingredient is an important con- sideration to the iron smelter " : — Constituents. Fawler. Northampton. Sesquioxide of iron . . . 44-67 56-20 Protoxide of iron 0-86 trace Protoxide of manganese . . 0-44 0-20 Alumina ..... 7-85 2-43 Carbonate of lime . . . 9-29 0-49 Carbonate of magnesia . 0-66 0-17 SiHca 0-48 ... Carbonic acid .... 6-11 Bisulphide of iron . . . trace ... Water bygroscopic . Water combined . . . ) 16-31 5 1-16 \ 9-74 Pbospboric acid 0-55 0-84 Insoluble residue . . . 13-10 29-07 100-32 100-30 The insoluble residue of the Fawler ore consisted of silica and alumina, with a trace of lime ; that of the Northampton ore from the neighbourhood of Heyford, near Weedon, containing in the residue quartz, soluble silica, and a little mica. Other analyses of ore from the neighbourhood of Fawler, on the Duke of Marl- borough estate, examined and reported upon by Dr. Percy, gives the following percentage of metallic iron : — * Samples. Metallic Iron. Samples. Metallic Iron. No. 1 ,. 2 „ 3 „ 4 „ 5 38-65 35-46 37-14 34-42 32-52 No. 6 „ 7 ., 8 „ 9 36-94 31-40 22-86 13-06 It is remarked of the two last samples that they contained fossils and a sensible (visible) amount of carbonate of lime. The Fawler ore already referred to in connection with the Ducal Coal and Iron Company, and operated upon by Messrs. Eound, Brothers, gave the following results on analysis by Mr. E. W. T. Jones, public analyst for the county of Stafford. The sample was taken from the heap and examined in the dry state. The sample for the second analysis was obtained from the heading of the underground workings : — * " Geology of the Country around Woodstock," by Professor Hull, F.R.S., p, 11." CHAP. XVIII.] OXFORDSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES, 681 Results TABUiiTED. Constituents. First. Second. Protoxide of iron . 0-58 1-04 Peroxide of iron . . . . 36-50 46-93 Manganous oxide . 0-66 0-51 Alumina . . . . . 7-53 7-86 Silica 10-49 10-55 Lime 19-26 11-79 Magnesia .... 1-29 1-12 Phosphoric acid .... Sulphuric acid 0-71 0-66 0-05 trace Carbonic acid . . . . 14-00 8-55 Pyrites trace ... Combined water . . . . 9-60 10-15 Loss, &c. .... Metallic iron . . . . ... 0-84 100-67 100-00 26-00 33-66 *0-31 »0-29 The ironstone raised at Adderbury is calcareous in character, the best varieties yielding between 36 and 37 per cent, of metallic iron, while the average throughout may be taken as between 28 and 32 per cent. ; the amount of lime varies from 15"50 to 51"00 per cent., and on this account the stone is advantageously used with other ores, producing a very fair quality of pig iron. The constituents of the several varieties appear in the annexed analyses : — Results TABTJLATED.f Constituents. 1. 2. 3. Sesquioxide of iron . 49-50 53-00 29-50 Alumina 12-50 9-50 7-80 Carbonate of lime . 19-50 15-50 51-00 Water of hydration, carbonic ) acid J 9-22 13-51 7-91 Silica 9-28 8-49 3-79 Phosphoric acid . . . . trace trace trace Magnesia .... trace trace trace Manganese trace trace trace 100-00 100-00 100-00 Metallic iron (average 31{f) Average . . . . 35% 37}% 22% 36 1% * Phosphorus. f Favoured by S. J. Bates, Esq., Birmingham. 682 COAL AND lEON INDUSTEIBS. [PAET II. Buckiiighainsliire Iron Ore Deposits. — In the beds of the Lower Greensand in the neighbourhood of Leighton Buzzard, and at Linslade ironstone occurs ; in the last-named locality it appears in nodules disseminated through a thickness of about 50 or 60 feet of brown sand. In no instance in the above localities does the ironstone appear in a continuous bed, the nodules are large and massive, of a brown ochreous character, often hollow and found to contain loose white sand. In the year 1857 the pits produced 2,500 tons of ironstone, since which period aU operations have been suspended. Hampshire and Isle of Wight Iron Ore Deposits. — Near the south-western extremity of the Hampshire coast, in the Bagshot beds, occurring near Christchurch, at Hengistbury Head, iron ore was formerly obtained in considerable quantity by the Hengistbury Mining Company. The Bagshot beds occur in the following order : — uppermost, a superficial flint gravel, succeeded by greenish clayey sands, containing four courses of nodular iron- stone, the lowest division consisting of dark carbonaceous clay. The ironstone was wrought by cutting back the face of the cliff, the nodules thus obtained varying in size from 5 to 8 feet in length. On the south and east side of the headland, numbers of these massive nodules repose on the beach, mingled with the sands and gravels detached from the cliif, and forming to some extent a natural breakwater against the inroads of the sea, by which the base of the cliff is washed at high water. In the Isle of Wight, on the shore, at the foot of the cliffs between Yarmouth and Hempstead Ledge, on the north-western coast, argillaceous ore was formerly collected in some quantities and conveyed to the iron works in South Wales. In the table following appear the quantities of ore raised in each locality since the year 1856 : — Tear. Hengistbury Head. Me of Wight. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1856 13,000 13,000 1857 7,000 7,000 1858 6,000 934 6,934 1859 6,000 1,803 7,803 1860 3,000 1,119 6,119 1861 3j600 507 4,007 1862 2,800 676 3,476 1863 1,400 1,400 1864 4,400 700 5,100 1865 3,000 625 3,625 CHAP, xvni.] WILTSHIRE lEON INDUSTRIES. 683' Since the year 1865 there appears to have been a cessation of mining operations in these districts, the cost of carriage of the ore not enabling the mines to compete with districts more favour- ably situated, from which a class of ore was obtained giving a higher percentage of metallic iron and at a less cost. Pig Iron nSauufactiire. — This industry was comnienced in "Wiltshire by the Messrs. Greenwood & Co., in the yeasr 1857, when the iron works at Westbury, conveniently situated near the railway station, were projected and put in operation by the above-named firm. In the year 1858 the first furnace was put in blast. The yield for the year 1858 is not separately stated, being included in the production of the Pennywell Road furnaces of the Messrs. Langford & Co. of the adjoining county of Somerset, amounting to 2,040 tons of pig iron. It may therefore be assumed that the production of the Westbury furnace exceeded 1,000 tons, there being at this period but one furnace in blast in each county. In the year 1859 the Messrs. Sari & Co. commenced the erection of two blast furnaces at Seend, and in the following year they were put in blast. At this period the joint production of the works at "Westbury and Seend amounted to 21,785 tons, the make of four furnaces giving an average make of 5,469 tons per furnace. In the year 1861 the Seend Works were out of blast, while those of the Westbury Company were but partially employed, there being but one furnace in blast for a period of eight months ; at this time and in subsequent years the production of the Wiltshire furnaces is included with those of Somersetshire. The " Mining Journal " gives the following account of the Seend Works at this period : — " The Seend Iron Works are situated close to the Seend Station, Great Western Eailway, being connected thereto by a siding which connects the pig bank of the furnaces with the main line, and the works are built at the foot of a hill which covers the little rural village of Seend. There are three blast furnaces capable of making 300 tons of pig iron per week. The mine is lifted to the top of the furnace by an ordinary but weU-constructed hydraulic apparatus, warm water being supplied for the gravitating purposes of the machine from the exhausted condensing water of the blast engine, without heating cost, which precludes the pos- sibility of hindrance from freezing during the winter months. The furnaces are substantially built, and hot blast is used. The 684 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II, blast engine is 120 horse-power, substantially erected, working with beam and fly-wheel, and slide valves, with an eccentric cam, being a condenser working the steam at a pressure of 14 lbs., three boilers of the ordinary size being used to generate the steam. The make of iron in these works at the time the above was written was about 250 tons per week, and the quality of the No. 1 iron was very fine, breaking strong, and exhibiting a large -crystalline fracture." The above account by a South Staffordshire ironmaster further states that the furnaces were projected and erected under the •superintendence of Mr. Fred. Vernon Smith, the then manager. In giving the yield of the furnaces of Wilts and Somerset, it only remains to add that the Westbury Company put up a third furnace in the year 1862, and a fourth in the year 1865. The works at Seend appear to have been in abeyance for some years after 1861 ; later a change of ownership took place, and in the year 1870 the works came into the hands of the Messrs. W. and S. S. Malcolm & Co. renewing the manufacture of pig iron with one furnace in blast, the number being subsequently in- creased to two. Again in the year 1874 a change of ownership takes place, the Ducal Iron and Coal Company appearing as owners, but who never appear to have put any furnaces in blast. In the following resume the number of furnaces appear in each district, with the total yield of pig iron in the three counties named : — WILTSHIRE. GLOUCESTER. SOMERSET. Year. Total Pig Iron. Built. In Blast. Built. In Blast. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. 1861 4 2 9 3 2 1 40,493 1862 5 2 9 5 2 51,968 1863 5 3 9 6 2 1 64,001 1864 5 3 9 6 2 1 65,312 1865 3 3 9 6 2 1 65,471 1866 3 3 10 6 2 1 59,817 1867 4 3 10 6 2 1 71,186 1868 4 3 10 6 2 1 75,847 1869 4 3 10 6 2 1 81,306 1870 5 4 10 7 2 1 93,601 1871 7 5 9 7 2 1 99,997 In the last-named year the average make per furnace gives 7,692 tons, compared with 5,469 tons in the year 1860. Since CHAP, xvm.] WILTSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. G85 the year 1872, when the consumption of coal became one of con- siderable interest in the question of the manufacture of iron, returns of the quantities of coal used in pig iron manufacture has been published in the " Mineral Statistics." Following the production of pig iron in Wiltshire, the annexed figures may be generally regarded as a close approximation to the make of the furnaces in each year since that date : — FURNACES. Year. Pig IroD. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. 1872 7 o 44,255 1873 7 5 42,844 1874 7 3 26,605 1875 7 2 26,388 1876 7 2 25,718 1877 7 2 24,988 1878 7 2 26,751 1879 7 2 25,000 1880 4 li 22,350 An examination of the table above shows the increased pro- duction of the furnaces; thus, in the year 1872, the average yield was 8,851 tons per annum, compared with 13,194 tons in the year 1875, and 13,375 tons in the year 1878. The iron ore raised in Wiltshire is smelted in the ironworks of the district, railway communication with moderate freights giving ample means for bringing the necessary materials, coal, and lime- stone to the works. The subjoined abstract gives approximately the make of pig iron, and of coal and ore employed in the Wiltshire works since the year 1872 :— Yeai-. Pig Iron. Coal Used. Iron Ore Used. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 44,255 127,255 1873 42,844 119,793 140,139 1874 26,605 74,238 86,126 1875 26,388 79,575 87,152 1876 25,718 60,652 84,162 1877 24,988 61,361 82,966 1878 26,751 59,771 84,756 1879 25,000 58,000 83,000 1880 22,350 50,500 67,500 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. In the above table ample data is afforded to determirie the proportion of materials employed, which may be assumed to vary from 64 to 65 cwts. of ore to each ton of pig iron made, the average yield of the ore from analysis giving 38 to 41 per cent, ■of metallic iron. This proportion is fully sustained in each suc- cessive year, while in the year 1878 a more favourable condition appears, the average of ore not exceeding 63 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made. The quantity of coal employed in like manner in the production of each ton of pig iron points to economy ; for example, taking the figures for the year 1872, an average of 572- cwts. of coal appears for each ton of pig iron made ; advancing to the year 1880, the average appearing in the above returns does not exceed 45 cwts. The Westbury Iron Company in addition to their resources of ore in "Wiltshire, possess their own colliery at Nettlebridge in the adjoining county of Somerset, where the coal is coked and conveyed to the works at Westbury, and subse- quently employed in the smelting of the ores. Hampshire Charcoal Pig Iron. — About the year 1868 the Messrs. Harrison, Ainslie, & Co., erected a small furnace at Warsash, near Titchfield in the above-named shire for the manu- facture of pig iron with charcoal ; this furnace was put in blast in the year 1869, and has since continued, with occasional in- tervals, to make charcoal pig iron according to the supply of charcoal obtainable from time to time in the immediate neigh- bourhood and in the south of England. The same firm possess other furnaces of a similar construction at Bonawe in Argyleshire, at Newland, near Ulverstone, and Backbarrow, near Haverthwaite, both in Lancashire, and a fifth at Duddon in Cumberland. A noticeable feature connected with the Warsash furnace is that suitable mechanical arrangements were at an early period successfully introduced, by which the gases escaping from the top of the fui-nace were utilised as a source of power and made available for raising steam. The ore smelted at these works is brought from Lancashire, a rich red hematite containing from 64 to 66 per cent, of metallic iron ; the iron here made enjoys a high reputation, always secures a ready market, and from its superior quality and strength, as well as toughness, compares favourably with the best charcoal irons of Sweden, Norway, and Russia. The quantity annually produced of charcoal pig iron is not con- siderable in these works, nor is it separately distinguished, being CHAP. XTiii.] HAMPSHIRE IROK IKDXJSTRIES. 687 included with the returns of the other furnaces of the same firm in Lancashire previously referred to. There is no exact information available showing the quantity of charcoal necessary for the production of one ton of charcoal pig iron ; from inquiries, however, made on the subject of gentle- men conversant with the manufacture, it may be generally stated that the quantity varies from about 46 to 50 cwts. to each ton of iron made. CHAPTEE XIX. DEVONSHIRE IRON INDUSTEIES. Iron Ore Deposits — Early account of Magnetic Ores wrought at Haytor — Deposits at Hennook, Buckfastleigh, North Molton, Smallacombe, Torbay (Paint ore) and Exmoor — ^Analyses, Production and Distribution of Ores. Iron Ore Deposits. — Ferruginous deposits are more or less abundantly diffused through the formations of every geological age, the richest varieties being found in the older rocks. In this country the most important deposits of red hematite are found in the hollows of the carboniferous limestone in Lancashire, Cumberland and other places, yielding from 60 to 66 per cent, of metallic iron. The other principal sources of supply being the argillaceous carbonates obtained from the ironstone measures of our coal-fields, which with the varieties obtained from the Liassic and Oolitic strata, furnishes by far the greatest proportion of the ironstone smelted in the blast furnaces of Great Britain. Spathic ores occur in a few localities in this country, which have been already named, and in a few districts in Cornwall and Devonshire; this latter county, though possessing deposits of iron ore of a good quality, does not produce ore in any consider- able quantity compared with other districts; still it commends itself to the attention of the ironmaster, occasioniag demand when the iron trade is active. At an early period iron ore (magnetic oxide,) was wrought at Haytor, near Ilsington. Nearly half a century since, Mr. J. T. Kingston, of Ilsington, Devon, published a very interesting account of this deposit in the " Philosophical Magazine." At that time the lode, as far as explored, exhibited much regularity, and is thus described: "The lode occurs in the clay schist, and the direction of its strata is nearly north-west and south- east, underlying to the north-east at an angle of 22° or 23° only for the first few feet from the surface, but below this the CHAV. XIX.] DEVONSHIEE IRON INDUSTRIES. 689 dip is very regular at an angle of 45°, the lode having a width of 28 feet, of which 16 feet was iron ore." From some experi- ments made, it appears this ore when smelted yielded ii'on of a tough and superior description, and was at that time used in admixture with the argillaceous ironstone of the coal measures of Sou.th Wales. The Haytor ore at the period referred to was favourably regarded for the manufactm-e of steel; the average yield of the ore being about 50 per cent, of metallic iron, as determined at that period. Recent analyses of magnetic oxide of iron made in Dr. Percy's laboratory by Mr. Edward Riley, show the following consti- tuents ; the ore is presumably that raised at Haytor, the precise locality of the sample examiaed not being stated. It is thus described : " Magnetic oxide of iron, Dartmoor, Devonshire. It was compact, black, sub-metallic in lustre, uneven and granular on fracture, and gave a black streak. There was disseminated through the ore a pale green mineral, which remained in the insoluble residue obtamed by digestion with hydrochloric acid. Traces of bismuth, tin, and copper were detected in a solution of 900 grains of the ore " : — Eesults Tabttlated. Sesquioxide of iron 62-20 Protoxide of iron 16-20 Protoxide of manganese O-l* Alumina • . . 2-28 Lime 2-34 Magnesia 0'37 SUica . 0-24 Phosphoric acid ■ O'lO Bisulphide of iron 0'07 Water{JjfCer .•.-.•.•.•: til Ignited insoluble residue 16-26 Total 100-8 2 Ignited Insoluble Eesidtte. SUica 9-42 Alumina ......... 1-53 Protoxide of iron 1-12 Lime ......-•.. 3-18 Magnesia 1'4:5 Potash and Soda 0-10 Total 16-80 Metallic iron 57- 01 Y T 690 COAL AND lEON INDUSTEIES. [PAET 11^ Haytor has produced iron ore in the quantities given in each of the years named : — Year. Quantities. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. .€ Tons. £ 1858 3,000 1,420 1872 3,000 1,800 1859 1,293 612 1873 600 450 1861 68 27 1874 1,669 1,500 1862 1,356 5-12 1875 530 159 1865 2,176 730 1876 1,781 891 1866 60 20 1877 2,611 1,305 1868 1,127 338 1878 724 362 1869 505 151 1879 150 75 1871 200 150 1880 3,395 2,121 At Smallacombe, near Ilsington, in the clay slate or kiUas^ which is traversed hy masses of greenstone (dolerite,) highly- ferruginous and much decomposed near the surface, oi'es of irort. of two varieties occur — the one brown hematite or limonite, the- other magnetite ; they are thus described * as they occur at Smallacombe : " The limonite occurs in nodules forming irregular' beds in a thick mass of variegated sands and clays, the innumerable layers of which slope gently a few degi-ees only from the horizontal to the south-east. The magnetite forms three or four beds of variable thickness, occurring in a thick mass of greenstone, which cuts the kUlas under and west of the beds of limonite. The general dip of the greenstone and its enclosed beds seems to be about 30° from the horizontal and their ' sti-ike ' nearly north. The brown iron ore beds have a strike considerably west of north, so that the two series of deposits come together near the north of the estate. The upper part of the greenstone, with its enclosed magnetite, is much decomposed, in fact it is worked for umber ; and at a few fathoms below the surface large quantities of garnet rock and crystallised garnets, together with tolerably pure horn- blende, have been met with." At Smallacombe the beds of hematite are wrought in open quarry workings, from which an adit has been driven obliquely through them, westward and northward, for a distance of 90 fathoms, with the object of reachmg the beds of magnetite at a greater depth under the hill. * " Note on the Iron Deposit at Smallacombe, in DevonsMre," by J. H. Collins, F.G.S., Miners Association Reports, 1872—73 p. 71. CHAP. XIX.] DEVONSHIRE IKON INDUSTRIES. 691 An examination of the iron ore raised at Smallacombe, made by Mr. Child of the Dowlais Ironworks, shows the following constituents. The equivalent of metallic iron contained in the ore amounted to 50'44 per cent. : — Eestlts Tabulated. Sesquioxide of iron 4V96 Oxygen 17-98 Iron as carbonate 8-48 Carbonic acid 9-09 Alumina 1-20 Lime . . 1-70 Silica • . . . 10-1j Ptosphoric acid nil. Sulpnur trace Mag;nesia trace Moisture 4-83 Combined Water 5 -49 Total 10()-88 The following are the quantities of iron ore raised and sold from the Smallacombe deposits ; ore was raised in j^ears other than those given, but the quantities are not separately dis- tinguished : — Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 186a 18G6 1868 1869 2,176 1,870 73 507 1871 1872 1873 1874 352 1,775 1,272 2,069 Hennock is another locality, near Bovey Tracey and north of Ilsington, where lodes of iron of a micaceous variety occur, varying from 1 to 12 feet in width, bearing east and west, and occuning in a close-grained porphyritic granite, the ore being associated with quartz, schorl, clay and hornblende ; a brown iron ore also occurs at Bishopsteignton, in the limestone in irregular masses. The Hennock deposit has been worked, at intervals, over a distance of nearly 2 miles, and to the depth of from 20 to 30 feet, and is said to have gone down very rich, the ore being of a micaceous character, yielding 55 per cent, of metallic iron ; the lode nearly vertical, and. about 4 feet wide, being worked by two adits driven on the lode from the bottom of the hill. At T T 2 692 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. Hennock Mine in 1872 there appear to have heen raised and sold 181 tons. The ore and its value raised at Hennock in each year since 1873 is as follows : — Year. Quantities. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. 1873 1874 1875 Tons. 3,000 4,386 1,215 2,250 3,125 911 1876 1877 1878 Tons. 5,712 3,611 2,769 £ 2,856 1,805 1,384 The ore is delivered in trucks on the Devon and Somerset Eailway, at the Company's siding, at 10s. j)er ton, and delivered in South Wales at 18s. per ton. At the South Devon Mine, near Buckfastleigh, occur lodes of brown hematite, coursing east and west, and yielding ore of good quality, the lodes being embedded in killas and limestone. The ore raised in 1872 and 1873 amounted to 380 tons and 476 tons respectively, and in 1874 to 255 tons, the value per ton being 15s., and the yield of metallic iron 55*0 per cent. Several lodes of iron ore have been, from time to time, worked near Brent, in Devon. At the Florence Mine, North Molton, lodes of hematite are worked by the Florence Mining Company. The lodes dip at an angle of 62°, and vary from 4 feet to 13 feet in thickness, the levels being opened on two separate lodes. Spathose ore also occurs at this mine, but it is not wrought, as purchasers require it calcined. The ore is said to contain from 50 to 55 per cent, of metallic iron, from 10 to 15 per cent, of silica, and free from phosphoric acid and sulphur. Spathose iron ore has been met with in the Frank MiUs Lead Mine, the lead lode passing into white iron ore in depth. A considerable quantity of this spathose ore was raised, and a few small parcels were sold, but recently a large pile of ii-on ore was to be seen amongst the waste heaps of the mine. Of this pile of spathose ore, a few samples have been taken from time to time, but the cost of transfer from the mine to the shipping port at Teignmouth, prevents its being purchased for use. An analysis of this ore by Dr. Noad, F.E.S., gives the following results : — CHAP. XIX,] DEVONSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 693 Eesclts Tabulated. Carbonate of iron ... ... 68-53 Carbonate of manganese 14 '40 Carbonate of lime ... ... 6-48 Carbonate of magnesia 7 -40 Sulphideof lead 1-80 = . . sulphur 0-23 Silica 1-20 Total 99-81 Iron in raw ore 38-26 Iron in roasted ore 54-70 Dr. Noad appends a note to the above in which he says, " As nearly the whole of the small quantity of sulphur which this ore contains will be expelled by roasting, and as it is perfectly free from phosphorus, he considers it to be veiy valuable for making the higher qualities of iron, especially for steel. The ore obtained from Frank Mills since 1872 was in the following quantities and values : — Yeai'. Quantities. Viilue. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. S. Tons. £ 1872 20 13 1877 12 9 1874 70 105 1879 30 15 1875 100 UJ 1880 190 95 In the neighbouring lead mines, Exmouth and South Exmouth, in Christow, near Exeter, the same change of the lode into spat- hose iron ore took place. At the latter mine, a few years since, preparations for working the iron ore were made, but after raising some fine samples from the mine the adventure was abandoned. Brown hematite iron ore is also wrought in Torbay, on the south coast of Devon, within one mile of Brixham, and between Torquay and Brixham. The ore occurs in the Devonian hme- stone, which is tilted at a considerable angle, and broken asunder near the surface. In the fissures formed by the rupture of the rock, repose deposits of iron ore, a large proportion being a hard brown and massive hematite, including some kidney ore and soft oxide of iron. The fissures containing the ore has been said to have a direc- tion east and west, but from the fractured state of the rock, it is not easy to determine this. It is said to extend to a distance of 800 yards from the sea coast, where the deposit at the top of the 694. COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT It, cliff shows an irregular width of nearly 80 yards, and somewhat less below. Five pits have been sunk nearly to the sea level, and have yielded ore of good quality. There are several workings at Brixham, but they have been in abeyance for some time owing to the depressed condition of the iron trade. The hematite deposits known as the Brixham Mines, including workings at Sharkham Point, Five Acres and Charter, have been worked by Messrs. "W. Brown and Sons. Brown hematite has also been wrought at the Upton Mine, near Brixham, by the Upton Company. The hematite raised at Brixham, of two varieties, submitted to Dr. Odling, F.E.S., for examination, gives the following results, the first yielding 66-57 per cent., and the second, 48-70 per cent. of metallic iron. Eesults Tabtilated. Constituents. First. Second. Peroxide of iron Siliceous matter . . . . Sulphur Phosphorus Water_ Organic matter . . . . Total . 95-10 4-15 -12 trace. -14 -49 69-58 14-38 •15 •10 14-39 1-40 100-00 100-00 Other analyses of the Brixham hematite give the following results. One by Dr. Noad, F.E.S., includes an examination of the soft ore, and a second of the ore in lumps, the first being in fine (moist) powder, which was carefully dried : — Eesults Tabulated. Coils tituents. Ore in Powder. Ore in Lumps. Peroxide of iron Oxide of manganese . . . Lime Phosphoric acid . . . . Insoluble sand .... Total . . . 63-42 0-24 0-60 0-28 35-20 90-00 0-30 0-42 0-38 8-60 99-74 99-70 The yield of metallic iron in the soft ore was equivalent to 44"56 per cent., and of the ore in lumps, 63 per cent. Dr. Noad adds, in reference to these analyses, that the first is siliceous in character and not particularly rich in iron ; while the second "HAP. XIX.] DEVONSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 695 iinalysis, of ore in lumps, constitutes by far the largest bulk of tlie sample, to the extent of seven-eighths is rich and valuable, being materially enhanced by the absence of sulphur and the small percentage of phosphoric acid. Of the iron ore raised at the mines at Brixham, one kind — a brilliant hematite of a soft variety — ^is prepared and ground in a mill with linseed oil into paint, which is largely employed in ■coating ironwork, as a preservative against corrosion, and is •commercially known as " Torbay paint." The ore used in this l)reparation has the following constituents : — Eesults Tabulated. Sesquioxide of iron 89-34 Protoxide of manganese 0'33 Alumina 0-33 Lime 0-33 Magnesia 0'20 Phosphoric acid 0-13 Sulphuric acid trace Bisulphide of iron trace Water combined 8'83 Ignited insoluble residue .... .1-70 Total 101-19 These paints are used extensively and advantageously for preserving iron from the corroding influence of impure water, and gaseous exhalations, and are employed by water, gas and railway companies, and in several depai-tments of the Govern- ment works. Other analyses of these paint ores made by different chemists for the original proprietor (Mr. Wolston), who developed the deposits, are as follows : — Eesults Tabulated. Constituents. Johnson and Cock. Herapath. Piince. Prince. Peroxide of iron . Silica Alumina Water Lime Oxygen . Oxide of manganese 58-0 9-3 12-3 20-0 46-7 21-0 12-0 2-b 18-3 trace 87-0 7-0 2-0 i-b 2-5 66-5 4-0 2-0 "■'5 27-0 Total . 99-6 100-0 100-0 100-0 C96 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [I'AET II. The production of brown hematite from the mines in the districts here referred to, is as follows, the interruptions in the returns, showing that the mines were in some years either inactive or their output included in the returns of other mines. The value of the ore F.O.B. in the year 1875 was 15s. per ton. Peodxtce of the Bbixhasi Mines. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1856 3,700 1866 20,005 1857 2,000 1867 8,762 1858 1,400 1868 10,976 1859 2,220 1869 6,092 1860 2,400 1870 6,100 1861 5,227 1871 8,772 1862 3,550 1872 1,593 1863 7,014 1874 3,466 1864 9,768 1875 907 1865 16,710 1876 1,603 These mines in the year 1880 appear to have produced some 362 tons of soft ore, of the value of J6279. In North Devon and West Somerset, in that hilly tract of country extending from Ilfracomhe to near Bridgewater, consider- able explorations have been made in the iron ore deposits, which may be said to extend some thirty miles in length by about five miles in width. Within this area at intervals various iron mines have from time to time been opened. Prof. W. W. Smyth, F.R.S., in a paper* on the iron ores of the district here referred to, thus describes the area : " If from Linton, where the lower beds of the range may be examined, the observer travels south- ward, he will pass over a constantly ascending series of strata, and about Simon's Bath, on Exmoor, wUl reach the line of irregular lenticular deposits of limestone, which trending from Coombe Martin by Challacombe, through the midst of Exmoor, to Cat- borough and Treborough, furnishes an indication of the general strike of the district and a supposed parallel to the more massive limestones of Plymouth." The ores of iron in Exmoor occur both in regular strata and veins, and it is evident from various circumstances that they were * " Iron Ore of Exmoor," Geological Society's Journal, 1S58, p. 105. CHAP. XIX.] DEVONSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 697 known and worked at an early period. The ores occurring in strata have heen found on the flank of Hangman's Hill, near Coomhe Martin, in the Valley of the Exe, north-east of Simon's Bath, and in the North Forest, Exmoor, in nodules, generally of small size, and often tilted with the shales in which they occur at such considerable angles, as to render their working difficult. An uncommon variety of chocolate or claret-coloured ore, with an unusually high percentage of iron, is seen in the North Forest of Exmoor. The lodes or iron-bearing veins of this district appear to have a direction running east 10° south, inclining at an angle of from 45° to 65° southwards. The ore of some of the veins has been examined by Mr. Edward Eiley : the first, from the Koman Lode, Cornham Farm, exliibiting small crj'stals of specular iron, but with a structure through the mass resembling sparry iron (carbonate). The second analysis refers to ore occurring in Roger's Lode, some mile distant, and south of Simon's Bath in the Deer Park, consisting of brown or hydrous peroxide of iron, in a state of great puritj', as evidenced by the millions of little prismatic crystals of " Gcethite " lining the interior of numerous cavernous hollows, which are interspersed amidst a mass, bearing evidently the general rhombo-hedral structure of spaiTy iron : — Eestjlts Tabulated. Constituents First. Second. Peroxide of iron . . . . 98-41 1V3i Peroxide of manganese . 16-19 Oxide of manganese . . . 0-'29 ... SiHca I'Ol 1-49 Magnesia 0-16 0-22 Phosphoric acid 0-12 0-33 Alumina . . . . • ... MO Lime ... 0-13 Moisture 0'13 0-79 Combined water 7-98 Oxide of copper .... Oxides of nickel and cobalt Total . o'-M 0-05 ... 0-19 100-16 100-41 The workings in Eoger's Lode above referred to, prove it to consist in a width averaging probably 9 feet, of a loosely 698 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [part ir. agglomerated " Goetliite," with much the same character through- out, occasionally intermingled with bands of quartz and fragments of the adjoining slate rock. At Hangley Cleave, on the extreme south of the Moor, a lode of from 15 to 20 feet wide occurs, of botryoidal and cavernous brown ore, intermingled with quartz and slate, and is succeeded, at the depth of a few fathoms only, fii'st by single nuclei and further by masses of a pale coloured and sparry ore. Ore in some quantity has been raised on the Moor and conveyed to South Wales, bjit the cost of carriage has operated unfavourably against the development of the deposits on Exmoor. In North Devon, near Barnstaple, some promising lodes of iron ore were opened out a few years since, at Spreecombe and Bratton Fleming, manganese being also fomid in the last-named mine. The lodes at Bratton Fleming are situated on the road to Bratton, close to the village, parallel to each other, and three in number. These lodes are also seen in Haxon Lane, some distance north, where they consist of hematite of good quahty. At Haxon Lane, already aUuded to, these lodes have been laid open by pits ; the north-east is about 2 feet wide, the middle lode 4 feet, and the south-west 4^ feet wide. In a field at Haxon, a lode known as " Clegg's Lode," and another as " Shaft Lode," has been proved ; the former is found running in a direc- tion north and south, and forms a junction with the latter, which bears north-west and south-east. The lodes are said to produce ore of good quality. The width of Clegg's Lode is about 1 foot, and that of Shaft Lode 4 feet. Again, at Brent, in South Devon, magnetic iron ore occurs near the river Avon, or Aunn, in shallow deposits on a mass of greenstone. Other deposits in lodes appear on Brent Hill, but the explorations here have been carried out on a very limited scale. The earliest returns bearing on the production of iron ore in Devonshire appear to refer to the end of the last century, when between the years 1796 and 1802 iron ore amounting to 9,293 tons was shipped from the lodes at Coombe Martin to the iron- works at Llanelly, in South Wales. Production of Iron XXiues. — Since the year 1855 the produc- tion of the Devonshire iron mines has been as follows ; the output of the mines of the adjoining county of Somerset is given side by side : — CHAP. XIX.] DEVONSHIRE IBON INDUSTRIES. 699 Year. Devonshire. Somersetshire. Tons. Tons. 1855 1,500 4,840 1856 4,100 14,620 1857 2,000 25,842 1858 4,754 26,041 1859 3,598 29,083 1860 3,836 24,101 1861 5,399 32,763 1862 3,550 31,413 1863 7,014 34,709 1864 11,068 54,925 1865 37,814 37,984 1866 40,671 35,323 1867 10,212 36,874 1868 11,178 32,450 1869 7,104 27,230 1870 10,103 19,739 1871 14,124 32,883 1872 29,361 30,913 1873 31,455 46,532 1874 21,313 41,432 1875 10,594 45,168 1876 9,936 44,299 1877 6,434 51,928 1878 4,493 43,115 1879 592 14,100 1880 12,652 29,318 The value of the Devonshu-e u'on ores about the years 1874 .find 1875 was 15s. per ton, since that date it has been declining, till in 1879 it was but 10s. per ton. The latest returns show not only increased production but better prices, the latter exceeding 15s. per ton. The mines selling ore in 1880, were as follows : — ! No. District or Mine. Cliaraeter of Oi-e. Quantities. Value. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Prank Mills ' '. Haytor . . . KeUey Holland . . . New Florence Brixham Brown Hematite Magnetic Oxide Brown Hematite . Eed Hematite . )1 3) • ■ Tons. Cwts. 1,309 4 190 3,395 22 1,681 11 5,593 362 100 £ s. 785 8 95 2,037 66 1,008 12 5,593 279 75 Total of Devon.shire . . . 12,652 15 9,939 700 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PAET II, Distribution of Devonshire Iron Ore. — It appears furnaces were erected some years ago by the Messrs. Sari and Sons at Bovey Ti-acey for the reduction of the iron ores of that district ; the furnaces, however, were never blown in, and the works have long since been abandoned and dismantled. The ore is exported to South Wales, and some quantities, though inconsiderable, are conveyed to the North of England. In the annexed table will be found the quantities shipped from the respective ports of Devon, together with the quantities carried by the South Devon Railway in each of the following years : — Year. Brixhain. Teignmoxitli. Dartmouth. South Devon Railway. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1865 33,814 1,422 1*66 18,867 1,742 1,000 1867 8,829 590 250 1868 3,563 345 1870 5,000 145 1871 11,000 672 1872 15,305 301 364 1873 2,263 703 824 1874 2,166 230 5,678 1875 1,906 90 1876 1,603 290 2,566 1877 ... 255 1,725 1878 811 1879 202 1880 ... 3,277 The railway returns for the year 1874 give the respective quantities carried from the several stations of the South Devon Hail way : — E AIL WAY DiSTEIBtJTIOK'. STATIOKS. TOXS. Prom Shaugh Siding 905 Kingsbridge Boad .... . . 320 Newton ... 857 Bovey. 3,535 Buckfastleigh . . . . . . .151 Total 5,768 In the following table will be found the names of the principal localities in Devonshire above referred to, with the situation OHAr. XIX.] DEVONSHIRE IRON INDUSTRIES. 701 of the mines and the amount of metallic iron contained in the ore : — Mines or Bistriut. Situation. Cliaraeter of Ore. 1 Iron pur Cent. Haytor Ilsington Magnetic 57-01 Hennock . . ») • ' • Micaceous . . . oo-OO Florence North Molton Spathose oo-OO Frank Mills . . Ohristow . . ) ) ■ • • 38-26 Smallacombe Ilsington Brown Hematite . 50-44 Torbay . . . Brixham . . ?j )j • • 66-57 „ , it J) )) • • 48-70 „ . . . >» , . . » » • ■ 44-56 )> • ■ ' J) • )) V ' • 63-00 Brixham . . . )) • . • Bed Hematite . . 62-50 South Devon Buckfastleigh Micaceous 55-00 CHAPTEE XX. CORNWALL lEON INDUSTRIES. Early references to Iron Ore Deposits— Borlase and Pryce — Eestormel Iron Mine, account of — Analyses of Eestormel and other Iron Ores raised in Cornwall — The Perran Iron lode — Production and Distribution of Iron Ore — Mines and LocaUties producing Ore — Distribution of Iron Ore. Iron Ore Deposits. — Tliis most western county of England has ever been famous for the great richness and variety of her mineral treasures. The ores of tin were wrought at a very early period, and in Cornwall and the adjoining county of Devon this important ore occurs disseminated through its rocks. Copper ore is also abundant, and but few minerals known to the miner are absent. The ores of iron are widely diffused, occurring prin- cipally in the form of lodes, and traversing large tracts of country. These deposits, though long known, have been but partially developed. Borlase, writing about the year 1758, mentions the fact of iron ore being known to exist in many parts of the county, though not at that time worked. Later, in the year 1788, it appears from Pryce that these lodes of iron still remained unwrought. The ii'on ore deposits of Cornwall, as above stated, occur principally in lodes ; many of these are known to extend for several miles in a direct course. Generally these lodes have a direction a few degrees west of north, underljdng about one foot in a fathom, and containing hematite of the red or brown variety, many of these lodes being in fact the cross courses of the- respective districts in which they occur. One of the most important deposits of iron ore in Cornwall is situated near Lostwithiel, in the Manor of Eestormel, held under lease from the Duchy of Cornwall, at a royalty of 6d. per ton, and a minimum rent of £40 per annum. The sett is nearly a mile and three-quarters in extent from north to south, and is CHAP. XX.] CORNWALL IRON INDUSTRIES, 703 traversed throughout nearly its entii-e length by a large and pro- ductive lode of hematite ore. The deposit was originally opened out by a Mr. Adam Thompson, and the property was subsequently acquired by the Messrs. John Taylor and Sons, and worked under the name of the Eoyal Eestormel Iron Mine. Clay slate or Idllas is the rock of the district, dipping to the east ; the lode has a direction north and south, dipping one foot in six, and consisting chiefly of iron ore, quartz, and floocan. The mine has been extensively worked by means of day levels, while the ore wrought is brought out of the mine by the deep adit, over tramways drawn by horses, to the quays at Lostwitliiel, where the ore is shipped in barges and carried to the port of Fowey, whence it is trans-shipped to the ironworks of South Wales and elsewhere. A notable feature in the mine is the new winning below the deep adit, recently opened out, and exposing a run of ore ground, estimated to yield 200,000 tons of ore. Here the plan for draining, working the mine, and dressing the ore, is eflScient in all respects for worldng to a depth of 24 fathoms, and even more, below the adit. The engines are placed underground at the adit ; one, a pumping engine, 24-inch diameter cylinder ; a hauling engine, the cylinder 12 inches diameter ; a double skip road has been made, and a 14-inch plunger fixed ; a brick stack being carried up through a shaft to the top of the hill to meet the requirements of the engine and boiler houses con- structed under ground at the adit. The drainage of the mine is economically effected — indeed, there is very Uttle water to get rid of ; while the plan of working by a series of cross cuts from the main levels which are driven parallel to, and within a short distance of the lode, enables the rapid extension of the main works without interfering with the extraction of the ore. In the southern part of the sett there is a lode worked open-cast, but here little has hitherto been done. The quality of the ore obtained from Eestormel is now in some request for the manufacture of Bessemer pig. It consists princi- pally of a crystallised brown hematite, or Gcethite, occurring in fibrous and mammilated aggregations, and also in long prismatic crystals. In the upper levels crystals of carbonate of iron altered to brown hematite are met with, while the presence of manganese in these ores render them of valqe, and well adapted to the manufacture of steel and iron. The percentage of metaUic iron 704 COAL AND IRON IKDUSTRIES. [PAET II. averages from 40 to 42 and 45. Eecent analyses, however, of samples taken from the 12-fathom level give higher results. The following are the results of five samples of ore made by- Mr. John Pattinson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for the present proprietors, the Eestormel Iron Mining Companj^ Limited : — * Constituents. Xo. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. Peroxide of iron . . 78-57 56-43 77-14 75-43 45-57 ,, of manganese . 4-71 22-60 3-15 •38 32-57 Protoxide of ,, ■ •■ 3-46 4-28 Oxide of Cobalt . . -13 • . • •21 Alumina 1-00 3-42 -90 1-00 1^60 Lime trace •36 trace trace trace Baryta .... ■35 2-58 •10 trace 3-77 Magnesia . . . . •12 -12 -12 -19 -38 SiHoa .... 6-00 2-83 9-93 13-97 4-13 Sulptur . . . . trace trace trace trace trace Phosphorio acid . •06 •33 -16 •19 •40 Combined water . . 8-61 7-14 7-65 8-37 6-46 Moisture Metallic iron . . . •39 -48 -75 -26 •50 99-81 99-88 99-90 99-79 99-87 55-00 39-50 54-00 62-80 31-90 Metallic manganese 2-97 16-95 1-99 •24 23-87 It is remarked that the amount of silica in these samples is less than in others previously examined from higher levels, and that the ore contains manganese in important quantities. The bulk of the ore may not perhaps show such results as the above samples, but they nevertheless indicate the probability of the deeper workings yieldmg a more valuable ore than was obtained from the shallower levels. The ore has also been examined by Mr. E. Riley, F.C.S., with the following results : — Tabulated. Moisture at 212° Fabr 0-85 Metallic iron 46-42 MetaUio manganese 3*98 Siliceous matter 18-21 Another sample of ore dried at 212° Fahr., giving 51"76 of metallic iron. * Favoured by the Messrs. John Taylor and Sons, who also furnished the fore- going particulars of the Kestormel Mine. CHAP. XX.] CORNWALL IRON INDUSTRIES. 705 The returns of production of the Eestormel Mine of brown hematite since the year 1855 are as follows : — Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1855 20,807 1867 1,005 1856 8,229 1868 608 1857 7,077 1869 1,089 1858 12,966 1871 3,954 1859 6,915 1872 7,521 1860 2,980 1873 4,609 1861 ' 5,519 1874 1,087 1862 2,611 1875 3,510 1863 2,294 1876 4,120 1864 8,357 1877 1,056 1865 6,170 1878 344 1866 4,190 1880 1,724 The brown hematite hitherto worked in Cornwall occurs chiefly in a series of great fissures, which cross the centre of the county on a line nearly coincident with the magnetic meridian, from a point a few miles east of Saint Austell on the south, to the estuary of the Camel at Padstow on the north. On the liue referred to, proceeding from south to north, hematite has been worked at the Euby, Knightor, Treverbyn, Coldbriggen, Withiel, and Pawton Mines, and similar ore has been seen at Resugga, Eosevear Moor, BUberry, Tresible, and other places. Of the mines referred to, the Euby on the south, and Pawton on the north, have been hitherto the most extensively wrought, and have proved the most productive. The Pawton Mine is situated about five miles from Padstow, and three from Wadebridge. The lode bears about 18° west of true north, and underlies to the east about 1 foot in a fathom. It occupies a distinct fissure in the killas ; varies from about 1 to 30 feet in width, and averages from 6 to 8 feet. As is usually the case, smaller parallel lodes have been observed on either side of the main lode, but these have not been worked upon. The " Killas " * country is brownish-red, rather soft, and readily decomposes when exposed to the air ; it dips gently to the north, so that the lode cuts through it nearly at right angles to its general cleavage, which sometimes coincides with its bedding. The mine so far has been but partially developed. The workings • " Killas," or clay slate. z z 706 COAL AND IROK INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. extend over a length of about 150 fathoms in all, but north of the engine shaft these are mostly inaccessible. In the upper part of the mine the ore is partially red hematite, but most of it is found to occur as brown hematite. In the stopes below the 22-fathom level, the ore consists occasionally of red hematite, intermixed with spathose carbonate. At aU depths much of the ore has been of botryoidal form, and generally very free from silica, sulphur, and phosphorus. The workings have been carried down 3S fathoms. A cross course, about two feet wide, bearing nearly east and west, traverses the lode, and heaves it nearly two fathoms to the left, which is also towards the greater angle. Near the cross course the lode is more siliceous than elsewhere, but this adverse influence only extends to a few fathoms north and south of the intersection. The cross course itself consists chiefly of quartz, but near the lode contains some iron ore also. The ore raised from the Pawton Mine, examined by Mr. J. H. CoUins, F.Gr.S.,* exhibits the annexed results. The first analysis consists of portions of ore taken from different parts of the lode, from which a fair average sample was selected : — Eestjlts Tabulated. Peroxide of iron 93-00 Carbonic acid and moisture 2- 50 Silica, chiefly (quartz)' 3-60 Sulphur trace Phosphorus trace Alumina and lime 1-10 Total 100-20 Another sample, selected from ore obtained from the stopes below the 22-fathom level, shows the following results : — Eestjlts Tabulated. Peroxide of iron 65-0 Carbonate of iron 26-1 Silica 4-4 Sulphur 0-2 Phosphorus trace Alumina . . 1-8 Manganese 1-0 Moisture 1-2 Total 99-7 * Mr. Collins has most liberally placed at the author's disposal the foregoing facts, describing the Pawton and other mines. CHAP. XX.] CORNWALL IRON INDUSTRIES. 