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 Cornell University Library 
 
 iression, its,modes and Prmc 
 
 3 1924 031 176 427 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031176427 
 
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THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION 
 
 ITS MODES AND PRINCIPLES 
 
 FRANCIS WARNER, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.P. 
 
 ASSISTANT PHTSIOIAN, AND LEOTCBEB ON BOTANY TO THE LONDOIf 
 
 HOBFITAIi; rOBMEBLT PHTSIOIAN TO THE EAST 
 
 LONDON HOSPITAL FOB OHILDBEN 
 
 WITH FIFTY-OME ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 NEW YORK 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 1, 8, AND 5 BOND STREET 
 1886 
 
 U,: I; AIM' 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This work is addressed to those who are 
 interested in studying Man as a living and 
 thinking being. 
 
 Mind is the highest faculty of man ; what 
 Mind is we do not know, and probably we 
 cannot know, but there is abundant evidence 
 that mind is in some way connected with 
 brain-action. In man, the manifestations of 
 mind are very slight in those whose brains 
 are small and ill formed ; defective action of 
 the mind is often found to be coincident 
 with physical disease of the brain; injury to 
 the brain may deprive a man of his mental 
 power. In animals, the signs of intelligence 
 are in some degree proportional to the size 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 and structure of the brain. A strong line 
 of argument on this point has been put 
 forward by Dr. Bastian.* 
 
 I have found it convenient to use the term 
 " mentation " for that physical action of the 
 brain which is associated with the phenomena 
 of mind ; as thus defined, mentation is a 
 function of the brain, physical in kind, and 
 capable of physical investigation. 
 
 In the arguments here used it is postulated 
 as a working hypothesis, that all physical 
 phenomena are due to physical causes, or 
 necessarily. follow upon certain physical ante- 
 cedents, and that every physical change is due 
 to a purely physical force. 
 
 The methods here employed are those used 
 in physical research; forces are studied in 
 the bodies or material objects where they 
 are seen, the physical expression of such 
 forces being noted as an index of the actual 
 but invisible. 
 
 * " Brain as an Organ of the Mind " (International Soienoa 
 Series), p. 188. 
 
PEEFACE. Vll 
 
 In looking at any example, or mode qf 
 expression, processes of analysis are used till 
 we get at such elements of the phenomena 
 as are capable of physical inquiry, and whose 
 relations may be demonstrated. 
 
 Biology, medicine, and philosophy, with 
 their working hypotheses, are drawn upon 
 for facts, analogies, and arguments. I have 
 aimed at practical results rather than intellec- 
 tual satisfaction alone, hoping thus to assist 
 those engaged in scientific work and others 
 engaged in social life. 
 
 The general scheme and purport of this 
 work may be gathered from the first chapter ; 
 the more practical and illustrative descrip- 
 tions are contained in chaps, viii. to xiv. 
 Summaries are appended to certain of the 
 chapters (see index). 
 
 The chapter on Art Criticism illustrates the 
 principles and arguments used throughout the 
 work : as this may possibly be read by some 
 without the preceding chapters, the principles 
 of analysis of expression are here repeated ; 
 
VUl PREFACE. 
 
 they can be passed over by the reader who 
 became acquainted With them in the earlier 
 chapters. 
 
 The index has been rendered as complete as 
 possible to enable such cross references to be 
 made as may be required for a complete study 
 of the scheme of the whole work. 
 
 F. TV. 
 
 24, Hauiey Steeet, W. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 rNTBODVCTOBT 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 EXPRESSION. 
 
 The term "expression" explained — Speech expressive of 
 life ; speech, a criterion of lite — The uniform coexistence 
 of two phenomena makes the one an expression of the 
 other — Abstract properties, and their objeotiye signs j 
 criteria of mind — Comparison of an idiot, and an intelligent 
 man — Certain sounds and a tracing of the pulse express 
 the action of the heart^Signs due to an afferent force; 
 action of the sight of an object upon children ; a ther. 
 mometer indicates heat; the sensitive flame — The tele- 
 phone exhibits impressionability; a receptive part, an 
 expressive part, and an additional force thrown in — The 
 phonograph exhibits localized impressionability, which 
 is permanent — Impressionability and retentiveness in 
 a child — Expression, direct and empirical — Impression- 
 ability and retentiveness — Nutrition; its signs — Move- 
 ments in plants ; by pulvini, by unequal growth — Expres- 
 sion by form, colour, temperature — Vital processes can 
 only be studied by their expression ; the importance of 
 appreciating this in biological work — Summary 11 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 KXPKESSION IN MAN AND IN ANIMALS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The fact of expression does not prove vitality — In living 
 things expression is the ontoome of nutrition — Nutrition 
 not considered here, only its expression — Expression when 
 the outcome of processes in the subject is called direct — 
 Growth results from local nutrition ; such processes are 
 termed trophic — Nutrition is an expression of life — Per- 
 manent impressionability ; it is opposed to evolution, it 
 may be expressed by reflex action — Retentiveness need 
 not be permanent — Development and reflex action as 
 modes of expression — Apparatus for reflex movement; 
 reflexes may be congenital, or acquired — Eeflected action, 
 as expression by form or colour — Any outcome of function 
 may be expressive — Expression by colour, sound, change 
 of function in a part — Movements of an actor in anger — 
 Trophic action illustrated by the growth of crystals, growth 
 of the body — Coincident development of parts ; coincident 
 defects in imbeciles — Properties demonstrated by external 
 forces — Heredity— Expression of the emotions — Summary 31 
 
 CHAPTEE IT. 
 
 MODES OP EXPRESSION BY MOVEMENTS, AND THE EESULTS OP 
 MOVEMENT. 
 
 Movement >• physical and visible action j it is often ob. 
 served in physiological inquiries ; it is correlatable with 
 other modes of force — A movement expresses the action 
 that produces it — Examples of expression by movement : 
 anger, laughter — Eesults of movement — Expression by 
 the voice, apparatus of porcupines, stamping of rabbits — 
 Secondary movements — Work done the result of move- 
 ment — Posture as a result of movement —Subsidence 
 of movement in sleep, in fatigue, and when the attention 
 is attracted — Spontaneous and voluntary movements — 
 Movements of a bee from flower to flower — Summary ... 48 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MOVEMENTS AND THE RESULTS OP MOVEMENTS CONSIDEEED 
 IN THE AESTEACT, OE APAET JEOM WHAT THEY EXPEESS. 
 
 TAG IS 
 
 Movoments are means of expression — Movements classified 
 as reflex, voluntary, spontaneous — The attributes of a 
 movement are its quantity, kind, and time — Time of 
 a movement most conveniently recorded by the graphic 
 method — Frequency and duration, the importance of con- 
 siderations as to time — Two niovementa, considered in 
 relation to time, may be synchronous ; this may depend 
 upon an organic union of the motors, or upon each working 
 in similar rhythm — Expression may consist of coincidences 
 or combinations of movements — -The number of possible 
 combinations of synchronous movements of n subjects 
 is 2m, the number of sequences of such combinations is 
 unlimited — Actions described as a series of movements — 
 Description of a dog in terms of movement and growth 
 — Co-ordinated and inco-ordinated movements — Walking 
 described as a series of movements — Movements of an 
 aggregation of independent individuals — Principles of 
 analysis of movements — Description in anatomical terms 
 — Contrast of movements of small parts and large parts 
 of the body In their physiological significance — Inter- 
 differentiation — Collateral dilferentiation of parts — Sym- 
 metry of movements, indicating like action on both sides 
 of the brain — Asymmetry of movements common in the 
 higher functions — Classification of movements : according 
 to anatomical analysis; according to the physiological 
 principles of analysis given above; as intelligent and 
 non-intelligent; as synchronous or non-synchronous; as 
 occmring in regular series ; as accompanied by feelings, 
 other classifications are suggested — Summary OG 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OE EXPEESSION. 
 
 Modes of movement in plants ; in the amoeba ; the ascidian 
 has a nerve-mechanism, and apparatus for reflex move- 
 ments — Nerve-mechanism of vertebrates — Nerve-mus- 
 cular apparatus; nerve-muscular action — Do certain 
 nerve-centres produce certain movements ? — Perrier's 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 IPAGB 
 
 experiments — Cerebral localization — Nerve-centres — 
 Visual perception indicated by movements — Time requisite 
 for a reflex movement — Inhibition of movement — Physio- 
 logical effects of light, in man, in plants — Light stimulates ^ 
 trophic and kinetic action — Effects of light in the new- 
 born infant ; movements stimulated, inhibited, co-ordi- 
 nated — Eetentiveness to effects of light — The brain of 
 an idiot not thus impressionable to light — Summary of 
 the efifecta of light — Extrinsic stimuli, mediate and im- 
 mediate — Trophic action of light — Summary of effects of 
 light on plants 82 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PATHOLOGICAL FACTS AND EXPRESSION IN PATHOLOGICAL 
 STATES. 
 
 Disease may destroy or irritate parts of the brain — Destruc- 
 tion of corpus striatum — Lateral deviation of the head 
 and eyes — Effects of iixitation in contrast with destruction 
 of a. brain area — Eliects of disease on diflEerent sets of 
 muscles — Facial palsy — Localization of disease — Epilepsy 
 ■ — Chorea — Analogy to movements in plants — Experi- 
 ments with the mimosa — The study of chorea — Finger- 
 twitching in nervous children — Tooth-grinding — Head- 
 aches in children ; the physical signs — Cases of athetosis 
 — Defects of development ; their frequent coincidence ... 104 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. i 
 
 POSTURES CONSIDERED AS MEANS OF EXPEESSION. 
 
 Definition of a, posture— Simplicity of study — Historical 
 records of postures — Postures of all parts — A change of 
 posture is movement — A posture is due to resultant action 
 of muscles and their nerve-centres — It is a direct mode 
 
 of expression — Pree or disengaged parts most expressive 
 
 A limb labouring is not susceptible to mental expression 
 
 Organic postures, as from difficult breathing — Postures 
 due to gravity— Effect of gravity on plants— Gravity acts 
 differently duriog sleep— It can affect the postures of the 
 
CONTENTS. xm 
 
 PAGE 
 
 face — Postures due to reflex action — Spontaneons postures 
 —Fallacies — ^Classification and analysis of postures — Coin- 
 cident postures — Symmetry — Postures in art — Postures 
 in animals — Postures in plants — Summary ... ... 140 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 P03TUEES OP THE UPPBB EXTREMITY. 
 
 Method of examination — Anatomy — The convulsire hand 
 contrasted with the hand in fright — The feeble hand and 
 the hand in rest — The straight extended hand, normal — 
 Application of the principles of analysis — Straight ex- 
 tended hand with the thumb drooped — The nervous hand, 
 seen in art — Energetic hand the antithesis of the nervous 
 hand — Table giving analysis of postures, and application 
 of the principles — Principles of analysis —Anatomical 
 analysis — Small parts contrasted with large parts — Inter- 
 differentiation — Collateral differentiation — Symmetry 
 Excitation of weak centres — General excitement or 
 weakness — Analogy — Antithesis — Fallacies — Methods of 
 determining whether a posture is the outcome of the 
 spontaneous action of the nerve-centres ... ... 154 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 EXPEESSION IN THE HEAD. 
 
 Positions and movements of the head defined— Flexion the 
 only symmetrical movement — Action of light in cansing 
 head movements ; varying effect of such stimulus in 
 different brain conditions — A weak posture — Effect of 
 gravity — The head usually free — Application of the 
 principles of analysis to head postures — Movements 
 of the jaw — Physiognomy, or certain forms of the head 
 — Summary ... ... ... ...~ ... ... ... 182 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 BXPKESSION IN THE HUMAN FACE. 
 
 The face as an index of the mind — Definition of the face ; 
 its structure — Facial muscles and their nerve supply ; 
 the sympathetic nerve — Form, colour, and mobile con- 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 FAGE 
 
 ditions of the face — Direct expression of brain action in 
 the face ; expression by coincident development — Action 
 of the facial muscles — Method of analyzing a face : the 
 npper, middle, and lower zones ; symmetry ; analysis of 
 the expression of anxiety — Expression by trophic signs, 
 skin — The intellectual and the rnlgar face — The necessity 
 of considering nerve-muscular signs as well as permanent 
 conditions — Faces of idiots — Nutrition of the face ; a dull 
 and a bright face — What may be seen in a man's face — 
 Impressions of previous movements of the face — Mental 
 suffering compared with bodily suffering — Asymmetrical 
 expressions ; winking, snarling — The long face, due to 
 paralysis of the nerve on one or both sides : due to 
 mental states ; facial palsy from brain disease — Intellec- 
 tuality of facial movements — The face in fatigue; the 
 expression of headache — The disengaged face free for 
 mental expression — Cases of expression from brain disease 
 — Conflict of muscles in the face ... 193 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 EXPEESSION IN THE EYES. 
 
 The eyeballs : their position and the mechanism for their 
 movement — Iris, a muscular apparatus ; its nerve supply 
 — The pupil contracted by light, and accommodation for 
 near vision ; its reflex dilatation, and its variation in con- 
 ditions of emotion and on brain stimulation — Mechanism 
 of the eyelids— Importance of distinguishing expression 
 by the eye and the parts around — Movements of the eyes 
 — Loss of associated movements of eyes under chloro- 
 form, and in deep sleep — Movements of eyes from brain 
 
 stimulation— Horizontal movements most common At- 
 
 traction-and repulsion of the eyes by sight of an object 
 — Spontaneous movements — Byes free or disengaged — 
 Mental states expressed by attraction or repulsion of the 
 
 oyes^Horizontal and vertical movements contrasted 
 
 Intellectuality of upward movements ... , 214 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 EXPRESSION OP GENEKAL CONDITIONS OF THE BRAIN AND OP 
 THE EMOTIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 Expression of consciousness — Sleep — Fatigne — Exhaustion — 
 — Irritability — Nutrition — Best — Activity — Impressiona- 
 bility — Expression of instinct and mentation — Expression 
 of pain — The ataotion of the beautiful 225 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 EXPRESSION OP MIND IN THE INFANT AND ADULT. 
 
 Materialistic questions only entertained — The criteria of 
 mind, what are they ? — Physical study of signs of mind 
 from infancy upwards — A subjective condition is only 
 known to us by its physical expression — Brain properties 
 necessary to mentation — Impressionability — Retentive- 
 ness — Relation of ontcomings to afferent stimulus — Com- 
 parison of an infant with the adult, and an idiot with 
 a healthy child — Description of an infant : its develop- 
 ment and signs of potentiality — Impressionability : its 
 attributes ; delayed expression of impressions — Modes of 
 expression are criteria of mind — Expression of distress — 
 Memory — Subjective conditions studied by their expres- 
 sion—Thought 210 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 Analysis of the expression of fatigue — Localize the ex- 
 pression — Observe trophic signs, postures, movements — 
 Analyze and classify movements according to the prin- 
 ciples given — Analysis of Darwin's description of laugh- 
 ter, and Sir Charles Bell's description of joy — The 
 importance of such analysis — Pope's description of 
 Achilles — Study of a nervous subject — "A school in- 
 spection" — National modes of expression .. . ... ... 255 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER Xyi. 
 
 CONSTDEKATIONS AS TO THE ATTKTEVTES OP A PEOPEKTY OB 
 
 rUXCTION — TIME, (JUANTITT, KIND ; AND A3 TO THEIE 
 
 EEL ATI ON. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The attributes of a, property or function : time, quantity, kind 
 — Attributes of the functions trophic and kinetic action, 
 in one subject, in two or more subjects — Combinations 
 and sequences of action — Proportional growth; equal 
 proportional growth; similar development — Analogy 
 between series of kinetic and trophic actions — Special 
 combinations of action may result from afferent forces ; 
 this an important element in evolution — Heredity — 
 Summary ,,, ... 267 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 AET CEITICISM. 
 
 Art teaches the physiologist ; all men can study expression 
 — Bulwer's opinion — All expression of feeling is by nerve- 
 muscular action — Importance of such studies — Expression 
 of mental states — Hand and face specially indicative of 
 the mind — Venns de' Medici, the nervous hand — Diana, 
 the energetic hand — Composition — Etruscan drawing — 
 Cain at Pitti Gallery, the hand in fright — The Dying 
 Gladiator — ^Writings of Camper; his descriptions of ex- 
 pression—Antony Baphael Mengs— Study of nerve- 
 musoular action — Weakness should not be expressed in 
 place of beauty — The free hand — The object of figure 
 composition in art — Fixed and mobile expression — Prin. 
 ciplea of analysis ... ,,, .. ... ... ... 2S9 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 LITEEATUEB. 
 
 Bulwer — Hartley — Gregory — Camper — Blane —Marshall Hall 
 — Tyndall — C.Darwin — Bibliography, with dates ... 321 
 
CONTENTS. XVll 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 METHODS AND APPAKATU3 FOB OBTAININO QBAPHTC RECORDS OP 
 MOVEMENTS IN THE LIMBS, ETC., AND ENUMERATING SUCH 
 MOVEMENTS AND THBIE COMBINATIONS ; PROBLEMS TO BE 
 INVESTIGATED BY THESE METHODS. 
 
 Movement as a result of vital action is capable of physical 
 experimentation — Early attempts to record movements — 
 Apparatus described : the motor gauntlet ; the recording 
 tambours ; the contact-making tambour ; electrical coun- 
 ter; method of using the apparatus — Problems; as to 
 muscular twitching in exhaustion— Movements of an 
 infant — Inhibition by light — Measurement of differentia- 
 tion of movements — Retenti veness — Signs of emotion — 
 Potentiality for mind— Co-ordination — Athetosis — Chorea 347 
 
 [vu££ M 363 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 no. 
 
 1. Longitudinal section of a pulvinus ... 
 
 2. Chorea flexor movements ... .,, 
 
 3. Nervous system of an Asoidian 
 
 4. Upper surface of the hemispheres of the monkey 
 
 5. The left hemisphere of the monkey ... ... 
 
 6. Upper surface of the human brain 
 
 7. Lateral view of the human brain ... 
 
 8. Hydrophobia. Head repelled by sight of water ... 
 
 9. Tracing showing how the spontaneous movements of an 
 
 infant were inhibited by sound and, again, by a 
 strong light ... 
 
 10. Eight hemiplegia, with cerebral facial palsy, right side 
 
 11. Left hemiplegia, with cerebral palsy, left side 
 12 and 13. Tracing of involuntary movements of the finger 
 
 in a nervous child 
 14. Finger- tracings in chorea 
 IB. Tracings of movements in athetosis 
 
 16. Cases of athetosis showing hand postures 
 
 17. Dying Gladiator .. . 
 
 18. The convulsive hand... 
 
 19. The hand in fright 
 
 20. The feeble hand 
 
 21. The hand in rest 
 
 22. The straight hand ... 
 
 23. The straight extended hand with thumb drooped 
 
 24. Hand intermediate between the hand in rest and the 
 
 straight hand ... 
 25 and 33. The nervous hand ... 
 
 1G3, 
 
 PAGB 
 25 
 
 68 
 84 
 86 
 87 
 88 
 89 
 98 
 
 101 
 108 
 109 
 
 112 
 113 
 128 
 130 
 145 
 156 
 157 
 158 
 159 
 160 
 161 
 
 161 
 
 297 
 
XX 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 no. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 26. 
 
 The energetic hand 
 
 ... 164 
 
 27. 
 
 Complete paralysis of the right side of the face 202 
 
 28 and 29. Face o£ imbecile ... 
 
 ... 205 
 
 30. 
 
 Paralysis agitans, in advanced stage 
 
 213 
 
 31. 
 
 Tracings of the spontaneous movements of an infant's 
 
 
 hand during fifteen minutes 
 
 ... 245 
 
 32. 
 
 Venus de' Medici 
 
 296 
 
 34. 
 
 Diana ... 
 
 ... 298 
 
 35. 
 
 Feast of the gods 
 
 300 
 
 36. 
 
 Cain ... 
 
 ... 302 
 
 37. 
 
 Hercules at rest 
 
 305 
 
 38. 
 
 A countenance perfectly placid 
 
 ... 307 
 
 39. 
 
 Expressing surprise ... 
 
 307 
 
 40. 
 
 Contempt 
 
 ... 308 
 
 41. 
 
 Complacency, friendliness, tacit joy 
 
 308 
 
 42. 
 
 Laughter 
 
 ... 309 
 
 43. 
 
 Sorrow ,,, 
 
 309 
 
 44. 
 
 Weeping 
 
 ... 310 
 
 45. 
 
 Diagram showing facial zones... 
 
 320 
 
 46. 
 
 Motor gauntlet ... 
 
 ... 349 
 
 47. 
 
 Motor gauntlet on hand 
 
 350 
 
 48. 
 
 Junctions for motor tubes 
 
 ... 351 
 
 49. 
 
 Frame supporting the recording tambours, 
 
 and eleo. 
 
 
 trical signals ... 
 
 ... 352 
 
 50. 
 
 Contact-making tambours arranged in circui 
 
 t ... 353 
 
 51. 
 
 Electrical counter ... ... ,. 
 
 ... 354 
 
PHYSICAL EXPRESSION, 
 
 9 
 
 ITS MODES AND PRINCIPLES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 This work has been written as the outcome of 
 observations made on children and adults, and it is 
 hoped that, inasmuch as it is the result ot observa- 
 tions on humanity, it may be found of some social 
 use. The principles here put forward and illustrated 
 have been applied very frequently to the considera- 
 tion of questions of importance to individual men, 
 women, and children, and this gives me some 
 confidence that others may find practical results 
 from these studies of the modes of expression. 
 Children are the subjects most often referred to: and 
 this is the result of many years' study of childhood. 
 When I commenced the special study of children, it 
 soon struck me that a sound and well-developed 
 nerve-system was of primary importance as, firstly, 
 giving vitality, and the power to endure organic 
 diseases ; and, secondly, on account of the great 
 2 
 
2 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 impressionability of the nerve-mechanism in child- 
 hood, and the immense importance of such impres- 
 sions on the future moral and intellectual condition 
 of the child. 
 
 In every scientific inquiry, whatever be the 
 ultimate object in view, it is necessary to use 
 the utmost accuracy as to method of procedure. 
 The present work contains an analysis of some of the 
 usual means of investigating the nerve-system, with 
 a view to the establishment of an experimental 
 method of inquiry as to the forces leading to its 
 growth and development (see chap. xix.). This 
 is a somewhat bold and ambitious project, and no 
 one can be more conscious than the author of the 
 difiiculties that lie in the way. One special object 
 in view is to show how much accuracy and clear- 
 ness of insight may be obtained in biological work 
 by dealing as much as possible with objective signs 
 and physical forces only, always adhering to the 
 postulate that every objective phenomenon must be 
 the outcome of physical action. 
 
 My early studies were on the size, shape, and 
 propcft-tions of the head, as indicative of the brain 
 within. Such observations led to but poor results ; 
 still, they were useful. The results of these obser- 
 vations are embodied in the account given of co- 
 incident development (see chap, xvi.).* I next set 
 about considering how our knowledge of brain 
 functions had been obtained, and analyzed the 
 methods employed in such physiological work ; and 
 
 * Mr. Charles Roberts's excellent manual on anthropometry gives 
 much valualile information on this subject. 
 
INTRODUCTOKT. 3 
 
 soon I saw that the principal methods of making 
 physiological, and clinical, observations of brain 
 conditions were derived from noting its motor- 
 functions. Then, noting in all cases the motor out- 
 come of brain action, I studied the spontaneous 
 postures, and analyzed them. 
 
 In making such observations the spontaneous 
 movements of«the subjects attracted attention ; they 
 were difficult to analyze, but still it was obvious 
 that, as physical phenomena, they were capable of 
 analysis, record, and classification. An experi- 
 mental method was then devised by which move- 
 ments could be recorded with the aid of the 
 graphic method described in chap. xix. The 
 tracings thus obtained* were submitted to the 
 criticism of mathematical and statistical friends, to 
 whose help I am greatly indebted. Their remarks 
 made it obvious that time, frequency, combinations, 
 and sequences in series, were the attributes that 
 should be noted in studying movements. Such 
 knowledge as to method could not have been ob- 
 tained without experiment. Following on these 
 considerations, I founded the most important of 
 the principles for the analysis of movements. The 
 other principles which it is sought to establish 
 are the result of analyzing recognized clinical modes 
 of procedure. I should like to have formulated 
 analogous principles with regard to nutrition,! but 
 that seemed too wide a subject for the present 
 volume ; still, T take this opportunity of saying that 
 
 * See Fig. 31, p. 245. 
 
 + See chap, xvi.," Analogy between Tro^liic and KineticActions. 
 
4 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 I think the detailed and experimental method of 
 studying movements in the body, and their causes, 
 may throw much light upon the laws and pro- 
 cesses of nutrition and evolution. It was a part 
 of my original plan to deal in this volume with 
 some of the laws of nutrition; but, as the work 
 advanced, it seemed better to defer dealing with 
 this subject, as also with regard to some evidence 
 as to the forces at work in producing brain evolu- 
 tion in the individual : * so here we deal with 
 the principles and modes of expression of hidden 
 conditions as a matter preliminary to other 
 studies. 
 
 Inasmuch as these studies were primarily under- 
 taken as an attempt to discover the physical signs 
 of the brain conditions which lead to the potentiality 
 for moral, and intellectual character, it is not sur- 
 prising that they led to the study of the physical 
 signs of the brain conditions giving capacity for 
 "mind."t Still, I was unwilling here to enter upon 
 the physical study of mind, and have dealt only 
 with certain matters preliminary thereto. 
 
 In dealing with the phenomena of mind, the 
 present work is a preliminary stepping-stone ; if we 
 observe and analj'ze all physical phenomena coinci- 
 dent with the manifestation of mind, we may obtain 
 data for studying the action of the physical causes 
 aiding the development of mind. This method of 
 procedure appears to me more likely to lead to 
 practical results than any subjective process to 
 introspection of the feelings. 
 
 * See chap. xvi. f See chap, xiv 
 
INTEODUCTORY. 5 
 
 In accordance with these views, I have en- 
 deavoured throughout this work to avoid speaking 
 of consciousness, or feeling, as the cause of any- 
 mental phenomenon.* It has not, however, been 
 convenient always to do so, but I hope that this 
 rule has been adhered to in all important statements. 
 
 Movements and the results of movements, being 
 purely physical actions, are the criteria looked for 
 as indices or expressions of the various brain states. 
 No attempt is made to form an idea of what life, 
 nutrition, mentation, or any other vital property or 
 process may be ; the signs of vital phenomena are 
 dealt with, not the living origin of those signs. 
 The term " mentation " is used to imply the function 
 discharged by the brain when the phenomena of 
 mind are displayed. 
 
 Frequent reference is made in the succeeding 
 chapters to observations on infants and young 
 children. It appears to me a strictly scientific 
 method to observe and classify the signs which 
 indicate the potentiality for mentation, the early 
 and advancing signs of mentation, and concurrent 
 phenomena. The earliest of these signs are move- 
 ments and the results of movements, and these are 
 purely physical phenomena, capable of being sub- 
 mitted to expei'imental inquiry. 
 
 Reference is frequently made, by way of illustra- 
 tion, to examples in vegetable life.f If we really 
 accept some form of the evolutionary theory as a 
 working hypothesis, it is reasonable to make 
 
 • See " Expression of Consciousness," chap. xiii. 
 f See chaps, ii. and vii. 
 
6 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 analogies from the processes proven in plants to 
 processes seen in higher organisms. If physical 
 forces have played a large part in bringing about 
 evolution, we should surely study the processes in 
 simple organisms. If light and gravity are proven 
 to cause certain phenomena in plants, and if we 
 see similar phenomena in men, why should we 
 assume those phenomena in man not to be due to 
 light and gravity, but to be due to "mind," or 
 " feeling," or " consciousness," which we cannot by 
 any scientific process directly deal with ? 
 
 It has often struck me that recent biological 
 inquirers, in the just desire to study only what 
 is capable of physical investigation, have ex- 
 amined material structures rather to the neglect of 
 the equally materialistic forces displayed in the 
 matter, and that motion which has been so care- 
 fully and satisfactorily studied by the physical 
 experimentalist * has not been sufficiently studied 
 by the physiologist. I think that movement in 
 living beings is capable and worthy of detailed 
 study. Following on these lines of thought, this 
 work has been written, showing how largely the 
 expression of vital functions may be described in 
 terms of movement — and movement is capable of 
 physical investigation. 
 
 In observing living organisms there are two 
 principal methods that may be employed. (1) 
 Observation of the body.f or corporeal, material 
 structure of the subject : this, may be a histological 
 
 • The woike of Grove and Tyndiill. 
 
 t See specially chap. xvi. as to proportional development. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 7 
 
 inquiry. (2) Observation of the ingoings and out- 
 comings. It is the latter set of signs that are 
 principally studied in this volume. 
 
 As to the observation of the ingoings and out- 
 comings of the subject observed, the following 
 propositions may be laid down : — 
 
 (a) The ingoing quantities of material equal the 
 outcoming quantities of material, plus or minus any 
 change in the quantity of material of the body of 
 the subject. 
 
 (6) The ingoing quantities of force equal the 
 outcoming quantities of force, plus or minus any 
 change in the quantity of force stored in the 
 subject. 
 
 (c) Some force must be ingoing if any change 
 occurs within. 
 
 (d) The difference, or change in kind, between 
 the income and the outcome is due to changes 
 occurring in the organism. 
 
 (e) Conversely, changes occurring in the organism 
 may in part be expressed by describing the differ- 
 ence, or variability in kind, between the income 
 and outcome. 
 
 (/) It follows that we may reasonably observe 
 and describe the difference between the ingoing 
 and outcoming forces, and also observe changes 
 occurring in the material structure of the subject. 
 
 The animus and object of the inquiry described 
 in chap. xix. is to determine, by means of observa- 
 tion and an experimental method, the effects of 
 external circumstances in aiding and producing the 
 physical or material basis of mind 
 
8 PHYSICAL KXPRESSION. 
 
 The primary assumption is made that mentation 
 is dependent upon the material structure of the 
 body, and that the structure, properties, and 
 functions of that body are the result of external 
 forces. 
 
 When any principles are laid down for practical 
 guidance in this inquiry,* the endeavour has been 
 made to show that they are widespread "uni- 
 formities in the operations of nature," or laws 
 applicable to questions outside the proper scope of 
 this work, and that they are laws or uniformities 
 in the operation of nature of wide action in various 
 biological problems. The endeavour has also been 
 made to show that these laws, as defined and 
 explained, give the foundations for a true experi- 
 mental inquiry, and that they are in harmony with 
 many of the laws defined in biology, in psycho- 
 logy, and physiology, also in some cases with the 
 laws of sociology and human social life. 
 
 It seems to me a matter of great importance to 
 study the attributes of every property observed, 
 the time, quantity, and kind of property; in some 
 cases the " kind " can be described in terms of time 
 and quantity. This is entered upon and illustrated 
 in chap. xvi. 
 
 The principles and methods of analysis used (see 
 chap. XV.) are the outcome of daily observations, 
 and have been applied over and over again to many 
 cases in dealing with my living patients. This is 
 mentioned in the hope that others may be induced 
 to see whether these principles are in accord with 
 * See specially chaps, ii.-iv. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 9 
 
 logical and scientific procedure, and as a justifica- 
 tion of this attempt to introduce new inquiries into 
 the nerve-system. I have omitted any attempt 
 at cerebral localization, and do not think that the 
 present work has greatly suffered thereby. The 
 work done by others in that direction has been of 
 immense service to me, and possibly this work 
 may indirectly forward that most desirable inquiry. 
 Many purely medical facts might have been intro- 
 duced, but it appeared best not to produce them in 
 this volume. 
 
 The present work has been sent out under its 
 present title as an instalment of a larger work in 
 hand. I think that the accurate observation of the 
 motor outcome of brain action, and the observation 
 of the effects of external forces upon such func- 
 tions, will give us much information as to the eflect 
 of physical forces in causing the evolution of 
 the individual, and the development of mind by 
 educational processes. 
 
 Glancing over the succeeding chapters, they may 
 be classified as follows : — 
 
 The first five chapters explain the scope and 
 general method of the work. The scope and 
 meaning of the term " expression " is explained to 
 include all outward manifestations of hidden things. 
 Thus it is seen that vital phenomena can only be 
 studied by their expressions, or physical signs ; on 
 the contrary, all vital and inscrutable phenomena 
 may be studied by these expressions, if we know 
 how to observe and record the physical signs of 
 the expression. 
 
10 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 A certain number of facts in physiology and 
 pathology are referred to in chaps, vi. and vii. It is 
 only by the study of such facts that the significance 
 and explanation of the modes of expression in man 
 can be elucidated, and I hope that the principles 
 defined may be applicable to the description of 
 certain pathological states, especially such as chorea 
 and epilepsy. Pathological anatomy alone does not 
 explain these ; probably they will be best described 
 in terms of movements and analyzed by these 
 signs. Direct analogy may be made between the 
 area of nerve-muscular signs in hemiplegia from a 
 destructive lesion of brain, and one-sided chorea, 
 and brain fatigue or excitement affecting the two 
 hemispheres of the brain unequally (see chap. vii.). 
 
 The chapter (xv.) on the analysis of expression 
 gives examples of the application of these studies 
 to matters of daily life. It is in particular hoped 
 that this account will be of use to those who study 
 children, and need to read in their outward expres- 
 sion the actual state of their nerve-system. 
 
 Artists and those who give literary descriptions 
 of the mental and emotional conditions of man 
 have taught us much, and to them the study of the 
 modes of expression is a necessity (see chap. xvii.). 
 Certain extracts have been given (see chap, xviii.) 
 from some of the older writers, which show that, 
 though modern knowledge may make it more easy 
 to speak with precision of the principles involved 
 in expression, still the matter has long been studied 
 and the thoughts here formulated have been lon^ 
 extant. A bibliography is attached to chapter xviii. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 EXPRESSION. 
 
 The term " expression " explained — Speech expresdve of life ; 
 speech a criterion of life — The uniform coexistence of two 
 phenomena makes the one an expression of the other — Abstract 
 properties, and their objective signs ; criteria of mind— Com- 
 parison of an idiot, and an intelligent man — Certain sounds 
 and a tracing of the pulse express the action of the heart — 
 Signs due to an aiferent force ; action of the sight of an object 
 upon children ; a tlieimometer indicates heat ; the sensitive 
 flame — The telephone exhibits impressionability ; a receptive 
 part, an expressive part, and an additional force thrown in — 
 The phonograph exhibits localized impressionability, which 
 is permanent — Impressionability and retentiveness in a child 
 — Expression, direct and empirical — Impressionability and 
 retentiveness — Nutrition ; its signs — Movements in plants ; 
 pulvini, by unequal growth — Expression by form, colour, 
 temperature — Vital processes can only be studied by their 
 expression ; the importance of appreciating this in biological 
 work — Summary. 
 
 "Expression," in its widest signification, is the 
 outward indication of some inherent property or 
 function. An expression is a physical sign which 
 is accepted as a criterion of the property, because 
 the two are found by experience to be more or 
 less uniformly coexisting phenomena; and if the 
 manifestation of the special expression (or physical 
 
12 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 sign) is found with absolute uniformity, whenever 
 the property or function in question is present, we 
 may look upon that physical sign as an absolute 
 proof of the presence of the property. Thus, in 
 a man the power of speech proves the existence 
 of " life ; " physiological knowledge shows that we 
 cannot have speech proceeding from a man unless 
 his body has life. To prove the property life in 
 a human subject it is quite sufficient to prove that 
 he can speak. We do not know what life is in 
 the abstract, but to prove that a man can speak 
 is to prove that he possesses what we call " life." 
 
 It follows, then, that the physical sign " speech " 
 is a criterion of life, or we may say that speech 
 is one expression of life. We see, then, that the 
 uniform coexistence of two phenomena in a subject, 
 of which one is a physical sign, enables us to 
 look upon that physical sign as an expression of 
 the other phenomenon. 
 
 This uniform coexistence may be demonstrated 
 by empirical experience sufficiently extended, and 
 attested by various observers, under va.rying cir- 
 cumstances. If we analyze the expression of the 
 property " life," given above, we shall learn some- 
 thing further as to why we may speak of " speech " 
 as an expression of life in the subject. , It is known 
 that speech is always the result of certain move- 
 ments of the respiratory apparatus, the tongue, and 
 the mouth. Respiration, even when unattended 
 by speech, and when found in animals incapable 
 of speech, is uniformly expressive of the property 
 " life." Further, physiology has shown that active 
 
EXPEESSION OF MIND. 13 
 
 properties and functions of the brain are necessary 
 for speech. It follows then, that speech is an expres- 
 sion of two phenomena in the subject — ^respiration 
 and brain action. 
 
 Speech is an expression of respiration and brain 
 action, because it results therefrom, or is an outcome 
 of respiration plus brain action ; so this illustrates 
 the truth that* if a certain physical sign is always 
 the result, or outcome, of some one property or 
 function, that physical sign is an expression of 
 that property or function. It is often convenient 
 to study at the same time a certain property in 
 the abstract, and its outward or physical signs. 
 When we study " mind " as a property of man, we 
 must define its physical signs, or the criteria by 
 which we appreciate the function " mind." If we 
 compare a healthy and intelligent man with an 
 idiot not possessed of the properties called " mind," 
 or possessing them only in a very low degree, we 
 shall soon see a marked difierence in the physical 
 signs. The intelligent man speaks well, his atten- 
 tion is attracted by objects of beauty or usefulness. 
 The idiot does not speak intelligibly, his attention 
 IS not attracted by objects of beauty, his movements 
 are not subservient to his own wants. A man of 
 mind affords expression by the manner in which 
 his attention is attracted, by his good speech, and 
 by his movements; these objective facts are, then, 
 the expression of his mind. Any property that 
 can be possessed by a subject may be indicated by 
 some physical sign, which is then called the 
 expression of that property in that particular 
 
14 PHYSICAL EXPKESSIONi 
 
 subject. Temperature is an expression of heat in 
 the subject ; growth in the seed is an expression of 
 life in its organism. 
 
 We have briefly touched upon some forms of 
 expression of the brain, which is an organ of the 
 body, the special forms of expression considered 
 being the outcome of its properties and functions. 
 We will now discuss the expression of one or two 
 other organs. We form a judgment of the con- 
 dition and functions of the heart by the state of 
 the pulse, the sounds heard over the heart on 
 auscultation with the stethoscope, and by feeling 
 the impulse of the heart, etc.; to form a more 
 accurate judgment we may take a tracing on paper 
 of the movements of the pulse by an instrument 
 termed a sphygmograph, and we obtain a line on 
 paper, indicating the movements of the heart, by 
 means of another instrument called the cardiograph. 
 The sounds and the characters of the impulse 
 of the heart, and the tracings of the movements 
 of the heart and pulse, are expressions of the 
 action of the hidden organ — they are the outcome 
 of its action, and the criteria by which we judge 
 of its functions. 
 
 W^e have hitherto spoken of modes of expression 
 where certain signs indicate properties, either 
 because they are found uniformly to coexist with 
 those properties, or else because they are the direct 
 outcome of such properties. We now come to 
 consider how expression may be a result of some 
 force afferent to the subject, falling upon it, but not 
 solely and directly the outcome of its intrinsic 
 
EEFLEGTED ACTION. 15 
 
 properties and functions. This may be conveniently 
 termed " expression by reflective action." 
 
 It is a matter of common observation that we 
 do not know a man's mental and moral qualities 
 till we have seen him tried by the circumstances 
 of life. In forming a judgment of a man's character 
 we seek to observe his actions under various cii'- 
 cumstances. The man's actions under these various 
 circumstances are partly the outcome of his organi- 
 zation and character, and are partly due to the 
 special circumstances acting upon him. Such 
 expressions are in part the effect of circumstances 
 acting on the man. Such a case illustrates this 
 subject, but is too complex for a convenient 
 analysis. 
 
 Let us take a simple example. Suppose two 
 children, both healthy, intelligent, and of the same 
 age. Hold a pleasing toy before one child, and let it 
 be hidden from the other. We now see the expres- 
 sion of pleasure in one child's face, accompanied by 
 gestures of delight ; not so in the other child ; but 
 if both are then allowed to see the toy, each will 
 present expressions of joy. The sight of the toy 
 is the cause of the expression of joy in the children. 
 Here, then, the expression is not solely the mani- 
 festation of the spontaneous outcome of the organism 
 of the child ; the sight of the toy falling upon the 
 children is necessary to stimulate the expression 
 of joy or amusement. 
 
 Again, if an experiment be tried by placing the 
 toy in front of the child while he is asleep, or if 
 awake when very ill, no expression is produced ; or 
 
16 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 lastly, if the child be very cross and sulky, the sight 
 of the toy may cause no expression of joy. If, on 
 the contrary, the child be "in a very laughing 
 humour," the expression by similar stimulation 
 will be excessive in degree. 
 
 These considerations show that the condition of 
 the subject is in part indicated in expression 
 when the subject is acted on by external forces 
 afferent to it. In speaking of reflective action 
 as a mode of expression, it will be seen that the 
 line of argument founded upon such an obser- 
 vation may be inverted. If the subject is known 
 to be constant and unchangeable in its proper- 
 ties under the same conditions, any variation in 
 the outcome of its properties or functions is due 
 to a change in the afferent forces or the environ- 
 ment. In looking at a man of known stable con- 
 stitution, in whom no disease or special defect of 
 any organ is discoverable, if we observe some 
 sudden change in the aspect of his face indicating, 
 according to our experience, grave mental anxiety, 
 we may conclude that something has happened to 
 him causing anxiety — some news of disaster or 
 cause of fear, etc. The aspect of his face is the 
 expression, firstly, of his condition ; secondly, it 
 affords evidence that some event has happened 
 affecting him with fear. 
 
 A thermometer is an instrument not changing 
 itself ; any variation in the volume of mercury in 
 the bulb and stem is due to heat : here any 
 increase in the bulk of the mercury is due to heat 
 coming to the instrument, and the rise of mercury 
 
THE SENSITIVE FLAME. 17 
 
 in the stem expresses the temperature of the 
 surrounding medium. 
 
 The sensitive flame is another example of a 
 subject so impressionable that it indicates or ex- 
 presses very faint sounds or aerial vibrations. 
 The following quotation is from a lecture by Mr. 
 W. F. Barrett, delivered before the Royal Dublin 
 Society, January 8, 1868 : — " The lecturer had re- 
 served for the conclusion a flame wonderfully sensi- 
 tive to the slightest noise. The burner which gave 
 this flame was formed of steatite, and consisted of 
 a single circular orifice, through which the gas was 
 forced from a large holder in the lecture-room, with 
 greater pressure than would be attained from the 
 main. The flame was now fully two feet in length ; 
 ' and observe,' said the lecturer, ' how delicate and 
 fragile a thing it appears to be ; for on the slightest 
 noise it drops down a foot. The jingling of this 
 bunch of keys, the crumpling of this paper, the 
 dropping of a small coin, are more than sufficient 
 utterly to break up its height and symmetry. This 
 flame makes no response to the vowels o, u, nor 
 to the labials, but it energetically responds to the 
 sibilants. Repeating the stanza — 
 
 " Boll on, O rill, for ever I 
 Eest not, lest thy wavelets, 
 Sheen as shining silver, 
 Shrink and sink to darkness;" 
 
 the flame is unmoved by the first line, but empha- 
 tically bobs at the sounds " rest " and " lest, " and 
 admirably suits its action to the words of the last 
 line, for, when shrinking, the light of the flame 
 
18 PHYSICAI, EXPEESSION. 
 
 almost disappears. So sensitive is this flame that 
 even a chirp made at the far end of the room brings 
 it down more than a foot. Like a living being, the 
 flame trembles and cowers down at a hiss ; it 
 crouches and shivers as if in agony at the crisping 
 of this metal foil, though the sound is so faint as 
 scarcely to be heard ; it dances in tune to the waltz 
 played by this musical box; and, finally, it beats 
 time to the ticking of my watch. How wonderful 
 are all these facts ! And the more we know of them 
 the more wonderful do they appear ; for this aston- 
 ishing change in the aspect of the flame is produced 
 by an infinitesimal portion of those almost inaudible 
 sound-waves, already enfeebled by their distance 
 from the flame.' " 
 
 In the telephone we see an instrument of great 
 impressionability, but it exhibits more than this. 
 Two instruments being placed in electrical com- 
 munication, and the instrument having a battery 
 in the circuit, the vibrations of the voice com- 
 municated to one instrument aie conducted to the 
 other ; that is to say, the one instrument is im- 
 pressionable, the second expresses the vibrations 
 received by the first, while the force received from the 
 battery is an active agent or factor in producing 
 the expression. In this arrangement we see an 
 impressionable part,- a conductor of impressions, 
 an additional force thrown in, and a part solely 
 utilized in producing expression. 
 
 The vibrations of the receiving disc are ended as 
 soon as they arrive, and no permanent impression 
 is left ; there is no retentiveness of the impressions 
 
THE PHONOGRAPH. 19 
 
 in any part of the apparatus, no permanent impres- 
 sionability. / 
 
 In the phonograph we find impressionability 
 more or less permanent; but, while receiving im- 
 pressions, the instrument cannot give origin to 
 expressions. The one vibrating plate receives the 
 impressions, and subsequently expresses them, re- 
 tentiveness being concentrated in the tinfoil. As 
 in the telephone, so in the phonograph, an addi- 
 tional force is thrown in. While the impressions 
 are being received by the sounding-plate and 
 impressed upon the foil, it is, of course, necessary 
 that the foil be moved under the needle that 
 indents it, in order that fresh parts of the foil may 
 receive the indentations. The impressionability in 
 the arrangement may be said to be permanent, the 
 indented foil remains indented for an indefinite 
 length of time. We best know the property reten- 
 tiveness in the apparatus by the expression of the 
 sounding-plate when the cylinder is again moved 
 so as to reproduce the original sounds which came 
 to the sounding-plate. The retentiveness is indi- 
 cated by the efferent expression obtained as sound 
 on causing the foil to revolve ; the expression 
 corresponds more or less exactly to the afferent 
 sound producing the impression, although a long 
 period of time may have elapsed- between receiving 
 the impression and giving out the expression. 
 Another thing to be remarked upon as essential 
 to getting expression out of the phonograph is that 
 the indented foil must be made to move the 
 Bounding -plate, and mechanical force must be 
 
20 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 applied to the cylinder carrying the foil, so as to 
 cause this to move under the needle of the sounding 
 plate, making it vibrate. 
 
 Impressionability and retentiveness may be ob- 
 served in animals acting in modes almost analogous 
 to those seen in the telephone and the phonograph. 
 Take as an example a child whose attention is 
 attracted by a musical box in action, so that it turns 
 towards it and listens. The sound of the musical 
 box causes vibrations in the child's apparatus of 
 hearing. Suppose that the child is playing with a 
 toy when the music commences ; attracted by the 
 sound, the child's head turns away from its toy 
 towards the musical box, and he claps his hands. 
 This is one effect, one expression of the impres- 
 sion received. Further, the child will, after a 
 certain number of repetitions of the same tune, 
 be so far impressed as to be able to hum the tune, 
 in part at least, under the stimulus of pleasure or a 
 request from the mother; this indicates the per- 
 manency of the impression. The action of vital 
 force in the child is, of course, necessary to repro- 
 duce the tune ; this corresponds to the mechanical 
 energy supplied from without to the cylinder of the 
 phonograph. 
 
 Another class of expression that must now be 
 considered is what may be termed "empirical ex- 
 pression." Here the expression, or objective sign 
 observed, is not the direct outcome of the intrinsic 
 property or function which it indicates, but we 
 infer from the presence of the objective sign that 
 the special property is present. "This inference is 
 
EMPIKICAL EXPRESSION. 21 
 
 founded on the observation of the uniform occur- 
 rence of the objective sign and the intrinsic pro- 
 perty, although the two are not related as cause and 
 effect, as in cases of " direct expression." Of course, 
 it may be argued that in this empirical expression 
 the intrinsic property, and the observed objective 
 sign, are both results of a common antecedent cause ; 
 thus both may be inherited alike. It is a matter of 
 great importance to our subject that the difference, 
 and relative value, of empirical and direct expression 
 should be thoroughly understood and appreciated, 
 because it is only the modes of direct expression 
 that can be looked upon as direct evidence of the 
 possession of certain properties. 
 
 When we look at a living human face totally 
 devoid of movement, or special expression as the 
 result of movement, or even if we look at a 
 plaster cast of the face, it may indicate to us 
 something of the character of the subject. In 
 looking at the impassive face, and the plaster 
 cast, the expression seen is not the direct outcome 
 of brain action, or the condition of the mind. 
 We are speaking here of the more permanent and 
 fixed conditions of the expression, not of fleeting, 
 transient, mobile conditions. Still, there is the 
 fact that the two things — the average action of the 
 brain in marking the average of the man's mind, 
 and the form and contour of the face — coincide 
 empirically; this subject will be more fully con- 
 sidered further on ; * it is the foundation of the 
 scientific study of "Physiognomy." Examples of 
 
 * See chap. tti. 
 
22 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 empirical, or indirect; expression, may be seen in 
 organic, and in non-living subjects. When such 
 cases occur in man, or in living animals, or vege- 
 tables, they may be termed " examples of coincident 
 development.'' This empirical expression differs 
 from the modes of direct expression, inasmuch as in 
 the latter, the expression is the direct outcome of 
 the property expressed. The sprouting beard in a 
 boy's chin, is a sign of commencing manhood, not 
 because the one produces the other, but because a 
 widely extended experience of many boys has 
 shown the two things to be usually coincident. 
 Piak-flowered geraniums are plants of feeble con- 
 stitution, not because the colour of the flower 
 directly affects the constitution of the plant, but 
 because pink-flowered geraniums usually have 
 highly coloured leaves, with but few cells con- 
 taining chlorophyll, and the presence of chlorophyll 
 is essential to the nutrition of the plant. Pink 
 flowers are, then, only an empirical sign of feeble 
 constitution in the geranium, but still a sign of 
 value; the real or direct expression of the con- 
 stitutional feebleness is the small amount of 
 chlorophyll in the leaves — the scarcity of chlorophyll 
 is the direct expression of the feeble constitution, 
 because it is the cause of it. 
 
 Impressionability and retentiveness are properties 
 found alike in living, and non-living subjects; nutri- 
 tion and growth belong to living beings only, or so 
 it is generally considered. By the term "nutrition" 
 is denoted an active vital process, converting pabu- 
 lum into tissue of the organism, or into some new 
 
EXPRESSION OF NUTRITION. 23 
 
 chemical material, thus evolving force which may 
 be observed in action, either at the point where it 
 is produced or at a distance from it. 
 
 Nutrition being a, vital, and inscrutable process, 
 we probably cannot know it in the abstract, but 
 we can observe the effects of the process of nu- 
 trition in an organism. The best evidence of the 
 occurrence of* nutrition is found in its results. 
 In many cases nutrition is greatly aided by (if not 
 entirely dependent upon) the action of certain 
 external forces afferent to the subject, so that the 
 results in some degree indicate the action of such 
 external forces. We will consider a few examples. 
 In vegetable growth we may find a simple multi- 
 plication of cells, all similar in their histological or 
 structural characters, as is seen in the tissue termed 
 " primary meristem." Here the expression of nutri- 
 tion, and vital action, is multiplication of cells. 
 In a mass of unicellular plants the result, or ex- 
 pression of, nutrition is multiplication of plants, 
 as in the growth of the snow-plant. In other cases, 
 as in the apex of the stem of a plant, when a bud 
 is being formed, differentiation of the cell-growth 
 results from nutrition, producing embryonic leaves. 
 A more complicated case of nutrition expressed by 
 histological changes, is seen in the cellular body 
 called an ovule, which is found in the carpel of 
 a flower. When the protoplasmic contents of a 
 pollen grain have entered that cellular body, changes 
 follow which Bause an embryo to develop by cell- 
 differentiation in the ovule ; the structural changes 
 observed in the development of the embryo are the 
 
24 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 expression of the vital effects of fertilization, or 
 sexual impregnation. Other cases of vital action 
 in plants are differently expressive. The action of 
 chlorophyll in the cells of a leaf is known by certain 
 chemical results — carbonic acid gas being absorbed, 
 the oxygen being discharged from the plant, and the 
 carbon retained in its tissues. Here the chemical 
 changes are the expression of the action of chloro- 
 phyll. The growth and vital action of the yeast- ' 
 plant, when living in a solution of sugar, is in part 
 expressed by multiplication of the unicellular yeast- 
 plant — a histological mode of expression — and it is in 
 part shown by the chemical changes of fermentation 
 indicated by chemical results. 
 
 Numerous kinds of movements occur in plants; two 
 examples will serve our present purpose, showing that 
 movements may be the expression of vital changes. 
 In plants, movement is effected by two principal 
 methods — by unequal growth of the cells composing 
 the growing member ; or by organs termed "pulvini," 
 temporarily or permanently devoted to the produc- 
 tion of movement as their principal function. In the 
 Oxalis (wood-sorrel tribe), and in the sensitive plant 
 {Mvmosa), movements of leaves are seen. In each 
 case the movements are effected by an arrangement 
 of cells at the junction of the leaf with its main 
 stalk; this group of cells is called a "pulvinus." The 
 pulvinus is the mechanism by which movement of 
 the leaf is effected ; it consists of a mass of small 
 cells destitute of chlorophyll, and therefore incapable 
 of performing any nutritive function in the plant, 
 or of taking any direct part in the elaboration of 
 
MOVEMENT IN PLANTS. 
 
 .25 
 
 its nourishment. This pulvinus is the lower portion 
 of the petiole, or leaf-stalk ; and the movements of 
 the leaf depend upon its cells, which expand alter- 
 nately, first on one side, then on the other. Struc- 
 turally, the pulvinus consists of small cells arrested 
 in their development while stiU young. These, 
 
 Tig. 1.— .After Darwin. Longitudinal section of a Pulvinnw, magnified flpvpnty- 
 five times, p p, petiole or leaf-Btallc ; /, fibro-vascular bundle ; 6 b, com 
 mencement of blade of cotyledon. 
 
 when turgescent with sap, swell up, thus increasing 
 suddenly the bulk of the structure composed of 
 them : and the turgescence leads to motion only — it 
 is not followed by growth ; no nutrition of the plant 
 results from the turgescence. It must be noted that 
 the cells possessing this special function of pro- 
 ducing motion only, fulfilling no direct nutritive 
 purpose, are smaller than their neighbours, arrested 
 
26 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 in growth, and destitute of chlorophyll. This is the 
 condition of the cells of the pulvinus as long as it 
 is capable of producing movement. In the Oxalis 
 corniculata the pulvinus is developed imperfectly, 
 and to an extremely variable degree, so that it is 
 apparently tending towards abortion. Its cells con- 
 tain chlorophyll ; that proves they have nutritive 
 functions to perform, as well as the production of 
 movement. These cells are more like the normal 
 cells of the petiole than those usually characteristic 
 of a pulvinus.* 
 
 As to the production of movement in plants by 
 unequal growth of the cells. In the process of 
 germination of the pea seed, the radicle of the 
 embryo protrudes from its case, and direct ex- 
 periment demonstrates that the apex of the root in 
 its downward progress does not proceed in a straight 
 line ; the apex bends first to one side, then to another, 
 moving in irregular ellipses, or rather in a spiral 
 direction, as it descends. This zigzag movement of 
 the apex of the root is due to an unequal growth 
 of the cells composing the growing portion of the 
 root; they enlarge first on one side, thus causing the 
 apex to bend towards the opposite direction, and 
 then the set of cells growing alters. This mode of 
 growth is termed by botanists "circumnutation." The 
 essential principle of this mode of growth is, that 
 the vegetable cells concerned do not grow together, 
 but those on one side grow, then those at another 
 
 * " Analogy between the Movements of Plants and the Muscular 
 Movements of Cliildren, called Chorea," P. W., rrituh Medical 
 Journal, February 2.1, 1S82. 
 
FOKM, COLOUR, TEMPERATUKE. 27 
 
 part, in regular series. In this circumnutation move- 
 ment results from the fact that the cells grow in 
 series, not all simultaneously. 
 
 Form, colour, temperature, are properties as fre- 
 quently observed in non-living as in living subjects. ■ 
 These may, perhaps, be looked upon, and spoken of 
 most conveniently, as obvious properties because 
 the form, colour, and temperature are their own 
 expressions. This statement is not exactly true, 
 but this form of language does not convey any 
 untruth that will vitiate -our use of this term for 
 present purposes. Strictly speaking, " the colour of 
 an object " is a condition of its surface, and what 
 we see and describe, is the reflection of light from 
 it, and the kind of light so reflected is an expression 
 of the molecular structure of its surface ; "the tempe- 
 rature of a body " is an expression of the condition 
 of the vibrations of its molecules ; " the form of an 
 object " is the result of the forces that produced it. 
 
 The largest possible scope has been given in this 
 chapter to the term " expression," and this has been 
 done with a definite object. Expression is the 
 objective sign of a property of the subject. In 
 biological inquiries we are obliged to study vital 
 processes by their expression in objective signs. 
 Life itself is studied by the results, or objective 
 expressions of nutrition, and growth. It is, then, 
 obviously desirable that we should study all the 
 objective signs, or modes of expression of these 
 vital processes. The subject of expression is dwelt 
 upon in the wide signification here given to the 
 term, because it appears doubtful if, in biological 
 
28 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 research, dependence enough has always been placed 
 upon the truth of the fact that expressions are 
 objective signs of the properties of the subject. If 
 we are certain that the objective signs seen in 
 expression are either uniformly accompanied by 
 certain phenomena, or that the cause of the special 
 hidden phenomenon is the reason of the visible 
 objective sign, — in either case we may study the 
 hidden condition by studying the outward objective 
 expression thereof 
 
 Thus, " mind " in the abstract cannot be submitted 
 to direct physical investigation by experiment, but, 
 if certain physical signs can be shown to be the 
 criteria or expression of mind, we may be able to 
 observe these objective signs, and devise experiments 
 for the elucidation of information with regard to 
 their cause. Again, nutrition of a living organism 
 is a subject of which we understand but little, 
 and what we do know is the result of studying 
 the objective effects of nutrition, and its coinci- 
 dences — in other words, the objective expression of 
 nutrition. 
 
 Swfti'mary. — In this chapter I have endeavoured 
 to explain what is meant in this work by the term 
 " expression," and it is shown that the scope of our 
 subject is wide, dealing with any case where objec- 
 tive physical signs indicate some more hidden phe- 
 nomenon or condition. When a physical sign is 
 a criterion of a condition of the subject, we may 
 investigate that condition by studying the physical 
 sign. 
 
 The physical sign or expression may be the 
 
SUMMART. 29 
 
 direct outcome of the condition it indicates, as 
 speech is the direct outcome of respiration and 
 brain action; or the expression and the inherent 
 condition may be found by empirical experience 
 to be uniformly coincident. The expression, or 
 outcome from the subject observed, may be the 
 result of some force afferent to the subject, as the 
 movement of a sensitive flame, which is caused by 
 vibrations of the air, — there the physical sign ob- 
 served, the movement of the flame, is an expression 
 of the vibrations of the air. The physical signs 
 observed may express impressionability, temporary 
 or permanent ; in the telephone the receiving plate is 
 very impressionable, but the eflfect of the vibrations 
 it receives is temporary ; in the phonograph the 
 vibrations received are impressed upon tinfoil, and 
 more or less permanently retained. Impression- 
 ability, temporary or permanent, is frequently 
 expressed in plants, animals, and in man. 
 
 Those cases may be termed " direct expression " 
 where the physical signs observed are the direct 
 outcome of the property expressed ; an " empirical 
 expression " signifies that the physical sign observed 
 is uniformly found by experience to be associated 
 with a certain property, though the line of causation 
 may not be understood. Nutrition is a property 
 belonging only to living beings ; the term denotes 
 an active vital process converting pabulum into 
 tissue, or evolving force which may be observed 
 in action. The results of nutrition may be in part 
 due to external forces afierent to the subject, and 
 so may in part express them. 
 
30 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 Form, colour, temperature, are properties that 
 may be expressive in living and in inanimate 
 objects. 
 
 The movements that occur in the growth of 
 plants are expressive of their modes of growth. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 EXPRESSION IN MAN AND IN ANIMALS. 
 
 The act of oxfression does not prove vitality — In living things 
 expression is the outcome of nutrition — Nutrition not con- 
 sidered here, only its expression — Expression when the outcome 
 of processes in the subject is called direct — Growth results 
 from local nutrition; such processes are termed trophic — 
 Nutrition is an expression of life — Permanent impression- 
 ability ; it is opposed to evolution, it may he expressed by 
 reflex aotiun — Eetenliveness need not be permanent. — De- 
 velopment and reflex action as modes of expression — Appiiratus 
 for reflex movement ; reflexes may be congenital, or acquired — 
 Eeflected action, as expression by form or colour — Any outcome 
 of function may be expressive — Expression by colour, sound, 
 change of function in a part — Movements of an actor in anger 
 — Trophic action illustrated by the growth of crystals, growth 
 of the body — Coincident development of parts ; coincident 
 defects in imbeciles— Properties demonstrated by external 
 forces — Heredity — Expression of the emotions — Summary. 
 
 In the last chapter the principles and modes of 
 expression were described and discussed, and it 
 seemed well to illustrate all points by examples 
 taken from living and non-living subjects. The ■ 
 mere fact of expression in a subject is no evidence 
 of vital characters, no proof that it is a living 
 rather than a non-living thing. In the present 
 
32 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 chapter Tve shall speak of expression in man and in 
 animals, and the illustrations of modes of expression 
 will, as far as possible, be taken from the cases of 
 living beings. The great and striking general 
 difference between the modes of expression in 
 animate and inanimate subjects, is due to the fact 
 that, in the former, vital properties and nutrition are 
 essential. 
 
 We will commence with the study of the signs 
 of nutrition. The differences between the modes 
 of expression in animate and inanimate beings 
 is, then, due to the fact that, in the former, vital 
 properties and nutrition are essential factors. Ex- 
 pression in the living subject is usually the direct 
 objective outcome of conditions of nutrition ; we 
 therefore consider together the subject of nutrition 
 and the expression of nutrition. As to nutrition 
 per se we have very little to say here, but we are 
 deeply concerned with the modes in which nutri- 
 tion is expressed. It has been said that the most 
 certain modes of expression are those which are 
 the direct outcome of action in the parts involved ; 
 therefore the best modes of expression are the ob- 
 jective results of nutrition. Now, the results of 
 nutrition being many, it will serve our purpose to 
 deal with a few cases only — growth, movement, 
 evolution, retentiveness. Growth is an objective 
 sign of nutrition — a corporeal, structural, or 
 histological change in the subject; the material 
 structure of the subject, not merely its properties 
 or functions, being changed as the result or out- 
 come of this form of nutrition. Local nutrition is 
 
TKOPHIC ACTION. 33 
 
 necessary to growth, therefore growth is a sign of 
 nutrition. Rapidly growing tissue is believed to 
 be highly nourished, because it is found to be very 
 vascular; and often we may infer the degree of 
 nutrition from the degree of vascularity. 
 
 That kind of nutrition or vital action which pro- 
 duces growth, or change in the material structure of 
 the subject i^ conveniently termed " trophic action ; " 
 we may speak of expression by "trophic action," 
 and, compare it with expression by movement. 
 When trophic action is the mode of expression, we 
 find some histological change in the subject of 
 growth; when a movement is the mode of ex- 
 pression, there is often no change in the structure of 
 the subject that can be observed as a histological 
 fact, and if we neglect to observe and record that 
 movement, we possibly neglect the only objective 
 sign of the change occurring in the subject. Nutri- 
 tion and growth, when they occur together, indicate 
 or express life in the subject; it follows, then, that 
 any ol the expressions of nutrition and growth are 
 expressions of life. 
 
 Permanent vm/pressionahility is a very important 
 property, and it was shown in the second chapter 
 that retentiveness may alike be found in animate 
 and in inanimate subjects. Retentiveness in living 
 things may be indicated or expressed in various 
 ways. When in a subject a certain stimulus is 
 always followed by the same expression, we may 
 conclude that the subject is unchanged, or reten- 
 tive at least of the property thus expressed. 
 Retentiveness is, then, not a sign of evolution or 
 
34 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 change, but of an organism capable of resisting 
 changes. Retentiveness indicated by reflex action 
 may be seen in the infant at birth. The fact of 
 placing an object between its lips excites the move- 
 ments of sucking ; this is a reflex action, and per- 
 sists as long as the individual is an infant. When 
 the infant becomes a man, this reflex is more or less 
 weakened or lost; the mechanism connected -with 
 sucking is not retained in the same condition 
 through life. We see, then, that in this particular 
 mechanism retentiveness is only temporary. 
 
 Movement, as an outcome of action in an animal, 
 is the result of some force, internal (as nutrition) or 
 external, acting upon the animal. The study of the 
 correlation o£ forces justifies this assumption that 
 visible movement, as the outcome of an organism, 
 expresses either force afferent to the subject, or the 
 result of changes occurring in it — changes which are 
 conveniently termed vital action or nutrition. As 
 examples showing movements expressive of nutri- 
 tion in the organism, the following may be cited. 
 Mechanical exercise in man, such as carrying a 
 weight, has been shown by physiologists to be due 
 to changes in the body, and the movements of the 
 man are an expression of the internal changes. A 
 child in perfect physical health is frisky, plays, 
 runs about, and chatters incessantly till he is tired ; 
 the movements indicate the perfect physical health 
 of the subject, because they are the outcome of the 
 perfect nutrition of the organism. If the nutrition 
 of the body at large is low, as the result of deficient 
 or improper food, or disease of some organ, the 
 
DEVELOPMENT. 35 
 
 lowered condition of nutrition is indicated by the 
 lessened amount of movement. The dormouse 
 when hybernating has its nutrition lessened, owing 
 to the little food it takes ; its feeble circulation, 
 its lowered temperature, and the absence of move- 
 ments in the limbs are the expressions of its 
 lessened nerve-muscular energy. 
 
 Development is a very interesting and important 
 study. It is expressed in various modes. In the 
 newly born infant we observe certain conditions 
 indicated by its weight, form, proportions, etc., i.e. 
 certain conditions of its body; we also observe 
 certain functions, movements, reflex actions, etc. 
 These are the expressions of its condition. In the 
 adult the weight, form, proportions, and the move- 
 ments and reflexes, are diflierent from those of the 
 infant, and this difference is an expression of the 
 evolution of the individual After comparing many 
 infants with many adults, and observing the de- 
 velopment of infants into adults, we find that a more 
 or less regular series of similar changes occurs in the 
 body, and in its functions, as development advances 
 from infancy to adult age. This more or less 
 regular series of changes in the body, and in its 
 functions, is the expression of the development, and, 
 in any case, before we can give a full historical 
 account of the development, we must observe all 
 modes of its expression. The life-history of an 
 individual animal is in part the history of its de- 
 velopment ; it includes the description of the body 
 of the individual at every period of its existence, 
 together with all the influences afferent to it, and 
 
36 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 all the expressions, or efferent functions, coming 
 from it. 
 
 Reflex action is a niode of expression of com- 
 mon occurrence in man and animals; this will 
 be more particularly dwelt upon as a mode of 
 expression in the next chapter. Drawing a hand 
 away from a hot cup is a reflex action; but the 
 movement is a mode of expression, such movement 
 being usually considered expressive of pain. For 
 the occurrence of a reflex action a certain nerve- 
 motor apparatus is necessary. The simplest appa- 
 ratus for this purpose consists of (a) sensory surface ; 
 (&) afferent nerve-fibres; (c) nerve-cell or centre; 
 (d) efferent or motor nerve-fibres ; (e) muscle. Now, 
 this apparatus for a reflex action may exist at birth, 
 as with the apparatus for sucking; or it may be 
 acquired, as the reflex movement of the face giving 
 expression of pleasure at the sight of a fine work 
 of art, — such reflex, not existing at birth, is said to 
 be acquired. We may, then, have expression by 
 reflex action congenital, or acquired. It seems also 
 probable that reflex actions form an important and 
 very large share of the phenomena grouped as the 
 function "mentation," or the facility of the brain 
 which produces mind. 
 
 Reflected action is a mode of expression in living 
 and non-living beings. The term " reflected action " 
 signifies a purely passive condition of the subject, 
 all action being on the part of some force afferent 
 to the subject. The expression of a statue is purely 
 passive — the marble does nothing itself; the rays of 
 light falling upon it are in part reflected, enabling 
 
REFLECTED ACTION. 37 
 
 US to see the statue. The expression of the passive 
 features in man is reflected action; so all expres- 
 sion by colour and pigmentation, form and propor- 
 tions. Reflected action is not per se an indication 
 of vitality or nutrition. "When in an animal move- 
 ment occurs as the result of some mechanical irrita- 
 tion, as tickling, the afferent mechanical agency 
 produces a cWnge upon the sensory surface which 
 causes a stimulus to pass to the nerve-centre, from 
 which an efiierent motor-current then proceeds to 
 the muscles, producing movement. Such movement 
 is called reflex action, or reflex movement, in distinc- 
 tion from the case of the statue, where there is no 
 change or movement in the subject, which is pas- 
 sive, all expression being an offcome, not an " out- 
 come;" the objective cause of expression is the 
 reflected afterent force. 
 
 Expression may be efiected by colour, or any 
 other mode of objective outcome or ofiFcome pass- 
 ing from the subject of expression to the observer. 
 Conditions of colour are often expressive. The 
 colour of minerals often expresses their properties ; 
 the colour of parts of plants is often very constant 
 and uniform, enabling this character to be used in 
 some degree, as a sign by which an individual may 
 be recognized and classed. The special hereditary 
 characters and breed of many animals are often ex- 
 pressed by conditions of coloration, striping, spots, 
 etc. Light complexion of face, light hair, etc., are 
 expressive of race and climate, equally with dark 
 pigmentation and olive complexion. In point of 
 degree of value as signs, there is no doubt that 
 
38 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 structural points are of more importance than 
 points of colour. The colour is the result of the 
 molecular condition of the surface ; the general 
 structure is a more widely spread physical con- 
 dition. 
 
 Sound is one of the commonest modes of expression 
 among animals. The sounds produced are usually 
 indirect expressions. 
 
 It is very interesting to study changes in the 
 functions of an organism or in part of a living 
 being, and such studies are very important in any 
 investigation of the processes of development. We 
 have, then, to look to the signs or expressions of 
 change of function in an organism, and the most 
 satisfactory kind of evidence is that afforded by 
 ■' direct expression," or some change in the outcome 
 of the action of the subject which can be directly 
 observed as an objective sign. A change of function 
 in parts of the body of a plant or animal is not 
 an uncommon occurrence, and may serve as a means 
 of expression. In the life-history and development 
 of many species a change of function is uniformly 
 met with. A few examples may be mentioned, 
 taking together the change of function and its 
 expression in objective signs. 
 
 The case of change in function in the cells of 
 the pulvinus of Oxalis has been already given in 
 chap. ii. p. 2C. 
 
 The body is not fully developed in childhood, and 
 the hair-bulbs in the skin of the face take on active 
 growth about the time of the development of full 
 manhood. In a woman the growth of hair-bulbs in 
 
EXPRESSION BY CHANGE IN FUNCTION. 39 
 
 the face is usually delayed till old age. The func- 
 tions of the stomach, and its power of digestion, 
 vary at different periods of life, and under different 
 circumstances : the stimulus of food causes an acid 
 secretion to be poured out ; when empty, the secre- 
 tion of the organ is alkaline. In the foetus the lungs 
 are not used as respiratory organs, and at birth the 
 salivary glaq^s are not active. Ants, when first 
 born, possess wings which they soon learn to use, 
 but after a short time they lose their wings and 
 become solely terrestrial animals for the rest of 
 their days. A bar of iron may be magnetized, and 
 its properties are thus changed. In vegetable 
 growth it is very common to find examples of 
 epinasty and hyponasty* alternating, the cells 
 growing first on one side, then on the other. 
 
 In man certain changes in the larynx in the 
 course of growth cause an alteration in the voice. 
 The action of glands varies from time to time ; e.g. 
 secretion of mucous membranes, etc. If a man is 
 kept long in the dark his retina becomes over- 
 sensitive to light. Definite and permanent changes 
 in the structure and functions of a part are more 
 clearly seen in a species than in an individual ; this 
 is owing to the greater length of life of a species as 
 compared with an individual. 
 
 Movements are often exceedingly expressive. 
 When observing a man, for the purpose of forming 
 a judgment as to his mental condition, and deter- 
 mining what emotion is most active within him, we 
 take note of his gestures or movements. An actor 
 * Saolis, " Te.\t-book of Botany," 1875. p. 7G7. 
 
40 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 upon the stage, desiring to represent the emotion 
 anger, imitates, according to his art, the gestures of 
 a man angry in earnest — ^his features are distorted, 
 he makes movements as if he would combat his 
 adversary, etc. These are the actor's imitative 
 expressions of anger. A child, when angry, stamps, 
 gesticulates with his arms, and cries, — these are real 
 objective expressions of his anger ; so also is sorrow 
 expressed by the downward drawing of the angles 
 of the mouth. In chaps, viii. and ix. many 
 examples are given of expression of the emotions by 
 movements as objective signs. The voice, its tone, 
 and its rapidity, are highly expressive of emotions ; 
 the voice is the result of nerve-muscular action. A 
 stooping attitude and spiritless gait indicate that 
 a man is tired or dejected, as compared with his 
 postures when refreshed and energetic. The head 
 is drooped as an accompaniment of shame; it is 
 held erect and firm when defiance is expressed. 
 
 Physical conditions termed " trophic changes " are 
 often very characteristic and expressive of develop- 
 ment, and of nutrition, in the subject. As pre- 
 viously explained (see p. 3.3), by the term " trophic " 
 action, or change, it is intended to indicate some 
 change in the material structure of the subject, the 
 histological or structural change being itself the 
 expression of what has taken place. Taking one 
 example outside the proper subject of this chapter, 
 the case may be cited of the so-called growth and 
 repair of crystals.* " If a portion of a crystal be 
 
 See Sir J. Paget's paper, " ^n Address on Elemental Pathology," 
 British Medical Journal, October 16, 1880. 
 
REPAIR OF CRYSTALS. 41 
 
 broken off or filed or dissolved away, and if then 
 the mutilated crystal be replaced in a solution of 
 the same salt or of an isomorphous one, the lost 
 part will be replaced, the crystal will be enlarged, 
 new crystallized matter will be formed on every 
 surface; but the quantity formed on the injured 
 part will be greater than that formed at any 
 other part, and repair will be more active than 
 mere growth till the proper form of the crystal is 
 regained. Then, when the repair is complete, 
 growth alone will go on, and each part of the 
 crystal, if it remain in the same solution, will 
 increase in due proportion with the rest." Here 
 the reformation of the injured part of the crystal is 
 the objective expression of the action of the forces 
 at work in producing the perfect and enlarged crystal. 
 In a man we judge of the general condition of 
 his nutrition, by the weight of his body in propor- 
 tion to his height, and his general proportions or 
 build in relation to his age. With slight altera- 
 tions of the amount of general nutrition and health, 
 we see slight alterations in the form and outline of 
 the face and figure. The growth of the teeth is 
 indicative of the age of the animal; grey hair 
 indicates senility or depressed vitality ; the size of 
 a fruit indicates the effect of the forces that produced 
 it (see Darwin's " Variation under Domestication ") ; 
 a slight degree of absorption of fat in the body, as 
 the result of slight changes in the conditions of 
 nutrition, causes a dull appearance of the counten- 
 ance ; the smell of some animals indicates the con- 
 dition of their general health. 
 
42 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 Another important mode of expression in man 
 and animals is that which may be conveniently 
 termed "the coincident development of parts." 
 Observation often shows that two parts of the 
 body usually agree, in having the same proportion 
 of good or ill development. If the one part is well 
 developed, the other part is likewise well developed, 
 and vice versa, although the one part is not the origin 
 of the other, or directly connected with its forma- 
 tion. It may probably be shown hereafter that the 
 good or incomplete development of each of the parts 
 thus found to correspond, is the result of some 
 common antecedent or cause, or that both are alike 
 inherited. Thus we see the colour of the hair, and 
 the colour of the iris, often bear a fixed relation to 
 one another ; the height of the body and its proper- 
 ties as indicated by measurement, usually show a 
 marked degree of correspondence in the same race 
 of men, and in animals of the same species if living 
 under similar circumstances. The subject is dwelt 
 upon in the " Origin of Species," p. 115. 
 
 Certain properties of a man or of an animal, are 
 only expressed when external forces demonstrate 
 their existence. The capacity to feel joy is proven 
 by the expression of joy when something happens 
 to the subject producing such emotion. The 
 capacity of colour-sense is demonstrated only by 
 aid of coloured objects. In these cases circum- 
 stances external to the individual help to express 
 the properties in question. 
 
 The property or function heredity is one that must 
 be expressed outside the individual subject. A few 
 
EXPRESSION BY HEEEDITT. 43 
 
 words only can be said here on the very wide and 
 deep subject of expression by heredity, that is, ex- 
 pression of the conditions of the life-history of the 
 individual, as demonstrated in its offspring, the off- 
 spring showing the effect, or outcome, of forces 
 aflferent to one or both parents. 
 
 For our present purpose I think we may classify 
 the phenomena of heredity in terms of certain 
 properties : (1) trophic phenomena ; (2) motor, or 
 kinetic, phenomena; (3) reflex action; (4) reten- 
 tiveness. We are here dealing solely with the 
 criteria or objective signs of heredity, not with its 
 essential nature. A general review and considera- 
 tion of the facts of heredity enables us to say 
 that we may look upon the four criteria, above 
 mentioned, as the main modes of expression of 
 heredity as a property in the subject. This mode 
 of expression will be discussed in chap, xvi 
 
 In concluding this chapter we must refer to 
 " expression " in the more limited sense in which 
 the term is commonly used as regards man and 
 animals. " Expression " is a term commonly used 
 to signify the modes in which we judge from out- 
 ward appearances of the mental or physical condi- 
 tion of the individual at the time of observation ; 
 thus we speak of the expression of pain, joy, intelli- 
 gence, hunger, sleepiness, etc. It is our business 
 here to study these expressions, these outcomes or 
 ejecta, these uniform objective concomitants of the 
 hidden conditions intelligence, hunger, sleepiness, 
 consciousness, feebleness. It is not for us here to 
 study subjective conditions or feelings and states 
 
44 PHYSICAL EXPBESSION. 
 
 of consciousness, but we are to study their ex- 
 pression or objective concomitants. All that can 
 be observed are the ejecta, or outward visible signs ; 
 the coexistence of the subjective condition is an 
 inference dependent upon the uniform experience 
 that such and such outward or objective sign is 
 always, or almost uniformly, accompanied by a 
 certain subjective condition or feeling. In the ex- 
 pression of physical pain the angles of the mouth 
 are depressed. This statement is justified by the 
 frequent, almost uniform, observation that, when 
 the angles of the mouth are markedly depressed, 
 inquiry shows that there is some source of physical 
 pain in the man or animal ; and conversely, that, in 
 many cases where there is known to be pain, 
 examination has shown that the angles of the 
 mouth are drawn down. It has been said by some 
 that pain must be the cause of the depression of 
 the angles of the mouth. We do not know what 
 pain is; it is a subjective condition. We do know 
 that the depression of the angles of the mouth is 
 due to muscular contraction, and that the muscular 
 contraction is due to a nerve-current from the nerve- 
 centre. It is, then, the condition of the nerve-centre 
 corresponding to the muscles which depress the 
 angles of the mouth, that is so uniformly affected 
 when there is a source of pain in the subject; in 
 fact, all the special irritations which cause pain, 
 seem to affect the nerve-centres of the depressor 
 muscles of the angles of the mouth. This is the 
 knowable objective fact. 
 