707 It is remarked that the walls of the lode are tolerably regular, that they are not coated with either sUiceous matter or " capel," the ore being frequently free from silica, even where it is in contact with the killas. In many parts small " horses " * of kiUas are enclosed in the ore, which nearly resemble the killas of the adjoining country, as might be supposed. At Knightor, Treverbyn, and Eesugga, the boundary hne of which extends some 500 fathoms south, where it gains the Kuby Mine, some important hematite deposits have been proved, ex- tending through the above-named mine sett, consisting of a main lode, and another to the east. These lodes produced ore in some quantities previous to the year 1873, since which date very little appears to have been done, although the ore there raised was of good quality. The hematite iron ore raised at Knightor and Treverbyn, ex- amined by Mr. Edmund G. Tosh, F.C.S., who remarks that these hematites are quite equal in purity and richness to the best of the district, the first sample being an aggregation of small " kidney ore," in every respect excellent, gives the following results : — Constituents. East Lode. West Lode. New Lode. Perric oxide . . . . Manganous oxide . Alumina Lime Magnesia Phosphoric acid Sulphur Siliceous matter Water and carbonic acid . . 94-62 0-11 0-27 0-09 0-03 0-018 trace 3-39 0-69 83-29 0-08 0-55 0-14 0-08 0-025 0-020 14-46 1-19 84-85 trace 0-50 0-09 0-02 0-021 trace 11-79 2-34 99-218 99-835 99-611 LlTSOLTTBLE EESmXTE. Silica Alumina . . ... Metallic iron .... 3-39 13-86 0-47 11-08 0.49 3-39 14-33 11.67 66-23 58-30 59-40 A " Horse " in a lode, is a mass of rock in the middle of the vein of ore. z z 2 708 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. Other analyses of the Knightor and Treverbyn hematite, made by Mr. W. Crosby, of Middlesborough, and Mr. J. H. Collins, of Truro, give the following results ; both are described as hematite ore, fair average samples being selected from several points in the above mines ; the first containing 58"01, and the second 51"20 per cent, of metallic iron : — Eesults Tabulated. Constituents. W. Crosby. J. H. Collins. Peroxide of iron . . . . 82-87 73-2 Silica 8-30 14-4 Alumina 4-30 4-9 Lime ..... 1-24 1-6 Oxide of manganese . . . 0-16 ' 0-3 Magnesia 0-75 0-9 Sulphur trace trace Phosphoric acid 0-03 0-4 Moisture and carbonic acid . . 2-06 3-4 99-71 99-1 In the following table is given the production of Pawton in Lanivet and other mines above referred to since the year 1860 : — PAWTON. KNIGHTOR AND RTIB"». LADOOK.* Year. Tons. Tear. Tons. Year. Tons. 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1873 1874 1876 1878 1880 14,400 9,876 7,618 7,848 9,626 1,000 4,372 4,625 617 810 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1870 1871 1872 2,000 2,000 7,925 6,545 7,951 1,772 5,937 5,406 9,154 3,901 1860 1862 1863 1864 1865 1872 1873 1874 1875 1,254 762 2,413 1,177 121 844 512 250 200 The Perran great iron lode is another, and the most, important deposit in Cornwall. Nearly fifty years ago it was referred to, in the " Geological Transactions," by Mr. Henwood, who says : "At the eastern extremity of Ligger Bay is a large vein bearing * The lode at Ladock yields an ore of good quality of hard brown hematite from 10 to 12 feet wide, embedded in a very supporting light brown killas. CHAP. XX.] CORNWALL IRON INDUSTRIES. 709 south-east, north-west, and dipping south 50°. It contains hema- tite, specular, and earthy-brown iron ore, quartz, and slate ;• has many cavities lined with crystals of quartz, and is traversed by many small quartz veins." * Sir Henry de la Beche wrote in 1839 : " There can be little doubt that a large supply of good hematite iron ore could be readUy obtained from the district " (of Cornwall and Devon) " if the necessary demand existed." f Many of the iron lodes of Cornwall are known to extend for several miles in a direct line, and the depth to which the ore holds down is quite unknown. In many respects, however, the Perran lode differs from most of the others, especially in direction, size, underlie, and in the nature of its contents. The Cornish iron lodes have usually a direction a few degrees west of north ; average perhaps 3 to 4 feet wide ; underlie, about 1 foot in a fathom, and contain either red or brown hematite. On the other hand the Perran lode bears about 35° north of west ; averages perhaps 30 feet in width for a course of several miles ; tmderlies from 3 to 4 feet in a fathom, and contains in depth large quanti- ties of carbonate of iron, or spathose iron ore. The lode is seen on the northern coast of Cornwall at Perran Bay, where it attains a width of nearly 100 feet, consisting of two great branches, divided by a horse of killas or clay slate. The most productive part hitherto explored is that extending to Mount and Trebisken, a distance of some four miles from the coast. It has been traced to the neighbourhood of Grampound, but this latter portion of the lode has not been worked. The first workings were commenced by Mr. Samuel Hockaday, the ore being quarried near the chff at the outcrop, drawn up over an incline and carted to Newquay, a distance of about six miles, where it was shipped to the ironworks of South "Wales. Mr. Hockaday, above referred to, also opened the Mount Miue, about a mile and a-half inland on the same lode. From him it passed to the Saint Columb Bank, and when that failed, to the Agra and Mastermans' Bank. Very considerable workings were made on the lode at the Great Retallack and Duchy Peru mines, which is now worked for zinc. From the extent of the excavations it is probable that not much less than 100,000 tons of iron ore have been removed from this part of the lode. * " Transactions of the Eoyal Geological Society of Cornwall," vol. v. + " Geological Report on Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset," p. 618. 710 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pabt ii. Previous to the j'ear 1865 a contract was entered into between the manager of the Dowlais Iron Company, and Mr. Carter* of Saint Columb, for the supply of 40,000 tons of the ore. The contract was fulfilled, but the difiiculties of transport prevented a renewal of the contract, which was much to be regretted, as the ore gave satisfactory results in reduction to the metallic state. About the year 1874 this lode was vigorously worked by the Cornish Consolidated Iron Mines Corporation ; the principal workings are at Gravel HUI, the Mount Mine; still farther east the great excavations at Treamble are situated; a branch of the Newquay Eailway leading to the quarries. The Great Retallack Mine adjoins to the north and east ; here, in working the iron lode, some 60 or 70 tons of silver lead ore were obtained, the ore containing from 15 to 30 ozs. of silver per ton. At Great Retallack the lode is found to be several fathoms wide ; at one point the workings are down a depth of 40 fathoms, where it was found to be rich for iron, with a little blende for the first 25 fathoms, but at a greater depth the blende increased, and for several months upwards of 500 tons per month were raised and sold at a very low price. The next workings on the lode to the east of Great Retallack are those of the Duchy Peru Mine and Deer Park, where extensive excavations mark the position of the Great Perran iron lode. At the Duchy Peru Mine the old workings on the lead and copper lodes were carried to a depth of 50 fathoms on the iron lode, where white spathose iron ore was met with ; here the celebrated Peru lode comes in contact with the great iron lode. Celltdar brown hematite also occurs, and has been raised in some quantity on the western boundary of the Duchy sett. The ore here contains several ounces of silver to the ton, but not sufficient to pay for extraction. Much of the ore contains large " Vugs." * Many of these contain a loosely-fitting kernel of white carbonate of iron. The space between the kernel and the en- closed shell is often filled with water, which is quite clear and tasteless. The " Killas " country about the great lode at the Duchy Peru Mine seems to be much disturbed ; south of the lode it is hard, * " Vug " or " Vugh." In mining, a cavity, a hollow in the rock or lode. CHAP. XX.] CORNWALL IRON INDUSTRIES. 711 and appears to dip towards it, but next the lode it is soft, and dips -with it ; and it is stated that the great bunches of ore in the Perran lode appear to occur where it is crossed by the numerous north and south lead lodes of the district. Eecent analyses of the spathose ores raised at the Duchy Peru and Mount Mines, give the following results. The two first analyses are, from fair average samples, of several thousand tons, while that of Mount Mine was from a stone taken promiscuously from a heap, and weighing about 14 lbs. The three analyses were made by Mr. J. H. CoUins, of Truro : — Eestjlts Tabulated. Constituents. 1. 2. Protoxide of iron Protoxide of manganese . Lime ..... Magnesia. Sulphur .... Phosphoric acid Insoluble . ... Moisture, alumina, and loss Carbonic acid 48-00 6-80 -63 2-32 •43 •10 3-60 1-52 36-60 46-27 5-97 1-37 1-88 •28 trace 3 '40 4^25 36-58 lOO'OO 100-00 The spathose ore raised at Mount Mine gave the following results on examination : — Results Tabulated. Carbonate of iron 79-00 Carbonate of manganese 9-10 Carbonate of lime 4-90 Carbonate of magnesia 5'20 Sulphur 0^20 Phosphorus trace Silica moisture 1 q.qq Alumina and loss J Total 100^40 Beyond Deer Park the outcrop of the lode is seen on Penhallow Moor, where trials only have been made. Of the iron ore raised from the several workings on the Perran lode the annexed analyses fairly show their composition; the first two from Gravel HUl, by Mr. J. H. Collins ; the third and fourth by Mr. John Mitchell, locality not stated : — 712 COAL AND IKON INDUSTEIES. [part II. Constituents. Gravel Hill. Gravel Hill. Perron Ore. Perran Ore. Peroxide of iron . . 68-30 70-82 91-428 Protoxide of iron . ... trace 48-625 Oxide of manganese . . -11 •98 ■174 trace Lime .... -110 trace Magnesia . . . . ... •129 ... Potash .... ... •076 Soda •054 Silica .... 11-41 11-40 1^140 13-750 Alumina . . . . 1-34 2-07 6-250 Carbonic acid 29-362 Phosphoric acid . . 1-21 1-84 •072 ... Sulphuric acid 1-12 •013 1-255 Water and loss . . . 15-32 11-40 6-804 -758 97-69 99-63 100-000 100-000 The equivalent of metallic iron in the Gravel Hill ore amounts to 63 per cent., and of the brown and spathose ore of Perran 64 and 38 per cent, respectively, while as regards the last ore it was found to contain 8 ozs. 3 dwts. and 8 grains of silver per ton. The ore raised at Treamble Mine,, of three varieties of fair average samples, show the annexed constituents. The first analysis is by Dr. Noad, the second by Mr. Collins, and the third by the Wigan Coal and Iron Company : — Constituents. Brown Hematite. Kidney Ore. Wliite Spathose. SiUca Peroxide of iron . Peroxide of manganese Protoxide of iron Tiime Magnesia . Alumina . Sulphuric acid . Phosphoric acid Carbonic acid Water . 4-20 69-10 14-00 '•80 •24 11-60 10-00 78-10 trace trace trace i-44 i6-6o 1-74 8-13 51-61 1-51 -36 '•15 trace 35-55 99-94 99-54 99-05 Metallic iron 66-23 The production of the several mines on the Perran lode above referred to are given as follows, and this important deposit can furnish considerable quantities of ore to the ironmaster whenever circumstances may arise causing increased demand : — CHAP. XX.] CORNWALL IRON INDUSTRIES, 713 DUCHY PERU. TREEISKEN ASD MODKT. TREAMELE. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1858 2,762 1859 4,338 1859 2,391 1859 1,995 1860 2,641 1860 1,312 1860 4,895 1861 1,860 1864 222 1862 169 1864 2,876 1873 426 1863 3,950 1865 6,193 1874 9,438 1864 2,366 1866 1,234 1875 958 1865 3,539 1871 2,785 1876 426 1866 150 1872 8,293 1880 2,728* 1872 50 1873 4,706 2,545 374 517 1873 1874 1875 528 2,566 412 1874 1875 1876 GREAT BETALLACK. 1876 1878 1880 1,121 17 3,238 1877 1880 283 379 Year. 1858 1859 4,017 6,609 At Gravel Hill 2,505 tons of iron ore were raised in the year 1874, and 494 tons in 1875. Again, in 1876 about the same quantity, increased in 1880 to 2,652 tons. "West of Bodmin, and distant some three miles at Boscarne, occurs a lode partly wrought ; this lode has a run of some 750 fathoms, worked to a depth of 20 fathoms, with an average width of 1 fathom. Other lodes, known as the Nantallon lodes, occur south of Boscarne ; these are three in number, running with little variation north and south, with a slight underlie. Two of the lodes have a range of nearly 1,750 fathoms, while the third has a range of 2,200 fathoms. The average depth to which these lodes have been worked does not exceed 20 fathoms, while in width one is 3 feet, and the remaining two are each 6 feet or 1 fathom in width. The ore wrought at Nantallon is of the variety known as "fibrous kidney ore," the iron existing in the form of hydrated peroxide. At Tregorne, to the west of Mulberry HUl, hematite, of an irregular structure and associated with quartz, has been wrought, occurring as anhydrous peroxide, the lode having a range of some 500 fathoms, 30 fathoms in depth, and with an average width of 3 feet. Other lodes occur to the west and south of Bodmin ; at Tremoor two lodes, extending some 2,000 yards, 15 fathoms deep, and with an average width of 3 feet ; again, at Withiel, Retire, * Perran Mines, including Treamble and others. 714 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. CoMvreath, and Trerank. The Coldvreath lodes have formerly been worked to some extent, their direction extending 800 fathoms north and south, 16 fathoms in depth, and having an average width exceeding 1 fathom. The ore raised at Coldvreath is known as compact hematite, a small portion being distinguished as "kidney ore." Many other localities in Cornwall are known to yield iron ore of good quality; in the district of Constantine, to the east of Falmouth, a lode of iron ore, wrought in recent years, varying from 6 feet to 6 inches in width, has produced ore in notable quantity. In the district of Saint Columb lodes occur, one worked at the Euthers Mine. Again, we have those of Indian Queens and Trelivier, near Saint Austell ; the former was opened out about the year 1866, and continued in operation nearly ten years. The ores raised in the neighbourhood of Saint Austell, near Grampound, at the Kernick and Bodennick mines, is a brown hematite, the thickness of the lode at the former varying from 27 to 31 feet, and the latter having an average of 13 feet 6 inches ; these have been partially wrought. The ores, examined by Dr. Noad and Dr. Perkins, are described as compact brown hematite, intermixed with spar at the outcrop, but comparatively free from it about 14 feet below ; they contain by analysis from 76 to 80 per cent, of peroxide of iron, some oxide of manganese, no sul- phur, and a small admixture of phosphoric acid. The following are the results : — Constituents. Dr. Noad. Dr. Noad. Dr. Perkins. Peroxide of iron . Oxide of manganese Lime Magnesia .... Sulphur .... Phosplioric acid Silicate of alumina Water .... 76-00 3-20 1-00 '•30 10-00 9-50 79-56 1-20 1^20 •53 "•28 7^20 10^00 80-20 2-01 -14* '•09 15-50t 2-06 100-00 99-97 100-00 The equivalent of metallic iron contained in the peroxide beiag respectively 58"2 per cent., 55"6 per cent., and 56*17 per cent. Lime and alumina. t SiUoa. CHAP. XX.] CORNWALL lEOiS- INDUSTRIES. 715 At South Terras, near Grampound Road, a magnetic ore of iron is wrought, giving on examination the following results : — Eesults Tabtjlated. Magnetic oxide of iron 84-24 Peroxide of iron 3'84 Magnesia trace Lime trace Phosphoric acid trace Sulphur and sulphuric acid tiace Lead faint trace Oxide of magnesia 1'06 Alumina 1"35 Silica of gangue 7'51 Water 2-00 Total 100-00 Production of Iron Ore. — The produce of a few of the more important iron mines has already been given ; in the table below appears the total output of the mines of Cornwall in each year since 1855 : — Year. Quantities. Yo.\r. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1855 24,057 1867 6,426 1856 22,650 1868 8,310 1857 19,359 1869 4,619 1858 55,150 1870 11,214 1859 35,213 1871 21,947 1860 23,953 1872 48,199 1861 26,262 1873 31,455 1862 24,626 1874 45,055 1863 18,975 1875 11,403 1864 34,210 1876 18,390 1865 36,112 1877 4,963 1866 18,683 1878 1,308 In the year 1874, when the Cornish ores were in good demand, the following will show the value per ton : — Gravel Hill, Tre- amble, and the Duchy Peru, 15s. 6d. ; Pawton, 16s. ; Ladock, 17s. ; Coldvreath ore, 17s. 6d. ; and Blackhay, 16s. per ton. In the year 1879 the last-named mine was the only one in Cornwall working ; it produced hut 400 tons, of the value of £240, giving an average value of 12s. per ton. In 1880 greater activity ap- pears, the total output amounting to 15,865 tons, of the value of 716 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. d69,845, giving an average of 12s. per-ton. The produce and value of the iron ores raised were as follows in the year 1880 : — No. District or Mine. Character of Ore. Quantities. Value. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Blaokhay Duchy Peru Gravel TTil] . Lanivet Eestormel Euthers Mount . Mount. South Terras . Eetew . Perran Mines . Brown Hematite )j )> Eed Hematite . Spathose Brown Hematite Tons. Cwts. 950 3,238 2,652 810 1,724 17 134 10 269 16 110 3,000 248 2,728 £. s. 570 1,942 16 1,856 8 486 1,120 12 94 2 134 18 55 1,800 148 16 1,636 16 Total f Cornwall . 15,865 3 9,845 8 The principal iron miaes in Cornwall, their situation, with the character of the ore raised, appear in the following tahle : — Iron Mines. Localities. Cliaracter of Ore. Blaokhay . . . . Withiel . . Brown Hematite. Colbiggen Eoche !> >. Coldvreath . . . St. AusteU Constantino . Constantine )) J J Deer Park. . • . Perran Si 99 Duchy Peru . J) Spathose and Hematite. Gravel TTill . . . )> >J )> Granville East Wheal . Camborne 9i )) Kjuightor and Treverbyn St. Austell Brown Hematite. Ladock .... Ladock . 11 11 Lanivet . . . . Lanivet 11 1^ Mount and Trebiskin . Perran Spathose and Hematite. Old Treburgett . . . St. Teath J) ^11 Mills, New . Ladock . Brown Hematite. Pawton . . . . St. Breooks J) 3) Eestinnis St. Blazey 11 11 Eestormel. . . . Lostwithiel 11 J ) Euby and Tregurthy St. Austell 11 11 St. Stephens . . . a South Terras . Grampound )) )) Treamble . . . . Perran Spathose and Hematite. Trebarvah )> . Brown Hematite, TretoU .... " Bodmin 11 11 Distribution of Ore. — The iron ores of Cornwall, in times of commercial activity, are in good demand for the economical CHAP. XX.] CORNWALL IRON INDUSTRIES. 717 production of iron, either when used alone or in admixture with poorer ores. These ores find a market in Mid-England and the Northern iron-maldng districts. The principal shipping ports on the north coast are Padstow, New Quay, Saint Agnes ; and on the south coast, Truro, Fowey, and Charlestown. As far as returns are obtainable the table below gives the quantities shipped in each year since 1859 from the ports named : — PADSTOW. NEW QUAY. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1859 1861 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 8,806 8,209 7,618 9,626 4,350 468 1,256 1,200 933 2,132 6,132 6,486 6,406 2,089 4,605 443 617 75 810 1865 1866 1868 1879 1880 4,000 1,602 2,164 100 5,860 ST. AGNES. Year. Tons. 1865 1866 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 4,400 1,974 526 2,234 2,027 118 196 TEURO. CHARLESTOWN. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1865 1866 1871 1872 1,700 2,637 3,500 7,200 1876 1877 1878 1879 1,779 662 225 152 The Cornwall and South Devon Railway has also distributed some of the Cornish iron ore as follows in each of the years given : — Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1876 1877 2,566 1,725 1878 1879 811 202 718 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES,' [paet ii. And in the year 1880 some 3,277 tons. The quantities given are comparatively unimportant, but they serve generally to show the depressed condition of the iron industries of Cornwall at the present time. On the other hand, Cornwall, whenever the demand may arise, may probably supplement the resources of om* iron- making districts by the development of her ferrugiaous deposits, ■ and expand an important industry in the interest of that western , county. CHAPTEE XXI. IRON INDUSTEIES OF SCOTLAND. Iron Ores of the Coal Measures — Clay Bands and Black Bands — Discovery of Black Baud Iron Ore by Mushet, in 1801 — Analyses and Production of Clay and Black Band and other Iron Ores — Population employed in Iron Mining — Pig Iron Manufacture — Early History, 1750 — Charcoal Iron — Carron Works — Smeaton's blowing machinery — Account of Devon Iron Works, 1782 — Hot Blast, invention by Neilson, 1829 — Extension of Iron Works and their resources — Production of Pig Iron — Works in 1880 — Distribution and average prices of Pig Iron — Exports and Home Copsumption — Malleable Iron Works — Account of Dalziel Steel Works — Production of Malleable Iron and prices — Coal and Iron Ore used in Pig Iron Manufacture — Iron Shipbuilding. Iroustoue of the Coal-fields and Analyses. — The jiiincipal ironstone measures have been already referred to in the several sections given in the coal-fields of Scotland. A brief notice of the black band ironstone, which has so largely contributed to the development of the iron industries of Scotland, will here be interesting. It was originally discovered by Mr, Robert Mushet in the year 1801, at Airdrie, near Glasgow, in Lanarkshire, but it does not appear to have come into general use till about the year 1830. The Possil black bands were discovered in the year 1838, and have an average thickness of 9 inches. Subsequently in the year 1840, black band ironstones were discovered in Ayrshire, giving rise to the important ironworks of Blair and Glengamock ; and some years later it was found extending from Dah-y, in Ayr- shire to Banton, in Stirlingshire, and more recently at Lugar and Dalmellington, in Ayrshire ; at Forth, Lochgelly and Lumphin- nans, in Fifeshire ; at Borrowstoness and Almond in Stirlingshire, and in other places. A very important seam of ironstone was discovered a year or two since, 24 inches thick, on the lands of the Carron Iron Com- pany, near Eastgrange, Culross ; the same seam was long known and worked to the east of the locality above referred to, and a search was instituted for its discovery. Boring operations were carried on for several months, and at a depth of 140 fathoms the 720 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. efforts of tlie borers were rewarded by cutting this valuable seam. It is related that some years previously similar operations were conducted by the Shotts Iron Company on the same estate, the borings being carried to a depth of 100 fathoms, but not meetiug with the seam the company relinquished the lease. Broivn Iron Ore. — Ores of iron occur and are worked in some few localities in various parts of Scotland, but to a very limited €xtent, due in most cases to the remote districts, the want of cheap carriage to the ironworks, and the necessary fuel for their reduction. In Ayrshire, hitherto, hematite has been worked at Muirkirk and at Whytock ; in Haddingtonshire at Garleton, and in Shetland at Sandlodge ; also in the northern counties of Aber- deen and Moray, and in Kirkcudbrightshire at Auchencairn. The great bulk of the hematite employed in the blast furnaces of Scotland is imported from the west coast of Lancashire and Cumberland, from Spain and other foreign countries. The iron ores most generally employed in the furnaces of Scotland are black bands and clay bands, and a certain admixtm'e •of brown iron ores previously referred to. Black band ironstone may be described as a compact, dull, earthy mineral, with frequently a schistose or ribbon structure, varying in colour from deep brown to black. Some varieties contain little but carbonate of iron and carbonaceous or bituminous matter, silica, alumina, lime and manganese entering into their constituents in a very minute proportion. The carbonaceous matter contained in these black bands is generally sufficient to effect their calcination with- out the aid of additional fuel. They are very valuable ores, easily and cheaply calcined in heaps in the open air, the residue yielding from 50 to 70 per cent, of metallic iron. Mushet's black band is thus constituted, as determined by the analysis of Dr. Colquhoun, who devoted considerable attention to the iron ores of Scotland : — Ebsttlts Tabtjlated. Carbonic acid So'll Protoxide of iron 53 '03 Lime 3-33 Magnesia .... .... 1-77 Silica 1-40 Alumina .... .... 0'63 Peroxide of iron .... . . 0"23 Bituminous matter 3'03 Water 1-41 Total 100-00 CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 731 The amount of metallic iron being equivalent to 40 per cent. The -wide variation in the produce of various measures of black band ironstones appear in the annexed table of analyses : — Tabulated Eestiits of Scotch Black Band Ieonstones. Constituents. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Carbonic acid .... 32-71 32-61 22-87 33-08 30-74 30-95 Protoxide of iron . . . 47-31 42-02 32-14 41-65 44-19 45-78 Lime 1-79 3-65 2-82 5-76 2-22 1-79 Magnesia 1-73 3-54 1-08 3-52 0-91 1-30 Silica 1-20 4-40 12-40 0-52 2-12 1-60 Alumina 0-80 2-64 7-06 0-96 0-92 1-28 Protoxide of manganese . 1-67 0-82 1-05 1-93 1-12 Bituminous matter . . . 10-40 9-12 18-60 11-16 16-52 7-85 Phosphoric acid Sulphur 0-59 0-46 0-82 0-84 0-43 0-65 , , 0-22 0-25 0-22 3-28 Iron combined with sulphur . , , ,, 0-19 0-22 0-19 2-87 Water Total . Metallic iron . . . . 1-80 0-74 0-75 2-04 0-61 1-63 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 36-80 32-68 25-19 32-62 34-56 38-47 Yield of calcined ore , , 61-28 58-20 66-41 60-85 Metallic iron in calcined ore . , , , , 41-10 66-04 61-27 63-23 Silica in calcined ore •• •• 20-24 0-90 3-76 2-63 Analyses 3 to 6 were made by Mr. John Saint Day, C.E., who in a paper read at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association in the year 1876, entered very fully into the iron and steel indus- tries of Scotland. Other analyses from Mr. Day's paper, may be summarized as follows, showing the amount of metallic iron con- tained in various black band ironstones, and other results : — ■Black Baud Ieonstones. 1. 2. 3. Slatey Band. 1 Yield of metallic iron . Yield of calcined ore . . Metallic iron in ore SUica in ore . . . 36-36 63-60 57-16 5-41 32-68 62-26 52-50 7-06 36-80 60-48 60-85 1-98 31-54 59-64 52-88 11-94 31-51 52-86 59-61 3-60 Taking the average jaeld of metallic iron, the black band iron- stones of Scotland do not exceed 35 per cent. These ores, when calcined, yield from 50 to 70 per, cent, of metallic iron, the average may be taken as 60 per cent. ; those of other districts vary considerably. The next most important measures of black 3 A 723 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [I'AET II, band in Great Britain are thoise obtained in the North Stafford- shire coal-field ; reduced in the furnace without admixture with other ores. Like the Scotch black bands, they make a very good quality of iron, are extensively raised and calcined, and in this state sent into the South Staffordshire districts, for the most part- wanting in black band ores. The argillaceous or clay band ironstones, like the black bands,, vary considerably. Numerous analyses are available showing the- composition of these ores, the series, however, made by Mr. Day,, in his paper previously referred to, are so complete, that they have been selected for illustration : * — Tabulated Results oe Scotch Clay Band Ieonstosies. Constituents. 1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 6. 7. Protoxide of iron 47-31 39-60 34-98 37-23 32-20 24-90 37-54 Protoxide of manganese trace 1-52 0-82 1-96 1-64 1-22 3-60 Lime . . ... 0-97 1-79 1-66 6-17 6-74 16-65 6-50 Magnesia . ... 0-91 3-96 2-08 4-17 4-08 7-54 0-43 Carbonic acid .... 80-22 30-31 25-46 32-21 29-60 36-61 28-94 Phosphoric acid 0-49 0-64 0-60 0-45 0-60 1-78 1-92 Sulphur trace 0-08 0-11 0-28 0-51 0-31 0-27 Iron combined with sulphur . 0-07 0-10 0-25 0-46 0-27 0-24 Alumina 7-io 7-93 11-66 5-12 6-56 3-27 6-23 SiUca ... 10-12 11-80 17-80 10-44 14-60 6-80 11-20 Bituminous matter . 2-32 1-68 4-17 1-76 2-84 0-73 2-03 Water . Total Metallic iron 0-66 0-76 0-66 0-97 1-19 0-62 1-10 100-00 100-00 100-00 lOO-OO 100-00 100-00 100 00 86-80 30-87 27-30 29-21 25-49 19-63 - 29-41 Yield of calcined ore 72-16 70-39 72-28 67-80 68-63 64-77 70-94 Metallic iron iu ore 51-00 43-84 37-77 43-06 37-19 30-38 41-50 Silica in ore . 14-03 16-77 24-62 16-40 21-30 10-60 16-77 The average yield of metallic iron from the argillaceous ores of Scotland may be regarded as about 30 per cent., and when calcined about 70 per cent., compared with the black bands which, as already stated, give an average of 35 per cent, of metallic iron in the raw state and 60 per cent, when calcined. The hematite obtained at Auchencairn, in Kirkcudbright- shire, is very similar in character to the kidney ore of "White- haven, in Cumberland, and like another variety known as " small kidney ore," obtained in the same locality, yields a high percentage of metallic iron. Analyses of the two varieties by Mr. Robert Mushet, are as follows : — " Iron," 30th September, 1S76. CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 723 Constituents. Large Kidney Ore. Small Kidney Ore. Peroxide of iron Silica Alumina Total . . . 88.00 11-53 0-47 98-43 1-57 trace 100-00 100-00 The small kidney ore may be regarded as a pure peroxide of iron, yielding 68'91 per cent, of metallic ii'on ; the large kidney ore giving 61"60 per cent. In one locaUty at Auchencairn the hematite exhibits two Tarieties of ore, known as " Black Metal Kidney Ore " and " Eed Ore," the former a compact oxide of iron, yielding 55'63 per cent, of metallic iron, the red ore ranging from 44 to 63 per cent., and a mixture of the two varieties giving 61"79 per cent, of metallic iron. The annexed analyses show the composition of both varieties : — Constituents. Black Metal. Black Metal and Red Ore. Peroxide of iron Silica .:.... Alumina Moisture Magnesia Total . . . 79-46 14-07 1-36 5-11 73-98 17-45 1-04 4-31 3-22 100-00 100-00 A detailed analysis of the variety known as " Eed Ore " of Auchencairn gives the following tabulated results : — Analysis of "Eed Oee." Peroxide of iron 63-00 Oxide of manganese 0-72 Lime 1-74 Magnesia ......... 1-33 Carbonic acid 2-42 Phosphoric acid trace Alumina 4-09 Silica 23-20 Water 3-50 To'tal 100-00 3 A 2 724 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. The equivalent of metallic iron in the above peroxide amounts to 44'10 per cent. The hematite occurring at Sandlodge, in Shetland, contains upwards of 70 per cent, of metallic iron and a small percentage of copper. Another variety, known as " Gossan," rich in iron, containing 60 per cent., in addition to 3 per cent, of copper; this last variety is extensively used for purifying gas. Frodnction of Ironstone in Scotland. — The earliest informa- tion on this subject begins with the year 1855, when the Keeper of Mining Eecords for the first time ascertained that the produc- tion of all kinds of ironstone, clay band, black band and hematite raised in Scotland amounted to 2,400,000 tons, the production of Great Britain in the same year amounting to 9,953,741 tons ; it thus appears that in the year referred to, Scotland produced nearly 25 per cent, of all the ironstone and ore raised in the kingdom. Since the year 1855 the ironstone production of Scot- land appears as follows, so far as returns have been received : — Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1855 2,400,000 1868 1,250,000 1856 2,201,250 1869 1,950,000 1857 2,500,000 1870 1,980,000 1858 2,312,000 1871 1,975,000 1859 2,225,000 1872 1,978,000 1860 2,150,000 1873 1,986,000 1861 1,975,000 1874 2,119,771 1862 1,500,000 1875 2,452,235 1863 1,500,000 1876 2,552,553 1864 1,950,000 1877 2,621,852 1865 1,470,000 1878 2,443,923 1866 1,587,000 1879 2,458,407 1867 1,264,800 1880 2,659,317 The reports of H.M. Inspectors acting under " The Coal Mines Eegulation Act," show that in the year 1874 the produc- tion of konstone in Scotland was 2,119,771 tons, compared with 2,659,317 tons in the year 1880 ; of this quantity 1,435,647 tons were black band, and 1,228,670 tons clay band. The annexed statement gives the production of each shire in the eastern district of Scotland in the same years as follows; the western district giving 1,418,698 tons 'and 1,887,274 tons re- spectively : — CHAP. XXI.] lEON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAKD. 735 Counties. 1874. 1880. Eaetern Scotland — Tons. Tons. Clackmannan, Perth, Kin- ) ross and Sutherland. J 7,890 ... Edinhurgh . . . . 39,661 101,619 Fife 59,272 652 Haddington . . . . 8,601 458 Lanark, part of . 342,224 510,342 Linlithgo'w . . . . 238,605 148,423 Stirling, part of . Total . . . 4,820 10,549 701,073 772,043 Western Scotland Total of Scotland . 1,418,698 1,887,274 2,119,771 2,659,317 In the year 1874 the total production of aU kinds of iron ore in the United Kingdom amounted to 14,844,936 tons, the estimated value at the place of production being ^7,313,146 ; ten years previously, in the year 1864, the iron ore raised iii the United Kingdom amounted to 10,064,890 tons, of the value of £3,867,144, -while in the year 1880 the production reached 18,026,049 tons, of the value of £6,585,806. Since the year 1875 the Inspectors' annual reports give the aggregate production in each of the iron ore producing districts of Scotland. The annexed table shows the yield of each district in Scotland, since the year 1875, of all varieties of ironstone and hematite : — Counties. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Ayrshii-e 853,868 860,648 856,129 . 930,121 947,636 1,008,253 Dumbartonshire . 231,885 249,637 284,875 257,515 287,810 290,660 Edinburglishire . 49,469 61,262 . 75,779 57,565 92,891 101,619 Fifeshire . . 36,833 14,274 13,113 19,463 9,827 652 Haddingtonshire . 9,899 6,224 4,340 2,101 550 468 Kiurosshire and Perthshii-e . j 14,264 41,100 31,274 21,559 .. .. Lanarkshii'e 747,406 779,263 803,382 635,272 681,231 757,291 Eeniiewshire . . 170,106 185,678 180,596 173,529 174,118 223,831 Stirlingshire 143,165 162,781 172,673 169,104 108,766 128,230 Linlithgowshire . 188,772 186,460 194,322 170,126 155,086 148,423 Sundries, hematite Total . 8,568 5,226 5,469 7,568 492 5,166 2,454,235 2,552,553 2,621,852 2,443,923 2,458,407 2,664,483 In the three years ending 1880 the separate varieties of ore 726 COAL AND IRON INDUSTKIES. [PAKT ir. raised from the coal and ironstone measures and the hematite deposits of Scotland are separately distinguished, and are as follows : — Year. Clay Band. Black Band. Hematite. ' 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 1,123,772 1,135,247 1,223,670 Tons. 1,312,583 1,322,668 1,435,647 Tons. 7,568 492 5,166 Population employed in Ironstone Kines. — But little infor- mation exists on this subject before the year 1873 ; in that and succeeding years the reports of H.M. Inspectors of Mines give the following as the numbers employed under ground and above ground in the eastern and western Inspection districts of Scotland : — Year. EASTERN DISTRICT. WESTERN DISTRICT. Total Persons Employed. Ironstone Eetmrned. Atove. Below. Above. Below. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Nos. 640 827 788 871 826 702 648 652 Nos. 3,311 4,066 3,885 3,776 3,826 3,123 2,928 2,924 Nos. 1,673 1,757 1,641 1,734 1,631 1,530 1,371 1,582 Nos. 8,029 7,898 7,313 7,364 7,002 7,179 6,704 7,133 Nos. 13,653 14,648 13,627 13,746 13,285 12,534 11,661 12,291 Tons. 1,986,000 2,119,771 2,452,235 2,652,553 2,621,862 2,443,923 2,458,407 2,669,317 These returns show a high state of efficiency, the average work of the miner increasing from 146 tons in 1873 to 185 tons in 1876, and 215 tons in 1880, showing an increase of 48 per cent, in the above period. Pig Iron Manufacture. — The eai'liest information bearing on iron smelting in Scotland dates about the year 1750, in which year the first furnace was erected at Bunawe, in Argyleshire, by a Mr. Ford. In this furnace the blast was impelled by water power obtained from the river Awe, the ore employed being hematite brought from Ulverston, in Lancashire, while for fuel charcoal alonfe was used, with the aid of cold blast. The iron thus manu- factured enjoyed then, as now, a high reputation, and for purposes CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 727 of conversion into crucible steel is quite as reliable as the best Swedish or Russian brands. The Bunawe furnace, now known as the Lome, is still occa- sionally in operation, the proprietors being Messrs. Harrison, Ainslie & Co., who continue to make charcoal pig iron, accord- ing to the supply of chai'coal obtainable. Previous to the year 1788 there appears to have been a similar furnace erected at Goatfield, also in Argyleshire, and it is recorded that the yield of the Bunawe and Goatfield furnaces in 1788 amoimted to 1,400 tons, or 700 tons each furnace. The charcoal iron manufacture in Scotland followed precisely the same conditions as those pre- vailing in other parts of the kingdom ; with the exhaustion of the woods, the use of coal was gradually introduced. The Carron Ironworks, situated on the bank of the Carron river, about two miles from Falkirk, were projected and the first furnace put in blast in the year 1760. The site of Carron was selected on account of the abundant water supply, and the im- mense deposits of coal, ironstone and limestone in the immediate neighbourhood of the village. The name of Dr. John Roebuck is intimately associated with the Carron Works ; he was the prin- cipal proprietor of the works, and a man of considerable scientific attainments, devoting his energy most thoroughly towards the development of the iron industries of Scotland. The Carron Works were erected by the eminent engineer John Smeaton ; it was at these works that the powerful blowing machinery invented by the same engineer was first introduced; the blowing machinery referred to consisted of 4 cylinders, 4 feet 6 inches in diametei-, exactly fitted with pistons, and so contrived that the strokes of the pistons being made alternately produced an almost unin- terrupted blast. The pumps were worked alternately by means of a powerful water wheel, which had 4 cranks upon the axis, each of which moved the piston of a cylinder, through its stroke of 4 feet 6 inches. The great advantages secured by Smeaton's invention enabled the ironmaster to consume the hard dense coke in the furnace ■which the ordinary bellows previously in use was unable to efiect; an increased yield of the furnace was the result : previously it had been from 10 to 12 tons per week, now it rose to 40 tons in the same period, and on the average 1,500 tons of pig iron were made per annum. It was in the immediate neighbourhood of 728 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. Carron that James Watt, in association with Dr. Koehuck, erected his first steam engine, the patent for which was secured in the year 1769. In that year too the first carronade, the invention of General Melville, was cast at Carron Foundry, from which indeed the new form of cannon derived its name ; and the manu- facture of carronades was long the speciality of these ironworks, and it was in a great measure owing to the great extent of this branch of industry during the wars that the proprietors of the works made their large profits. Succeeding the Carron AVorks the next important seat of ii'on manufacture sprang up in Scotland, at Wilsonstown or Cleugh, in the upper ward of Lanarkshire, and near the boimdary of Midlothian. It was here, about the year 1774, that the brothers Wilson — merchants engaged in the Swedish iron trade — com- menced to develop the coal deposits of the district, and soon afterwards established a foundry. This was succeeded about the years 1780 — 1781 by the Messrs. Wilson erecting a blast fur- nace, put in operation in 1781, subsequently the works were greatly extended, and in the year 1787 a second furnace was blown in. In Mr. WiUiam Alton's " General View of the Agriculture of the County of Ayi'," * some interesting facts are gleaned bearing on the iron industries of Scotland, from which it appears that the manufacture of iron was carried on for some time, by Lord Cathcart and others at Muirkirk in the early part of the previous century. It was made from the ore dug there, and sent to Bunawe, in the county of Argyle, to be reduced into pig iron, which was afterwards brought to the works at Muirkirk, near Glasgow, where it was made into bar iron, in the last operation charred peat being used. These operations were found, however, to be too expensive, and the work was abandoned. It is further stated by Alton that in the year 1787 some gentle- men in Glasgow entered into a co-partnery and erected some very extensive ironworks in that parish, which were stiU carried on in Alton's time by another company. The works at that time con- sisted of three blast furnaces for making pig iron, with a foundry and other accessory works, the number of hands employed ia the above works at that time being from 300 to 400; while the * Published in the year 1811. CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 720 mineral-field of the Muirkirk Company, at the time referred to, exceeded 2,000 acres of coal and ironstone. In the year 1788, the Wilsonstown or Cleugh furnaces, two in number, produced 1,600 tons of coke pig iron, and the four fur- naces at the Carron Works, 4,000 tons, amounting to 5,600 tons of coke pig iron in Scotland in 1788. The total production of charcoal pig iron iu Great Britain the same year was 14,500 tons, and of coke pig iron, 53,800 tons, or a total make of pig iron of 68,300 tons.* Scotland at this time produced 10 per cent, of the above quantity, the average yield of her blast furnaces being 875 tons, compared with 796 tons, the yield of the furnaces of England and Wales. The Muirkirk Works and those at Omoa, in Lanarkshire, commenced operations in the year 1788 ; the last named was dismantled a few years since. The former still exists. The Clyde Ironworks, near Glasgow, projected about the same year by Messrs. Edington and Co., commenced operations a few years later. These latter works have been rendered famous by being asso- ciated with two names celebrated in the history of the metallurgi- cal industries of Great Britain. The one, Mr. David Mushet, the other, Mr. James Beaumont Neilson. The first named entered these works as accountant in the year 1792, when he was nineteen years of age and remaiued till the year 1800. In the following year, whUe engaged in the projection of the Calder Ironworks iu association with Mr. William Dixon, senior, of Govan, Mushet made the discovery of the black band ironstone, which in subsequent years exercised such an important influence in the prosperity of Scotland in her iron and other industries. The last return quoted was for the year 1788 ; not again until the year 1796, when Dr. McNab's return, prepared for a Committee of the House of Commons, appears, does any reliable information throw light on the progress of this industry. The following details fi:om Dr. McNab's return show the respective works iu operation in Scotland, with the number of furnaces and the make of pig iron : side by side is given the average yield per furnace. Of the 16,086 tons of pig iron it will be observed that 900 tons was charcoal pig, the yield of the Bunawe and Goatfield furnaces. * For details of this return, see Appendix II., p. 830. 730 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. No. Name of Works. No. of Furnaces. Make of Pig Iron. Average per Furnace. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 Carron .... Wilsonstown or Cleugh. Muirkirk .... Clyde Omoa .... Devon Goatfield (charcoal) Bunawe ,, . . 4 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 Tons. 5,616 2,080 2,878 2,216 1,198 1,198 300 600 Tons. 1,404 1,040 1,489 738 599 599 300 600 Total . 17 16,086 In the same year the total number of furnaces in operation in Oreat Britain,* was 124, producing 125,079 tons of pig iron, showing an average yield per furnace of upwards of 1,000 tons. Towards the close of the past century, about the year 1782, the Devon Ironworks, in Clackmannanshire, were erected, singular alike in situation and construction. Sir John Sinclair, who describes them, says : t " They merit the attention of the curious in mechanics and architecture. A steep bank rises more than '90 feet from the level of the river, and is composed of a rock, or very thick stratum of limestone, very dry and uniform in its texture, and almost free from cracks and fissiu'ss. Instead of the usual method of building with stone and lime, the several parts of the works have been formed in this bank by excavations made in the rock. Two furnaces, which are each 40 feet high and 14 feet in diameter, and also the spacious arches which give access to the workmen at the bottom of the furnace, to draw off the liquid metal and slag, are cut out of the rock. The roof which covers the casting house, a room 70 feet long, 50 feet wide, and 23 feet high, is supported by the sides of the quarry, and the solid pillars of the rock that were left for the purpose in making the excavation. In hke manner is formed the engine house and its apparatus, which is intended to supply the two furnaces with wind, by throwing at each vibration of the engine a sufficient quantity of air out of a large cylinder into a long gallery or close mine formed in the rock. This magazine of wind will contain 10,000 cubic feet of air, much condensed by the power of the engine, as the gallery is very closely shut up and made air-tight, * For details see Appendix II., p. 831. + " Statistical Account of Scotland," 1792. CHAP. XXI.] IKON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 731 having only two apertures, one to receive the supply of air from the air-pump and the other to admit a pipe that conducts the condensed air to blow the two furnaces." These works continued in operation for many years, but were stopped about the year 1858, and soon after dismantled. Eesuming inquiries with the present century it appears, as previously stated, that the Calder Ironworks commenced opera- tions in the year 1801. These works take a prominent position in the history of the iron trades of Scotland, from the circumstance that it was here that the black band ironstone discovered by Mushet was first used as an ore of iron. The Shotts Ironworks were projected in the year 1802, under the able management of Mr. John Baird, of the Canal Basin Foundry, Glasgow, who continued to be the managing partner of the concern for upwards of 40 years. At these works in recent years Bessemer pig iron has been produced from hematite ore and with the use of raw coal. Continuing the returns of production, the year 1806 comes next in order, when the following works and furnaces produced iron in the quantities given, to which is added the average yield per furnace : — County. Name of Works. FURNACES. Pig Iron Made. Average per Furnace. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Stirlingshire Carron 6 5 7,380 1,476 Xjaiiaxksliire . Calder . . . 2 1 1,077 1,077 Clyde . 3 2 2,687 1,343 Glenbuok . . 1 1 700 790 Omoa . 3 2 1,852 926 " Shotts . . . 1 1 2,034 2,034 Wilsonstown 2 1 1,381 1,381 Fifeshire . . Markinch . . 2 Ayrshire Muirkirk . 3 2 3,043 1,521 Clackmannan . . Devon . . . 2 2 2,596 1,298 Argyle Goatfield . 2 ... ... ,, . . . Bunawe . . . Total 1 ... 27 17 22,840 Comparing the above returns with those of the year 1796, it ■will be seen that considerable advance had been made in the yield of pig iron, to the extent of upwards of 40 per cent. The 732 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [PABT II. average make per furnace being 1,270 tons, compared with 946 tons in the year 1796, equal to an increase of 12 per cent. The make of pig iron in Great Britain in 1806, when of the 216 furnaces built 161 were in blast, was 243,851 tons. During the first quarter of the present century there is but little to record, either in the way of greatly increased produc- tion of pig iron in Scotland or in the extension of the then existing ironworks ; not until the year 1825 does it appear any new works were established. The Monkland Iron Company led the way, about this period jiutting their first furnace in blast, adding a second to their works about the year 1828 or 1829. The works at Gartsherrie followed about the year 1830, when the first furnace was blown in ; these works, situated at Coatbridge, near Glasgow, and projected by the Messrs. Baird and Company, are the most extensive at the present time in Lanarkshire, possessing 16 blast furnaces ; the only other iron company in Scotland possessing greater resources of production is that of the Eghnton Company in Ayrshire, with 21 furnaces. As previously stated the production of pig iron in Scotland in the year 1806 was 22,840 tons ; advancing to the year 1823, it appears the production did not exceed 24,500 ton^, the yield of 22 furnaces, of which the following is an account, showing the works, furnaces blowing, firms engaged in manufacture, and yield of individual works : — County. Name of Works. Name of Firm. No. of Fximaces. Pig Iron Made. Stirling Lanark . s» Ayr . Claokmannar I Carron . Calder . Clyde . Omoa Sliotts_ . Muirkirk . Devon . Carron Iron Co. WiUiam Dixon . Dunlop & Co. . Dalrymple & Co. Shotts Iron Co. Muirkirk Iron Co. Devon Iron Co. 5 3 3 2 1 3 3 Tons. 7,000 4,000 2,500 2,500 2,000 3,500 3,000 Total . 