 It seems to me that the ground is cleared for us 
 
SUMMARY. 45 
 
 in this inquiry by omitting all consideration of the 
 subjective conditions, and considering only the ob- 
 jective facts. In animals the subjective condition 
 is but a very crude inference from the objective 
 facts. 
 
 Swmmary. — The term "expression,'' as used in this 
 work, does not imply that the subject of which it is 
 connoted has the property life. Nutrition is said 
 to occur only in living beings. We do not know 
 much about the vital process nutrition, but we can 
 observe and study its results, or objective signs. 
 The outcome of nutrition affords the best examples 
 of direct expression. The principal results or ex- 
 pressions of nutrition are — growth, or trophic 
 action; movement, or kinetic' action; evolution, 
 and retentiveness. 
 
 Growth concerns the material structure of the 
 subject — the kind of action which produces a change 
 in the structure of the subject; it is, therefore, called 
 a "trophic action," in contradistinction to that 
 result of nutrition which only produces movement, 
 and is called in this work " kinetic action." 
 
 Permanent impressionability, or retentiveness in 
 a living structure, may be expressed by a reflex 
 action ; it is not a process of evolution, but gives a 
 tendency to resist change. 
 
 Movement is an outcome of changes occurring in 
 a living subject; this is a deduction from the law of 
 conservation of energy. 
 
 Development is expressed in various modes — by 
 the ratio of growth, weight, and proportions (trophic 
 action), or by series of movements and reflex actions 
 
46 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 (kinetic action). The mechanism for a reflex 
 movement requires (a) sensory surface; (b) an 
 afferent nerve-fibre; (c) a nerve-centre; (ci) an 
 efferent or motor nerve ; (e) a muscle ; — such ap- 
 paratus may be congenital or acquired. Probably 
 reflex action has a large share in that faculty of the 
 brain which produces mind, and which is here called 
 " mentation." 
 
 " Reflected action " is a term used to indicate a 
 passive condition of the subject, expression resulting 
 from the mode in which it reflects an afferent force, 
 such as light; such is the mode of expression in 
 a statue. Expressions by form and colour are 
 similar modes. 
 
 Sound produced by a living being is a result of 
 movement, and as such is highly expressive. 
 
 Change of function is an important mode of 
 expression; it may be studied in vegetable cells, 
 glands, etc. 
 
 Movements (kinesis) and the results of movement 
 are among the most important modes of expression, 
 and these are conveniently termed "kinetic," in 
 contrast to " trophic modes " which affect the material 
 structure of the subject. 
 
 Coincident development, proportional and similar 
 development in the members or parts of a living 
 subject, are interesting modes of expression ; they 
 are trophic in kind. These are discussed in 
 chap. xvi. 
 
 The facts of heredity are very important and 
 complex modes of expression ; some facts concerning 
 
EXPRESSION IN MAN AND IN ANIMALS. 47 
 
 a man or an animal are only known by observing 
 the parents and the offspring. 
 
 As to the subjective conditions in man, no 
 account can be given of their essential character; 
 we can only study the physical signs which 
 accompany the states of brain which produce 
 them. 
 
48 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MODES OF EXPRESSION BY MOVEMENTS, AND THE 
 EESDLTS OF MOVEMENT. 
 
 Movement a physical and vUible action ; it is often observed in 
 physiological inquiries ; it is conelatable with other modes ot 
 force — A movement expresses the action that produces it — 
 Examples of expression by movement: anger, laughter — 
 Results of movement— Expression by the voice, apparatus of 
 porcupines, stamping of rabbits— Secondary movements — 
 Work done the result of moverapnt — Posture as a result of 
 movement — Subsidence of movement in sleep, in fatigue, and 
 ■when the attention is attracted— Spontaneous and voluntary 
 movements — Movements of a bee from flower to flower — 
 Summary. 
 
 Common experience shows that the manner and 
 kind of movements seen in a man are expressive. 
 Movements may be expressive of the fact that a 
 child sees, and hears. We know that a child hears 
 a whistle, because he moves at the sound; or if 
 he sees a light, this may be indicated by the fact 
 that he turns his head towards it. The movements 
 are expressive of the subject hearing and seeing. 
 
 Movement as a physical sign, or mode of ex- 
 pression, appears to me a result of the properties 
 
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF MOVEMENTS. 49 
 
 and functions of the subject that is particularly 
 worthy of extended and accurate study. Move- 
 ment itself is a physical mode of expression, 
 capable of very accurate observation both in time 
 and in quantity ; it is capable of being easily noted 
 by more than one observer at the same time, and 
 can be recorded by various adaptations of the 
 graphic method. Such records can be preserved, 
 and submitted to analysis by mathematical pro- 
 cedures. Observations of this kind have been 
 largely employed by physiological experimenters, 
 and much accurate knowledge has been thus 
 obtained, elucidating processes of circulation, re- 
 spiration, reflex action, etc. Movement, however 
 produced, whether by vital action, nutrition, or 
 otherwise, can always be shown to be correlatable 
 with other modes of force. It is surely reasonable 
 to observe, record, and study, movements result- 
 ing from vital acfion as an expression of that vital 
 process, and not to confine observation to histo- 
 logical or structural (trophic) effects of vital action. 
 It will be granted by the reader, that movement 
 always indicates some force antecedent to that 
 movement ; it follows that movement in a body is 
 expressive of a force acting upon, or in, that body 
 coincident with the observation of the movement, 
 or antecedent to it. 
 
 Movements may, then, be studied as modes of 
 expression. In the common experiences of life, 
 movements are accepted as expressive of conditions 
 in the subject, as is easily shown by the analysis 
 of examples. Let us look and inquire, then, whether 
 4 
 
50 PHYSICAL EXPKESSION. 
 
 movements can be shown to be a mode of expression 
 in accordance with the meaning of that term given 
 in chap. ii. 
 
 It is said that a manner of movement is expres- 
 sive. If a movement is expressive, or if, in other 
 words, there is expression in movement, we ought 
 to be able to show what is the condition hidden 
 in the organism corresponding to the visible move- 
 ment. If it can be shown what produces the 
 movement, it is shown what is directly expressed 
 by that movement. It is shown in chap, vi., 
 which deals mainly with questions of physiology, 
 that movements may result from stimulation of 
 the central nerve-mechanism, and it is shown in- 
 ferentially, that movements correspond to the action 
 of the central nerve-mechanism. It is the fact 
 that the movements we observe are, we believe, 
 produced by the action of the central nerve-me- 
 chanism that makes us look upon movements in 
 the body as expressive of the inward condition. 
 Movements are the direct expression of the action 
 of the nerve-mechanism. The terms "manner of 
 movement " and " kind of movement " are analyzed 
 and explained in chap. v. 
 
 That expression may be produced by movements, 
 and that it is most commonly so produced, can be 
 demonstrated by examples. 
 
 Anger is commonly spoken of as an emotion or 
 passion of the mind. Bain* says, "The physical 
 manifestations of anger, over and above the embodi- 
 ment of the antecedent pain, are (1) general excite- 
 • "Mental and Moral Science," 1872, p. 261. 
 
EXPRESSION OF ANGES. 51 
 
 ment ; (2) an outburst of activity ; (3) deranged 
 organic functions ; (4) a characteristic expression 
 and attitude of body ; and (5) in the completed act 
 of revenge, a burst of exultation." 
 
 Sir Charles Bell * gives the following description : 
 " In rage the features are unsteady. The eyeballs 
 are seen largely ; they roll and are inflamed. The 
 front is alternately knit and raised in furrows by 
 the motion of the eyebrows ; the nostrils are inflated 
 to the utmost; the lips are swelled, and, being 
 drawn by the muscles, open the corners of the 
 mouth. The whole visage is sometimes pale, some- 
 times turgid, dark, and almost livid; the words 
 are delivered strongly through the fixed teeth ; 
 the hair is fixed on end like one distracted, and 
 every joint should seem to curse and ban." 
 
 Henry Siddonsf illustrates the expression of anger 
 thus : " Thus, as I have been saying, choler adds 
 energy to all the 'exterior parts of the body, but 
 chiefly arms those most proper to seize, attack, or 
 destroy. Swelled by the blood and humours which 
 are thither carried in abundance, they agitate them- 
 selves with a convulsive violence. The inflamed 
 eyes roll in their orbits, and dart forth fiery 
 glances; the hands and teeth manifest a kind of 
 interior tumult, by the grinding of one and the 
 agitation of the others. It is the same kind of 
 easremess which the mad bull and furious bear 
 display, to make use of the arms with which nature 
 
 ■ • "Anatomy of Expression,'' p. 177. 
 
 t " Practical lUuotrations of Elittorical Gesture and Action," 
 p. 118. 
 
52 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 lias furnished them. Moreover, the veins are 
 swelled, especially those about the neck and 
 temples. Ail the visage is inflamed, on account of 
 the superabundance of blood carried up to it ; but 
 this redness resembles not that occasioned by desire 
 or love ; the movements are more hurried and more 
 violent ; the step is heavy, irregular, impetuous." 
 
 These descriptions of anger, as given by the 
 philosopher, the physiologist, and the actor, agree 
 in ascribing much of the expression of the emotion 
 to movement and the results of movement. 
 
 Take Siddons' description. He speaks of choler 
 as expressed by energy in the movements of the 
 arms, grinding of the teeth, and agitation of the 
 hands. He tells us of the effect of other movements, 
 or arrest of movement, which he does not describe. 
 He speaks of the limbs as swelled with blood, and 
 the eyes as being congested ; these phenomena are 
 secondary results of spasm in the respiratory 
 muscles. Sir Charles Bell describes movements in 
 the face, and likewise refers to the eflfects of 
 arrested respiration. 
 
 Anger in animals is in part expressed by show- 
 ing the teeth. Here we have the description of 
 certain movements, and results of movement, said 
 to be expressive of the emotion "anger." 
 
 Sir Charles Bell,* in his sixth essay, when 
 speaking of laughter, says, "We have seen that 
 the muscles which operate upon the mouth are 
 distinguishable into two classes — those which 
 surround and control the lips, and those which 
 * Op. eit, p. 146. 
 
LAUGHTEK. 53 
 
 oppose them and draw the mouth widely open. 
 The effect of a ludicrous idea is to relax the former, 
 and to contract the latter; hence, by lateral 
 stretching of the mouth, and a raising of the cheek 
 to the lower eyelid, a smile is produced. The lips 
 are, of all the features, the most susceptible of 
 action, and the most direct indices of the feelings. 
 If the idea be .exceedingly ridiculous, it is in vain 
 that we endeavour to restrain this relaxation, and 
 to compress the lips. The muscles concentrating 
 to the mouth prevail, and become more and more 
 influenced; they retract the lips, and display the 
 teeth. The cheeks are more powerfully drawn up, 
 the eyelids wrinkled, and the eye almost concealed. 
 The lachrymal gland within the orbit is compressed 
 by the pressure on the eyeball, and the eyes suffused 
 with tears." 
 
 Here an exceedingly ludicrous " idea " is spoken 
 of as an antecedent and cause of certain movements 
 of the face and other parts. Movements have been 
 shown to be expressive of emotions ; anything 
 which indicates the movement is equally expressive 
 of the emotions. When we look at a watch, we 
 are quite satisfied that the spring and the train of 
 wheels are in motion if we see the movement 
 of the hands, because moving of the hands is 
 necessarily a result of the movement of the wheels 
 within, and nothing else could cause the hands to 
 move continuously. 
 
 In many cases the results of movements are 
 equally expressive with the movements themselves; 
 it may be that the result of movement is more 
 
54 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 noticeable than the movement itself. In describing 
 the expression of anger we speak more commonly 
 of showing the teeth, than of retracting the lips, but 
 of course the teeth are shown by movements of the 
 lips. In the expression of rage or anger, Bell 
 describes the visage as sometimes turgid, dark, and 
 almost livid ; this congestion is a secondary result 
 of spasmodic contraction of the respiratory muscles 
 of the larynx, accompanying the clenching of the 
 teeth, leading to a condition of asphyxia. Showing 
 the teeth, and lividity of the countenance, are, then, 
 secondary results of movements, and are direct ex- 
 pressions of the condition of the individual. 
 
 The voice is another important mode of expression 
 of the emotions by the results of movement. Dr. 
 Foster,* in speaking of special muscular mechanisms, 
 says, " A blast of air, driven by a more or less pro- 
 longed expiratory movement, throws into vibrations 
 two elastic membranes, chordae vocales. These im- 
 part their vibrations to the column of air above 
 them, and so give rise to the sound which we call 
 the voice." Alterations in the tension and position 
 of the vocal cords, and variations in the movements 
 of the respiratory muscles, cause the changes in the 
 voice which are expressive of the emotions. Darwin f 
 gives the following examples of expressive sounds 
 produced by animals through the action of apparatus 
 that cannot be called in any sense " vocal," because 
 not dependent on the respiratory apparatus: "Rabbits 
 stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their com- 
 rades; and if a man knows how to do so properly, he 
 • " rhysiology," p. 527. f " Expression," p. 93. 
 
SECONDARY MOVKMENTS. 55 
 
 may, on a quiet evening, hear the rabbits answering 
 him all round. These animals, as well as some 
 others, also stamp on the ground when made angry. 
 Porcupines rattle their quills and vibrate their tails 
 when angered; and one behaved in this manner 
 when a live snake was placed in its compartment. 
 The quills on the tail are very different from those 
 on the body : they are short, hollow, thin, like a 
 goose-quill, with their ends transversely truncated, 
 so that they are open ; they are supported on long, 
 thin, elastic foot-stalks. Now, when the tail ia 
 rapidly shaken, these hollow quills strike against 
 each other and produce, as I heard in the presence 
 of Mr. Bartlett, a peculiar continuous sound." 
 
 Secondary movements may be expressive without 
 producing sound. Tossing of the head is often 
 very expressive in a girl; the movement, slight 
 in itself, is rendered more conspicuous by the 
 secondary movements of her long curls. So the 
 horse when neighing shakes his mane, and tosses 
 it in the air — movements which express freshness 
 and vigour. A man in prostrating himself on his 
 face bends his body forward by a voluntary move- 
 ment, till the centre of gravity of his body is in 
 front of his base of support, then the body falls, 
 not as the result of a further voluntary effort of 
 movement, but as the consequence of the action 
 of gravity. The first part of this movement is 
 voluntary, and is therefore expressive of volition ; 
 the latter part of the movement of prostration is 
 solely the result of gravity. 
 
 Work done is a necessary result of movement of 
 
5(5 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION, 
 
 any kind, but we need not here stop to enter upon 
 that philosophical problem which depends upon the 
 law of the conservation of energy. Work done as 
 the result of movement is positive proof of the move- 
 ment having occurred, therefore work done is the 
 result of the activity of the agent that produces it. 
 It follows that work done may be just as good an 
 expression as is movement. This is an important 
 principle of expression, and different examples must 
 be examined. A certain amount of labour may be 
 performed by a man, such as raising water from 
 a well to a high cistern by means of a pump, or a 
 certain area of land may be dug over in the day's 
 work ; the amount of energy spent in this labour 
 will be some kind of expression of the man's brute 
 strength. The number of pages of writing ac- 
 complished by a literary man is some expression of 
 his mental toil. A fine work of art, painting, or 
 sculpture is the expression of capacity in the artist, 
 and it is also an indication of the quantity of his 
 exertion in a given time. 
 
 One efiect of movement in man and animals is 
 to produce locomotion; locomotion is work done 
 by movement. If all movements may be expres- 
 sive, locomotion may be expressive of the quantity, 
 time, and kind of work done. Is not the manner 
 of a man's walk often highly expressive? In 
 a man the manner of walking is characteristic of 
 the individual. We may also find types of walk. 
 There is the man whose rapid strides indicate his 
 excitement, and the slow and dawdling walk 
 indicative of purposeless aim. The step may be 
 
STUDY OF POSTURES. 57 
 
 heavy, irregular, impetuous, or hesitating; it may- 
 be brisk, free, unrestrained, easy, and mobile. 
 
 A posture of the body is the result of movement. 
 The term "posture" indicates the relative position of 
 the several members of the body with regard to one 
 another, or the relative position of the individual 
 parts of a member. When I began to make a definite 
 clinical study.of expression, in the sense in which 
 the subject is treated in this work, I frequently 
 looked at my patients after diagnosis had been 
 made, to observe if there were any outward ex- 
 pressions of their organic or nerve-condition. My 
 attention was soon attracted to the frequence of 
 certain postures of the body indicative of conditions 
 of the nerve-system. In these early studies it was 
 found more easy to give an accurate description of 
 a posture than of a movement, because a posture is a 
 condition of quiescence, a movement is of temporary / 
 duration. A posture is described when we have ■ 
 given an anatomical description of it, and the 
 matter is more simple to deal with than a move- 
 ment. In works of art, both painting and sculpture, 
 it is very largely by the posture of the body that 
 we judge of the condition of the man or animal 
 represented. These matters are fully considered in 
 chaps, viii., ix., and x. Now, a posture, while it is 
 maintained, implies absence of movement in the 
 part. When we see a man's fist clenched in passion, 
 we may study the posture of that hand, and, as long 
 as it is maintained in that posture without altera- 
 tion, there is no movement of the parts of the hand. 
 A posture is the result of the last movement, and it 
 
58 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 remains till the next movement occurs. Postures 
 are expressive as the results of movement, and 
 absence of movement is essential to the absolute 
 equilibrium of the posture. 
 
 We now have to look at examples where absence 
 of movement is a mode of expression, in contrast 
 with others where movement is present. Expres- 
 sion may be produced by the absence of movement, 
 as well as by movement observed. A child, after 
 the day's work and play, is put to bed : we observe 
 a total subsidence of voluntary movements, the 
 eyes are closed, the muscles of the limbs relaxed, no 
 reflex actions occur from moderate light or sound, 
 but the respiratory movements continue with 
 regularity ; then we say the child sleeps. The sub- 
 sidence of movement, other than the respiratory 
 movement, is the principal indication of the con- 
 dition sleep. A man, wearied by the bodily or 
 mental toil of the day's occupation, sits in a chair, 
 he moves and speaks but little, his attention is 
 but slightly attracted by objects around ; it is with 
 difficulty that he is stimulated to movement by 
 the voices of his children; we say that such a 
 condition in the man expresses his fatigue and 
 exhaustion. After rest and refreshment his expres- 
 sion is different, he moves with briskness, he talks 
 to those around, he is quick to observe all about 
 him, he plays with his children and joins in their 
 games : here the man's movements, and the results 
 of his movement, indicate his freshened activity. 
 
 The absence of ordinary movement may be due 
 to other causes than exhaustion. Watch a hearty 
 
MODES OF EXPRESSION BY MOVEMENXa 59 
 
 child, say two years of age, sitting on the floor 
 with playthings around him : his movements are 
 incessant, his head, face, eyes, hands, fingers, etc., 
 are incessantly moving. If a stranger enters the 
 room the child stops his play, his various move- 
 ments cease, his eyes are cast down, scarcely any 
 indication of his former condition of movement 
 remains. These is no reason to suppose that the 
 general conditions of his nutrition are interfered 
 with, for the circulation and respiration continue as 
 heretofore. His various movements are arrested or 
 inhibited at the sight of the stranger, and this inhi- 
 bition of movement is characteristic or expressive 
 of the child's condition. When any object strongly 
 attracts the attention of a man it usually produces 
 inhibition of movements. This is probably a very 
 important factor in some mental phenomena. 
 
 Nutrition may be directly expressed by move- 
 ments, for it commonly happens that movement 
 is the most obvious outcome of nutrition in a 
 subject. A young infant is full of movement while 
 awake, if its nutrition is good; its arms and fin- 
 gers are moved apparently spontaneously.* A baby 
 thus lively is well nourished. Clinical experience 
 shows that the condition of its nutrition is in part 
 indicated by this spontaneous movement. Now, if 
 the child becomes ill, say from the effects of bad 
 feeding, from lung or stoiiiach disease, the spon- 
 taneous movement described almost ceases, the 
 lowered condition of nutrition lessens the amount 
 of spontaneous movement. A large amount of 
 
 • See obap. xiv. flg. 31, p. 245. 
 
60 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 spontaneous movement is equally indicative of good 
 nutrition in animals. Note the frisky play of 
 puppies and kittens. The sickly dog, whose nutri- 
 tion is greatly impaired, can hardly lift a paw or wag 
 his tail In some pathological conditions movement 
 may be in excess, and not indicative of a good con- 
 dition of nutrition ; but it will not be convenient to 
 enter upon the discussion of this matter at present.* 
 In speaking of the modes of expression by move- 
 ment, we can hardly be permitted to pass silently 
 over the consideration of the difference between 
 spontaneous and voluntary movements, but it must 
 be remembered that we are not here directly con- 
 cerned with the essential properties expressed by 
 the objective signs. My reason for passing over so 
 important a point is that a discussion as to the 
 criteria distinguishing spontaneous from voluntary 
 movements would involve us in a philosophical 
 argument out of place in this work. Having care- 
 fully considered this point, I have come to the con- 
 clusion that, in place of attempting to distinguish 
 between spontaneous and voluntary movements, it 
 will be easier and more satisfactory to study inborn, 
 and acquired sources of movement. Movements 
 seen to occur upon birth and soon after, may be 
 assumed to depend upon inborn conditions, causes 
 inherent in the subject at birth, so that such move- 
 ments may be called inborn movements. As 
 previously said, the child upon birth presents very 
 constant movements, which may be conveniently 
 spoken of as inborn in contradistinction to the 
 * See chap. vii. p. 125. 
 
INBOBN AND ACQUIRED MOVEMENTS. 61 
 
 acquired and voluntary movements of adult age. 
 The great distinction between the inborn and 
 acquired movements in kind, is that the acquired 
 movements are found in each successive year of the 
 child's life to be more and more co-ordinated ; they 
 become more easily co-ordinated into complex 
 arrangements by the temporary action of some 
 external force. , 
 
 I have, at present, but little exact and scientific 
 knowledge as to the differences in kind between the 
 inborn and the acquired movements, but this does 
 not prevent us from considering the question ; and 
 the consideration and discussion maybe an encourage- 
 ment to the investigation of the problem by scientific 
 methods. The expression of inborn properties, as 
 distinguished from acquired properties, is a very 
 important and interesting subject. In an investiga- 
 tion for the purpose of determining what movements 
 are inborn and what acquired, it would be necessary 
 to observe the spontaneous movements of young 
 children,* also to observe what reflex actions can be 
 excited in them, and compare these movements with 
 analogous conditions in later life. These questions, 
 were we conversant with them, would supply some 
 information as to the modes and processes of evolu- 
 tion in the individual and in a species ; we should 
 also gain further knowledge as to expression by 
 co-ordinated movements, a kind so very cha- 
 racteristic of mind. This subject will be further 
 developed and defined in chap. v. and further 
 explained and illustrated in chap. vL 
 • See chap. xiv. 
 
62 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 Expression of the relations between two or more 
 subjects may be effected by the movements of some 
 kind of intermediate agent, some kind of movement 
 between the subjects that is an expression of the 
 condition of either. If we look at a bank of flowers 
 on a fine summer day, we observe the bees flying 
 from flower to flower. Usually a bee visits only one 
 species of flower in the same journey, and his move- 
 ments indicate something about himself and about 
 the flowers — a relation between bees and flowers 
 that has been well put forward in the writings of 
 Springel, Kerner, and Darwin. Looking at an ants' 
 nest a wonderful order may be obsei-ved in the 
 movements of the little creatures, each appearing 
 to perform its own part in an organized system 
 which appears to be arranged for the benefit of the 
 whole community and not of the individuaL It is 
 the movements of the ants and the work accom- 
 plished by them which indicates the organization of 
 the whole, and the so-called instinctive properties 
 of each. In life in a city we see men pass from 
 house to house, from home to office, etc., these 
 movements, as observed, proving social organization 
 dependent upon the make of each man and the 
 relation of men to one another. When we learn 
 of the movements of an army in the field, and hear 
 how the different portions separated from each other, 
 work in unison for the accomplishment of one end, 
 we find that the relation of the movements of the 
 parts form an expression of the government of the 
 whole. Now, this mode of expression by move- 
 ments is one of the highest which we have to con- 
 
SUMMARV. 63 
 
 aider, involving, as it does, many subjects, and many 
 forces. Still, the detailed consideration of each of 
 the examples given shows the possibility of under- 
 standing what is expressed by the movements in 
 each case. 
 
 A bee visiting flowers expresses certain relations 
 between these subjects. The bee is acknowledged 
 to be impressioQable, to be guided to the flower by 
 the sight of the flower, i.e. by the light reflected 
 from the flower. The light reflected from the flower, 
 acting upon the impressionable bee, directs its flight 
 and movements. Is the flower impressionable ? Is 
 the flower affected or impressed by the insect at its 
 visit ? It is certain that variations in plants, and 
 in their flowers in particular, do occur, fitting them 
 to the visits of particular insects. Are these adapta- 
 tions solely due to spontaneous variations preserved 
 as being the fittest ? Is not the modification of the 
 flower helped on by each visit of the insect, to 
 which it ultimately becomes so well adapted ? 
 
 In conclusion, let me quote from a speech by Sir 
 William Gull * : " A tone of the voice, the play of 
 the features, the outline and carriage of the body, 
 are to him (i.e. the physician) as invariably related 
 to the central conditions which they reveal, as are 
 the grosser facts of Nature." 
 
 Summary. — Movements in a child may express 
 that it can see and hear. Movement as a mode of 
 expression is particularly worthy of study. It is 
 capable of measurement in time and quantity, and can 
 be recorded by the graphic method ; the records can 
 
 ♦ Inaugural address, International Medical Congre3B, 1881. 
 
64 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 be analyzed ; further, all movement can be correlated 
 with other modes of force. For these reasons it is 
 urged that kinetic function, as well as trophic 
 function, should be studied in all living beings. 
 Any movement teUs us something about the source 
 of the motor force, which in man is the central 
 nerve-system. The results of brain-conditions, 
 called the emotions, are expressed by movements ; 
 this may be illustrated by quotations from the 
 writings of Sir C. Bell, Bain, and Siddons, in their 
 descriptions of laughter and anger. 
 
 Anything that indicates movement may be as 
 expressive as the movement itself. Movement in 
 the hands of a watch indicates the movement of 
 its wheels. We say that in anger a man shows his 
 teeth; we really mean that he opens his mouth 
 and moves his lips. In the expression of rage, the 
 congestion of the face results indirectly from fixa- 
 tion of the respiratory muscles. So the voice 
 results from movements, and is a mode of expression. 
 Similarly, work done is a result of movement, and 
 may be a mode of expression, whether the work 
 be mechanical or mental in kind. The gait in 
 walking indicates a man's general condition, eager- 
 ness, excitement, fatigue, etc. ; it depends upon 
 the condition of his nerve-centres, and expresses 
 this. 
 
 A posture is the result of the last movement of 
 the part. The significance of postures is shown in 
 chap. vii. 
 
 The subsidence of movement may be as suggestive 
 a mode of expression as its occurrence. Spontaneous 
 
MOVEMENTS OF A BEE AMONG FLOWERS. 65 
 
 movement is lost in fatigue, and in exhaustion. The 
 spontaneous movement of infancy subsides in sleep, 
 and on the occurrence of organic disturbance. 
 
 In certain cases, the movements of two or more 
 independent subjects, not connected by any material 
 link, are expressive, as the movements of a bee 
 from flower to flower, or the movements of men 
 in social life. • 
 
66 PHYSICAL EXPBESSION. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MOVEMENTS AND THE RESULTS OF MOVEMENTS 
 CONSIDERED IN THE ABSTRACT, OR APART FROM 
 WHAT THEY EXPRESS. 
 
 Movements are means of expression — ^Movements classified as 
 reflex, voluntary, spontaneous— The attributes of a movement 
 are its quantity, kind, and time — Time of a movement most 
 conveniently recorded by the graphic method — Frequency and 
 duration, the importance of considerations as to time — Two 
 movements, considered in relation to time, may be synchronous ; 
 this may depend upon an organic union of the motors, or upon 
 each working in similar rhythm — Expression may consist of 
 coincidences or combinations of movements — The number ot 
 possible combinations of synchronous movements of » subjects 
 is 2»; the number of sequences of such combinations is 
 unlimited — Actions described as a series of movements — 
 Description of a dog in terms of movement and growth — Co- 
 ordinated and inco-ordinated movements — Walking described 
 as a series of movements — Movements of an aggregation of 
 independent individuals —Principles of analysis of movements 
 —Description in anatomical terms— Contrast of movements of 
 small parts and large parts of the body in their physiological 
 significance — Interdifferentiation — Collateral differentiation of 
 parts — Symmetry of movements, indicating like action on both 
 sides of the brain — Asymmetry of movements common in the 
 higher functions — Classification of movements : according to 
 anatomical analysis ; according to the physiological principles 
 of analysis given above; as intelligent and non-intelligent ; as 
 synchronous or non-synchronous; as occurring in regular 
 series ; as accompanied by feelings, other classifications are 
 suggested — Summary. 
 
 Movement as a metaphysical abstraction we need 
 
KINDS OF MOVEMENT. 67 
 
 not consider ; movement as a property of the subject 
 considered is what we are here concerned with. In 
 this chapter we commence with the admission that 
 movements may be expressive, an admission which 
 leads us to study movements apart from their 
 cause, for the sake of simplification of the subject. 
 Movements of various kinds are the principal 
 modes of expression, as is illustrated in the fore- 
 going chapter. Indeed, it is probable that it may 
 be shown hereafter that expression by coincident 
 development * is only a mode of expression by the 
 results of molecular motion. Movements may be 
 classified according to their mode of production, 
 or our ideas thereupon ; thus, in a man, certain 
 movements are said to be spontaneous, others reflex, 
 others voluntary. 
 
 Again, the classification may be made according 
 to the attributes of the movements — kind, quantity, 
 and time ; which latter attribute includes frequency, 
 speed, duration. Other movements may be con- 
 tinuous or interrupted, and they may be considered 
 in one or in more subjects. 
 
 As to the movements of a single subject. In all 
 physiological work any calculation concerning move- 
 ment is best made by recording such movement on 
 paper by some graphic method. Now, in looking at 
 a tracing thus produced, we ■see certain indications in 
 the form of the outline of the curves ; if the record- 
 ing paper always travels at one uniform rate, the 
 form of the outline will be plainly characteristic of 
 the kind of movement observed in the same subject 
 * See chap. xvi. 
 
68 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 on different occasions. Thus the regular move- 
 ments of the heart give a regular tracing on paper ; 
 tracings obtained by movements of the fingers in 
 chorea are most irregular. By "the frequency of 
 movements" we mean the number of observable 
 movements in a minute or other division of time. 
 The term " duration of movements " is self-explana- 
 tory. " Kate " or " speed " implies the degree or length 
 of movement accomplished in a given time. The 
 term " quantity of movement " is used in the 
 sense of quantity as correlatable with other modes 
 
 V fX^ 
 
 Chorea flexor movements 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 of force, as used in speaking of the law of conser- 
 vation of energy. These considerations regarding 
 movement show at once how important time is as 
 an attribute of a movement. 
 
 Now, if two or more movements be considered in 
 relation to time, further points arise expressive of 
 the relation between the times of the one movement 
 and of the other. Two movements may be syn- 
 chronous throughout, as when two trains run on 
 lines side by side, and start at the same time, and 
 continue to move at the same rate. If two men run 
 in concentric circles at the same rate the movement 
 
EXPRESSION BY MOVEMENTS. C9 
 
 of their bodies is synchronous, and they maintain 
 their same relative positions; if their rates are 
 unlike, one gets an advance of the other, but after 
 a while they meet again, and the times of the suc- 
 cessive meetings or coincidences is a calculable 
 matter if the rates of movement are known. 
 
 Turning back from these abstract considerations to 
 our proper subject, expression by movements, a few 
 examples will show how the one bears upon the 
 other. In discussing one mode of expression of the 
 hands, we say, " The fingers of the hand are opened 
 and closed in rapid sucession, indicating the excited 
 and angry feeling of the man." Now, here the 
 movements of five subjects, five digits, are said to 
 coincide, they move synchronously, opening and 
 closing. Now, such synchronous movements may 
 result from the equal pace at which each finger 
 tends to move, or they may result from an organic 
 connection between the cause of each movement. 
 The same facts of movement may be differently 
 expressive, according to the causation of the syn- 
 chronous action. Problems may arise, then, in 
 considering modes of expression, in which the ex- 
 pression is described in terms of coincidences or 
 combinations of movement. A series of movements 
 may occur in any one subject, or, considering two 
 or more movements as regards their time, a series 
 of combinations may occur in definite sequence. 
 The number of possible combinations of synchronous 
 movements is strictly limited by the number of 
 movements considered ; if the number of movements 
 considered be n, the number of possible synchronous 
 
70 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 combinations of such movements is repi-esented 
 by 2n ; the number of variations in the order of the 
 sequences is without limit, or infinite. 
 
 As an illustration, consider the movements of the 
 five fingers. Let the five digits be respectively re- 
 presented by the letters A, B, C, D, E, and let us 
 consider the combinations in which they move 
 together. There are thirty-two possible combina- 
 tions of such movements, viz., A, B, C, D, E, AB, 
 AC, AD, AE, BO, BD, BE, CD, CE, DE, ABC, 
 ABD, ABE, ACD, ACE, ADE, BCD, BCE, BDE, 
 CDE, ABCD, ACDE, ABCE, ABDE, BCDE, 
 ABCDE, ; but the number of possible variations 
 in the order of sequence of combinations is infinite. 
 These facts illustrate how the number of postures of 
 the hand, i.e. coincident positions of its parts, is 
 finite, but the variations of expression by variation 
 of its movements are infinite. 
 
 Many acts or actions may be described by 
 recording the movements, combinations of move- 
 ments, and sequences of movements. A clear 
 understanding on this point is essential to many 
 of the arguments to be brought forward in this 
 work, especially to understanding the importance 
 attached here to the accurate and detailed study of 
 movements, and the fuU appreciation of what such 
 studies may teach us as to methods of investigation, 
 and the methods of evolution. Analogies will be 
 made hereafter between combinations and sequences 
 of trophic action, and of movement. 
 
 In order to make our ideas more clear we will take 
 one illustration in some detail. 
 
GROWTH AND MOVEMENT. 71 
 
 The puppy of a setter-dog at its birth is a very 
 different animal from what it is at an adult age. 
 The difference between the two stages of growth 
 would at once strike any ordinary observer, and, if 
 he analyze and arrange the points of difference, he 
 will find differences in size, form, proportions of the 
 body ; also differences as marked in the behaviour, 
 running, steadiness, and kind of work done, i.e. dif- 
 ferences in the kind of movements done and the 
 results of movement. Thus analyzing the points of 
 difference between the puppy and the full-grown 
 dog, it will be seen that it is as important to 
 describe the movements as an expression of the 
 difference between youth and maturity, as to 
 describe the changes in the body alone. Further, 
 there are other changes in function in the animal 
 as the puppy grows to be an old dog ; the conditions 
 of its movements change, and its body, its corpus, 
 changes independently of its movements. There is 
 seen, then, an alteration in two kinds of functions, 
 or properties, as the animal grows old : first, a 
 change in the functions of movement ; second, 
 a change in its trophic condition. A complete 
 historical account of the growth or change of a 
 puppy into an adult animal requires the description 
 of the changes in the conditions of its movements 
 and the differences in its trophic conditions, or 
 growth. 
 
 It is very usual to speak of the important 
 differences between co-ordinated movements, and 
 inco-ordinated movements. In this chapter we 
 have nothing to do with the causes of co-ordination 
 
72 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 of movements in man or in animals, but we 
 have to establish rules by which we may dis- 
 tinguish the co-ordinated from the in co-ordinated 
 movements. When a man walks steadily along 
 a road we see that his movements are regular, 
 there is a similar repetition of events, and similar 
 impressions are left at equal intervals upon the dust 
 of the road ; such a man's movements in walking 
 are said to be co-ordinate, and the regularity in the 
 successions and combinations of his movements, as 
 indicated by the general regularity of the move- 
 ments of his whole body and the uniformity of his 
 foot-prints, indicates to us the perfect co-ordination 
 of his movements in walking. 
 
 Contrast the movements of such a good walker 
 with those of a man afflicted with the condition 
 termed locomotor ataxy, and contrast the foot- 
 prints left by the two men. In locomotor ataxy 
 the patient walks with a precipitate gait, and 
 staggers, the legs start hither and thither vaguely, 
 and the heels come down at each step as in 
 stamping. Such movements are said to be inco- 
 ordinate. Our present object is to inquire how 
 we can best define and formulate what we mean 
 by co-ordination. This, I believe, can only be done 
 with scientific exactness by definitions framed 
 in terms of combinations and successions of move- 
 ments and results of movements. 
 
 Locomotion, or walking, has been described and 
 experimented upon in man by M, Marey.* He 
 says, " The most simple and usual pace is waUcing, 
 * " Animiil Mechanism," p 111. 
 
ANALYSIS OF WALKING. 73 
 
 which, according to the received definition, consists 
 in that mode of locomotion in which the body 
 never quits the ground. In running and leaping, 
 on the contrary, we shall see the body is entirely 
 raised above the ground, and remains suspended 
 during a certain time. In walking, the weight of 
 the body passes alternately from one leg to another, 
 and as each of, these limbs places itself in turn 
 before the other, the body is thus continually 
 carried forward. 
 
 " This action appears very simple at first sight, 
 but its complexity is soon observed when we seek 
 to ascertain what are the movements which occur 
 in producing this motion." 
 
 This shows us that we may define walking as a 
 succession of paces. " A pace is the series of move- 
 ments executed between two similar positions of 
 the same foot." Now, a series of movements implies 
 something tolerably simple. Marey tells us, then, 
 that walking is a succession of paces, that a pace 
 is a series of movements. It remains, then, for us 
 to inquire what properties may be presented by a 
 series of movements. 
 
 Walking may be described in various ways. As 
 proposed already, it may be described as a series of 
 movements of the parts (limbs) which produce the 
 locomotion; as a series of muscular contractions 
 moving the limbs ; or, did we possess sufficient 
 knowledge, we might describe a pace in walking by 
 stating what nerve-centres are in action coinci- 
 dently, and what is the order of their successions. 
 
 M. Marey has in part described locomotion by 
 5 
 
74 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 indicating the movements of the trunk in walking 
 as resulting from the movements of the limbs, 
 i.e. he describes the movements of the trunk as 
 moved by the limbs, as moved by the muscles, as 
 stimulated by the nerve-centres. If movements 
 occur in a subject it is implied that the parts of that 
 subject can move more or less independently of one 
 another. When we say a man's limbs move, it is 
 implied that his limbs are movable. If a billiard- 
 ball upon a table is struck and moves in conse- 
 quence, the ball as a whole travels, the movement 
 that follows is that of the whole ball. In speaking of 
 movement it is, then, necessary to be clear whether 
 we are speaking of movement of the object as a 
 whole, as when we speak of the movements of the 
 moon, or whether we mean movements of the parts 
 of the object, as movement of the limbs of an 
 animal It often happens that a certain movement 
 that is observed, is the movement of an aggregation 
 of independent individuals. Such is seen in a pro- 
 cession of men assembled for a political purpose. 
 The movement of the whole procession is an aggre- 
 gation of the actions of a number of separate men, 
 held together and governed for the time by a common 
 political object ; there is no structural union between 
 them : and in such a case the coincidence of their 
 movements is an expression of the bond of union. 
 The movements of such an aggregation are often 
 highly expressive, the more so from the fact that 
 there is no organic union between the individuals. 
 The movements of an army corps are more expres- 
 sive than the movements of a gang of slaves chained 
 
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENTS. 75 
 
 together — the cause must be stronger which governs 
 the body of free men. The movements of an army 
 may be expressive of the condition of army disci- 
 pline, the will of the general, the orders of the 
 Home Government, acting under the influence of 
 Parliament and the nation. In any example of 
 expression by movement it is, then, necessary to 
 distinguish actiion of an aggregation of separate 
 individuals from a collection of organically united 
 individuals. 
 
 Man is the special subject with whom we are 
 concerned, and I wish now to put forward a brief 
 scheme for the analysis of movements seen in man ; 
 this scheme is founded upon experience in medical 
 practice. 
 
 When we see movements in a man, we may pro- 
 ceed to define them * in anatomical terms. Thus, if 
 a man holds out his arm and hand straight and level 
 with his shoulder, any movement in the parts is 
 easily observed. A movement may be seen to occur, 
 and may be indicated by the following terms : 
 Flexion of wrist, flexion of all the metacarpo-pha- 
 langeal joints, strong flexion of the thumb at each 
 joint, the thumb being thus brought into the palm 
 of the hand with the fingers bent over it ; phalanges 
 adducted, metacarpal bones adducted, thus arching 
 the palm of the hand. 
 
 Here we give an anatomical description of a 
 
 movement that might be observed. It is necessary 
 
 in making an observation, to record the movement, 
 
 or series or combination of movements, thus, before 
 
 * See tiibles of analysis, chap. ix. 
 
76 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 any attempt can be made at analysis or classifica- 
 tion; and we must keep a record of the move- 
 ment before us while we seek explanation of the 
 phenomena and try to understand what is expressed 
 by the movement. 
 
 After making an anatomical description of the 
 movement for the sake of keeping it before us as a 
 mental account of the transient phenomenon, we 
 may apply certain physiological priticiples to the 
 analysis of the record of the movement. 
 
 It is well known to physicians that there is much 
 practical difference in the signification of raove- 
 ments in larger parts of the body of vtian in contrast 
 with movements seen in the smaller parts* It is 
 necessary in a compound movement — a general 
 movement, compounded of the movements of dif- 
 ferent parts or subjects — to distinguish in descrip- 
 tion the action of small parts, such as the muscles of 
 the eyes, face, fingers, from movements of larger 
 parts, such as the skull, the shoulder, elbow or 
 wrist, the hip or the knee. This principle of the 
 difierent physiological signification of the action of 
 small and large parts wiU be illustrated in chaps, 
 vii. and viii. ; so also with the other physiological 
 principles. 
 
 I think there is a considerable importance in the 
 two next principles, though I believe they have 
 been less generally studied than they ought to be. 
 These principles I name " Interdifierentiation " and 
 " Collateral Differentiation." 
 
 The term " inter differentiation of m^ovem^ents" is 
 * See chap. vii. " Small parts " are most affected in hemiplegia. 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 77 
 
 used to indicate that the conditions of movements 
 are different in the large and in the small parts. 
 There may be a great difference observed, in the 
 upper extremity of a man's arm, in the amount of 
 movement, or in the number of movements of the 
 small parts as compared with the large parts. Thus, 
 in writing, painting, sewing, the fingers, knuckles, 
 and wrist do alijiost all the movements, there being 
 comparatively little action in shoulder and elbow : 
 here, then, is marked interdifferentiation of the 
 movements of the upper extremity. Contrast this 
 example with the use of a man's upper extremity 
 for ground-digging or boxing. In this case the 
 fingers and small parts are but little used, the move- 
 ment is from shoulder and elbow; here, again, inter- 
 differentiation of movements is marked in degree, 
 the large parts being more used than the small 
 parts. 
 
 Collateral differentiation of movements, or a dif- 
 ference in the movements of collateral parts, is our 
 next principle. The knuckles and the fingers are 
 collateral parts: they are all equally small parts, 
 they can move all together or each can move sepa- 
 rately. There may be differences in the movements 
 of the fingers, or collateral differentiation of move- 
 ments may be seen. In writing, the movements of 
 the pen are effected almost entirely by the thumb, 
 index, and middle fingers : this is collateral dif- 
 ferentiation of the movements of the fingers in the 
 act of writing. 
 
 Symmetry of movement in man and in animals 
 is by no means a new subject; it has been noted 
 
78 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 and often discussed. I think that symmetry 
 of movements, in a physiological sense, indicates 
 equal bilateral movements, movements occurring 
 similarly on either side of the body. The physio- 
 logical importance of symmetry is very different in 
 various parts of the body : the expression indicated 
 by a symmetry of hands is very different from the 
 signification of a symmetry of the tace. Here we 
 may stop one minute, again to point out an analogy 
 between conditions of movement and conditions ot 
 trophic action. Symmetry of movement and sym- 
 metry of growth and structural development are 
 seen in man in the nutritive organs, lungs, and 
 respiratory movements; the two halves of the 
 brain in their anatomical structure and the two 
 sets of nerves with organic functions, vagi, phrenics, 
 sympathetics, are fairly symmetrical. 
 
 Asymmetry in man chiefly concerns his higher 
 functions ; it is seen in his movements in writing, 
 and other high-class hand-work. Speech is not 
 equally represented in either hemisphere of the 
 brain. Some passions are expressed asymmetrically 
 in the face. Evolution is often expressed in plants 
 by asymmetry of growth (see chap. ii.). 
 
 Classification follows naturally after analysis. I 
 have purposely omitted to consider all the means of 
 analysis of movements, as such might prove weari- 
 some, and is hardly necessary to clear views on the 
 general subject of this work, " The Modes of Expres- 
 sion," For the same reasons our notice of classifica- 
 tion will be but brief, but both analysis and classi- 
 fication will be abundantly illustrated in succeeding 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF MOVEMENTS. 79 
 
 chapters. In any special problems as to a mode of 
 expression and its meaning, it is ot course necessary 
 to use all methods of analysis, and also to see in 
 what class the special mode of expression under 
 consideration is to be placed. 
 
 The following classifications of expressive move- 
 ments are suggested as practically useful : — 
 
 1. Anatomical analysis gives a method of classi- 
 fication; the same anatomical movements will 
 always appear in the same class under this arrange- 
 ment. It must be understood, however, that similar 
 movements have a very different signification under 
 difierent circumstances. Closing the fingers when 
 grasping an object, when in passion, and in an 
 epileptic fit, may be a similar movement, but the 
 signification varies in each case. 
 
 2. Movements may be classified according to the 
 physiological principles given. 
 
 3. Movements are often spoken of as intelligent 
 and non-intelligent. This division is difierent from 
 those used above, and does not depend solely upon 
 their analysis ; their signification depends upon 
 the previously ascertained truth, or uniformity, that 
 certain kinds of movement are only produced by a 
 central nerve-mechanism which can also produce 
 " intelligence " or non-intelligence at the same time 
 as it produces the particular movements in question. 
 Good-class painting, high-class manipulations are 
 expressive of intelligence, because they are uni- 
 formly found to accompany intelligence. Walking 
 is not necessarily accompanied by intelligence : a 
 man may walk in his sleep, an idiot may walk. 
 
80 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 Again, sucking in an infant is not a sign of present 
 intelligence. Some movements are usually accom- 
 panied by non-intelligence. 
 
 4. Movements may be synchronous or asynchro- 
 nous. 
 
 5. Movements may be classiiied as occurring in 
 a regular series. The regular movements of a 
 particular dance may be expressive. A series of 
 movements is often expressive of certain passions, 
 emotions, or states of feeling. In some kinds oi 
 fits a series of movements characterizes the attack. 
 
 6. Movements are often spoken of as caused by 
 feelings. It seems to me that this is a great assump- 
 tion. It may be, on the contrary, that the move- 
 ment and the feeling are alike due to the condition 
 of nerve-centres. 
 
 Summary. — For the sake of simplicity movement 
 is here considered apart from the cause of that 
 movement which it directly expresses. Various 
 modes of classification of movements may be used — 
 as spontaneous, reflex, voluntary; this classification 
 depends upon our idea of their origin. A classifica- 
 tion may be made according to the attributes of the 
 movement — frequency, speed, duration, quantity, 
 etc. The graphic method is most suitable for such 
 a classification. Further, description of the attri- 
 butes of a movement involves consideration of the 
 analysis of tracings of movements; the considera- 
 tion of the attributes of a movement involves 
 the laws of conservation of energy, also ideas 
 of the relation of time, and quantity. When 
 the relations of two or more movements are 
 
SUMMABY. 81 
 
 considered, intricate mathematical problems arise 
 which are probably more complicated than ques- 
 tions in astronomy. The possible number of 
 combinations of movements is finite, as is easily 
 illustrated. It appears probable that a very direct 
 analogy may be made between series of movements, 
 and series of acts of growth, and that similar laws 
 may govern b(jth. 
 
82 PHYSICAL EXPKESSION. 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 Modes of movement in plants ; in the amoeba ; the aseidian has 
 a nerve-mechanism, and apparatus for reflex movements — 
 Nerve-meohauism of vertebrates — Nerve-muscular apparatus ; 
 nerve-muscular action — Do certain nerve-centres produce certain 
 movements ? — Ferrier's experiments — Cerebral localization — 
 Nerve-centres — Visual perception indicated by movements — 
 Time requisite for a reflex movement — Inhibition of move- 
 ment — Physiological effects of light, in man, in plants — ^Light 
 stimulates trophic and kinetic action — Effects of light in the 
 new-born infant; movements stimulated, inhibited, co-ordi- 
 nated — Eetentiveness to effects of light — -The brain of an idiot 
 not thus ImprcBsiouable to light — Summary of the effects of 
 light — Extrinsic stimuli, mediate and immediate — Trophic 
 action of light — Summary of effects of light on plants. 
 
 In dealing with the physiology of expression we 
 are concerned solely with facts in the history of 
 living beings, plants and animals, including man ; 
 the sections of physiology that we are mainly con- 
 cerned with are those involving questions of move- 
 ment and nutrition. It is convenient, then, to our 
 purpose that we should take a brief review of the 
 modes in which movement is produced in the 
 organism of the lower, and higher, living beings. 
 Something has been said in chap. ii. about the 
 
THE AMCEBA — THE ASCIDIAN. 83 
 
 causes, and the mechanism of movement in plants. 
 In animals we see movement result from the action 
 of the organism as a whole, or from the action of 
 parts of it, and this is one of the most constant 
 facts seen in the lowest and highest grades of 
 animals. The movements of amoebae and other 
 protozoa have been often observed. The body of 
 the amoeba is Jess firm than jelly, yet it has the 
 power of moving from place to place. At first 
 appearing as a shapeless mass, it may rapidly throw 
 out filaments, or projections, which may again be 
 retracted into the mass of the amoeba. All parts 
 of this mass appear to be alike, and similarly 
 endued with contractile powers. These filmy 
 patches glide about although the eye can detect 
 no differentiation of their parts, and there is no 
 special mechanism for producing force, apart from 
 the portions that produce movements. 
 
 In such animals there is no difiierentiation into 
 force-producing parts, and motor-organs ; every part 
 of the body can perform all the functions of the 
 whole organism : thus it is seen that the amoeba 
 has an organization lower than that of the Oxalis 
 and Mimosa pudica, which have special motor- 
 organs. 
 
 In the ascidian there is a mechanism for the 
 production of motor-power, and a contractile appa- 
 ratus as a moving instrument. " The nervous appa- 
 ratus consists of a central ganglion, Fig. 3 (c), con- 
 nected with the periphery by two sets of nerve- 
 filaments. One set is distributed to a part of the 
 integumentary surface capable of receiving and 
 
84 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 being acted on by external stimuli (a), the other 
 is distributed to muscular fibres, which on contrac- 
 tion cause diminution of the body cavity (c?). Im- 
 pressions made on the sensory surface are conveyed 
 by the afferent fibres to the central ganglion, 
 
 Fig. 3. — Nervous system of ftn AscldiaD (Carpenter), a, the mouth ; 6, the vent ; 
 c, the ganglion ; d, the muscular sac. 
 
 whence an impulse is sent along the efferent fibres, 
 causing contraction of the muscles. Such an action 
 is termed a reflex action, a term derived from the 
 reflection, as it were, of the afferent impression 
 back to the periphery." * The ganglion produces 
 the motor-power ; the muscular fibres are the motor- 
 apparatus, acting when they receive an impulse 
 from the ganglion. 
 
 Now, passing up to the vertebrates. Here we 
 find a well-defined portion of the body, the nerve- 
 mechanism which, when properly nourished, pro- 
 duces motor-force; there are also well-defined 
 muscles, connected by nerve-fibres with the nerve- 
 centres. When a stimulus passed from the nerve- 
 * Ferrier, op. cit., p. 16. 
 
NERVE-MUSCULAR APPARATUS. 85 
 
 centres to the muscles they contract, and produce 
 movements. Here, then, in the higher animals, 
 the nerve-mechanism and the muscles produce the 
 movements, and the joint action of these two por- 
 tions of the body is necessary to the production 
 of movements ; this has been proven by numerous 
 experiments in many subjects. 
 
 The kind of movements that we have to do with 
 in the study of expression in man are nerve- 
 muscular signs, and it is essential to obtain clear 
 ideas on this point, in order that the principles and 
 modes of expression in man may be understood. 
 The simplest nerve-muscular apparatus consists of 
 a muscle, a nerve-centre or collection of nerve-cells, 
 and a nerve-fibre conveying currents from the nerve- 
 centre to the muscle; the whole must, of course, 
 be duly supplied with blood and nourished. Force 
 is generated in the nerve-centre by its nutrition, 
 and is conveyed to the muscle by the nerve-fibre. 
 When the centre sends force to the muscle it con- 
 tracts ; the muscle serves as an index showing the 
 times of discharge of force by the centre. It is not 
 necessary here to give any detailed account of the 
 structure and arrangement of the nerve-centres; 
 suffice it to say they are situated in the brain and 
 spinal cord. 
 
 It is, then, convenient for our purposes in the 
 study of the principles and modes of expression to 
 speak of " nerve-muscular action " or signs. In 
 the study of the brain and spinal cord we know 
 when a current of nerve-force is sent out from a 
 nerve-centre by the effect of that current on mus- 
 
86 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 cular fibres. The muscle is the index of the nerve- 
 current ; the muscular contraction is the expression 
 of the motor action of the brain, indicating the 
 time, frequency, duration of the nerve-current 
 produced by the central organ. 
 
 If the central nerve-system is the organ gene- 
 rating the force, and stimulating the muscles to 
 
 Fig. 4.— Upper Surface of the Hemispheres of the Monliey. The circles und 
 included numerals are explained in the text (Ferrier). 
 
 contract, can different portions of that mass act 
 separately ? Do certain parts of the nerve- 
 mechanism stimulate special movements ? Are 
 certain movements indications of the activity of 
 certain parts of the central nerve-mechanism ? 
 
 Dr. Ferrier experimented upon the brains of dogs 
 and monkeys with the following results : — 
 
87 
 
 Figs. 4 and 5 represent the lateral and upper 
 surfaces of the brain of the monkey; the circles 
 and included numerals indicate certain areas on 
 the convolutions of the brain. Figs. 6 and 7 repre- 
 sent similar views of the human brain, and the 
 circles with their numerals indicate areas corre- 
 sponding approximately with the areas on the 
 monkey's brain, similarly indicated. In his ex- 
 periments Ferrier examined each area in two ways. 
 The portion of brain experimented upon was excited 
 
 Fig. 8.— The Left Hemisphere of the Monkey. The circlee and numerals have the 
 same significance as in last figure. 
 
 by an electrical stimulus, and the muscular move- 
 ment in the body which resulted was carefuUy ob- 
 served and recorded ; as a converse experiment, the 
 same brain area was then destroyed, and the set 
 of movements in the body which were previously 
 stimulated were now found to be paralyzed. This 
 demonstrated that stimulation of a certain brain 
 area produced a certain set of movements in the 
 body, and that when the same brain area was 
 destroyed, that set of movements was paralyzed. 
 
88 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 As the result of such methods of inquiry, the fol- 
 lowing list* was drawn up, indicating the brain 
 areas corresponding to certain movements : — 
 
 Fig. 6. — Upppr Surface of the Human Brain. The circles and letters have the 
 same signification as those on the brain of the monkey (see Fig. 4). 
 
 "(1), placed on the postero-parietal lobule, in- 
 dicates the position of the centres for movements 
 
 * The brain-centres referred to in the succeeding paragraphs are 
 indicated in the figures by the corresponding numerals. 
 
FEKBIERS NERVE-CENTRES. 89 
 
 of the opposite leg and foot, such as are concerned 
 in locomotion. 
 
 " (2), (3), and (4), placed together on the convolu- 
 tions bounding the upper extremity of the fissure 
 
 Fig. 1. — Lateral view of the Human Brain. The circles and letters have the same 
 eignificatlon as those in the brain of the monkey (see Fig. 5). 
 
 of Rolando, include centres for various complex 
 movements of the arms and legs, such as are 
 concerned in climbing, swimming, etc. 
 
 " (5), situated at the posterior extremity of the 
 
90 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 superior frontal convolution, at its junction with 
 the ascending frontal, is the centre for the extension 
 forwards of the arm and hand, as in putting forth 
 the hand to touch something in front. 
 
 "(6), situated on the ascending frontal, just be- 
 hind the upper end of the posterior extremity of 
 the middle frontal convolution, is the centre for 
 the movements of the hand and forearm in which 
 the biceps is particularly engaged, viz. supination 
 of the hand and flexion of the forearm. 
 
 " (7) and (8), centres for the elevators and depres- 
 sors of the angle of the mouth respectively. 
 
 " (9) and (10), included together in one, mark the 
 centre for the movements of the lips and tongue, 
 as in articulation. This is the region, disease of 
 which causes aphasia, and is generally known as 
 Broca's convolution. 
 
 "(11), the centre of the platysma, retraction of 
 the angle of mouth. 
 
 "(12), a centre for lateral movements of the head 
 and eyes, with elevation of the eyelids and dilata- 
 tion of the pupil. 
 
 "{a), (i), (c), and (d), placed on the ascending 
 parietal convolution, indicate the centres of move- 
 ment of the hand and wrist. 
 
 " Circles (13) and (13'), placed on the supra-mar- 
 ginal lobule and angular gyrus, indicate the centre 
 of vision. 
 
 "Circles (14), placed on the superior tempero- 
 sphenoidal convolution, indicate the situation of 
 the centre of hearing." 
 
 When we consider that any expression by move- 
 
SENSORY CENTRES. 91 
 
 ment, or the result of movement, in man or in an 
 animal, is an indication of activity in the central 
 nerve-system, and is probably due to the activity 
 of a certain part only, we find it convenient to 
 recognize this in our nomenclature. The term 
 nerve-centre is here used to imply a portion of 
 the nerve-mechanism, which can act more or less 
 independently o£ the rest, and which by its activity 
 produces certain, more or less definite motor or 
 other efiects, observable and separable from those of 
 the rest of the central mass of the nerve-mechanism. 
 
 This paragraph implies the belief that there are 
 nerve-centres, as above defined, existent in the 
 brain. Ferrier's experiments and numerous other 
 facts tend to support that view. 
 
 In speaking of nerve-centres in the brain, we 
 do not here wish to express the belief that these 
 necessarily exist as localized anatomical areas of 
 brain tissue separate irom the surrounding nerve- 
 mechanism, although this may be true. I think 
 that we have framed a definition without implying 
 such anatomical isolation as an essential fact. 
 
 An hypothesis is useful, if it leads to systematic 
 experimentation and the record of observations, 
 and I trust to be able to show that qertain pro- 
 positions may be defined and investigated by means 
 of this working hypothesis that nerve-centres do 
 exist as defined above. 
 
 In Ferrier's * experiments the sensory centres in 
 the brain were sought for by observing that move- 
 ments, or absence of movement, indicating blindness 
 • Op. cit, p. 165. 
 
92 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 followed in an animal when a portion of the brain 
 called the angular gyrus was destroyed. 
 
 "In support of these conclusions, the following 
 details selected from the protocols of the several 
 experiments recorded elsewhere, will be sufficient. 
 In the first experiment the angular gyrus of the left 
 hemisphere was destroyed, the left eye was securely 
 bandaged, and the animal allowed to recover from 
 the state of chloroform narcosis. After recovery it 
 began to grope about a little vn loco perfectly alert, 
 but would not Tnove from its position. It did not 
 flinch when held close to the gaslight. Placed in 
 a cage beside its companions, it took no notice of 
 them, but sat still. Hearing and other senses re- 
 mained unaffected, and stimuli of these senses caused 
 active reaction." 
 
 The quotation is given exactly; the italics are 
 mine, and it is at once seen that the evidence of 
 blindness was the condition of movements, the kind 
 of reflex action following or not following upon 
 stimulation. This affords further evidence as to the 
 truth of the statement that we are dependent upon 
 the motor functions of the nerve-centres for almost 
 all the knowledge we have as to their functions. 
 
 Reflex Action. — The apparatus necessary for a 
 reflex action has been briefly described in chap, 
 iii. ; something more must now be said concerning 
 the time consumed in the production of a reflex 
 movement. Foster gives the following experiment 
 {o'p. cit, p. 471) : " If, in a brainless frog, the area 
 of skin supplied by one of the dorsal cutaneous 
 nerves be separated by section from the rest of the 
 
TIME REQUIRED FOR REFLEX ACTION. 93 
 
 skin of the back, the nerve being left attached to 
 the piece of skin and carefully protected from 
 injury, it wiU be found that slight stimuli applied 
 to the surface of the piece of skin easily evoke 
 reflex actions, whereas the trunk of the nerve may 
 be stimulated with even strong currents without 
 producing anything more than irregular movements. 
 
 "In every r«flex action, in fact, the central 
 mechanism may be looked upon as being thrown 
 into activity through a summation of the afferent 
 impulses reaching it." 
 
 The change in the nerve-centre which follows 
 upon the afferent stimulus requires a certain time, 
 and this is proven as foUows : — 
 
 " The Time required for Reflex A ctions* — When we 
 stimulate one of our eyelids with a sharp electrical 
 shock, both eyelids blink. Hence, if the length of 
 time intervening between the stimulation of the 
 right eyelid and the movement of the left eyelid be 
 carefully measured, this will give the time required 
 for the development of a reflex action. Exner 
 found this to be from -0662 to -0578 sec, being less 
 for the stronger stimulus. Deducting from these 
 figures the time required for the passage of afferent 
 and efferent impulses along the fifth and facial 
 nerves, to and from the medulla, and for the latent 
 period of the muscular contraction of the orbicularis, 
 there would remain '0555 to "0471 sec. for the time 
 consumed in the central operations of the reflex 
 action. The calculations, however, necessary for 
 this reduction, it need not be said, are open to 
 * Foster, op. cit, p. 478. 
 
94 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 sources of error. Exner found that ■when he used 
 a visual stimulus, viz. a flash of light, the time was 
 not only exceedingly prolonged, "2168 sec, but very 
 variable. 
 
 "The time required for any reflex act varies, 
 according to Rosenthal, very considerably with the 
 strength of the stimulus employed, being less for 
 the strong stimuli, is greater in transverse than in 
 longitudinal conduction, and is much increased by 
 exhaustion of the cord. It has been stated that the 
 central processes of a reflex action are propagated 
 in the frog at the rate of about eight metres a 
 second; but this value cannot be depended on. The 
 time thus occupied by purely reflex actions must not 
 be confounded with the interval required for mental 
 operations ; of the latter we shall speak presently. 
 
 "Inhibition of Reflex Action* — When the brain 
 of a frog is removed, reflex actions are developed to 
 a much greater degree than in the entire animal. 
 We ourselves are conscious of being able by an 
 effort of the will to stop reflex actions, such, for 
 instance, as are induced by tickling. There must, 
 therefore, be in the brain some mechanism or other 
 for preventing the normal development of the 
 spinal reflex actions. And we learn by experiment 
 that stimulation of certain parts of the brain has 
 a remarkable effect on reflex action. In a frog, from 
 which the cerebral hemispheres only have been 
 removed, the optic thalami, optic lobes, medulla 
 oblongata, and spinal cord being left intact, a 
 certain average time will be found to elapse 
 * Foster, op. cit., p. 474. 
 
INHIBITION. 95 
 
 between the dipping of the toe into very dilute 
 sulphuric acid and the resulting withdrawal of the 
 foot. If, however, the optic lobes or optic thalami 
 be stimulated, as by putting a crystal of sodium 
 chloride on them, it will be found, on repeating the 
 experiment while these structures are still under 
 the influence of the stimulation, that the time 
 intervening between the action of the acid on the 
 toe, and the withdrawal of the foot, is very much 
 prolonged. That is to say, the stimulation of the 
 optic lobes has caused impulses to descend to the 
 cord, which have there so interfered with the action 
 of the nerve-cells engaged in reflex action as greatly 
 to retard the generation of reflex impulses ; in other 
 words, the stimulation of the optic lobes has inhibited 
 the reflex action of the cord." 
 
 The effects of light have been referred to several 
 times as producing marked effects upon the brain- 
 centres, and exerting a stimulating or inhibitory 
 influence. It may then be interesting to review a 
 few of the known effects of light, and the absence 
 of light, upon living things. 
 
 It is generally admitted that light does produce 
 marked effects upon the human body. We see 
 different phenomena occur in daylight and in dark- 
 ness. Sunlight is most useful in the cure of ansemia, 
 and partial darkness often helps the cure of an acute 
 case of chorea ; in megrim and in ophthahnia the 
 patient is often unable to bear the effects of light. 
 Some of the effects of the exclusion of light from 
 cave-living animals have been .well demonstrated 
 by the author of the " Origin of Species " (see 
 
96 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 p. 101). The action of light on vegetable organisms, 
 and its eflfects in producing movements of various 
 kinds, have also been carefully studied. I have, 
 therefore, put together the following notes on the 
 effects of light. 
 
 In such a subject as the present, as in so many- 
 other questions concerning the action of physical 
 forces upon living organisms, it seems to me use- 
 ful to consider the effects of light upon the simple 
 cellular vegetable organisms, where these changes 
 can be studied with much exactness, as well as in 
 animals. 
 
 The action of light may be roughly described as 
 trophic or kinetic; that is, mainly producing growth, 
 or mainly causing movements and not growth. 
 
 Take a sample of the human species at the 
 earliest period of possible observation, directly after 
 birth. If we examine a new-born infant, we find 
 that when a light shines upon its face it screws up 
 its eyes (i.e. the orbiculares oculi muscles contract 
 strongly), and it corrugates the forehead (i.e. corru- 
 gators contract). If the eyelids be opened, the iris 
 contracts to light ; in some cases, when the infant 
 is a few days old, there seems to be a tendency to 
 turn the head from the light, i.e. the skuU rotates 
 from a lateral light. 
 
 The action of light upon the iris needs only to be 
 mentioned. It is commonly admitted that this is a 
 purely reflex act in which the optic is the afferent 
 nerve ; the third, or motor-oculi, the efferent nerve ; 
 and the centre is some portion of the corpora 
 quadrigemina. 
 
ACTION OF LIGHT ON AN INFANT. 97 
 
 The infant as born has, then, such an apparatus as 
 allows of these two reflex actions to light. Now; in 
 these reflex actions the light excites or stimulates 
 these reflex movements. A plain beam of white 
 light effects this. I do not know the effects of 
 different rays of the spectrum. 
 
 I am not aware of other effects of light in the 
 infant in its youngest stage, but, at five months 
 old, holding a brightly coloured object well within 
 the field of vision of the infant attracts its atten- 
 tion, as it is said. We see the child's eyes and head 
 move, so as to bring their axes in a straight line 
 towards the object. This is a mechanical effort; 
 there is work done. What force can excite this 
 movement and direct it with such precision ? We 
 know of no force passing from the object to the 
 child, except the light reflected; a screen hiding 
 the object from the child's eyes, i.e. cutting off the 
 rays of light reflected from the object, prevents 
 the object from exerting its effect upon the child. 
 The beam of light reflected from the object excites 
 the movement that follows action of the light ; the 
 effect of the light must penetrate the retina, and 
 travel to the centres for the muscles seen excited 
 to action. 
 
 A few words must now be said as to the effects 
 of "the sight of objects." When we see an object, 
 all our subjective impressions of that object are the 
 effects of the beam of light reflected from the object; 
 and all the objective, observable effects of the sight 
 of that object are the effects of the excitation, or 
 stimulation, produced by that beam of light. Here, 
 6 
 
98 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 again, the beam of light, or its effects, must be 
 transmitted from the retina to the deep centres 
 affected. 
 
 A lateral light falling upon the field of vision 
 stimulates the opposite hemisphere, and this causes 
 contraction oi the head-rotatory muscles on the side 
 from which the light comes, causing it to be turned 
 towards the light or object seen. 
 
 Fig. 8.— Hydrophobia, after Sir C Beli. Head repelled by Bight of water. 
 
 Light acts as a stimulant of movement; con- 
 versely, darkness favours quietness. Strong light 
 dispels sleep. 
 
 I think it can be shown that the stimulating 
 effects of a beam of light reflected from an object 
 may spread widely among the nerve-centres, 
 producing co-ordinated and organized sequences 
 
ACTION OF LIGHT ON BKAIN. 90 
 
 of movements ; this is the effect of the visual 
 stimulus. 
 
 The sight of an object not only produces move- 
 ments of the eyes and head, but also causes 
 such movements in the upper extremity, as result 
 in the hand approaching and grasping the object 
 which reflects the beam of light and excites the 
 movements ; the movements spread to a wide area. 
 
 The sight of an object that has many times been 
 seen, especially if some pleasure has accompanied 
 the sight, produces a repetition of movements ; the 
 reflex action recurs on the recurrence of the same 
 light stimulus. This indicates " retentiveness ; " it is 
 evidence of the fact that nerve-currents proceed 
 along certain paths when they are produced by a 
 similar stimulus. 
 
 In all these phenomena a moving beam of light 
 produces more marked efl'ect than a stationary 
 beam ; that is to say, a moving light, a moving 
 object, attracts the most attention. 
 
 The brain of an imperfect subject may be so 
 constructed as not to give the phenomena described 
 above. The child may not be attracted by the 
 light ; it may, when six months old, not notice or 
 attempt to grasp an object presented. We see that 
 here the central nerve-mechanism is not duly sus- 
 ceptible to the reflex actions of light, and this 
 indicates that it is not normal in its construction. 
 These are some of the methods by which we judge 
 whether a child has such a nerve-mechanism as will 
 probably develop' the due or normal functions of 
 mentation in its after growth. 
 
100 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 A further example of " retentiveness " to light 
 impressions is seen in similar repetitions of facial 
 expression, following the sight of the same object. 
 
 One effect of light, then, is to excite, stimulate, or 
 stir up certain reflex actions. 
 
 A second effect of light is to produce new, not 
 inborn, reflex actions, as indicated by the produc- 
 tion of retentiveness in the nerve-mechanism to the 
 effects of certain light impressions. 
 
 A third effect of light is to control or modify- 
 previously existing movements. Examples are 
 seen in the effect of the sight of a bright light, 
 or the sight of certain objects, in co-ordinating or 
 arresting spontaneous movements. 
 
 A light, or the sight of an object, may inhibit 
 movements instead of increasing their amount and 
 frequency (see tracing. Fig. 9). 
 
 The following phenomena may then be observed 
 as produced by the action of light on man : — 
 
 (1) Reflex action. 
 
 (2) Transmitted effects. 
 
 ( (a) Excitant, 
 
 (3) Action on spontaneous movements < (6) Inhibitory, 
 
 ( (c) Co-ordinating. 
 
 (4) Retentiveness of the effects of light. 
 
 (5) The evolution or building up of mentation. 
 
 The action of light may be spoken of as extrinsic, 
 inasmuch as it is a stimulus originating out- 
 side the organism, and producing changes in its 
 structures. In contrast we may speak of the 
 " passions " and " feelings " as intrinsic stimuli, as 
 it may be supposed that they originate in some 
 part of the organism. 
 
TROPHIC ACTION OF LIGHT. 
 
 101 
 
 "S 1^ S 
 
 Extrinsic stimuli may be — (1) im- 
 mediate in action, as when a body 
 acts by mechanical contact ; (2) me- 
 diate, as when the sight of an object 
 produces a visual stimulus which 
 passes to the subject from the object 
 seen. These mediate influences have 
 sometimes been called sympathies. 
 In the infant at birth, respiration 
 is a mediate reflex act. Air ex- 
 cites the movement in a normally 
 constructed child. Sucking is a re- 
 flex act due to immediate mechanical 
 irritation, and is dependent upon the 
 medulla oblongata. Such actions are 
 called " instinctive." In this sense 
 movements in plants are "instinc- 
 tive," that is, due to their essential 
 construction. 
 
 As to the more distinctly trophic 
 effects of light. Pigmentation of the 
 skin occurs in the tropical regions 
 when light is strong. 
 
 Charles Darwin * gives an account 
 of certain cave-living animals whose 
 eyes have, in the course of successive 
 generations, been lost owing to dis- 
 use. " It is well known that several 
 animals, belonging to the most 
 different classes, which inhabit the 
 caves of Carinola and of Kentucky, 
 * " Origin of Species," p. 110. 
 
102 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 are blind. In some of the crabs the foot-stalk 
 for the eye remains, though the eye be gone ; the 
 stand for the telescope is there, though the tele- 
 scope with its glasses has gone. As it is difficult 
 to imagine that eyes, though useless, could be in 
 any way injurious to animals living in darkness, 
 their loss may be attributed to disuse. In one of 
 the blind animals, namely, the cave-rat {Wotaifna), 
 two of which were captured by Professor Sillman 
 at about half a mile from the mouth of the cave, 
 and therefore not in the profoundest depths, the 
 eyes were lustrous and of large size; and these 
 animals, as I am informed by Professor Sillman, 
 after having been exposed for about a month to a 
 graduated light, acquired a dim perception of obj ects." 
 
 This fact may, I suppose, be expressed by saying 
 that in successive generations, owing to the want of 
 the stimulation of light upon the parents' eyes, these 
 organs have ceased to be developed in the young. It 
 seems to me that this is equivalent to saying that 
 the stimulating effects of light are necessary, in all 
 probability, to prevent the organs specially suited 
 to receive light impressions and convey them to the 
 nerve-mechanism, from degenerating in successive 
 generations. This is a trophic action of light. 
 
 The sight of a good dinner has been shown to 
 increase the quantity of gastric secretion. Like- 
 wise the sight of food stimulates the salivary 
 secretion. A woman in good health, after seeing 
 her husband killed (light effect only), took up her 
 infant and suckled it; the altered milk proved 
 poisonous to the child. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 103 
 
 The following table, after Sachs,* indicates the 
 action of light on vegetation : — 
 
 A. Genebal. 
 
 (1) Action of rays of different refrangibiiity. 
 
 (2) Variation in the action of light on plants in proportion to its 
 
 intensity. 
 
 (3) Penetration of the rays of light into the plant, 
 
 B. Special. 
 
 (1) Chemical action of light on plants, 
 (a) Formation of chlorophyll. 
 
 (6) The decomposition of carbon dioxide. 
 
 (c) Formation of starch in the chlorophyll. 
 
 (2) Mechanical action of light on plants. 
 
 (d) The influence of light on the movements of protoplasm. 
 
 (e) Cell division and growth. 
 
 (/) Action of light on the tension of the tissue of the con- 
 tractile organs of leaves endowed with motion. 
 
 Light may retard the growth of cells, as in 
 heliotropism. 
 
 Darwin 1" has demonstrated many facts concern- 
 ing the action of light on plants. 
 
 * Sachs, " Text-book of Botany." 
 t " Movements of Plants." 
 
104 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PATHOLOGICAL FACTS AND EXPRESSION IN PATHO- 
 LOGICAL STATES. 
 
 Disease may destroy or irritate parts of the brain — Destruction of 
 corpus striatum— Lateral deviation of the head and eyes — 
 Effects of irritation in contrast with destruction of a brain 
 area — Effects of disease on different sets of muscles— Facial 
 palsy — Localization of disease — Epilepsy — Chorea — Analogy 
 to movements in plants — Experiments with the Mimosa — The 
 study of chorea — Finger-twitching in nervous children — 
 Tooth-grindiug — Headaches in children ; the physical signs — 
 Cases of athetosis — Defects of development; their frequent 
 coiaoideuce. 
 
 There is no intention here to enter upon a de- 
 scription of conditions of disease from a medical 
 point of view, but as direct experiments cannot 
 be made upon the living brain of man, we avail 
 Ourselves of information derived from the rough 
 kind of experiments often prepared for us when 
 conditions of disease destroy or irritate certain 
 brain areas ; we thus observe the effect of de- 
 struction or direct irritation of parts of the brain. 
 
 In a case of complete hemiplegia, or paralysis of 
 one side of the body, from a lesion destroying part 
 
HEMIPLEGIA. 105 
 
 of tho corpus striatum of the opposite side, we find 
 the following phenomena : — 
 
 Complete Hemiplegia from Lesion of the Right 
 Corpus Striatum.* 
 
 1. Tho head turns to the right. 
 
 2. Both eyes turn to the right, and frequently 
 both upper eyelifls are fallen. 
 
 3. The muscles of the belly and chest are weak- 
 ened on the left. 
 
 4. The muscles passing from the trunk to the 
 left limbs are paralyzed. 
 
 5. The face is paralyzed on the left side. 
 
 6. The tongue on protrusion turns to the left. 
 
 7. The left leg is paralyzed. 
 
 8. The left arm is paralyzed. 
 
 Such is the combination of movements, and the 
 compound posture, resulting from a destructive 
 lesion of the right corpus striatum. 
 
 Now, to consider a few of the special movements 
 in more detail. Lateral deviation of the eyes and 
 head — both eyes turn to the right as a result of 
 destruction of the right corpus striatum, and the 
 head turns in the same direction. This is an in- 
 teresting phenomenon for comparison with modes 
 of expression by head rotation (see p. 185).- 
 
 In the case of a right-sided brain lesion, the head 
 rotates to the right on account of the weakened 
 condition of the left muscles, so that those on the 
 right side pull it over to the non-paralyzed side. 
 * See Dr. Hughlings Jackson in Kuseell's " SyBtem of Medicine," 
 vol. ii., p. 537. 
 
106 PHYSICAL EXPEi;gSION, 
 
 The eyes turn to the right as if looking at a person 
 on the right side. Thus they do not lose their 
 parallelism ; the axes of the eyeballs remain paral- 
 lel — there is no strabismus. This lateral deviation 
 of the eyes may show the weakness of one side of 
 the brain, and suggests a one-sided lesion in con- 
 tradistinction to a general brain state, such as 
 poisoning by opium. Now, observe the effect of 
 such a lesion of the right corpus striatum (or of 
 the centres which send their fibres through it) as 
 causes convulsion of the parts previously paralyzed. 
 In such a case we generally speak of an irritative 
 lesion of the nerve-centre as producing the convul- 
 sion or spasm, in contradistinction to a destructive 
 lesion which produces paralysis. 
 
 An irritative lesion of the right corpus striatum 
 causes the head to rotate to the left, and the eyes 
 to deviate to the left, while the left limbs are con- 
 vulsed. 
 
 Eight Ooepus stbiatdm. 
 Destructive Lesion. Irritating Lesion,, 
 
 Head and eyes turn to the right. 
 Left limbs paralyzed. 
 That is, head and eyes turn 
 away from the side paralyzed. 
 
 Head and eyes turn to the left. 
 Left limbs convulsed. 
 That is, head and eyes turn 
 towards the side convulsed. 
 
 These facts help to give some explanation of cer- 
 tain coincident movements and postures (see p. 151). 
 A destructive lesion on the right side of the brain 
 weakens the left arm and leg, and the head rotates 
 to the right. In an analogous manner we often see 
 the left hand in the nervous posture — a sign of 
 weakness of the right hemisphere of the brain ; and 
 
FACIAL PALSY FROM BRAIN DISEASE. 107 
 
 this is often associated with rotation of the head to 
 the right, with right inclination (see p. 151). 
 