20 24,500 We now advance to the period when the successful experiments of Mr. James Beaumont Neilson resulted in the appKcation of the hot blast, inaugurating a new era in the history of the iron trade and leading to greatly increased production. Neilson, to CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 733 whom we are indebted for this important invention, was educated as an engineer, and in the year 1817, at the age of 25 years, was appointed foreman to the Glasgow Gas Light Company; the great experience acquired by him in this capacity led to his being consulted by ironmasters, which gave him opportunities of gaining a great insight into the operations connected with blast furnace management. At an early period he was consulted by Mr. Dixon of the Wilsonstown Works and by the Muirkirk Iron Compi^y, but it was at the Clyde Ironworks that his experiments were successfully carried out, the then proprietor being Mi-. Colin Dunlop ; eventually Neilson secured his invention by patent in the year 1828, which is entitled " Improved application of Air to produce Heat in Fires, Forges, and Furnaces." The discovery of the superior power of a hot over a cold blast in fusing refractoiy lumps of cast-iron was accidentally observed by Neilson while in the service, as previously stated, of the Glasgow Gas Light Com- pany.. No particular description of apparatus was given by the inventor by which the air was to be heated and conveyed to the furnace, but it was merely stated that the air may be heated in a chamber or closed vessel, having a fire under it, or in a vessel connected in any convenient manner with the forge or furnace. Dr. Percy,* referring to this important invention, says : " The advantages, however, of the hot blast with respect to the economy of fuel were so soon recognised by the Scotch ironmasters, that in the year 1835 it was in operation at every ironworks in Scot- land except one, and there it was in process of introduction." Another important invention, perfected about the year 1830, by Mr. Condie, manager of the Wilsonstown Ironworks, was the Water- Tuyere, now so generally employed, and which owes its great utility to the spirally disposed malleable iron tube contained within a mass of cast-iron. It was at the same works in the year 1808, that the Water-Tuyere was brought into use to supersede the dry-tuyere, but it was not till the year 1880, as already stated, that Mr. Condie devised and perfected the present arrangement. It was also at the Wilsonstown works that the possibility of using i-aw coal in the blast furnace was first solved, dating an eventful period in the history of pig iron manufacture. The next return of pig iron production is for the year 1830, when Scotland had 24 furnaces in operation out of 27 then bmlt, « « Metallurgy," Iron and Steel, p. 395. 734 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET ir. the yield of pig iron amounting to 37,500 tons. The details of which will be seen in the following abstract, giving also the average make per furnace : — County. Name of Works. No. of Fm-naces. Pig Iron Made. Average per Furnace. Stirling . Lanark . . )) a Si J) Ayr . Clackmannan . Carron Oalder . Clyde . Monkland Shotts . Wilsonstown* Muirkirk Devon . 5 4 4 2 1 2 3 3 Tons. 7,000 9,000 8,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 4,000 3,500 Tons. 1,400 2,250 2,000 1,000 2,000 1,000 1,333 1,166 Total 24 37,500 Comparing the production of Scotland in the year 1830 with that of the year 1823, it will be seen that the increase is 53 per cent. ; the average yield of the furnaces increasing from 1,225' tons in the year 1823 to 1,480 tons in the year 1830. It may be interesting, while considering the state of the ironi industries of Scotland in the years 1823 and 1830, to note the production of the iron works in the other districts of England and Wales ; to enable comparison to be made, the returns of Great Britain are appended in the annexed abstract : — 1823. 1830. Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Nos. Tons. Nos. Tons. Durham and Northum- ) berland . . . ) 2 2,379 4 5,327 Yorkshire 26 27,311 27 28,926 Derbyshire . . . 15 14,038 18 17,999 Shropshire 38 57,923 48 73,418 Staffordshire . . . 84 133,590 123 211,604 South Wales . 72 182,325 113 277,643 North Wales . . . 7 13,100 12 25,000 Scotland Total . . . 22 24,500 27 37,600 266 455,166 372 677,417 The above totals show an increase in the production of the furnaces in the seven years between 1823 and 1830 of 48 per cent. * These works ceased operations in the year 1842. CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 735 The hot blast is so important, contributing as it did to the ironmaster's powers of increasing the blast furnace yield, that a few facts connected with its early history will possess some inte- rest to the general reader. Previous to the introduction of Neilson's invention, coke was- largely employed in the blast furnace, now the hot blast enabled the ironmaster to employ raw coal ; the saving thereby effected amounted to no less than 5 tons to each ton of pig iron made, and these advantages, taken in connection with Mushet's dis- covery of the black band ironstone, a furnace working hot blast and making 60 tons of iron per week, had its production raised to from 80 and 90 tons ; and it is recorded that at the Calder and Wilsonstown Ironworks Neilson's invention was early put to the test, and such material aid was rendered by Mr. WiUiam Dixon, and his manager, Mr. Condie, in working and developing the merits of the invention, that the proprietors of the patent rights granted the use of the patent for several of the Calder furnaces without exacting the usual royalty charges. From this period forward each year witnessed an increase to- the resources of existing works, and the accession of many new ones ; thus in the year 1833 the works at Dundyvan were pro- jected by Mr.' John Wilson, followed in the year 1836 by the Coltness Company, and the Summerlee Works in the year 1887 by Messrs. Wilsons and Co., the Carnbroe Works, in Lanark- shire, by Messrs. Allison and Co. in the year 1838, and the Langloan Works, also in Lanarkshire, near Coatbridge, by the Messrs. Addie and Co., in the year 1841. The other works pro- jected'about this period were those of Castle Hill, near Wishaw, by the Shotts Iron Company, and Govan, near Glasgow, by Mr. William Dixon, Glengarnock, in Ayrshire, near Kilbirnie, now owned by William Dixon, Limited. These works were originally intended to consist of eight blast furnaces, but up to the present time five only have been erected ; of these, two have been raised considerably in height, and provision made for taking off the gas. This establishment also possesses extensive malleable iron works, capable of producing 400 tons per week of plates, bars, and rods. Advancing to the year 1843, a period of great depression in the iron industries of Great Britain, we find the following statement, showing the weekly make of the ironworks of Scotland, together with the number of furnaces buUt and in blast in that year : — 786 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT 11. FUBNACES. Weekly Make. Built. In Blast. Stirling Lanark it >» n j> J) j» 3J * Ayr . J» a )» )» Clackman- nan . Carron . Calder . Clyde . Coltness . Dundyvan Castle Hill Cambroe . Gartsherrio Govan Langloan Monkland Summerleo Shotts . Wilsonstown Omoa Glengamock Muirkirk Blair Cessnock Henschell Garscube . Devon . Carron Iron Co. William Dixon . C. Dunlop & Co. Coltness Iron Co. John Wilson Shotts Iron Co. AUison & Co. . William Baird & Co Messrs. Dixon Addie & Co. Monkland Iron Co Wilsons & Co. Shotts Iron Co. . E. Stewart . Allison & Co. . Muirkirk Iron Co. Blair Ii-on Co. . Cessnock Iron Co. Henschell Iron Co. Galloway & Co. Devon Iron Co. . Nos. 5 8 6 4 9 2 6 16 5 3 5 6 4 2 2 3 4 3 2 2 2 4 Nos. 3 6 3 3 7 4 11 5 3 5 3 2 1 3 2 1 Tons. 200 600 250 240 750 500 1,200 500 400 500 270 160 "so 300 180 ... "90 Total . 103 62 6,220 In computing the annual production of pig iron in Scotland from tlie above weekly make, and taking 50 weeks for the year, ■we have an annual yield of 311,000 tons. Comparing this quantity "with the make in the year 1839, when of the 60 furnaces then •erected in Scotland, 54 were in blast, yielding 196,666 tons of ■pig iron, the returns exhibit an increase between the years 1839 rand 1843 of no less than 114,440 tons, equal to nearly 60 per ■cent. As previously stated, the iron industries of the kingdom were •passing through a period of great depression, which continued -from about the year 1840 until the year 1844, when the extension -of the railway system gave rise to a great demand for all kinds of iron, and brought about more prosperous times for the iron trade. About the period referred to the quotations for iron were very low and to the ironmaster comparatively unremunerative. It was about this period that the patent of Neilson of the hot blast expired, and this circumstance leji to the foundation of many new CHAP. XXI. ] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 737 and extensive ironworks in Scotland, and to the extension of existing works. Among these may be mentioned those of Messrs. Merry and Cunninghame, of Ardeer and Glengarnock, the works at Eglinton, Lugar, and Portland, of the Eglinton Iron Com- pany, and the works of the DalmeUington Company, all in Ayrshire. In Lanarkshire, the works of Mr. William Dixon, at Govan, and of the Shotts Iron Company, at Castlehill, were ex- tended ; while in Linlithgow, the works at Kinneil were founded by Mr. J. Wilson. In the year 1843 the production of pig iron in Great Britain amounted to 1,215,350 tons ; in 1848 it rose to 1,998,568 tons, the yield of the Scotch furnaces during the same period increasing from 311,000 tons in the year 1843, to 534,000 tons, an estimated return in the year 1848. The following is a list of the works and furnaces built and in operation in Scotland in the year 1848, together with the production of pig iron : — rURNACES. Pig Iron Made. Built. In Blast. Stirling . Lanark )> ■>> 1) Ayr . it j» )> ' Clackmannan Fife . Linlithgow . Carron . Calder Carnbroe Clyde . Coltness . CastleMll . Dundyvan Q-artsherrie Q-ovan . Langloan . Monkland Omoa Shotts . Summerlee Blair Garscube . Qlengarnook Muirkirk . Bglinton Lugar Devon . Forth IKinniel . Nos. 4 8 6 7 6 3 9 16 6 6 9 4 4 6 5 2 7 4 3 4 1 6 4 Nos. 3 3 3 5 4 2 8 16 4 5 9 4 3 5 6 1 4 4. Tons. 18,000 18,000 18,000 30,000 24,000 12,000 48,000 96,000 24,000 30,000 54,000 24,000 18,000 30,000 36,000 6,000 24,000 24,000 Total 130 89 534,000 3 B 738 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT ir. From the above return it appears that the production of Scot- land is set down at 534,000 tons ; in another retulTi for the same year, the yield is stated to have been 539,962 tons.* The sub- joined table shows the production in Great Britain in the same year :— FURNACES. Pig Iron Made. In. Out. Total. Northumberland . Torkshire . Derbyshire . Shropshire Staffordshire, North Staffordshire, South . Wales, North Wales, South . Scotland Nos. 24 23 20 28 16 77 5 151 89 Nos. 12 5 10 6 3 62 6 45 41 Nos. 36 28 30 34 19 139 11 196 130 Tons. 99,840 66,660 95,160 88,400 65,520 320,320 16,120 706,680 539,968 Total . 433 190 623 1,998,568 From the year 1848, to which the above return refers, great activity set in, not only in Scotland but in many iron districts of England and Wales. In Fifeshire works were founded at Loch- gelly and Lumphinnans, the last-named by Messrs. A. Christie and Co., and in Linlithgowshire, the Bridgeness and Almond Works, by Mr. Henry CadeU and Messrs. Russell and Sons. The other works in Lanarkshire erected in recent years are those at Calder Bank and Chapel Hill, near Airdrie, the property of the Monkland Iron and Coal Company, Limited, consisting of nine blast furnaces ; the Quarter Works, near Hamilton, with five furnaces, belonging to Messrs. Colin Dunlop and Co. ; and the Wishaw Works of the Glasgow Iron Company, with three furnaces. Following the production of pig iron in Scotland since the year 1850, the most complete information is available, showing the number of furnaces built and in blast, together with the produc- tion of pig iron ; side by side is given, for comparison, the pro- duction of the North Eiding of Yorkshire, or Cleveland district, and that of Lancashire in each of the same years : — " Report on the State of the Population in the Mining Districts," 1848, p. 27. CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 739 Year. Scotland. Cleveland. Lancashire. FURNACBS. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1850 105 595,000 ... 1852 ... 113 775,000 1854 156 118 770,000 1856 141 127 832,000 179,400 1858 177 132 945,000 189,320 2,840 1860 175 131 1,000,000 248,665 81,250 1862 171 125 1,080,000 283,398 138,563 1863 169 134 1,160,000 315,197 164,110 1864 170 131 1,160,000 409,106 195,460 1865 180 141 1,163,478 486,421 204,925 1866 165 99 994,000 546,091 268,680 1867 167 112 1,031,000 640,892 318,801 1868 147 103 1,068,000 699,494 325,367 1869 165 132 1,150,000 766,410 436,662 1870 156 123 1,206,000 916,970 422,728 1871 155 127 1,169,000 1,029,885 520,359 1872 154 130 1,090,000 1,122,114 524,041 1873 156 126 993,000 1,156,431 529,271 1874 157 121 806,000 1,158,471 488,672 1875 159 116 1,050,000 1,240,243 658,780 1876 157 116 1,103,000 1,261,013 552,984 1877 152 109 982,000 1,374,582 624,189 1878 152 94 902,000 1,358,442 616,256 1879 157 96} 932,000 1,210,091 631,343 1880 149 112 1,049,000 1,666,156 738,023 In the year 1854, of the 770,000 tons of pig iron produced in Scotland, Ayrshire contributed 249,600 tons ; the Lanarkshire furnaces, 468,000 tons, and the remaining districts, 52,400 tons. In later years, the iron-making districts contributed in the follow- ing proportion : — Districts. make of pig iron. 1S"4. 1S76. isrs. 1S79. ISSO. Lancaslm-e . Ayrshire . Fifeshire .... Linlithgowshire . . StirLingshii-e Total . . . Tons. 501,000 240,000 14,000 1 35,000 16,000 ) Tons. 680,076 360,924 62,000 Tons. 604,280 256,377 1 41,343 Tons. 625,634 276,552 1 -29,814 Tons. 670,085 345,729 33,186 806,000 1,103,000 902,000 932,000 1,049,000 The average annual yield of the Scotch blast furnaces in the 3 B 2 740 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. year 1850, was 5,700 tons, increased in the year 1860 to 7,630 tons, 9,800 tons in the year 1870, and 9,366 tons in 1880. The annexed is a complete list of the works, owners, furnaces built and in blast in Scotland in the year 1880 : — Name of Works. Built. In Blast. Ayrshire — Ardeer, Stevenston Glengamock, Kilbimie . Eglinton, Glasgow Lugar, ,, Muirkii-k, „ Portland, „ . . Dalmelliigton, Glasgow Lanarlcshlre — Calder . Govan, Glasgow Cambroe, Coatbridge CastleMll Shotts Clyde . Quarter, Hamilton Coltness Gartshenie, Coatbridge Langloan, „ Calder Bank, Airdi'ie Chapelhill, ,, Summerlee . Wishaw . Fifeshire — Xiocbgelly . . . . Lumphinnans, Locligelly Linlithgowsh ire — • Kinniel, Boness Eridgeness, ,, Almond, Causewayend Stirlingshire — Carrou, Falkirk Argyleshire- Lorn MeiTy and Cunninghame, Lim. Eglinton Iron Co. Dalmellington Iron Co. Total of Ayrsliire . WiUiam Dixon, Limited 11 11 ' • Meny and Cunninghame, Lim. Shotts Iron Co. James Dunlop & Co. . Colin Dunlop & Co. Coltness Iron Co. William Baird & Co. . Eobert Addie & Sons . Monkland Iron and Coal Co., Lim, 11 11 11 Summerlee Iron Co. Glasgow Iron Co. Total of Lanarkshire Lochgelly Iron and Coal Co., Lim. A. Christie & Co. Total of Fifeshu-e . George WUson & Co. Henry Cadell James Eussell & Sons . Total of Linlithgowshire Carron Iron Co. . Harrison, Ainslie, & Co., Total of Fifeshire, Linlith- gowshire, Stirlingshu'e, and Argyleshu-e Total of Scotland . Nos. 5 9 7 5 3 6 43 6 5 6 3 5 5 5 12 14 7 6 3 8 3 18 Nos. 3 32i 4 S 3 3 5 5 5 10 12 7 5 3 76 149 112^ CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 741 Sistriliutioii of Scotclx Fig Iron and Prices. — The ironworks of Scotland are most favourably situated for the distribution of the products of her iron furnaces, possessing at easy distances two coasts, with numerous shipping ports and ample railway and canal communication ; they are also close to the rivers Clyde and Forth, both navigable for the greater part of their course. The exports of pig iron in 1830, when the total production of Scotland did not exceed 37,500 tons, varied from 8,000 to 9,000 tons. In 1845, out of a production of 500,000 tons, the exports were only 56,761 tons, about one-tenth and less in proportion than in the year 1830. Between the years 1840 and 1845, a great impetus was given to the iron trade by the extension of the railway system of the United Kingdom, the home consumption absorbing the additional production. The increased number of works and more active competition existing at this period, coupled with a now more restricted home market, led to a first fall in prices, which set in about the year 1841, and continued till the year 1853. In the following table appears the average prices of pig iron in Scot- land from 1830 to 1862 ; the prices since that date are given on page 747 :— Year. Average Price. Y.'ar. Average Price. i: s. ((. £ i. d. 1830 6 1848 2 4 5 1831 4 10 1849 2 6 1 1832 4 10 1850 2 4 5 1833 4 1851 2 3 1834 4 5 1852 2 5 4 1835 4 10 1853 3 16 1836 6 Id 1854 3 19 9 1837 4 10 1855 3 10 9 1838 4 1856 3 12 6 1839 4 10 1857 3 9 2 1840 3 15 1858 2 14 5 1841 3 1859 2 11 11 1842 2 10 1860 2 13 9 1843 2 16 1861 2 9 3 1844 2 14 9 1862 2 13 Previously, in the, year 1810, the average price of Scotch pig iton per ton was £9 5s. ; in 1815 it receded to £7 15s. per ton, and in 1820 to £7, rising again in 1825 to =911 per ton. Since the year 1845 the distribution of Scotch pig iron to foreign countries and coastwise to other ports in the United Kingdom has gone on increasing. In the following table appear 743 COAL AND IKON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. the quantities under each of the above heads, also the stocks of pig iron in warehouses at the end of each year : — EXPORTED. Total. Stocks. Year. Foreign. Coastwise. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1845 56,671 ... 240,000 1846 119,107 192,893 312,000 144,000 1847 143,460 227,005 370,465 89,000 1848 162,114 227,870 389,984 90,000 1849 153,200 221,943 375,143 196,000 1850 134,710 189,490 324,200 200,000 1851 192,610 260,090 452,700 300,000 1852 224,370 210,530 434,900 360,000 1853 318,020 316,980 635,000 450,000 1854 283,903 301,097 585,000 216,000 1855 243,108 295,000 538,108 132,000 1856 258,589 245,000 503,589 130,000 1857 294,232 233,768 528,000 90,000 1858 274,000 280,000 554,000 196,000 1859 254,245 312,755 567,000 350,000 1860 255,628 321,372 577,000 390,000 In the year 1845 — 46 a new era opened out for the products of the fecotch blast furnaces, the markets of France, Germany and the United States contributing to the greatly increased exports apparent in those years. In 1848, in Scotland as elsewhere, industrial and commercial affairs were more or less affected by the disturbed state of affairs prevaiUng in Europe. Following the course of events at this period a more encourag- ing state of trade appears in the years 1852 — 53, when prices ruled higher, the demand at home and abroad increasing. This condition was however of short duration, inasmuch as the crisis then taking place in America and the condition of affairs in Europe materially checked the prosperity which had set in about this time in the iron and other industries of the country. It would give an inadequate idea of the condition of the Scotch iron trade at this eventful period, did we omit the statistics beariug on the local consumption of pig kon in Scotland; we therefore give the following table, distinguishing the quantity of pig iron employed in the foundry, from that used in the malleable ironworks for conversion into the various forms of iron appHcable to the construction of iron vessels, bridges, and machinery, be- CHAP. XXI.] lEON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 743 tween the years 1846 and 1860, increasing from 280,000 tons in the first to 355,000 tons in the last-named year : — Year. Fotmiries. Malleable Iron Works. Total Homo Consumption. Tons. Tons. Tons. • 1846 200,000 80,000 280,000 1849 221,000 1850 ... 225,000 1851 • •> ... 250,000 1852 250,000 1853 125,000 180,000 305,000 1854 116,000 170,000 286,000 1855 125,000 175,000 300,000 1856 133,000 203,000 336,000 1857 155,000 160,000 315,000 1858 146,000 132,000 278,000 1859 190,000 150,000 340,000 1860 200,000 155,000 355,000 "With regard to the distribution of Scotch pig iron, it will be sufficient to give the quantities, under the several heads, for the following years ; these, although indicating a marked increase, also exhibit considerable fluctuation, but not more than might be expected from the variable conditions to which the iron trade has been subject during the years given : — Year. Bail to England. EXPORTED. HOME CONSUMPTION. Foreign. Coastwise. Foundiies. Malleable Iron Works. 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 22,200 21,911 35,174 54,027 74,372 81,089 50,093 73,491 70,058 59,937 38,472 23,482 29,952 Tons. 324,018 388,639 388,842 512,479 616,933 398,850 296,803 368,453 303,752 274,409 233,908 340,385 440,200 Tons. 238,922 240,450 230,984 303,494 224,695 214,061 166,104 174,056 166,190 170,654 161,620 200,133 200,848 Tons. 208,000 240,000 298,000 275,000 270,000 230,000 193,000 205,000 195,000 175,000 153,500 155,045 189,000 Tons. 179,800 207,000 208,000 190,000 200,000 143,000 124,000 155,000 175,000 160,000 140,500 146,955 195,000 SEalleaUe Ironworks, Mills and Forges. — Many of these works are some of the most extensive in the kingdom, possessing the necessary appliances for manufacturing the heaviest descrip- 744 COAL AND lEON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. tion of ironwork; consisting of crank shafts, propeller shafts, stern posts, rudder posts, &c., and possessing in addition rolling mills and steam hammers for manipulating large masses of malle- able iron, besides lathes of various kinds for reducing the forgings to a more or less finished condition. The Lancefield Works, near Glasgow, possess great resources. It was at this forge that aU the great forgings for the Great Eastern were made, the propeller shaft of which was 47 feet in length and weighed 35 tons ; the crank shaft, 31 tons, and the stern frame, 25 tons. These works also have puddling, scrap, and forge furnaces, rolling mills, and steam hammers of various sizes, the hammer-head of the largest exceeding 7 tons in weight. Another extensive establishment at Parkhead contains the necessary appliances for the heaviest forgings, as well as for ship and boiler plates and other varieties of finished iron. It was at Parkhead that the heavy double crank shaft of the Monarch, weighing upwards of 30 tons, was forged. These works possess 46 puddling furnaces and 3 roUing mills, are furnished with 14 steam hammers, the heads varying in weight, the heaviest exceeding 7 tons. The puddling furnaces each make on an average 6 charges of 4 cwt. each per day of 10 hours, the charges producing about 20 cwt. of puddled bars. The puddled bars are shingled with 25-ton hammers, and are rolled down in a pair of 24-inch grooved and collared rolls, which keep the bars to an uniform width. These roUs are de- scribed as worked by a pair of horizontal engines, with cylinders 30 inches in diameter and 60 inches stroke, at the rate of 40 revolutions per minute, and worked by steam with 45 lb. pres- sure ; the crank shaft of the engine makes 30 revolutions per minute. The same engines drive the other rolling mills. The mill bars are used for piling and forging, or they are piled and rolled for the production of plates ; the best qualities of plate are piled and rolled a second time, and then reheated and finished, each successive reheating consuming from 10 to 18 cwt. of coal per ton of iron, the loss of material in the operation being about 5 per cent. The works of the Glasgow Iron Company, at St. Eollox and Motherwell are large establishments, with an aggregate of 87 puddling furnaces and 12 rolling mills, besides reheating furnaces, &c. The Saint Eollox Works is capable of producing from 100 to 200 tons per week, of hoops, bars, nails, rods and small CHAP. XXI.] IKON INDUSTEIES OF SCOTLAND. 745 merchant iron. The works at Motherwell are capable of pro- ducing from 500 to 600 tons per week, of hoops, nails, rods, iron sheets, plates, rails, &c. These works were amongst the first in Scotland in which the regenerative furnaces of Dr. Siemens were employed. The Glasgow Ironworks, belonging to the same company, were estabhshed about the year 1845, and are capable of producing from 300 to 400 tons of finished iron per week. The annexed table gives the names of the malleable ironworks in Scotland, the owners, the numbers of puddling furnaces and rolling mOls, according to the last published return : — Scotland. No. Name of Works. Name of Firm. Nearest Port or liailway Station. No. of Paddling Furnaces. No. of Rolling MiUs. 1 Blodthairn, St. ) EoUox . j Ilannay & Sons . Glasgow . 2 Clifton . John Wylio & Co. Coatbridge . . 20 2 3 Clydesdale . Clydesdale Iron Co. . )> 4 Coats Thomas Jackson . . . . 6 Coatbridge Hugh Martin & Sons • ■ ■7 2 6 Crown William Tudhope . .1 12 2 7 DalzeU . David ColviUe . Motherwell . 19 •2 8 Drumpeller Henderson and Dimuiock Coatbridge 18 » Globe . A. and T. Miller i> • ■ (i 1 10 Glasgow . Glasgow Iron Co Glasgow . 37 4 11 Motherwell . >j 60 S 12 Milnwood . John Alton & Co . . . Holytown 6 2 13 Govan . William Dixon .... Glasgow 14 Calder Bank Monkland Iron and Cual Co. . >i 413 e' 15 Mossend Mossend Iron Co. . . Holytown . 16 North British Thomas Ellis . Coatbridge Parkhead . . SO 4 17 Parkhead. W. and J. Beardmore 9 4 18 Phoenix . ^ John Spencer . Coatbridge 19 3 19 Eoclisollouli . RochsoUoch Iron Co. . Glasgow . 11 2 20 Muirkirk . Eglinton Iron Co. ,. - . 9 2 21 Exeelsior Total of Scotland John WiUiams & Co. Wishaw 30 4 329 61 For the manufacture of steel the Atlas Bessemer Steel Works of the Glasgow Company possess two converters, each of a capacity of 3 tons. The Steel Company of Scotland and the Moss End Iron Company, Holytown, being manufacturers of steel by the Open- hearth Steel Meltiag process. An important addition to the steel industries of Scotland is recently announced in the opening of the Dalziel Steel Works, Motherwell. These extensive works, belonging to the firm of Mr. David ColviUe, have been in course of construction dui'ing the past twelve months, and commenced the manufacture of steel in February last. The works comprise 82 Siemens' gas producers, with large wrought-iron overhead conducting tubes for the gas. 746 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ir. One main leads to the melting department and another to the re-heating furnaces of the mill department. The melting shop contains four 12-ton Siemens' steel melting furnaces, capable of pro- ducing 500 tons of steel ingots weekly, and one accessory combined sand and manganese furnace. The ingots are handed over to the mill department by two steam cranes, capable of lifting 6 and 10 tons respectively. The ingots are then re-heated in two large gas furnaces and reduced from 14 inches thick to slabs of 4 or 5 inches in thickness by a powerful steam hammer, the cylinder of which is 33 inches in diameter, with an 8-foot stroke. The anvil consists of a huge iron casting weighing about 140 tons, mounted by a smaller one, with a steel face, in all weighing over 150 tons. The weight of the tap, piston and rod is 12 tons, and with a v/orking steam pressure of 80 lbs. per square inch, the hammer is capable of giving a blow considerably over 400 foot tons. The slabs thus consolidated are cut into sizes suited for the plates required, are again re-heated in other three large Siemens' gas furnaces, and then again passed through the plate mill. In a central position of the mill floor are placed a pair of powerful Eamsbottom reversing mill engines, the cylinders of which are 40 inches in diameter, stroke 4 feet 6 inches, and worked with 80 lbs. of steam. The engines are fitted with the AUan link motion, and are placed under the driver's easy control by means of steam and cataract reversing cj'linders. On the right hand side of the driver is placed the plate mill, with two pairs of rolls, 8 feet long by 28 inches diameter, the one pair being chilled, the other grain, and capable of rolling plates up to 93 inches in width by almost any length and thickness. On the left hand side is placed a 27-inch bar mill, consisting of three pairs of roUs, and capable of rolling the heaviest sections of angle, bars, &c. Both mills, like the engines, are of the most massive pro- portions throughout, the forgings and gearing being almost wholly of Siemens' steel. The machine for shearing the plates to the exact dimensions required is also of a massive description, the steel shearing blades are 10 feet in length, with a stroke of 12 inches, and capable of shearing steel plates IJ inches in thickness by 7 feet broad, through at one stroke. The machine has also combined a scrap shears, and is driven by a combined steam engine of 16 inches cyhnder by 20-inch stroke, working with 80 lbs. steam. There are four boilers for supplying steam CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 747 to the various machinery of combined flue and multitubular type, constructed entirely of Siemens' steel, and worked at a pressure of 80 lbs. The mechanical and chemical testing houses adjoin the works. The testing machine is capable of testing up to 50 tons on the piece, the whole operation being entirely done by steam j)ower. The roofing covers an area of over 5,490 square yards, is constructed entirely of wrought iron and galvanised corrugated sheet iron covering, and is supported on cast-iron columns ; the works occupying an area of about 14 acres of ground. Production of Mallealjle Iron in Scotland. — The steady progress of this branch of industry will be seen in the annexed table, giving the returns for 15 years, also the average price of bars during the same jieriod; side by side appears, in each of the same years, the average, highest and lowest prices of Scotch pig iron in the Glasgow market : — Year. MALLEABLE IKON. SCOTCH PIQ IRON. Quantities. Per Ton. Avei-age. Highest. Lowest. 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 163,500 173,890 155,231 143,800 179,626 206,960 199,353 200,131 223,377 189,312 180,000 196,000 236,000 218,000 195,000 222,000 292,000 £ s. d. 8 12 6 7 15 7 15 7 6 15 7 7 10 8 12 5 13 10 10 15 8 15 7 15 7 6 10 6 6 10 £ s. d. 2 11 i 2 14 9 3 6 2 13 6 2 12 9 2 13 3 2 14 4 2 18 11 5 1 10 5 17 3 4 7 6 3 5 9 2 18 6 2 14 4 2 8 5 2 10 4 2 14 6 £ s. cl. 3 4 10 3 1 9 3 18 2 2 14 11 2 13 8 2 17 3 3 10 6 9 3 6 17 9 5 6 3 3 17 3 4 8 2 17 2 2 11 3 5 3 13 3 £ s. d. 2 10 3 2 9 8 2 12 6 2 11 10 2 12 1 2 10 8 2 11 2 2 11 6 3 14 7 5 5 9 4 16 2 17 6 2 16 3 2 12 2 3 3 2 6 2 4 5 The manufacture of malleable iron in Scotland is of com- paratively recent date, the industry having been commenced in the neighbourhood of Glasgow about the year 1839 ; in 1845 the total production of the works amounted to but 35,000 tons, increased to 80,000 tons in the year 1850, and in the year 1861 to 122,500 tons; the average price of bar iron at this period 748 COAL AKD lEON INDUSTRIES. [PAET ir. ranging as liigh as £7 per ton. In the year 1872, remarkable alike for the high prices which then ruled as well as for in- creased production, the make amounted to 223,377 tons, but even this was eclipsed in the year 1876, when the production increased to 236,000 tons, since which a slight falling off appears, until the year 1880, when the returns show a production of 292,000 tons, the largest on record. Coal consumed in Mallealile Ironworks in Scotland. — The quantities of coal used in these works in Scotland since the year 1872 has been as follows : — Year. Coal Used. Year. Coal Used. 1872 1873 1874 1875 Tons. 415,000 360,517 345,226 373,512 1876 1877 1878 1879 Tuns. 439,720 411,854 370,985 409,527 And in the year 1880 the coal consumed in manufacture amounted to 537,508 tons. Coal and Iron Ore used in Manufacture. — It is recorded in the survey of Ayrshire that towards the close of the last century on the estate of the Muirkirk Iron Company, 9 tons of coal was considered sufficient to make 1 ton of the best pig iron. Advancing to the year 1840, it appears on the authority of Mr. Porter, F.R.S.,* that the 241,000 tons of pig iron made in that year consumed 723,000 tons of coal in its manufacture, or 3 tons of coal to each ton of pig iron made. Again, in the j'ears 1854 and 1860, economy appears in the consumption of materials employed, as shown in the annexed items : — Materials. 1834. 1S60. Calcined ores .... Large coal . .... SmaU coal .... Limestone Tons. Cwts. 1 12 2 5 16 7 Tons. Cwts. 1 14 2 2 10 9 Mr. St. John V. Day, C.E.,t writing in the year 1876, referring to^the Almond Ironworks, near Falkirk, gives some interesting facts showing the economy attained at these works. " The fur- ' Progress of the Nation." + " Iron," Dec. 2, 1876, p. 714. CHAP. XXI.] lEOJT INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 749 nace lias a height of 72 feet, and owing to the character of the coal at Almond a portion of it requires to he coked in order to get the furnaces to drive, and it is so used in the high as well as the low furnaces. The quantity of coal and coke used per ton of pig iron varies with the quantity of hai"d splint coal supplied from the pits. At the time referred to, the fuel used was half coal and half coke, and it appears that over a series of years, using the same burdens, the 72-feet furnaces had secured an economy to the extent of 10 cwt. of fuel tO' each ton of pig iron made, as compared with a furnace at the same works 50 feet in height. The average quantity of fuel, computed into coke, put in the 72-feet furnace, (blast heaters and boilers excepted), being 22t; cwt. The ironstone (calcined) and ore being 37 cwt. per ton of pig." " In the 50-feet furnace the consumption of coke was 29 cwt., and ironstone, 38J cwt. per ton of pig. The temperatm-e of the blast at the Almond works is about 800° Fahr. ; the average weekly make 200 tons. In the blast heaters the quantity of dross used is 4| cwt., and in the boilers for driving the blowing ' engines, 3J cwt. per ton of pig iron. The pressure of blast for the 50-feet furnace is 2' 5 lbs. per square inch, and for the 72-feet furnace, from 3 to 3*25 lbs. per square inch." While referring to the Almond Works we must not omit to notice the system of coking coal carried on there. " The novelty consists in forcing either heated or cold air into the space above the upper surface of the coal being coked, thus burning the gases inside the oven as they are evolved, and thereby promoting the coking process. In working these ovens they are charged and ignited in the ordinary manner, and so soon as the heat has evolved sufficient gas and ignited it, the air is turned on and con- tinued in regulated quantity so long as gas is given off by the coal, care being taken that the mixture of air and gas shall always contain an excess of carbon, so as to prevent the ignition of that portion of the solid carbon which goes to form coke. In practice it is found that the quantity of air is always largest at the be<^inning of the charge and gradually diminishes to the close. So soon as the gas is all evolved the coke is either allowed to cool down, or is watered out and drawn." The introduction of Ferrie's Patent has also greatly contributed to economy in the use of fuel ; the process consists in dividing 750 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. the upper part of a blast furnace using raw coal into a series (about four) q{ vertical retorts, arranged with flues all round them, through which a portion of the gases pass and wherein they burn, the heat thereby developed being utilized in coking the coal and calcining the ironstone and limestone. In this manner it has been found practicable, not only to utilise all the waste gases from a blast furnace using raw coal, but owing to the frictional support which the materials receive in their descent from the sides of the retorts, Mr. Ferrie has succeeded in carrying a column of materials or burthen of about 83 feet in height. The results of Mr. Ferrie's ■observations on iron smelting in his furnace are thus referred to. He says, "The quantity of coal used to the ton of iron varies with the ores employed, but this quantity in practice is from 35 to 40 cwt. to the ton of iron. The quantity of coal increases as the quantity of black band in the charge decreases, and vice versa. When the quantity used to the ton is 35 cwt., the mixture of ores will be in the proportion of f black band and J clay band. An open furnace, 45 to 50 feet high, worldng on similar materials, will consume from 52 to 56 cwt. of coal to the ton of iron." In addition to the advantages claimed for the above arrangements, it is stated that, " In addition to the saving of coal noted above, that there is a saving of fuel in raising steam and heating the blast." Before considering the total quantities of coal and ores em- ployed in the furnaces of Scotland during the past ten years, the following reliable data presents some important details of the materials employed in the Gartsherrie Ironworks twenty years ago, when of the 16 furnaces built 14 were in blast, making 97,156 tons of pig iron, and consuming materials in the annexed quantities, to which is added the average quantity per ton : — Materials Used. Quantities. Aveiuge per Ton. Calcined ironstone . Coal Limestone .... Total materials . . Tons. 162,784 278,983 49,794 Tons. Cwts. Qi-s. Lbs. 1 13 1 15 2 17 1 10 1 491,561 5 3 15 In the Castlehill Ironworks of the Shotts Iron Company in the same year, the production of pig iron amounted to 13,673 CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 751 tons, in the manufacture of which the following materials were employed : — Materials Used. Quantities. Average- Coal used .... Calcined clay band . . . ,, black band Hoematite ore . . . . Limestone .... Total materials . . Tons. 36,347 19,489 ) 6,941 J 2,605 8,918 Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. 2 13 20 2 4 13 74,300 5 10 20 Another return, the aggregate of four ironworks in Lanarkshire, producing also in the year 1858, some 201,174 tons of pig iron, presents the following details ; the works referred to at the time possessed 29 furnaces, of which 25 were in blast, consummg the materials given : — JEaterials Used. Quantities. Average. Calcined ironstone . Coal Limestone .... Total materials . . Tons. ■ 351,452 544,873 83,915 Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. 1 13 3 20 2 14 9 980,240 4 16 3 20 It therefore appears from the above iigures that in the year 1858 the proportions of materials employed were regular, the difference in the amount of calcined u-onstone being due to the variable proportion in each case of black band and clay band ores. The loss by calcination of black band may be generally set down at 50 per cent., and' of clay band ironstone at 30 per cent. The average yield of the furnaces per annum being respectively, Gartsherrie, 6,966 tons ; CastlehiU, 6,836 tons; and the Lanark- shire group of furnaces, 8,047 tons. Mr. Ealph Moore, in his interesting paper on black band iron- stone, read beforte the Eoyal Scottish Society of Arts in the year 1861, gives the average quantity of materials used to make a ton of pig iron as follows : — Calcined black band, 34 cwt., coals, 50 cwt., dross, IB cwt. and limestone, 12 cwt., making in all a total of 109 cwt. of material to each ton of pig ii-on made. 75a COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Advancing to the year 1872, when information was obtained hy the Committee of the House of Commons appointed to inquire into the causes leading to the extravagantly high price of coal ruling at that period, the following figures are available, showing the quantity of coal used in the manufacture of pig iron, to which is appended the total quantity of iron ore employed : — Year. Pig Iron Made. Coal Used. _ Iron Ore Used. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 1,090,000 3,215,000 2,325,000 1873 993,000 2,730,000 2,194,000 1874 806,000 2,143,199 2,035,000 1875 1,050,000 2,950,000 2,400,000 1876 1,103,000 3,050,000 2,576,000 1877 982,000 2,672,638 2,385,000 1878 902,000 2,244,813 2,490,000 1879 932,000 2,256,189 2,560,000 1880 1,049,000 2,542,055 2,628,610 The economy in the consumption of fuel has gone on steadily in the Scotch furnaces since the year 1872, when the average consumption of coal to each ton of iron made was 55 cwt., decreasing to 49 1 cwt. in the year 1878, and 48 J cwt. in the years 1879 and 1880. The average consumption in Great Britain being 51 cwt. in 1873, decreasing in 1877 to 46 cwt. ; in 1878 to 44J cwt. ; in the year 1879 to 44 cwt., and m 1880 to 43^ cwt. The annexed table furnishes the approximate quantities of iron ore used in the blast furnaces of Scotland between the years 1872 and 1880, distinguishing the places from which it was received : — Year. Scotland. Foreign. Lancashire. Cnmberland. Ireland. Total. Tons.* Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1872 2,192,481 50,024 7,474 75,021 ... 2,325,000 1873 2,021,868 60,358 7,075 104,699 ... 2,194,000 1874 1,892,925 64,175 6,309 81,591 2,035,000 1875 2,165,313 83,986 7,247 141,954 1,500 2,400,000 1876 2,345,432 73,367 7,699 146,723 1,779 2,575,000 1877 2,126,067 125,986 9,733 121,013 2,212 2,386,000 1878 2,371,762 61,168 6,731 49,859 1,480 2,490,000 1879 2,480,863 51,370 6,060 19,746 1,961 2,560,000 1880 2,430,000 134,267 16,542 44,820 2,981 2,628,610 * These quantities also include a small proportion of calcined stone, purple ore, and forge and mill cinder from the Malleable Iron Works. CHAP. XXI.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF SCOTLAND. 753 Iron Slxipbtiildiug. — There is yet another important hranch of the iron industries of Scotland to refer to, that of iron ship- building. As soon as iron was found a suitable material for the construction of our mercantile marine, this industry soon attained immense proportions in Scotland, the banks of the Clyde being rapidly studded with iron shipbuilding yards. These yards may be said to commence at the termination of the quays and wharves of Glasgow, and they recur at intervals for miles along both banks of the river. The first application of iron to shipbuilding was in the construction of canal boats. Some half a century since the Horsley Company of Staffordshire constructed a sea- going steamer, and a few years later the same company con- structed another vessel to ply on the river Shannon, in Ireland. It was not, however, till the year 1830 that the first iron steamer was constructed on the Clyde. This was the Anglia, of 30 tons burden, which plied on Lake Eck, en route to Inverary. The Fairy Queen, also of 30 tons burden, being the first iron steamer plying on the Clyde, was built in 1831. This last-named vessel was constructed in the Old Basin, some mile and a half distant from the Bromielaw,»was launched into the Clyde, and propelled by an oscillating engine. The City of Glasgoio appears to have been the earliest example of the new form of iron ship of any size ; this vessel was built in the year 1850, of 1,609 tons, and was propelled by a screw. The earliest paddle steamer constructed of iron was the Royal Sovereign, of 447 tons, and plied between Glasgow and Liverpool, while of sailing ships, the Iron Duke, of 893 tons, was constructed about the year 1840, and sailed from Glasgow to India ; and in the year 1842 the schooner-rigged sailing ship, Glasgow, of 100 tons, plied between the last-named place and Rotterdam, via the Forth and Clyde Canal. The foregoing sketch shows the rise and progress of iron ship- building on the Clyde ; it will be remembered, however, that this important industry is also pursued with vigour and success in Aberdeen, Dundee, Leith, and other places on the Fifeshire coast. For many of the above facts our acknowledgments are due to the interesting and historical paper on this subject by Mr. D. Rowan, of Glasgow, read at the Glasgow Meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute in 1872. The remarkable development of this industry is due to the 3 G 754 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II, boundless resources of coal and ironstone within easy distance of the Clyde ; the iron ore being wrought, reduced to the metallic state, roUed and finished in those extensive works to which attention has been previously directed. The earliest available statistics at hand showing the tonnage of iron vessels launched, and under contract, and on the stocks in the Clyde shipbuilding district, wiU be seen in the annexed table : — Tear. Tonnage On Stocks and Year. Tonnage On Stocks and Laimched. Under Contract. Launched. Under Contract. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1863 124,000 140,000 1872 230,347 247,345 1864 178,505 105,957 1873 232,926 192,608 1865 153,932 109,404 1874 266,800 >•■ 1866 124,513 71,869 1875 228,200 1867 108,024 124,082 1876 204,770 1868 169,571 134,818 1877 168,000 1869 192,310 140,199 1878 215,640 1870 180,401 180,175 1879 174,670 1871 196,229 301,809 1880 236,579 The Clyde owes much of its prosperity to the invention of the dredging machine, and the shipbuilders on its banks do a con- siderable trade in building dredges and numerous appliances for improving navigation. It may be further added, that though the practicability of constructing vessels of iron had been successfully tested, it was not until the year 1838 that it was used in the hull of any vessel of large size. CHAPTEK XXII. IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. Description of the Ironstone Measures of the Northern Coal-fields, Leitrim, Tyrone, Antrim — Analyses and Production of Coal — Southern Coal-fields, Leinster, Castlecomer, Kilkenny — Analyses and Production of Coal — Iron Ore Deposits (Tertiary Age) county Antrim — Magnetic Ores, county Wioklow — Ores of county Cavan — Analyses and Production of Ore — List of Iron Mines in 1880, and details of Production — Pig Iron Manufacture — Works at Drumshambo — Account of the Arigna Iron Works — Materials employed in Manufacture — Production of Pig Iron in 1856. Iron Industries, Northern Districts {Leitrim, Tyrone, and Antrim) : — Ironstone Measures of the Leitrim Coal-field. — Sir Robert Kane * refers to the " Iron Mountain (Slieve-a-Nierin), on the eastern- shore of Lough Allen, as a hill of considerable elevation, and describes it as consisting of alternate beds of sand- stone and slate clay, resting upon the basis of the upper limestone. The great bed of slate clay varies from 300 to 500 feet in thick- ness. In this clay the nodules of ironstone are disseminated in abundance, and the rains washing away the softened and de- composing clay, the balls of iron ore are carried down to the shore of the laJie, whence, and from the beds of the rivulets, they are collected by the peasantry and brought to the works for use. At the base of this mountain on the eastern side of the outlet of the lake lies Drumshambo, where this ore was formerly smelted." In purity this ore is said to be somewhat superior to that which is found on the western side. The stratification of the country on the western side of Lough Allen in the Arigna district is similar to that already described in the Iron Mountain, " Eesting on the limestone of the surround- ing country occurs the great bed of slate clay, 600 feet in thick- ness, which contains numerous beds of ironstone from half an inch to two feet in thickness. Their number is, as Sir E. Griffith mentions, almost incredible, but the most important occur from * " Industrial Resources of Ireland," 2nd edit., p. 133. 3 c 2 756 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. 200 to 300 feet above the limestone, while the thin beds are de- scribed as being in most cases the best ; that of Altagowlan, which is a foot thick, was amongst the richest ironstone Sir E. Griffith ever saw. The usual form is that of nodules, in size from an egg to that of a bull's head, but it forms also strata or sheets of considerable extent." In a report on the Arigna district in 1830, made to the Directors of the Company by Mr. Twigg, that gentleman observes, " The ironstone mines have been examined and the result found extremely favourable. A greater variety of iron- stones I never met with, from which, by a proper admixture and good management, I have no hesitation in saying that pig iron of best marks, and fit for foundry work of every kind, may be ob- tained. The iron mines begin in Eover and continue for two miles and a half. I measured several of the beds to more than two feet thick, in some places laid bare in the ravines, and in the bed of the Arigna river we can get any quantity at the shortest notice." * Analyses of the Ironstones. — The annexed analyses of nume- rous specimens obtained from different portions of the Arigna district, appear in their detailed character and composition as follows : — Clay Ieonstone Nodules from AiiiGNA.t Conatituents. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Protoxide of iron Lime Magnesia Alumina Insoluble clay . Carbonic acid Total . Loss by roasting . Metallic iron per cent. 53-65 i'-'oo l?-43 32-92 54-42 2-23 2-02 1-43 8-65 31-25 51-52 0-69 1-55 15 -50 30-74 100-00 100-00 100-00 31-50 30-90 30-70 41-70 42-30 40-00 Of the veins of ironstone two specimens were analysed, taken in situ ; they gave : — * " Industrial Eesources of Ireland," 1815, 2nd edit., p. 135. t Ibid., p. 135. CHAP. XXII.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 757 Constituents. No. 4. No. 6. Protoxide of iron . Lime Magnesia Alumina . . ... Insoluble clay .... Carbonic acid . ... Total . Loss by roasting . . . Metallic iron, per cent. . 47-28 1-26 2-23 1-59 18-46 29-18 49-94 3-75 3-79 0-87 9-08 32-57 100-00 100-00 32-14 29-80 37-70 38-80 Sir Eobert Kane adds that, as none of these were picked specimens, the average of all of them may be fairly calculated as the material available on the large scale at Lough Allen, and the mean of the above five analyses gives : — Eesults Tabulated. Protoxide of iron 51-36 Lime 1-59 Magnesia 1-92 Alumina 0-98 Insoluble clay 12-82 Carbonic acid 31-33 Total 100-00 Loss by calcining 31-33 Metallic iron, per cent 40-00 It therefore appears that these ironstones are equal to the best argillaceous ores of South Staffordshire, or South Wales, and are only surpassed by the Black Bands of the Clyde valley in Lanarkshire. Ironstones of the Tyrone Coal-field. — In the shales and fine clays of the middle series of coal measures of Dungannon there is a good deal of ironstone occurring both in beds and nodules ; the former, in one or two instances, from one to two feet thick, the latter abundant. None of them have been worked to any extent, so far as is known. They have the usual composition of clay ironstones, and contain about the average per-centage of iron. Traces of an old furnace are found in the townland of Derry near the road leading from Derryvale to Stewartstown, and a quantity of slag lies about. It is possible, therefore, that some of the 758 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. ironstones above the Derry coal were formerly smelted. Mr. Hardman, who has examined some of them, both for the amount of iron, and the presence or absence of sulphmr and phosphorus, gives the annexed results. The specimens were aU obtained from the neighbom-hood of Coal Island : — * Analyses of Ironstones, Dungannon CoAii-FiEU). No. 1. Thin seam of ironstone from above the Shining Seam.f Metallic iron 3o'50 per cent. Neither sulphur nor phosphorus present. No. 2. Ironstone nodules from Gortnaskea Coal. Metallic iron 34-40 per cent. Neither sulphur nor phosphorus present. No. 3. Ironstone nodules above Beltiboy Coal. (a) Metallic iron . . . . 32'50 per cent. Neither sulphur nor phosphorus. (b) Metallic iron .... 21'70 per cent. No sulphur ; a trace of phosphorus. (c) (?) Black Band Ironstones. Metallic iron . . . . 23'60 per cent. No sulphur ; a trace of phosphorus. No. 4. Iron nodules from Derry Coal. Metallic iron 28'80 per cent. No sulphur ; no phosphorus. Ironstone of the Antrim Coal-field. — This coal-field contains an important measure of Black Band raised in notable quantities and exported to Scotland in the calcined state. " The ironstone occurs in the lower beds of the carboniferous series. These beds consist of red and yellow sandstones, sometimes coarse, with beds of shale, the base of the series being a quartzose con- glomerate reposing upon contorted mica-schist with veins of quartz." I Analyses of the Ballycastle Black Band is not at hand ; the composition, however, of one or two varieties raised extensively in Lanarkshire will show the constituents of these ores. The average yield of the Black Bands of the Clyde district may be taken at 31'60 per cent, in the raw, and 45*80 per cent, in the calcined state ; Mushet's Black Band giving in the raw state 41"00 per cent, of metallic iron, increased to 63'10 per cent. in the calcined state : — § * " Proceedings of the Eoyal Irish Academy," Second series, vol. ii., p. 637. + The term " Shining Seam," is usually applied to " Micaceous Iron Ore." } " Coal-fields of Great Britain," 4th edition, p. 339. § " Industrial Eesouices of Ireland," 1845, 2nd edition, p. 27. CHAP, xxn.] IROK INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 759 Constituents. Cross Basket Ironstone. Mushet's Black Band. Protoxide of iron Lime ..... Magnesia Silica Alumina .... Bituminous matter Carbonic acid . Moisture and loss Peroxide of iron 42-15 4-93 4-80 9-73 3-77 3-12 31-50 53-03 3-33 1-77 1-40 0-63 3-03 35-17 1-41 0-23 Total 100-00 100-00 Ireland, Southern Districts. — Ironstones of the Leinster Coal-field. — The ironstones of this coal-field are fairly illustrated hj the following description and analysis of ironstone raised from the Castlecomer Collieries of Mr. Wandesford : — * " The colour is dark grey when fresh, but becoming rust-coloured by long ex- posure to the air. The specific gravity is about 3'250. When igaited it loses 29 per cent, of its weight, and the residue is strongly attracted by the magnet." Two different specimens give the annexed results : — Constituents. First. Second. Protoxide of iron Lime Magnesia Alumina Insoluble matter Carbonic acid . . . . Total .... Metallic iron . . . . 51-08 •16 1-05 1-86 13-92 31-93 48-03 1-51 4-24 •1-45 16-17 28-60 100-00 100-00 39-70 37-60 It is remarked of these ironstones that as they were not selected for analysis on account of any apparent superiority to other specimens, they may probably represent the ordinary run of the ironstone of the Leinster district. Iron Ore Deposits of the County Antrim. — The most im- portant deposits of iron ore in Ireland now in process of develop- ment are situated in the county Antrim. For an account of the area including these deposits we reproduce an interesting paper " Industrial Resources of Ireland," 1845, 2nd edition, p. 132. 760 COAL AJSTD IRON INDUSTRIES. [pabt ii. by Mr. J. D. Kendall, C.E., F.G.S., on the "Iron Ores of Antrim : — * " The north-east corner of Ireland, that occupied by the county Antrim, is almost entii-ely covered by a sheet of basalt, varying in thickness from a few feet to upwards of a thousand feet. This basalt rests upon chalk, and is supposed, from the nature of the fossil plants yielded by it, to be of Miocene age. The following generalised section of the rocks in the county of Antrim will show its relative jposition in the geological scale :; — SYSTEM. CHARACTER Of BOCK. Tertiary Basalt. _ , f Chalk. Cretaceous | Greensand. Oolitic Wanting. Jurassic Lower lias shales. n, . . f Variegated marls, &c. (Keuper). Tri^ssic I Sandstone (Bunter). Permian (?) Magnesian limestone, &c. ( Coal measures. Carboniferous I Carboniferous limestone. ( Carboniferous slates. Devonian Eed sandstone and conglomerate. Silurian Wanting. Cambrian Mica slate. " Generally, the basalt may be divided into three classes — tie amorphous, the columnar, and the concretionary — ^the second of which is well known to all who have visited the Giant's Causeway, on the north coast. The amorphous and concretionary varieties may also there be seen, between and below the tiers of columns. " Although the basalt is not a sedimentary rock, yet it shows evident traces of bedding, as will have been noticed by all who have been along the Causeway coast. The basalt there exhibits two fine parallel tiers of columns, which have a gentle inclination inland. The lower tier, as it crops out at one point, forms the celebrated Giant's Causeway. Between and below the columns, the basalt has quite a bedded appearance, the beds being parallel to those exhibiting the columnar structure, that is dipping inland. " Mode in which, the Ores occur and their ITature. — Inter- stratified with the basalt, and parallel to the bed planes thereof, are a number of ferruginous clayey bands, of reddish appearance, which may be distinctly seen along the coast chffs, presenting a • " Colliery Guardian,;' 27tli Octoler, 1876, p. 657. CHAP. XXII.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 761 striking contrast to the basalt. The precise number of these bands is not known, but there are as many as five in some parts of the field, and there may be more. They occur one above the other, like seams of coal, at variable distances apart. Usually they consist of a ferruginous clay, called " bole," with an under- lying layer of lithomarge. But there is one of the seams, which, in addition to these two materials, contains, above the bole, a thin band of iron ore, of a pisolitic nature. This is the most im- portant band in the series. From it is obtained that ore of iron, which passes by the name of Irish ore. It occurs below the bottom tier of columns, and appears to be the highest of the series of ferruginous bands. It may be seen in the cliffs near the Giant's Causeway, and is found nearly all over the count3^ The following section of it will explain its nature, and show the re- lation it has to the basalt above and below it : — c , O K] [ Cohmmar haaalt. — Lower tier. Glay, — Slate coloured, passing imperceptibly into the overlying basalt. Its thickness is very irregular, and it peels off the basalt in lamince parallel to the sinuosities of the under surface thereof. " Fisolitic Bed. — This bed, which varies in thickness from a few inches to between 2 and 3 feet, consists of a soft, brown, or reddish-brown ferruginous ochre, in which are thickly embedded small dark grey ii'regular pieces of harder ore, which are strongly attracted by the magnet. The junction between this bed and the overlying clay is very distinct, and they separate easily. Pieces of fossil (coniferous) wood have been found in it, the tissue replaced by iron ore. " Bole. — ^A yellowish-red ferrugiaous ochre containing a number of concretionary nodules of basalt. Not hard, and breaking up into irregular cuboidal pieces. The junction between this rock and the overlying ore is not very distinct. Thickness, usually 5 to 10 feet. " Iiithomarge. — A variegated soft rock of a prevaihng blue slate colour. Like the bole, it contains concretionary nodules of basalt, but more of them. The line separating this bed from the bole is not very distinct. Sometimes this bed is nearly 80 feet thick : — w p^ d J Concretionary basalt passes gradually into the overlying Htho- g o I I marge. . 763 COAL AND IRON INDUSTKIES. [PAKT II. " The extent of the pisolitic bed is not known, but it must cover some thousands of acres, although it does not occur everywhere within the basaltic area. In many places it has been removed by denudation, being found in the hills, but absent in the intervening valleys. The breach of continuity thus brought about is further increased by the numerous faults and dislocations that traverse the country. " It is possible that there may be more than one pisolitic bed, that the seams which have been worked by the different mining companies in the county may not be portions of one original seam as is generally supposed, but may belong to different seams. So far, however, as is at present known, they appear to be parts of the same seam. " The quality of the pisolitic ore is very good, as shown by the following analyses of ore worked at Red Bay by the Grlenariff Iron Ore and Harbour Co., at Cargan and Broughshane by the Antrim Iron Ore Co., and at Slievan-anee by Messrs. Fisher and Co. : — Analyses of Pisolitic Ore. Constituents. RedBay. Red Bay. Cargan. Brough- shane. Knock- boy. Slievan- anee. Slievan- anee. Peroxide of iron . Protoxide ot iron . Oxide of manganese . Titanic acid . . j Vanadic acid . J Alumina. . . . Silica . Sulphur Pliospliorus Magnesia Lime Water of combination . . 69-40 2-80 10-40 •■ 8-40 77-22 trace 26-65 2'-i3 66-56 6-11 / 3-68 7-92 5-47 0-03 trace 0-16 0-68 14-34 65-4-2 trace 5-28 12-54 7-08 ti-ace 0-02 0-08 0-20 8-82 63-70 4-60 12-75 6-30 0-02 0-06 0-05 0-10 12-70 71-00 18-00 trace 1 •• 9-bo 81-60 2-57 trace 4-20 8-50 6-93 1-96 Per-centage of metallic iron 41-58 5405 46-61 45-99 44-60 63-70 65-20 Analyst .... Apjohn. Cameron. Tosh. Tosh. Tosh. Cameron. Hodges. " The average amount of metallic iron contained in the above seven varieties of pisolitic ore is equivalent to 51'70 per cent., compared with 28'85, the average of the four following analyses of bole. " The bole as a rule yields less than half as much iron as the pisolitic ore. The following are analj^ses of samples taken chiefly from the bole, but having a slight admixture of the pisolitic ore. The yield of iron is consequently higher than could be obtained from an unmixed sample of bole : — CHAP. XXII.], IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. AnAiYSES OF Bole. 763 Conatituents. KUwaugliter. Glenann. TuUy. Peroxide of iron . Oxide of manganese . . Titanic acid . Alumina . Silica .... Magnesia . ... Lime .... Sulphur . . . . Ptosphorus . Water of combination . Total . . . 41-00 0-50 61-00 1-00 trace 0-50 6-00 45-00 trace I 36-44 2-44 0-56 18-00 33-34 ( '5-31 ■ 41-13 I 3-78 0-97 0-21 trace 0-04 15'55 45-50 trace 2-00 35-50 4-00 0-35 12-65 100- 102-44 100-33 100- Metallic iron . 28-70 31-50 23-34 31-85 Analyst . . . , Cameron. Cameron. Tosh. Cameron. " The main difference between the pisolitic ore and the bole is, according to these analyses, in the greater quantity of iron and less quantity of alumina contained by the former. The yield of iron by the lithomarge is too small to render it of any value for iron making. " Origin of the Deposits : Idthomarge and Bole. — The way in which the bole and lithomarge have been produced seems to be rendered very clear by the presence of the concretionary nodules. The graduation from bole to basalt, and from lithomarge to basalt, in the two sets of nodules, leaves no doubt that both these beds are the result of metamorphic action on basalt. " The appearance presented by these nodules cannot possibly be explained on any other assumption than that both bole and lithomarge are metamorphosed basalt. But whether the rock from which they were produced, was exactly alike in chemical constitution to the basalt now above and below them, it is im- possible at present to say, as, indeed, it is also to say whether they both have been produced from the same sort of rock, or from two chemically different rocks. The probability is that they were formed from beds of rock chemically different. If not, and they were both subjected to the same sort of metamorphism, then the two beds must represent two different stages of the process. But if bole be metamorphosed lithomarge, that is, if it has under- gone a higher degree of metamorphism than lithomarge, we should 764 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [paet ii. find in the concretionary nodules of the bole a transition from basalt to Uthomarge in the first place, and then from lithomarge to bole ; in other words, between the bole and basalt we ought to find a layer of lithomarge, but we do not — at least I have not. Then again if lithomarge is altered bole, we should find in the concretions of the lithomarge bed a layer of bole immediately round the basalt, which we do not. This inclines me to the idea that the bole has been produced from a bed of rock (basalt) having a different composition from that which has been altered to litho- marge. A fact which may throw some light on the mode of meta- morphism may be observed in connection with the bed of clay lying between the pisolitic bed and the overlying basalt. This clay, I believe, is also metamorphosed basalt, for there is a most gradual laminated passage from hard basalt to soft clay. " The fact I refer to is that whenever the clay bed crops out to day it appears to thicken, which seems to indicate that whatever was the metamorphic influence, it acted more powerfully than at any other point. " Pisolitic Bed. — This bed has been variously accounted for ; some have supposed it to be of igneous origin, others consider that it is metamorphosed bole, whilst not a few are of opinion that it had an aqueous origin. The fact already pointed out that ' fossil wood has been found in the bed seems to favour the last idea. It clearly precludes the possibility of the first and second. Besides if this ore is the result of metamorphic action on the bole, why do we not find the same sort of ore accompanying the other bole beds ? They were aU alike overlaid by a bed of basalt, which, according to the holders of this theory, had a considerable influence in altering the bole into ore. " The precise mode of deposition usually advocated by those who believe in the aqueous origin of this bed, is the sedimentary. But that, I think, is scarcely reconcileable with the facts. The freedom of the ore from the mechanical admixture of other rocks seems to me alone a sufi&cient argument against any theory which would account for its deposition in that way. " The most liliely mode of origin appears to be that of precipita- tion from a chemical solution, possibly by organic agency, but not necessarily so. On that supposition the absence of foreign matter, such as would almost assuredly have been present had the bed been of sedimentary origin, offers no difficulty, whilst the occurrence of CHAP, xxii.] IKON INDUSTRIES OP IRELAND. 765 the wood is as easily explained as by the sedimentary theory. And if we suppose that the bed of rock (basalt) from which the bole was produced was in a comparatively soft and decomposed state, at the time the ore was deposited, we have a probable ex- planation of the fact, already stated, that the junction between the ore and bole is not very distinct. Some of the first precipitated ore would almost certainly find its way into the decomposed bed below, the effect of which would be to produce the appearance of a regular transition from iron ore to bole. The pisolitic condition of the ore is probably due to the influence of the overlying lava whilst in a heated condition. " Working tte Deposits. — The geographical conformation of the area covered by the basalt is such as to render the working of the iron deposits a matter of great simplicity. The seam (assuming that there is only one) is usually found cropping out on the hill sides and lying nearly level. It is in consequence worked by day levels. No shafts are required, nor any pumping machinery, the water being carried off by the levels. The ore is soft and easily worked, whilst the roof is strong and good, so that very little timber is required. All that is used is obtained from the imme- diate neighbourhood at a very low price. In addition to all these advantages wages are low ; so that the working expenses of a mine are very light. The greatest drawback to the working of these mines is their distance from port, some of them being so far away that the ore costs 3s. or 4s. or more per ton for carriage. In some cases, too, the pisolitic ore is not more than a foot in thickness, so that a portion of the bole has to be worked away with it, and it is only in good times that much of this bole can be sold, so that the necessity to work it whether it can be sold or not, in- creases, as a consequence, the cost of getting the pisolitic ore. But for these two circumstances Irish ore would occupy a much more important position in our market than it does." The area of the county Antrim occupying the ferruginous deposits extends on the north-east coast from Cushendall to Carrickfergus, and inland from two to ten miles. From this area for some years past the mines have furnished the great bulk of the iron ore raised in Ireland. At Evishacrow, between Ballymena and Cushendall, in the county Antrim, hematitic iron ore is wrought in some quantities. A section of strata at these mines presents the following stratified 766 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [past ii. beds : at the surface appears basaltic rock reposing upon a seam of iron ore known as pisolitic or " shot ore," and having an average thickness of some 18 inches ; this ore consists of nodules of almost pure oxide of iron, varying in size from the head of a pin to a small nutmeg, and embedded in a soft ochreous matrix or paste. Locally it has received the appropriate name of shot ore. Next in descending order occurs a bed of aluminous ore, varying in thickness from 4 to 6 feet, and containing 22 per cent, of metallic iron; this is advantageously employed in the blast furnace as a flux. Beneath the aluminous ore occurs a deposit of blue lithomarge found in thickness varying from 25 to 35 feet. The ferruginous deposits of the Evishacrow mines occur at an elevation of 870 feet above the level of the sea, the strata dipping gently to the south-west. The mode of working these mines, like others in the district, is by driftways driven in from the mountain side at the outcrop of the deposit. The headings are pushed forward to the north- east, following the rise of the pisolitic deposit, which aifords a gentle incline to the mouth of the workings, thus facilitating the running out of the loaded corves. This inclination also allows the mine waters to get away easily by gravitation, a very effective natural drainage being thus formed. The roof of the mine is self-supporting, no timbering being used in the workings beyond the first 13 fathoms or so in each of the drifts. The mode of working is the long wall system, the ore is easily won, and does not require blasting, being brought away easily with the pick ; it is of singular purity, having no trace of either sulphur or phos- phorus. This class of ore is extensively used in steel making. The mines are connected by a branch with the Ballymena, Cush- endall, and Eed Bay Eailway, which enables 'the ore to be sent either to Belfast or Lame for shipment, from which latter port considerable quantities are shipped, the port having been lately greatly improved, and recently connected with the Ballymena and Larne Railway. The royalty under which the workings at Evishacrow are carried out covers an area of 800 acres, and it is estimated that iron ore exists under the greater part of this area. Dr. Percy, to whom samples of the ore was submitted, gives the following analysis, showing its composition per cent. : — CHAP. XXII.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 767 Eesttlts Tabulated. Peroxide of iron 75'51 Protoxide of iron 2-92 Protoxide of manganese 0'24 Lime traces Magnesia traces Alumina 3*14 Silica 5'54 Titanic acid 9-50 Combined water 2-00 Hygroscopic -water 1-32 Phosphorus none Sulphur none Total 100-17 Metallic iron, per cent 55'13 Dr. Percy adds, " The ore is remarkably free from phosphorus and sulphur, and will yield pig iron very suitable for conversion into steel by the Bessemer process. The presence of titanic acid will not injuriously affect the quality of the pig iron, for some of the best Swedish bar iron is made from ore rich in titanic acid. The ore may be regarded as rich, and in that respect is equal to the average of the red hematites." The mines of the Antrim Iron Ore Company, situated at Broughshane, Cargan, Carnlough, Glenarm, and Newton Crom- mellin, are of considerable extent, and yield large returns. The pisolitic ore here wrought is found, as in the districts previously referred to, in beds varying from 15 to 24 inches in thickness, and beneath basaltic rock which reposes upon it. A bed of aluminous ore occurs below the pisolitic ore, but it is only worked to a limited extent from the circumstance of its being less rich in metallic iron than the pisolitic ore. Lithomarge is also met with of a prevailing blue colour, in a bed of- considerable thickness, and, like the aluminous ore, it is not extensively worked, as it is too poor in metalUc iron to render it of value for iron making. The deposits in the above-named localities lie some 600 or 700 feet above the level of the sea. The constituents of these ores, rich in alumina, varying from 30"00 to 34'55 per cent., from the mines of Glenarm and Carn- lough, are as follows : — * * Favoured by Silas Evans, Esq., of Belfast. 768 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT U. Constituents. Glenann. Camlough. Camlough. Peroxide of iron Protoxide of iron . . . Protoxide of manganese . Alumina . .... Lime Magnesia Silica . . . - . Titanic acid . . . . . Sulphuric acid .... Phosphoric acid . . . . Water I^JE^f . ' . ! Total . Metallic iron . . . . 50-23 1-03 0-44 30-00 0-29 0-26 9-50 0-70 2-51 5-13 29-88 1-99 0-24 33-69 0-92 0-16 11-58 0-74 trace 1 21-65 24-75 0-72 0-35 34-55 0-77 0-27 5-10 1-15 32-48 100-09 100-85 100-14 35-96 22-47 17-89 Analyst Heywood. Tosh. Tosh. Mr. Charles A. Heywood, public analyst of Whitehaven, who examined the Grlenarm ore, remarks of it, " That it contains a high per-centage of metallic iron, some manganese, and no sul- phuric or phosphoric acids. It is of great use on account of its containing an excess of alumina, as a flux in the blast furnaces using siliceous red hem,atites. The per-centage of water is very smaU, the ore is hard, and will bear a heavy burden in the furnace." The deposits worked at the Glenariff mines situated near Cloughor, in the county Antrim, by the Glenarifif Iron Ore and Harbour Company, Limited, are thus described by Mr. Philip ArgaU, captain of the mines : " The iron ore measures of the Glenariff valley are found interstratified with igneous rocks (dolerites, basalts, and tuffs) of tertiary age." At the mines now working the iron ore the tneasures are about 70 feet thick, and are found to rest on about 400 feet of dolerite, being covered by about 300 feet of a similar rock ; these measures or ores may be divided into four classes as follows : " Litho- marge," * " Pavement," Aluminous Ore (Ball or Second Ore), and Pisolitic Hematite or First Ore. The lithomarge varies from 40 to 45 feet thick, and contains from 15 to 20 per cent, of metallic iron, and 30 per cent, of * " Lithomarge." A silicate of Alumina. In many respects resembling Kaolin, or China clay. In this instance it appears to bear a local signification. cflAP. xxii.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 769 alumina ; it varies in colour from light lavender to black, and is often liver coloured, or bluish with white spots. Analysis of the lithomarge above referred to is not available. A continental variety, however, rich in alumina, will show its general composition.* Constituents. Silica 49-20 Alumina 36-20 Peroxide of iron 0-50 Water 14-00 Total 99-9 Resting on the lithomarge is a yellowish ochreous rock, called " pavement " by the miners, as it forms the floor or pavement of the first and second ores ; this rock varies in thickness from 15 to 20 feet, and contains from 20 to 25 per cent, of metallic iron, and about 80 per cent, of alumina. The aluminous ore (second ore) is generally found resting on the "pavement," but it frequently occurs in beds of from 4 to 5 feet in thickness, iiiterstratified with the lithomarge and pavement. The aluminous ore is of a light red colour, and is brittle though soft, and contains from 25 to 30 per cent, of metallic iron, and from 35 to 40 per cent, of alumina ; this ore is sometimes called bauxite: where it occurs immediately under the pisolitic ore it usually has a few pisolites of the former disseminated through it. Overlying the aluminous ore, or where it is absent, is found the pisolitic, or first ore ; this is covered by the hard dolerite roof, and separated from it by a few inches of steatitic clay. The pisolitic ore varies from 12 to 20 inches, and sometimes swells from 24 to 30 inches in thickness, and is usually found best developed at the top of the seam which is the richest part. The ore is also found to vary in colour from red through brown to black, the latter being most abundant at the Glenariff mines. The black ores usually contain from eight to ten per cent, of titanic acid, and are regarded as the richest and purest to be found in the county. The first two ores, examined by Mr. E. W. J. Jones, public analyst of Wolverhampton, give the following results : — the first a pisolitic ore, the second an aluminous ore.f * " Glossary of Mineralogy." H. W. Bristow, F.E.S., p. 221. + Favoured by John Ham, Esq., Secretary of the GlenarlfE Iron Ore and Harbour Company, Limited. 3 D (70 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. tPAET II, The third analysis of best Glenariff ore is by Mr. A. B. Cowan. Ebsttlts Tabtjlated. Constituents. First. Second. Best Ore. Combined water 10-23 1-88 Peroxide of iron . iv64: 35-93 62-43 Protoxide of iron 1-88 trace 4-75 Protoxide of manganese 0-27 0-11 0-28 Alumina . 4-25 36-50 10-19 Silica .... 5-05 12-20 8-40 Jjime 0-81 0-53 2-80 Magnesia . 0-61 1-41 . 0-59 Phosphoric acid 0-20 trace nil Sulphuric acid nil nil nil Carbonic acid . trace nil trace Pyrites nil nil Titanic acid 8-89 nU Moisture at 100 C. 6-40 2-76 8-48 Loss, &c. . ... 0-33 100-00 100-00 99-80 MetaUio iron per cent. • ... 25-15 47-40 The iron ore and "bauxite " deposits worked by the Irish Hill Mining Company at their Irish HUl and Straid Mines, situated near BaUyclare, possess some interesting features; they were discovered some 5 or 6 years since by Mr. Alexander Sutherland.* The bauxite is believed to be the largest deposit of that ore hitherto discovered in this country. The rocks of the surround- ing district are basalt, trap, and porphyry. The iron ore exists in conformable strata, not unfrequently with very little rise or dip, and the best qualities are found close to the basalt which forms the roof of the level drifts and workings in the above- named mines. The strata containing the iron ore is divided into three distinct layers or seams ; the first, nearest the roof or base of the basalt, is from 1 to 2 feet 6 inches thick of pisolitic ore, containing 60 per cent, of peroxide of iron. The second seam beneath the first, is 3 feet thick, and contains 40 per cent, of peroxide ; the third or lowest seam in the series is lithomarge, which is often 20 feet deep, containing at its top (or junction with the base of the second) from 20 to 30 per cent, of peroxide of iron, which, however, is found to gradually diminish in per- centage towards the bottom of the seam. * Who has kindly furnished the following description and analyses of the iroa ore and bauxite deposits. CHAr. XXII.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 771 The lithological characteristics of these ores are thus referred to : — First ore, rich red coloured, often purple, in which are em- bedded nodules of peroxide and magnetic oxide of iron, varying in size from a pin's head to that of a hazel nut ; the smaller nodules when rubhed with a file are said to present the same appearance as cast-iron under the same process. In some cases the upper ■seam is daa-k brown in colour, especially when disturbed by basaltic or trap dykes, which are frequently met with. The ore is then found to consist of loosely aggregated particles, having a bright metallic lustre, the nodules being invariably small and highly magnetic. The second seam also possesses a considerable quantity of nodules ; these, however, are poor in iron, and often so soft as to be easily cut with a knife, the surrounding ore or matrix being much lighter and softer than the first or upper seam. The third or lithomarge seam never contains any nodules, is homogeneous throughout, for the greater part of its depth ; it is of a fine brick-red colour, easily cut with a knife, friable, breaking into small pieces on exposure to the air ; near its base, however, it becomes lighter in colour, ultimately changing to a purple, and often presenting a very beautiful appearance, the purple being often speckled with small red and white coloured spots. Analysis of the ore of the first and second seams, made by Mr. John Pattinson of Newcastle-on-Tyne, gives the following results : — Analysis Made on Sample Dried at 212° Fahr. Constituents. First Ore. Second Ore. Peroxide of iron Protoxide of iron . Protoxide of manganese . Alumina .... Lime .... Magnesia .... Titanic aoid Silica Sulphur .... Phosphoiic acid . Combined water Moisture .... 53-50 0-70 trace 18-67 0-48 0-58 4-00 11-80 nil trace 5-50 5-10 41-85 0-25 trace 31-10 2-55 0-48 3-60 9-67 0-03 trace 10-37 100-33 99-90 Metallic iron . 38-00 29-50 3 D 2 772 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ir. These ores have been employed in the works of the Ditton Brook Iron Co. Limited, near "Warrington, with very satisfactory results, in making, in admixture with other ores, the higher classes, of pig iron for Bessemer steel making. The bauxite deposits worked at Irish Hill are found taking exactly the place of the first or pisolitic iron ore seam previously referred to, and like it, also, having basalt overlying it. What has been said as to the disposition of the iron ore, is true also regard- ing that of the bauxite, except that the order is entirely reversed, the best bauxite, i.e., containing the least amount of iron, is. found on the top of the strata, or at the base of the basalt, and the greatest amount of iron exists at the bottom of the strata, in fact the iron gradually increases in depth. • The total depth of the bauxite strata has not hitherto been ascertained. The best, or that contaiaing under 1 per cent, of iron, may be represented as averaging some 3 feet thick, indeed, it is never under 2 feet, and often varies from 5 to 6 feet thick ; beneath this is the second quality contaiaing from 4 to 5 per cent, of iron ; the third or lowest containing from 12 to 15 per cent, of iron, with about the same percentage of titanic acid. It is stated that the bauxite is most compact next the roof, and is occasion- ally found fractured into innumerable cubes. The only division existing between the bauxite and the basalt is a thin seam, varying from a film to 2 or 3 inches, and com- posed chiefly of decomposed basalt, and sometimes organic matter similar to lignite, but much softer. Mr. Sutherland, in conclu- sion, adds, " that it must be borne in mind that the basalt in juxtaposition shows no symptoms of deterioration. There is a decided parting between the first and second and also the third seams. No substance intervenes to effect this parting, which is somewhat similar to that existing in limestones, but not so clearly delineated as in limestone partings." The bauxite deposits are invariably associated with lignite, and in some cases lignite occurs above and below. The lignite often exists in seams, and exhibits very distinct parallel, polished striae, or slickensides ; which is most interesting, as they denote the movements by disturbance to which the locality has been affected. The three varieties of bauxite above referred to, have been examined by Mr. John Pattison, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, with the following results : — • CHAP. XXII.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 773 Analyses of the Samples Deibd at 212° Fahe. CoDBtituents. First quality. Second quality. Third quality. Alumina .... Peroxide of iron . Lime .... Magnesia .... Potash .... Soda Silica .... Titanic acid Sulphuric acid . Phosphoric acid . Combined water 53-83 1-57 0-62 0-13 0-01 none 8-67 5-80 0-07 trace 29-27 52-00 4-57 0-79 0-20 0-02 0-06 12-00 6-20 0-07 trace 24-00 46-13 15-14 0-18 0-26 0-04 0-24 10-40 4-20 010 trace 23-39 99-97 99-91 100-08 The amounts of moisture lost by drying at 212° Fahr. were as follows : — Pirst quality 7-50 per cent. Second quauty 0-90 „ Third quality 0-85 „ The following is the composition of the three samples in the condition in which they were received : — Constituents. First quality. yocnnil quality. Tliird qmlity. Alumina 49-80 51-53 45-74 Peroxide of iron . . . . 1-45 4-53 15-01 Lime 0-57 0-78 0-18 Magnesia 0-12 0-20 0-26 Potash 0-01 0-02 0-04 Soda none 0-06 0-24 Silica 8-02 11-89 10-31 Titanic acid 5-37 6-14 4-16 Sulphuric acid .... 0-06 0-07 0-10 Phosphoric acid . . . . trace trace trace Combined water 27-07 23-79 23-19 Moisture 7-50 0-90 0-85 99-97 99-91 100-08 Iron Ore Deposits of the County Wicklow. — Deposits of iron ore have been recently wrought to some extent at Kilbride, in the county Wicklow, of the variety known as magnetic oxide. Mr. Tichborne has examined these deposits, and in a paper read before the Boyal Geological Society of Ireland, in November, 1876, 774 COAL AKD IKON INDUSTRIES. [paet it. he describes the ore " as forming a vein certainly two miles, and, according to indications, three miles long ; with a width varying to 6 feet in some parts, and a supply reported to be very ex- tensive. Specimens of the ore from the surface submitted for examination were a loose friable sand, more or less spongy, but perfectly free from organic remains. As the vein was piirsued in a vertical direction, it became more compact, until a dense ore with a specific gravity of 4'37 was arrived at. The silica, which in large quantities made magnetic ore useless for smelting, is extremely low in this ore." Iron ore also occurs, and is wrought in this county at the Cronebane and Ballymurtagh mines. Iron Ore Deposits of the Counties of Longford and Cavan. — Professor HuU, F.E.S., gives the following interesting particulars respecting the hematitic ores of the counties of Longford and Cavan. " The lower silurian rocks were known for some years j)ast to have possessed such ores, but until railways com- municating with shipping ports were constructed there was little prospect of these ores being turned to profitable account. This obstacle has been overcome, and the hematite ores are now sent by the Midland and North- Western lines to Dublin and Dundalk, where they are shipped to the iron furnaces of the north of England and Wales. These ores are known to exist in at least four localities, three of which lie in the district between Granard and Carrick on Shannon, and another in the district between Cavan and Ballybay." Another district examined by Professor Hull at Red HUls, in the neighbourhood of Belturbet, iu the county Cavan, is now in process of development. Here the ore has been traced at intervals in a S.W. and N.E. direction for a distance of about six miles, following the strike of the silurian rocks from Ballyhaise through Red Hills to the grounds of Scott's house, the residence of Mr. Madden. Whether it is perfectly continuous throughout this distance is uncertain, as the strata are frequently concealed by boulder clay, but in any case the quantity of ore must be very large. On the property of the Rev. E. B. Whyte Venables at Red Hills the ore is wrought and conveyed by canal and rail to the port of Dundalk, where it is shipped to Lancashire, Cumber- land, and North Wales. The hiU on which the principal excavations are in progress shows the following approximate section of the strata : — CHAP. XXII.] IRON INDUSTRIES OP IRELAND. 775 1. At the top. — Siliceous hematite, sometimes pass- , ing into green jasper (only locally workable) 2. Best Ore.-park fissile brown hematite about , j^ ^ g^ ^ ^ 12 feet in thickness j. • +jii„tness 3. Inferior quality. — Siliceous brown hematite, ir- j regularly accumulated, passing into jaspery rock / 4. Reddish shahs of considerable thickness, sunk )/;- j-.i. through in a pit for 80 feet . . . . J "^ ^^^'^^ In appearance the ore when opened out seems ahnost devoid of definite arrangement or structure, and it is only when in contact with beds of shale or grit that it can be observed to coincide approximatelj^ with the bedding of the rock. It there- fore does not occur in a lode or vein traversing the strata in a highly inclined position, but rather in the form of lenticular beds of extreme irregularity; the ore itself is split up by in- numerable planes of jointage, or false cleavage, traversing the mass in various directions. An analysis of the Eed Hills ore by Mr, John Cameron, F.C.S., of Askham-in-Furness, for the Eed Hills Mining (^ompany, shows that the ore is well suited for the manufacture of Bessemer steel, phosphorus and sulphur being entirely absent : — Analysis of Eed Hn.LS Iron Ore. Peroxide of iron 57*37 Peroxide of mangane^o traces Protoxide 6-20 Alumina 8'93 Carbonate of lime O'oO SiUca 22-80 Water of combination S'OO Soluble matter I'OO Total 100-00 Amount of metallic iron 40 '30 per cent. Ireland : Production of Iron Ore. — Brown hematite has been raised in considerable quantity in the county Wicklow at the Ballymurtagh and Cronebane mines, where also copper ore and pyrites are obtained. In the former mine the iron ore is found occurring in the North Pyrites lode. This lode is composed of iron ore to a depth of some 16 fathoms from the surface, when it passes into the ordinary pyrites of the neighbourhood. Iron ore was first raised about the year 1856, but the earliest return 776 COAL AND IROjST INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. met with is for the year 1863, since which year iron ore has been sold in the following quantities, giving an average price of 12s. per ton at port of shipment, the ore yielding of metallic iron from 46 to 50 per cent. : — Ballymubtagh Ieon Oee. Year. Quantities. Value. Year. [ Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. & 1863 6,286 2,200 1872 9,978 8,890 1864 25,816 7,744 1873 ...* ... 1865 5,136 1,798 1874 16,433 16,411 1866 4,850 1,455 1875 6,663 3,331 1867 5,500 1,512 1876 56 29 1868 12,500 2,968 1877 2,778 1,529 1869 7,000 1,750 1878 1,100 610 1870 8,250 2,062 1879 100 65 1871 9,860 4,930 1880 4,002 2,502 At Cronebane the brown hematite or limonite is found occurring as a gossan on the backs of the mineral veins, and is generally found near the»surface, continuing in depth about 8 fathoms. The greatest depth at which it has been reached is 25 fathoms, its breadth varying from a few inches (where the vein is filled with flookan, more or less impregnated with oxide of iron) to 6 fathoms, and would average about two fathoms. The gossan rests upon decomposed clay slate and pyrites, which becomes firmer and harder in depth, and in which black oxide of copper occurs dissemiaated throughout the mass in every direction. The quantities and value of iron ore produced in each year since 1872 are as follows : — Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ 1872 2,165 1,239 1873 4,143 2,485 1874 27 21 1875 1,324 662 The character of the Cronebane ore will appear in its average value per ton, which at the port of shipment in 1873 was 12s., re- ceding to 10s. in the year 1875, smce which date the working of the iron ore has been in abeyance. * No return. CHAP. XXII.] IRON INDUSTEIBS OF IRELAND. 77i Before proceeding to summarise the total output of ii-on ore raised from the mines in Ireland, which is steadily increasing, it will afford some interest to note in detail the quantities and values of the ores of a few of the more important mines, which are as follows : — Antrim Iron Ore Company's Mines. Yeai-. Quantities. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Ton». £ Tons. £ 1871 37,000 16,650 1876 30,812 13,865 1872 40,048 20,024 1877 40,833 24,659 1873 38,322 19,261 1878 50,700 26,957 1874 37,719 33,947 1879 54,193 26,316 1875 29,060 21,973 1880 68,660 31,038 In the year 1871 the average price of these ores was 9s. per ton ; four years later 18s. per ton was realised, since which date prices have diminished, till in 1879 the average was 10s. per ton, F. O. B. at port of shipment, and in 1880 of the above quantitj-- 52,000 sold at 10s. per ton, the remainder at 6s. per ton. The Glenravel mines, situated at Slieve-an-nee, also in the county Antrim, and worked by Messrs. John Fisher & Co., pro- duced ore in the following quantities and value in each year since 1870:— Glenravel Mines. Year. Quantities. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1870 15,000 ■ t • 1876 14,403 7,921 1871 20,000 18,000 1877 18,367 10,102 1872 23,605 21,243 1878 16,770 8,385 1873 24,699 22,158 1879 15,961 7,980 1874 21,791 19,611 1880 43,043 10,761 1875 16,896 12,516 The Newton Crommelin Mines, producing brown hematite, the Irish Hill and Straid Mines bauxite, and the Island Magee Mines bole and lithomarge, the latter belonging to the Irish HiU Mining Co., produced ore in the following quantities and value in each year since 1870 : — 778 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II, Year. Newton Crommelin. Irish Hill, Bauxite. Island Magee. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1873 5,815 ... 1874 2,000 6,450 1875 ... 1,200 1876 6,786 594 9,000 1877 26,842 2,763 1878 32,142 3,426 3,683 1879 30,715 3,057 2,845 1880 22,500 2,470 4,403 In the last-named year the Newton Crommelin ore averaged 10s. M. per ton ; hauxite, 20s. per ton ; and the Island Magee ores 10s. per ton at port of shipment. Of the iron ore produced in the county Antrim the great bulk is exported from Belfast, the remainder from neighbouring ports the coast. The quantities shipped from Belfast were as. on follows in each of the years named, a great increase appearing in the exports of 1880 over previous years : — Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 24,835 14,408 22,254 9,768 33,108 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 71,215 96,803 83,327 88,071 122,529 The black band ironstone raised at BaUycastle in the Antrim coal-field, with its value, in each year since 1858, appears as. follows : — Year. Quantities. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1858 3,600 1,170 1869 26,746 6,686 1859 3,000 1,100 1870 25,000 6,250 1863 15,736 3,934 1871 14,409 8,644 1864 18,763 4,690 1872 30,000 27,000 1865 15,000 3,750 1873 24,835 22,351 1866 9,821 2,455 1875 300 150 1867 17,600 4,400 1876 431 237 1868 17,000 4,500 1878 4,375 1,187 The quantity raised in 1880 was 1,051 tons, of the value of ^630 12s. The ironstone is conveyed to Belfast where it is shipped to' Scotland, and from the above returns it is clear that in years CHAP. XXII.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 779 when the iron trade is active the ironstone is in good demand, commanding a high price. In 1872 and 1873 the average price per ton reached 18s., since which date the production shows a falling off, also the price, which in 1880 gives an average of 12s. per ton. In the annexed summary is given the production of u"on ore of all varieties in Ireland since the year 1856, also its value, and the number of mines raising and selling ore in each of the same years : — Year. Nuralier of Mines. Iron Ore. Value. Tons. £ 1856 1 441 ... 1857 2 3,000 1858 1 3,600 l','{70 1859 1 3,000 1,100 1860 3 107 43 1861 2 165 66 1862 4 10,431 6,038 1863 4 31,673 11,085 1864 4 60,602 20,326 1865 5 29,117 8,202 1866 5 25,525 5,314 1867 7 42,016 10,641 1868 5 41,469 10,492 1869 6 48,804 12,201 1870 8 77,600 19,405 1871 13 107,735 66,043 1872 18 176,500 158,562 1873 IS 138,705 123,567 1874 21 140,360 112,089 1875 21 128,602 91,332 1876 20 116,010 60,748 1877 17 155,382 85,427 1878 16 156,834 74,809 1879 18 155,833 79,286 1880 21 239,325 112,812 The returns of production given above, more especially of late years, indicate clearly that as a flux these ores are becoming more and more appreciated by the ironmasters of Great Britain. The ores are exported largely to Cumberland, Lancashire, South Wales and Scotland, Staffordshire, and the Cleveland district. Since the year 1875, it will be seen that the production has increased nearly twofold. In the following statement is given the quantities used in the districts named (as far as returns have been received) in each year since 1875. The quantities fall far 780 COAL AXD IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET ir. short of the production of the iron mines of Ireland in each of the same j'ears : — Year. Cumberland. Lancashire. South Wales. Scotland. other Districts. • Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1875 21,119 28,460 14.757 11,500 52,766 1876 16,029 25,000 13,913 11,779 49,289 1877 17,487 39,804 19,436 12,212 66,443 1878 18,633 38,000 17,470 11,480 71,251 1879 20,791 38,460 19,800 10,961 65,821 1880 38,206 26,093 25,146 15,981 133,899 The production of the iron mines in the year 1880 are shown in the following table, with the values of the several varieties : — iBELAiro. County and Name of Mine. Character of Ore. Quantities. County Antrim. Aughalun (Camlougli) Ballybaley Ballypalady .... Ballycastle ( Cargan and Parkmore (Bally- ( ( mena) J Cloughor and Glenariff . Duneany (Glarryford) Evishnably and Gortnagerah . . Evishacrow (Glenravel) Glenarm Glenravel (Slieve-an-nee) . Island Magee . . . ... Irish Hill and Straid (BaUymena) Knockboy Kain Newton Crommelin Orblereigh (PortiTish) . . . / Kathkenny and Brouglishane I ( (Ballymena) . . . ] County Tyrone. Barrow (Cookstown) . County Londonderry. Ballylaggin (Coleraine) County Wicklow. Balljinui-tagli . Total of Ireland Aluminous . ?» Black Band' . Pisolitio j> Aluminous . Brown Hematite Aluminous Brown Hematite Lithomarge . Bauxite Aluminous . Brown Hematite » i» Aluminous Total . Brown Hematite . Aluminous . . Brown Hematite . Tons. Cwts. 413 3,170 11,446 1,015 24,368 15,862 6,668 27,760 12,500 16,459 43,043 4 4,403 2,470 2,000 5,391 22,600 4,795 27,833 144 11 1,109 10 4,006 2 630 12 12,184 7,931 2,834 13,880 4,687 10 4,937 14 21,526 12 1,100 15 2,284 15 700 2,695 11 11,250 2,397 10 13,916 10 231,132 4 108,216 12 572 3,617 4,002 286 1,808 10 2,501 5 239,235 4 112,812 7 The mines producing iron ore or in course of development in Ireland in 1880 appear in the following list, with their situation, proprietor, or company, working the same, and the manager : — CHAl'. XXII.