 Again, we see that if one hemisphere, instead of 
 being weakened, be excited, causing spasm of the 
 muscles, the head is rotated to the same side as the 
 spasm ; thus the kind of condition of the brain is 
 indicated or expressed by the relative position of 
 the head to the side of the body aflfected. 
 
 The brain lesion causing hemiplegia does not 
 affect equally all the parts of the upper extremity. 
 On comparing the degree of .power of movement in 
 the fingers and in the arm, we find that though the 
 patient can open and close his hand, and carry it to 
 his mouth, still he cannot use the smaller parts of 
 the hand for fine operations ; he cannot pick up a 
 pin off a wooden table, or unfasten the middle 
 button of his waistcoat. He has lost the power for 
 fine adjustments of the small parts, but has still 
 fair power over the limb in its larger parts. 
 
 As to the facial paralysis seen in hemiplegia,* all 
 the muscles on the side of the face are weakened, 
 but very unequally ; there is very slight weaken- 
 ing of the orbicularis palpebrarum. The patient 
 can close his eyes, although not so strongly on the 
 paralyzed side when urged to close them both 
 tightly ; sometimes, especially in chronic cases, we 
 discover no difference on the two sides. This 
 cerebral-facial palsy differs from that due to disease 
 of the facial nerve in its distribution. Brain facial 
 palsy weakens mostly the muscles about the mouth. 
 This is seen markedly when the patient shows his 
 ♦ See Figs. 10, 11, and compare with Fig. 27, p. 202. 
 
108 PHYSICAL EXPfiESSION. 
 
 teeth, or whistles ; the groove running from the nose 
 to the mouth is less marked than on the other side. 
 In studying any case of brain disease, it is very 
 desirable to localize the seat of lesion. The follow- 
 ing are briefly the principles employed in trying 
 to make such 'localization .during the life of the 
 patient. It is impossible to make any scientific 
 
 Fig. 10. — Right Hemiplegia, -with cerebral facial palsy, right side. The face 
 is asymmetrical, and the muscles in the right lower zone about the mouth act 
 very indifferently. The naso-labial groove on this side is almost lost . this is well 
 seen on comparing the two Bides. Mo asymmetry is seen in the upper and middle 
 facial zones. 
 
 diagnosis of the locality of the lesion unless some 
 localizing symptoms be present. Now, the main 
 localizing symptoms are paralyses and spasms of 
 the muscles supplied with ipotor force from the 
 nerve-centres affected by the lesion. Destruction 
 of the corresponding mass of brain substance, in 
 different men, whether by haemorrhage or by 
 softening, paralyzes the same muscles in each, and 
 
BBAIN FACIAL PARALYSIS. 
 
 109 
 
 interferes with corresponding movements; hence, 
 when we find one particular set of movements 
 interfered with, we infer the seat of lesion. 
 
 Similarly, convulsion or spasm in one particular 
 set of muscles indicates the discharge of motor force 
 from the particular set of nerve-centres whose 
 destruction leads to paralysis of that particular 
 
 Fig. II.— Left Hemiplegia, with cerebral palsy, left side. 
 
 set of muscles. The irritation causing such a 
 discharge of force may be a tumour, or local in- 
 flammation irritating that portion of brain. Hence 
 coarse or extensive paralyses, and other profound 
 disturbances of the nerve-muscular system, have 
 received much attention from clinical and patholo- 
 gical observers, and by the accumulation of their 
 joint observations much knowledge has been gained 
 
110 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 as to the symptoms that result from lesion of cer- 
 tain portions of the brain. This encourages us to 
 observe, in all cases of health and disease, the move- 
 ments and results of movement, knowing that these 
 correspond to, and are the direct outcome of, the 
 states of certain nerve-centres. The knowledge 
 that we already possess of the nerve-centres is from 
 observation of muscular action. In a given case, 
 by comparing the state of the muscles during life, as 
 they may be affected by paralysis or spasm, with 
 the brain lesion found after death, and by collecting 
 and comparing many cases, it has been found that 
 destructive or irritative lesions of certain parts of 
 the brain cause paralysis or spasm of a certain set 
 of muscles corresponding. 
 
 Epilepsy is a chronic disease, characterized by 
 (1) attacks of more or less disturbance of con- 
 sciousness, (2) muscular spasms and convulsions. 
 The careful, detailed, and accurate observation and 
 record of the movements of the convulsion, and 
 sequent paralyses, has proved an efficient means of 
 study in this disease, the movements and results of 
 movements being studied as indices of the action of 
 nerve-centres. Epilepsy is a condition of disease of 
 which we know but little beyond what can be learnt 
 from studying nerve-muscular movements, and their 
 associations and concomitants ; still we do possess 
 much practical and useful knowledge of epilepsy. 
 
 Chorea is a disease, or abnormal condition, com- 
 monly seen in children. It is characterized by a 
 great excess of involuntary movement, and a vary- 
 ing amount of muscular weakness. The movements 
 
CHOREA. Ill 
 
 cease during sleep ; in kind they resemble gesticu- 
 lations, and in their combinations and successions 
 are probably such as may occur during conditions 
 of health. Each movement probably depends upon 
 a discharge of motor force from some nerve-centre 
 corresponding. Chorea is dependent upon a brain 
 condition which we know only through the effect 
 produced upon 1;Jie muscles by the brain. 
 
 In children I have often observed that "the 
 weak and nervous " have much spontaneous finger- 
 twitching; and I described this as one of the 
 physical signs seen in children who suffer from 
 recurrent headaches and associated pathological 
 conditions.* Such muscular unsteadiness seems 
 very analogous to the movement of young, grow- 
 ing, sensitive vegetables. 
 
 The two tracings (Figs. 12, 13) indicate the con- 
 tinuous condition of spontaneous muscular un- 
 steadiness of the finger of a nervous child ; and 
 the continuous involuntary movement appears 
 analogous to that indicated by the tracing of the 
 movements of some plants. Now, if this analogy 
 between unstable mobile vegetable cells, and un- 
 stable nerve-ceUs, be legitimate, it should guide us 
 to further useful observations. 
 
 To be brief, Darwin's observations show that 
 movement produced by the growth of vegetable 
 cells is constant in the leaves, stems, and roots of 
 many young plants.f If the movement of nervous 
 
 • British Medical Joamal, December 6, 1879 ; see also " Brain," 
 1881, paite xi., xii., xiv. 
 t Bee the account given of circumnntation in plants, chap. ii. 
 
112 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 children be pi-odiiced by a condition of brain-cell? 
 analogous to that of the growing parts of plants 
 or the cells of the pulvinus, it should be liable at 
 times, under certain circumstances, to great exacer- 
 bations. Thus guided, I have taken tracings of the 
 finger-movements of nervous children and of those 
 sufifering from chorea. Samples are presented here, 
 and seem to indicate the following results : — 
 
 1. The movements of chorea are far more fre- 
 
 Figs, 12. 13. — Tracing of involuntary movements of the finger m a nervous child. 
 
 quent and continuous than might be expected from 
 mere inspection of the hands. 
 
 2. These movements may be but an exaggeration 
 of the movements of a nervous child, usually pre- 
 sent, but often overlooked, tracings of which are 
 given in Figs. 12 and 13. 
 
 3. The twitching movements of chorea may be 
 compound, each visible twitching being compounded 
 of many of the little movements seen in the other 
 
EXPERIMENTS ON MIMOSA, 113 
 
 tracings. I have never found such compound 
 tracings in tremors as in paralysis agitans. 
 
 To prove these points with certainty, numerous 
 tracings from many cases would have to be com- 
 pared. 
 
 As to the treatment of the class of children 
 referred to, the following experiments are very 
 suggestive, and tjje analogy to the case of children 
 
 Fig. 14. — Finger-tracings in cborea. The twitching movements are 
 compound. 
 
 hardly appears to require verbal description. Mr. 
 M. Voss, of Streatham, has kindly communicated to 
 me the results of his investigations. 
 
 Three years ago, some seed of the sensitive plant 
 (Mimosa pudica) was set to grow, and at a moist 
 heat of about 90° Fahr. it soon germinated. Before 
 the compound foliage growth had commenced, the 
 seedlings were potted off into different earths and 
 sand. Those planted in a soil of two parts of 
 decayed vegetable mould to one of sand grew more 
 
114 PHYSICAL EXPBESSION. 
 
 vigorously both in height and foliage than the 
 others ; and, after two months' growth, they were 
 much less sensitive than others planted in two- 
 thirds of silver sand and only one-third of leaf- 
 mould. One or two plants were grown entirely in 
 silver sand. These showed extreme sensitiveness 
 to the slightest touch ; even a breath of air, or the 
 slightest jerk of the pot in which they grew, caused 
 all the foliage to shut up. Those plants having no 
 nourishment beyond the gases in the air, or sand, 
 soon turned yellow and died. The plants in two- 
 thirds saiid and one-third decayed vegetable mould 
 were not so robust or strong as those grown in a 
 greater proportion of vegetable mould. They failed 
 to produce any flowers, and died oflf at the lower 
 temperature to which aU the plants were exposed, 
 whilst those planted in two-thirds vegetable mould 
 and one-third sand, fully matured their growth, 
 flowering in a temperature of -50° or 60° Fahr., the 
 foliage being of that full green colour denoting 
 the fact that the spongioles of the roots had neces- 
 sarily been supplied with the various chemical gases 
 in the soil (set free by a due amount of moisture) 
 requisite for producing the continued support of 
 the plants. Their sensitiveness had, at the end of 
 August, almost left them; indeed, after a blow on 
 the leaf with a twig, the foliage would fall, but 
 almost immediately regain its horizontal position. 
 
 Many other useful analogies might, I think, be 
 made in this direction ; and the subject is one full 
 of interest to all who look upon the conditions of 
 health or disturbance of the system throughout the 
 
THE STUDY OF CHOREA. 115 
 
 whole organized world. Among other matters, we 
 might consider the transmission of sensitive im- 
 pressions from one part of the plant to another; 
 the metamorphosis of parts of a plant according to 
 the functions discharged ; the irritability or sensi- 
 tiveness of plants, which is in some cases far greater 
 than anything seen in man ; the production of acid 
 secretions in mo^le plants; and numerous other 
 facts easily observed in plants — facts of great 
 interest to the physiologist and pathologist; and 
 in this direction Mr. Darwin's researches, follow- 
 ing those of Sachs, are a climax to investigations 
 carried on since the time of Sprengel ; facts which 
 Sir James Paget * would have us apply to the study 
 of human pathology. 
 
 In different cases of chorea very different groups 
 of muscles may be affected, thus indicating the very 
 different brain areas that may be choreic. In 
 studying a case of chorea we try and indicate the 
 extent of brain affected by specially indicating the 
 choreic area. The following points then should 
 always be looked for — as present or absent in any 
 case described — and the order of invasion of groups 
 of muscles or their recovery should be observed : — 
 
 1. In examining a case to prove the fact of chorea 
 it is very convenient first to look at one or both 
 hands, held out free and disengaged. The kind 
 of movements of the hand and fingers have been 
 dwelt upon and described. 
 
 2. The upper and lower extremities present the 
 greatest mass of the choreic movements. It ia 
 
 • See his Lectures, British Medical Journal, October 16, 1880. 
 
116 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 important to note whether the finer or coarser 
 movements be the most affected ; the amount of 
 involuntary movement,. and the power of voluntary 
 act that is left. 
 
 3. Hemiplegie varieties are common ; the least 
 mobile side may be much weakened, though not 
 much moved. 
 
 4. The face. Varieties in this group of muscles 
 have been discussed. 
 
 5. The soft palate may present marked move- 
 ments of an irregular twitching kind, the levator- 
 palati muscles working distinctly. I do not refer 
 here to the dragging of the palate by the choreic 
 twitchings of the tongue, but to the primary twitch- 
 ing of the palatine muscles. In some cases the 
 levators are distinctly seen twitching upwards. 
 This symptom is often absent in chorea, and when 
 seen, I have observed that it has usually passed off' 
 early. 
 
 6. The tongue may be jerked in and out. When 
 protruded, it may present much movement, but 
 still be kept out a fairly long time. 
 
 7. Eyes. Upper eyelids, often strongly retracted. 
 Eyeballs often much moved. 
 
 8. The head in the active stage is often moved 
 much. During convalescence, and when the active 
 movements have passed off", a lolling of the head 
 to one side is common; i.e. inclination with rota- 
 tion to the same side, combined with slight flexion. 
 
 9. The spinal muscles and trunk are often affected. 
 The child often balances itself very ill, throwing 
 the scapular and upper dorsal region too far back, 
 
NERVOUS CHILDREN. 117 
 
 and thrusting the pelvis too forward, the spine 
 still remaining symmetrical, or being thrown into 
 lateral curves. It has seemed to me that the 
 awkward appearance was due to want of adapta- 
 bility of the proper compensations in the move- 
 ments of different muscles. 
 
 10. The respiratory muscles. These may be 
 affected much or .little ; the alae nasi muscles may 
 be affected also. 
 
 11. The vascular centres. The heart's action is 
 sometimes irregular. 
 
 After looking at cases of chorea we naturally 
 consider other nervous cases characterized by nerve- 
 muscular movements, and if we study children we 
 find examples abundant. 
 
 In 1879 I * put together my notes of fifty-eight 
 cases of children of nervous mobile tempera- 
 ment; and for this practical purpose a summary- 
 has been made of the principal sjmiptoms of cases 
 of headache in children under fifteen years of age. 
 Though recurrent headache was the most prominent 
 and constant symptom met with in this group of 
 cases, it was not always the one complained of by 
 the patient or mother. Classifying the symptoms, 
 we find the largest number referable to the mental 
 and cerebral condition of the child. We are told 
 that he is excitable, melancholy, passionate, or 
 fretful; that sleep is restless and disturbed by 
 dreams and night-talking, by attacks of terror and 
 screaming, or by somnambulism. Often there are 
 vague pains in the limbs, chest, or abdomen. The 
 * See " Brain." 
 
118 PHYSICAL KXPEESSION. 
 
 appetite is often variable, voracious or entirely lost ; 
 there may be considerable emaciation with a good 
 appetite, and without any accompanying signs of 
 organic disease; often there is considerable nausea 
 or retching with the attacks of headache. Hacking 
 cough, without physical signs to account for it, is 
 often met with, and usually the child is excessively 
 fidgety. 
 
 In studying this group of nervous excitable 
 children in whom recurrent headache was a main 
 symptom, it was first necessary to look out for 
 certain objective signs by which they might be 
 indentified ; and these were principally found in the 
 condition of the nerve-muscular system, the teeth, 
 and the urine, but chiefly in the muscular system. 
 
 The nerve-muscular condition was carefully 
 observed in this group of cases. Usually, the child 
 was made to stand with the heels together, looking 
 straight before him, the hands being down by his 
 side. The general steadiness of the body, trunk, 
 and limbs was then observed, as well as the condi- 
 tion of the face and eyes. He was next directed to 
 put out his tongue, and, finally, to hold out both 
 arms straight before him, on a level with the 
 shoulder, at the same time separating the fingers. 
 Observations were then made as to the muscles of 
 these parts. The state of the heart, lungs, teeth, and 
 urine was examined, and the patient's weight was 
 recorded. As the result of these examinations, it 
 was observed that frequently there was marked 
 fidgetiness, and irregular movement of the trunk 
 and limbs ; the trunk was often swayed about — 
 
TOOTH-GRINDING. 119 
 
 frequently it was inclined backwards, apparently 
 to preserve equilibrium, while the hands were held 
 out in front. Twitchings of the fingers * were very 
 commonly seen, the movements being usually of 
 independent digits, and most commonly either 
 lateral or flexor, less commonly extensor ; the lateral 
 movements appeared to be the most characteristic. 
 The totigue was, usually very unsteady, but not 
 distinctly jerked in and out, as in chorea. Twitch- 
 ings of the facial muscles were not very common. 
 
 A certain passive condition of the hand and face 
 will be referred to presently. In a large proportion 
 of the cases, the teeth were found flattened on their 
 edges, as the result of " tooth-grinding ; " the teeth 
 mostly ground were the incisors and canines, but the 
 special teeth flattened depended upon their arrange- 
 ment in the jaws. The pupils were measured in 
 some cases with a catheter-gauge, after the manner 
 suggested by Mr. Hutchinson. No special con- 
 clusion was arrived at ; on the average, they were 
 not large, except in a few cases near the age of 
 puberty. 
 
 The nervous hand was found to be very common; 
 the expression of headache in the face was fre- 
 quently seen, or rather, I should say, a certain 
 facial expression indicative of depression was 
 often observed, and, when seen, appeared to give 
 strong evidence, characterizing the child as the 
 subject of recurrent headaches. To analyze this 
 condition of the face, the faces of adults, the subjects 
 of migraine, were studied. The most noticeable 
 • See Figs. 12, 13. 
 
120 rUYSlCAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 point was the look of depression, and heaviness and 
 fullness about the eyes, especially the under eyelid. 
 If a paper were held so as to cover either half of the 
 face, the expression observed still remained, proving 
 the condition of the face bilateral ; if the forehead 
 above the eyebrows were covered, or the face below 
 the lower margin of the orbit, in each case the 
 expression seemed still apparent; while, if the 
 paper were held so as to cover that portion of 
 the face which lies between the eyebrows and the 
 lower margin of the orbit, it seemed impossible to 
 recognize the peculiar fades under consideration. 
 It appears that this expression must be due prin- 
 cipally to the condition of the orbicularis palpe- 
 brarum. Specially observing this muscle and the 
 parts adjacent, there seemed to be a loss of tone in 
 the muscle ; there was an appearance of fullness and 
 flabbiness about the lower eyelid; the skin hung 
 too loose, with an increase in the number of folds ; 
 and, in place of falling against the lower eyelid 
 neatly, as a convex surface, it fell more or less in a 
 plane from the ciliary margin to the lower margin 
 of the orbit, a condition that is often best seen by 
 looking at the patient's face in profile. This condi- 
 tion of the parts about the eye was unaccompanied 
 by any general change in the skin of the face, such 
 as the. flabbiness seen in emphysema, and the loose 
 inelastic skin of senile decay; further, the facial 
 expression is not at aU necessarily permanent, but 
 may disappear with improving health, and it is 
 removed if the patient can be made to laugh. It 
 is not suggested that this muscular condition only 
 
COLOURED VISION WITH HEADACHE. 121 
 
 accompanies headache ; it appears common to other 
 conditions of depression. 
 
 Having attempted to demonstrate that we may 
 ascertain something of the condition of the brain in 
 these nervous children by observing these muscular 
 movements, we may now look for signs of irritation 
 of the cranial nerves. Evidence of disturbance of the 
 motor division o^the fifth nerve is seen in the great 
 frequency of tooth-grinding; the condition of the 
 muscles supplied by the facial and hypoglossal nerves 
 has been referred to. Irritation of the pneumogastric 
 nerve appears to be indicated by many symptoms. 
 The varying appetite, which is often voracious, 
 though nutrition is deficient, while at other times 
 it is markedly defective, the frequent epigastric pain, 
 and the retching or vomiting with headache, appear 
 to indicate disturbance of the gastric branches; 
 occasional palpitation without heart-disease, and 
 the frequent hacking cough without signs of lung 
 or throat mischief, indicate probable irritation of 
 the cardiac and respiratory branches. 
 
 As to the disturbance of sensory nerves, it was 
 difficult to obtain evidence, as the patients were 
 often unable to describe their sensations with 
 accuracy. In five cases, varying from nine to 
 fourteen years of age, distinct dyssesthesia of vision 
 accompanied the attacks of headache, the patient 
 seeing colours, sparks, or other illusions during the 
 attack of headache ; in all but one case, the mother 
 also suifered such spectra with headache. 
 
 Tooth-grinding is produced by the action of the 
 deeply situated pterygoid muscles ; champing of the 
 7 
 
122 PHYSICAL EXPRESSIOX. 
 
 jaws is produced by the masseter and temporal 
 muscles ; all these muscles are supplied by the fifth 
 nerve, and it is to their condition that we must 
 look for information as to the condition of the cen- 
 tral origin of the nerve. Tooth-grinding, when it 
 has become a habit, is indicated by the flattened 
 condition of the tips or edges of the teeth, which may 
 be ground down — a sign that may be particularly 
 seen in the incisors and canines. Ground teeth are 
 very common in nervous children, such as those 
 who suffer from recurrent headaches, restless sleep, 
 somnambulism, and finger-twitching. In lunatic 
 asylums and wards for imbeciles it is very common 
 to hear tooth -grinding on every side ; in such cases 
 tooth-grinding is a sign of central irritation of the 
 fifth nerve. It is well to bear in mind that the 
 sensory branches of this nerve supply the membranes 
 of the brain and the external parts of the head. 
 
 Seeing that the slight disturbances occurring 
 during sleep in many children causes the pterygoids 
 to contract rhythmically, it is not surprising that 
 grave disease should cause spasm of the other 
 muscles supplied by the fifth nerve, as in epilepsy 
 and hysteria. 
 
 The ninth nerve is motor to the tongue, and this 
 organ being a mass of muscular fibres running in 
 various directions almost unsupported by bones, is 
 very sensitive to changes in the nerve-centres. In 
 chorea the tongue is often jerked in and out in a 
 manner quite characteristic of the disease ; in other 
 cases it is easily kept protruded, and its substance 
 is seen to be in a condition of constant movement. 
 
HEADACHES IN CHILDREN. 123 
 
 Such irregular movement is also very common in 
 nervous children ; a tremulous tongue is characteris- 
 tic of alcoholism, and general paralysis of the insane. 
 
 As to the condition o£ the mental centres, dis- 
 turbed and restless sleep was very common ; night- 
 terrors were frequent ; often the child would scream 
 out that " a lot of people were coming to kill him," 
 that he "saw thg school-board man" coming, etc. 
 In six cases, there was the distinct history of 
 somnambulism ; in four of these, the acts performed 
 during sleepvhad been complicated and curious; in one 
 case, that of a boy nine years old, such attacks were 
 frequent at the time he came under observation, 
 on account of his headaches ; in the remaining cases, 
 somnambulism had occurred at an earlier period. 
 
 In seeking the lines of causation of recurrent 
 headaches in children, the cases were arranged in 
 a tabular form according to age and sex. 
 
 Ages 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9 10 lO-U 11-12 12-13 13-15 
 
 Males 25 1228212 2 4 1 
 Females 33 02312 5 5 4 2 4 5 
 
 Totals 58 1459467 6 6 5 5 
 
 As among other groups of nervous cases, the 
 preponderance of number is with the female sex. 
 Heredity appeared to produce a marked predisposi- 
 tion to this neurotic condition. There was a history 
 of recurrent headaches in the mother in twenty- 
 four cases, and in the father in eight, while in three 
 cases there were examples of insanity in the family. 
 
 As to treatment, the restless, excitable condition 
 of these children, and the great want of rest in sleep. 
 
124 PHYSICAL EXPBESSION. 
 
 appeared to indicate the use of bromides and other 
 sedatives ; and this plan of treatment was generally- 
 adopted, tonics being occasionally used, together 
 with small doses of chloral at night for short periods, 
 till the habit of sleep was induced. Under treat- 
 ment, marked improvement occurred in many cases, 
 the child gaining one or two pounds in weight in 
 a month or six weeks, at the same time losing the 
 headaches, sleeping quietly at night, and again 
 becoming fit for a child's school-life. 
 
 Dr. Hughlings Jackson (Lancet, July 11th, 1875) 
 has shown that, in cases of chorea, paroxysmal head- 
 aches are of common occurrence. Dr. Herman col- 
 lected the histories of seventy-six cases of chorea, 
 and found that paroxysmal headaches occurred in 
 fifty-three cases ; in these, the headaches were not 
 often preceded by ocular spectra. In the group of 
 cases described in this paper, certain active and 
 passive conditions of the muscles, especially the 
 small muscles, are commonly met with in conjunc- 
 tion with disturbance of the higher nerve-centres ; 
 this appears to afford evidence that the two con- 
 ditions may be owing to disturbance of the same 
 nerve-centres, possibly the same as are affected in 
 a greater degree in chorea. A girl, thirteen years 
 of age, came under observation, complaining of 
 frequent headaches, with ocular spectra, restless 
 nights, tooth-grinding, and slight muscular twitch- 
 ings, such as have been described. She had never 
 suffered from rheumatism, but the family were 
 rheumatic; she had no cardiac disease. Three 
 years previously, she had had acute general chorea 
 
FINGER-TWITCHINQ. 125 
 
 for four months ; it is submitted that probably the 
 same nerve-centres were affected in the greater and 
 lesser illness, but in a different degree. 
 
 The varieties of finger-twitching have been 
 referred to. They may be described as — 
 
 (1) Flexor-extensor; the primary movement being 
 that of flexion, followed by a secondary extensor 
 movement. Thig may be seen in a variety of cases, 
 and in particular is seen in what is called " picking 
 the bedclothes " in the typhoid state preceding fully 
 developed coma. 
 
 (2) Extensor-flexor; the primaiy movement being 
 that of extension, followed by a secondary flexor 
 movement. This is common in the slighter forms 
 of chorea and in nervous children ; such twitches 
 usually constitute the subsultus tendinum so indica- 
 tive of exhaustion in the course of typhoid fever. 
 
 (3) Abductor-adductor twitches ; the movements 
 consisting in lateral separations of the fingers, 
 followed by their being drawn together again. 
 
 As to " finger-twitching," the " nervous hand," and 
 " the relaxed orbicularis oculi," the following statis- 
 tics are from an analysis of thirty-four cases from 
 my note-books of the East London Children's 
 Hospital : — 
 
 Finger-tmkhings in 19. — Twitchings alone . . in 8 cases. 
 With the nervous hand „ 8 
 With relaxed orbicularis „ 3 
 
 19 
 
 The nermuB hand m 19 — Nervous hand alone . „ 7 
 With twitchings . . „ 8 
 With relaxed orbicularis ., 4 
 
 19 
 
126 PHYSICAIi EXPRESSION. 
 
 Orhicularus relaxed in lO.^Orbicularis relaxed alone in 3 eascB. 
 With the nervous hand „ 4 „ 
 With twitchings . . „ 3 „ 
 
 10 „ 
 
 As to the general character of this group of thirty- 
 four nervous cases in which nerve-muscular signs 
 were specially noted, no cases of known organic 
 brain disease were included, and all were under fif- 
 teen years of age. I have abstracted and summarized 
 the diagnosis of the nineteen cases in which the 
 " nervous hand " was seen : — " Headaches," 6 ; " neu- 
 rotic temperament," 3 ; " anaemia and headaches," 2 ; 
 " headache and somnambulism," 1 ; "restless sleep," 1 ; 
 " laryngismus," 1 ; "a dull child with congenital 
 ptosis," 1 ; " old rickets," 1 ; " debility," 2 ; " slight 
 chorea," 1. The cases of " finger- twitching " had the 
 same general characters as those with the " nervous 
 hand," therefore I do not further describe them. 
 
 As to the kinds of finger-twitching, the varieties 
 were noted as foUows ; — Simple twitching, 9 ; flexor 
 and adductor, 5; flexor, 3; abductor-adductor, 1; 
 extensor and abductor-adductor, 1. As shown in 
 the tables above, the "nervous hand " was associated 
 with " finger-twitches " in eight cases. 
 
 In cases where the right and left hands were com- 
 pared, we find a difference in six cases, always to the 
 disadvantage of the left hand ; it specially presented 
 "the nervous position" in four cases, and finger- 
 twitches were specially marked on the left side in 
 two cases. 
 
 The cases with "relaxed orbicularis" were 
 specially marked by recurrent headaches, some with 
 optical illusions and scarlet zigzag forms. 
 
ATHETOSIS. 127 
 
 In two cases herpes zoster occurred while under 
 observation. 
 
 Athetosis is a condition of brain disease charac- 
 terized during the life of the patient by movements, 
 more or less constant, in the muscles of the extremi- 
 ties. Athetosis usually affects one side of the body 
 only, but may affect both sides. The movements 
 are much slower than those .of chorea, and are not 
 usually a series of gesticulations, but differ in their 
 combinations from the movements performed in 
 health. The plate gives the common postures seen 
 in their different cases j they are postures that would 
 not be assumed under the guidance of a normal 
 brain influenced by emotions. 
 
 To give some idea of the expression of this con- 
 dition of brain disease, I quote the account of the 
 movements seen in three cases which I published.* 
 
 Case I. — Athetosis with Epilepsy. 
 
 The girl was of fair stature, rather pale and thii, 
 and of weak intellectual power. She could walk, 
 assist her mother iii the house, and answer ques- 
 tions, but was very dull and apathetic. - ' 
 
 When seen the following descriptibn was taken ; 
 — The left upper extremity is almost useless for most 
 voluntary purposes on account of the condition of 
 the hand. If told to put her hand to her mouth, 
 or to the back of her head, the hand gets there, 
 being moved slowly and awkwardly by the action 
 of the muscles moving the shoulder and Jelbow; but 
 though flexion and extension of the elbow be suffi- 
 • " Brtiin," part xiii. 
 
128 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 ciently volun- 
 tary to perform 
 such acts, invo- 
 luntary move- 
 ments of prona- 
 tion occur, while 
 the hand is being 
 moved up to 
 the mouth. All 
 through the time 
 of the general 
 movementofthis 
 limb it is obvious 
 that there is 
 much perfectly 
 involuntary 
 movement of 
 the wrist, often 
 causing marked 
 flexion, or affect- 
 ing independent 
 digits. 
 
 As to the con- 
 dition of the 
 hand, the de- 
 scription was 
 taken while the 
 forearm was 
 gently supported 
 by the mother, 
 the wrist being 
 left perfectly 
 
CASKS OF ATHETOSIS. 129 
 
 free. It was then noted : The wrist droops, the meta- 
 caq)us hanging straight down, but frequently supi- 
 nated rather quickly, but not in a jerky manner ; 
 the hand then passes slowly back to its former 
 position, the series of movements being repeated. 
 Flexion and extension of the wrist through a few 
 degrees are nearly constant movements. 
 
 The movements of the fingers are almost inces- 
 sant, the primary and quickest movements being 
 flexor, followed by slower extension. The move- 
 ments are slower than the jerks of chorea, and 
 more deliberate, not looking like gesticulations; 
 they are purposeless and gliding in kind. 
 
 The fingers are constantly going through gro- 
 tesque movements, sometimes crossing one another, 
 sometimes one is extended, while the others are 
 flexed ; there are no adductor and abductor twitches, 
 such as are usually seen in chorea; the thumb is 
 mostly turned in on the palm, but is also often 
 extended. These finger movements appear utterly 
 purposeless, looking as if the tendons were merely 
 pulling upon dead fingers, as an automaton pulled 
 by strings, or like the movements of a boneless 
 limb, such as an elephant's trunk or an anemone's 
 tentacle. The metacarpal bones are rather con- 
 tracted together by the arching of the palm of the 
 hand, giving it a narrow appearance. 
 
 Case II. — Athetosis associated with Chronic 
 Hydrocephalus. 
 
 His general health was good, and no disease was 
 detected in any organ but the brain. The condition 
 
Case 1 
 
 Fig. 16. — Cases of Athetosis showing Hand Postures. 
 
BILATEEAL ATHETOSIS. 131 
 
 of the right upper extremity especially attracted 
 attention. The following description is compiled 
 from notes taken on various occasions : — 
 
 The limb was useless for any purposive move- 
 ments; there was no voluntary power over the 
 hand, and but little over the shoulder and elbow. 
 When a flower was held up to the child, he looked 
 at it and made a noise, evidently indicating his 
 pleasure, then moved his left hand to the flower, 
 took hold of it, and tried to put it to his mouth. 
 He could not take the flower with his right hand 
 
 The wrist was frequently kept half flexed, while 
 the fingers were extended and flexed generally 
 altogether, in a slow and rhythmical manner. Pro- 
 nation and supination were not common ; the move- 
 ments of the wrist were usually confined to flexion 
 and extension of the fingers as described. 
 
 The hand was moved when pricked. There was 
 no difierence between the similar measurements in 
 the two arms, but there was some rigidity of the 
 right arm. The right leg was weak, but presented 
 no athetosis. 
 
 Here the condition of the limb was associated 
 with brain disease and convulsions. The move- 
 ments occurred in a paralyzed arm, and were more 
 limited in extent than in Case I. 
 
 Case III. — Double Athetotis not associated with 
 Epilepsy. 
 
 Eliza R., aged four and a half years. She was 
 a playful, intelligent, pleasing little girl, good and 
 well-behaved, and soon became a general favourite. 
 
132 PHYSICAL EXPEESSIOX. 
 
 Her general health was good, and development 
 appeared good in all particulars, but for the athe- 
 tosis ; she was well nourished. 
 
 The child was unable to stand or do anything for 
 herself on account of the movements of the hands 
 and feet, associated with which there was, no doubt, 
 some want of muscular power. The muscular con- 
 dition of the head and face appeared natural There 
 appeared to be a fair amount of voluntary power 
 over the shoulders and elbows, so that she could 
 hold a doll to her. When told to take hold of a 
 toy she brings her hand to it, but is unable to open 
 the fingers so as to clasp it ; all through the time 
 of this eflfort the fingers are in constant movement. 
 When the object is placed in her hand she clutches 
 it and is unable to drop it. 
 
 Supporting the left upper extremity free from 
 the trunk by holding the humerus, it was possible 
 to observe the following movements succeeding in 
 a rhythmical manner. 
 
 The wrist was frequently bent backwards, and 
 sometimes abducted. The thumb is mostly bent 
 in on the palm, turned in under the index finger. 
 The fingers are frequently extended at the meta- 
 carpo-phalangeal joints, remaining flexed at the 
 inter-phalangeal joints. The greatest power of 
 extension seems to be of the index finger. In 
 getting the hand near an object it moves about 
 much before it comes in contact with the object, 
 and then cannot grasp it on account of the condition 
 of the fingers. The fingers are usually kept flexed ; 
 she cannot spread them voluntarily. When the 
 
DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT. 133 
 
 child is played with, her fingers spread open spon- 
 taneously, as also when attention is specially drawn 
 to the other hand. When one's finger is slipped 
 into her hand, her fingers grasp it, and cannot let it 
 go unless the fingers happen to open of themselves. 
 When she makes an effort and puts her legs out 
 of bed to show her feet, the involuntary movements 
 of the hands apd fingers are increased, and move- 
 ments of pronation and supination are noticeable. 
 
 The toes of both feet are continually being flexed 
 and extended, but these movements are less in 
 degree, and less characteristic in kind than those 
 of the hands. She can kick her legs about in bed, 
 but cannot walk. 
 
 The eyes and special senses are normal, and 
 general sensation is good. Heart and lungs healthy. 
 
 The movements are very strange and purposeless ; 
 in kind they have more resemblance to voluntary 
 movements than is usual in athetosis, and less of 
 the gliding, successive-rhythmical character. 
 
 During sleep the hands are usually quiet. 
 
 This condition of the child appeared to have 
 existed from birth. There were no signs of pro- 
 gressive disease. 
 
 The family were quite healthy. 
 
 Defective Developmental Conditions as seen 
 
 PEINCIPALLT IN ChILDKEN.* 
 
 In seeking for explanation of the circumstances 
 attendant upon and causing some of the special 
 
 * From Medical Timet and Gazette, January 21, January 28, 
 and February 11, 1882. 
 
134 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 developmental conditions commonly found in 
 children, it seems necessary, first, to arrange and 
 examine cases of gross and obvious deformities, 
 where the kind of ill-developments, and any co- 
 existing defects and consequent deviations from 
 normal function, may be easily observed and re- 
 corded. JFor this purpose I have abstracted from 
 my case- books the notes of twenty- three cases, 
 imbeciles and idiots being generally passed over. 
 These are arranged as follows : — 
 
 Group I. 
 
 Case 1. — Heart-defect — Fingers clubbed — Cya- 
 nosis — Palate cleft. 
 
 Case 2. — Heart-defect — No cyanosis — Deformity 
 of hands — Epilepsy in family. 
 
 Case 3. — Mitral and tricuspid disease — No cya- 
 nosis — Malformation of hands. 
 
 Case 4. — Heart-defect — Congenital cyanosis — 
 Left hemiplegia, dependent upon defect of right 
 hemisphere — Bell's paralysis on right side of face, 
 with deformity of right ear. 
 
 Case 5. — Heart-defect without cardiac symptoms 
 — No cyanosis — One ear deformed. 
 
 Case 6. — Congenital heart-defect, with a varying 
 bruit — No cyanosis — Patency of inter-auricular 
 septum — Want of power in legs from birth, with 
 some rigidity of left. 
 
 JRemarks on Group /.—This series of six cases 
 illustrates the concurrence of congenital defect of 
 the heart with other deformities, e.g. cleft-palate, 
 defects of hands, ill-formed ears, congenital defect 
 
DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEART. 135 
 
 of brain. Of this latter many examples might be 
 added, and I propose at another time to give more 
 examples of concurrent defects of heart and nerve- 
 centres. In some of these patients the heart was 
 specially examined, not on account of any signs of 
 heart-defect, but in the search for examples of con- 
 current congenital defects. (Edema was absent in 
 all these cases. . Cyanosis was present in Cases 1 and 
 4, and absent in the other four cases of this group. 
 
 Group II. 
 
 CASES WITH EVIDENCE OF CONGENITAL HEART- 
 DEFECT, NOT ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER KNOWN 
 DEFORMITIES. 
 
 Case 7. — Heart-defect — Cardiac hypertrophy — 
 No bruit — Marked cyanosis — Convulsions — No 
 other defects. 
 
 Case 8. — Heart-defect— No cyanosis — Bruit in 
 pulmonary area — No other defects. 
 
 Cased. — Heart-defect — Cyanosis— Bulbous fingers 
 — No other deformities. 
 
 Case 10. — Heart-defect — Cyanosis — No clubbing 
 of fingers or toes — No other deformity. 
 
 Case 11. — Heart-defect — ^Varying amount of cya- 
 nosis — No bruit^— No other deformities. 
 
 Bemarks on Groups I. and II. — Of these eleven 
 cases of heart-defect no co-existing deformity was 
 found in five. Cyanosis was present in six cases 
 out of the eleven ; and it is noteworthy that of 
 these cyanotic cases the larger proportion were in 
 Group II., where no co-existing deformities were 
 
136 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 found. In Case 10 cyanosis was more marked in 
 the feet than in the hands. As to the signs of the 
 presence of heart-disease, bruits were present in nine 
 cases ; hypertrophy, evidenced by forcible impulse, 
 distinct area of dulness, strong pulse, or proven by 
 autopsy, was present in seven cases ; irregularity of 
 action was present in three children. Clubbing of 
 the fingers in three cases was noticed. No symp- 
 toms dependent upon the heart-defect were noted 
 in six of the cases given. In six cases some kind 
 of evidence was obtainable as to causation. I 
 found no evidence of "maternal impression" as a 
 cause of congenital defects of the heart ; but there 
 was evidence against the family in four cases in 
 such particulars as to many deaths or several mis- 
 carriages preceding the birth of the patient. In 
 two cases there was no bruit, and in another case 
 the presence of a bruit was very doubtful 
 
 Group III. 
 
 CASES OF CLEFT-PALATE. 
 
 Case 12. — Cleft-palate — No heart-defect — Head 
 small. 
 
 Case 13. — Cleft-palate — No heart-defect — Head 
 small — Premature birth — Marasmus. 
 
 Remarks on Group III. — Neither of these cases 
 presented any known coexisting deformity, but in 
 Case 1 a heart-defect accompanied cleft-palate. 
 Such a coincidence appears not improbable, and is 
 worth looking for in other cleft-palate patients as 
 a question affecting prognosis and the safety of 
 chloroform in operating, etc 
 
MISCELLAKEOUS CASES. 137 
 
 Group IV. 
 