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 781 No. Name of Mine. Situation. Name of Proprietor or Company. Name of Manager or Agent. ANTRIM. 1 Aughalan . Camlough . . Francis Ritchie and Sons Robert M'Calmont. 2 Ballybaley . . . II II II 3 Ballymartin jj J 4 BaUylaggin . . . Coleraine Benj, Townson Thomas Simmons. 5 Cargan Ballymena Antrim Iron Ore Co., Iiim. Robert Browne, Sec. 6 Glenann Glenarm . . _ 7 Rathkenuy Ballymena 11 II 11 ',', ',', 8 Glenariff . . Clogheor . . ( Glenariff Iron Ore and 1 { Harbour Co., Lim. . ( John Ham, Sec. PhiUp Argal. 9 Cloughor . Ballymena 11 II 11 11 10 Ballycastle . Ballyraoney . Dunloys . Godden and McDonald . John James. 11 Drumnavaddy . Dunloys Iron Ore Co. Silas Evans. 12 Duneany . . Garryford . . Wm. Boaden and Co. Peter Hanlon. 13 Elgenay . . | Broughshane, ) Ballymena. ) Knockboy Mining Co. . fMountcaahel Iron Ore) Isaac Ross. U Evislinably . Garryfortl . Co.,Lim. ; J. F. Row- [• (. botham. Sec. . 1 Silas Evans. 16 EviBhacrow Glenravel Charles Chambers . J John Robertson. Wm. Edwards. 16 Irish Hill and Straid Ballynure . Irish Mill Mining Co. Alexander Sutherland. 17 Glenravel . Sleive-an-nec . John Fisher and Co. . . Hugh Raw. IS Island Magee Lame . Francis Ritchie and Sous Robert M'Calmont 19 20 Ballypalady Knockboy . . Ballymena . Knockboy Mining Co. . Isaac Ross. 21 Parkmore . II Parkmore Iron Ore Co. . Alexander Gillespie. 23 ( Shanes and Agnews 1 Hill j-Lame t The Lame Iron Mining ( 1 Co. . . i Thomas Fisher, En- gineer. 23 Orblereigh Portruah Benjamin To^vnson Thomas Simmonds. 24 Newton Crominelin . Glenravel . . S. D. Crommelin . James G. Carrick. 25 Maiden Mount . Carrickfergus . M. Robert Dalway, M.P. James Hodkinson. 20 Main . Poiti-ush . . Benjamin Townson . Thomas Simmons. DOWN. 1 Deehomed Ballynahiuoh . {°M?SLgS:™.'™'!f Jas.C. Greer. ■WICKLOW. 1 1 Cronebane. . . . Ovoca . . f j^sociated Irish Mines ) i Co. . . •. ( Geo. Gates. 2 Ballymurtagli . . . (The Wieklow Copper) { Mines Co. . . J John Hodge. J YRONE. 1 Barrow . . . Cookstown ( The Borrow, Hematite I William KeUett. \ Co., Limited . . f Manxifacture of Pig Iron. — It appears from the " Geological and Mining Survey of the Connaught Coal-field" published in the year 1818,* that at an early period the number and richness of the beds of ironstone in the Connaught coal district attracted the attention of Irish speculators, resulting in the establishment of works on a small scale called bloomeries, carried on in various parts of the adjoining country as long as wood remained to supply them with charcoal. At the time referred to, no coal had been discovered, and if it had been, the process of making pig iron from pit coal was then, though partially known, not practised even in England. * By Sir Eichaid Griffith. 782 COAL AND IRON INDUSTKIES. [pakt ii. The ironworks of Drumshambo were the last that continued to work ; they were given up about the year 1765. These works were situated at the southern extremity of Lough Allen, in the county of Leitrim, a quarter of a mile west of the vUlage of Drumshambo. The locality selected possessed much interest; the works were built upon a limestone rock, distant about a quarter of a mile from the coal country. The situation was par- ticularly favourable for making iron at a cheap rate. The iron- stone was chiefly collected from the eastern shore of Lough Allen, and in the beds of the precipitous streams which descend from the Slieve-a-Nierin mountains to the lake. The appearance of trivial workings, made in search of the ironstone, are still visible along the borders of these streams. The ironstone when collected was conveyed by boats to the works, and charcoal from the vast woods which at one time :flom'ished in aU the valleys, was carried by the same means. Limestone, the only remaining ingredient for smelting iron, was ■quarried close to the works. Judging from the accounts given by the oldest inhabitants, and the remains still visible, the Drum- shambo ironworks appear to have consisted of one blast furnace 3 feet square in the interior, and about 18 or 20 feet high. Large heaps of ironstone of excellent quality stUl remain at the works. It is much superior to that used at the more modern Arigna ironworks. The smelted iron from the Drumshambo works was •carried to the neighbouring village, where it was forged into bars. The Arigna ironworks were commenced about the year 1788 l)y three brothers of the name of O'Eeilly. At that time the practicability of smelting iron with pit coal or coke instead of charcoal was well known and long practised in England and Scotland with great advantages to the adventurers. In the same year in which the Arigna works were commenced there were 53 blast furnaces in England and Wales, and 6 in Scotland, the annual produce amounting to 53,800 tons of pig iron. The Arigna works, situated on the west side of the river Arigna, about one mile from Lough Allen, were the only works hitherto erected in Ireland to smelt iron with coal, and have therefore attracted much attention. The works as first constructed were divided into two distinct parts, the upper and lower works. The iron was smelted and all the castings were made in the upper CHAr. xxii.] IRON INDUSTRIES OF IRELAND. 783 works, and the lower were confined to rendering cast-iron malleable, forming it into bars, &c. The upper works, in the beginning of the century, when re- ported upon by Mr. John Grieve, "consisted of a blast furnace 44 feet high and 12 feet wide in the boshes ; the furnace bank descending to the bridge-house and tunnel head; so that the materials were thrown into the furnace out of wheelbarrows. An overshot wheel of 27 feet diameter furnished the necessary blast for this furnace, and also worked a very good boring miU. There was also a foimdry with a cupola furnace." The lower works, according to the same report, " originally con- sisted of a forge with a refining hearth, worked by an overshot water-wheel 16 feet in diameter, with 3 cranks on its axis, work- ing 3 cylinder bellows, each 30 inches in diameter, a mumbling hammer, about 3 tons weight, worked by an overshot water- wheel 13 feet in diameter, and 4 feet 8 inches broad, with air furnaces, &c. &c., for puddling. A slitting miU with two over- shot water-wheels of 20 feet in diameter and 4J broad. The rollers and cutters were each 13 inches in diameter. About the time the late Sir Eichard Griffith wrote (1818), these lower works were in such a ruinous state, that nothing but the stones, and some iron materials which remain, can ever be converted to any use."* At the period referred to, the estimated cost of making a ton of pig iron, calculated from the cost of the different materials delivered at the works, is given as follows : — £ s. d. Five tons of raw coal at is. per ton 10 Four tons of ironstone at 6s. per ton 10 One ton of limestone 2 Expense of ookeing, roasting the ore, labour, &o. . . 10 Contingencies at 20 per cent 10 5 Total cost of a ton of pig iron ..325 In the year 1804, Mr. Thomas Guest, of the Dowlais Iron- works in Glamorganshire, reported upon the condition of the Arigna Ironworks, and estimated the cost of production as follows. He considered that the coal of the Aughabehy and Eover collieries could be delivered at &s. i.d. per ton, and that * " Geological and Mining Survey," Connaught Coal-field, 1818, pp. 63, 65. 784 COAL AND IRON INDITSTEIES. [pakt ii, the ironstone, the greater part of which must be raised on the eastern side of Lough Allen, would ultimately cost 6s. per ton, and the limestone 4s. ; therefore : — & s. d. Five tons raw coal, at 6s. id 1 11 8 Foui- tons ironstone, at 6s 14 One ton limestone, 4s 4 Labour, 10s. . . 10 Kent, wear and tear, and other incidental expenses . .15 4 Total, per ton 4 15 At a more recent date, in 1827, when Mr. Twigg reported to the directors of the Axigna Company, the result of his investiga- tions led to an estimate being made of the cost of manufacture of iron, which was as follows : — * £ s. d. Five and a half tons of raw coal, at Is. IQd. . . .231 Three tons four owts. of ironstone, at 4s. 10(^. . . . 15 5 One ton of limestone, at 3s 3 Workmen's wages, &c. 13 3 Cost of engine, slack, agency, &c 110 Total 4 5 9 If limestone be supplied by railway deduct Is. lid. per ton 1 11 Final cost of a ton of No. 1 Pig 4 3 1 Sir E. Kane remarks generally upon the above estimate that it is too high, and adduces very good reasons, inasmuch as the best coal of the district, the Aughabehy, was then selling at 6s. Ad. per ton, and the coal of the Rover colliery at 4s. 9d per ton. In the same way the ironstone is undervalued in its contents of metallic iron, 30 per cent, being taken ; whereas the average con- tained is fully 40 per cent., which, at 4s. lOd, would cost but 12s. Id., but two tons and a half being required. One* point is quite clear that all the necessary materials for the manufacture of pig iron are found in the Arigna district in abundance. About the year 1856, towards its close, the works at Arigna. appear to have been re-opened, and the manufacture of pig iron again carried on ; in the year 1857 it is recorded that 1,000 tons of pig iron were produced by the single blast furnace then in operation. Soon afterwards the works appear to have been closed^ and subsequently abandoned. * " Industrial Eesources of Ireland," 2nd edition, 1845, p. 147. CHAPTEE XXIIl. FOEEIGN IRON OEES IMPORTED. General Description of these Ores — Their mode of occurrence — Analyses of Ores — Quantities imported from Spain, Portugal, France, Algeria, Italy, Greece, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and Turkey in Asia — Bauxite and Analyses. Spain, especially rich in her deposits of ironstone, furnishes large supplies to Great Britain ; indeed, the deposits may be said to be almost inexhaustible. In the early part of the past decade the unsettled condition of affairs in that kingdom greatly retarded the development of this important industry. In recent years, however, a more prosperous condition appears ; thus in 1860 the total imports of iron ore into the ports of the United Kingdom did not exceed 20,542 tons, while in the year 1870, when the industry was assuming importance, the quantities received in this country had increased to 179,083 tons, showing an increase four-fold in a period of six years ; yet ten years later the imports amounted to 2,278,962 tons. The more important deposits of iron ore are found in the carboniferous limestone, the most extensive at Bilbao, near the port of the same name, where at the Somorrostro mines upwards of 1,000 tons are daily raised. The other important deposits yielding valuable ores, are situated near Carthagena, Catalonia, Granada, and Santander. In referring generally to these valuable ores of iron, it will be interesting to give a brief account of the more important deposits, now so extensively worked at Somorrostro.* " The Somorrostro ironstone district, which is situated north- west of Bilbao, is the principal seat of the industry. The centre of the district is about 7i miles from Bilbao, and about the same distance from the shipping place on the Eiver Nervion, between Bilbao and the sea. The known deposits of iron ore * Abstract of a paper by E. Bourson, " On the Somorrostro Mines." 3 £ 786 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [pakt ii. occur here and there over a large area, some deposits being found quite near to Bilbao, and others 19 miles north-west of it. The principal mass is about 2J mUes in length by IJ mile in ■width ; its thickness has not yet been proved, but the workings have been carried down to the depth of 246 feet in some places, and 105 feet in others. The ore is chiefly brown hematite, in- terspersed with blocks of unaltered spathic ore. It contains iu the undried state from 50 to 64 per cent, of metallic iron, about 1 per cent, of manganese, but only a fractional percentage of sulphur and phosphorus." In all the localities wrought, the ore crops out to the surface, and it is consequently obtained from open workings, blasting being generally employed. The conveyance of the ore from the mines to the railways is either in carts drawn by oxen or by wire tramways, and afterwards by rail to the shipping places. Two systems of conveyance by wire-rope are used — Hodgson's and Bleichert's. The arrange- ment by Bleichert has more recently been introduced ; the main ropes in it are fixed, serving as rails for the trams, or tubs sus- pended from them to run on. The trams are drawn by a lighter running rope. The first cost is greater with Bleichert's than with Hodgson's system, but the working cost is less, and it is capable of carrying twice the quantity per day. The cost of transport by Bleichert's wire-rope line, is about 2'66fi. per ton per mile. There are five liues of railway or wire-rope lines con- necting the mines with the shipping places. The waggons are filled by hand, and are so arranged as to tip at the end or bottom. The shipping stages are constructed of timber, the waggons being run out on them singly, then tipped into the vessels through inclined spouts, iii one case by a vertical spout, over which the bottom tippiag- waggons discharge. The average cost of the ore per ton on board is nearly as follows : — Quarrying, l"04s. per ton ; conveyance to railway by wire-rope line, 'Sis. per ton ; filling iato railway waggons, carriage by rail, and transhipping, l'65s. per ton; duty, 'lOs. per ton; total, 3*16s., or 3s. 2d. per ton. The quantity of ore shipped at the harbour of Bilbao in the year 1877 was 964,533 tons, increased in the year 1878 to 1,224,730 tons, of which England received 856,038 tons, and Scotland 47,445 tons. Analyses of the Iron Ores of Spain. — At the mines of San Prudencia, in the neighbourhood of Bilbao, the ore obtained in a CIIAP. XXIII.] FOREIGN IKON ORES. 787 nodular state from the deposit of drift is known by the name of " Small," whUe the ore obtained from the deposits in the car- boniferous limestone is designated " Eock Ore;" of these varieties and of the rich hematites worked at the Campanil and Ollargan mines, ores in good demand and commanding a good price, the annexed analyses give the respective constituents : — Constituents. SAX PRUDENOIA. CAMPANIL. OLLABOAlf. Small. Rock. Hock. Rock. Peroxide of iron . 71-93 79-59 80-06 70-10 Protoxide of iron . . u-42 Silica .... 9-77 5-34 2-00 13-66 Manganese . . . 1-95 2-02 2-10 3-65 Alumina 4-23 1-97 0-40 6-33 Lime 0-08 trace 0-22 Magnesia Carbonic acid . . . trace trace 0-23 ... 3 21 Water and loss Total . . . Metallic iron . 11-39 10-81 6-71 5-71 99-35 99-73 99-90 99-90 50-35 55-70 60-25 54-00 Other analyses of Bilbao ores from three different localities show the following results ; the analyses were made by the late Mr. William Baker, of Shefl&eld, one of the earhest Associates of the Eoyal School of Mines : — BiKBAo Ores. Constituents. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Silica_ . _ . Peroxide of iron . . . . Alumina Protoxide of manganese . . Sulphuric acid .... Lime and magnesia . . . Phosphoric acid Water combined . . . . Total .... Loss in drying . . . . Metallic iron .... 5-55 78-80 3-50 0-651 0-068 trace none 11-653 1-70 79-20 ;6-80 2-88 0-62 trace none 9-672 7-65 76-00 5-80 0-83 0-34 trace none 10-128 100-222 100-872 100-748 0-66 1-80 1-60 55-16 55-44 54-20 The ores of Spain are extensively employed in the furnaces of Durham, Cleveland, Lancashire, and Cumberland, also in Shef- 3 E 2 788 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. field, South Wales, and Scotland. The Deseada ore, raised by the Santander Mining Company, yielding 58-66 per cent, of metallic iron, employed in some of the Cumherland furnaces, gives the following results on analysis : — EESTTLTS TABUIjATED. Sesqtiioxide of iron 83-79 Brought forward . 88-73 Alumina .... 0-45 Sulphuric acid . 0-31 Protoxide of manganese 0-18 Sulphur 0-06 Lime .... 1-35 Phosphoric acid 0-09 Magnesia 0-16 Carhonic acid 0-60' SUioa .... 2-80 Water, hygroscopic . 1-19 Titanic acid . trace „ combined . Total . 8-71 Carried forward 88-73 99-69 The ores raised hy the same company at their Onton mines has been examined by Dr. Noad, F.R.S. The five samples examined give the following results : — Eesults Tabulated. Constituents. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 6. Water .... Peroxide of iron . . Silica .... Total . . . MetaUic iron . 13-60 71-43 14-60 10-80 79-50 9-80 12-80 78-70 8-40 11-80 73-60 14-20 11-00 78-20 10-50 99-63 100-10 99-90 99-60 99-70 51-00 55-65 55-00 51-06 55-00 An average of the above giving 53"54 per cent, of metallic iron. Imports of Iron Ore from Spain. — In the following table is given the quantities and values of these ores imported into Great Britain since the year 1864 : — Tears. Quantities. Value. Years. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1859 25,701 19,273 1870 179,083 146,747 1860 20,542 13,865 1871 302,382 . 264,255 1861 22,208 17,423 1872 631,134 705,441 1862 33,517 24,797 1873 790,891 1,000,720 1863 38,388 26,097 1874 541,963 665,614 1864 43,927 32,887 1875 250,641 273,757 1865 37,121 29,476 1876 522,383 556,756 1866 27,619 22,160 1877 990,039 983,566 1867 67,356 54,298 1878 1,088,862 1,021,455 1868 88,770 74,635 1879 1,007,617 981,276 1869 99,816 78,134 1880 2,278,962 2,270,462 CHAP. XXIII.] FOEEIGN lEON OEES. 789 From the foregoing it appears, that in the year 1864, these ores had a value at the port of importation of nearly 15s. per ton, increased in the year 1873 to nearly 25s. per ton, since which year a gradual falling off in value appears ; the returns for the year 1880 giving 20s. per ton. Kegarding the development of the hematite deposits of Spain, the Consular Eeports, published at the beginning of 1880, are of great interest at the present time. The EngUsh consul at Bilbao reported on the iron ore trade of that district in the following terms : * — " Considering the depressed state of the iron market during nearly the whole of last year, it is satisfactory to observe that the decrease in this export was only trifling ; and it may be mentioned that the export during the current year will largely exceed the most sanguine expectations entertained of the development of this trade, contracts having been made for the delivery of upwards of 2,600,000 tons of ore before the 31st of December next. The average price of the ore up to October last ruled from 6s. to 7s. per ton free on board, and at the date of this report it is 15s. per ton delivered at the loading wharves. Freights to England were from 7s. to 7s. 6d., and iron ore from 10s. to 10s. 6d. (March, 1880), significant facts reflecting on the improve- ment in the iron trade throughout the world. About three- fourths of the ore contiaues as hitherto to be shipped to the United Kingdom." The total exports of iron ore from the port of Bilbao in the four years ending 1880, were as follows, the average price of the ore in June, 1881, being about 7s. per ton F.O.B. at port of shipment : — Year. Quantities. Value. 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 964,000 1,224,000 1,160,248 2,345,598 £ 771,200 979,700 870,000 In the following statement, from " The Eevista Minera," a Spanish official return, appears the quantities of iron ore received at the several ports in England and Scotland in the years 1878 and 1879 :— * " H. M. Oonsnlar Eeports " for the year 1879, p. 922. 790 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT 11. Ports. 1S7S. 1879. England — Tons. Tons. Oardiflf 295,300 299,085 Newport . 221,041 219,783 Middlesborough . 133,461 36,783 Newcastle 113,479 51,771 Sunderland . 48,804 30,658 Port Talbot 16,094 30,543 Swansea 11,502 11,528 Stockton . 2,574 Maryport 6,895 Liverpool . 5,030 6^413 Porthcawl . 1,307 Briton Ferry . 1,311, Llanelly 1,271 Workington "'536 West Hartlepool . "'650 1,033 Saltney . 639 244 Barrow and Chester 714 London . "302 Grimsby 259 Scotland — Glasgow . 40,734 41,496 Ardrossan . 4,876 351 Troon 1,061 Granton "■480 Ayr . "636 Borrowstonness . 138 Grangemouth . "144 Total . 903,483 735,443 The quantities received in England in 1878 amounting to 856,038 tons, and, in Scotland to 47,445 tons, compared with 692,972 tons and 42,471 tons in 1879. The bar at the mouth of the River Nervion is a great obstruc- tion to navigation ; practically it stops the entrance during the half of each month. Vessels of large draught can cross it at spring tides only. Steamers drawing 13^ to 14 feet of water, capable of can'ying a cargo of 1,000 tons, with engines of 120 horse-power, are the best adapted for the trade of this port. The freight of such vessels going back in ballast from Bilbao to Calais or Rotterdam is about 7s. 8d. per ton. Portugal. — In this kingdom iron ore exists in abundance in nearly all the provinces ; some of these ores are known to be rich in manganese, and are likely bj'-and-by to attract attention. The granitic rocks and metamorpliic schists contain lodes of magnetite or magnetic oxide of iron ; one of the most important of these is CHAP, xxni.] FOREIGN IRON ORES. 791 that in the Serra dos Monges, in the province of Alentejo, which, on account of its proximity to the railway from Evora to Lisbon, is well situated for exploration on a large scale ; other remarkable lodes of this ore occur at Villa Boim, near Elvas, in the same province, and at Campo Major, near the Spanish frontier. The specular oxide of iron, hematite, and spathic carbonates of iron, are also found in Portugal. At Moncorvo there are some remarkable lodes of oligist iron ore, and at QuadramU, in the province of Traz-os-Montes, a very rich lode, containing brown hematites and hydrated oxides of iron, is seen to have an extension of some 4 or 5 miles, with a breadth at places of 60 feet. Powerful lodes of carbonate of iron are known to exist in various districts; one especially may be mentioned recently discovered rich in manganese in the province of, Alentejo, the proportion of the manganese to the iron being as three to five, the percentage of phosphorus under a thousandth per cent. ; the earthy matter in this ore is not more than 10 per cent., and is composed of clay, with a little carbonate of lime, so that it is expected that this ore will prove an admirable material for the production of spiegeleisen or ferro-manganese.* The annexed analyses of the iron ores raised at Monges, in Portugal, employed in the blast furnaces of Scotland, wiU show their composition : — f Constituents. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Peroxide of iron 70-44 67-52 62-86 59-71 Protoxide of iron . . . 18-00 7-09 7-20 8-81 Oxide of manganese . 0-04 trace trace 1-48 Lime ... 0-66 trace Magnesia Carbonic acid . . . . ... trace 0-'67 trace 0-46 0-63 Phosphoric acid trace 0-08 0-14 0-06 Sulphur 2-38 ■ •> ... 017 Iron combined with sulphur . 2-08 ... 0-15 Alumina ..... 1-22 i'-Vo 5-49 7-17 Silica 2-76 10-83 11-72 16-20 Water combined Total .... Metallic iron .... 3-08 8-66 11-29 6-25 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 65-48 52-78 49-60 48-80 * " Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute," 1876, p. 302. f " Iron," 7th October, 1876, p. 469. Paper by Mr. J. St. Day, C.B. 792 COAL AND IRON INDTTSTEIES. [PAET II. The importation of iron ore from Portugal commenced in the year 1873, when 24,812 tons, valued at £32,063 were received in Great Britain. In subseq[uent years the returns are as follows : — Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ 1873 24,812 32,063 1874 29,398 37,969 1875 48,277 55,891 1876 12,894 13,234 1877 13,998 13,168 1878 3,154 2,946 1879 nil nil 1880 39,775 44,433 France, though rich in her deposits of iron ore, does not export largely, but on the contrary, to meet the demands of her metal- lurgical works, imports iron ore from her Algerian colonies, Belgium, and other countries. Magnetic ores do not abound in France ; hematitic ores are wrought in considerable quantity ia the department of the Ardeche, near the towns of Privas and La Voulte, and furnishes to some extent the furnaces of the Terrenoire, La Voulte, and Besseges companies. The ore occurs in strata between the Lower Oolite and Liassic Marl, and, as described by Professor S. Jordan, " varies in character from the red hematite, with a conchoidal fracture and agate-like texture (containing 56 per cent, of iron), to the schistous and even oolitic hematite (with only 30 per cent, of iron)." The production of these deposits does not exceed 260,000 tons per annum. Analyses of the ores show the annexed results : — EeSTJLTS TABmjLTED. Constituents. Privas. La Voulte. Peroxide of iron Oxide of manganese . . . Silica Alumina Lime Phosphorus 58-16 trace 10-90 7-10 10-35 0-325 79-21 trace 10-50 2-26 1-22 0-49 The other constituents, namely, iron in form of protoxide, magnesia, sulphur, and loss by calcination, are not determined, CHAP. XXIII.] FOREIGN IRON ORES. 793 and it is remarked that these red hematites of the Ardeche have a geological situation very different from those of the north-west of England, where they are found in older rocks. The principal repositories of iron ore in France are found in the Liassic and Oolitic rocks, the conditions of occurrence heing somewhat similar to ores of the same geological age in this country, though it has been remarked that in their general character they are more argillaceous than the English ores of the same age. Brown iron ore of a sandy character, occurring in superficial deposits in the Wealden rocks, between Boulogne and Calais, where it is extensively worked at a small cost, is smelted in admixture with ore from Africa, and hematite from 6pain and Cumberland, at the blast furnaces of Marquise and Outreau, the last-named furnaces being situated on the River Lianne, a short distance from Boulogne. The ores raised in this ai-ea yield from 32 to 35 per cent, of metallic iron. The most important deposit in France is the great ironstone field extending from Luxemburg through Lorraine up to and beyond Nancy, in the valley of the Upper Moselle. It occupies the upper part of the Lias formation, or, according to some geologists, it belongs to the Lower Oolites. The ore obtamed in this iron field is very variable, ranging from 20 to 35 per cent, of metaUic iron. Spathose ore is obtained in a few localities in France, the principal deposit being in the Department of the Isere, where it is worked at AUevard. The constituents of three varieties of these spathose ores are given as follows by Professor S. Jordan, of Paris : — Eestjlts Tabulated. Constituents. Is6re. Savoy. Pyr^n^es Orien tales. Protoxide of iron Oxide of manganese . Silica .... Quartz and clay . Lime . Magnesia .... Sulphur . . Loss by calcination 48-15 3-02 4-85 2-50 0.57 0-16 40-49 50-50 8-00 "i-00 1-70 0-70 38-10 61-70 4-06 i-34 0-21 31-95 Total . 99-74 100-00 99-26 Eeferring to the Boulonnais Ironworks in the Pas de Calais, 794 COAL AND IKON INDTJSTEIES. [part II. it is a curious coincidence, and worthy of note, that they should have commenced operations about the time that the Wealden Ironworks ceased ; these latter were situated at Ashburnham, in Sussex, and were finally extinguished in the year 1828, the iron- works of the Boidonnais commencing operations between the years 1829 and 1834. In the following table appear the quantities and value of all kinds of ore imported into^this country from France, between the years 1864 and 1877, since which there has been no imports : — Year. Quantities, Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1864 19,454 12,216 1870 10,300 6,471. 1865 19,477 12,765 1873 16,761 16,522 1866 16,064 9,718 1874 20,077 19,463 1867 12,540 7,675 1875 >.. 1868 10,766 6,074 ^ 1876 < •• 1869 9,424 5,753 1877 2,110 9,910 Algeria. — This important colonial possession of France con- tains extremely rich deposits of iron ore ; at Djebel, near Arousse, and Sfer, in the province of Oran, specular iron ore is extensively wrought, while at Mokta-el-Hadid,[in the province of Constantine, magnetic iron ore is worked. The annexed analysis shows the constituents of the ore raised in the province of Oran and used in the blast furnaces of Great Britain : — Eestjits Tabtjiated. Peroxide of iron 71 '00 Lime 11-09 Magnesia 1-73 Carbonic acid 10-61 Alumina . . 0-74 Silica 1-36 Combined water 1-87 Water at 212° Fahr 1'60 Total 100-00 Metallic iron 49-70 Algeria, with her extensive iron ore deposits, possesses but one metallurgical establishment of any importance engaged in the manufacture of pig iron. These ironworks are situated at Atelik, CHAr. XXI n.] FOREIGN IRON ORES. 795 near Bona, in the province of Constantine, -where pig-iron is made from the spathose ores of the district; native coal, previously coked, being employed in their reduction. The quantities and value of the iron ores imported from Algeria appear as under in each year since 1863 : — Year. Quantities. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1863 268 201 1872 53,162 66,741 1864 1,090 788 1873 69,856 96,964 I860 3,225 2,801 1874 62,233 79,863 1866 509 492 1875 55,620 61,808 1867 lul nil 1876 42,112 47,355 1868 326 293 1877 22,151 24,194 1869 2Hd 319 1878 13,124 14,783 1870 2,116 1,559 1879 18,911 18,317 1871 1,640 1,803 1880 82,248 86,884 In the year 1872 the average price of these ores exceeded 25s. per ton, increased to 28s. per ton in 1873, falling in 1874 to 26s. per ton, since which date prices have declined, till in 1879 they realized 20s., increasing in 1880 to upwards of 21s. per ton. Italy — Iron ore exists abundantly in the states of the Italian kingdom.* " The chief iron ores of Lombardy are those known as spathic or carbonate of iron, and brown hematites ; these are found in beds enclosed by metamorphic gneiss in the neighbour- hood of the lakes of Como and Iseo, and in the Val Sassina, also in the Bergamask Mountains, where they compose layers or seams, sometimes two and even three fathoms thick in triassic red sandstone or green slate. The brown hematite contains much manganese, and is therefore particularly suitable for the produc- tion of manganiferous spiegeleisen or a white radiated pig iron." In the island of Elba, on the eastern side, at Kio Albano, Eio Marina, Terranera, and Capo Calamita, specular iron ore, red hematite, and magnetic ores, are stiU wrought as they were centuries ago. The mines at Elba furnished the Etruscans with iron oi'e, from which they made iron long before the foundation of ancient Eome ; and the miaes are now far from being exhausted. The oldest mines in Elba are those of Eio Mai'ina, but the opera- tions in recent years are confined to picking the rich ores from * " Reports of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873," vol. iii. p. 423. 796 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. the heaps left hj the old miners ; these heaps in some places attaining a height of 500 feet. The production of iron ore in Elba exceeds 200,000 tons per annum, the greater part of which is exported to Corsica, France, England, and Germany, about 40,000 tons being smelted in Tuscany, at FoUonica, Cecina, Val- piana, and other places. The deposits of Eio Marina are specular iron ore, and red hematite resting upon talcose schist, and covered by crystalline limestone, having an area of about 30 acres, the depth of the deposit being considerable. At Rio Albano and Terranera the lodes of specular iron ore break through the talcose schist, and cover it with beds of the same material from 30 to 100 feet thick; and at Capo Calamita there is a lode of magnetic iron ore which, rising from the level of the sea, intersects a thick crystalline lime- stone, sending frequently branches into the latter, and surmount- ing it by a large bell-shaped mass which attains a thickness of 150 feet, composed chiefly of specular iron ore, red hematite, actinolite, and green garnet. The iron ores above referred to yield respectively of metallic iron 66"27 per cent., 65"35 per cent., and 61 "81 per cent. The following analyses show the composition of these ores ; those of Calamita and Terranera are by Professor Sestini ; that of Rio Albano was made in the laboratory of the Phcenix Ironworks in Germany : — EESuiiTS Tabulated. Constituents. Calamita. Terranera. Rio Albano. Sesquioxide of iron . Oxide of manganese . . . Alumina Lime Magnesia .... Silica Copper Sulphur Phosphorus .... Insoluble rock . . . . Water and loss . . 94-67 0-33 3-28 0-04 0-03 trace. i-65 93-36 trace. 0-58 0-16 0-17 6- 11 3-64 1-98 87-84 0-07 3-47 0-22 0-34 5-97 6-17 0-01 i-91 Total .... 100-00 100-00 100-00 Metallic iron .... 66-27 1 65-35 61-81 Imports of Iron Ore from Italy. — These are considerable, CHAP. XXIII.] FOREIGN IRON ORES. 797 although great fluctuations appear in recent years ; since 1864 the quantities imported into this country, with the value in each of the same years, are given as follows in the " Trade and Navigation Eeturns : " — Year. Quantitiea. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1864 6,224 6,221 1873 31,729 46,545 1865 4,289 4,271 1874 33,394 46,938 1866 1,292 1,292 1875 40,109 46,859 1867 * 1876 60,620 63,302 1868 * 1877 86,301 86,836 1870 119 445 1878 48,771 46,104 1871 3,320 3,167 1879 43,763 49,713 1872 47,755 61,091 1880 176,750 182,556 The average price of these ores previous to 1872 was about 20s. per ton ; in 1872 they rose to 25s. 6d. j)er ton, and in 1874 to 28s. per ton, since which prices have receded, not exceeding 22s. 6d. per ton in the year 1879, and 20s. 8d. in 1880. Chreece. — The iron ores obtained from the Grecian Archipelago are found in the Island of Seriphos. The deposits consist both of magnetic iron ore and of brown hematite, similar to the Bilbao ore, but in some of the mines strongly manganiferous. The magnetic ores have not hitherto been worked, as they are not so favourably situated for transport as the brown hematites. These occur as beds inter stratified with calcareous shales and marbles, and often forming the surface stratum, so that they can be worked simply by open quarrj'ing ; and, as they are situated close to the coast, ships can lie within a few hundred feet from the mines themselves, by which the expense of extraction is reduced to a minimum. As to quantity, although the works are of small extent and principally open quarries, enough has been opened out to pi'ove more than a million tons of ore, and there is no reason to doubt the continuance of these iron ore beds in depth. The ore raised and imported into this country from the mines in the Island of Seriphos was smelted some j'ears ago with very satis- factory results, at the Eoyal Greek Ironworks, situated at WaUs- end, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The quality of the ore was excellent, as may be seen by the following analyses, made by Mr. John Pattinson, of Newcastle, from the different mines : — "f * Not separately distinguished. t " Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute," 1875, p. 293. 798 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT II. Constituents, No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Peroxide of iron . 80-64 81-64 66-07 67-55 Sesquioxide of iron . . 0-96 1-41 ... Peroxide of manganese . 0-98 1-75 6-91 8-73 Alumina . . . . 1-20 0-40 0-40 0-20 Lime .... 1-90 2-56 9-83 8-65 Magnesia . . . . 0-63 0-51 0-39 0-48 Carbonic acid 0-76 6-90 6-80 Silica .... 7-23 5-43 3-67 3-47 Sulphur trace. trace. 0-06 0-02 Phosphoric acid . . 0-07 0-05 0-06 0-07 Combined -water . 5-68 5-08 4-61 4-43 Moisture Total . Metallic iron per cent. . Manganese per cent. 0-81 0-76 1-37 1-57 100-10 100-34 100-27 101-97 57-20 58-25 46-25 45-90 0-61 0-89 5-62 7-33 The reduction of these ores commenced in the works above- named about the year 1873, north country coke being alone em- ployed, the pig iron produced by its superior quality proving the high character of the ores, which, being in part calcareous, are mixed with one another when charged into the blast furnace, so as to require no limestone or other flux to assist in their reduction. The pig iron produced has proved of admirable quality, and well adapted for conversion into steel by the Bessemer process, while puddled steel has also been made from it. Owing to the quantity of manganese contained in the pig iron, it is considered to be particularly well suited for the manufacture of steel. The quantities imported do not appear regularly in the official returns, being included with ores received from other countries ; in 1875, however, the quantities imported amounted to 10,249 tons, valued at i614,736, giving an average of 26s. per ton. ITorway. — The ores of Norway are chiefly magnetic, and have been wrought from a remote period. The principal deposits are found in the neighbourhood of Kragero and Arendal, and have' a range of many miles in a direction parallel to the coast, occurring in hornblendic and micaceous schists. The mines near Arendal are situated at Lahgsev and Solberg. At Langsev and at the Barbo, an adjoining mine, a large rock of garnet is intimately mixed with augite, calcspar, and magnetic iron ore ; where the latter forms concentrations, which are sometimes 3 to 4 fathoms thick, and contain from 30 to 40 per cent, of iron, the CHAP, xxni.] FOREIGN IROK ORES. 799 ore is obtained in open quarry workings. The Solberg Mine produces a similar ore, being a mixture of magnetic iron ore, garnet, augite, and calcspar, and both ores are smelted without a flax, yielding a pure and exceptionally strong iron. The deposits are not extensively worked, as the yield of metallic iron does not exceed 40 per cent., and consequently the ores are not exported to any great extent. Since the year 1865 the quantities of iron ore imported into Great Britain from the mines of Norway appear in the annexed table, with the respective values : — Year. Quantities. Value. Tear. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1865 5,850 8,372 1872 21,014 25,098 1866 4,857 5,441 1873 16,651 17,985 1867 5,560 5,367 1874 28,680 32,786 1868 12,073 . 10,503 1875 24,192 26,813 1869 16,556 12,822 1876 8,749 8,927 1870 15,928 12,532 1877 5,865 6,421 1871 2,264 1,975 1878 1,023 978 The imported quantities from Norway show a great falling off since 1875 from 24,192 tons to 1,023 tons in 1878, and in the year 1879 the name has disappeared from the customs returns. In 1874, the year of greatest importation, the average price of these ores was 22s. per ton. Sweden. — Ores of iron exist in abundance in this kingdom, although mineral fuel is almost entirely deficient, and the little it t)ossesses has not yet been utilised in its iron industries. The iron ores of Sweden are either magnetic iron ore or specular iron ore and hematite, principally found in metamorphic gneiss ; also bog iron ores. The most celebrated mines are those worked at Taberg, in Jonkoping, where a greenstone, containing over 30 per cent, of iron and 6'2 per cent, of titanium and vanadium, constitutes a whole mountain. Another important district, Upsala county, may be mentioned, where are situated the cele- brated mines of Dannemora. Bog iron is extensively raised in the counties of Jonkoping, Kronoberg, Kalmar, and Skaraborg; this ore is chiefly reduced in the blast furnaces of the localities named, where foundry pig iron is made, the iron thus made con- taining so much phosphorus as to unfit it for conversion into malleable iron, it is therefore exclusively employed for the pro- duction of light castings, such as stoves, kitchen ranges, and hollow ware. 800 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT II. The ii'on ores of Sweden imported into Great Britain are in- considerable, not exceeding 5,850 tons in any one year since 1865. It -will, however, be interesting to note the imports and values in each year since 1861, which are as follows ; importation ceasing in 1877 :— Tear. Quantities. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1861 376 313 1870 15 37 1862 554 533 1871 397 397 1863 270 358 1872 625 1,884 1864 1,984 1,804 1873 436 1,847 1865 5,850 8,372 1874 41 322 1866 4,685 6,746 1875 143 740 1867 305 475 1876 23 147 1868 1,506 2,258 1877 91 431 1869 835 1,251 Analyses of Swedish Ores. — The followiag five important varieties illustrate the ores of Sweden, the Dannemora ore No. 1 being especially employed for producing the highest class of steel iron, is referred to as a fine-graiued magnetite. In the first analysis, by Ward, the ore is described as a compact black mineral, containing a very small trace of iron pyrites. The second and third, by Noad, are of magnetic ores from Eoslageh, on the east coast of Sweden, north of Stockholm ; the fourth is of a lake ore from Flaten, Wermland, by Svanberg ; * and the last a titanic ore. Eesults Tabtjlated. Constituents. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Lake Ore. Titanic Ore. Peroxide of iron . 58-93 62-06 56-80 67-59 54.00 Protoxide of iron . . 27-55 28-42 27-50 ... 28-29 Protoxide of manganese Oxide of manganese . . Lime .... 0-10 0-38 trace. 0-24 i-80 i-45 0-47 ... Magnesia . . . . Alumina 0-61 0-29 1-44 0-80 0-23 4-18 6-96 Silica .... 12-54 7-60 13-20 7-81 3-05 Titanic acid . ... 13-50 Carbonic acid . . . 0-12 Sulphur Phosphoric acid . . Water .... Total . . . Metallic iron . 0-04 trace. 0-11 6-07 0-18 17-81 6-20 100-67 99-59 100-34 99-72 100-00 62-60 65-60 61-16 47-32 59-80 * Bauerman, " Metallurgy of Iron," pp. 62, 79. CHAP, xxm.] FOREIGN IRON ORES. 801 BrTissia. — Ores of iron have in recent years been imported from this distant empire in notable quantities, commanding a very high price, inducing to the belief that they contain chromate of iron. " The chromic iron ore of the Ural mountains forms masses, nests or veins, in serpentine. The richest kind contains 60 per •cent, of chromium, but it is usually less, going as tow as 30 per cent., the average being from 62 to 64 per cent. ; often it is so intimately mixed with magnetite, that it ceases to be a chi'ome ■ore proper. (The deposits are mostly on the eastern slope of the Ural mountains.) Since 1862 they have been ui demand for •export, but the cost of transport is so great that ores below ■SO per cent, are practically unsaleable." * Russia is comparatively rich in iron ores, considerable deposits ■of brown hematite occur in Western Russia in the district of Bieloi; where the upper bed, described as " a brown hematite," mixed with clay and sand, is found at a depth varying from one to seven feet from the surface, the overlying soil being a reddish- yellow clay. This bed of iron ore varies in thickness from 20 to 30 inches, and in many parts is succeeded by another bed of similar ore from seven to fifteen inches in thickness. The chemical analyses of the ores of the above-named district made at Moscow and St. Petersburgh show it to be an hydrated peroxide •of iron, with an admixture of sand and clay contaming from •29"70 to 85"00 per cent, of metallic iron. Similar ores are said to occur in more than twenty localities situated from each other about fifteen miles in the same district. Appended are the quantities and values of the ores imported from Russia in each year since 1870, according to the "Trade and Navigation returns ": — Tear. Quantities. Value. Yeai-. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1870 7,892 58,415 1875 3,602 28,641 1811 3,888 23,334 1876 4,866 31,076 1872 14,236 94,481 1877 6,339 45,486 1873 4,668 37,600 1878 8,051 49,328 1874 12,244 94,527 1879 4,043 22,455 The total quantity of ore imported in the year 1880 amounted to 15,723 tons, of the declared value of £98,264, giving an average value of nearly £6 5s. per ton. * Aper^u des Eiohesses Min^rales de la Eusse, p. 105. 3 P 802 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PABT II. Turkey in Asia. — The ores imported from Turkey, like those from Kussia, are of a valuahle description, and in all probability of the same character, containing perhaps some chromate of iron. The quantities annually imported since 1866 appear in the follow- ing table, with the values : — Year. Quantities. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ 1866 436 2,680 1873 1,329 10,927 1867 507 3,140 1874 835 5,630 1868 1,427 10,850 1875 6,538 46,921 1869 1,717 4,800 1876 7,778 54,577 1870 4,426 29,140 1877 12,016 70,942 1871 6,032 37,923 1878 3,215 16,456 1872 4,090 23,295 1879 4,881 34,271 The imports in the year 1880 amounted to 10,683 tons, of the value of £71,897, giving an average value of nearly £6 5s. per ton. Total Imported Ores. — With the foregoing general reference to those countries furnishing supplies of iron ore to the United Kingdom, and the localities of some of the more important deposits, it only remains to give the total quantities and values in each year, which are here appended : — Ieon Oee niPOETED ufTO Great BRiTAnsr." Year. Quantities. Value. Year. Quantities. Value. Tons. & Tons. £ 1863 62,167 46,486 1872 801,503 1,014,842 1864 74,163 65,702 1873 967,536 1,278,278 1865 76,977 72,491 1874 754,141 1,021,481 1866 56,689 49,081 1875 458,693 583,571 1867 86,569 69,218 1876 672,235 795,510 1868 114,438 94,620 1877 1,142,308 1,256,069 1869 131,321 101,644 1878 1,173,860 1,161,638 1870 208,310 166,190 1879 1,083,692 1,037,719 1871 324,034 343,175 1880 2,634,401 2,792,717 The returns for 1880 show a remarkable increase over the previous year ; the largest importation coming from Spain. Prices showing an upward tendency, from nearly 20s. per ton, in the year 1879, to 22s. per ton in the year 1880. The aluminous ore known as " Bauxite," though not imported into this country, possesses much interest from the fact that it is * Trade and Navigation Eeturns. CHAP. XXIII.] FOREIGN IRON ORES. 803 employed in some of the Continental iron works, where, in recent investigations on the dephosphorisation of iron and steel, con- siderable attention has been given to it and its constituents. Seven varieties, subjected to analysis by M. de Wendels, con- firming others made by M. Fovey, show the following results. It being remarked that it is impossible to procure bauxite con- taining much less than 10 per cent, of silica : — Eesults Tabtjlated. No. Kind of Bauxite. Silica. Alumina. Peroxide of iron. Lime. Value. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 White .... Rose coloured . . . Red ... . Reddisli brown . . . ( Dark reddish brown of ) ( compact quality . ] 1 Red with pisolitic iron ( ore grain . . . ( Gray with pisolitic iron ( ore grain . 10-40 10-90 11-80 11-90 34-50 9-80 9-70 66-99 67-21 53-46 53-51 29-44 41-62 41-54 5-71 5-14 23-99 23-99 23-26 35-08 35-46 3-15 3-10 Francs. 16 14 10 8 5 6 5 The value of the bauxite delivered at Aries or Tarascon, near Marseilles, varying, according to quality, from 4s. to 12s. 6^^. per ton. It is explained, in reference to the above analyses, that the specimens were previously dried and calcined. The amount of water contained in the ores in situ varying, according to the season, from 12 to 22 per cent, The ores referred to as Nos. 4 and 6 are employed as fluxes, with Algerian ores, in the blast furnaces at Beaucaire, situated near Tarascon. An Italian Company, some years since made many experiments to use bauxite, for the production of iron. The final result, however, was a failure with considerable loss. Bauxite was formerly used in this country and in France for the production of aluminium, as it was found that the alumina existed in a state of much purity in this ore. • The only deposit of bauxite wrought in the United Kingdom is that worked by the Irish Hill Mining Co., at their Irish Hill and Straid Mines, situated near Ballyclare, in the County Antrim, on the north-east coast of Ireland.* * For Analyses, see page 773. 3 P 2 CHAPTER XXIV. FLUXES (LIMESTONES) USED IN Pia IRON MANUFACTUEB. Flnxes (LimeBtones) used in the reduction of the Ores of Iron in the Blast Furnaces of Great Britain — Description and Analyses of Fluxes used in Durham and Northumberland and the North Eiding of Yorkshire — Cumberland — Lanca- shire — North and South Staffordshire — Northamptonshire — ^Wiltshire — South Wales and Scotland. riuxes (Limestones) used in Pig Iron Manufactare. — North of England, Durham, Northumberland, and North Riding of Yorkshire. — The principal flux employed by the iron smelter in the above-named counties is limestone, this material exists abundantly in the districts under review. Adjoining the town of Stanhope the carboniferous or mountain limestone is extensively wrought, furnishing the chief part of the limestone used in the blast furnaces in which the Cleveland stone is smelted. At Stanhope it constitutes a rock of great thickness and is very readily excavated from a bed of from 60 to 70 feet in thickness, lying immediately under the alluvial covering. While speaking of the limestone, it may be mentioned that it is traversed in some places by metaUiferous veins occasionally rich in lead, con- taining among other minerals carbonate and hydrated peroxide of iron. The composition of the mountain limestone is exhibited in the following analysis : — Ebstilts Tabtoated. Insoluble in hydrooHoric acid . . . . 2-00 Peroxide jpf iron and alumina 0'98 Magnesia 1-08 Lime 53-35 Carbonic acid 43-02 100-43 The lime manufactured from this stone is valuable as an agri- CHAP. XXIT.] FLUXES (limestones). 