 DEFORMED UPPER EXTREMITY, AND INTRA-UTERINE 
 AMPUTATIONS. 
 
 Case 14. — Fingers webbed — Ears not symmetrical 
 ■ — Excessive epicanthic fold * — Cerebral deficiency. 
 
 Case 15. — Deformed hand — Intra-uterine ampu- 
 tation (?) — Nq other defect. 
 
 Case 16. — Deformed arm — Intra-uterine ampu- 
 tation (?) — No other defect. 
 
 BemarJcs on Oroup IV. — Two of these cases pre- 
 senting defective upper extremities looked as if 
 they had been intra-uterine amputations, and 
 being traumatic, and accidental rather than de- 
 velopmental, it is not surprising that no other 
 defect coexisted. In Case 14 we see coexisting 
 defects. The asymmetry of the ears and the 
 webbed fingers were surely developmental defects, 
 and they were accompanied by defective develop- 
 ment of hands. 
 
 Group V. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS CASES. 
 
 Case 17. — Double coloboma of iris — No other 
 defect. 
 
 Case 18. — Congenital smallness of one eye — No 
 other defect. 
 
 Case 19. — Deformity of right ear and temporal 
 bone — No other defect — Rickets. 
 
 ♦The term "epicanthic "fold is applied to the portion of skin that 
 lies at the inner angle of the opening of the eyes towards the nose. 
 This is occasionally developed as a kind of web, called the 
 epicanthic fold. 
 
138 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 Case 20. — Congenital jaundice — Double hydrocele. 
 
 Case 21. — Ichthyosis — No other deformity. 
 
 Case 22. — Ichthyosis, moderate in degi'ee — No 
 other defect. 
 
 Case 23. — Ichthyosis — Deformity of both ears — 
 Heart healthy. 
 
 Of the twenty-three cases, thirteen were males and 
 ten females. Looking at these cases from the point 
 of view indicated, the following points seem worthy 
 of consideration : — The coexistence of deformities 
 was not uncommon. This is seen in all the cases 
 in Group I., also in Cases 14 and 20; while in 
 Nos. 12 and 13 the head was also below the 
 average size. The family history is noteworthy as 
 giving indications of possible causation. In Cases 
 2, 6, 10, and 14, a feeble constitution in the 
 family is indicated by miscarriages, many deaths, 
 insanity with epilepsy in previous members of the 
 families before the birth of the patients described. 
 It also appears in some histories that the tendency 
 to ill-development exhausted itself, the later 
 members of the family appearing healthy. The 
 secondary effects of the congenital defect are im- 
 portant. Defect of heart may lead to cyanosis, 
 clubbed fingers, and perhaps low temperature; it 
 is also said to lead to a low mental development. If 
 the internal ears are faulty, dumbness may follow ; 
 obstruction of the common bile-duct must secon- 
 darily cause jaundice. Ichthyosis being attended 
 with inaction of the skin, secondary bronchitis is 
 common. Cleft-palate may lead to atrophy from 
 inanition, and a head below size may lead to 
 
DEFECTS IN DEVELOPMENT. 139 
 
 general organic feebleness ; but the former condition 
 may be rectified, and not lead to atrophy ; in a 
 former paper (Bntish Medical Journal, October 30, 
 1880) I showed that small-headed children may, 
 under proper care, develop a fairly sized brain. 
 Here the developmental defect is, to some extent, 
 removed. Of the eleven cases of heart-defect only 
 one appears tp have had convulsions — a symptom 
 constantly inquired for. This case (No. 7) was 
 cyanotic ; there were, however, six cases of cyanosis 
 without any history of convulsions. 
 
 It will probably be admitted that in the structure 
 and general anatomy of the human body "the 
 normal " is but the average as it is found ; and so 
 difficult is it in all the organized world to define 
 and distinguish accurately between " the variation 
 and the monster," either in the seedling plant which 
 is different from its ancestors, or in the " genius " in 
 the human species, that we must look carefully 
 before we say that any specimen is monstrous or 
 diseased ; but in the gross cases above narrated the 
 abnormality is obvious. Possibly, in these co- 
 existing defects of development we may see some 
 explanation of the accompaniment of vulgar faces 
 and low minds, i.e. low development of the brain ; 
 when such samples are seen in a family it may be 
 well to look for the lines of causation in the de- 
 scending scale of the development of the family. 
 Among common defects may be enumerated de- 
 fective or excessive ossification of the skull, excess 
 of the epicanthic fold, defects of the eyeball, 
 webbing of fingers and toes, naevus, etc. 
 
140 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 POSTURES CONSIDERED AS MEANS OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 Definition of a posture — Simplicity of study — Historical records of 
 postures — Postures of all parts — ^A change of posture is move- 
 ment — A posture is due to resultant action of muscles 
 and their nerve-centres — It is a direct mode of expression — 
 Free or disengaged parts most expressive — A limh labouring is 
 not sus-eptible to mental expression — Organic postures, as 
 from difficult breathing— Postures due to gravity — Effect of 
 gravity on plants — Gravity acts differently during sleep — It 
 can affect the postures of the face — Postures due to reflex 
 action — Spontaneous postures — Fallacies — Classification and 
 aniilysis of postures — Coincident postures — Symmetry — ^Pos- 
 tures in a:'t — Postures in animals — Postuies in plants — 
 Summary. 
 
 The term "posture" indicates the relative position of 
 the several members of the body with regard to one 
 another and the body in general, or the relative 
 position of the individual parts of a member. The^ 
 study of postures as means of expression is, in 
 some respects, simpler than the study of move- 
 ments, as means of expression; for a posture is a 
 condition of quiescence, and, as such, is more easily 
 observed, described, and analyzed. Further postures 
 can be represented by verbal description, by casts, 
 photographs, or drawings; they have been repre- 
 sented in works of art from ancient times, in 
 
MECHANISM OF POSTURES. 141 
 
 statues and in drawings, in wall decorations, and 
 on pottery, so that the history of expression by 
 postures can be studied with considerable complete- 
 ness and precision. The posture of a limb depends 
 upon the relative position of the bones of the limb ; 
 and this depends in its immediate mechanism upon 
 the result and action of the opposing muscles which 
 move the limb.^the relative tone of the antagonistic 
 flexors and extensors, the adductors and abductors, 
 the pronators and supinators, etc. The posture of 
 the limb is the result of the balance of the opposing 
 muscles. It may be said, then, that a posture is the j 
 resultant action of the balance of the opposing 
 muscles which move a part of the body. Taking 
 this meaning of the term posture, we may speak of 
 postures of other parts of the body besides the 
 limbs. The eyes are members moved by opposing 
 muscles ; we may, then, speak of their relative posi- 
 tion to one another, and the position of each with 
 regard to the axis of the orbit, as the postures of 
 the eyes. In the face the different parts are called 
 features. The cheeks, the openings of the eyes, nose, 
 and mouth, are features of the face. 
 
 The features of the face are moved by opposing 
 muscles, so that it is convenient to speak of the 
 postures of the face, or facial postures, as the result 
 of the action or tone of the facial muscles. We 
 n^y also speak of postures of the head and trunk. 
 
 A change of posture is the effect of movement ; 
 the posture is the result of the last movement ; the 
 cause of the last movement is therefore the cause of 
 the posture. We may describe in anatomical terms 
 
142 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 the open extended hand and the closed hand ; to 
 say that the hand changes from one posture to the 
 other is one method of describing the movement 
 that has occurred. If movements are expressive, 
 postures must be expressive for the same reasons. 
 
 Postures, like movements, may be taken as in- 
 dices of the action, and of the condition of the 
 central nerve-system, because they are the result of 
 the action of the central nerve-system upon the 
 muscles. The posture of the hand, or other part, is 
 the result of the balance of the muscles of the part. 
 The position of the bones of the limb is the re- 
 sultant of the action of the muscles, and is regu- 
 lated, to a large extent, by the nerve-system. To 
 consider one part only, let us take the hand and 
 forearm. I have hitherto spoken as though only 
 one stimulus could come from the nerve-centres to 
 the muscles of the limb at the same time; it is 
 probable that many nerve -centres, or portions of 
 the central mechanism, are together sending stimu- 
 lating currents to the muscles, and that the balance 
 of muscular action is the result of the balance of the 
 action of many nerve-centres. It is, however, not 
 necessary for our purpose to enter upon this dis- 
 cussion as to whether one or many nerve-centres 
 cause a posture ; we can proceed, neglecting this 
 point and making the admissions that the balance 
 of the muscular action which regulates the posture 
 of a limb is the outcome of some portion of the 
 central nerve-mechanism. A posture, when thus 
 produced, is a direct expression of the action of 
 some part of the nerve-mechanism. 
 
CHANGE OF POSTURES. 143 
 
 We will suppose that the right arm, as in Diana 
 (see Fig. 34), is holding a spear firmly; a strong 
 nerve-current is being sent to the muscles of the right 
 forearm, causing the hand to grasp the spear. In 
 order that this position of the hand may change, the 
 stimuli coming to the muscles of the limb must 
 change ; they may be all reduced in strength, or their 
 relative strength may be altered. If the woman is 
 startled, she may drop her spear; if she meet a 
 friend, she may purposely throw it away, and then 
 the hand is free to be acted upon again by its 
 nerve-mechanism, the action in the hand produced 
 by the central organ being thus directly expressed. 
 It is iir a free and disengaged limb or part that we 
 best see direct expression. The hand of an ener- 
 getic speaker, if it is not engaged in leaning on the 
 table, or holding a paper, etc., will often express by 
 its movements the general mental state of the 
 speaker. The limb is moved by the strongest motor 
 stimuli that come to its muscles. We see, then, that 
 in the case supposed, the strongest motor impulses 
 coming to the muscles of the limb when it is 
 disengaged, are in some way connected with the 
 mental condition of the subject. If, on commencing 
 to speak, the man hold his hat in his left hand, it is 
 probable that he will continue to hold it throughout 
 his speech. The motor currents to the left side are 
 continuing uninterruptedly, but it may be that (as 
 it is said) his emotion may be so strong, that the 
 current produced by emotion proceeding to his arm 
 will be stronger than the original current ; then he 
 will drop his hat and gesticulate with his arm. It 
 
144< PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 is, then, in free and disengaged limbs and parts that 
 we see the best examples of direct expression of 
 mental conditions. Examples of free and disen- 
 gaged parts may now be compared with examples 
 of the engaged stimulated condition of the same 
 parts. 
 
 The hand of a labourer is seen engaged in 
 digging with his spade ; his nerve-muscular energy- 
 is expended in holding and driving his spade. It 
 would, under such circumstances, require a very 
 strong nerve-current sent to those muscles to alter 
 this forcible stimulus. Hence, the hand engaged in 
 digging is not very impressionable and expressive 
 of the finer motor actions of the nerve-mechanism. 
 When the man puts aside his spade, and talks, 
 especially if at rest, his hand gesticulates and ex- 
 presses his emotions. 
 
 The head is a part or member of the body usually 
 disengaged, and easily moved by slight stimuli; 
 hence movements and postures of the head are 
 usually highly expressive. The head may, how- 
 ever, be not free to move under a slight stimulus, 
 as when a costermonger or fisher-womau carries 
 a basket on the head. 
 
 The eyes move freely in their orbits, and their 
 movements give much expression. The eyes may, 
 however, be strongly attracted to an object, as a 
 light (this is probably a reflex action). When the 
 eyes are thus fixed, they are not easily moved by 
 slight stimuli, and cannot be said to be free and 
 disengaged. 
 
 The face, again, is a region in which the muscles 
 
( 145 ) 
 
 I 
 
146 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 are usually free to be stimulated to contraction by 
 slight causes. The capacity of the face for expres- 
 sion exceeds that of any other part of the body. 
 The mobility of the face varies greatly, and there 
 are circumstances under which the facial muscles 
 are not free for the expressions of emotion, as when 
 eating, and when a strong light causes spasmodic 
 contraction of the orbicular muscles of the eyes. 
 
 Postures of the body may be due to organic con- 
 ditions ; they may be due to conditions of the 
 organs, and not express the simple action of the 
 nerve-mechanism. Thus, in spasmodic asthma, the 
 patient, if lying in bed at the commencement of 
 the seizure, is obliged at once to rise up, and he sits 
 leaning forward, with his knees drawn up, his elbows 
 on his knees, and his head supported by his hands, 
 labouring for his breath. Various postures are 
 assumed to facilitate respiration ; the patient stands 
 erect, with his head thrown backwards, seizing 
 some object to give greater vigour to his efforts, or 
 he leans the head forward on his hands. Such 
 postures are assumed to enable the respiratory 
 muscles to act with greater mechanical advantage. 
 In heart-disease the patient is often unable to lie 
 down, and sits in bed, or in his chair, supported by 
 pillows. Sir Charles Bell * draws attention to pos- 
 tures resulting from organic conditions in his 
 criticism upon the Dying Gladiator (see p. 303). 
 
 Gravity is often a factor of great potency in 
 producing postures of the body. All living bodies 
 are under the influence of the same laws of gravity 
 * Op. eit., p. 194. 
 
EFFECT OF GRAVITY OK POSTURES. 147 
 
 as non-living things. The general effects of gravity 
 as affecting the growth and development of animals 
 have been referred to by many authors, but the effect 
 of gravity as a stimulus upon growing or mobile 
 parts in animals has been but little investigated. In 
 plants gravity influences growth in such a manner 
 as to produce various movements.* 
 
 Gravity may .be a factor in causing postures in 
 the human body in two different ways. 
 
 Gravity produces a tendency in a limb to fall 
 downwards, i.e. to place itself with its centre of 
 gravity as low as possible. Thus, when the muscles 
 of a man's arms are not stimulated to action by 
 nerve-currents, and still the man stands erect, the 
 aims, under the influence of gravity, fall by his 
 sides. When in a strong man the head bends to 
 one side, it tends to become erect again ; that is, 
 the muscles tend to resume such a balance that 
 they are in equal tension on the two sides. This 
 may receive some explanation on the supposition 
 that when gravity causes the muscles on the convex 
 side to be strained, a nerve-stimulus is received by 
 those muscles through reflex action causing them 
 to contract. It must, however, be borne in mind 
 that the facts concerning growth of seedling plants 
 show that living cells ma3' be directly stimulated 
 to certain kinds of action by gravity. 
 
 The face is affected by the action of gravity 
 
 when paralyzed or passive. The jaw drops when 
 
 the masticatory muscles are relaxed, and when the 
 
 facial muscles are paralyzed, the tissues of the face 
 
 * Prantl and Vinos. " Text-book of Botany," p. 87. 
 
148 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 fall in their relative position to the skull -which 
 supports them. This is easily observed in cases 
 of palsy of one side of the face, where the position 
 of the features on the two sides is easily compared.* 
 Postures of the face may then in part be due to 
 gravity. As far as I know, the positions of the eyes 
 are not affected by gravity. One of the indications 
 or expressions of a moderate conditions of sleepiness 
 or debility is that the head is not kept erect ; gravity 
 fails to stimulate the muscles put on a slight strain 
 by bending (inclining) the head to one side. 
 
 In looking to the significance, meaning, or direct 
 expression of postures, we must try and determine 
 the causation. Some postures are the result of 
 reflex action. 
 
 If a small object is placed in the hand of a 
 healthy child, a year old, the fingers close on it. 
 This is probably a purely reflex movement. The 
 posture of the hand or flngers which results, beinor 
 due to reflex action, may be termed a reflex posture, 
 in contradistinction to the so-called spontaneous 
 postures. Examples of reflex postures are seen in 
 contraction of the orbicularis oculi under the 
 influence of light ; in many cases where an object 
 is grasped in the hand without a conscious act on 
 the part of the subject ; in the arm when kept near 
 a part of the trunk that is the seat of some irrita- 
 tion (being tickled). 
 
 Spontaneous postures are those which appear to 
 come about as the result of the intrinsic action of 
 • See chap. xi. 
 
SPONTANEOUS POSTURES. liH 
 
 the nerve-centres, and which we cannot at present 
 classify a.s either reflex or voluntary. The postures 
 assumed in an infant, who probably at birth has 
 no volition, are spontaneous if they are not reflex. 
 Postures in the adult are termed spontaneous if 
 they are not known to be either reflex or voluntary, 
 i.e. accompanied by consciousness. Postures assumed 
 by the subject jyhen unconscious, as from the in- 
 fluence of chloroform, may be said to be spontaneous, 
 the outcome of the action of the nerve- mechanism. 
 
 The postures that we see assumed under various 
 emotions, when we have evidence that they are not 
 purposely assumed, are indications of the action of 
 the nerve-centres ; hence the value of the study of 
 postures in children, whose movements are often so 
 little the result of self-consciousness, and are so 
 commonly purely spontaneous. 
 
 In certain other cases postures are not indications 
 of the condition of the nerve-system. Postures of 
 the hand are often due to chronic changes in the 
 joints, the ends of the" bones which are in apposi- 
 tion becoming changed as the result of disease, and 
 the ligaments so thickened and contracted as to 
 interfere greatly with the action of the muscles 
 upon them. If the muscles cannot freely move the 
 joints, the stimulus from the nerve-centres cannot 
 be accurately expressed by the postures of the 
 limb. In many cases of crippling rheumatism 
 the postures are caused by the local joint condi- 
 tion and indicate the state of the joints, not the 
 condition of the nerve-centres. So also diseased 
 conditions of the muscles may prevent expression 
 by nerve-muscular signs. 
 
130 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 Another set of cases must be mentioned. The 
 postures observed may be the result of a defect 
 of the nerve of the limb, or of the part of the 
 cord or brain with which those nerves are con- 
 nected. In such cases the postures assumed are 
 expressions of the chronic diseased condition of 
 the nerves or their central origin, and mobile 
 expressions are not indicated. / 
 
 Voluntary postures imply voluntary movements. 
 We all have some idea of the difierence between 
 voluntary and spontaneous movements. It may be 
 said that a voluntary movement is an act of volition, 
 and is preceded by a condition of consciousness. 
 We need not discuss the question here; it will be 
 referred to again in the chapter on " Physical Signs 
 of Mind." We all know that postures can be volun- 
 tarily assumed by an exercise of the will. Voluntary 
 postures are objective signs indicating an effect 
 of the will. It is not proposed that we stop to 
 inquire here what the will is — whether it be a 
 function of the brain or otherwise; we are here 
 only concerned with its expression in objective 
 nerve-muscular signs, the motor manifestation of 
 the physical basis of the will. 
 
 Grasping a spear, holding the hand of a friend, 
 are nerve-muscular physical signs, and doubtless 
 they express feelings and vplition in the subject. 
 We are here concerned to describe and analyze the 
 outward signs of expression — the posture of the 
 hand holding the spear, or grasping the hand of 
 the friend. It appears, then, to be impossible to 
 define exactly what a voluntary posture is; we 
 
COINCIDENT POSTUEES. 161 
 
 cannot give definite criteria by which we may 
 distinguish a voluntary posture from one that is 
 reflex, or the spontaneous outcome of the action 
 of the nerve-centres. We fail, then, to define the 
 adjective "voluntary" as applied to a movement, 
 and this failure is due to our want of knowledge 
 of the criteria of volition.. So we shall fail again 
 and again wh^ji we try to determine logically 
 the physical criteria of mind. We may accept 
 certain criteria as evidence of mind; we cannot 
 prove those signs to be evidence of mind. 
 
 Something ought to be said now about the 
 classification and analysis of postures. Now, as 
 postures are nothing but the results of movement, 
 the principles which enable us to analyze and 
 classify movements ought to enable us to analyze 
 and classify postures. It appears needless to repeat 
 those principles verbally, but they may be shown 
 to be applicable to analysis of postures by means 
 of the table in chap, ix., p. 172. 
 
 Coincident postures are often seen in practice, 
 thus: when the left eye is directed outwards, the 
 right eye is directed inwards, and vice versa. Sym- 
 metry of posture is a division of coincident postures. 
 Certain postures of the head and the hand so com- 
 monly coincide as to give special expression. In a 
 weakly child we often see the left hand in the 
 nervous posture, and the head in slight right rotation 
 with right inclination and flexion. In that physical 
 condition where the mental state is called " horror " 
 at the sight of an object, the upper extremities 
 extend towards the object, the eyes and head 
 
152 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 rotate from it.* To speak of the coincidence of two 
 or more postures is to speak of a member in the 
 series of postures. We speak of coincidences of pos- 
 ture just as we speak of coincidences of movement. 
 
 The study of hemiplegia and hemispasm, in 
 comparison with examples of coincident postures, 
 and movements which are highly expressive, sug- 
 gested to me to look for facts concerning coincident 
 postures such as are recorded above. 
 y In art, movement is expressed by the postures 
 of the subject. The outstretched hand expresses 
 energy in movement, for the limb could not so 
 remain unless force were expended. Emotion is 
 often expressed by posture. The head is hung in 
 shame, extended in adoration, rotated with flexion 
 and inclination in nervousness. 
 
 Darwin, in his work on " Expression," has shown 
 that probably the snarl of the dog is expressive of 
 similar emotion to the sneer of a man, and he 
 produces many examples of analogy between ex- 
 pression by postures in animals and in man. 
 
 Lastly, plants, in their parts which move, have 
 expressive postures. The Mimosa leaf expresses 
 recent excitation ; the infolded tentacles of the leaf 
 of Drosera expresses that an insect or piece of 
 nitrogenous food has been caught by it. 
 
 Swmmary. — To summarize what has been said in 
 this chapter ; postures are the results of movements, 
 and for that reason they have the same physio- 
 logical significance as movements ; that is, postures 
 
 * Compare this with what was said ahont head movements in 
 hemiplegia (see chap. vii.). 
 
SUMMARY, 153 
 
 are nerve-muscular signs. A posture is the position 
 of a part of the body or a member, and is due in 
 its mechanism to the balance of its muscles. We 
 may, then, speak of the postures of any members 
 of the body, head, face, eyes, etc. It is in free or 
 disengaged members, or parts, that we see the best 
 examples of direct expression. A hand engaged in 
 labour is less expressive of mental conditions than 
 an unoccupied hand. Postures may be determined 
 by organic conditions rather than by the state of the 
 nerve-centres ; thus, the body is supported, when 
 there is urgent difficulty of, breathing. In the 
 Dying Gladiator the body is supported by the arm 
 to assist the breathing. Gravity often determines 
 the position of the head and limbs, when there is no 
 strong nerve-current proceeding to its muscles. 
 
 The position of a member may be due to reflex 
 action. Observation shows that a special posture 
 follows uniformly upon the stimulation of a par- 
 ticular sensory surface ; here the posture is not the 
 spontaneous outcome of what originates in the 
 subject, and the posture is less likely to indicate the 
 volition or the brain condition. Free and disengaged 
 parts are alone expressive of brain conditions. 
 
 Postures may be due to organic disease, or to 
 changes in the joints ; in such cases they are not 
 direct indices of the brain. 
 
 The effects of gravity are worthy of study ; they 
 are better understood in plant-life than in man. 
 
 Postures may be classified in the same manner 
 as movements. We see examples of postures alike 
 in man, animals, and in plants ; in each case such 
 signs are expressive. 
 
154 PHYSICAL EXPEESSIOK. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 POSTURES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 
 
 Method of examination — Anatomy — The convulsive hand con- 
 trasted with the iiand in fright — The feeble hand and the 
 hand in rest — The straight extended hand, normal — Applica- 
 tion of the principles of analysis — Straight extended hand 
 with the thumb drooped — The nervous hand, seen in art- 
 Energetic hand the antithesis of the nervous hand — Table 
 giving analysis of postures, and application of the principles 
 — Principles of analysis— Anatomical analysis — Small parts 
 contrasted witli large parts — Interdifferentiation— Collateral 
 diflferentiation — Symmetry — Excitation of weak centres — 
 General excitement or weakness — Analogy — Antithesis — 
 Fallacies — Methods of determining whether a posture is the 
 outcome of the spontaneous action of the nerve-centres. 
 
 I PSOBQSE here to speak of postures of the arm, 
 forearm, and hand. The postures that have been 
 frequently observed in actual life will be described, 
 and their significance wiU be discussed affcerwardSi 
 I have made observations upon these points in 
 some thousands of subjects — in healthy subjects, 
 and among my patients, males, females, and chil- 
 dren. I have, as the result of these observations, 
 been led to accept certain postures of the upper 
 extremity as expressions of certain conditions of 
 the individual, as physical signs, or objective ob- 
 
ANATOMY OF THE UPPER EXTKEMITY. 155 
 
 servable expressions of the conditions inherent at 
 the time. 
 
 In making such examinations while the subject 
 is standing, he is requested to hold out his hands, 
 or sometimes to hold out the hands with the palms 
 downwards. This affords the opportunity of ob- 
 serving the free or disengaged hands. The pos- 
 tures, the synjmetry, presence of any movements, 
 the coincident balance of the head or spine, etc., 
 can be noticed while observing specially the 
 hands. 
 
 The upper extremity in man consists of the fol- 
 lowing parts : — The upper arm, with the humerus 
 as its bone, which is articulated at the shoulder 
 with the scapula or blade-bone. The lower end of 
 the humerus articulates with the radius and ulna, 
 the bones of the forearm. The forearm articulates 
 with the wrist, which is made up of eight small 
 bones, collectively spoken of as the carpus. The 
 palm of the hand consists of five metacarpal 
 bones, each of which carries its own digit. These 
 bones, termed collectively the metacarpus, are 
 capable of slight movement, enabling them to be 
 approximated like a bundle of sticks tied together, 
 or spread out. The junction of a metacarpal bone 
 with its digit is called the metacarpo-phalangeal 
 joint, or the knuckle. The individual bones of the 
 fingers and thumb are termed " internodes." 
 
 For the general convenience of description, I have 
 illustrated and tabulated eight typical postures 
 indicative of positions commonly seen. 
 
 Perhaps one of the best known spontaneous 
 
156 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 postures of the hand due to the brain condition, 
 is the " convulsive hand." 
 
 , This was well described by Trousseau * as a 
 common condition of the hand in tetany. "In 
 the upper limbs, the thumb is forcibly and vio- 
 lently adducted ; the fingers are pressed closely 
 together, and semiflexed over the thumb in con- 
 sequence of the flexion of the metacarpo-phalangeal 
 articulation ; and the palm of the hand being made 
 
 Fig. 18. — The Convulsive Hand. 
 
 hollow by the approximation of its outer and inner 
 margins, the hand assumes a conical shape.'' 
 
 The condition of the metacarpus is specially 
 noteworthy. I have taken casts of several cases 
 and have measured many more. It is, as Trousseau 
 described it, arched or contracted by approxima- 
 tion of the metacarpal bones, which are screwed 
 together. Important variations of this posture 
 might be described; it is often seen in various 
 pathological states. 
 
 * " Clinical Medicine," vol. i., New Sydenham Society's transla- 
 tion, 1867, p. 375. 
 
ANALYSIS OF THE CONVULSIVE HAND. 157 
 
 Let US now analyze this posture due to tetany, 
 and observe and describe the characteristic con- 
 stituents of the posture, and see if these elements 
 occur in other less-marked cases. 
 
 The small parts, the digits, and the larger parts 
 are all in flexion; there is a general struggle among 
 the muscles, and the stronger move the bones ; the 
 nerve-centres appear to be aU in activity, and the 
 
 Fig. 19.— The Hand in Fright. 
 
 stronger prevail in causing the general flexion. 
 This posture is antithetical to the hand in fright. 
 
 Hand in fright. Hand in convulsions. 
 
 ■Wrist Extended Flexed 
 
 Metacarpo-phalangeala . . Straight extended „ 
 
 First and second ittemodes „ „ „ 
 
 Thumb, metacarpo-phalan- 
 
 geal ,. ), „ 
 
 „ internode ... „ „ „ 
 
 Phalanges, relative position All in same plane Contracted and 
 
 adducted. 
 
158 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 The general strength of the nerve-discharge is 
 indicated by all the strong centres being stimulated, 
 whereas in the antithetical posture the weak extensor 
 centres are stimulated.* 
 
 Let me say here, that in using the terms " con- 
 vulsive hand," " hand in fright," etc., I do so only 
 as convenient terms, and do not wish to make the 
 tacit assumption that the hands are always in this 
 
 Fig. 20.— The FecblD Hand. 
 
 posture in the condition of convulsion or in the 
 emotion " fear." 
 
 Now to discuss the posture of the "hand in 
 fright" (Fig, 19). The anatomy of the posture has 
 been described. The small parts, the phalanges, as 
 well as the large joint, the wrist, are alike extended; 
 the joints further from the trunk, as well as those 
 
 * The contracting or drawing together of the metacarpal bones is- 
 an element in this posture, seen also in the " feeble hand." 
 
HAND IN EEST. 159 
 
 nearer, are in the same state ; the collateral parts, 
 the fingers and metacarpals, are all in similar rela- 
 tion ; there is no collateral differentiation. 
 
 The feeble hand. — If the disengaged hand of a 
 feeble child or woman is held out, we commonly 
 see a slight, but important, departure from the 
 hand in rest. The thumb is drooped, and its meta- 
 carpal bone is •approximated to the palm, all the 
 metacarpals being bent round as in the convulsive 
 hand. This is a posture often seen. 
 
 Tlie hand in rest may be seen in a strong and 
 
 Fig. 21.— The Hand in Keet. 
 
 healthy subject during sleep, also when the hand 
 hangs free and quiet, as when doing nothing, and 
 in a state of mental quiescence. I have often seen 
 it during quiet conversation, and in men while 
 walking or travelling. The metacarpus is often 
 slightly contracted, but not to such a marked 
 degree as in the " feeble hand." 
 
 The " feeble hand " and the " hand in rest " have 
 the same anatomical description, but they differ in 
 degree. It was the result of clinical observation 
 that induced me to describe the two forms. The 
 
160 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 hand in rest is normal in the condition of resting ; 
 the feeble hand is hardly to be considered as normal, 
 at any rate in a man. The principal difference in 
 the two postures is in the metacarpus; in the feeble 
 hand the contraction of the metacarpus is marked, 
 and this I believe to be abnormal, because I do not 
 see it in a strong subject, and because it is often 
 seen in convulsion and in chronic rigidity sequent 
 to paralysis, etc. 
 
 The normal straight hand when held out is the 
 posture typical of strength; This is the posture in 
 which a strong and healthy maHj woman, or child 
 
 Fig. 22.— The Straight Hand. 
 
 holds out the hand to request; there is no flexion, 
 no extension, but perfect balance. This statement 
 is founded on numerous observations. I have often 
 requested a body of students, or other healthy sub- 
 jects, to hold out their hands; so also healthy children, 
 who could know nothing of my object ; and thus I 
 have had the opportunity of judging that this well- 
 balanced posture indicates the normal action of the 
 nerve-mechanism employed in the act. 
 
 There is no interdiffierentiation, no collateral 
 differentiation, no difference of small parts in con- 
 trast with large parts ; the metacarpus is straight 
 transversely, in contrast with the contracted meta- 
 carpus of the feeble hand and the hand in rest. 
 
STRAIGHT HAND WITH THUMB DKOOPED. 161 
 
 Now, the first degree of deviation from this ortho- 
 extended hand, which is the type of strength, is 
 seen in the posture of the thumb metacarpal bone. 
 The " ortho-extended hand with thumb di-ooped "-^ 
 
 Fig. 23.— The Straight Extended Hand with Thnmh drooped. 
 
 this is a departure from the normal in the direction 
 of weakness, the first and most mobile, and the most 
 specialized bone of the metacarpus being adducted, 
 as in the convulsive hand, the feeble hand, and the 
 hand in rest. This is often seen in a man who is 
 strong and well, but tired with a day's work. 
 
 Fig. 24.— Hand intermediate between the Hand In Rest and the Straight Hand. 
 
 The two next modes of expression by hand pos- 
 tures that have to be described are those which 
 earliest attracted my especial attention. It was 
 the clinical value of a knowledge of the " nervous 
 hand " that encouraged me to pursue these investi- 
 gations on expression. 
 
 Having during some years given special study to 
 the conditions of the nerve-system in children, my 
 
162 PHYSICAL EXPKESSION. 
 
 attention "was especially drawn to the various pos- 
 tures presented by children brought to me for exami- 
 nation at the East London Hospital for Children, 
 and from 1878 I kept notes of the spontaneous pos- 
 tures observed.* The children were requested to 
 hold out their hands, and the passive condition or 
 posture of each hand was noted. At first it was 
 difficult to describe the postures in anatomical lan- 
 guage, though some were seen to be characteristic 
 of certain nerve conditions. In 1879, while visit- 
 ing Florence, it struck me that the posture of the 
 hands of the Venus de' Medici t was exactly similar 
 to the posture so often seen in nervous children. 
 Later in the year, at the British Museum, I saw 
 the English Venus side by side with the Diana — 
 feminine coyness and nervousness represented side, 
 by side with the expression of energy and strength 
 — and the contrast of the hand postures showed 
 them to be in direct antithesis. While looking at 
 the marble hands it became easy to describe their 
 anatomical postures. 
 
 In the "nervous hand" the wrist is slightly 
 flexed or bent, the metacarpo-phalangeal joints are 
 moderately hyper-extended (extended beyond the 
 straight line), the first and second internodes being 
 either slightly flexed or kept straight. The thumb 
 is extended backwards, and somewhat abducted 
 from the fingers. This spontaneous posture I have 
 
 * " Spontaneous Postures of the Hand considered as indications 
 of the Conditions of the Brain." Read before the Koyal Medical 
 and Chirurgical Society of London, November 28, 1882. See 
 " Brain," part xxiii. 
 
 t See Fig. 32, p. 296. 
 
THE NERVOUS HAND. 163 
 
 seen, and others with me, in hundreds of cases 
 usually in nervous children, bad sleepers, those 
 convalescent from chorea, etc. The same posture 
 is sometimes seen in partial hemiplegia. The pos- 
 ture is often bilateral, but is usually unequally 
 represented on the two sides; it is also often seen 
 on one side only, especially in children convalescent 
 from hemichorea,. 
 
 Fig. 25. — The Nervous Hand. 
 
 Another posture of the hand less frequently seen 
 in pathological states, I described under the name 
 of the " energetic hand," and since so doing I have 
 found the posture figured by H. Meillet of Paris, 
 with the note " Main dite du prddicateur em- 
 phatique. La Salp^trifere, service de M. Charcot, 
 salle Saint-Paul, No. 6, Ismdrie Angot." It is there 
 figured as a permanent deformity resulting from 
 brain disease. Dr. Little also figures this posture 
 as due to spastic contraction. In this posture the 
 wrist is extended, and the small joints are all in 
 flexion. Here analysis shows the large joint, the 
 wrist, in extension, tJie opposite to the condition of 
 
164 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 weakness, and this extension of the large joint 
 gives to the posture the indication of excitement in 
 the nerve-mechanism. The small joints are all 
 flexed, as seen in the hand of a man in sleep or 
 resting, and this gives the posture the indication of 
 strength or activity with rest. 
 
 Fig. 26.— The Energetic Hand. 
 
 Anatomical analysis shows the " energetic hand " 
 to be the antithesis of the " nervous hand." 
 
 Nervous Hand. Energetic Hand. 
 
 Wrist Flexed Extended 
 
 Metacarpo-plmlangeals .... Extended Flexed 
 
 First and second intemodes . . Flexed „ 
 
 Thumb, metacarpo-phalangeal . Extended „ 
 
 „ intemode „ „ 
 
 Phalanges, relative position . . Slightly abducted Adducted 
 
 The physiological expressions of the two postures 
 are also opposites. 
 
 This suggests another principle of use in explain- 
 ing the meaning of certain postures. The principle 
 of antithesis * may be enunciated as follows :. " In 
 
 * Charles Darwin uses the principle of antithesis to oxplain 
 many modes of expression. Seo " Expression of the Emotions," 
 p. 28. 
 
THK CAUSE OF POSTURES. 165 
 
 opposite conditions of the nerve-mechanism pro- 
 ducing the postures of a joint, the postures will 
 be opposite or antithetical;" e.g. in a weak or 
 inactive condition of the nerve-mechanism govern- 
 ing the wrist, flexion results ; this would lead us to 
 anticipate that in an excited condition of this piece 
 of nerve-mechanism we should find the wrist 
 extended. , 
 
 The postures of a limb depend in their immediate 
 mechanism upon the resultant action of opposing 
 muscles, the relative tone of the antagonistic flexors 
 and extensors, the adductors and abductors, etc. 
 Various views may be held with regard to the 
 nerve-mechanism which regulates the contraction of 
 opposing sets of muscles. That mechanism may be 
 considered a line of reflex action regulating the 
 action of the muscles, or the balance may be con- 
 sidered due to some other kind of nerve-mechanism. 
 In any case it will, I think, be granted that some 
 portion of the central nerve-system is the cause of 
 that balance of the muscles that produces the 
 posture, and therefore the posture is an index of 
 the condition of that central nerve-mechanism. 
 
 In examining the condition of the nerve-system 
 in children, it has for several years been my habit 
 to observe what spontaneous posture would be 
 assumed by the hand when the forearm was held 
 out.* Let a weak, nervous child be requested to 
 hold out her hands in front on a level with the 
 shoulder in a prone position. The limb is now 
 
 * See "Brain," part Xi. ; and British Medical Journal, De- 
 cember 6, 1879. 
 
166 PHYSICAL EXPBESSION. 
 
 free or disengaged, and the posture assumed by the 
 hand is in most cases, I believe, the spontaneous 
 outcome of the action of the nerve-centres. 
 
 From continued observation of spontaneous pos- 
 tures, and after frequently trying what spontaneous 
 posture would be assumed by the free hand in 
 various subjects, cases of weakness, strong men, 
 feeble women, nervous children, an empirical idea 
 was obtained as to the indication of each posture. 
 Then comparison, analysis, and analogy enabled me 
 to suggest some definite principles. In seeking a 
 rational explanation of this posture, I first tried to 
 find a solution by looking at it after the manner in 
 which Charles Darwin made most of his observa- 
 tions upon postures. Cases were looked for where 
 this posture of the hand was assumed or brought 
 about for some useful purpose, or its occurrence was 
 attended with some kind of amelioration of weak- 
 ness. Then this "nervous hand" was seen, in a 
 hand not free or disengaged, in people who, stand- 
 ing, lean a little forward with the outspread hands 
 resting on the table for support. This hand seeking 
 rest droops at the wrist, and then if the stimulus to 
 the muscles is weak, as the weight of the trunk 
 bears upon the resting hands, hyper-extension of 
 the metacarpo-phalangeal joints and of the thumb 
 is mechanically brought about. If this be accepted 
 as an explanation, the argument stands thus : — 
 
 1. Observation shows that when a man is tired 
 or weak he often rests his hands as described. 
 
 2. The nerve-mechanism corresponding to the 
 hand is thrown into the special condition corre- 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE NERVOUS HAND. 167 
 
 spending to the "nervous hand," and thus that 
 posture is mechanically brough about. 
 
 3. The nerve-mechanism corresponding to the 
 hand falls spontaneously into the condition corre- 
 sponding to the "nervous hand" when the man is 
 tired or -weak. 
 
 4. When the hand of a weak man is held out 
 free, its nerve-machanism spontaneously places it in 
 the " nervous posture." 
 
 The attempt at explanation may be made again, 
 commencing with the principle of analysis and then 
 applying the principle of analogy. 
 
 Anatomical analysis shows that this "nervous 
 hand " presents two principle elementary conditions : 
 
 (1) Flexion or drooping of the wrist. 
 
 (2) Hyper-extension of the metacarpo-phalangeal 
 (small) joints. 
 
 So much for analysis, now as to analogy. 
 
 Looking for analogy between postures, flexion or 
 drooping of the wrist may be seen, as in a hand 
 that is resting, in a hand that is passively held out 
 while the patient is deeply asleep, or in deep coma, 
 or in a paralyzed arm. It is probable, then, that the 
 wrist flexion indicates the weakness of the " nervous 
 hand." 
 
 Hyper-extension of the metacarpo-phalangeal 
 joints and thumb may be seen as a temporary con- 
 dition in subsultus tendinum and in chorea. In all 
 these cases the unstable condition of the nerve- 
 mechanism is indicated by the extensor movements 
 of small parts. 
 
 Now, looking at the elementary conditions shown 
 
168 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 by analysis to constitute the " nervous hand," and 
 the probable indication of the conditions analogous 
 to these, we get some kind of explanation of this 
 posture. The drooping wrist is analogous to that 
 seen in hemiplegia; the hyper-extension of the 
 knuckles and thumb is analogous to conditions 
 such as chorea and subsultus tendinum. This 
 appears a more rational explanation than that first 
 given, and the methods of analysis and analogy give 
 some indication of the physiological significance of 
 the posture. Something very like this posture of 
 the hand is indicated by Dr. Little in his work on 
 deformities, 1853, as the result of "spastic con- 
 traction." 
 
 My present object is to show that spontaneous 
 postures may be studied with advantage as indica- 
 tions of the conditions of the brain. As to the 
 principles involved in these inquiries. A primary 
 postulate, involved in the following principles, is 
 that — 
 
 "If we see some spontaneous nerve-muscular 
 action often repeated in the same and in difierent 
 subjects, it may be assumed that there is some nerve- 
 centre, or nerve-mechanism, corresponding which 
 can act independently." In any particular instance 
 the assumption of the existence of such a centre or 
 piece of nerve-mechanism would be strengthened if 
 it could be shown that there are cases of excitation 
 and cases of paralysis of such hypothetical centre. 
 
 The following suggestions are ofiered as to the 
 tneihods of determining whether a posture is the out- 
 come of the spontaneous action of the nerve-centres. 
 
NEEVE-MUSCULAR POSTURES. 169 
 
 A posture observed can only be considered as the 
 outcome of the spontaneous action of the nerve- 
 mechanism when the limb or part is free and- dis- 
 engaged. If the muscles of the hand are engaged 
 in holding an object, or in an act of manipulation, 
 the postures of the hand are not simply the out- 
 come of the spontaneous action of the nerve- 
 mechanism. • 
 
 Postures are frequently seen accompanying, and 
 apparently caused by, demonstrable brain-disease; 
 as examples, the "convulsive hand," cerebral facial 
 palsy.* When these postures occur otherwise, 
 apparently spontaneously, they may be looked 
 upon as nerve-muscular signs produced by the 
 nerve-mechanism corresponding. 
 
 Postures which are frequently seen in very young 
 children and infants are certainly spontaneous. 
 Postures seen to be frequently repeated in many 
 such young subjects are probably spontaneous 
 nerve-muscular actions. With regard to postures 
 thus observed in many infants, it is probable that 
 the piece of nerve-mechanism corresponding is well 
 developed, and rendered very definite so as to be 
 easily excited to spontaneous action. 
 
 When a posture seen in an adult is found to 
 be analogous to one often seen in infants, the 
 probability of its spontaneous origin is strength- 
 ened. 
 
 Postures of disengaged parts, still observed in 
 man, and frequently represented in ancient art,t 
 
 * See pp. 108, 109, Figs. 10, 11. 
 t See Fig. 35, p. 300. 
 
 9 
 
170 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 are probably of frequent spontaneous occurrence, 
 and highly characteristic nerve-muscular postures. 
 
 The application of the "principles of analysis" 
 may assist in 'determining whether a certain posture 
 observed is probably the outcome of the spontaneous 
 action of the nerve-centres. 
 
 In these studies care must be taken to avoid 
 certain errors from attributing all postures to the 
 action of the central nerve-mechanism. 
 
 Postures may be due to joint-disease, especially 
 arthritis deformans. M. Charcot carefully differen- 
 tiates between this deformity and the posture he 
 has described as the " writing hand " often seen in 
 paralysis agitans. 
 
 Postures may be due to local causes — tumours, 
 inflammation, etc. 
 
 Postures may be determined by organic condi- 
 tions, such as difficulties in the respiratory and 
 circulatory organs causing orthopnoea. Sir C. Bell 
 drew attention to this matter in his critical analysis 
 of the posture of the Dying Gladiator.* Such 
 postures are not the direct effect of the spontaneous 
 action of the nerve-centres. 
 
 Gravity may be a factor in the causation of 
 postures, whether the member be "free" or 
 " engaged," thus : in the figure of Hercules at rest,t 
 he leans on a vertical club to support his body, 
 and the posture of the right arm is determined 
 mainly by gravity. In a paretic arm such as is 
 often seen in chorea, or from brain disease, the wrist 
 will droop into flexion if the forearm is held out 
 ' See p. 303. t See p. 305. 
 
FALLACIES AS TO MEANING OF POSTUKES. 171 
 
 prone, but will fall into extension if the forearm is 
 held out supine. Dorsal decubitus results from 
 gravity, together with general palsy of the motor 
 nerve-mechanism. 
 
 Postures may be due to local nerve injury or 
 disease, thus : injury to the facial nerve ; * injury to 
 the musculo-spiral nerve; a gumma pressing upon 
 the third crania]> nerve, may produce certain pos- 
 tures of the parts supplied by these nerves, such 
 postures not depending upon the condition of the 
 nerve-centres. 
 
 Postures may be due to rigid muscular con- 
 traction dependent upon permanent brain lesion, 
 such as descending sclerosis. Such cases should be 
 kept separate from the postures due to a temporary, 
 it may be momentary, condition of the central 
 nerve-mechanism. It is hoped that some proofs 
 have been given that the study of spontaneous pos- 
 tures as indications of the condition of the brain is 
 useful, and that it may be considered as one of the 
 exact methods of studying the nervous system in 
 its physiological and pathological conditions. 
 
 The subjoined tables contain descriptions of eight 
 typical postures, applying the " principles " to the 
 study of each. 
 
 • See Fig. 27, p. 202, representing facial palsy. 
 
172 
 
 PHTSICAX EXPRESSION. 
 
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POSTURES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 
 
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176 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 It seems desirable to give some further indication 
 of the knowledge that it is hoped to gain from the 
 systematic study of postures. I do not attempt to 
 indicate what special portions of the brain are con- 
 cerned in producing different postures, and do not 
 think such details can at present be given. I can- 
 not localize a motor centre for the " hand in fright; " 
 could we do so, it would afford some evidence as to 
 what portion of brain-mechanism is concerned in the 
 mental condition called fright. In the case of an 
 idiot, whose hands were usually in the convulsive 
 posture, I took casts of the hands, and subsequently 
 had the opportunity of examining the brain, which 
 showed marked defects in the posterior convolutions. 
 It is probable that difference in hand posture on the 
 two sides indicates a different action of the two hemi- 
 spheres of the brain, and of this I hope to give further 
 evidence on another occasion, founded upon the asso- 
 ciation of postures. When the hands are held free, a 
 difference in the posture on the two sides, or different 
 movements in the two hands, give evidence that 
 the two hemispheres are in a different condition. 
 These studies show that in many people the nerve- 
 centres are not strictly symmetrical in action, the 
 average postures of the face and- hands being asym- 
 metrical, e.g. frequent occurrence of one-sided grin- 
 ning; the nervous hand is often seen on one side only, 
 usually the left ; these observations may be conducted 
 in healthy people, and give evidence of the indi- 
 vidual's idiosynchronism. The study of postures 
 gives examples of the application of the "prin- 
 ciples," enunciated above, and, I think, affords some 
 
ANALYSIS OF POSTURES. 177 
 
 proof of their practical importance. Most of these 
 points are commonplace clinical considerations, but 
 principles vi. and vii. perhaps require further ex- 
 planation and defence. 
 
 It may be readily admitted that it is desirable 
 and impoiiant to know what are the motor indica- 
 tions of excitement or over-action of a nerve-centre, 
 also to know the^relatiVe strength of the different 
 motor centres, and what are the outward physical 
 signs of widespread stimulation or weakness among 
 portions of the nerve-mechanism. In numerous 
 cases, where common experience has shown general 
 strength, weakness, or widespread stimulation, etc., 
 these principles of analysis have been applied, and 
 some general knowledge has thus been obtained, 
 but more exact knowledge is wanted. I trust by 
 an experimental method, described in the Journal 
 of Physiology* to be able to give hereafter a 
 much more precise and definite account of these 
 principles. 
 
 These studies afford evidence that some parts of 
 the brain may be in a condition of weakness, while 
 others are in a state of strength or excitement, and 
 that one hemisphere may be weaker in action than 
 the other. Again, a change of posture may indicate 
 a change in the corresponding nerve-mechanism. 
 Thus in chorea, when the forearm is passively sup- 
 ported, we often see that the free hand passes from 
 the posture of rest to the convulsive posture, thus 
 indicating the change in the condition of the nerve- 
 mechanism, corresponding to the muscles of the 
 * Vol. i?. No. 2, August, 1883 ; also see chap. xix. 
 
178 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 hand. By daily recording the most common in- 
 voluntary postures of the free hand, we ohtain 
 indications of the daUy condition of the nerve- 
 mechanism corresponding. 
 
 In analyzing any posture of the hand we may 
 consider the bearing upon the subject of the follow- 
 ing principles, or points of analysis. These are the 
 same that have been used in the tables. 
 
 I. Every posture can be described in anatomical 
 language, giving the position of each joint of the 
 limb. 
 
 II. Consider the posture of the small parts of 
 the limb as distinguished from the larger parts. 
 In chorea the movements of the small parts are 
 much more obvious, and probably much more 
 frequent than those of the larger parts ; more move- 
 ment is seen in the fingers than in the elbow and 
 wrist. A slight amount of brain disease will inter- 
 fere more with the use of the fingers than with 
 the use of the upper arm. A man may be able to 
 stretch out his hand and grasp an orange, but be 
 quite unable to write, or to pick up a pin from 
 the table. 
 
 III. Consider the difierent relative postures seen 
 in the large and small joints. 
 
 Interdiiferentiation of the postures of the large 
 and small joints may give important indications; 
 the large joint may be paretic or weak, while the 
 small joints are in extension, from irritability of 
 the nerve-centres which govern these movements. 
 In such a case there would be an interdifferenti- 
 ation of the nei-ve-centres governing the diflferent 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR ANALYSIS OF POSTURES. 179 
 
 joints. In the nervous hand the wrist is weak, 
 the fingers show irritability. 
 
 IV. Consider the relative condition of posture in 
 collateral joints. 
 
 The knuckles are collateral joints. The posture 
 of each may be similar, as in " the hand in rest," or 
 it may be dissimilar, as in " the straight hand with 
 the thumb droop^ed," where the metacarpal bones, 
 which are collateral parts, are four in the same 
 plane, and that of the thumb is adducted. Col- 
 lateral differentiation is usually seen in the move- 
 ments of the hand in chorea, also in the spon- 
 taneous movements of the fingers of a healthy 
 infant ; it is marked in some cases of athetosis. 
 
 V. Consider if the posture is symmetrical. Ob- 
 serve whether the postures of the corresponding 
 parts on the two halves of the body be sym- 
 metrical, whether the posture of either hand be 
 the same. Much has been said" about this in 
 describing postures of the head and face. Perfect 
 symmetry indicates that the two halves of the 
 brain are acting similarly. 
 
 VI. Consider if there be any indications of excite- 
 ment or over-action of any nerve-centre or centres 
 usually weak, such as the centre or nerve-mechanism 
 governing the extensor movement of a joint. 
 
 Observations, comparisons, and analysis seem to 
 indicate the nerve-centre, or mechanism governing 
 the extension of a joint (i.e. the action of the weaker 
 muscles), as being weaker than the centre govern- 
 ing flexion. Observe if such indications of excite- 
 ment subside in sleep, or when at rest ; they do so 
 
180 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 in chorea. Some cases, which constantly present the 
 nervous hand when the individual is awake and 
 the limb is free, lose . the posture during sleep. In 
 this state, if the forearm be gently held out by an 
 assistant, the hand falls into the posture of rest, 
 but on awaking the patient, the nervous posture 
 is resumed. 
 
 VII. If there be general, equal, widespread stimula- 
 tion or weakness of portions of the nerve-mechanism 
 governing the postures of a limb, or part of the 
 body, the action of the stronger muscles prevails. 
 General weakness may be indicated by general 
 slight flexion, showing aU the nerve-mechanism 
 paretic, and the stronger flexor muscles prevailing. 
 
 VIII. Consider in the posture if any joint, or set 
 of joints, be in position analogous to that of any 
 other posture, and whether the significance of the 
 position of that joint be the same as in the posture 
 to which the analogy is made. 
 
 If we study the analogies of the nervous hand, 
 it seems probable that the wrist flexion has an 
 indication similar to that in the hand in rest. In 
 each case the weakness of the nerve-mechanism 
 governing it is indicated. Now, as to the over- 
 extension of the knuckle-joints, do we see that 
 elsewhere V In chorea, in the finger-twitching of 
 nervous children, in patients exhausted by fever 
 (subsultus tendinum), we often see extensor move- 
 ments of these joints. This seems to indicate such 
 action as a sign of weakness or irritability, not rest. 
 
 Now, looking at the elementary conditions shown 
 by analysis to constitute the "nervous hand," and 
 
POSTURES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 181 
 
 the probable indication of the conditions analogous 
 to these, we get some kind of explanation of this 
 posture. The wrist drooping is analogous to that 
 seen in rest; the over-extension of the knuckles 
 and thumb is analogous to conditions such as 
 chorea, nervousness, and exhaustion. 
 
 IX. Consider if the posture be the antithesis of 
 any other known spontaneous posture. 
 
 This principle has been exemplified in contrast- 
 ing the nervous hand and the energetic hand. It 
 is probable that in many cases opposite conditions 
 of the nerve-mechanism producing postures, will 
 produce antithetical postures. Chaiies Darwin 
 used the pi-inciple of antithesis to explain many 
 modes of expression (see " Expression of the Emo- 
 tions," p. 28). 
 
 This principle of antithesis is also recognized by 
 John Bulwer (see p. 325). 
 
182 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 EXPRESSION IN THE HEAD. 
 
 Positions and movements of the head defined — Flexion the only 
 symmetrical movement — Action of light in causing head 
 movements ; varying effect of such stimulus in different brain 
 conditions — A weak posture — Effect of gravity — The head 
 usually free — Application of the principles of analysis to 
 head postures — Movements of the jaw— Physiognomy, or 
 certain forms of the head — Summary. 
 
 In the study of expression in the head, as in other 
 parts of the body, we must look to the conditions 
 of its development and its special trophic states, 
 and also to its movements and the postures which 
 result from those movements. 
 
 The title of Sir Charles Bell's first essay is, " Of 
 the Permanent Form of the Head and Face, in con- 
 tradistinction to Expression." He goes on to say,* 
 "A face may be beautiful in sleep, and a statue 
 without expression may be highly beautiful; on 
 the other hand, expression may give charm to a 
 face the most ordinary. Hence it appears that our 
 inquiry divides itself into the permanent form of 
 the head and face, and the motion of the features, 
 * Op. cit, p. 20. 
 
MOVEMENTS OF THE HEAD. 183 
 
 or the expression." And again: "A countenance 
 may be distinguished by being expressive of 
 thought; that is, it may indicate the possession 
 of the intellectual power. It is manly, it is 
 human; and yet not a motion is seen to show 
 what feeling or sentiment prevails." 
 
 Here Bell uses the term " expression " as confined 
 to mobile, nerv^-muscular, or kinetic modes of 
 expression, and carefully distinguishes between 
 them and the conditions of development which 
 indicate the coincident condition of development 
 of the brain. The permanent forms of the head 
 and face as indicative of the states of the mechanism 
 of the mind have been often described in treatises 
 on physiognomy. Much expression may be seen 
 in the various movements and postures of the head, 
 as well as in its size, form, and proportions. The 
 movements of the head or skull are, no doubt, 
 largely due to movements of the neck, which is 
 made up of the seven cervical vertebrae. The 
 skull can be rotated on the neck ; it can be flexed 
 and extended on the first vertebra, which is called 
 the atlas. To simplify description we shall here 
 speak only of movements of the head with regard 
 to the body at large, neglecting the question as to 
 how far the vertebrae of the neck may take part in 
 such movements. 
 
 For descriptive purposes we may conveniently 
 speak of two axes of the head : (1) the interparietal, 
 or transverse axis, passing from one ear across to the 
 other; (2) the fronto-occipital or antero-posterior 
 axis, passing from the centre of the forehead to the 
 
184 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 occiput behind. By referring to the positions and 
 movements of these axes we can define all the 
 positions and movements of the head. 
 
 A. Flexion and extension, i.e. bending forward and 
 backwards of the head, as in nodding. In flexion 
 the antero-posterior axis has its anterior end de- 
 pressed, but the transverse axis remains horizontal, 
 and the two ears remain at the same level 
 
 In this movement, or posture, symmetry is main- 
 tained. 
 
 B. Rotation, i.e. rotation of the antero-posterior 
 axis in the horizontal plane, the head remaining 
 erect, and the interparietal axis horizontal, without 
 flexion or extension. Such movement may occur 
 in turning the head to look at an object; in this 
 case symmetry is not maintained. Right rotation 
 is used to imply that the forehead moves to the 
 right, as in looking towards the right side. 
 
 C. Inclination, i.e. depression of one or other 
 extremity of the interparietal axis, in which case 
 the ear on the side of inclination is lower than the 
 other. Right inclination means depression of the 
 right extremity of the interparietal axis, or the 
 right ear ; left inclination means depression of 
 the left ear. Inclination is an asymmetrical move- 
 ment ; it may occur without either flexion or rota- 
 tion, but is commonly associated with both. 
 
 The only symmetrical movements of the head 
 are flexion and extension; inclination and rota- 
 tion are asymmetrical movements involving unlike 
 conditions in the two halves of the brain. 
 
 We shall not consider many head movements and 
 
MOVEMENTS OF THE HEAD. 185 
 
 postures, but those that we are about to examine 
 will serve to afiord examples of the application of 
 our principles of movements, and in particular they 
 will demonstrate how movements may result from, 
 and be modified by, external agencies. In a strong 
 and healthy man the head is held erect, and sym- 
 metrical, unless some central condition or external 
 agent changes thg posture. In a strong man the 
 centre of the forehead is in the mid-plane of the 
 body, the antero-posterior and the transverse axes 
 are horizontal, with both ears on the same level : 
 this is a normal posture of quiescence. 
 
 Rotation is a movement always involving asym- 
 metry of action ; flexion and extension are symme- 
 trical movements. 
 
 A slight stimulus, as the sight of an object or 
 the hearing of a sound, may cause rotation. A 
 slight condition of weakness of the nerve-centres is 
 expressed by flexion. 
 
 In the brain condition whose mental action is 
 called " shame," and in the state of mental abstrac- 
 tion, the lessened kinetic function of the brain leads 
 to head-drooping. Rotation, from the pathological 
 conditions, hemiplegia and hemispasm, has been 
 described in chap. vi. p. 105. 
 
 We all know that rotation of the head may result 
 from the sight of an object, or the hearing of a sound. 
 We will inquire first as to the effects of the sight of 
 objects, or the direct rays of a luminous object, in 
 causing rotation of the head. When the sight ot 
 an object is followed by the forehead being turned 
 towards it, it is said to have attracted the attention 
 
186 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 of the man. The only connecting link between the 
 man and the object that attracts his attention is the 
 light reflected from its surface, or emitted from it, 
 owing to its inherent luminosity; we may say, 
 then, that it is the light from the object that 
 causes the head to rotate the forehead towards the 
 object or source of light. Thus, if a child is 
 seated at table duly hungry, bringing a plate of 
 food toward him will, as soon as the plate comes 
 within his field of view, cause rotation towards the 
 plate, and the plate of food will be said to have 
 attracted his attention. If, however, the child is 
 in a very irritable, cross, peevish state of mind 
 (brain), rotation of the head may occur away from 
 the plate of food, it may be repelled by it, not 
 attracted. Here is a mode of expression ; a similar 
 stimulus at one time causes rotation towards the 
 source of stimulation, in other conditions of the 
 nerve-centres the head is rotated away from 
 the stimulus. 
 
 The attraction and repulsion of the head as the 
 effects of visual stimulus are very curious modes 
 of expression. Probably the vaiying conditions of 
 the nerve-system are often expressed by the effects 
 of light and sound in causing rotation of the head. 
 I think that this kind of attraction and repulsion 
 can best be studied in the rotatory movements of 
 the head and eyes. 
 
 Movements of the head frequently occur as the 
 result of the spontaneous action of the nerve- 
 centres. In infants there is frequent spontaneous 
 movement of the head as of other parts. Head 
 
KOTATION OF THE HEAD. 187 
 
 movements are often excessive in number in con- 
 ditions of irritability. 
 
 Rotation of the head is often an expression of 
 the mental state. This is specially seen when we 
 contrast rotation with movements of flexion and 
 extension. 
 
 Bulwer * speaks much of head movements as 
 expressive of the states of the mind. 
 
 Rotation of the head is, according to the existing 
 system of our English nerve-muscular organization, 
 an expression of the mental state of "negation," 
 or desire to deny. Flexion and extension express 
 the mental state of acquiescence. 
 
 Now, sometimes we find a child so irritable 
 that the predominant mental (brain) condition is 
 such as to be all negation : the head rotates at 
 all propositions — the proposal to go to bed, the 
 proposal to eat, the proposal to walk, etc. The 
 head rotation to all word sounds is a part of the 
 expression of mental irritation or, rather, irritable 
 condition of the mental centres. 
 
 Conversely, a child's state of frequent head 
 flexion and extension to the stimulus of word 
 sounds, indicates the mental state of ready acqui- 
 escence, or good humour. 
 
 It appears, then, that the condition of the brain 
 in the mental state of " ready acquiescence " is one 
 where symmetry of movement prevails, and the 
 mental condition of "negation" is expressed by 
 asymmetrical brain action. 
 
 Certain postures of the liead are expressive of 
 
 * Bulwer, op. oit. 
 
188 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 brain conditions, or emotions. In girls ^nd in 
 young people convalescent from chorea, etc., we 
 often see inclination of the head, with slight rota- 
 tion to the same side, and flexion, I have often 
 observed, as a coincident hand posture, that we 
 have in the free upper extremity the nervous hand 
 on the side opposite to that of inclination and 
 rotation. Very commonly in a weak child when 
 told to hold out the hands to the front, we see a 
 left nervous hand, with head flexion, and rotation 
 and inclination of the right. In such a case the 
 left nervous hand is the expression of the weakness 
 and irritability of the right side of the brain, the 
 head flexion shows weakness, and its rotation and 
 inclination to the right express that the muscles 
 on the left side of the neck are weaker than those 
 on the right, giving another indication of the weak 
 state of the right group of nerve-centres. 
 
 In studying postures of the head we have to 
 consider some curious effects of gravity, explain 
 them how we may. These principles affect, also, 
 postures of the trunk, but I hardly think that they 
 come into play in explanation of postures of other 
 parts. 
 
 In a man with full health and strength the head 
 is held erect. If the head falls, say, to the left 
 shoulder, as the outcome of a temporary relaxation 
 of the muscles of the right side, these muscles will 
 be stretched, being on the convex side of the neck. 
 This is the effect of gravity acting on the skuU. 
 This stretching of the right muscles transmits such 
 an impulse to the nerve-centres as stimulates the 
 
EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON THE HEAD. 189 
 
 right muscles, and they pull up the head erect again. 
 If the man's head falls to his left shoulder while he 
 is asleep, the nerve-centres for the right side of the 
 neck are not stimulated by the puU upon the muscles 
 sufficiently to make them contract. Here we appear 
 to have a case of reflex action which is lessened by 
 sleep, and is therefore an expression of the brain 
 condition sleepiness. The same principles apply to 
 falling of the head forward in flexion. 
 
 It is useless to our purposes to say that con- 
 sciousness is a factor in the case, because we want 
 to lead up to an enumeration of the signs or expres- 
 sion of consciousness. We want to show that the 
 lessening of this reflex from the action of gravity is 
 an expression of the brain condition which produces 
 consciousness. I am not aware of any phenomena 
 concerning the upper extremity that are exactly 
 analogous to what has been just described concern- 
 ing the head. 
 
 The head as a member of the body moved by the 
 nerve-centres is usually free or disengaged, but it is 
 not always so. It is not very free to aflfbrd ex- 
 pression to the emotions when a heavy load is being 
 carried on the head. It may also be engaged, and 
 not free, as the result of organic conditions, such as 
 the fixed position of the head in an attack of 
 spasmodic asthma. 
 
 Applying the principle of contrast of the action 
 of small and large muscles, we should have to 
 compare movements of the eyes or facial muscles 
 with movements of the head. We may also com- 
 pare movements of the hands and head. Extension 
 
190 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION, 
 
 of the head is the result of the action of a weaker 
 piece of nerve-muscular mechanism than flexion; 
 extension of the hands at wrists and knuckles often 
 occurs with head extension, as in the .expression of 
 astonishment. 
 
 Movements of Lower Jaw. — Thelowerjawis jointed 
 on to the skull ; in the natural upright position of 
 the body gravity tends to make the jaw fall. Two 
 pairs of muscles, the masseter, and the temporal, 
 raise the jaw, and keep the teeth in contact; these 
 muscles are both supplied by the motor division of 
 the fifth pair of nerves of the brain. The masseter 
 muscle arising from the cheek bone (the malar and 
 zygoma) is inserted into the angle of the lower jaw ; 
 the temporal muscle arises from the fossa of that 
 name, and is seen swelling out and may be felt as a 
 hard mass in the temple when the jaws are tightly 
 clenched. The jaw is depressed by a group of 
 muscles supplied by the ninth pair of nerves of the 
 brain. The mouth is often opened when the jaw 
 is depressed, always when the jaws are opened 
 widely, but the lips can be parted while the jaws 
 are still closed, showing the teeth. The jaw is 
 depressed and the mouth opened in the expression 
 of astonishment.* 
 
 The jaw often drops somewhat as a passive move- 
 ment, owing to relaxation of the muscles which 
 support it. It is strongly depressed in yawning, 
 occasionally so much so as to cause dislocation; 
 this is owing to strong extensor depression of the 
 bone. 
 
 ♦ Darwin, " Expression of the Emotions,'' p. 280 
 
EXPRESSION IN THE JAW. 191 
 
 Depression of the jaw elongates the face. 
 
 We will now look at some examples of expression 
 in the permanent and unchanging conditions of the 
 head — size, form, conditions of development. There 
 are certain defective developmental conditions seen 
 about the head which are not uncommon accompani- 
 ments of defect of brain, and which therefore 
 express, though .with a considerable degree of 
 uncertainty, the probability that the brain may be 
 defective in its powers. * The following head 
 peculiarities are pointed out by Dr. Shuttleworth : 
 "Congenital idiots have often- peculiarities of con- 
 formation of head or feature which bear the im- 
 press of original defect. A shelving forehead, a 
 flattened occiput, a notable proportion as to size 
 between head and body as in microcephally (small- 
 headed idiots), a nut-shaped forehead as in scapho- 
 cephally, marked obliquity of the supra-orbital 
 ridges, absence of the nasal bones, and a lamboid 
 (A-shapen) vaulting of the palate, are some of the 
 cranial peculiarities associated with congenital 
 forms of idiocy. We shall see also that the osseous 
 irregularities in the form of the hands and feet, 
 fissures and hypertrophy of the papillae of the 
 tongue, and a coarse, sometimes branny epidermis, 
 are diagnostic marks of one congenital variety. The 
 external ear is often unshapely, planted low down 
 and comparatively far back ; the angle of the jaw 
 is more obtuse in congenital idiots than in normal 
 children." 
 
 Sumviary. — In this chapter certain modes are 
 
 * See laws of proportional development, chap, xviii. 
 
192 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 suggested for defining the postures and movements 
 of the head, and the movements and combinations 
 of movement possible to the head are explained. 
 It is shown that flexion and extension are the only 
 symmetrical movements of the head. 
 
 The action of light and the sight of objects in 
 causing head rotation present interesting examples 
 of expression, and some of the varying conditions 
 of mentation are expressed by variations in such 
 movements under the same stimulus on different 
 occasions. 
 
 Head rotation is a sign of negation. Semiflexion 
 of the head with rotation and inclination to the same 
 side indicates weakness ; this is often seen when the 
 free left hand is in the nervous posture, the rotation 
 and inclination then being to the right. 
 
 Gravity exerts a marked influence upon the 
 postures of the head, especially in weakness and in 
 sleep. The head is usually free, and therefore 
 expressive of brain conditions. 
 
 The principle of the contrast of the action of 
 small parts with larger parts, is illustrated by 
 comparing the head movements with those of the 
 face and eyes. Extension of the head and hands 
 occurs coincidentally in astonishment. 
 
 Movements of the lower jaw depend upon two 
 pairs of brain nerves. Depression of the jaw is 
 spasmodic in yawning ; it may be due to gravity. 
 
 Certain forms of the head are indicative of defects 
 of brain, and are commonly seen in idiots. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 EXPRESSION IN THE HUMAN FACE. 
 
 The face as an index of the mind — Definition of the face ; its 
 structure — Facial muscles and their nerve supply ; the sympa- 
 thetic nerve — Form, colour, and mobile conditions of tlie face 
 — Direct expression of brain action in tlie face ; expression by 
 coincident development — ^ Action of the facial muscles — 
 Method of analyzing a fat-e : the upper, middle, and lower 
 zones ; symmetry ; analysis of the expression of anxiety — 
 Expression by trophic signs, ekin — The intellectual, and the 
 vulgar face — The necessity of considering nerve-muscular 
 signs as well as permanent conditions — Faces of idiots — 
 Nutrition of the face ; a dull and a bright face — Wliat may be 
 seen in a man's face — Impressions of previous movements of 
 the face — Mental suffering compared with bodily suffering — 
 Asymmetrical expressions ; winking, snarling — The long face, 
 due to paralysis of the nerve on one or both sides : due to 
 mental states ; facial palsy from brain disease — Intellectuality 
 of facial movements — The face in fatigue ; the expression of 
 headache — The disengaged face free for mental expression — 
 Cases of expression from brain disease — Conflict of muscles in 
 the face. 
 
 The human face has been often described as an 
 index to the mind, and in most treatises on expres- 
 sion the passive and the changing conditions of the 
 countenance are largely discussed. It is, then, un- 
 necessary that I should say anything to prove that 
 10 
 
194! PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 this subject is one of wide interest ; but it must be 
 treated of here according to the general purposes of 
 the volume, and according to the principles and 
 modes of expression already enunciated. We are 
 here dealing only with material things and with 
 the action of physical forces. 
 
 The human face may be spoken of as that part 
 of the head which lies in front of a vertical plane 
 passing just anterior to the ears. This includes the 
 anterior portion of the skull with the soft parts 
 attached thereto. These soft parts consist of the 
 facial muscles which move the features of the face, 
 and certain muscles of mastication ; the interstices 
 between the muscles are fdled in with fat. Skin 
 covers the whole face ; it is in part adherent to the 
 subjacent muscles, and is moved by them. The skin 
 is continuous with the mucous membrane at the 
 openings for the mouth, nose, and eyes. 
 
 The facial muscles proper, the muscles of expres- 
 sion, are supplied with motor stimulus by branches 
 of the facial nerve, the muscles of mastication being 
 supplied by the motor division of the fifth pair of 
 brain nerves. Vessels supply blood to all these 
 parts and to the skin. Branches of the sympathetic 
 nerve supply the muscular walls of the small 
 arteries, and by their action control the amount of 
 blood supply; palsy of the sympathetic nerve on 
 one side leads to flushing of that half of the face ; 
 thus the mobile colour of the face is largely con- 
 trolled by the sympathetic nerve. 
 
 When we look at a human face we may observe 
 its form, colour, and conditions of mobility. The 
 
MOVEMENTS OF THE HUMAN FACE. 195 
 
 general form and outline of a face is largely 
 determined by the shape of the skull beneath. 
 There is probably more direct expression seen in 
 the face than in any other part of the body. The 
 face is an index of the brain : the mobile conditions 
 of the face are so many direct expressions of the 
 brain condition ; especially are those fine shades of 
 variation expres^ve which accompany emotions 
 and mentation. 
 
 We also see in the face many examples of expres- 
 sion by uniform coincident development ; * this is an 
 empirical form of expression, in which the condition 
 of development of the parts we can see indicates 
 the probable state of the brain which we cannot 
 see. These different modes of expression must be 
 considered separately. 
 
 In studying such a difficult and complex subject 
 as the direct expression of the face, certain methods 
 must be followed, and the different facial expressions 
 that have been observed must be analyzed and 
 described. The principal movements of the facial 
 muscles are : — 
 
 1. Dilatation and contraction of the facial 
 foramina — the openings of the eyes, nose, and 
 mouth. 
 
 2. Elevation and depression of parts, as the eye- 
 brows, the angles of the mouth, etc. 
 
 3. Retraction and drawing forward of parts, as in 
 grinning and screwing up the mouth, corrugation 
 of the forehead. 
 
 Either side of the face can move separately; 
 * See chap, xriii. 
 
196 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 hence the necessity, in analyzing a facial expression, 
 to observe whether it be symmetrical. 
 
 An expression may affect the face principally in 
 the upper, middle, or lower portions, and it may 
 appear more on one side than on the other ; hence, in 
 analyzing a face, each half and each region must be 
 examined separately. I have fouad the following 
 method convenient for making an analysis. 
 
 To examine a face, hold a sheet of paper in front of 
 it, with one edge vertical, and opposite the middle of 
 the face ; either half of the face can then be covered 
 in turn while the other half is examined. Again, 
 the face may be divided into three zones, or 
 horizontal areas, — the upper, middle, and lower. To 
 observe each zone in turn, hold the sheet of paper 
 with one margin horizontal, leaving the forehead 
 above the eyebrows uncovered, — this shows the 
 upper zone ; then view only that part of the face 
 which is below the lower margin of the orbits, 
 showing the mouth, the greater part of the cheeks, 
 and the openings of the nose, — this is the lower zone ; 
 lastly, the middle zone may be demonstrated alone 
 by holding the horizontal margin of one sheet of 
 paper so as to cover all above the eyebrows, and 
 another sheet of paper so as to cover aU below the 
 orbits, thus leaving to view the eyebrows, the eye- 
 lids, and eyeballs, with the bridge of the nose. 
 
 By these methods we can easily examine for 
 symmetry in a face, both as regards form and 
 action ; and we can, at the same time, also observe 
 any special nerve-muscular conditions in any 
 particular zone. 
 
LOCALIZATION OF EXPKESSION. 197 
 
 To illustrate by a supposed case, say that our 
 common experience tells us that a certain man 
 presents a facial expression of " mental anxiety," 
 and on personal inquiry he acknowledges that he 
 is suffering from causes producing " mental anxiety." 
 On making a physical analysis of the expression by 
 the methods suggested, we find that the expression 
 is equal on eitheiiside — therefore the expression is 
 symmetrical; we see the special signs of anxiety 
 more when observing the upper zone than when 
 looking at the middle and lower parts —hence the 
 expression is symmetrical and principally located 
 in the forehead, or upper zone. The nerve-muscular 
 signs of the brain condition whose mental action is 
 " anxiety " are localized in the frontal region, and 
 these signs are direct expression. In thus studying 
 a face we look to the nerve-muscular condition of 
 the various regions, and observe the effects of the 
 kinetic action of the brain. 
 
 We may next inquire what the trophic conditions 
 of the face teach us. We look for those signs in 
 the face which experience teaches us are commonlj'^ 
 associated with certain coincident conditions of 
 brain development — conditions of the skull or brain 
 case, its form and size, the form of the forehead, 
 etc. The structure of the skin of the face, whether 
 it be fine and thin or coarse and thick ; the features 
 of the face — the lips, cheeks, nose, and the size and 
 proportions of the mouth — demand attention. 
 
 In looking at different types of faces, we are at 
 once struck with the fact that the passive appear- 
 ance of some expresses intellectuality, while others 
 
198 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 are marked by inborn vulgarity, apart from 
 any special expression by nerve-muscular action. 
 Elements contributing to the low vulgar type are a 
 large prominent under jaw, thick lips, a thick 
 immobile make of skin, etc. Here the face is more 
 fitted to bear exposure than to show fine nerve- 
 muscular action, and the expression as to the mode 
 in which the brain will probably act is due to the 
 empirical fact that this type of face does coexist 
 with that state of brain development which makes 
 the individual tend to vulgarity in mentation and 
 in action. This is only an empirical statement 
 dependent upon the results of observation, and as 
 such is likely not to be true in a particular case ; 
 indeed, it is often an untrustworthy sign. Such 
 observations need to be corrected, by noting many 
 nerve-muscular signs before we can determine the 
 character of the individual. A somewhat plain or 
 even vulgar-looking face may receive an intellectual 
 expression when the brain is in action from mental 
 work ; other faces are most pleasing when passive, 
 but when in action show a poverty in their nerve- 
 muscular expression indicative of low organization 
 of the brain-centres. Speaking of idiots, Dr. Lang- 
 don Down remarks (Obstetrical Transactions, vol. 
 xxii.) that " the prognosis is, contrary to what is so 
 often thought, inversely as the child is comely, fair 
 to look upon, and winsome." 
 
 The condition of nutrition of the tissues of the 
 face is an important index of the general nutrition 
 of the body, and its different organs. A slight 
 amount of malnutrition makes the face looks dull. 
 
THE PAST SEEN IN THE FACE. 199 
 
 This, I believe, is due to slight absorption or shrink- 
 ing of the fat of the face, leading to very fine 
 wrinkling of the skin, which then reflects light in 
 such a manner as to look dull. The dull skin looks 
 bright, if it be stretched ; a temporary afflux of 
 blood accompanying a state of mental excitement 
 often makes the face look bright, because it swells 
 up the tissues and stretches the skin, thus removing 
 the wrinkles and the cause of dulness of the 
 countenance. 
 
 If we examine the face of a man, say, thirty years 
 old, we may observe — 
 
 (1) The passive conditions resulting from heredity 
 
 (2) The present trophic condition, the state of 
 nutrition. 
 
 (3) The marks or permanent impressions made 
 by the nerve-muscular actions during thirty years. 
 
 (4) The nerve-muscular condition at the time of 
 observation. 
 
 This shows the necessity for balancing the different 
 modes of expression, and, while observing the total 
 expression, assigning the due value to each of its 
 factors. We have spoken of the impressions made 
 by the nerve-muscular actions of preceding years ; 
 if the muscular action in the face due to the condi- 
 tion of brain which accompanies mental anxiety has 
 been often repeated during many years, it leaves 
 permanent marks upon the tissues of the face. 
 
 The expression of mental anxiety may be con- 
 trasted with that of bodily suffering. Mental anxiety 
 is expressed mainly in the upper zone of the face ; 
 contraction of the corrugators makes vertical furrows 
 
200 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 between the eyebrows. In the facial expression of 
 pain originating in the body or limbs, we see the 
 signs mainly in the lower zone; the angles of the 
 mouth are drawn down. In the more animal-like 
 causes of pain of mind — as the loss of a child, wound- 
 ing the maternal instinct — it is the angles of the 
 mouth that are depressed. Some years after the loss 
 of the child a reference to it causes corrugation. The 
 memory of the child has become idealized; the suffer- 
 ing is now more mental, less animal-like. A man 
 of, say, forty years of age may present the permanent 
 marks of anxiety impressed upon the skin of his 
 forehead ; this sign of anxiety observed may be due 
 neither to an early original make of body, nor to 
 the present action of nerve-centres, but what we 
 observe is the permanent impression left by the 
 frequent repetition of the same nerve-muscular signs. 
 