805 cultural manure, and is also employed for purifying gas, tanning, and other chemical purposes. The limestone used at the Stockton Iron Works obtained from the Broadwood quarries described as " dark gray in colour, and crystalline ;" and another variety used at the Iron Works of the Weardale Company, " slatey gray in colour and containing fossil shells," show the following constituents : both samples were dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr. : — Eestjits Tabuxated. Constituents. Stockton. Weardale. Carbonate of lime . 95-92 95-55 Carbonate of magnesia . . 1-85 3-20 Carbonate of iron 0-53 trace Carbonate of manganese . . trace ... Siliceous matter 1-70 0-90 Carbonaceous matter . . . 0-23 Organic matter trace Phosphate of lime . . . Total .... ... 0-12 100-00 100-00 Another limestone (locality not stated) employed at the South Bank furnaces, Middlesborough-on-Tees, described as " dark gray crystalline limestone," gives the annexed composition in 100 parts.* EeSTJLTS TASUIiATED. Carbonate of Ume 83-65 Carbonate of magnesia 13-43 Carbonate of iron 1-71 Carbonate of manganese trace Phosphate of lime trace Carbonaceous matter 0-39 Sand and clay 0-64 "Water and loss 0-18 Total 100-00 The Hobberlaw limestone, in the neighbourhood of Alnwick, and the limestone obtained at North Sunderland, examined by Mr. Hugh Taylor, of Cramlington, show the following results. It is remarked of the limestones of these districts, that although they differ but little in colour from the rock in other localities, • " Cast Iron Experiments," Eetum No. 497, 1858, p. 35. 806 COAL AND IRON INDUSTKIES, [part II. yet they answer all the requirements of the iron smelter, as car- bonate of lime enters so largely into their composition : — Constitaents. Hobterlaw. Sunderland. Carbonate of lime . Carbonate of magnesia . . Peroxide of iron and aluinina . Sand Total .... 96-986 1-006 •590 1-209 96-637 1-938 •526 •707 99-791 99-808 The carboniferous limestone of Holy Island, distinguished by a " Top" and "Bottom Bed," exhibits some remarkable condi- tions, from the quantity of carbonate of magnesia contained in the top bed exceeding 35 per cent. ; the respective constituents appear in the annexed analyses : — Constituents. Top Bed. Bottom Bed. Carbonate of lime . Carbonate of magnesia . . Iron and aluinina Sand Total .... 59-280 35-121 3-746 1-384 96-234 2-076 •242 1-273 99-531 99-825 The Permian limestone of Raisby Hill and the carboniferous of Harmby, largely employed by the iron smelter, also chalk, -which is used in small ■ quantities in admixture with the limestone, exhibit the following results on analyses ; it may be observed that the chalk is obtained from the south of England, from whence it is brought by coasting vessels to the northern parts : — Constituents. EaisTjy. Haxmlsy. Chalk. Carbonate of lime . Carbonate of magnesia . . Alumina and peroxide of iron , Total .... 97-54 0-90 1-35 95-26 2-21 2-98 96-15 1-32 3-20 99-79 100-45 100-67 Camberlaud. — The aluminous ores of the County Antrim, in the North of Ireland, are extensively used as a flux in the iron works of Cumberland, in admixture with the hematite ores. CHAP. SXIV.] FLUXES (limestones). 807 These ores are fairly represented in the annexed analyses of two samples hy Mr. C. Tookey; an analysis of bauxite, by Mr. Bell, is given side by side : — Constituents. Aluminous Ore. Bauxite. Silica .... Alumina .... Peroxide of iron Protoxide of iron Protoxide of manganese . Lime ..... Magnesia .... Potash .... Titanic acid Volatile .... 9-75 27-95 35-91 6-57 0-05 0-60 0-20 0-49 18-60 9-87 34-57 27-93 6-08 traces 0-91 0-62 3-51 19-36 2-8 57-4 25-5 0-2 3-1 11-0 Total . 100-12 101-85 100-0 The limestone abounding in the Whitehaven district is very generally used as it is a good material. It is described as " fine grained crystalline ; light brownish-gray in colour, and containing fossil shells (terebratula) ; " * on analysis this hmestone gives the following results : — Sample Deied at 212° Fahk. Carbonate of lime 97.63 Carbonate of magnesia ...... 1 -03 Carbonate of iron 0-24 Carbonate of manganese 0-11 Sulphate of lime 0-07 Phosphate of lime trace Carbonaceous matter 0-06 Alumina 0-10 Silica (principally sand) 0-76 Total 100-00 The ordinary black shale of the coal measures, consistiug of clay and carbonaceous matter, and not containing an appreciable amount of sulphur, has occasionally been employed as a flux. Lancashire. Fluxes employed. — The shale of the coal measures sometimes used as a flux is thus composed. The sample ex- amined by Dr. Frankland was obtained from the neighbourhood of Manchester : — * " Cast Iron Experiments," Eeturn No. 497, 1858, p. 19. 808 COAL AND IRON INDUSTEIES. [pakt ii. Coal Meastjee Shale. Silica 61-91 Alumina 21'73 Protoxide of iron ... ... 4-73 Lime .... 009 Magnesia . . 0-59 Potash 3'16 Soda 0-25 Volatile matter 7 '43 Total 99-89 The carboniferous limestone of Lancashire in which the hematite occurs affords a plentiful and good supply ; that used at Askam is obtained from a neighbouring quarry at Stainton, and has the following composition : — Anaitsis op Stainton Limestone. Carbonate of lime 95 "00 Carbonate of magnesia ... . . 4-20 Silica ... 0-50 Oxide of iron and alumina . . . . 0"30 Total 100-00 The aluminous ores of the North of Ireland from the County Antrim are also to some extent employed in admixture with the ores of Furness and Whitehaven, as a means of producing a better slag and to some extent controlling the percentage of silica in the pig iron. These aluminous ores are of several varieties, containing from 20 to 27 and as much as 35 per cent, of alumina, and will be found fully described with their respective analyses m the section devoted to the iron ore deposits of Ireland. ITortli Staffordshire. — The limestone raised from the Froghall quarries, and used at the Goldendale Iron AVorks, near Stoke- upon- Trent, described as " light coloured and crystalline," gives the following constituents on analysis : — Sample Dried at 212° Eahr. Carbonate of lime 97-89 Carbonate of magnesia 0-87 Carbonate of iron .0-48 Carbonate of manganese traces Pbospbate of Ume trace Silica (sand) 0-63 Total 99-87 CHAP. XXIV.] FLUXES (limestones). 809 Soutli Staffordslure. — The Silurian limestone of Dudley is extensively employed in the furnaces of South Staffordshire and Worcestershire. The varieties used in the Netherton furnaces and the Park Head furnaces, derived from the Dudley quarries, are described as " light-coloured and crystalline," average samples being selected for analysis from fine and coarse grained speci- mens, giving the annexed results : — Conatituents. Netherton Furnace. Park Head Furnace. Carbonate of Kme . Carbonate of magnesia . . Carbonate of iron Clay and sand . . . . Organic matter and water Water and loss .... Total .... 97-31 1-00 0-62 1-27 0-20 97-10 0-85 0-60 1-15 6-30 100-40 100-00 Another limestone obtained from the Springfield quarry, Dudley, used at the Old Hill furnaces, being described as "light- coloured, crystalline ; with a small vein of qviartz running through the sample," exhibits the annexed constituents. In each case the limestone was dried at 212° Fahr. : — Carbonate of lime 88-85 Carbonate of magnesia 2-03 Carbonate of iron 1-21 Phosphoric acid 0-26 Siliceous matter 8-15 Total 100-50 Traces of carbonate of manganese and organic matter were also found, it being further ascertained that the siliceous matter consisted of quartz with a little clay. ITortliaiuptoushire. — The materials principally employed are light-coloui-ed argillaceous limestone and chalk ; of the former, two varieties may be referred to, the one "pale yellow in colour, and oolitic in structure ;" the other " light-coloured and composed entirely of an agglomeration of fossil shells ;" while the chalk is of the ordinary description, consisting of carbonate of lime, with traces only of silica, alumina, peroxide of iron and carbonate of magnesia. The two following analyses of limestone are obtained 810 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. from samples dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr., and have the following constituents : — * Eesults Tabtilated. Constituents. No. 1. No. 2. Carbonate of lime . Carbonate of iron Carbonate of magnesia Siliceous matter . Organic matter Ferruginous clay and sand . Water .... 89-36 3-38 0-97 trace 6-00 0-43 96-86 1-36 0-90 0-88 Total 100-14 100-00 The first named variety was formerty employed at the East End Ironworks, near Wellingborough, of Messrs. Butlin and Co. These works have been for some years dismantled ; and the second variety at the Heyford Iron Works, near Weedon, during the occupation of Messrs. Judkins and Co. Wiltshire. — The rocks of the immediate neighbourhood yield the required materials, two varieties are at hand, and are advanta- geously used as reducing agents in the smelting operations of the blast furnace. The one a limestone, oolitic in character, the other a hard chalk, both rich in carbonate .of lime, which wiU appear in the following analysis of each variety : — Constituents Oolitic Limestone. Hard Clialk. Carbonate of lime 91-833 93-104 Magnesia . 0-79B 0-188 Oxide of iron . 0-885 Oxide of manganese 0-721 Alumina . 1-102 trace Potash 0-584 Soda 0-610 Sulphuric acid 0-897 Phosphoric acid trace Silica . 1-204 1-110 Chloride of sodium trace Carbonate of iron 2-677 Phosphate of lime . .• 0-523 Sulphate of lime . . .. 0-132 Organic matter 1-865 Water and loss . Total . 1-368 0-401 100-00 100-00 " Cast Iron Bxperiments," Return No. 497, 1858, p. 113. CHAP. XXIV.] FLUXES (limestones). 811 The Westbury Iron Company (Limited) in the year 1862 con- tributed a most interesting and instructive series of the materials employed, and the products of their furnaces, to the exhibition of London in that year, and at the close of the exhibition pre- sented the collection to the Museum of Practical Geology, where it was in due com'se deposited and may be examined. The case containing the collection wiU be found on the principal floor, at the south east c6rner, amongst the specimens illustrating the manufactiu'e of iron. It comprises samples of the Wiltshire ore from Westbury, of the brown and green varieties, of which analyses appear in a previous page, as well as the oolitic lime- stone and hard chalk used as fluxes ; examples of the iron made from Nos. 1 to 4 are included, exhibiting the structure and cha- racter of each variety, and the cinder obtained therefrom. Bright iron, white iron, and mottled iron, also refined metal, are illustrated in the series, together with a sample of the cinder produced by each variety. There also appears in this collection some very curious and interesting products derived from the furnaces, amongst which may be named Cyano-Nitride of tita- nium, and an artificial graphite known as " Kish." South Wales.— Few of the ores of iron are found to contain earthy ingredients in proportions sufiicient to form readily fusible slags alone, it therefore becomes necessary to supply the defi- ciency. This is done by the admixture of ores of dissimilar character ; for instance, siliceous with calcareous ores or both with argillaceous ores in such quantities as shall yield slags of the desired composition, or by the addition of calcareous or aluminous minerals not containing iron. The principal flux employed by the iron smelter is limestone, usually obtained from a neighbouring quarry, the varieties selected being such as contain the greatest amount of carbonate of lime. In the case of the rich red hematite ores of the West Coast of Ulverston and Whitehaven, argillaceous fluxes are necessary in addition to lime- stone. Aluminous ore obtained from the County Antrim, and known as " Belfast aluminous ore," containing a large quantity of free alumina, has in recent years been extensively used. Of the fluxes used in the South Wales furnaces, those situated in the eastern area of the coal-field in Monmouthshire employ two varieties of limestone, known as " rough " and " smooth ; " these are employed at the Blaenavon Iron Works, and are thus 812 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part II. described in the Eeport of cast iron experiments made at "Wool- wich, as follows : — 1. " Eough limestone" has a large crystalline structure, is light brown in colour, and contains numerous fossil shells. 2. " Smooth limestone " has an oolitic structure and is usually pale in colour. Samples deied at 212° Fahbenheit. Constituents. Rough. Smooth. Carbonate of lime . Carbonate of magnesia . . Carbonate of iron . Pbosphate of lime . . . Silica (sand) .... Total .... 98-O0 0-54 0-50 0-03 0-73 99-26 0-63 0-33 0-02 0-27 100-35 100-51 Scotland. — Analyses of limestones employed in the iron fur- naces of Scotland. The following are some of the most important, examined by Mr. St. John V. Day, C.E., of Glasgow, and pub- lished in " Iron " in 1876 :— Constituents. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Lime 50-46 51-97 51-93 52-35 49-30 47-98 Magnesia . . -62 -29 -60 •21 •49 1-71 Protoxide of ) u-on . . J Carbonic acid . •48 •90 -66 •16 •51 •98 40-57 41-61 41-72 41-44 39-57 40-02 Phosphoric acid -05 -09 -16 . •02 •02 -17 Sulphur . . -12 -21 •16 -26 -32 Iron combined ) ■with sulphur f -11 ... -18 -14 ■23 •28 Alumina . 2-61 -92 1-25 1-48' 2-42 2-54 Silica . . . 4-88 2-48 1-92 2-64 6-60 4-80 Organic matter trace 1-44 1-07 1-10 •40 •84 Water . Total . . Specific gravity -10 -30 -30 -30 •20 •36 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100^00 100^00 2-553 2-727 2-715 2-703 2-717 2-500 CHAPTEE XXV. COAL trSED IN PIG IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. Coal used towards the close of the past century— Mr. W. Jessop's Inquiry — Coal Commission and Mining Record Office Inquiries — Coal used in recent years since 1871 — Details of Coal used and Iron made in the years 1872 and 1880 — Extent of economy in each year since 1871. Coal used in Pig Iron Manufacture. — It appears desirable, at the conclusion of a work so full of statistical details as this volume is, that a general summary should be given, directing attention to the more important points in this large inquiry. In the year 1788 the average quantity of coal employed was 7 tons to each ton of pig iron produced in the furnaces of England and Wales. Ten years later the quantity employed did not exceed 6 tons, and "between 1800 and 1802 the consumption averaged but 5 tons. Mr. William Jessop's Eeturn, which has been frequently referred to, gives the average consumption in the furnaces of Oreat Britain, in the year 1840, as not exceeding 70 cwts. of coal to each ton of pig iron made. The Report of the Royal Coal Commission in the year 1870, shows that the quantity of coal employed was 60 cwts., compared with 70 cwts. thirty years previously. Before considering in detail the advance made in recent years towards economy in the use of fuel in pig iron manufacture, it will be a fitting place to refer to some important observations recently made by the Presi- dent of the Society of Engineers, on the subject of the manufac- ture of iron, in which he observes : — " Competition in this and other countries, through the opening out by new railways of fresh iron and coal measures, and in consequence of every one endeavouring to do more than his neighbour, and to reduce the cost of smelting iron to the lowest 814 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [part ii. amount, has, I fear, in many instances, not contributed to the improvement in the quality of iron. The lives of blast furnaces are of very short duration, compared vrith what they were in the early part of the present century. I can give two instances of the length of time furnaces lasted without being blown out, and which furnaces were at the Alfreton Iron Works, Derbyshire. One blown in during the year 1812, was in blast tUl 1873, whilst another blown in during 1821 was not blown out until 1866. This latter furnace was visited by the members of the British Association, during their meeting at Nottingham. After the furnace was blown out, an examination showed that there had been formed a partial lining of plumbago, which protected the fire brick lining, which I think you will admit was a very remark- able incident in blast furnace practice. I do not find charcoal had been used in smelting during the earlier period of the life of these furnaces. Coke alone was used up to the year 1829, when equal i)arts of coal and coke were substituted. The introduction of the hot blast was the cause of all coal being used ; at that time the Furnace or Tupton coal, mixed with a lower hard coal, was the fuel used. The ironstone used was the argillaceous of the coal measures, containing from 25 to 37 per cent, of metallic iron. The iron in the raw stone exists as a carbonate, and requires calcining at a cherry red heat to convert the carbonate into a peroxide of iron for smelting. Iron made from this ore is very strong indeed. The bands of ironstone, technically called ' rakes,' are some of them found with the coal seams ; the blue rake lies above the lower hai-d coal ; the kernel rake lies above the yard coal. Nine different rakes have been worked at the Alfreton Iron Works, and it was found that the greater the variety used, the better and stronger was the iron produced. I find Durham coke the best for smelting furnaces. The demand for iron being greater, and the deposits of the oolitic formation being used, iron making took a new form. Blast furnaces were constructed to produce very large quantities of pig iron, and works were erected for the purpose of using the oolitic ores alone. In consequence of not having any of the old strong argillaceous ores mixed with them, iron sometimes gets into bad repute, and makers of strong iron are sometimes to their disadvantage classed with others who do not so mix the iron ores. I find also . CHAP. XXV.] COAL USED IN PIG IKON MANUFACTURE. 815 that the hard coal of Derbyshire gives the iron a better quality than coke as used in the north," "Furnaces using coal do not require to be built more than 50 feet high, but those using coke are best at 70 feet or upwards. Low furnaces are undoubtedly the best for the iron ores lying in the Midland Counties, and are about 48 feet high, 3 to 3^^ inch tuyeres, pressure of blast 4 to 4| lbs., and blast heated to about 750° Fahr. A furnace of this description makes a good tenacious iron, from a mixture of ores from Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, and the argillaceous ores of Derbyshu'e, and smelted with the best hard coal, clean and free from pyrites. Eemelting iron in the cupola should be very carefully performed. The iron should consist of a mixture of three or four kinds of pig, and the coke should be very clean and free from sulphur ; or, however good the pig iron may be, the remelting will ruin the iron, make it tender, and it will not sustain nearly the strain it should do, heiice some of the best founders do not sell pig iron. The metal from the blast furnace requires testing every day, and if the remelting be carefully carried out, and the castings allowed to remain in the sand long enough to prevent them being chilled, there need then be no fear of the iron not standing the required test, which generally is as follows : — " That a bar of 1 inch square, and 38 inches long, and weighing not more than 10 pounds, will, when supported at points 36 inches apart, and loaded in the middle, sustain a weight of not less than 7 cwt. I think it would be weU for every one entering our profession to go first for a time into a foundry and see for himself the varying contraction which goes on in different kinds of iron; afterwards he should go into the pattern shop. He would afterwards remember to design his works so that the iron should contract as far as possible uniformly, and so that one part should not fracture another during cooling, which is very often the case." Beturning to the question of the economy of fuel in manufac- ture, the year 1873, known as the year of the coal famine, led to more precise information on the subject; in that year a Com- mittee of the House of Commons appointed to inquire into the cause of the "Deamess and Scarcity of Coal," extended its inquiries to the quantities consumed in the manufacture of pig 816 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAET II. iron; circulars were issued to every ironmaster in the country; these were liberally responded to, and the result of the inquiry showed that in the manufacture of 6,741,929 tons of pig iron made in the year 1872, the total quantity at^ coal employed amounted to 17,211,729 tons, thus distributed in &eat Byfitain: England Wales . Scotland Total Pig Iron. Tons. 4,594,614 1,057,315 1,090,000 6,741,929 Coal Used. Tons. 11,388,342 2,607,887 3,215,500 17,211,729 tit. ij r( These figures giving an average of 2 tons 11 cwt. o^'^f coal to ■each ton of pig iron made. In some districts this av'® erage was greatly exceeded, particularly in the West EidinaXof "'Yorkshire and Shropshire, where cold blast is stiU em]/ :"'lS#' in the furnaces, in making those brands of iron for which are celebrated ; the average in the first-named d was 65 cwts. of coal, and in Shropshire 60 cwts. '^S of coal to each lesejdistricts ^in 1872 ton of pig iron made. it. of? ^ *^-*'.. 42 cwts., ly 'the The Durham, Lancashire, and Cumberland dis^' ^^^itricts, in which the rich coke of the Great Northern Coal Fiel* ^\ is extensively ■employed, giving an average respectively of 40 c^ and 47 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made. Again, in Scotland where raw coal is extensively ui^^'^ied in the ■smelting operations of the blast furnaces, the average iif^® 1 1872 was 55 cwts. of coal to each ton of iron. Of late years, h(' Wever, the more general application of gas-saving apparatus ir^^''i our iron works has largely contributed to economy in the use o:^'f fuel. Taking the years 1872 and 1873 when these special ,1 inquiiues were instituted as marking a new era in the history cJi°^f iron, and of coal used in manufacture, the annexed statement r^%r the last- named year will afford generally reUable informatior| i and serve for comparison in the returns of production in future r fyears. In this table appears the numbers of furnaces in§. each iron- producing distiict, in Great Britain, the iron madep, coal used, ■with the average yield per furnace, and of coal used Ko each ton of pig iron made in the year 1873 : — f CHAP. XXV.] COAL USED IN PIG IRON MANUPACTnUE. 817 FURSACES. Pig Iron Made. AVERAGE. Districts. Built. In Blast. Coal Used. Per Furnace. Coal Used. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cwts. England — Northumberland. . . . 10 4 44,807 101,347 11,202 45 Durham .... 64 49| 799,573 1,848,100 16,071 40 Yorkshire, North Riding 78 76 1,156,431 2,643,997 15,216 46 „ 'West Riding . 40 30 161,511 493,976 5,050 66 Derbyshire . 47 39 296,468 865,360 7,601 68 Lancashire 44 36 629,271 1,108,192 14,702 42 Cumberland 48 33J 456,877 1,079,118 13,638 47 Shropshire 29 21 135,149 407,876 6,435 60 Staffordshii-e, North . 36 29 241,166 710,856 8,316 59 „ South 142 99 673,397 1,968,580 6,801 68 Northamptonshire Lincolnshire . 16 10 68,480 169,692 6,848 58 13 9 52,076 142,236 6,786 65 Gloucestershire . 10 6 44,409 134,019 3,841 60 "Wiltshire Somersetshire 7 1 51 1 f 48,944 131,293 8,167 53 Total England . North Wales— 675 448i 4,688,199 11,804,632 10,406 61 Denbighshire . . . . 9 5 42,773 135,180 8,554 63 Flintshire .... Total North 'Wales . . South Wales— 4 3 24,690 52,098 8,230 42 13 8 67,463 187,278 8,433 55 Anthracite furnaces . 13 8 32,822 81,837 4,102 60 Bitumens |e,, ^re. Districts JMonmouthshu'e. Total South 'Wales Scotland . . . . 73 61 424,384 1,047,245 8,321 49 62 42 360,583 867,640 8,585 48 148 101 817,789 1,996,722 8,012 60 156 126 993,000 2,730,000 7,881 65 Total Great Britain 892 683i 6,566,451 16,718,532 9,612 60f Since the year 1872 a great advance has been made in the economical use of coal in pig iron manufacture. In that year the average consumption of coal in Great Britain did not exceed 51 cwts., the returns for 1873 as given above, being slightly less, about 50f cwts., showing a saving of one quarter cwt. on each ton of pig iron made. The amount appears trifling, yet when considered with reference to the total production of pig iron, it gives an aggregate of nearly 835,000 tons of coal. This economy appears prominently in the annexed table, giving the quantity of pig iron made, of coal used in its manufacture, and the average quantity of coal employed to each ton of pig iron made in each of the following years : — 3 o 818 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. Year. Pig Iron Made. Coal Used. Coal Used per Ton of Iron. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cwts. Qrs. 1871 6,627,179 19,881,537 3 1872 6,741,929 17,211,729 2 11 1873 6,566,451 16,718,562 2 10 3 1874 5,991,408 15,292,201 2 11 2 1875 6,365,462 15,646,774 2 9 1876 6,555,997 15,598,381 2 8 1877 6,608,664 15,342,445 2 6 2 1878 6,381,051 14,112,005 2 4 2 1879 5,995,337 13,117,411 2 4 1880 7,749,233 16,982,629 2 3 3 The average consumption of coal used in the year 1874 exhibits an increase over previous years ; this can scarcely be the case, and a careful consideration of the question points to the probability that in the year named too high an average was taken in the conversion of coke into its equivalent of coal. There is, therefore, good reason to assume that the average consumption of coal in that year did not exceed 2 tons 10 cwts. to each ton of pig iron made. From the above statement it will be seen that during the past decade a saving of upwards of 16 cwt. of fuel has been effected in the manufacture of each ton of pig iron, equivalent to 26'6 per cent, in the fuel used in 1880 compared with the year 1871. To bring out more clearly the extent of the economy secured since the year 1871, when the average consumption was 60 cwt. of coal to each ton of pig iron produced in the blast furnace, the following table has been prepared, showing the actual quantity of coal used in each year since 1871 ; the quantity that would have been consumed had the average of the year 1871 been maintained; and the extent of the economy in each year since 1871, between the actual returns, and the assumed, of 3 tons of coal to each ton of pig iron. It will be seen from the annexed table that in the ten years ending 1880, the total quantity of coal used in pig iron manu- facture in Great Britain, amounted to 159,902,674 tons ; had the average of 1871 been maintained 196,748,133 tons would have been the quantity consumed ; the extent of economy, amounting to 36,845,459 tons, therefore represents an actual saving of coal in ten years of no less than 23-00 per cent, in this branch of our national industries. CHAP. XXV.] COAL USED IN" PIO IRON MANUFACTURE. 819 Year. Coal Used in Pig Iron Mannfactare. Assuming Three Tons of Coal to each Ton of Pig Iron. Extent of Economy in each Year. 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 19,881,537 17,211,729 16,718,562 15,292,201 15,645,774 15,598,381 15,342,445 14,112,005 13,117,411 16,982,629 Tons. 19,881,537 20,225,787 19,699,353 17,974,224 19,096,386 19,667,991 19,825,992 19,143,153 17,986,011 23,247,699 Tons. 3,014,058 2,980,791 2,682,023 3,450,612 4,069,610 4,483,547 5,031,148 4,868,600 6,265,070 Total 159,902,674 196,748,133 36,845,459 Of the many improvements in late years tending to economy in the use of fuel in pig iron manufacture, the enlargement of the furnace may be referred to, its increased height and capacity securing, to the utmost limits, the pressure that the coal or coke would stand without being crushed by the superincumbent weight of materials in the furnace ; and enabling a greater pressure pf blast to be employed. Another improvement which has of late years exercised an important influence on om- iron industries, is the raising of the blast to double the temperature that was usual when the hot blast was introduced by Neilson, and for a consider- able period afterwards. This is effected by the use of a firebrick " Eegenerator " (such as is known as a " Siemens Eegenerator "), placed inside an air-tight wrought-iron case, such firebrick being heated by the combustion of the waste gases from the top of the furnace. The cold blast to be heated is then passed in the reverse direction through this hot brickwork, so that it is raised to a temperature of 1,500 degrees Fahrenheit, or a full red heat. These stoves are known as " Cowper's Stoves," and "Whitwell's Stoves," after the names of the inventors, and are extensively employed, not only in Great Britain, but also in Continental countries, and in the United States of America. The saving of fuel in the use of these stoves varies in different districts ; twenty per cent., however, may be generally regarded as the increased make of the furnace and the economy ia each ton of iron made where these arrangements have been introduced. With these general remarks, it only remains to refer to the 3 a 2 820 COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES. [PAKT II. volume of Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom for the year 1880, giving the details appearing in the annexed table, of the furnaces built and in blast, of pig iron made and coal used in each rron-makiag district in Great Britain; to which is added the average yield per furnace, and of coal used in manufacture : — FURNACES. Pig Iron Made. AVERAOE. Districts. Built. In Blast. Coal Used. Per Furnace. Coal Used. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cwts. Etigland— Northumberland . 4 72 ^ 1 30 t 80 750,262 1,420,766 23,445 38 Yorkshire, North Hiding 91 1,666,156 3,611,643 20,825 46 „ "West Hiding . 47 33 306,560 769,619 9,270 50 Derbyshire . 64 40 366,792 954,035 9,169 62 Lancashire 49 37 760,884 1,362,164 20,291 36i Cumberland. 51 40 790,343 1,604,097 19,758 40j Shropshire 24 12 88,338 249,254 7,361 66j Staffordshire, North . 36 23i 225,023 434,171 9,576 38i „ South. 137 46 384,556 878,681 ' 8,360 45J Northamptonshire Lincolnshire . 23 17 178,714 470,165 10,612 521 21 15 207,704 481,807 13,847 46 Gloucestershire 9 ^ ) Watshire . Hampshire ... 4 1 ■ 37,361 97,550 10,672 53 Somersetshire . Total England North Wales— 1 .. ] 624 379 5,752,683 12,333,642 15,180 42i Denbighshire .... Flintshire Total North Wales . South Wales— 8 2 M 67,812 139,328 8,259 48 10 7 67,812 139,328 8,259 48 Anthracite furnaces . 11 M 30 i Bit^""^ leiamorganshh-e. Districts. JMonmouthshii-e. Total South Wales Scotland . . . . Total Great Britain . 74 440,916 922,155 12,970 42 56 36 448,823 1,046,449 12,823 46i 141 69 889,738 1,967,604 25,793 44i 149 112.^ 1,049,000 2,542,056 8,134 48J 924 567i 7,749,233 16,982,629 10,113 431 The following section arranged by Mr. Hilary Bauerman, F.G.S., shows clearly the Distribution of British Iron Ores in the various Geological Strata : — GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BRITISH IRON ORES. Formations. mocENi: (Igueous). EOCENE. 1TPPEB CSETACEOUS. lOWEE CRETACEOUS. WEALBEN. Ores. Brown Aluminous. Nodular Carbonate. Brown, Sandy Calcareous, 1 Brown. J "I Nodular Garbouate. UPPER OOLITE. KIDDLE OOLITE. LOWER OOLITE, XTFPER LIAS. MIDDLE LIAS (Marlstone). LOWER LIAS. TRIAS (New R^d Sandstoue). PERMIAN. GOAL MEASimES. CARBONIFEROTrS LIMESTONE. DEVONIAN. SILTTRIAN. CAMBRIAN. Brown Oolitic. Brown Oolitic, j Brown and ) Magnetic. f Brown Oolitic. Argillaceoas Carbonate. Brown Oolitic. Red and Brown. Nodular Carbonates (principally). Clay Band and ] Black Band Nodular Carbonate. Brown. Red. Spathic, and Brown. Principal Localities. Basalt of Antrim, Lame, Red Bay, Glen- arm, &c London Clay, Dorsetshire (not worked) Lower Greensand, Seend, Wiltshire . . ,, Linslade, Bucks (not now worked) Neocomian Tealby, Lincolnshire . Weald of Kent and Sussex (not now worked) Coral Rag, Westbury, Wilts Northampton Sakd in Oxfordshire . . Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, &c. Dogger Ironstone, Rosedale, Yorkshire , Cleveland Ironstone, North Riding of Yorkshire Brigg, Scunthorpe, &c., N. Lincolnshire . Red HiU, &c., near Bristol (included in Somersetshire). Coal-fields oF' /Yorkshire . Derbyshire . North Staffordshire . South „ Shropshire Warwickshire North Wales South „ . . . Gloucester and Somerset Spathic, Brown- Red, and Magnetic. Bed, Brown. Spathic, and Brown. Magnetic Oolitic. Coal-fields of Scotland^ Ridsdale, Northumberland . . . . Gloucestershire and Dean Forest FURNESS and Whitehaven . . . . Alston Moor and Weardale (Lead District of Northumberland and Durham) . Production inl880. Tons. 234,751 Somersetshire Devonshire . Cornwall Skiddaw Slate and Granite of Ennerdale, Eskdale, &c., Cumberland Wicklow ... . . . Isle of Man . . ... Tremadoc, Cader Idris, &c., North Wales 67,500 l 1,550,013 6,079 |- 8,360 I 6,480,576 1,154,534 286,698 150,248 1,350,313 362,773 226,721 36,972 41,413 278,361 875 2,659,817 92,159 2,767,944 I 41,31 29,318 12,653 15,865 1 •• 4,574 APPENDICES. No. 1.— IRON ORE AND PURPLE ORE. PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. No. 2.— PIG IRON MANUFACTURE. RETURNS OF PRODUCTION SINCE 1740, AND EXPORTS SINCE 1829. No. 3.— MALLEABLE IRON WORKS, MILLS, AND FORGES, AND STEEL WORKS ;— LIST OF WORKS, AND PRODUCTION OF BAR IRON IN 1750, AND FROM 1861 TO 1880— BESSEMER STEEL WORKS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND PRODUCTION OF BESSEMER STEEL —OPEN HEARTH STEEL WORKS IN GREAT BRITAIN, AND PRODUCTION OF OPEN HEARTH STEEL— SIEMENS' REGENE- RATIVE GAS FURNACES FOR MELTING STEEL IN CRUCIBLES, AND PRODUCTION OF CRUCIBLE STEEL. No. 4.— TIN PLATE MANUFACTURE. LIST OF WORKS— PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF TIN PLATES. appendix-No. i. IRON ORES PRODUCED FROM THE MINES OF THE UNITED- KINGDOM— AND PURPLE ORE OBTAINED FROM METAL EX- TRACTION WORKS. Table I. — Iron Ore raised from the Mines of the United Kingdom. ,, II. — Iron Ores raised in the years 1860, 1870 and 1880. „ III. — Ironstone raised from the Coal Measures in the years 1860, 1870 and 1880.. „ IV. — Purple Ore — Analyses and Quantities obtained in each year since 1871. Table I. Iron Ore Produce Baiaed from the Mines of the United Kingdom in each of the following Tears,, distinguishing the quantities of Argillaceous Garhonates and Black BandSy obtained from the Coal Measures, from that raised from Mines and Work- ings not in the Coal Measures : — Ore not in Ore from Coal Total Ore Year. Conl Measures. Measui'es. Raised. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1855 1,894,241 7,659,500 9,553,741 1856 2,673,745 7,809,564 10,483,309 1857 3,365,115 6,208,166 9,573,281 1858 2,884,065 5,156,894 8,040,959 1859 3,105,765 4,774,551 7,880,316 1860 2,858,142 5,166,063 8,024,205 1861 2,913,478 4,302,040 7,215,518 1862 3,397,531 4,164,709 7,562,240 1863 4,501,627 4,587,333 9,088,960 1864 5,107,145 4,957,725 10,064,890 1865 5,534,438 4,375,607 9,910,045 1866 5,365,167 4,299,845 9,665,012 1867 5,616,816 4,404,242 10,021,058 1868 5,822,175 4,347,056 10,169,231 1869 6,870,199 4,638,326 11,508,525 1870 7,859,477 6,511,178 14,370,655 1871 10,124,708 6,210,180 16,334,888 1872 9,632,375 5,951,982 15,584,357 1873 10,058,004 5,519,495 15,577,499 1874 9,390,214 5,454,722 14,844,936 1875 10,592,050 5,229,010 15,821,060 1876 11,182,160 5,659,423 16,841,583 1877 10,768,075 5,924,727 16,692,802 1878 10,320,593 5,405,777 15,726,370 1879 9,248,868 5,130,849 14,379,735 1880 12,627,881 5,398,528 18,026,409 826 APPENDIX I. Table II. Giving ilie Quantities of 'Iron Ore raised in the United Kingdom, from Mines not in the Coal Measures, in each of the years 1860, 1870 and 1880 ; — Ieon Oee Peodtjce. Counties, etc. Quantities. iseo. Quantities. 1S70. Quantities. 1880. Tons. ( 3wts. Tons. Csvts. Tons. Cwts. Cornwall . 23,953 4 11,214 4 15,865 3 Devonsliire . . . 3,836 10,193 17 12,652 15 Somersetshire 24,102 18,764 7 29.318 Gloucestershire . . 90,466 183,503 9 92,159 Wiltshire . 76,201 101,423 67,500 Hampshire . . . 6,119 Oxfordshire 5,833 38,803 17 8,360 Northamptonshire . . 95,664 761,248 1,550,103 10 Lincolnshire 16,892 248,329 17 1,154,584 1 Staflfordshire, North . 62,882 48,378 2 Lancashire 520,829 871,938 1,266,503 14 Cumberland . . . 468,782 1,221,303 4 1,491,440 18 Leicestershire . 52,387 Yorkshire, N. Eiding . 1,471,319 6 4,072,888 1 6,486,654 18 Northumberland and ) Durham . . J 12,500 100,332 41,357 IS North Wales 97 100 1,603 3 South Wales and . ) Monmouthshire . I 39,817 88,721 2 65,566 10 Ireland . . . . 61 167,832 238,272 4 Scotland 5,166 Isle of Man . . . 1,671 8 9 2,858,142 18 7,859,476 18 12,627,881 16 *Iron Ore (Argilla- ceous and Black Band) obtained 5,166,062 14 6,511,178 5,398,528 from Collieries . Total iron ore raised . in the United . 8,024,205 12 14,a70,654 18 18,026,409 16 Kingdom * The details of production of Argillaceous Carbonates and Black Bands in each of the same years are given in the following Table III. PKODUCTION OF IRON ORE. 827 Table III. Oiving the quantities of Argillaceous Carbonates and Black Sand Ores obtained from the Coal Measwres of the Coal Fields of the United Kingdom in each of the years 1860, 1870 and 1880 :— Ieox Stone Produce. Coal Fields. Quantities. 1860. Quantities. 1870. Quantities. 1880. Tons. Tons. Tons. England — Somersetshire . . 975 665 Gloucestershire . 210 Shropshire . . . 165,500 337^627 226,721 Warwickshire . 19,500 17,500 36,972 Derbyshire . . . 375,500 384,865 150,248 Nottiaghamshiro • •> 2,264 StafiFordshire, North . 738!229 847,252 1,350,315 Staflordshire, South . 785,700 450,000 362,773 ' Yorkshire, W. Riding 255,700 307,717 286,698 Lancashire . • • • 1,520 Durham and North- umberland . 125,000 ... Wales— North Wales . . . 85,000 59,140 41,413 South Wales 590,889 471,333 278,361 Scotland — East Division . ) West Division. . ( 2,150,000 3,500,000 2,639,317 Ireland . . . . Total . . . 45 9,768 1,051 5,166,063 6,511,177 5,398,528 Table IV. Ptjeple Oee. In addition to the ores of iron raised from the mines of the United Kingdom, and the valuable foreign ores imported, there is another source of supply in the residue known as " Purple Ore." It is obtained from the cupriferous iron pyrites which has been treated for sulphur in the manu- facture of sulphuric acid. This is roasted with an addition of salt, and then, lixiviated with water in order to dissolve the chloride of copper formed. The copper is removed as a soluble chloride, and then obtained as cement copper by running the solution into vats containing scrap iron. The residue of these operations is nearly pure peroxide of iron in the form of a heavy, purplish «28 APPENDIX I. red powder, haTing the following composition, according to Mr. John A. Phillips, F.E.S., managing director of the Widnes Metal Company. Eestjlts Tabulated,* Peroxide of iron 96'00 Lead (as sulphate) . 0'75 Copper 0-20 Sulphur 0-36 •phosphorus nil Lime 0-40 Soda 0-10 Cobalt, arsenic and chlorine traces Insoluble residue 2-11 Metallic iron 99-92 67-00 The results are computed in the dry state, but as ordinarily sold, the ore contains about 15 per cent, of water. This oxide of iron is used in blast furnaces in form of blocks as well as in powder ; -viz. : at Palmer's Shipbuilding and Iron Company, Newcastle-on- Tyne; The Ditton Brook Iron Company, near Warrington; Bolckow, Vaughan and Co., Limited, Middlesborough ; Messrs. Merry, and Ounning- hame and Co., Glasgow ; Messrs. Gjers, Mills and Co., Middlesborough, and the West Yorkshire Coal and Iron Company, Leeds. It is also used as fettling ore for puddling furnaces ; being in a powder it does not require grinding as hematite does. When used in the blast furnace in those works where it is employed, it is added in the proportion of 23 per cent, to the amount of solid ore. Mason's pyrites, as previously stated, gives on analysis 67 per cent, of metallic iron ; other pyrites, the Tharsis, giving 62 per cent., and Buitron, 66 per cent, of metallic iron. The annexed tabulated statement gives the quantities of "Purple Ore'' available in each year since 1871 : — Ptjeple OltE Prodiiced from the Metal Extraction Works in Great Britain. Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1871 200,000 1876 292,000 1872 252,239 1877 415,000 1873 275,000 1878 400,000 1874 255,000 1879 332,300 1875 280,000 1880 427,730 Mason's Pyrites. appendix-No. 2. PRODUCTION OF PIG- IRON IN GREAT BRITAIN IN EACH IRON MAKING DISTRICT. Table 1.—. II.- „ III. IV.- T.- „ VI.. „ VII.- „ VIII.- „ IX. X.- „ XI.- „ XII.- ., XIII.- ■Furnaces in Blast and Production of ■Do. do. do. ■Summary of do. -Production of oaoh Iron "Works in -Furnaoea in Blast and Production of -Do. do. do. -Do. do. do. ■Do. do. do. -Do. do. do. ■Do. do. do. •Do. do. do. ■Pig Iron exported from the United Kingd' Do. do. do. in 1878, Pig do. do. Pig do. do. do. in 1840, do. do. iron in 1740. 1788. 1796. 1796. Iron in 1806. 1823 and 1830. 1839. 1840. 1843 and 1847. 1852. siaoe 1854. om since 1829. 1879 and 1880. Table I. In. the following series of tables -will be found the number of famaces, with the production of pig iron, and occasionally notes of the quantities of coal used in manufacture ; the earliest is for the year 1740. The flourishing and extensive works referred to by Dud Dudley no longer existed ; the 300 blast furnaces mentioned by him were now reduced to 59, and their total annual produce to 17,350 tons, giving an average yield per furnace of 294 tons. The details are as follows : — * Pig Iron Prodtjction in the Yeas 1740. Districts. Number of Furnaces. Pig Iron Made. Derbyshire Gloucestershire . Hampshire Kent Nottinghamshire Shropshire .... Staffordshire, North . Staffordshire, South . Sussex .... North Wales South Wales . Warwickshire Worcestershire . Yorkshire .... 2 4 3 1 1 6 3 2 10 4 13 2 2 6 Tons. 550 800 1,350 200 200 2,100 1,700 1,000 1,400 400 4,850 700 700 1,400 Total 59 17,350 * "History of the Iron Trade." By Harry Scrivener. 1854. P. 57. 830 APPENDIX II. Table II. For the year 1788 the following information appears, many of the charcoal furnaces having died out since 1740. In some districts the wood was exhausted ; in others, the ironmaster was prohibited from using it ; and in others the use of charred coal (coke), by reducing the price of pig iron, compelled the charcoal iron maker to abandon or to alter his mode of manu- facture. The production of charcoal iron made was 14,500 tons, and of coke pig iron 53,800 tons, in the furnaces of Great Britain; the average make of the charcoal furnaces being 545 tons ; and of the coke furnaces, 909 tons per annum. The details are as foUows, and the total production 68,300 tons : — Pig Ieojst Peodtjction in the Teak 1788. CHARCOAL PIG IKON. COKE PIG IHOK. Furnaces. Tons. Furnaces. Tons. Brecknockshire . Caermarthenshire . Cheshire Cumberland Derbyshire . Glamorganshire Gloucestershire . Lancashire Merionethshire Monmouthshire Shropshire . Staflordshire, South . Staffordshire, North Sussex Westmoreland Yorkshire Scotland i' i' 1 3 4 3 1 3 3 2" 1 1 2 400 300 300 1,800 2,600 2,100 400 2,100 1,800 300 400 600 1,400 2 i" 1 7 6 21' 3 6 6 6 1,600 'eho 700 4,200 6,600 23,100 2,400 4,500 4,500 5,600 Total 26 14,500 59 53,800 Mr. Mushet, writing some years later, gives the quantity of charcoal necessary to produce a ton of pig iron as 2,422 lbs. ; and reliable authorities estimate the quantity of coal used in the year 1788 in smelting the 53,806 tons of coke pig iron, to have been from 376,000 to 400,000 tons, giving an average of between 7 and 8 tons of coal to each ton of iron made. PEODTTCTION OF PIG IKON. 831 Table III. "Wien in the year 1796 previously referred to, Mr. Pitt proposed to levy a tax on coal at the pit's mouth, a formidable opposition was offered to the measure, and an independent inquiry was instituted by our ironmasters, who strongly resisted the proposed impost. The House of Commons appointed a committee of inquiry into the project, the result being the abandonment of the measure. The annexed summary gives the number of furnaces and the make of the several iron making districts at that period : — Stjmmaet or Pig Iron PfiODuoxioif in the Tear 1796. Districts. Furnaces. Pig Iron. Nos. Tons. Cwts. North Staffordshire . 2 1,958 10 Cumberland . . . . 2 565 Derbyshire .... 12 9,656 Gloucestershire . . . . 2 380 Herefordshire .... 4 1,749 Lancashire 3 2,249 Yorkshire .... 13 10,398 Shropshire 23 32,969 10 Sussex 1 173 South Wales . . . . 24 34,101 Mid Wales . . . . 1 150 North Wales . . . . 5 1,144 West Wales . . . . 1 290 South Staffordshire . . . 14 13,210 10 Scotland (coal) .... 15 15,186 ,, (charcoal) . . . Total .... 2 900 124 125,079 10 Detailed particulars of this important return, of which the above is a Bummary, giving the names of the furnaces, the counties in which situated, and the annual make of pig iron, appear in Table IV. In this table is indicated the division and the names of all the furnaces in Great Britain in 1796, with the Excise return of the quantity of pig iron made, the quantities supposed and calculated upon by Mr. C, Mr. G., and Mr. W., and the returns of the quantities really made : — * * Dr. H. G. Macnab. " Observations, &c., on the Coal and Iron Trades, 1796." P. 47. Published 1801. S33 APPENDIX II. Table IV. Pia Ikon Prodtjction in the Teae 1796. Name of Fui-nace. What Division. Excise Supposed Exact Return. Quautities. Return. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cwts. Apedale Chester •2,100 1,000 728 10 Silverdale . . . . ,, 2,600 1,200 1,230 Bearpot .... Cumberland 2,080 1,200 240 Dudden . . . . )j 1,664 400 325 Newland J J 700 700 700 Baokbarrow . . . j» 700 700 769 Dale Abbey . Derby 474 474 443 Morley Park . . . jj 728 728 728 Butterly j» 936 936 936 Flaxley .... Gloucester 360 360 360 Forest of Dean ,j 20 20 20 Abry Tinton . . . Hereford 70 70 70 Bishopwood . 3) 500 500 947 Cornbrook . . . ,, 1,000 1,000 482 Brigwood )) 500 500 250 Leigbton . . . . Lancaster 780 780 780 Bowling (2) . Leeds 2,000 2,000 2,000 Wibsey Moor (2) . . )) 2,000 2,000 • 2,500 Shelf .... J) 1,000 1,000 1,140 Birkensbaw . . . jj 780 780 846 Eenisbaw (2) Lincoln 500 500 705 Old Park (3) . Salop ll,332i 6,240 5,952 Horsehay 5' 4,927^ 2,080 1,458 4 Lightmoor (3) . . . 7i 8,946 6,240 2,498 15 Coalbrookdale (3) . ») 7,175 4,160 2,659 11 Madeley Wood . . . ,, 3,nn 2,080 1,856 8 Jackfield(2) . ,, 7,086' 4,160 1,820 Bentbal . . . . »1 2,367i 1,600 1,334 Willey .... ,, 3,702| 1,600 1,554 10 Broseley . . . . )) 1,775" 1,400 1,076 10 P*^v5^,(lv • • • ,, 7,590 6,240 5,068 19 Snedbill(2) . . . )) 4,730 3,400 3,367 10 Donnington Wood (2) . »> 4,720 4,160 3,323 Chesterfield . Sheffield 940 940 940 Little Brampton (2) . . j» 1,800 1,800 1,560 Wingerworth ,, 1,274 1,274 1,274 Staveley . . . . 3J 1,000 1,000 761 Park .... )» 1,092 1,092 853 Ohappel . . . . J> 1,456 1,456 1,456 Horncliflfe (2) JJ 1,092 1,092 712 Elsecar . . . . )> 800 800 950 Brelton .... 3 ) 250 250 250 Holmes (3) . . . *) 6,000 6,000 2,000 Carried forward . 105,325i 75,912 58,924 17 PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON. 833 Pia Ibon Produotioh- in the teab 1796 — continued. Name of Fornaces. Wliat Division. Excise Hetums. Supposed Quantities. Exact Return. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cwts. Brought forward . • • . 105,325i 75,912 58,924 17 Ashbumham . Sussex 172| 173 173 Clydaoh . South Wales 1,820 1,820 1,625 Blaendare (3) jy 1,404 1,404 1,500 Blaenavon 5,460 5,460 4,318 Sirhowy 1,820 1,820 1,930 Beaufort . 1,560 1,560 1,660 Penyca or EbbwValo J 1,560 1,560 397 Hirwain . 1,400 1,400 1,050 Melincourt . 648 648 503 Bnnisygedyr . 1,352 1,352 800 Neath Abbey (2; . 3,120 3,120 1,759 Caerfilly . 600 600 695 Cfarthfa(3) . 6,000 6,000 7,204 Plymouth . 2,000 2,000 2,200 Penydarren (2) 4,000 4,000 4,100 Dowlais (3) 4,100 5,400 2,800 Llaneliy 1,664 1,664 1,660 Dovey Mid Vales 200 200 150 Buabon . North Wales 1,560 1,560 1,144 Brymbo . .•» 884 silent Brymbo Gate )> 728 none Penyvrun . )J 1,498 lead work Pentroben )) 1,560 )} ... Carmarthen West Wales 1,056 1,056 290 Level . StafEordRbire 1,560 1,560 1,391 Brierly J J 1,300 1,300 1,046 10 Deepfield (2) . 2,600 2,600 2,526 Bilston (2) 2,340 2,340 1,429 Bradley (3) . 3,640 3,000 1,920 Graveyard 1,260 1,336 213 Dudley Port . 1,040 1,040 869 Tipton (2) 2,080 2,080 2,203 Gospel Oak . ... 1,613 Scotch Furnaces — Oarron (4) Wilson's Town (2) . ... 5,200 5,616 2,080 2,080 Muirkirk (2) . >.• 3,120 2,878 Bglinton (3) . ... 3,640 2,216 Dalrymple (2) Addison (2) J 3,000 2,396 Argyle, charcoal . 1,600 J 300 ( 600 Bunawe „ . . T otals • 167,312i 152,605 125,079 7 3 H 834 APPENDIX II. Table V. Peoduction of Pia Iron in the tear 1806. The number of furnaces built and in blast in Great Britain and the pro- duction of pig iron in districts are given as follows : — * FURNACES. Districts. Make of Pig Iron. In. Out. Total. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. England, — Staffordshire 32 10 42 50,002 Cumberland . . . . 4 4 1,955 Derbyshire .... 11 6 17 9,074 Shropshire . . . . 30 12 42 54,966 Lancashire .... 1 2 3 780 Leicestershire . . . . 1 1 Northiimberland . 2 2 2,500 Yorkshire . . . . 22 4 26 27,646 Monmouthshire . 3 3 2,240 Wales— North Wales .... 3 1 4 2,981 South Wales 35 10 45 68,867 Scotland Total .... 18 9 27 22,840 161 55 216 243,851 Table VI. PaoDrcTioN OF Pig Iron in the tears 1823 and 1830. In the following comparative statement, made by Mr. Frederick Finch, M.P., who undertook the inquiry for the Governm.ent, we have the annexed returns. Mr. Finch took a considerable amount of care to obtain correct results, and was aided in the Scotch returns by Mr. Scudamore : — FURNACES. PIG IRON MADE. Increase since 1823. 1823. 1830. 1823. 1S30. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons. Northumberland and ) Durham . . ( 2 4 2,379 5,327 2,948 Yorkshire 26 27 27,311 28,926 1,615 Derbyshire . . . 15 18 14,038 17,999 3,961 Shropshire 38 48 57,923 73,418 16,495 Staffordshire . . . 84 123 133,590 211,604 78,014 South Wales . 72 113 182,325 277,643 95,318 North Wales . . . 7 12 13,100 26,000 11,900 Scotland Total . . . 22 27 24,500 37,500 13,000 266 372 455,166 677,417 222,251 The above figures show the average make per furnace in 1823 to have been 1,730 tons, compared with 1,824 tons in the year 1830, and an increase in production between the two years of 222,261 tons, equivalent to 49 per cent. * Parliamentary Eeturn. PRODUCTION OP PIG IROK. 885 Table VII. Prodtjcxion of Pig Ieoit m the teas 1839. Mr. Mushet, in his papers on Iron and Steel, gives the following as the number of furnaces and the production of pig iron in each district in Great Britain in 1839, to which is added the average make per furnace : — FUENACES. Average per Furnace. Districts. In. Oat. Build- ing. Pig Iron Made. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. South "Wales . 122 5 32 453,880 3,802 Forest of Dean . . . 5 3 2 18,200 3,640 Shropshire 29 5 80,940 2,791 Staffordshire, North . . 7 3 "3 18,200 2,600 Staffordshire, South 120 106 346,213 2,885 North Wales . . . 13 7 ... 33,800 2,600 Derbyshire . 14 2 '2 34,372 2,455 Yorkshire . . . . 24 5 52,416 2,175 Durham and Northum- berland Scotland . . . . 5 ... ... 13,000 2,600 54 6 18 196,560 3,621 , , (charcoal) 1 400 400 Lancashire, ,, . . Total . 2 ... 800 400 396 142 57 1,248,781 3,153 The make of pig iron in 1839 exceeded that of 1830 by 570,364 tons, equivalent to an increase in the ten years of 84 per cent. Table VIII. Phodtjction of Pig Iron nr the yEAR 1840. Previous to the discovery by NeUson of the application of the hot blast, about the year 1829, which was successfully carried out at the Clyde Iron- "works, 8 tons of coal previously coked were required to make each ton of pig iron, but by heating the air to a temperature of 300° Fahr. before its introduction into the blast furnace, 5 tons 2 owts 2 qrs. of coal, converted into coke, were sufficient, and the temperature of the blast being increased to 600°, it was found that raw uncoked coal could be used advantageously. A very important inquiry bearing on the consumption of fuel, instituted by Mr. William Jessop, of the Butterley Ironworks, Derbyshire, led to the fact that in the year 1840, of the 490 furnaces then existing in Great Britain, 402 were in blast, and produced 1,396,400 tons of pig iron with a consump- tion of 4,877,000 tons of coals. The details of Mr. Jessop's return are aa foUows : — 3 H 2 836 APPENDIX II. njBNACES. Districts. Pig Iron Made. Coal Used. Coal Used per Ton of Iron. Built. In Blast. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Tons Cwts. Qrs. Forest of Dean 4 4 15,500 60,000 3 17 2 South Wales . . 163 132 505,000 1,436,000 2 16 3 North Wales . 15 12 26,500 110,000 4 4 2 Northumberland . 6 o 11,000 38,500 3 9 Yorkshire 32 25 56,000 306,500 5 9 Derbyshire. . . 18 13 31,000 129,000 4 3 North Staffordshire. 16 7 20,500 83,000 4 1 South Staffordshire. 135 116 407,150 1,582,000 3 17 3 Shtopshire 31 24 82,750 409,000 4 19 3 Scotland . . . Total . 70 64 241,000 723,000 3 490 402 1,396,400 4,877,000 3 10 When Mr. Jessop made his inquiry it was ascertained that of the 402' ifnrnaces in operation 162 were using hot blast, the remaining 240 cold blast. The high rate of consumption of coal in many of the districts, notably those of Yorkshire and Shropshire, being due to the use of the cold blast. Comparing the above return with that of the previous year, an increase of production is shown of 147,619 tons, equal to nearly 12 per cent. ; the average make of the furnaces being 3,473 tons, compared with 3,153 tons. Table IX. Peoduotion of Pig Ieon m the tears 1843 and 1847. With the general depression of trade between the years 1840 and 1845 a great falling off appears, amounting in the year 1843 to 181,050 tons, com- pared with the production of 1840. It was about the year 1843 that the great extension of our railway system set in, causing a good demand for iron of all kinds, and better prices. To compare the extent of production at this most eventful period in the history of the trade of the country, the returns of the year 1840 are given for comparison with those of 1843 and 1847 :— Districts. 1840. Pig Iron. 1S43. Pig Iron. 1847. Pig Iron. Derbyshire . Forest of Dean North Staffordshire Northumberland Shropshire . South Staffordshire . North Wales South Wales . Yorkshire . Scotland .... Tons. 31,000 15,500 20,500 11,000 82,750 407,150 26,500 505,000 66,000 241,000 Tons. 25,750 8,000 21,750 25,750 76,200 300,250 19,750 457,350 42,000 238,550 Tons. 95,160 65,520 99,840 88,400 320,320 16,120 706,680 67,600 539,968 Total 1,396,400 1,215,350 1,999,608 Thus it wiU be seen that between 1843 and 1847 the iron industries of Great Britain bounded forward at a rapid pace, the increased production in four years amounting to 784,258 tons, equal to 65 per cent. PRODUCTION OP PIG IROK. 837 Table X. Peoduction of Pig Ieobt in the teas 1852. Braithwaite Poole in his " Statistics of Oommeroe," gives the annexed statement of the furnaces in Great Britain in the year 1852, with the make of pig iron, which is supplemented by the average make per furnace in each district:— • FBRNACIS Districts. Pig Iron Made. Average per Furnace. In. Out. Total. Nos. Nos. Nos. Tons. Tons. Scotland 113 31 144 775,000 6,860 South Wales . . . 135 27 162 635,000 4,705 „ (anthracite) 12 23 35 31,000 2,583 South Staflfordshire 127 32 159 725,000 5,708 North Staffordshire . . 17 4 21 90,000 5,294 North Wales . 6 7 13 30,000 5,000 Shropshire . . . 27 13 40 120,000 4,444 Durham 7 6 13 35,000 5,000 Northumberland . . 18 8 26 110,000 6,111 Yorkshire and Derby- } shire . . . ) Total . . . 35 7 42 150,000 4,285 497 158 655 2,701,000 5,440 Comparing the above return with that of 1847, when of the 623 furnaces in Great Britain, 433 were in blast, producing 1,999,608 tons of pig iron, or an average of 4,618 tons per furnace ; there appears an increase in produc- tion of 701,392 tons, equivalent to nearly 36 per cent., and an increase per furnace of 822 tons, the furnaces of smallest capacity being those employing anthracite in South Wales. 838 APPENDIX II. Table XI. PxoDrcTioN OF Pig Iron between the teaes 1854 A2fD 1880, Showing the Number of Furnaces Built and in Blast in Oreat Britain, the Production of Pig Iron, and' the Average Make per Furnace in each Year.* FUBNACES. Year. Pig Iron Made. Average per Furnace. Built. In Blast. Nos. N03. Tons. Tons. 1854 724 555 3,069,838 5,530 1855 763 589 3,218,154 5,463 1856 785 622 3,586,377 5,766 1857 823 628 3,659,447 5,829 1858 833 617 3,456,064 5,600 1859 862 607 3,712,904 6,116 1860 872 582 3,826,752 5,575 1861 852 569 3,712,390 6,524 ■ 1862 876 561 3,943,469 7,029 1863 908 597 4,510,040 7,554 1864 883 612 4,767,951 7,790 1865 919 656 4,825,254 7,355 1866 839 618 4,523,897 7,320 1867 818 551 4,761,023 8,640 1868 912 560 4,970,206 8,873 1869 901 600 5,445,757 9,076 1870 916 664 5,963,515 9,000 1871 897 673 6,627,179 9,847 1872 876 702 6,741,929 8,604 1873 892 683 6,566,451 9,613 1874 915 649 5,991,408 9,232 1875 899 629 6,365,462 10,120 1876 927 585 6,555,997 11,106 1877 940 541 6,608,664 12,215 1878 948 498 6,381,051 12,813 1879 929 496 5,995,337 12,090 1880 926 567i 7,749,233 13,679 ' Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom." EXPORTS OF PIG IRON. 839 Table XII. Pig Ikos Expokted from the United EnfGDOM in each teas since 1829 :— Year. Quantities. Year. Quantities. Tons. Tons. 1829 8,931 1855 291,776 1830 12,036 1856 357,326 1831 12,444 1857 422,086 1832 17,566 1858 360,425 1833 22,988 1859 316,376 1834 21,788 1860 342,567 1835 33,073 1861 388,004 1836 33,880 1862 444,708 1837 44,387 1863 466,423 1838 48,554 1864 465,985 1839 43,460 1865 547,641 1840 49,801 1866 500,500 1841 85,866 1867 565,612 1842 93,851 1868 552,999 1843 154,770 1869 710,656 1844 99,960 1870 753,339 1845 77,362 1871 1,061,004 1846 159,163 1872 1,331,143 1847 176,086 1873 1,142,065 1848 175,650 1874 774,280 1849 161,775 1875 947,227 1850 141,973 1876 910,005 1851 201,264 1877 881,442 1852 240,491 1878 923,080 1853 333,585 1879 1,223,436 1854 293,432 1880 1,631,629 Table XIII. Pig Ieon Exported from the United Kingdom. Showing Countries to which exported and Value of Eocporfs for the Three Tears ending 1880 : — Countries to whioli Exported. QDAHTITIES. VALUE. 187S. 1879. 1880. 1878. 1879. 1881). Russia Germany . . Holland . Belgium . . France . United States . British North 1 America . / Other countries Totals . Tons. 85,609 228,434 240,969 90,318 96,363 32,663 23,423 125,401 Tons. 146,830 233,900 213,386 83,750 85,520 277,939 29,820 152,291 Tons. 152,966 247,874 190,026 116,628 99,036 612,013 64,748 158,338 £ 253,036 691,350 674,892 221,902 223,175 133,008 69,016 303,803 £ 412,830 517,328 547,170 194,230 184,690 873,320 79,360 341,461 £ 603,317 635,771 600,926 342,417 261,981 2,278,916 177,421 416,645 923,080 1,223,436 1,631,629 2,470,182 3,160,389 5,207,294 appendix-No. 3. MALLEABLE IRON WOBKS (MILLS AND FORGES) AND STEEL WORKS. Table I. — Summary of Production of Bar Iron in each county in England and Wales in 1750. II. — List of Works and their Production of Bar Iron in the year 1750. III. — Number of Works, Puddling Furnaces, and Boiling MiUs in Great Britain in each year since 1861. IV. — List of Bessemer Steel Works in Great Britain, giving the Number and Capacity of Converters in the year 1880. V. — Production of Bessemer Steel in Great Britain since the year 1871. VI. — Production of Bessemer Steel in each District of Great Britain in the years 1879 and 1880. VII. — Siemens' Steel Works, List of Finns manufacturing Steel by the Open Hearth Steel Melting Process. VIII. — Production of Open Hearth Steel in Great Britain since 1873. IS. — Production of Open Hearth Steel in each District in 1879 and 1880. X. — List of Firms employing the Siemens' Regenerative Gas Furnaces for Melting Steel in Crucibles. XI. — Production of Crucible Steel in Great Britain since the year 1873. Table I. MnxS AND FOEGES. Quantities of Bar Iron made in each county in England and Wales in the year 1750.* Counties. Quantities. Counties. Quantities. Tons. Tons. Breconsliire . 350 Brought forward . . 7,180 Caermarthenshire . . 480 Monmouthshire 2,000 Cardigansliire 120 MontgomeryshiTe . . 200 Cheshire . . . . 640 Nottinghamshire . 370 Denbighshire 280 Northumberland . . 120 Derbyshire . . . 640 Pembrokeshiie 240 Durham 250 Shropshire. . . . 2,260 Plintshire . ... 200 Surrey and Kent . ...t Gloucestershire ■ . 1,120 Sussex . . . . ...+ Glamorganshire . . 1,100 Staffordshire . 1,990 Herefordshire 1,000 ■Warwickshire . . . 300 Hampshire . . . 250 Worcestershire 1,580 Lancashire . Carried forward . . 750 Yorkshire . . . . Total 2,560 7,180 18,800 * For number of Forges in each county and production of bar iron see Table n. •f Quantities not ascertained. MALLEABLE IRON WOEKS. 841 Table II. "-4 List of the Forges in England and Wales in 1750 ; with an account of the quantity of Bab-ison they make annually according to the best infor- mation that could he got on a strict inquiry, blanks being left for the quantity made yearly at different places, whereof we could not have a certain account. The Forges in Scotland are not included." The original document of which this is a copy, is in the possession of Samnel Timmins, Esq., of Elvethan Lodge, Birmingham, who courteously placed it at the service of the author for publication. Breconshire. Tanner's Forge Llanelly .... Caermarthenshire. Kidwelly Whitland .... Cymdwyfran . Cambrayne .... LannoYaine Lanfrede Cardiganshire. Cheshire. Cranage . Warmmgham Lea . Denbighshire. Pontabliie . . . . Wrexham Derbyshire. Barton Fields New Mills Plesley .... Staveley .... Durham. Winlaton \ SwaUwell \ . Teams I Flintshire. Badvary .... Gloucestershire. Lidney .... Lidbrooke, Three Forges Upleadon . . . . Tortworth Flaxley .... Tons. 150 i;00 100 100 120 60 100 120 200 300 140 200 80 120 250 150 120 250 200 350 350 120 150 150 Carried Forward 4,080 Tons. Brought Forward . . 4,080 Glamorganshire. Forrest 200 Aberavan 350 Velin Griffy's . . . .300 New Forge 250 Herefordshire. New Weare .... 350 Bringwoode . . . . 450 Laudlloe 200 Hampshire. Sowley 50 Tiohfield 200 Lancashire. Cunsey 120 Backbarrow .... 260 Sparke Bridge . . . . 120 Ooniston 80 Caton 50 Burgh 120 Monmouthshire. MaHon and Tredegar, ) „„„ Three Forges ] . . bOO Pont Pool . . . .700 Tuiton, Two Forges . . . 300 Monmouth .... 400 Montgomertshire. Mattravil 200 Dolobran Nottinghamshire. BulweU 150 Carburton . . . .220 Clipton Cuckney Carried Forward . .9,750 842 APPENDIX III. A List of the PosGES in England and Wales in 1750 — continued. Brought Forward . NOETHTJMBEELAin) Darwincoat Pembroke SHIRE Blackpoole Coiducore is rebuilding Shropshire. Cloebury .... Longnor Upton Colebrookdale Witheford Sutton Tern Eaynton Norton . Winnington Pjesoot . Lizard Stjsret and Touchley Barden Mr. Johnston's Mr. Gale's . Mr. Dibble's . Shingley Pophole . Sussex. Bivelhani . Hawkesden Brightlin . Burwash . Westfield . Marshfield Woodcock . Carried Forward Kent. Tons. 9,750 . 120 , 240 250 140 260 150 250 260 150 250 150 100 100 200 12,370 Brought Forward . Stappoedshire. Consall . Hints . Cannock . Bromwiche . Little Aston Corngreve . Coven Heath Whittington Swiner Warwickshire. Bromford Clifford , . . . Worcestershire Shellery .... Wildon Jennypole Lower Milton Woolverley Cookley Cradley and Lye Powick Yorkshire. Attercliffe Colnbridge . Kirkstall Waddesley . Kilnhurst Wortley Eoach Abbey Mousehole . Seamore . Total Tom. 12,370 300 250 180 300 100 120 100 200 300 140 300 350 450 450 400 300 300 160 150 260 150 160 200 220 350 60 60 120 18,800 MALLEABLE IRON WORKS. 84a Table III, Malleable Ieon Works. Showing the Number of these Works, the Numler of Puddling Fumacti anak Rolling Mills in Great Britain in each year since 1861. Number of Number of Pud- Number of Works. dling Fumaees. Boiling Mills. 1861 213 4,147 439 1862 217 4,832 047 1863 223 5,013 654 1864 248 6,338 705 1865 252 6,407 730 1866 256 6,239 826 1867 254 6,009 831 1868 247 5,903 831 1869 245 6,243 859 1870 255 6,699 851 1871 267 6,841 806 1872 276 7,311 1,015 1873 287 7,264 939 1874 298 6,803 866 lS7o 314 7,575 909 1876 312 7,159 942 1877 300 6,796 935 1878 232 5,125 830 1879 314 5,149 846 1880 1314 5,134 855 Table IV. Bessemer Steel Works. List or Works in Great Britain in the Year 1880, giving the Number of Oonvertors and their Capacity. Name and Situation of "Works. Number of Con- vertors. Capacity of Con- vertora. Bessemer, Henry and Co., Sheffield Bolokow, Taughan and Co., Limited . . . . Brown, John and Co., Limited, Sheffield ( Brown, Bay ley, and Pixon, Limited, Sheffield Steel ) and ton Works ( Cammel, Charles and Co., Limited, Cyclops Works, j Sheffield ........ ( Cammel, Charles & Co., Limited, Yorkshire Works, I Sheffield Weardale Ii'on Co., Tudhoe, Ferryhill . . . 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 4 Tons. Cwts, 3 5 8 15 7 10 10 4 8 4 5 7 2 10 844 APPENDIX III. Table IV. — continued. Name and Situation of Works. Number of Con- verters. Capacity of Con- verters. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 ( Glasgow, The, Bessemer Steel Co., Limited, Atlas ( Works, Glasgow Fox, Samuel and Co., Stookbridge Works, SlieflB.eld ( Patent Shaft and Axletree Co., Limited, Monway ) Works, Wednesbury I Bolton Iron and Steel Co., Limited, Bolton, Lan- l cashire I London and North Western Eailway Co., Crewe ( Works, Cheshire ' Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Eailway Co., Gorton Works, Manchester Mersey ton and Steel Works, Toxteth Park, Liverpool Manchester Steel and Eailway Plant Co., Gibraltar Works, Newton Heath, Manchester . I Barrow Hematite Steel Co., Barrow Works, North \ Lancashire Dowlais Iron Co., Dowlais Works, Glamorganshire West Cumberland ton and Steel Co., Workington ( Steel, Tozer, & Hampton, Limited, Phoenix Works, \ The Ickles, near Sheffield ( Carnforth Hematite Iron Co., Limited, Camforth, ) Lancashire ( MuUer, Charles Emile, Erimus Steel Works, Mid- ( dlesborough Darlington Iron Co., Darlington . . . . ( Moss Bay Hematite Iron and Steel Co., Working- ( ton, Cumberland Ehymney Iron Co., Monmouthshire ( Blaenavon Iron and Steel Co., Blaenavon, Mon- \ mouthshire The Standard Iron and Steel Co Ebbw Vale Co., Ebbw Vale, Monmouthshire . . i' 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 Tons. Cvrts, 3 5 3 5 3 3 5 3 7 7 10 6 5 8 6 8 4 2 6 6 8 7 8 8'"'o 10 Table V. Peodttction of Bessemer Steel in Great Britain in each year since 1871. Year. Bessemer Steel. Year. Bessemer Steel. Tons. Tons. 1871 329,000 1876 700,000 1872 410,000 1877 750,000 1873 496,000 1878 807,527 1874 540,000 1879 834,511 1875 620,000 1880 1,044,382 PRODUCTION OF STEEL. 845 Table VI. Pkodtjction of Bessemer Steel in each district in Great Britain in the ;yeara 1819 and 1880* District. 1879. Bessemer Steel. 1880. Bessemer Steel. South "Wales . Sheffield .... Lancashire . Cumberland . . . North Bast Coast . StaSordshire . . . Total . Tons. 252,573 210,346 152,130 127,163 85,299 7,200 Tons. 308,233 273,365 167,870 140,869 144,000 10,045 834,711 1,044,382 Table VII. Siemens' Steel Works. List of Piems who are manufadwrers of Steel hy the Open-Hearth Steel Melting Process, with the number of Fumaees erected hy each. HAME AHD SIItTATION OP WORKS. The Landore Siemens Steel Co., Limited, Landore Messrs. Viokers, Sons, and Co., Limited, Sheffield . The Steel Co. of Scotland, Limited, Glasgow Sir Joseph Whitworth and Co., Limited, Manchester The Panteg Steel Works and Engineering Co. The London and North Western Eailway Co., Crewe The Bolton Iron and Steel Co., Limited, Bolton . Messrs. Charles CammeU and Co., Sheffield Messrs. John Spencer and Sons, Newcastle . The Dowlais Iron Co., Dowlais, Glamorganshire The Bowling Iron Co., Limited, Bradford The Eailway Steel and Plant Co., Limited, Manchester The Butterley Co., Alfreton, Derbyshire . Sir John Brown and Co., Limited, Sheffield . The Albion Steel and Wire Co., Limited, Sheffield . Messrs. Wright BuUer and Co., Elba Steel Works, near ) Swansea \ Messrs. White and ChaUingsworth, Pontymister, I Newport, Monmouthshire } Messrs. E. Morewood and Co., Llanelly, Glamorganshire Messrs. W. and T. Beardmore, Glasgow Messrs. John WiUiams and Co., Wishaw . . . . Mr. James Butler, Middlesborough-on-Tees . " « British Iron Trade Association," Report, 1880, p. 29. NO. ov EDKNAOES. 24 10 20 5 13 5 3 6 2 6 2 2 3 1 2 m APPENDIX III. Table VII. — continued. HAME iND SITUATION OP WORKS. The Barrow Hematite Steel Co., -Limited, Barrow,] Lancashire ! The H. P. Horse Nail Co., Limited, London . TheMossendlronCo., Holytown, N.B. . Mr. David Colville, Motherwell, N.B. . T!he West Cumberland lion and Steel Co., Limited, ; Workington The Consett L.-on Co., Limited, Blackhill The ShottsLron Co., Carluke, N.B NO. ov FITBNACES. 1 4 4 Table VIII. PEODxrCTioif OF Open-Heaeth Steel in Great Britain in the year 1880 and seven previous years.* Yeai-. Quantities. Tear. Quantities. 1873 1874 1875 1876 Tons. 77,500 90,500 88,000 128,000 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 137,000 175,000 175,000 251,000 The details of production, with the number of Open-Hearth Furnaces in each district in the years 1879 and 1880 appear in the following return : — Table IX. Production oe Opbn-Heaeth Steel in each district in Great Britain in, the years 1879 and 1880 :— * Districts. Open Hearth Furnaces. Open Hearth Steel. 1879. 1880. 1879. 18S0. South Wales . Scotland . . . . Sheffield . . . Lancashire and Cheshire North East Coast . . Other Districts Total . . . Nos. 48 16 15 12 5 6 Nos. 49 36 19 14 5 • 3 Tons. 85,000 60,000 21,000 15,000 1,000 3,000 Tons. 116,000 84,500 23,500 19,500 3,200 4,300 102 126 175,000 251,000 * " British Iron Trade Association," Eeport, 1880, pp. 34, 35. PRODUCTION OF STEEL. 847 Table X. List op Fiems who mvploij the " Siemens Eboeneeatite Gas Foknaces " /or meltimj Steel in Orucihles. YORKSHITIE. Messrs. Viokers, Sons, and Co., Limited, Sheffield. Messrs. Sanderson Brothers and Co., Limited, Sheffield. Mr. Eobert Marsden, Sheffield. The Monkbridge Iron Co., Leeds. The Bowling L:on Co., Limited, Bradford. Lancashike. The Bolton Iron and Steel Co., Limited, Bolton. The Mersey Steel and Iron Co., Limited, Liverpool. The Steel Casting Co., Limited, Barrow-in-Pumess. CUMBEELAITD. The West Cumberland Iron and Steel Co., Limited, Workington. Staffoedshibe. The Patent Shaft and Axle Co., Old Park, Wednesbury. Sheopshiee. Messrs. Nettlefolds, Limited, Castle Iron Works, Wellington. DUEHAJI. Messrs. John Spencer and Sons, Newoastle-on-Tjrne. Monmouthshiee. Ebbw Vale Co., Ebbw Vale, Monmouthshire. Eegeneeatite Gas Heating Fuenaces. The Low Moor Works, Bradford. Camforth Hematite Iron Co., Carnforth. Messrs. Samuel Fox and Co., Limited, Sheffield. Messrs. E. Johnson and Nephew, Bradford, Manchester. Table XI, Peoduotion of Ceucible Steel since the year 1873, in the Great Britain hy the Siemens Regenerative Gas Furnaces. Works Year. Crucible Steel. Year. Crucible Steel. 1873 1874 1875 1876 Tons. 5,900 3,300 4,000 4,150 1877 1878 1879 1880 Tons. 3,900 2,980 2,900 3,050 Sheffield still continues to be the chief centre of this industry ; and it further appears that during the year 1880 nearly 1,500 tons of Steel were made in this locality by a process patented by Mr. W. E. Hadfield and described as a combination of the Bessemer and Siemens processes.* * " British Iron Trade Association," Eeport, 1880, p. 37. APPENDIX.-No. 4. TIN PLATE MANUFACTUEE. Table I. — Production of Tin Terne and Black Plates in Great Britain, and Number of Works since 1871. „ II.— Summary of Tin Plate Works in Great Britain in the year 1880. „ III. — List of Tin Plate Works in Glamorganshire „ „ IV. — Do. do. in Caermarthenshire „ „ V. — Do. do. in Monmouthshire „ „ VI. — Do. do. in Gloucestershire „ „ VII. — Do. do. in StafEordshire and Worcestershire, Scot- land, Cumherlamd, and Flintshire in 1880. „ VIII. — Exports of Tin Plates (Number of Boxes), since the year 1873. „ IX. — Do. do. and Principal Countries to which exported in each year since 1873. ., X. — Tin Plates exported and declared value in the years, 1870, 1875 and 1880. The earliest establishment engaged in this industry appears to have been founded in this country about the year 1720 at Pontypool in Monmouthshire. The art of tinning was early practised in the kingdom of Bohemia in the beginning of the I7th century, it is said about the year 1620, and some years later the art was introduced into the kingdom of Saxony. The art, as pre- ■viously stated, was introduced into this country about the year 1720 ; it was not, however, until the year 1728 that any considerable advance was made, when Mr. John Payne invented a process for rolling iron ; this appears to have been further supplemented by the grooved malls, invented about the year 1783, by Mr. Henry Cort. Many years, however, passed away before Cort's invention was fully appreciated. Mr. Eeynolds, of the Ketley Iron Works, in Shropshire, erected the first of Cort's EoUs, and about the year 1790 Mr. Eichard Crawshay erected rolling mills at Cyfarthfa, in Glamorgan- shire.* The selection of iron for the making of the various descriptions of tin plate is of the utmost importance, the great tests of quality being ductility, strength, and a peculiar crystalline structure and grain, well known to the tin-plate manufacturer. The greatest care is taken to reject any plate at all faulty, after it has passed through the various processes necessary in its preparation for tinning. This faulty condition is observed in the passage of the plate through the chilled rolls after being freed from rust, or scale of oxide iron, formed in the previous operations through which the tin plates pass in heating and re- heating in the furnace, and cleansing in the acid bath. In the process of tinning. Dr. Percy t says: "About 8 or 8Jlbs. of tin aroused on an average per box of tin plates," and that "the quantity of * The process of manufacture, tin plates, charcoal plates, &c., will be found fully described in Dr. Percy's Metallurgy, " Iron and Steel," p. 725. t Ibid. p. 729. TIN PLATE MANUFACTURE. mixed metal for terne plates ■will vary from 10 lbs. to 14 lbs., according to the proportions of lead employed ; this last-named variety of tin plates, called " terne plates," are coated -with an alloy of tin and lead, the surface beia^ dull compared with that of tin plates. Terne plates are exported in considerable quantities to Canada where they are in great request for roofing. The standard of quotation is always taken at 10 (Common No. 1); this is a box containing 225 plates, 13 j inches by 10 inches, which should weigh 1 owt. or 112 lbs. Table I. Peoduction of Tin, Tebnb and Black Plates ht Great Beitain. The year 1870 furnishes the earliest information on the subject: 57 works were then in operation in Great Britain, more or less actively employed ; of these 33 furnished returns amounting to 199,782 boxes weighing 81,477 tons, the total production the same year amounting to 3,459,782 boxes. In sub- sequent years the number of works were as follows, the actual returns being distinguished from those estimated, these latter quantities being arrived at by gentlemen connected and intimately acquainted with the tin plate manufacture : — Year. No. of Works. BOXES BEIORNED. Boxes Estimated. Total Number of Boxes. Number. Weight. 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 57 61 69 69 68 68 75 75 78 97 Nos. 1,444,087 1,534,181 1,974,989 1,204,576 1,601,516 1,646,276 1,788,549 2,257,791 2,631,166 3,390,647 Tons. 83,917 78,088 116,943 62,268 82,490 85,472 86,738 109,183 117,970 158,925 Nos. 949,204 1,443,670 710,056 1,325,000 1,350,600 1,170,117 2,261,201 1,800,209 1,619,179 2,609,353 Nos. 2,393,291 2,977,851 2,685,045 2,529,576 2,952,116 2,815,393 4,049,750 4,058,000 4,250,345 6,000,000 In the year 1879, the 78 works engaged in the various forms of tin plate possessed 264 mills ; of these 222 were in operation, producing 4,250,345 boxes, the total weight being 190,576 tons, the average weight of each box being nearly 1 cwt. ; while it was in the same year estimated by the highest authority in the trade, that, had the works been in full activity during the year, they were capable of producing 6,854,740 boxes. 3 I 850 APPENDIX IV. Table II. Summary of Tin Plate Works in Great Beitain m the Tear 1880:—* Counties. No. ol Works. Mills Built. Grlamorganshire Caeimarthenshire .... Monmouthsliire .... Grlouoestershire .... Staflfordshire and WoroestersMre Scotland Cumberland .... Flintshire 45 14 17 6 11 2 1 1 188 65 63 18 31 5 5 2 Total .... 97 377 The details of returns received from tin plate works for the year 1880 have been as follows : — Number of boxes of tin and terne plates „ of boxes of black plates Total number of boxes . Boxes. 2,478,742 911,905 3,390,647 Actual weight of the whole returned, 158,925 tons. The tin plate works which have not made returns are estimated as foUows : — Boxes. The eatimaied number of boxes of tin, terne, and black ) n fjnq qkq plates ! ' ' Actual number of boxes of tin, terne, and black plates ) „ oqn 047 returned as above ) ' ' Total number of tin, terne, and black plates, made in the ) „ „„„ „„„ United Kingdom in the year 1880 . . . .] «'>"'J"'""" The total estimated weight of the whole, 237,084 tons. * Mineral statistics of the United Kingdom. TIN PLATE MANUFACTURE. Table III. Glamobganshibe. The annexed Table presents a Complete List of the Tin Plate Wokks of Gbeat Beitain at tlui present time, 1880 : — Name of Worlcs. Name of Firm. Total Mills. Aberdulaia (Neath) Amman (Bryn Amman) Avon Vale (Aberavon) Beaufort (Morriston) Burrows (Taibach) Cambria (Pontardulais) Cilfrero (Neath) . Clydaoh (Swansea) . Clyne (Neath) . Cwm Avon (Taibach) Cwm Bwrla (Swansea) Cwm Felin (Swansea) Dowlais (Merthyr) Dyffryn (Morriston). Poxhall (Llansamlet) . Gadlys UohafE (Cardiff) Glamorgan (Pontardulais) Glantawe (Swansea) Grlanyrafon (Swansea) Gorceinon (Swansea) Gower (Penolawd) Gurnos (Ystalyfera) Landore (Swansea) Llantrissant (Cardiff) Llwydarth (Maesteg) Mansel (Taihaoh) Margam (Neath) Melyn Griffith (Cardiff ) Melyn (Neath) . Merthyr (Aberdare) Midland (Morriston) . Morriston (Swansea) Pontardawe (Swansea) Pontardulais (Pontardulais) Taibach (Port Talbot) . Teilo (Pontardulais) . Treforest (Pontypridd) Upper Forest (Swansea) Vernon (Breton Ferry) Waterloo (Cai-diff) . Worcester (Swansea) . Ynismendwy (Swansea) Tnispenllwch (Clydach) Tspitty (Loughor E. S. 0.) Ystalyfera (Swansea) . Joshua Williams cS; Co., Limited Amman Iron Co. Port Talbot Tin Plate Co. Beaufort Tin Plate Co. Glamorgan Tin Plate Co. Cambria Co-operative Co. . Prosser Son & Co., Limited John Player H. Thomas & Co., Limited Copper Miners' Tin Plate Co Swansea Tin Plate Co. Cwm Felin Tin Plate Co. Lmtd, Dowlais Iron Co. Daniel Edwards and Co. FoxhaU Tin Plate Co. . Hosgood & Smith Webb, Shakespear, & Williams Glantawe Tin Plate Co. . Glanyrafon Iron &Tin Plate Co, Gorceinon Tin Plate Co. Morris, Smith, Thomas & Co. Gurnos Tin Plate Cp. Landore Tin Plate Co. Llantrissant Tin Plate Co. Llwydarth Tin Plate Co. . Mansel Tin Plate Co. Robert B. Byass & Co. T. W. Booker & Co., Limited Leach, Flower, & Co. . Stuart Steel,Iron,& Tin Plate Co, D. Glasbrook & Co. Morriston Tin Plate Co. . W. GUbertson & Co. . Pontardulais Tin Plate Co. D. R. David & Co. Teilo Tin Plate Co. . Treforest Tin Plate Co. Llansamlet Tin Plate Co. David Morris & Co. George Geen & Co. . Llansamlet Tin Plate Co. . Ynismendwy Tin Plate Co. Tawe Tin Plate Co., Limited J. Eushton Turnock Ystalyfera Iron Co. 5 4 4 7 3 1 2 2 2 8 5 5 2 6 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 2 7 4 o 6 6 6 7 2 3 5 6 3 2 2 5 7 8 2 5 2 3 3 12 Total of Glamorganshire 188 3 I 2 552 APPENDIX IV. Table IV. OAEEMAETHEIfSHIEE. Name of Works. Name ot Firm. Total MUls. Avondale Burry (Llanelly) Caermarthen (Caermarthen) Dafen (Llanelly). Glanamman (Owmamman) Q-wendraeth (Kidwelly) Handy (Pontardulais) Lion .... Llanelly (Llanelly) Llangennech (do.) . Morlais (Llangennech) Old Castle (LlaneUy) South Wales (Llanelly) Western (LlaneUy) . Total of Caermarthensliire Avondale L:on and Tin Plate Co, B-urry Tin Plate Co., Limited Thomas Lester & Co. Phillips, Nunes, & Co. Glanamman TinPlate Co. , Lim, J. Chivers & Son Edm. Boughton & Co., Limited H. Thomas .... John S. Tregonning & Son Llangennech Tin Plate Co. . Llansamlet Tin Plate Co. Old Castle Jion and Tin Plate Co., Limited. E. Morewood & Co. Western Tia Plate Co., Limited 1 4 5 4 2 10 4 2 4 8 2 • 6 9 4 65 Table V. MONMOrTHSHIEE. Name of Works. Name of Firm, Total Mills. Abergavenny (Abergavenny) . Abercarne (Newport) Abertillery (Newport) . . . Blaina (Blaina) Caerleon (Newport) . . . Garth (Newport) . . Machen (Newport) . . . Monmouth Eorges . Pontnewydd (Newport) . . Pontrhydyrun (Newport) Pontheer (Caerleon) . . . Pontymister (Newport) . Pontypool (Pontypool) . . Eedbrook (Monmouth) . Ehiwderin (Newport) . . . Tydu and Eogerston (New- port) Tynewydd (Pontnewydd) . < Total of Monmouthshire Llanelly Ixon and Tin Plate Co, Daniel Whitehouse . Philip S. Phillips Blaina L:on and Tin Plate Co P. Moggridge & Co. Garth Iron and Tin Plate Co. Machen Iron and Tin Plate Co, H. T. Griffiths & Co. . B. Conway & Co. . Conway Brothers Conway, Conway & Co. . Pontymister Tin Plate Co. PontypoolIronandTin Plate Co, Eedbrook Tin Plate f)o. . Garth Iron and Tin Plata Co. Tydu and Eogerston Tin Plate Co Tynewydd Iron and Tin Plate Co., Limited . 2 8 7 6 2 4 3 1 2 2 2 5 8 3 4 2 2 63 TIN PLATE MANUFACTURE. 853 Table VI. GLOTTOESTERSHrEE. Name of Works. Name of Finn. Total Mills. Abbey Tintem (Chepstow) . j Caldicot (Chepstow) . . TTawkwell (Oinderford) . Lydney (Lydney) . . . Lydbrook (Ross) Parkend (Lydney) . . . Abbey Tintem Wire and Tin Plate Co Caldicot Tin Plate Co. . J. Chivers & Co Richard Thomas & Co. . Richard ThoTnas & Co. Henry Orawshay & Sons . 3 4 5 2 Total of Gloucestershire 18 Table VII. slaetordshiee and woeoesteeshiee ; scotland, cumbeeland, and Plintshieb. Name of Works. Name of Firm. Total Mills. Staffordshire and Worcestershire. Bradley (Bilston) Broadwaters (Kidderminster) Brockmoor (Brierley Hill) . Cookley (Kidderminster) . Hope (Tipton) Horseley Pielda (Wolver- hampton). Manor (Wolverhampton) . Osier Bed „ Rugeley .... Tividale (Tipton) Wilden (Stourport) . Hatton, Sons, & Co. )> 11 • • Budd and Co. . John Knight & Co. Hope Lron and Tin Plate Co. E. P. and W. Baldwin Stephen Thompson . Osier Bed L:on Co. David Griffiths & Co. Budd & Co. E. P. and W. Baldwin . Total of Staffordshire and Worcestershire . Scotland. Coatbridge (Glasgow) Milton (Motherwell) . Total of Scotland Cumberland. Derwent (Workington) . Flintshire. Mold (Flint) Coatbridge Tin Plate Co., Lim. Isaac Summerhill & Co. . W. Griffiths & Co. . Alyn Tin Plate Co. 31 854 APPENDIX IV. Table VIII. Exports of Tin Plates in each of the following years, and Ports from which Exported. Ports from wlieh Exported. ,1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. Boxes. Boxes. Boxes. Boxes. Boxes. Boxes. Boxes. Boxes. Liverpool . . 1,685,012 1,497,440 1,808,737 1,769,313 2,102,620 2,052,982 2,116,632 2,345,247 London . 251,806 231,262 327,800 810,372 367,169 345,608 397,399 364,268 Swansea . 73,077 41,466 66,487 108,616 102,721 109,829 134,309 60,162 Bristol . 63,392 110,471 107,883 126,082 190,469 213,092 603,644 1,082,934 Cardiff . . 41,948 130,224 18,734 982 11,020 88,268 262,064 162,766 Glasgow . 8,069 4,128 3,472 2,875 2,468 3,823 8,351 14,486 Southampton . 104,804 106,869 96,606 67,244 34,193 6,772 3,970 97,987 Hull 12,560 19,662 19,618 •10,263 14,167 15,490 7,860 8,476 Newca-stle . 613 1,888 2,470 5,102 4,168 2,698 989 2,836 Newliaven Total . . 12,206 1,218 280 189 120 274 1 69 2,163,477 2,143,468 2,448,986 2,400,038 2,819,098 2,837,776 3,534,169 4,089,160 Table IX. Exports of Tin Plates {numher of Boxes) from the United Kingdom to all Ports, in each of the following years, and Countries receiving the same. Countries to wliicU Exported. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. United States Ports. Holland, Germany, and Belgium . . Australia and New Zealand . Italy and Mediter- ranean . . . " Canada and B. N. America . France and Switz- erland . . . South America and ) Brazfls . . f Spain and Portugal . Norway, Sweden, ) and Baltic . . ; India and Cliina West Indies . Cape, Ceylon, and Mauritius . . Africa and Outside Islands . ) Unclassed . . . 1,511,632 63,647 76,890 114,699 69,318 71,689 50,862 64,041 67,039 42,616 8,434 7,984 3,038 1,199 1,585,994 96,313 42,394 72,990 66,188 40,318 61,079 64,013 71,566 44,636 8,953 3,111 4,169 1,765 1,673,436 129,114 62,665 121,348 78,022 63,466 64,161 72,174 114,993 71,897 8,847 2,918 4,281 1,696 1,609,515 140,166 69,782 97,379 95,684 108,762 62,586 60,994 83,233 61,763 10,143 4,261 3,919 1,862 1,943,444 121,884 76,865 91,675 167,592 97,617 64,402 68,612 88,298 86,369 12,891 3,174 4,478 1,907 1,931,128 140,640 63,678 141,691 103,284 97,928 62,676 70,101 103,008 92,260 12,033 3,080 6,676 1,603 2,765,421 169,362 42,081 108,977 120,798 76,311 48,637 61,226 81,029 63,431 9,346 3,414 4,242 996 2,959,380 126,806 80,866 196,377 200,138 148,914 68,661 86,179 93,147 124,654 18,626 3,718 4,604 2,802 Total Boxes . 2,153,477 2,143,468 2,448,986 2,400,038 2,819,098 2,837,776 3,684,169 4,089,160 TIN PLATE MANUFACTUKE. 855 Table X. Tin Plates Expoeted. Countries to which exported, Quantitiee and Value in each of the years 1870, 1875, and 1880 (according to Trade and Navigation Retv/rns). Countries to which Exported. Quantities. Value. 1870. 1875. 1880 1870. 1875. 1880. France . . . . United States . British North America Australia . Other Countries . . Total Tons. 1,258 75,372 2,982 3,136 17,329 Tons. 3,186 95,995 4,134 3,192 31,856 Tons. 4,418 164,284 10,399 4,474 34,124 £ 27,135 1,762,914 73,740 82,925 421,843 £ 84,602 2,541,004 118,004 91,234 856,538 £ 82,362 3,374,010 221,245 95,723 674,752 100,077 138,363 217,699 2,368,557 3,691,382 4,448,092 INDEX. A BERDAEE Coal, parish returns, 206. ■^ Iron Works, pig iron made at, 619. Adalbert Shaft, Bohemia, depth of, 77. Adderbury iroa ore, Oxfordshire, produc- tion of, 679. Ages of persons employed in coal mining, 812. Alfreton Iron Works, Derbyshire, 814. Algeria, iron ore from, 795. Altygowlan coal basin, Ireland, 284. Analyses of Coal ; — Anthracite, South J Vales : — Big Vein, 193.— Bonville's, 192.— Gwendraeth, 192. — Pontyeats, 193. — Saundersfoot, 193.— Timber Vein, 193.— Watney's, 193. Bitumimms, United Kingdom : — Arley, Lancashire, 71. Aughabehy, Ireland, 285. Bagillt Main, Flintshire, 178. Balcan-es, Lancashire, 71. BaUycastle, Ireland, 288. Bamsley, Yorkshire, 39. Birchgrove Graigola,Caermarthen, 197. Blaoldey Hurst, Lancashire, 71. Black Vein, Monmouth, 196. Bovey Tracey, Devon, 250. Bowden Close, Dm-ham, 9. Bristol, Somerset, 240. Brockwell, Dmham, 12. Brora, Scotland, 268. Brymbo, Denbigh, 175. Buddies, Hartley, 10. Busty, Durham, 12. Caermarthenshire, 197. Charcoal Vein, Monmouth, 196. Coleford High Delf, Forest of Dean, 227. Dalkeith, Scotland, 264. Darfield Main, Yorkshire, 40. Dukinfield, Cheshu-e, 93. Dnngannon, Ireland, 286. Edmund's Main, Yoi-kshire, 40. Eglinton, Scotland, 267. Elseear, Yorkshire, 40. Ewloe, Flintshire, 178. Fordell Splint, Scotland, 265. Analyses of Coal — {oontinued.) Forest of Dean, Gloucester, 225. Garesfield, Durham, 9. Glamorganshire, South Wales, 197. Hartley, Durham, 8. Haswell, Durham, 8. Haydock, Lancashire, 74. Hurlford, Scotland, 267. Ibstock, Leicester, 119. Ince Hall, Lancashire, 72. Langlev, Derbyshire, 102. Little Row, Stafford, North, 143. Loscoe, Derbyshire, 102. Masbro' Park, Yorkshire, 40. Newcastle Hartley, Durham, 10. Nixon's Merthyr, Caermarthen, 197. Oaks, Yorkshire, 40. Original Hartley, Durham, 8. Park End, Forest of Dean, 226. Pemberton, Lancashire, 73. Portland, Nottingham, 114. Eadstock, Somerset, 240. Eenishaw, Derbyshire, 102. Rover, Ireland, 285. Ruabon, Denbigh, 174. Seatou Bum, Durham, 10. Shireoaks, Nottingham, 113. Shropshire, 134. Silkstone, Yorkshire, 41. Silkstone Brights, Yorksliire, 42. Slievardagh, Ireland, 289. South Peareth, Durham, 9. Splint Coal, Scotland, 261. Staveley, Derbyshire, 102. Sunderland, Durham, 10. Ten Yard, or Thick Coal, Stafford- shire, South, 156. Thomas, Merthyr, Caermarthen, 197. Top, Yard, and Double, Shropshire, 134. Trenchard, Forest of Dean, 227. Wellwood, Scotland, 265. Whitwick, Leicester, 120. WiUington, Durham, 9. WombweU Main, Yorkshire, 41. Wrexham, Denbigh, 175. Cannel: — Boghead, Scotland, 179. — Capeldrea, Scotland, 259. — Dovenby, 858 INDEX. Analyses of Coal — (contiwued.) Cumterland, 60.— Dukinfield, Che- shire, 9S. — Leeswood Curly, Flint- shire, 179. — Leeswood Smooth, Flint- shire, 179. — Lesmahago, Scotland, 179. — LochgcUy, Scotland, 259. — Pirnie, Scotland, 260.— "Wigan, Lan- cashire, 179. Analysis of Coke : — Durham, 12. Analyses of Foreign Iron Ores : — Allevard, France, 793. Bilbao, Spain, 787. Calamita, Italy, 796. Dannemora, Sweden, 800. Deseada, Spain, 788. Djebel, Algeria, 794. Island of Seriphos, Greece, 798. Lake Ore, Flaten, Sweden, 800. Monges, Portugal, 791. Privas, France, 792. Eio Albano, Italy, 796. Koslagen, Sweden, 800. Terranera, Italy, 796. Analyses of Iron Ore and Ironstone : — Ahbotshury, Doi-set, 674. Abercame, Monmouth, 592. Adderbury, Oxfordshire, 681. Arigna, Ireland, 756. Auohencanie, Scotland, 723. Bassy Mine, Stafford, North, 500. Bauxite, Ireland, 773. Bedworth, Warwick, 479. Belmont, Cleveland, 370. Black Band, Scotland, 721. Black Bed Mine, Yorkshire, W.K., 349. Black Pin, Wales, South, 593. Blaenavon, Wales, South, 590. Blisworth, Northampton, 544. BilUngsley, Shropshire, 485. Bole, Ireland, 763. Brandy Brush, Forest of Dean, 648. ' Brendou Hills (Calcined ore), Somerset, 668. (Spathose), Somerset,'667. Brigg, Lincolnshire, 566. Brixworth, Northampton, 544. Brixham, Devonshire, 695. Brown and Black Rakes, Derbyshire, 464. Brush Ore, Forest of Dean, 647. Butterley District, Derbyshire, 465. Cannel Mine, Staflbrd, North, 501. Camlough, Ireland, 768. Castlecomer, Ireland, 759. Cheese Mine, Wales, South, 597. Clay Bands, Scotland, 722. Cleato'r Moox', Cumberland, 419. Cogenhoe, Northampton, 546. Culworth, Northampton, 545. Donnington Wood, Shropshire, 482. Analyses of Iron Ore and Ironstone— (continued.) Dowlais Eosser Vein, Wales, South, 594. Dowlais Spotted Vein, Wales, South, 595. Duchy and Peru, Cornwall, 711- Dungaunon, Ireland, 757. Easton Neston, Northampton, 545. Eskdale, Cumberland, 420. Eston, Cleveland, 368. Evishacrow, Ireland, 767. Fawler, Oxfordshire, 680. Forest of Dean, Eastern Side, 649. Frank MiUs, Devonshire, 693. Frodingham, Lincolnshire, 564. Furness, Lancashire, 438. Gilbrow, Lancashire, 437. Glenai-m, Ireland, 768. Glenaritt; Ireland, 770. Grains, Staiford, South, 516. Gravel Hill, Cornwall, 712. Grey Vein, Forest of Dean, 647-. Gubbin, Stafford, South, S16. Gutter Mine, Stafford, South, 500. Hareshaw, Durham, 326. Haytor, Devon, 689. Heyford, Northampton, 541. Hutton Low Cross, Cleveland, 371. Ingleby, Cleveland, 373. Irish Hill, Ireland, 771. Knightor, Cornwall, 707. Lindal Moor, Lancashire, 437. Mid-Lincoln, Lincolnshire, 566. Mount, Cornwall, 711. Mushet's Black Band, Scotland, 720. Mwyndy, Wales, South, 602. Paint Ore (Brixham), Devon, eg."!. Park Gate, Yorkshire, AV.K., 350. Pawton, Cornwall, 706. PeiTan, Cornwall, 712. Pisolitic Ore, Ireland, 762. PontjTool Black Band, Wales, South, 592. Eed HiUs, Ireland, 775. Ecd Mine, Stafford, North, 500. Eed Shag, Stafford, North, 500. Eed Vein, Wales, South, 593. Restormel, Cornwall, 704. Eidsdale, Durham, 326. Eosedale Abbey, Cleveland, 373. Saint Austell, Cornwall, 714. Seend, Wiltshire, 676. Shotley Bridge, Durham, 326. Smallacombe, Devon, 691. Smith Ore, Forest of Dean, 647. Soap Vein, Wales, South, 593. South Terras, Cornwall, 715. Staveley District, Derbyshire, 467. Sulphury Mine, Wales, South, 596. Treamble, Cornwall, 712. INDEX. 859 Analyses of Iron Ore and Ironstone — (eoHthiued.) Trecastle, "Wales, South, 604. Trofechau, Wales, Kortli, 675. Upleatham, Cleveland, 369. Weardale (Spathoso), Durham, 327. WeUingborough, Northampton, 4il. Westbury, Wiltshire, 676. Whitchurch, Wales, South, 603. AVhite 15ed Mine, Yorkshire, W.E.,349. White Pins Mine, Wales, South, 596. "Anglesea Coal Field." — Kamsay, Prof., 173. Anthracite in Blast Furnaces. — Budd, Mr. J. P. , application of, 622. analyses of, see Analyses of Anthra- cite. Coal, Pembrokeshire, 192. Furnaces, Wales, South, Average Xiroduce of, 625. — Capacity of, 622. pig iron, 625. Antrim Black Band ironstone, 758. Coal-field, Ireland, 287. Iron Ore Co.'s Mines, Ireland, 767. iron ore deposits of, Ireland, 759. iron ore, working of deposits, 765. succession of strata, 760. Apedale Iron Works, Stafford, North, 506. Areas of coal-fields : — Anglespa, 186. Bovey Tracey, Dovonsliire, 249. Brecknockshire, 188. Caermarthenshire, 188. Cheshire (wr Lancashire), 68. Cumberland, 59. Benbighshire, 186. Derbyshire {see Yorkshire), 32. Durham and Northumberland, 3. Flintshire, 186. Forest of Dean, 223. Gloucestershire, 223. Great Northern Coal-field, 3. Lancashire and Cheshire, 68. Leicestershire, 294. Nottinghamshire {see Yorkshire), 32. Scotland, 254, Somersetshire, 294. Staffordshire, North, 140. Staifordshire, South, 153. Wales, North, 294. South, 188. Warwickshire, 125. Yorkshire (including Derby and Notts), 32. Arigna Coal Basin, Ireland, 284. — . — Ironstone, Ireland, 213. Iron Works, Ireland, 782. Reports on, Ireland, 783, 784. Artesian Well, Potsdam, Missouri, 77. Ashton Moss Colliery, Manchester, 75. Auchencarne iron ore, Scotland, 723. Aughabehy Coal-field, Ireland, 284. Average jffoduce of coal per man : — Anglesea Coal-field, 183. Cheshire ,, 96. Cumberland „ 65. Denbighslure ,, 184. Derbyshire ,, 110. Durham „ 29, 30. Flintshire ,, 185. . Gloucestershire ,, 233. Ireland „ 291. Lancashire , , 86. Leicestershire ,, 123. Northumberland ,, 29, 30. Nottinghamshire ,, 117. Scotland ,, 280. Shropshire ,, 138. Somersetshire ,, 245. Staffordshire, N. „ 150. S. „ 168. Wales, North „ 185. South „ 221. Warwickshire ,, 130. Yorkshire ,, 52 — 54. Ayrshire Coal-field, Scotland, 266. "Ayr County, General View of," Scotland, Alton, William, 728. "DAGILLT Main Coal, Flintshire, 177. -^ Ballycastle Bay. "Coal-fields of Great Britain," Hidl, Prof, 284. Ballycastle, black band ironstone, 758. — Production of, 778. Ballymurtagh Iron Mine, Ireland, 776. Bar iron manufacture at Middlesboro, 375. prices of, in Cleveland, 414. Barnaley, section of strata, 37. thick coal, 348. Barrow Ha;matite Iron & Steel Co., Analyses of ores, 438. — Mechanical arrangements of, 450. BaiTow Iron Works established, 449. Silkstone Colliery, Yorkshire, 40. Bauxite deposits, Ireland, 772. — Produc- tion of, 778. Beaufort Iron Works, Brecknockshire, ■'■ pig iron made, 1829 to 1838, 612. Besseges process, coke manufacture, 202. Bessemer Steel Works, Crewe, Cheshu-e, 460. — Dowlais, Glamorganshire, 629. — Ebbw Vale, 628.— List of, in Great Britain in 1880, 843. — Lancashire, 459. —Monmouthshire, 626. — Sliefiield and Eotherham, 363.— Old Park Works, Staffordshire, South, 533. Bessemer steel, production of in Great Britain :— Since 1871, 844.— In each district in 1879—80, 845. Biddulph Valley Iron Woi-ks, Staffordslurs, North, 508. 860 INDEX. Bideford anthracite, 252. Bilbao iron ore deposits, Spain, 785, Consular Report, 789. Billingsley coal, Shropshire, 133. Birker Moor Iron Mines, Eskdale, Cum- berland, 417. Birmingham Canal Navigation, coal carried, 164. Black band ironstone, order of occur- rence : — Scotland, 257. Black vein coal, Merthyr : Mr. T. Crowder, "Analysis by," 196. Blackwell, Mr. S., of Dudley : "Iron Ores of the United Kingdom Report," 584. Blaenavon Iron Works, Monmouthshire, pig iron made, 1829 to 1838, 612. Blaina Iron Works, Monmouthshire, pig iron made, 1829 to 1838, 612. Blast furnaces, average produce of : — Cumberland, 432. Denbighshire, 581. Derbyshire, 473. Dm-ham, 337. Glamorganshire, 620. Great Britain in 1880, 820. Great Britain in 1872, 817. Great Britain since 1854, 838. Lancashire, 453. Lincolnshire, 572. Northamptonshire, 555. Scotland, 740. Shropshire, 493. Stafifordshire, North, 507. Staffordshire, South, 627. Wales, North, 581. Wales, South (anthracite), 625. Wiltshire, 685. Yorkshire, North Riding, 395. Yorkshire, West Riding, 359. dimensions of, at Askham, Lancashire, 454. dimensions of, Staffordshire, North, 507 Blisworth Iron Mines, Northamptonshire, produce of, 549. Blocking Bed coal, Yorkshire, 38. Bloomiield Iron Works, Tipton, Stafford, South :— " Pig Boiling, 1811," 533. " Boat load," Staffordshire, South, 160. Blowing machinery, introduction of, by Smeaton, Scotland, 727. Bodfari, Flintshire, Wales, North, iron ore deposits, 575. Boghead coal, analyses of, 179. Bole deposits, Antrim, Ireland, 761. " Borlase " iron ore deposits of, Cornwall, 702. Boulonnaise iron ore deposits, France, 793. Bovey Tracey Coal (Lignite), Devonshire, 249. "Bovey Tracey," Devonshire, Phil. Trans. — Milles, Rev. J., on, 250. Bovey Tracey Lignite, Devonshire : Analysis of "Board Coal," Percy, Dr., Fuel, 251. Analysis of, by Vaux, Mr. F., 250. Bowling Iron Works, Yorkshire, W. E., founded 1780, 352. " Bowling Ironworks," Yorkshire, W. E., Wilcock, Mr. J., on, 353. Brecknockshire, Wales, South : — Furnaces built and in blast, 614. — Pig iron pro- duction, 1806, 610 ; 1823—1830, 611. —Pig iron made, 1829—1838, 613; 1867—1872, 614.— Production of iron- stone, 599. Brendon Hills, Somei-setshire : — Ancient iron ore workings, 666. — Iron ore de- posits, 666. "Brendon Hills Spathose Iron Ore and Mines," Morgans, Mr. on, 667. Bridgewater Canal, construction of, 75. Navigation, coal earned by, 83. Brinkburn clay ironstone, Northumber- land, 7. " British Iron Ores, General Distribution of," by Bauerman, Mr. H., 821. Bristol Coal-field, 235. "Bristol Coal-field," British Association Report, 1875, 241. Bristol coal exports, 231. and Radstock Coal Basin, 236. Brixham Iron Mines, Devonshire, 693. — Pi-oduction of, 696. Brora Coal-field, 268. Buckinghamshire iron ore deposits, 682. Buckshraft Iron Mine, Forest of Dean, 642. Bunawe Charcoal-iron furnace, Scotland, 726. Burnley District, Lancashire, coals worked in, 68. Bute Docks, Cardiff, 210. Butterley Iron Works, Derbyshire, 470. — Celebrated for examples of castings, 471. flALCINATION of iron ores, Stafford- ^ shire. North, 503. Calder Iron Works, Scotland, 731. Caledonian Railway, Scotland, coal carried by, 277. Canal distribution of South Staffordshire coal, 164. Cannel coals, analyses^ of. i^See Analyses of Cannel coals). Coal, Great Britain, production of in 1865, 182. Carboniferous Limestone, iron ore de- posits of. {See Iron Ore deposits of Carboniferous Limestone). INDEX. 861 Carboniferous Limestone Series, Scotland, coal seams in, 263 Limestone-coal Series, Northumber- land, 6. system, Yorkshire, 32. Carron Iron Works, Scotland, 727. Castlecomer Coal Basin, Ireland, 288. Cefn Cwse ironstone measures, Wales, South, 589. Charcoal iron furnaces : — Cumberland, 428. Goatfield, Scotland, 727. Hampshire, 686. Lancashire, ii. Monmouthshire (1788), 607. Pontypool, 604. Scotland, 726. pig iron, make of : — Derbyshire, 470. Hampshire, 686. Lancashire, 448. Cheadle Coal-field, 143. Cheshire coal, analysis of, "Toothill, Mr. R. S.," 93. coal, analysis of, by "Percy, Dr., Metallurgy— Fuel," 93. Coal-field, 92.—" Coal Com. Report," Dickinson, Mr. J., 97. distribution of coal, 96. Iron Industries, 460. production of coal, 94. Chromic iron ore, Russia, 801. Chumet Valley iron ore, Staffordshire, North, 502. Cinder iron, Staffordshire, South, 530. Cinderford Iron Works, Forest of Dean, 669. — Iron ore used in, 664. Clackmannan Coal-field, 266. Clapton in Gordano and Severn Basin, Somersetshire, section of boring at, 237. Clay, analysis of, Santon, Lincolnshire, 573. Cleator Moor Mines, Whitehaven, 415. Cleveland and Whitby districts, mines working in 1880, 381. Coal and iron ore used in pig iron manufacture, 399. Bessemer pig iron made, 396. " Cleveland Blast Furnaces," average yield of, Richards, Mr. W., 396. calcined ironstone, analysis of, 372. furnaces, ironstone smelted, 385. "Cleveland Ironstone District, Resources of," Barrow, Mr. G., Paper on, 387. ironstone field, area of, 368. "Cleveland Ironstone, Memoir on," Mar- ley, Mr. J., 376. ironstone mining, population em- ployed, "Reports H. M.'s Inspectors of Mines," 385. — — ironstone, yield of metallic iron, 374. Cleveland Iron Works, when established, 394. Iron Works in 1880, 397. "main ironstone seam," 365. Malleable Ironworks in 1880, 413. mines producing ore in 1880, 378 pig iron, average prices of, 398. pig iron, distribution of, 397. raw ironstone, analysis of, 372. Clydach Ironworks, Brecknockshire, pig: iron made, 1829 to 1838, 612. Clyde Coal Basin, Scotland, 257. Ironworks, Glasgow, 729. Valley coal and ironstone series, 258. Coal, analyses of {see Analyses of coal). averse used in pig iron manufacture, 1871 to 1880, 818. average produce per man {sec- Average produce of coal per man). "Coal and Coal Mining, ' Smyth, Mr. W. W., 239. Coal-fields of the United Kingdom : fields, areas of {see Areas of coal- fields). first tax on, 1379, 2. and ironstone carried by North- Eastern Railway, Durham, 24. " Coal and Ironstone Series, Clyde Valley," Moore, Mr. W., on, 258. "Coal and Ironstone Strata of Scotland," Geikie, Mr. J., on, 256. Coal and ironstone used in pig iron manu- facture : — Cleveland district, 399. Cumberland, 432. Derbyshire, 475. Durham and Northumberland, 343. Forest of Dean, 663. Great Britain, 813. Great Britain in 1840, 836. Lancashire, 458. Lincolnshire, 572. Muirkirk, Scotland, 748. Northamptonshire, 556. Scotland, since 1872, 752. Shropshire, 497. Staffordshire, North, 509. Staffordshire, South, 527. Wales, North, 582. Wales, South, 640. Wiltshire, 685. Yorkshire, North Riding, 402. Yorkshire, West Riding, 363.. Coal, cinders, and culm sent coastwise since 1834 :— England, 307. — Ireland, 307.— Scotland, 307. , coke, cinders, and patent fuel ex- ported, 310. coking {see Coking coal). "Coal Committee Report, 1873," coal used in pig iron manufacture, 816. 862 INDEX, Coal crushing and washing in Coke manu- facture, Lancashii-e, 453. deep-winning, at Harris' Navigation Pits, ferown and Adams, Messrs., on, 206. distribution of (see Distribution of coal). economy of, by Cowper's and Whit- well's stoves, 819. economy in pig iron mannfaotui-e since 1871, 819. exported to foreign countries, 1816 to 1832, 308. exported to foreign countries, and value, since 1856, 310. Coal-fields of :— Cheshire, 92. Cumberland, 69. Derbyshire, 99. Devonshire, 249. Durham, 1. Gloucestershire, 223. Ireland, 283. Lancashire, 68. Leicestershire, 118. Monmouthshire, 188. Northumberland, 1. Nottinghamshire, 111. Scotland, 254. Shropshire, 132. Somersetshii-e, 235. Staffordshire, North, 140. Staffordshire, South, 153. United Kingdom, 294. "Wales, North, 172. "Wales, South, 188. Warwickshire, 125. Yorkshire, 32. Coal first sent to London, 1. Household, Durham, 7. Pit Heath, Gloucestershire, 237. previously coked, used at Coalbrook- dale by Darby, 487. production of (see Production of Coal). Slievardagh, 289. sti'ata (see Strata, Section of ). used in Edward III.'s time, 2. used in Malleable Iron Works (see Malleable Iron Works, coal used in). washing appai-atus, Pemberton Col- liery, 79. wrought imder the sea : — Monkwearmouth, 18. Workington, Cumberland, 60. (!!oalbrookdale Coal-field, 132. Ironworks, 487. Ironworks, when established, 495. Coke, experiments on, Clai-ence Ironworks, 11. Coke, manufacture of. Almond Works, Scotland, 749. Bainbridge, Mr. E., on, 201, Besseges process, Belgium, 202, Durham, 14. Ebbw Vale, Coppee process, 199. production of, Durham, 13, 15. Somercotes Works by Mushet, Mr. D., 470. Wigan Coal and Iron Co., 452. yield per cent, from Durham Coals, 13. Ynysawdre Coal Co., 201. Coking Coal : — Besseges process, 202. Coppee process, 199. Lancashire, 453. Ordinary process, 13. Tyne and South Durham, 10. Yield of Glamorganshire coal, 398. Yield of Monmouthshire coal, 196, Collieries, number of : — Anglesea, 181. Bristol and Somerset, 245. Cheshire, 94. Cumberland, 63. Denbighshire, 181. Derbyshire, 104. Flintshire, 181. Forest of Dean, 228. Ireland, 291. Lancashire, 78. Leicestershire, 120. Monmouthshire, 205. Nottinghamshire, 115. Scotland, 270. Shropshire, 134. Somersetshire, 244. Staffordshire, North, 146. Staffordshire, South, 159. United Kingdom, 296 Wales, North, 181. Wales; South, 205. Warwickshire, 127. Yorkshire, 44. Colliery Guardian, prices of finished iron, 537. Concealed Coal-fields, coal remaining unwrouglit, 315. "Connaught Coal-field," Griffith, Sir E., 781. Consumption of Coal, South Staffordshire collieries, 163. Coppee process, coke manufacture, 199. Cornwall iron industries, 702. price of iron ore, 715. bt, Austell iron ore deposits, 714. situation of the principal iron mines, 716. Tregorne iron lode, 713. " Cowper Stoves," description of, 399. INDEX. 863 Cowper's and Whitwell's Stoves, economy in use of fuel by, 819. Crane, Mr. G., application of anthracite in blast furnace, 622. Crewe, engineering and metallurgical works at, 460. Cronebane Iron Mine, Ireland, 776. Cumberland coal-field, 59. ' ' Cumberland Coal-field, "Coal Commission Report, 66. "Cumberland Coal-field," Reports H. M. Inspectors of Coal Mines, 65. History and Antiquities of — Hutchin- son, 428. Iron industi'ies, 415. Iron mines, list of, in 1880, 426. Iron ore conveyed to Iron Works and shipped, 426. Iron ore deposits, Boanhead Mines, 436. "Cumberland iron ore deposits," Wurz- burger, Mr. P., on, 416. ■ Ii'ou ore used in furnaces, 434. Iron Works, when established, 430. Iron Works and furnaces in 1880, 433. Pig iron manufacture, 428. Produce of coal per man, 65. West, Steel Works, 431. •Cyfarthfa Iron Works, Account of, 621. €yfarth£a Iron Works, Glamorganshire, Pig Iron made 1829 to 1839, 619. DALZIEL Steel Works, near Glasgow, . Account of, 745. JDannemora iron mines, Sweden, 799. Darby, A., "Use of pit coal for smelting iron," 487. DelaBeche, on "Devon and Cornwall, 253. Deep Shafts (see Shafts, Deep). De la Beche and Playfair. — " Coals suited to the Steam Navy," 195. Denbighshire Coal Field, 172. production of ironstone, 576. production of pig iron, 578. succession of strata, 577. Derbyshire, analyses of ironstones, 464. Coal-field, 99. Coals, Analyses of Report.—" Coals suited to the Steam Navy," 102. Coal, Canal and Railway distribution, 107—108. "Derbyshire, General View of, &c.,' John Farey, 1811, 475. , Derbyshire ironstone measures or rakes, 462. Iron industries, 462. Iron works, when established, 470. Derbyshire, list of Iron Works in, 1796, 470. list of Iron Works in, 1851, 472. mills and forges, list of, in 1806, 474. mills and forges, list of, in 1880, — coal used, 475. pig iron manufacture, 469. production of coal, " Mineral Statis- tics," 104. production of pig iron since 185.'), 473. "Derbyshire, view of," by Farey, J., 103. ' ' Derbyshire, view of, " Pilkington, q^uoted, 103. Devon Iron Works, Scotland, 730. North, iron ore deposits, 698. Devonshire coal and lignite deposits, 249. iron industries, 688. iron mines, producing ore in 1880, 699. iron ore deposits, 692. iron oi-e, distribution of, 700. iron ores, value of, 699. iron ore, yield of metallic iron, 701. production of iron ore, 699. Distribution of coal : — Cheshire, 96. Cumberland, 64. Derbyshire, 103. Durham, 17, 19. Durham, early account of, 20. Durham, coastwise and exported, 22, 23. Durham, by Great Northern and Fur- uess railways, 25. Forest of Dean, 230. Lancashire, 80. Leicestersliire, 120. Nottinghamshire, 116. Scotland, 268. Scotland, coastwise and exported, 273. Shropshire, 135. Staffordshire, North, 146. Staffordshii-e, South, 161. Wales, North, 183. Wales, South, coastwise and exported, 216. Wales, South, by i-ailway, 217. Wales, South, by rail and sea, 210. of ironstone, Cleveland, 385. of iron ore, Cornwall, 716. of iron ore, Cumberland, 423. of iron ore, Lancashii-e, 444. of ironstone by railway, Liacolnshire, 569. Dorsetshire iron ore deposits, 673. Dovenby Collieiy, Maryport, 60. Dowlais Iron Works, Glamorganshire, 615. Iron Works, Glamorganshire, pig iron made, 1829 to 1839, 619. Wales, South, section of strata, 586. Dronfield, section of strata, Derbyshire, 463. 864 INDEX. Drumahambo Iron 'Works, Ireland, 782. Duchy and Peru Mine, Cornwall, 710. Dud Dudley, "Metallum Martis," account of his labours, 562. Dungannon Coal-field, Ireland, 286. "Dungannon Coal-field," Ireland, Hard- man, Mr. E. F., 286. Durham coal: — Carried by Great Northern and Furness Railways, 25. — Carried by North Eastern Railway, 24. Coal-field, 1. Fumaees, ironstone smelted, 385. Iron Works in 1 851, 335. " Durham and Northumberland Coal- field ":— Elliot, Sir G., 30.-Forster, Mr. T. E., 30.— Howell, Mr. H. H., 3. —Inspectors of H. M. Coal Mines, 29. — "Mineral Statistics," 19. Duties on coal, 18th century, 2. Duty on coal exported to foreign coun- tries, 308. EAST END Iron Works, Northampton- shire. 552. East Lothian Coal-field, 264. Ebbw Vale Iron Works, Monmouthshire, pig iron made, 1829 to 1838, 612. Edinburgh Coal-field, 262. Elba, Island of, iron ore, 795. Erewash Valley, sales of coals, 105. Eskdale, Cumberland, iron ore deposits, 417. Eston (Cleveland), production of mines since 1856, 379. Hill (Cleveland), ironstone first worked, 1850, 376. Steel Works opened, 1877, 406 Evishaorow iron ore deposits, Antrim, Ire- land, 765. Exmoor iron ore deposits, Devon, 697. Export duty on coals repealed, 2. FAWLEE iron ore, Oxfordshire, produc- tion of, 679. " Feme's Patent," economy in the use of fuel, 749. Fifeshire coals, analyses of, 265. Coal-field, 265. Finished iron, prices of, Staifordshire, South, 536. production in North of England, 406. Fire-clays, analysis of Bowling, 35. "Flintshire Coal-field," Hull, Professor, 173. population employed in iron mining, 597. production of ironstone, 576. Fluxes used in iron smelting : Cumberland, 806. Durham, 805. Lancashire, 807. Northamptonshii'e, 809. Scotland, 812. Staffordshire, North, 808. „ South, 809. Wales, South, 811. Wiltshire, 810. Foreign iron ores imported, 785. imported into northern ports, 345, total imports and value, 802. bauxite; analysis of, 803. ,, price of at Aries, 803. Foreign iron ores, analysis of (see Analysis of foreign iron ores). Forest of Dean : — Bar iron made ; referred to in Domes- day Book, 662. Cinderford Iron Works, 659. "Coal Com. Report," Dickenson, Mr J., 234. duty on coal exported from, 230. furnaces built and in blast, 660. iron mines, produce and value of iron ore, 651. iron mines in 1880, 645. iron mines, production of, 652. iron ore, distribution of, 650, 655. ,, distribution of by railway, 656. iron ore raised, eastern side, 655. ,, „ western side, 655. mineral basin, depth of, 643. model of, Sopwith, Thomas, 643. Park End Iron Works, 659. pig iron made, 1740, 658. ,, manufacture, early histoiy, 657. pig iron production, 660. France, imports and value of iron ore from, 794. iron ore deposits of, 792. Frampton CottereU mines, produce of ii'on ore, 650. Frodingham ironstone deposits, Lincoln- shire, 559. "Frodingham Iron Fields,'' Dove, Mr., 564. Furnaces built and in blast : — Great Britain since 1854, 838. „ „ in 1872, 817. „ „ in 1880, 820. Scotland, since 1850, 739. South Wales, since 1854, 626. Yorkshire, W. E., since 1851, 359. Furnaces in Great Britain, average yield in 1880, 820. Furness Iron and Steel Co., Lancashire, mines of, and ore raised, 1872, 444. INDEX. S65 rU-NISTER and fireclay, analyses of, ^ Halifax, 34. Gonistera and uaderclay, yorkshlre, 34. Gartsherrie Iron Works, Scotland, 732. mateiials employed, 750. Gas for illuminating pm-poses introduced, 8. Gelligaer coal, parish returns, 206. "Geology of llocks of North Linooln- Bhire,^ Cross, Uev. J. E., 560. Geological distribution of British iron ores, 821. German colony of iron workers, Shotley Bridge, 330. Glamorganshire, area of Coal-field, 188. (Anthracite Districts), coal used in pig iron manufacture, 633. average yield per furnace, 620 (Bitumiaous Coal District), coal used in pig iron manufacture, 633. Bituminous Districts, pig iron manu- facture, 615. iron ore used in pig iron manufac- ture, 639. Iron Works in 1880, 621. parish returns, 207. pig iron made, 1796, 616. pig iron made, 1806, 617. pig iron made, 1823—1830, 618. pig iron made, 1857 to 1880, 620. pig iron made and coal used, 1872 to 1880, 633. production of ironstone, 599. Glasgow and North Western Railway, coal carried by, 277. Glendon Iron Works, Northamptonshire, 553. Glenariff Mines, Ireland, Argall, Capt., on 768. Glenravel Mines, Ireland, 777, Gloucestershire. Bur iron made and list of works in 1750, 662. and Berkeley Canal, coal carried, 232. Coal-field, 223. coal exports, 231. coal produce per man, 233. iron industries, 642. iron works in 1880, 661. military forge established at Bath by the Romans, 661. production and value of iron ore, 651. "Gloucestershire, Survey of," Rudge, Thomas, 232, 642. Goatfield Charcoal Iron Furnace, Scotland, 727. Great Britain. Coal used in pig iron manu- facture, 813, 820. production of coal, 294. production of iron ore in 1849, 420. Great Northern Railway, distribution of coal by, 301. Retallaok and Dnchy Peru Mines, Cornwall, 709. Western Railwav, distribution of coal by, 302. Greece, iron ore deposits, 797. G;'eek Iron Works, Royal, Newcastle-on- Tyne, 797. Grooved rolls, application of, by Payne, .1., 495. Grosmont ironstone first worked, 1836, 375. ironstone fii-st sent to Birtley, Dur- ham, 333. Guibal fan, Pemberton Colliery, 79. Guisborough (Cleveland) mines producing iron ore since 1872, 380. Gupwovthy Mine, Brendon Hills, Somer- setshire, 667. TTADDINGTON Coal-field, 262. -*■ Hampshire iron industry, 682. Hampshire, production of iron ore, 682. Harris' Navigation Pits, 206. Haytor iron ore deposits, Devonshire, 688. Iron Mine, Devonshire, production of ore and value, 690. Heathfield, Bovey Tracey, 250. Heathen coal, Staft'oril, South, used in iron manufacture, 528. Hennock iron ore, production and value, 692. iron ore deposits, Devon, 691. " Henwood, Mr., on the Perran Great Iron Lode," 708. Hodbarrow Iron Mines, Millom, production of, 424. Hot blast, invention of, by Neilson, 733. " TNDUSTRIAL Resources of Ireland," ■*■ Kane, Sir Robert, Aughabehy Coal, 285. — Castlecomer ironstone, 759. — Leitrim ironstone, 755. — Bally- castle Coal-field, 288. " Industrial Resources of the Tyne, Wear, and Tees," quoted, 16. "Inland Coal Trade," Report of Com- mittee, 158. Ireland coal, analyses of («« Analyses of Coal). Ireland, iron industries of, 755. Iron mines, list of, 1880, 781. Iron ore, its distribution, 780. Iron ore produced in 1880, 780. Iron ore produce and value, 779. Pig iron manufactured in 1857, 784. I Irish Hill and Straid Iron Mines, 770. 3 K 866 INDEX. application to shipbuilding, BeU, Mr. I. L., Iron, first 753. " Iron, Manufacture of, 386. Iron mines in Cumberland in 1880, 426. mining in Cumbei-land, population employed in, 427. mining, persons employed, Durham, 329. mining — ^population employed in Lancashire, 447. mines, raising ore in Lancashire in 1880, 443. mines, Northamptonshire, ironstone raised in 1880, 551. , on the Manufacture of Iron, by the President of Society of Engineers, 813. ore and ironstone, analyses of {see Analyses of Iron Ore and Ironstone). ores and their minevalogical charac- ters, Kutley, Mr. F., 319. ores of the carboniferous limestone : Alston Moor, 326. ores of the carboniferous limestone : Lancashire, 436 ores of the carboniferous limestone series : Stiddle Moor, and Kidsdale, 325. ore deposits, Eskdale, Cumberland, 417. • ore, mode of occurrence, Antrim, Ireland, 760. ores, geological distribution of, British, Bauerman, Mr. H., 821. ore deposits, Carboniferous limestone, Whitehaven, 415. ore. Carboniferous limestone, Wales, South, 600. ore. Carboniferous limestone, Wales, North, 574. ore. Carboniferous limestone, Lan- cashire, 436. ore, Carboniferous limestone, Glouces- tershire, 642. ore, Dalton-iu-Furness, MouzellMine, 446. ore deposits, Longford and Cavan, Ireland, 774. ore, production, Ireland, 775. ore deposits, Wichlow, Ireland, 773. - — - ore, distribution of, Lancashire, by ship and rail, 445. oi'e, production of : — Brendon Hills, 669. Cornwall, 715. Cumberland mines since 1858, 421. Cumberland mines in 1880, 422. Devonshire, 699. Forest of Dean, 649. Great Britain in 1849, 420. Lancashire, 1849, 420. - — r- Lancashire since 1855, 442. Iron ore, Somersetshire, production and value, since 1857, 671. ore shipped from Whitehaven, 423. "Iron Ore" Report, Braithwaite, Poole, 421. ' ■— — ore and ironstone used in : — Cumberland furnaces, 434. Derbyshire furnaces, 477. Durham furnaces, 344. Lancashire furnaces, 459. North Staffordshire, 611. Sources of supply, 511. Yorkshire, North Hiding, 403. ores. United Kingdom : — — - ores from coal measures, production in 1860, 1870, and 1880, 827. ■ ores not in coal measures, production in 1860, 1870, 1880, 826. ores, production of, since the year 1855, 825. rails first used in collieries, 21 . rails, prices of in Cleveland, 414. shipbuilding, rise and progress of, 753. Ironstone, analysis of (aec Analysis of Iron- stone). - — ■ average produce per man, Cleveland, 386. average produce per man, Flintshire, 577. average produce per man, Lan- cashire, 448. ■ calcination of, Staffordshire, South, 529. " Ironstone Mining in Cleveland," Steaven- son, Mr. A. L. 381. Ironstone, Derbyshire, 462. Durham, Wear district, 324. Northamptonshire, first worked in, 547. Northamptonshire, yield of metallic iron, 547. ■ Nottinghamshire, production of, 478. Ruabon Coal-field, 574. • Scotland — population employed in mining, 726. Shropshire, 480. ■ Shropshire, North, Coal-field, 142. Staffordshire, North, Coal-field, de> scription of, 499. Wales, South, production of, 599. Warwickshire, production of, 479. Yorkshire, West Riding of, 347— production of and value, 351. Ironworks, Denbighshire, 580. Derbyshire in 1796, 471. Derbyshire in 1880, 474. Durham in 1880, 339. Lancashire, list of, 1880, 454. Lincolnshire, 670. Northamptonshire, 1880, 555. INDEX. 867 Ironworks, Noi'thumberland, in 1880, 338. —Production of pig iron in 1796, 832. Scotland, when estahlished, 735. Staffordshire, North, in 1880, 608. Isle of Wight, production of iron ore, 682. Italy, imports and value of iron ore from, 797. iron ore deposits, 795. JESSOFS, Mr. W., return of pig ii-on production, 1840, 836. T7ENDALL, Mr. J. D., "On the Iron ■^^ Ores of Antrim," 760. Ketley Ironworks, when established, 495. Kilburne Colliery, Derbyshire, section of strata, 100. Kilns employed in ironstone calcining, 530. Kirkless Hall Ironworks, Wigau, me- chanical arrangements, 450. Kirkstall Ironworks, near Leeds, 360. Knightor and Ruby Iron Mine, Cornwall, production of iron ore, 708. T ADOCK Iron Mine, Cornwall, produc- •^ tion of iron ore, 708. Lanarkshire Ironworks, Scotland, materials employed, 751. Lancashire, average produce of iron ore per man, 448. average vield per furnace, 453. Coal-fielil, 68. "Lancashire Coal-field," population em- ployed, Reports H. M. Inspectors of Coal Mines, 86. "Lancashire Coal Seams," Coal-fields of Great Britain, Hull, Professor, 69. Lancashire coal, railway distribution, 18. Harrison Ainslie's Iron Works, 449. hematite ore raised, 1849, 440. iron industries, 436. iron mines working in 1880, 447. malleable ironworks, list of, 1880, 457. pig iron production, 1872 to 1880, 453. produce of coal per man, 86— 87. puddling fm'naces, rolling mills, and coal used, 457. steel works, list of, 456. "Lancashii-e Ten Yeai-s' Coal Mining,'' Colliery Guardian, 83. Lancefield Works, near Glasgow, 744. Landore "Siemen's" Steel Works, near Swansea, 629. Lee Hall Ironworks, near Bellingham, Northumberland, 331. Leeds, section of strata, 35. Leeds, south of Emley Moor, section of strata, 36. Leesewood cannel, analyses of, 179. Leicestershire coal, "Coal suited to the Steam Navy," De la Beche and Playfair, 119. Coal-field, 118. Coal-field, " Coal Commission Report," Woodhouse, J. T., 123. coal, analysis of, Percy, Dr., " Me- tallurgy ; Fuel," 120. and North Derbyshire Association sales of coal, 106. "Population Employed in Coal Mining," Report H. M. Inspectors of Coal Mines, 122. Leinster Coal-fields, 288. Coal-field, ii-onstones of, 759. Leitrim Coal-field, 284. Coal-field, ironstone measures of, 755. Lemington furnaces, Durham, materials employed in 1830, 333. Lesmahago cannel, analyses of, 179. Coal Basin, 267. gas coal, 256. ' ' Lignites and Clavs of Bovey Tracy," PengeUy, Mr., F.G.S., 249. Lignite, production of, Bovey Tracey, 252, Limestone, &c., analyses of ; — Broadwood, Durham, 805. Chalk, hard, Wiltshire, 810. Dudley, 809. Froghall, Stafford, North, 808. Harmby, Durham, 806. Hobberlaw, Alwick, 805. Monmouthshire limestone, rough and smooth, 812. Northamptonshii-e, 809. Oolitic limestone, Wiltshire, 810. Raisby Hill, Dm-ham, 806. Scotland, 812. Stanhope, Dui'ham, 804. Sunderland, 806. Stainton, Lancashire, 808. Lincolnshire, coal and ironstone used, 572. iron first made in, 571. iron furnaces, dimensions of 571. iron industries, 559. iron mines producing stone in 1880, 568. , North, ironstone deposits, 559. " Lincolnshu-e Ironstone Deposits," by Dove, Mr. G., junr., 562. Lincolnshire, succession of strata, 560. Lithomai'ge deposits, Antrim, Ireland, 761. Llanwonno coal, parish returns, 206. Local Government Boai-d, 8th Report, Calcination of Ironstone, 530. Locomotives first used on Wylam Railway, 21. 868 INDEX. London Coal Exchange, prices of coal since 1861, 26. and North- Western Eailway, dis- tribution of coal by, 300. "Lower Lias" ironstone, Nortli Lincoln- shire, 561. Lowmoor Ironworks, Dawson, Mr. J., founder of : Sketch of his life, 354. Lngar, Ayrshire, coal seams, 267. TITACHINEEY employed in Ironstone ■^"- mining in Cleveland, 383. Malleable iron, prices of, in Cleveland, 413. Iron and Steel Works in Cleveland, 404. Iron Works in Cleveland in 1880, 412, coal used, 413. Iron and Steel Works, Cumberland, 4.34. Iron Works, Derbyshire, and coal used, 475. Iron Works, Derbyshire, 1811, 474. Iron Works in ] 880, Durham and Northumberland, 342. Iron Works, and coal used, Durham and Northumberland, 339. Iron Work.s, Glamorganshire, 630. Iron Works, Gloucestershire, 661. Iron Works Great Britain since 1861, 843. Iron Works, Lancashire, 456. Ironworks, Leeds and Bradford, 361. Iron Works, Monmouthshire, 1880, 628. - — Iron Works, Scotland, list of, 1880, 745, and coal used, 748. Ironworks, Sheffield and Botherham, 362. Iron Works, Shropshire, 494. — — Iron Works, Shropshire, coal used, 496. Iron Works, Somersetshire, 672. Iron Works, Staffordshire, North, 509. Iron and Steel Works, Staifordshire, South, 632.— Coal used, 536. Iron Works, Wales, iTorth, coal used, 582. iron rails first rolled at Bedlington by Birkenshaw, in 1820, 339. "Manchester Country Around," Aikins, description of, 82. Manufacture of Steel, Thomas-GUchrist process, 407. Marsden CoUieiy, deep sinking, South Shields, 18. Mersey Steel Works, mechanical arrange- ment of, 455. Merthyr coal, analysis of, 196. Merthyr mineral property, 604. Metropolis, coal brought into, by tea, rail- way, and canal, 305. coal consumed in, 304. Middlesborough Bar Ironworks, projected in 1840, 403. Middle Lias, Northamptonshire, ironstone deposits, 538. "Middle Neocomian," Lincolnshire, iron- stone deposits, 563. Mid-Lincolnshire ironstone, analysis of, 566. "Midland Coal-field," Coal Commission Eeports, 56. Midland Eailwsfy, distribution of coal by, 300. Midlothian Coal-field, 262. Miller, Mr. W., analysis of Merthyr coal, 196. Millom, Cumberland, iron industries of, by Massicks, Mr. Thomas, 428. iron ore deposits, 423. MUls and forges, England and Wales, summary, in 1750, 840. MiUs and forges, England and Wales, in 1750, and make of bar iron, 841. Mills, forges and Steel Works, Lanca- shire, 455. Mills and forges, Staffordshire, North, 509. Mills and forges, Staffordshire, South, since 1863, 533. Miners, privileges of. Forest of Dean, 225. "Mines Drainage Act, South Stafford- shire," Marten, Mr. E. B., 166. "Model of Staffordshire South," drainage area, by Jordan, Mr. J. B., 156. Moel Hirradug, Wales, North, cobal- tiferous ore, 575. Moira District, section of strata, 118. Monmouthshire, area of coal-iield, 188. (Bituminous Coal District), coal used in pig iron manufacture, 631. furnaces built and in blast, 614. "General view of," Hassall C, 627. furnaces, iron ore, districts supplying, 639. iron ore used in pig iron manufacture, 637. — — iron works and owners, 1880, 615. mills and forges in 1812, 626. pig iron production, 1806, 610. pig iron production, 1823 to 1830, 611. pig iron made, 1829 to 1838, 613. pig iron made, 1857 to 1880, 614. pig iron made and coal used, 1872 to 1880, 632. -^ — production of ironstone, 599. Morley Park Iron Works, Derbyshire, 469. Moss Bay Steel Works, Workington, 431. Mostyn and Bychton Collieries, Flintshire, 179. INDEX. 869 Mouzell Mine, deposit of ore at, Dalton-in- Furness, 446. Muirkirk, Ayrshire coal seams, 267. Iron Works, Scotland, 729. Munster Coal-field, Ireland, 290. Murdoch, introduction of gas by, 9. Mushet, David, and Clyde Iron "Works, 729. Mushet's Black Band, discovery of, 719. Mwyndy iron ore deposits, Wales, South, 601. MyiiyddysUwyn coal, 191. "fJAILSEA coal basin, 238. ■*■' Nantyglo Iron Works, Monmouth- shire, pig iron made, 1829 to 1838, 612. NeUson's Hot Blast, account of by Dr. Percy, 733. Neilson, James B., and Clyde Iron Works, 729. Nettlebridge coal series, 239. Newburn Iron Works, near Newcastle- upon-Tyne, 332. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, charter to dig coals. North British Eailway, coal carried by, 277. North-Eastern Railway, distribution of coal, 297. North Staffordshire, see Staffordshire (North). North Wales, see Wales (North). ■'Northampton Sand," succession of strata, 538. Northamptonshire iron, remarks on, by Butlin, Mr. W., 558 Northamptonshire, iron industries of, 538. iron mines, 552. iron mines, produce of, 550. ironstone carried by railway, 548. ironstone raised, 548. yield of ironstone deposits, 440. iron, " Iron and Coal Trades Re- vieii! " on, 558. Northumberland Coal-field, 1. " Northumberland and Durham Coal series," HuU, Professor, 4. Northumberland Iron Works in 1851, 335. Nottinghamshire coal, " Report, Coal suited to the Steam Navy," 113. Coal-field, 111. pig iron manufacture, 469. population employed in coal mining, Reports H.M. Inspector of Coal Mines, 117. production of coal, 115. production of ironstone, 478. Norway, imports, and value of iron ore from, 799. iion ore deposits, 798. OPEN Hearth Steel, production of, in Great Britain in 1879, 1880, 846. Oxfordshire iron ore deposits, 677. iron ore, production of, 679. pAGE, Dr., "Economic Geology," 191. ■*■ Paint ore, Brixham, Devon, analysis of, 695. Park End Iron Works, Forest of Dean, 659. iron ore used at, 664. Parkgate ironstone measures, analyses of, 350. Parkhead Works, near Glasgow, 744. Patent fuel, exported from Great Britain, 311. Paulton Engine Pit, coal seams, 237. Pawton Iron Mine, Cornwall, 705. Mine, Cornwall, production of iron ore, 708. Pccten and Avicula beds, succession of, 373. "Pecton Ironstone," Lincolnshire, 561. Peiiydarren Iron Works, Glamorganshire, 616. Iron Works, pig iron made, 1829 to 1839, 619. Pemberton Colliery, Lancashire, 79. Perran Iron Lode, Cornwall, 708. Peterborough, Abbey of, early supply of coal to, 1. ' Pig iron : — Cost of making at Arigna, Ireland, 783. Exported since 1829, 839. Exported and value in 1878, 1879, 1880, 839. Pig iron manufacture, and coal used : — Great Britain, 813. Great Britain, 1872, 817. Great Britain, 1871 to 1880, 818. Great Britain, 1880, 820. Great Britain, average used in 1880, 820. Pig iron manufacture : — Cleveland (N. R. of Yorkshire), 392. Cumberland, 428. Derbyshire, 469. Derbyshire, in the years 1823 and 1830, 472. Durham and Northumberland, 330. Forest of Dean, 656. Ireland, 781. Lancashire, 448. Lincolnshire, 570. Northamptonshire, 552. Nottinghamshire, 469. Scotland, 726. Shropshire, 487. Somersetshire, 671. Staffordshire, North, 505. Staffordshire, South, 621. 870 INDEX. Pig iron manufacture {contlmied) : — Stafifordshire, South, 1796, 523. Staffordshire, South, 1806, 524. Staffordshire, South, 1823—1830, 525. Wales, North, 578. Wales, South, 604. Wiltshire, 683. Yorkshire, North Riding, 392. Yorkshire, West Kiding, 352. Pig iron, production of : — Brecknockshire, 1796, 608. Cleveland, 395. Cumherland, 432. Denbighshire, 578. Derbyshii'e, 1806, 471. Derbyshii-e since 1855, 473. Durham in 1847, 337. Durham since 1856, 338. FlintBhire, 581. Forest of Dean, 660. Glamorganshire, 621. Great Britain : — 1740, 829. 1788, 830. 1796, 831. 1806, 834. 1823—1830, 834. 1839, 623. 1840, 836. 1843 and 1847, 836. 1852, 837. Since '1864, 838. Ireland, 1857, 784. Lancashire, 1860 to 1871, 450. Lincolnshire, 572. Monmouthshire, 1796, 608. Northumberland in 1847, 336. Northumberland since 1856, 338. Scotland, 1788, 729. 1796, 730. 1806, 732. 1823—1830, 734. 1843, 736. 1848, 737. since 1850, 739. Shropshire, 1740, 1788, 488. 1796, 1806, 489. 1823—1830, 491. since 1855, 493. Staffordshire, North, 1848, 506. North, since 1854, 507. South, 1740, 1788, 522. 1796, 523. 1806, 524. 1823—1830, 525. (Since 1840, 527. Wales, North, 1796, 578. since 1855, 581. Yorkshire, West Riding, 1740, 350. West Riding, 1788—1796, 356. West Riding, 1806, 356. Pig iron, production of {eontinved) : — Yorkshire, West Riding, 1823— 1830,357. West Riding, 1840, 363. West Riding, 1851 to 1880, 359. Pisolitic iron ore, Ireland, 761. Plate-iron, prices of, iu Cleveland, 414. Plott's "History of Staffordshire," re- ference to, 167. Plymouth Ironworks, Glamorganshire, pig iron made, 1829 to 1839, 619. Population employed in coal mining : — Bristol, 246. Cheshire, 96. Cumberland, 65. Derbyshire, 110. Durham and Northumberland, 29. Gloucestershire, 233. Ireland, 291. Lancashire, 85. Leicestershire, 122. Nottinghamshii'e, 117. Scotland, 280. Shropshire, 138. Somersetshire, 245. Wales, North, 183. Wales, South, 221. Warwickshire, 129. Westmoreland, 67. United Kingdom, 312. Population employed in coal and iron mining : — Staffordshire, North, 150. Staffordshire, South, 167. Wales, Soutli, 220. Yorkshire, 52. Population employed in iron mining : — Cleveland, 385. Durham, 329. Lancashire, 447. Portugal, imports of iron ore from, 792. , iron ore deposits of, 790. Prices of angle iron, Cleveland, 414. Prices of coal and cost of production : — Bristol, 244. Cumberland, 61. Derbyshire, 109. Dudley, 167. Dui'haui and Northumberland, 25. Gloucestershire, 232. Ireland, 293. Lancashire, 88. Scotland, 278. Shropshire, 135. Staffordshire, North, 148. Staffordshire, South, 164. Wales, South, 218. Warwickshire, 129. Yorkshire, 50. Prices of bar iron, Cleveland, 414. of finished iron, Staffordshire, South, 537. INDEX. 87 Prices of iron ore : — Barrow in 1849, 441. Cleveland, 377. Cornwall, 715. I^ncashire, 442. Shropshire, 486. Yorkshire, 352. Prices of iron rails, Cleveland, 414. of malleable iron, Scotland, 747. of pig iron, Scotland, 741. of plate iron, Cleveland, 414. of steel rails, Cleveland, 414. of Seaborne coal in London Market since 1861, 26. I'rivileges of miners, Forest of Dean, 225. Production of antliraoite, Bideford, Devon, 253. of anthracite pig iron, Wales, South, 625. Production of coal : — Bristol, 244. Cheshire, 94. Cumberland, 63. Derbyshire, 103. Durham and Northumberland, 15 — 19. Kngland, 296. Fores»of Dean, 227. Gloucestershire, 227. Great Britain, 294. Ireland, 290. Lancashire, 75. Leicestershire, 120. Monmouthshire Coal-field, 205. Nottinghamshire, 115. Scotland, 270. since 1854, 296. Shropshire, 134. Somersetshire, 241. "Somerset and Bristol," Inspectors of Coal Mines Eeports, 245. Staffordshire, North, 145. , South, 157. United Kingdom, 297. Wales, North and South, 296. , North, 180. Wales, South, Coal-field, 203—205. Wai-wickahii-e, 127. Yorkshire districts, 45. Coal-field, 43. Production of iron ore : — Antrim Iron Company's Mines, 777. Buckinghamshire, 682. Cornwall, 1880, 715. Cumberland since 1858, 421. Devonshire, 699. Duchy and Peru, Cornwall, 713. Durham, 327. Flintshire, 576. Forest of Dean, 649. Gloucestei'shire, 651. RnTnnshirfi. 682. Production of iron ore {contimtcd) : — Ireland, 775. Lancashire, 442. Scotland, 725. Somersetshire, 671. Treamble, Cornwall, 713. Trebisken and Mount, Cornwall, 713. Production of ironstone : — Cleveland district, 375. Derbyshire, 468. Flintshire, .176. Ireland, 778. Lincolnshire, 567. Northamptonshire, 547. Nottinghamshire, 478. Oxfordshire, 679. Seotland, 724. Shropshire, 485. Somersetshire, 670. Staffordshire, North, 504. Staffordshire, South, 520. Wales, North, 576. Wales, South, 599. Warwickshire, 479. Wiltshire, 675. Puddlers' wages in Cleveland, 413. Puddling furnaces and rolling mills i Great Britain since 1861, 843. process of, Staffordshire, South, 53i Purple ore, analysis of, 828. producedfromExtractionWorl since 1871, 828. "DADSTOCK Coal series, 238. ■*-• Railway distribution of Cumberlan coal, 64. Railway distribution of coal, Scotlanc 276. distribution of Yorkshire coal l Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 41 by Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincob shire Railway, 47. Eavenson, his experiments with coke, 521 Regenerating gas fm-naces, Siemens', list i in Great Bntain, 847. Eenishaw Colliery, section of strata, 38. "Resources of Cleveland Ironstone Di trict," BaiTow, Mr. G., Paper on, 387. Resources and probable duration of Coa fields : — Bristol, 246. Cheshu^e, 97. Cumberland, 66. Durham and Northumberland, 30. Forest of Dean, 234. Gloucestershire, 234. Ireland, 290. Lancashire, 90. Leicestershire, 123. Scotland. 281. 872 INDEX. Eesources and probable duration of Coal- fields {continued) : — Shropshire, 139. Somersetshire, 246. Staffordshire, North, 151. South, 170. ■Dnited Kingdom, 313. Wales, North, 186. „ South, 221. "Warwickshire, 131. York, Derby, and Notts, 66. Eestormel Iron Mine, Cornwall, 702. — Production of, 705. Ehynchonella Bed, North Lincolnshire, 661. Eoanhead Mines, Cumberland, iron ore deposits, 436. Eock drills, Eichards, Mr. W., sketch of, used in Cleveland, 383. Eolling iron, Cort's claims, account of, " Metallurgy of Iron and Steel," 495. Cort's system of, 494. Eolls, grooved, application of, by Payne, J., 495. Eosebridge Colliery, deep workings, Wigan, 75. Eosedale Abbey Estate, Yorkshire, 380. Abbey mines, "Dogger Bed," 367. Abbey mines, iron ore i)roduced since 1861, 380. iron stone, "Percy, Dr., Metallurgy: Iron and Steel," 373. Eussia, iron ore deposits, 801. imports and value of iron ores from, 801. SAINT HELEN'S, Lancashire, Prices of coal, 89. Saltburn by the Sea (Cleveland), mines producing iron ore since 1872, 379. Sampson Shaft, Hanover, 77. Santon clay, Lincolnshire, used as a flux, 573. Saundersfoot coals, Anthracite, 193. Scotch pig iron consumed in foundries and iron works, 743. — I— distribution of, coastwise and ex- ported, 742. home consumption, 743. Scotland, Black Band ores, production of, 719. brown iron ores, 720. carboniferous series of, 255. Clay Band ores, production of, 726. "Scotland, Coal-fields of, " 252.— "Gcddes, Mr. J., Coal Com. Eeport," 282. coal produce pei; man, 280, 281. coal raised by collieries, 273. districts furnishing iron ore for smelt- ing, 752. Scotland, eastern coal districtsj 271. eastern ports, coal cai-ried from, 271 furnaces built and in blast, 739. iron industries of, 719. iron shipbuilding, 753. ironstone measui-es, 719. ironstone produced in each count' 725. ironstone, production of eastern di tricts, 725. ironstone, production of western dii tricts, 725. ironstone ' used in blast furnaces- quantities, 752. ii'on works, list of, in 1880, 740. malleable iron works, 743. — Piicei 747. miners' wages, 280. western coal districts, 271. western ports, coal carried from 274. Section of strata, {see Strata, section of). Seend Iron Works, Wiltshire, 683. — Pro duction of, 675. Shafts, Deep, Sampson Mine, Hanover 77. Eosebridge CoUieiy, Wigan,«75. Adalbert, Bohemia, 77. Ashtou Moss Colliery, Manchester 75. Shelton Bar Iron Works, Staffordshii-e North, 508. Shipley Colliery, Derbj'shire, section o strata, 100. Shrewsbury Coal-field, 133. Shropshire, average consumption of coal iron ore, 498. coal produced per man, 138. cost of getting coal, ' ' Miner's Guide,' Smith, Thomas, 135 ; Parton, Mr. T. 137. coal, distribution of, 134. Coal-field, population employed, 138 furnaces built and in blast, 493. iron indxistries, 480. ironstone measures, description of " Iron Ores of Great Britain," 480. "Shropshire Ironstone Measures," thick ness and yield ; " Miner's Guide," 486. ironstone measures, yield per acre 487. list of iron works in 1880, 494. mills and forges in 1880, 496. Siemens, Dr. C. W., iron making, direc process, 653. steel, Great Britain, production of in 846. Steel Works in Great Britain, 845. "Silkstoue Hards Coal " analysis : of Carr Mr. W., Halifax, 43. Silkstone Coal, Yorkshire, 348. INDKX. 873 Silverdale Iron Works, Staffordshire, North, 506. "Siiiclah", Sir John,'' account of Devon Ironworks, Scotland, 730. Sing hottle manufacture, Northampton- shire, 555. Slag-hoaps of ancient furnaces, North- umberland, 325. Slievardagh Coal-field, Ireland, 289. SHttlng-niills first used at Gateshead Iron- works in 1772, 340. Smallacombe ii-on ore deposits, Devon, 690. Iron Mines, production of, 691 . Smeaton'a blowing machinery, 727. Smith, Dr. Angus, "Manufacture of Coke," 202. Somercotes Ironworks, Derbyshire, 470. "Somerset East, and Bristol Coal-field," Woodward, Mr. H. B., 239. Somersetshire Coal-field, 235. furnaces built and in blast, 660. iron industries, 665. iron mines producing ore in 1880, 671. pig-iron manufacture, 671. pig-iron production, 660. liroduction of iron ore, 660. Sommorrostro iron mines, Spain, 786. Soudley Ironworks, Gloucestershire, iron ore used in, 664. South Staffordshire («v Staffordshire, South). South Wales {see Wales, South). Coal-field, 188. Spain, analyses of the iron ores of, 787. imports of iron ore from, 345. value of imports of, 788. ports receiving iron ore from, 790. Spathose iron ore, Brendon Hills, 66ti. Frank Mills, &c., 693. iron ore, production of, Weai'dale district, Durham, 327. Springs for railway purposes, first made at Newburn, 332. Staffordshire, North, Coal-field, 140. "Staffordshire, North, Coal-field," Coal Commission Eeport, 151. Staffordshire, North, coal produce per man, 150. . North, coal seams, yield per acre — " Miner's Guide," 149. "Staffordshire, N., Coal-field and Iron- stone Measures," Homer, Mr., 145. North, coal and iron ore used in manufacture, 509. North, coal used in ironworks and potteries, 147. North, coal used in metallurgical oiierationa in 1796, 510. North, coal used in pig iron manu- facture in 1854, 610. Staffordshire, North, furnaces, charges of materials, 612. North, iron industries, 499. North, iron ores of, " Iron Ores of Great Britain," 501. ironstone carried by canal and rail- way, 505. North, ironstone working, 144. North, iron-works, list of in 1880, 608. North, list of mills and forges in 1880, 509. North, system of coal working, 141. Kailway, North, iron ore carried by, 505. " Staffordslure, South, Coals," analyses of Percy, Dr., 156. South, blast furnaces, 1880, 531. South, calcination of iron-stone, 530. South, Coal-field, 153. South, coal produce per man, 168. South, cost of getting coals, &c., "Miuer's Guide," 165. South, distribution of coal, 161. " Staffordshire, South : C'oal-field : Memoir of," Jukes, Professor J. B., 153. South, ironstone measures, 613. South, ironstone and yield of metal- lic iron, 520. South, malleable iron works,1880, 531. South, "Mine Drainage Act," area of coal-field included under, 160. " Staffordshire, South, Miners' Wages," Smith, Mr. Fisher, 166. Staffordshire, South, pig-iron manufacture, 1796, 523; 1806, 524 ; 1823, 525 ; 1840, 527. " Staffordshire, South,'' popidation em- ployed, 168. ■ South, production of ironstone, 520. South, "Ten Years' Coal Mining,'' OoUiery Guardian, 166. South, Works erected between 1823 and 1830, 526. Stanhope Furnace, Dmham, erected 1844, 334. Stanton District, Derbyshire, analyses of ironstones, 466. "Statistics and Calculations," Salt, Samuel, coal production, 1816, 295. Staveley district, Derbyshire, analyses of ironstones, 467. Steel, crucible, production in Great Britain, since 1873, 847. rails, prices of, in Cleveland, 414. Works of the BaiTow Hematite Steel Co., 451. Works, Moss Bay Company, Cumber- land, 431. Works, West Cumberland, 431. 3 1. 874 INDEX. Stiddle Moor, &o., Ironstone moasuvesj 325. "Stockport, Geology of," Hull, Professor, 93. Stockton and Darlington Eailway opened, 21. Stoves, Cowper, Mr. E. A., description of, 399. Whitwell, aooonnt of, 400. Strata, section of : — Anglesea Coal-field, 17- Arigiia Colliery, 28i. Barusley district, 37. Bedworth Colliery, Warwickshire, 12.'j. Bredbiiry Collieries, Cheshire, 92. Bristol Coal-field, 235. Castlecomer coal basin, 288. Cavan, Ireland, 775. Cefn Cwse, Wales, South, 580. CinderhiU, Notts, 111. Clyde VaUey, 258. Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, 132. Denbighshire Coal-field, 173. Derbyshire, 99. Donnington Wood, Shropshire, 480. Dowlais, South Wales, 586. Dronfiold, Derbyshire, 463. Dungannon Coed-field, Ireland, 286. East Lothian, Scotland, 264. Emley Moor, Yorkshire, 36. Fawler, Oxfordshii-e, 678. Flintshire Coal-field, 173. Forest of Dean, 223. Leeds, Yorkshire, 35. Lincolnshire, 560. Moira district, 118. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 4. Northamptonshire, 538. Old Sauchie, Clackmannanshire, 266. Eenishaw Colliery, 38. Shipley, Derbyshire, 100. Staffordshire, North, Coal-field, 141. South, 154. Upleatham, 366. Wales, South, 586. Whitehaven, 59. Workington, 59. Ynisoedwyn, 587. Ystalyfera, 587. Sturtevant, Simon, his experiments with coke, 522. Sutherland, Mr. Alexander, on "Irish Hill and Straid Mines," Antrim, 770. Swansea, coal exported from, 214. Docks, 212. ■ Sweden iron ore deposits, 799. ore imported and value, 800. rrAEF VALE Eailway, distribution of ■^ coal by, 303. " Tap Cinder," Staffordshire, South, 530. Tax on coal, 2. Toalby, Lincolnshire, ironstone deposits, 563. Ten Yard, or Thick coal, 154. used in iron manufacture, 528. yield per acre, 161. Thick coal used in iron manufacture, 528. Thomas-Gilchrist process of steel manu- facture, 407. Tichbome, Mr., "Iron Ore Deposits, Wicklow," 773. Tin plates exported since 1873, 854. plates exported, 1878 to 1880, 855. plate mauufacture, 848. terne and black plate, production of, 849. plate works : — Caermarthenshire, 852. Cumberland, 853. Flintshire, 853. Glamorganshii-e, 851. • • Great Britain, 850. Gloucestershire, 853. Monmouthshire, 852. Scotland, 853. Staifordshire, 853. Tonnage of iron vessels launched on the Clyde, 754. Torbane HiU mineral, 258. analysis of, 179. "Tour in Wales," Pennant, Thomas, 179. Tourget, M. F., manufacture of coke, Besseges process, 202. Towcester Ironworks : iron made by direct process, 553. Tredegar Ironworks : pig iron made, 612. Tregorne Iron Lode, Cornwall, 713. Trent and Mersey Navigation : distribu- tion of iron ore, 505. Turkey in Asia, imports of iron ore from, 802. Tuyere, water, invention of, by Condie, 733. "Tyne, Wear & Tees Manufacture of Iron," Bell, Mr. I. Lowthian, 375. Tyrone Coal-field, 285. ironstone measures of, 757. TTNITED KINGDOM, areas of coal-fields, *^ 294. 307 coal, cinders, and culm exported. Coal-fields, resources, and probable duration of, 313. coal produce per man, 312. Upleatham, ironstone series of, "Tate and Blake," 366. INDEX. S75 VENTILATION, Guibal Fan, Penibcrton ' Colliery, 79. Schiele Fan, 209. Vivian, Mr. Husscy— " Wales, South, Coal- field," Coal Commission Eeport, 221. " WALES, North, Agi-iciiltural Survey," " Davies, Kev. W., 180. Wales, North, Coal-iield, 172. "Wales, North, Coal-field," Dickinson, Jlr. J., on, 187. "Wales, North," coal raised, Hall, Mr. Henry, 186. Wales, Noi-th, coal produce per man, IS.'i. iron industries, 574. production of iron ore, 576. "Wales, South, Coal-field," Brown, Mr. T. F., 182. "Wales, South, Coal-field," Clarke, Mr. G. T., Coal Commission Report, 221. Wales, South, area of coal-field, 188. "Wales, South, Coal-field," Coal Com- mission Eeport, 203, 204. Wales, South, coal j)roduce per man, 221. eoalused in pig iron manufacture, 636. (coal and iron districts), Central Anticlinal District, 687. eastern outcrop, ironstone measures, 584. north-eastern outcrop, ironstone measures, 585. southern outcrop, ironstone measures, 688. western or Anthracite District, 687. '- coal exported and duty received, 215. furnaces and pig iron made, 1839 to 1852, 619. "AVak's, South, Industrial Capacities of," Symons, Mr. J., 211. Wales, South, iron Industrie.'!, 584. Wales, South, iron ore deposits : — Bute hematite, BOl . Garth hematite, 601. Llantrissant hematite, 601. Mwyudy hematite, 601. Pentyrch hematite, 601. Wales, South, ironstone measures : — Blaenavon, 585. Coalbrook Vale, 585. Llynvi and Cwm Avon, 587. Wales, South, ii'onstones and their yield of metallic iron, 598. iron ore mines, 602. used in pig iron manufacture, 640. iron works, when erected, 607. in the year 1839, 618. — in 1848, 624. pig iron made, 1823—1830, 617. pig iron, total production, 626. production of ironstone, 600. Walker Iron Works,NorthuinberIand, com- menced manufacture of bar iron, 334. Wallsend coal, account of, 7. Warsash Charcoal Fnniaces, Hampshire, 686. "Warwick, Agricultuial A^ew of," by Widse, John, 127. Warwickshire, analysis of ironstone, 479. "Warwickshire Coal-field," 125. " WaiTvickshire Coal-field," Howell, Mr. H. H., on, 126. Warwickshire coal, distribution of, 128. produce per man, 127. Warwickshire, cost of getting ecal, " Miner's Guide," Smith, Thos., 129 Warwickshire, " Population employed in Coal Mining," 130. Warwickshire, production of ironstone, 479. Waste gases in blast furnaces, their utiliza- tion, in Ystalyfera Iron Works, 635. Watney's anthracite, analysis of, Playfair, Dr., 193. Westbury iron ore, Wiltshire, production of, 675. Westminster Bridge lighted with gas, 9. Westmoreland Coal-field, 67. produce of coal jjer man, 67. Whitehaven, iron ore shipped from, 423. section of strata, 59. Whitehill Iron Works, near Chester-le- Street, 331. Whitwell Stoves, account of, 400. Wigan oannel, analyses of, 179. Coal and Iron Co.'s Works, 449. "Wigan Coal and Iron Co.," Hewlett, Mr. Alfred, on coal trade, 89. Wigau district, coals worked in, 69. Wilsonstown Iron Works, Scotland, 728. AViltshire furnaces buUt and in blast, 660. iron industries, 673. iron ore, production of, 675. production of pig iron, 685. Wingerworth Iron Works, Derbyshire, 472. Witton Park Iron Works, Auckland, Durham, 335. Workington Colliery, Cumberland, 60. section of strata, 59. Wylam Wagon Way, first plain plate rail- way laid, 332. VNISCEDWYN ii'onstone measures, sec- -^ tion of strata, 687. Ynysawdre Co. coke manufacture by, 201. Yorkshire coal carried by — Manchester, Shefiield & Lincolnshire Railway, 47. Midland Railway, 46. North-Eastem Railway, 47. 876 INDEX. Yorkshire, coal sent coastwise and ex- ported, 49. Coal-field, 32. "Yorkshire Coal-field," Green, Prof., on, 34. Yorkshire Coal-field, persons employed and minerals raised, 54. produce of coal per man, 52. Coal-field, production of, 44. Yorkshire, "Coals suited to the Steatn Navj'," De la Beche and Playfair, 39. "Yorkshire Lias, The,'' Tate and Blake, 366. "Yorkshire, Wages of Coal Miners," Colliery Guardian on, 52. Yorkshire, Noi'th Eiding, iron industries, 365. • North Hiding, works in operation in 1855, 393. make of pig ii'on, 395. production of iron ore, 377. West Riding, ironstone measures, 347. West Riding, iron works, 1851, 358. make of pig iron, 359. production of iron ore, 351. Works in operation in 1880, 360. Ystalyfera ironstone measures, section of strata, 587. Ystradyfodwg coal, parish returns of, 206. THE END. 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