 If we see the expression of mental anxiety 
 in the upper facial zone, and bodily suffering ex- 
 pressed in the lower zone, what do these facts teach 
 us ? These nerve-muscular signs are the direct out- 
 come of brain action ; so are the coincident mental 
 anxiety and pain of bodily suffering. We conclude, 
 then, that the brain centres which cause mental 
 anxiety, and its expression in the upper facial zone, 
 are different from the centres concerned in physical 
 suffering and its expression in the lower zone. 
 Both these forms of expression are symmetrical, or 
 alike on both sides. 
 
 I know of only two forms of facial expression 
 that are not sj^mmetrical — snarling and winking; 
 and certainly these asymmetrical expressions are 
 
ASYMMETRY IN THE FACE. 201 
 
 not the most intellectual. In snarling the canine 
 tooth on one side is uncovered by the action of 
 the levator of the upper lip on that side. This, of 
 course, directly indicates the action of the corre- 
 sponding nerve-centre on one side only. In one- 
 eyed winking the orbicular muscle acts on one side 
 only. This also shows asymmetry of nerve-action. 
 
 Suppose a man in " a quiet frame of mind ; " we 
 should see a general good balance of the muscles 
 and nerve-centres, presenting symmetry of the facial 
 muscles. The man then voluntarily winks with one 
 eye or sneers unconsciously. Here an asymmetrical 
 action replaces the quiet symmetry of the features. 
 A part of the expression of passion may be asym- 
 metry of action of the nerve-centres. 
 
 Writers of fiction, if also observers of nature, some- 
 times describe a man who has just received some 
 depressing news — say, a heavy bill — as presenting 
 a very long face. Can we, from actual observation 
 and analysis, say that a long face is a mode of ex- 
 pression ? The longest face I ever saw was in a 
 patient with complete paralysis of both sides of the 
 face of over twenty years' standing. The palsy was 
 the result of disease of either ear, which commenced 
 in childhood, and destroyed the facial nerve on each 
 side. In this poor man, the face being constantly 
 acted on by gravity, the tissues had fallen, the 
 muscles had become stretched and permanently 
 elongated, the skin of the chin had fallen far below 
 the chin-bone, and literally the face was a very 
 long one. In a case where one side of the face is 
 paralyzed by destruction of its motor nerve, the 
 
202 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 paralyzed side after a time drops under the action 
 of gravity, and it is easy to compare the two sides 
 of the face. In such a case I have demonstrated by 
 measurement that the paralyzed side may be three- 
 quarters of an inch longer than the other side when 
 in action. The actual length of the face can then 
 be increased if the muscles are paralyzed ; so also if 
 they be relaxed from want of nerve-force coming 
 
 Fig. 27.— Complete Paralysis of the Eight Side of the Face. Face drawn to the 
 left side. 
 
 to the muscles. A face that is long, owing to nerve- 
 muscular conditions, may be a direct expression of 
 the brain condition ; a relaxed condition of the facial 
 muscles, allowing the face to fall and lengthen, is 
 the outcome of feeble nerve-currents coming down 
 from its nerve-centres. A long face may, then, indi- 
 cate weakened brain force, and this often accompanies 
 the mental condition following from a sudden disap- 
 
LOWER ZONE OF THE FACE. 203 
 
 pointment. Another factor in producing a long face 
 as a temporary condition, is the falling of the lower 
 jaw. 
 
 Several modes of facial expression affect specially 
 the lower zone. This is the region of the face that 
 is the most weakened by brain disease.* A slight 
 amount of brain damage in one hemisphere will 
 usually produce, for a time at least, a certain amount 
 of weakness on the opposite side of the face, in its 
 inferior part. This facial weakness is easily demon- 
 strated by making the patient show his teeth, or 
 smile. The face when in action is asymmetrical, and 
 the muscles in the lower zone on one side about the 
 mouth act very indifferently; the grove running 
 from the side of the nose to the mouth on that side 
 is almost lost ; that angle of the mouth falls lower 
 than the other. No such asymmetry is seen in the 
 upper and middle facial zones. Now, the muscles 
 of this region are those most commonly seen in 
 spontaneous action in imbeciles ; it is these muscles 
 that work so awkwardly in nervous one-sided 
 grinning. Seeing, then, that the muscles in different 
 facial regions are differently affected by brain con- 
 ditions, the question presents itself, can we say that 
 one region of the face represents intellectuality more 
 than another ? 
 
 Some years ago I attempted to determine this 
 problem on the negative side by observing the con- 
 ditions of the face in fifteen idiots. In conjunction 
 with Dr. Fletcher Beach, of Darenth Asylum, I ana- 
 lyzed each face according to the following form : — 
 • See Fig. 11, p. 109. 
 
204 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 General Muscular Condition. — The action, or 
 relaxation, of tlie muscles of the limbs and body 
 generally were noted. 
 
 Face. — Facial aspect, and muscles in action or 
 relaxation. 
 
 Upper Zone. — Frontal region, occipito-frontalis 
 and corrugator. 
 
 Middle Zone. — Eyelids and orbicularis oculi. 
 
 Lower Zone. — Mouth muscles ; muscles of nose ; 
 cheeks. 
 
 Summarizing the results, we obtained figures 
 showing the frequency with which these muscles 
 respectively come into spontaneous action in a mean- 
 ingless manner. This is perhaps some indication of 
 the degree of their intellectual representation. Thus 
 the corrugator and orbicularis oculi were much less 
 frequently thrown into meaningless action than the 
 occipito-frontalis and zygomatic, and probably the 
 former are much more expressive of intellectuality 
 than the latter. Again, applying direct observa- 
 tion to the other side of the question, and noting 
 which muscles are most frequently put in action in 
 the faces of intellectual people in the expression of 
 their mental states, I think that we see intellectu- 
 ality most commonly expressed in the frontal and 
 middle zones, while grinning, yawning, and the 
 meaningless smile are seen in the lower facial zone, 
 that region which is the most readily affected by 
 brain disease. It is not uncommon for nervous 
 people frequently to produce a peculiar, awkward, 
 grinning expression, owing to unequal action of the 
 
THE FACE IN EXHAUSTION. 
 
 205 
 
 muscles on the two sides of the mouth. Such 
 asymmetry produces a very unpleasing effect. 
 
 A general condition of fatigue is expressed in the 
 face by a relaxed, toneless condition of the muscles ; 
 the face elongates or falls slightly, and the variation 
 of the mobile expression, the play of the features, 
 is lost. 
 
 A special sign ^ exhaustion is seen in those who 
 
 Fig. 28.— Imbecile ; head well shapen 
 and of fair size ; he often smiled, thus 
 .muving parts around eyes and mouth. 
 
 Fig 29. — Imbecile ; same c 
 quieecent. 
 
 have suffered habitually from recurrent headaches. 
 When specially studying the faces of patients, the 
 subjects of recurrent headaches, and analyzing them 
 daily, my attention was particularly drawn to the 
 middle zone. It is not uncommon to observe that 
 an individual " looks as if he had a headache." 
 Analyzing such faces, it soon became noticeable 
 that there was a look of depression, heaviness, full- 
 
206 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 ness about the eyes, especially about the under 
 eyelid. It appeared that this expression must be 
 due principally to the condition of the orbicularis 
 palpebrarum muscle. There was no pitting on 
 pressxire, therefore obviously no dropsy, and when 
 the face is dropsical this relaxed full appearance is 
 not seen. Further, if the patient were made to 
 laugh, the muscle became energized, and tucked the 
 skin in well against the eyeball ; thus the expression 
 of headache was lost for a time. Specially observ- 
 ing the orbicular muscle and the parts adjacent, 
 there seemed to be a loss of tone in it ; there was 
 an appearance of fullness and flabbiness ; the skin 
 hung too loose, with an increase of the number of 
 folds ; and, in place of falling against the lower 
 eyelid neatly, as a convex surface, it fell more or 
 less in a plane from the ciliary margin to the lower 
 margin of the orbit. This condition is often best 
 seen by looking at the face in profile. It was 
 often seen when the skin was healthy and elastic ; 
 especially in children, and it could be completely 
 removed by energizing the child. It passed away, in 
 many cases, as health improved. It is not suggested 
 that the nerve-muscular condition indicates only the 
 states of brain producing headache; it may occur in 
 other states of nerve-depression. 
 
 We have now considered several distinct modes 
 of facial expression dependent upon nerve-muscular 
 conditions — diiferencc in the tone and conditions of 
 contraction of the diff'erent facial muscles. These 
 conditions are a direct expression of the brain 
 action, because they result solely from brain action. 
 
FACE ENGAGED OR NOT FREE. 207 
 
 The facial muscles are indices of the brain action 
 for the same reason that postures or movements of 
 the hands are expressive. It is only when the 
 facial muscles are free and disengaged that they 
 can receive, and be acted upon by, the finer nerve- 
 currents coming to them from the brain. It is, then, 
 the disengaged face in which we see the most 
 expression of that action of the brain which pro- 
 duces the emotions and mentation. 
 
 Observing a man while his facial muscles are 
 performing the movements necessary to eating, or 
 while a strong light is shining in his eyes, does not 
 afford a good opportunity for observing the effect of 
 mental action in producing mobile conditions of 
 expression. While the facial muscles are passive, 
 and not under the influence of any strong stimulus, 
 they are much more impressionable to nerve- 
 currents coming down from the centres of mentation. 
 When strongly acted on by some reflex stimulus, 
 they are less impressionable to the slight ever- 
 changing currents coming from the centres of 
 mentation. 
 
 When the orbicularis muscles are contracted from 
 a light shining in the eyes, when the semi-reflex 
 actions of eating are going on, or while whistling, 
 the facial muscles are less expressive of the condi- 
 tion of the mind. Conditions of disease of the 
 brain may render the movements of the face inex- 
 pressive of the state of the brain as regards its 
 function of mentation. 
 
 The following case should probably be classed as 
 one of athetosis of the face, associated vf ith petit mal. 
 
208 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 John Clark came under my observation May, 
 1878 ; he was then twelve years of age. The 
 complaint made was that his hands twitched, his face 
 worked much, and that at times he was quite silly. 
 
 He was a well-grown lad, of good complexion ; 
 his features presented a constrained appearence, 
 and there was much movement of the face. The 
 right hand twitched, but not violently. As he 
 stood up there was some irregular muscular twitch- 
 ing all over the body. He spoke well, and was not 
 himself conscious of the twitching of the face. 
 
 The movements of the face were very striking, 
 and were carefully observed. They were principally 
 confined to the parts about the eyes, nostrils, and 
 mouth. 
 
 In July, when he was an in-patient at the East 
 London Children's Hospital, I took the following 
 description : — 
 
 Face : complexion somewhat anaemic, mucous 
 membranes a little pale, not markedly so. There 
 is considerable movement of the muscles of the 
 face ; he frequently closes his eyes, next draws up 
 the angle of the mouth on the same side, then 
 contracts his eyebrows (corrugators), next he ele- 
 vates them. He appears quite unaware that he is 
 making grimaces. The inner portions of the 
 occipito-frontales (grief muscles) frequently contract 
 in excess of other portions of these muscles ; no 
 movements of the hair or scalp seen. 
 
 The orbicularis oculi is frequently contracted, as 
 indicated by the furrows around the eye, and the 
 movements of the lower lid, while at the same time 
 
ATHETOSIS OF THE FACE. 209 
 
 the eye is sufBciently open to allow of the pupil 
 being distinctly seen (coincident action of the 
 orbicularis and levator palpebrse ?). 
 
 The eyes are much moved in a restless manner, 
 and are frequently turned upwards when the 
 eyelids are being closed. There is never any stra- 
 bismus. Fundus oculi normal. The tongue is 
 protruded at request, and kept out, and there is 
 much irregular movement of its muscular structure. 
 
 As the patient stands upright with his heels 
 together, there is scarcely any movement of the 
 body. When he holds out his hands, and spreads his 
 fingers, they are kept steady, but very slight abductor 
 movements and almost inappreciable flexor- extensor 
 movements of the fingers are seen ; there are also 
 slight movements of the toes. He walks well, with 
 a steady gait, but slight irregular swaying move- 
 ment of the head. 
 
 His heart and lungs appeared normal. 
 
 The following was the history of the case : He 
 had always been strong and well till a year and a 
 half or two years previous to my seeing him. He 
 never had convulsions; he went to school when 
 five years old, was bright and intelligent, and did 
 as well as other boys till the autumn of 1876 ; 
 never any complaint of pain till this time. About 
 that date it was noticed that he made contortions 
 of his face, and frequently nodded his head ; then, 
 later on, the fingers of the right hand began to 
 work. After some months it was noticed that his 
 manner was changed; he became forgetful and 
 vacant — at times as if silly. 
 
210 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 When sent on errands he went to wrong shops. 
 He appeared at times to lose himself. One day he 
 was found in the middle of the road at a distance 
 from home, and could not say how he came there 
 or where he lived. He became a tiresome boy, 
 and at times passionate. If beaten he became 
 worse, as if he had lost his reason entirely. In 
 hospital he conversed well, and no mental failure 
 was noticed. 
 
 Sleep was sound and refreshing. 
 
 As to the inheritance, the father and mother, and 
 the families of which they were members, appeared 
 healthy. The following is the account of the col- 
 lateral members of the family : — 
 
 (1) Male 25 years, healthy. (4) Patient, aged 12 years. 
 
 (2) Male 22 „ „ (5) Male 9, very healthy. 
 
 (3) 5 children died in infancy. (6) Female 7, not strong. 
 
 The possibility of some defective inheritance is 
 the only probable cause of the boy's illness. 
 
 When seen, January, 1879, he went to school, was 
 much less absent and forgetful; movements of 
 face were less, principally consisting in contractions 
 of both occipito-frontales muscles. No fits or 
 attacks. 
 
 Now (August, 1880) he goes to school ; seldom 
 or never falls into "the lost condition." His face 
 is peculiar, and somewhat expressionless, but 
 without pathological movement except in the fore- 
 head. As he talks the skin of the forehead is 
 frequently thrown into fine long transverse wrinkles 
 by a slow movement. 
 
INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS OF THE FACE. 211 
 
 Hemiplegia : involuntary movements of arm and 
 face. 
 
 Arthur T , aged ten years, came under my 
 
 observation (May, 1880) as the subject of a chronic 
 left hemiplegic affection. His general health had 
 been good. His left upper extremity was wanting 
 in muscular voliMitary power and in muscular sense ; 
 certain involuntary movements of the hands and of 
 the fingers were also observed. I now collect the 
 notes describing the nerve-muscular condition of 
 the hand. The left hand, when held out, assumed 
 on the average the " nervous position ; " not so the 
 right, which was natural. A certain amount of 
 involuntary movement of the fingers was seen ; the 
 middle finger moved the most ; during the examina- 
 tion, and at other times when his fingers were 
 curling up against his will, he would frequently 
 use the right hand to strengthen the fingers of 
 the left. As to the kind of movement, it certainly 
 was not voluntary, and on several occasions a 
 similar movement was seen repeated. The dyna- 
 mometer showed the power of the right hand as 47, 
 against 36'5 on the left side. 
 
 I had often noticed that the boy looked much 
 distressed when I examined the left ai-m, and this 
 appeared not surprising, considering that, with good 
 bodily health, he was losing the use of the left arm, 
 and at the same time there was family trouble from 
 the father being out of work. Looking at the 
 lad's face, one observed distinct over-muscular 
 action in the upper zone, causing in the middle 
 
212 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 of the forehead transverse and vertical furrows, an 
 appearance commonly resulting from the condition 
 of brain associated with grief. For a long time I 
 was deceived by this face, and thought the boy 
 depressed, but later, on cross-questioning him, and 
 inquiring of his mother, he appeared not only 
 unconscious of these movements but not to feel 
 any mental distress. I was therefore compelled 
 to regard the facial movements, which were sugges- 
 tive of the expression of distress, as analogous to 
 those of the fingers, which more resembled athetosis 
 than any other phase of involuntary movement. 
 The movements of the fingers were slow, involun- 
 tary, and unconscious ; no child in chorea puts up 
 his hand to straighten out the fingers which have 
 curled up on the other hand. There were no 
 general twitching movements, and those that did 
 exist were not twitching in character. These points 
 appear to indicate an analogy to athetosis, rather 
 than to chorea, both in the hand and in the face. 
 
 Throughout the mechanism of the human_body 
 the muscles are arranged in groups, acting antago- 
 nistically to one another. In the limbs flexors oppose 
 the extensors, pronators oppose the supinators, etc. ; 
 likewise in the face the muscles, which contract 
 the openings oppose the muscles which dilate them. 
 These opposing groups of muscles may be energized 
 by nerve-currents, either separately or together, or 
 more commonly they are stimulated to contract in 
 uneqiial degree, and so the muscles which are 
 stronger, or the most stimulated, produce the actual 
 movement. If the flexors are the most stimulated, 
 
CONFLICT OF EXPRESSIONS IN THE FACE. 213 
 
 flexion results. If strong and unequal nerve- 
 currents are sent to the opposing muscles, a quiver- 
 ing or tremor of the part moved by the muscles 
 may result. Such action is often seen about the 
 muscles of the mouth under the influence of " con- 
 flicting emotions." Suppose a child has hurt his 
 finger but is trying hard not to cry^ we shall see the 
 
 Fig. 30.— Paralysis Agitana. in advanced stage. Face almost expreBsioiiless with 
 loss of all the fine udjustments of expreBsion i it presented one dull monotony 
 of appearance. 
 
 muscles of the mouth quiver, until finally the efiect 
 of the injury to the finger acting upon the nerve- 
 centres is too strong for the action of his will, and 
 the angles of the mouth are depressed and the 
 outbreak of sobbing follows. The conflicting emo- 
 tions, or the conflicting nerve-currents acting upon 
 the muscles, cause the expression about the mouth. 
 
214i PHYSICAL EXPBESSlOJf. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 EXPRESSION IN THE EYES. 
 
 The eyeballs : their position and the mechanism for their move- 
 ment — Iris, a muscular apparatus; its nerve supply — The 
 pupil contracted by light, and accommodation for near vision ; 
 its reflex dilatation, and its variation in conditions of emotion 
 and on brain stimulation — Mechanism of the eyelids — Im- 
 portance of distinguishing expression by the eye and the parts 
 around — Movements of the eyes — ^Loss of associated move- 
 ments of eyes under chloroform, and in deep sleep — ^Movements 
 of eyes from brain slimulation — Horizontal movements most 
 common — Attraction and repulsion of the eyes by sight of an 
 object — Spontaneous movements — Eyes free or disengaged — 
 Mental states expressed by attraction or repulsion of the eyes 
 — Horizontal aiid vertical movements contrasted — Intel- 
 lectuality of upward moveujents. 
 
 Most people, if questioned, would say that in the 
 human face there is great expression in the eyes ; 
 that the eyes are very expressive features, and that 
 the soul and mind shine out in the eyes, etc. In 
 conversational language, which is not always quite 
 precise, the term " eye," as a feature of the face, is 
 used somewhat loosely ; but it is necessary in this 
 method of study to differentiate carefully between 
 expression seen in the eyeball, and expression in the 
 parts that surround the eyeball — the eyelids, the 
 eyebrow, etc. 
 
ANATOMICAL DESCRIPTION. 215 
 
 The eyeballs lie in their sockets, the orbits of the 
 skuU, resting among the fatty tissue which supports 
 them. If that fat be diminished in quantity, the 
 eyeball sinks further into the orbit; if the fat 
 becomes congested and swollen up, it protrudes the 
 eyeball somewhat. The movements of the eyeball 
 are effected by small muscles attached to the eye 
 and arising from the wall of the orbit ; these small 
 muscles external to the eyeball are supplied with 
 motor force by the third, fourth, and sixth pairs of 
 nerves of the brain. The iris, or coloured portion 
 of the eye, is a muscular curtain, with an aperture 
 in its centre called the pupil. The movements of 
 this muscular apparatus, the iris, are under the 
 control of the sympathetic and third cranial nerves. 
 Stimulation of the sympathetic is followed by 
 dilatation of the pupil; stimulation of the third 
 nerve, or motor oculi, is followed by contraction; 
 conversely, palsy of the sympathetic leads to a 
 small pupil, and palsy of the third nerve to a large 
 pupil. 
 
 We have seen, then, that a very brief description 
 shows how the size of the pupil may be increased 
 or diminished by nerve-currents acting upon the 
 muscular apparatus of the iris. Such changes are 
 among the principal means of expression in the 
 eyeball. The varying size of the pupil is a mode of 
 expression. 
 
 (1) Light falling upon the eye enters the pupil 
 and falls upon the retina, or nervous impressionable 
 layer of the back of the eye; this sends on a current 
 to the corpora quadrigemina of the brain, and is 
 
216 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 reflected by the third nerve, causing contraction of 
 the pupil. Light falling upon the eye contracts the 
 pupil. 
 
 (2) If an observer stand in front of a man who 
 is looking out of window at a distant object, he sees 
 his pupils of a certain size. If he now requests the 
 subject to look at a finger held three inches from 
 his eyes, a movement of the iris is seen, the pupil 
 contracts, at the same time the eyes converge so as 
 to direct their axes towards the finger looked at. 
 This contraction of the pupil is due to accommoda- 
 tion of the eye for near vision. 
 
 (3) The size of the pupil may vary as the result 
 of a mechanical stimulus applied to some distant 
 part of the body. Thus, gently stroking the palm of 
 the hand may cause slight dilatation of the pupils ; 
 they may also be observed to react to stimuli 
 applied to the face and neck.* 
 
 (4) Certain so-called " emotional states " cause 
 variations in the size of the pupil, that is, the 
 changes in the size of the pupil are expressions of 
 the emotions ; the material change which produces 
 the emotion produces at the same time a change 
 in the iris. Ferriert showed by direct experi- 
 ment, that, in pigeons, irritation of the optic lobe 
 on one side causes the opposite pupil to become 
 intensely dilated. 
 
 A short account must now be given of the 
 mechanism for the movements of the eyelids. The 
 
 * See Dr. Wilks " On tlie Pupil ot Emotional States," " Biain," 
 part xxi., 1883. 
 t Ferrier, op. cii., p. 78. 
 
THE EYELIDS. 217 
 
 lids are closed or drawn together by the action of 
 the orbicular muscle ot the eye. The upper lid is 
 raised by the action of a special muscle, termed 
 elevator of the upper eyelid ; this acts in opposition 
 to the -orbicular muscle. The orbicular muscle, 
 which closes the lids, is mainly supplied by the 
 facial nerve ; the elevator muscle of the upper lid is 
 supplied by a brapch of the third nerve, the motor 
 oculi; so that different nerves are concerned in 
 opening and in closing the eyelids. We shall refer 
 to this again, in considering some points concerning 
 the movements of the eyes and eyelids. 
 
 Much has been said by different authors about 
 expression in the eyes, but many descriptions do 
 not particularize as to whether the expression is 
 seen in the eyeballs, or in the features of the face, 
 the eyelids, and the parts around them. 
 
 I think there is more expression in the action of 
 the muscles of the eyelids than in the changing 
 conditions of the eyeball itself. If a man wear a 
 mask, showing the eyes only and hiding the other 
 features of the face, there is so little expression 
 seen that it is impossible to recognize the individual 
 thereby, as may be seen at a masked ball. It is the 
 custom in some parts of Italy for men to beg in 
 silence, wearing a loose garb, and a hood covering 
 the face, with holes showing the eyeballs only, and 
 the absence of expression is marked. 
 
 In looking to the modes of expression in the eyes, 
 
 as in other parts of the body, the greatest number 
 
 of signs are seen in the nerve-muscular conditions 
 
 and in the movements. When the eyes are directed 
 
 11 
 
218 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 to the right hand or to the left, the axes of the eye- 
 balls move horizontally, and remain parallel to one 
 another. Both eyes may have their axes directed to 
 the right hand or to the left, but the parallelism of 
 the axes is maintained. This co-ordination of the 
 centres of movements is constant during health while 
 awake. If, however, the patient be placed under 
 the influence of chloroform, so as to produce perfect 
 unconsciousness, the loss of associated movements 
 of the eyes may be complete. If, in an adult com- 
 pletely anaesthetized with chloroform, the upper 
 eyelids be gently raised, the pupils will be seen 
 minutely contracted, often to a pin-point, the eyes 
 at the same time having lost the parallelism of their 
 axes. One eye may move inwards or outwards, 
 while the other remains quiet, or moves in a 
 different direction or at a different pace, thus 
 causing a temporary and varying squint. Usually 
 these movements are mostly in the horizontal plane ; 
 less commonly the eyes assume a different level, 
 one being in the horizontal plane, while the other 
 is turned downwards. These movements I have 
 frequently demonstrated in the healthy subject, 
 and have seen that though they occurred in this 
 unconnected way during the coma, they regained 
 their parallelism when the effect of the chloroform 
 passed off, the pupil expanding at the same moment. 
 In an infant in profound sleep the same loss of 
 association of the movements of the eyes occurs ; it 
 may also be seen in young and feeble infants when 
 sucking at the bottle. These points, then, will 
 serve us as indications of sleep, coma, health, etc. 
 
MOVEMENTS OF THE EYES. 219 
 
 Ferrier * has shown that there exists in the con- 
 volutions of the frontal region of the brain a centre, 
 which, when excited, causes both eyes to turn away 
 from the side excited; if, on the contrary, this 
 centre be destroyed instead of excited, the corre- 
 sponding centre in the other half of the brain, 
 acting unopposed, turns both eyes towards the 
 side of lesion. .This physiological fact suggests 
 the importance of studying lateral movements of 
 the eyes as a sign or expression of brain action. 
 
 In health the greater number of ordinary move- 
 ments of the eyes are probably in the horizontal 
 plane of the axes of the orbits ; the same is the case 
 with the spontaneous movements of the eyes in a 
 patient under the influence of chloroform. The 
 horizontal movements of the eyes do not involve as 
 many separate muscles as the vertical movements, 
 inasmuch as they do not involve movements of the 
 eyelids. 
 
 Many of the lateral eye movements are due to the 
 sight of objects. "The sight of a flower'' is said 
 to attract a child's attention if he turn his eyes 
 towards the flower presented. Here is an interest- 
 ing case of eye movements expressing that the 
 " attention " is " attracted." If movement results 
 from the sight of the flower, the flower has some- 
 thing to do with the movement. There is no 
 material, structural connection between the flower 
 and the child's eyes ; it is light reflected by the 
 flower which passes to the child's eye and stimulates 
 its movements. It is not every visual stimulus 
 * Ferrier, op. cii., p. 229. 
 
220 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 that causes the eyes to be directed towards the 
 object; the sight of some objects repels the eyes. 
 The sight of an object may at one time attract, at 
 another repel, the eyes. We see, then, that the 
 terms " attract," " repel," as here used, are purely 
 conventional ; there is no such thing as attraction 
 in the sense in which the word is applied in speak- 
 ing of gravity, or electricity. 
 
 As an illustration of the movements of eyes under 
 the eflfect of the sight of objects, I may refer to 
 observations I have often made upon people during 
 railway travelling. It is easy to make observations 
 upon the movements of the eyes of a fellow- 
 passenger sitting opposite and looking out of 
 window. When the line of rail is running on an 
 embankment, there being no tall objects near the 
 train, the distant objects remain long in view, and 
 as the eyes are attracted to one object in the 
 distance after another, the eyes move horizontally, 
 but slowly, their axes being directed to one object 
 till it passes beyond the field of vision, then moving 
 towards another object. When the train passes 
 through a cutting all objects within view are near, 
 and remain within sight but a fraction of a second, 
 so that as one object after another attracts the atten- 
 tion the eyes move rapidly — I think often over a 
 hundred times a minute. 
 
 Having considered these preliminary matters 
 with regard to eye movements, our attention must 
 now be directed to the principles and modes of 
 expression as seen in the eyes. In a young infant 
 the eyes are constantly moved while it is awake ; 
 
THE PUPIL IN EMOTIONAL STATES. 221 
 
 we may conclude, then, that movements of the eyes, 
 as of other parts, may be spontaneous, due to 
 spontaneous action of the nerve-centres. Move- 
 ments of the eyes are very expressive. Movements 
 of the eyes, not coinciding with the special pre- 
 sentation of objects within the field of vision, are 
 probably spontaneous; when the "sight of an 
 object" is followed by the optic axis being directed 
 towards the object and kept there, this shows the 
 subject impressionable to the effects of light, and 
 shows that the spontaneous movements can be 
 inhibited by light. 
 
 Again, the iris is a muscular apparatus stimulated 
 by certain nerves; its movements determine the 
 size of the pupil. The size of the pupil often 
 varies independently of any variation in the light 
 falling upon it ; it varies owing to changes occur- 
 ring in the brain, particularly the changes which 
 occur along with or produce the emotions. 
 
 Now, let us inquire whether tliere be evidence 
 that the condition of the mind is expressed by 
 movements of the eyes; in other words, whether 
 those brain changes which produce mentation often 
 cause synchronous movements of the eyes. Can 
 anything be shown with regard to the intellectuality 
 of eye movements? Eye movements are most 
 expressive of mental conditions when the eyes are 
 free or disengaged. If the optic axis has been 
 directed towards an object by the stimulus of light 
 reflected from that object (i.e. a visual stimulus), 
 the centres which move the optic axis to its position 
 remain under that stimulus, and this position of the 
 
222 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 eyes is maintained till that stimulus is removed, or 
 some stronger stimulus excites the nerve-centres. 
 While the eyes are thus fixed by the sight of an 
 object, or other visual stimulus, they are not alto- 
 gether free or disengaged to express emotions; 
 their nerve-centres are engaged as much as those 
 of a hand while digging. 
 
 A sufficiently strong visual stimulus may direct 
 the eyes towards the object, or repel them; that 
 is, direct them away from the object. In these 
 varying effects of the sight of an object we have 
 one of the most interesting modes of expression. 
 A glass of water placed within the field of vision 
 of a thirsty man causes his eyes to turn towards 
 it ; the glass of water, if placed within the field 
 of vision of a man suffering from hydrophobia, 
 causes repulsion of the eyes. Some explanation 
 of these phenomena may be seen on referring to 
 Terrier's experiments. 
 
 When a patient is under the influence of chloro- 
 form, a number of facts show that he is less 
 impressionable to outward stimuli. Touching the 
 cornea does not excite reflex movement ; speaking 
 to the patient does not excite movement. The 
 movements that do occur in this condition are 
 then probably spontaneous (automatic). It has 
 been already stated that in this condition spon- 
 taneous movements of the eyes are seen, and they 
 are mostly in the horizontal plane. We have in 
 these facts evidence that horizontal movements 
 are more likely to be spontaneous than those in 
 the vertical direction ; this also makes it probable 
 
MOVEMENTS OF EYELIDS. 223 
 
 that as, when mentation is paralyzed, horizontal 
 movements are most common, the vertical ones are 
 more expressive of mental states. The horizontal 
 movements of the eyes- do not involve movements 
 of the eyelids; these movements are less compli- 
 cated than those in the vertical plane, and involve 
 the action of fewer nerve-centres. 
 
 As to the melanism of vertical movements. 
 Dr. Gowers * has shown that the movements of the 
 lower eyelid constitute a simpler problem than 
 those of the upper lid. The lower lid follows the 
 movements of the eyeball upwards and downwards, 
 but not very closely. No muscular mechanism 
 exists which can cause the downward movements 
 of the lower lid; such movement is produced by 
 the movement of the eyeball acting mechanically 
 upon the lower lid. The upper eyelid possesses 
 a more complex mechanism. The descent of the 
 lower lid, or downward rotation of the globe, is not 
 due to the contraction of a muscle, but simul- 
 taneously with the descent of the upper lid in the 
 downward movement of the eyeball, there must be 
 a relaxation of the elevator. In upward rotation of 
 the eyeball, contraction of the elevator is associated 
 with that of the superior rectus. The association 
 of the elevator and superior rectus suggests that 
 both are relaxed, or energized, in similar degree 
 when the eyeball is moved upwards or downwards. 
 Thus, in the upward vertical movements of the 
 eyeballs, a more complex mechanism comes into 
 play than with horizontal movements. 
 * Med.-Cliir. Trans., 1879. 
 
224 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION, 
 
 In applying the principle of contrasting the 
 movements of small parts with those of larger 
 parts, it seems probable that we should compare 
 movements of the eyes with those of the head. 
 Probably there is more intellectuality expressed 
 by movements of the eyes towards an object than 
 when the head is turned instead of the eyes. 
 
CfeAPTER XIII. 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GKNEEAL CONDITIONS OF THE 
 BRAIN AND OF THE EMOTIONS. 
 
 Expression of consciousness — Sleep — Fatigue — Exhaustion — Irri- 
 tability — Nutrition — Rest — Activity — Impressionability — Ex- 
 pression of instinct and mentation — Expression of pain — The 
 emotion of the beautiful. 
 
 Various modes of expression, or physical signs, 
 the outcome of brain action, have been considered ; 
 we shall now discuss some of the brain conditions 
 causing or accompanying the emotions, and certain 
 general conditions of the man, noting how they 
 are directly expressed. 
 
 It is proposed to speak of the following general 
 conditions: — Consciousness; sleep j fatigue; exhaus- 
 tion; irritability; nutrition; rest; activity; im- 
 pressionability ; expression of instinct and menta- 
 tion ; expression of pain, and of the emotion of the 
 beautiful. 
 
 As to the direct expression of consciousness : 
 consciousness itself in the abstract is beyond our 
 sphere of observation, but the expression of con- 
 sciousness is most important to our subject, and 
 
226 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 interesting to study. We are getting near a meta- 
 physical question; to clear the ground, let me 
 speak plainly. I have no idea what consciousness 
 is, just as I have no knowledge what life is, or 
 what mind is in the abstract; but we can study 
 the expression of these unknowable things, con- 
 sciousness, life, mind ; we can study their physical 
 manifestation. In studying an emotion or general 
 condition, such as consciousness, by these methods, 
 we must say that such and such are the physical 
 signs produced by that condition of the brain 
 which usually produces consciousness. The physical 
 signs which we commonly say express conscious- 
 ness are not actually the result of consciousness, but 
 they are the outcome of the action of that nerve- 
 mechanism which also affords consciousness ; it is 
 not the abstract "consciousness" that is expressed, it 
 is the state of the nerve-mechanism which produces 
 the expression. 
 
 I would not endeavour to adhere thus perti- 
 naciously to our methods of procedure, were it not 
 that it appears to me that many authors, in treating 
 of problems in which " consciousness " becomes a 
 factor, become lost in a maze of metaphysical in- 
 quiry. Now, pursuing our subject, the expression 
 of consciousness, let us see what can be learnt by 
 the direct observation of individuals acknowledged 
 to be in the state of consciousness or unconscious- 
 ness, and contrast the signs observed. In conditions 
 of consciousness there is great impressionability, 
 susceptibility to impressions upon the organs ot 
 special sense, producing reflex movements ; in states 
 
EXPRESSION OF SLEEP. 227 
 
 of profound unconsciousness, as a rule, no reflex 
 movements follow impressions on the organs of 
 sense. 
 
 We are considering, at present, expression in 
 healthy subjects only, and the only normal con- 
 dition of unconsciousness is sleep. We pass on 
 by a natural step to study the objective signs of 
 sleep. Sleep is a. condition apt to follow from 
 fatigue. The principal signs of sleep are, diminished 
 impressionability, diminished power to resist the 
 effects of gravity upon the postures of the body, 
 absence of movements in the so-called voluntary 
 muscles, alteration of the organic movements. 
 Many details might be given, a few must suffice 
 for want of space. The tone of the orbicular 
 muscle of the eye is, in healthful sleep, sufficient 
 to keep the eyelids closed ; on awaking, the levator 
 muscle of the upper lid preponderates, and the 
 eyelid is raised. If during deep sleep the upper 
 eyelids be raised, the pupils are seen minutely con- 
 tracted, and in infants we usually see a complete 
 loss of the associated movements of the eyes.* 
 One eye may move upwards or outwards while 
 the other remains quiet, or moves in a different 
 direction, or at a diflerent pace, thus causing a 
 temporary squint. Usually these movements are 
 confined to the horizontal plane of the axes of the 
 orbits ; at the moment of waking the pupils dilate, 
 and co-ordination of the movements of the eyes 
 is restored. I have frequently observed these facts 
 in infants asleep in their mothers' arms. It is also 
 * See paper, British Medical Journal, March 10, 1877. 
 
228 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 not uncommon during sleep to find the condition of 
 muscular tone diflferent on the two sides of the 
 body. We commonly say there may be different 
 depths of sleep ; sleep may be fuU and complete, 
 with loss of most forms of impressionability. Ob- 
 jective observation of a subject during apparent 
 sleep does not necessarily give evidence as to 
 whether there be any impressionability or not; 
 it may be found that the outcome of impressions 
 received is long delayed. Things said before a 
 child apparently asleep may not produce any 
 visible result at the time, but we may subsequently 
 learn that it was impressionable to sound at the 
 time of observation; the child may tell us what 
 was said before it. Here we know the impres- 
 sionability by its effects in subsequent speech 
 (movements). 
 
 Fatigue is indicated by the slight amount of 
 force expended in movement, and by the small 
 number of movements. In the latter character we 
 see some distinction /between fatigue and irrita- 
 bility, in which condiiion there is often an excess 
 of movement, and in particular an excess of speech. 
 Fatigue and irritability often coexist. The volun- 
 tary movements are apt to become uncertain, as 
 is illustrated by the change of handwriting when a 
 man is tired. The free hand assumes the " straight 
 extended posture with the thumb drooped," or the 
 posture of the feeble hand. The head is often in 
 an asymmetrical posture, and flexed. The direct 
 effects of gravity determine the position of the 
 body to a greater extent than in the condition of 
 
EXHAUSTION — IRRITABILITY. 229 
 
 strength, hence the spine is bent. If this condition 
 tends to pass on into sleep, this is expressed by 
 the preponderance of the orbicular muscle over the 
 levator of the upper lid, and the other signs of sleep 
 supervene. 
 
 Exhaustion is an extreme condition of fatigue, 
 in which movement (the kinetic function) is alto- 
 gether lowered. J'he face becomes toneless, and 
 devoid of fine mobile expression; the orbicularis 
 palpebrarum is relaxed; the face may be length- 
 ened from relaxation of its muscles ; the ordinary 
 movements of expression are not excited by the 
 ordinary stimuli, and such movements as do occur 
 are slow and laboured. A strong stimulus is re- 
 quired to induce the man to hold out his hands, 
 and then the posture is " the feeble hand." Sighing 
 and yawning are common; speech is slow, and 
 the tone of the voice is altered ; in some cases 
 finger- twitching, especially of separate fingers, in- 
 dicates extreme exhaustion and irritability. 
 
 Irritability is expressed in "a man when a slight 
 noise makes him start. This is a reflex movement in 
 excess, a reflex action that does not occur in perfect 
 health on so slight a stimulus. In irritability other 
 stimuli besides sound may produce excessive reflex 
 action. A touch upon the shoulder causes a sudden 
 movement. Not only is the amount of reflex move- 
 ment excessive, and out of proportion to the 
 stimulus, but the kind of movement, or special 
 series of movements, may differ from that usually 
 following from the stimulus in health. A child 
 three years of age, when irritable, may turn away 
 
230 PHYSICAL EXPBESSION. 
 
 his head from a familiar object, or from the sight 
 of his food, and say, " No, no j " here the sight of 
 the object, instead of causing a reflex movement of 
 head, eyes, and hands towards the object, moves all 
 from it. The irritability of the nerve-centres is 
 indicated by movements in the opposite direction 
 from that which the same stimulus would produce 
 in health. Besides these reflex signs we find the 
 voice altered — ^when spoken to he may answer 
 sharply; the kinetic force generally is lessened 
 and irregular in kind; twitching irregular move- 
 ments are not uncommon. The nervous children 
 described in chap. vii. often show marked signs of 
 irritability. The spontaneous postures assumed are 
 those of fatigue, with the addition of slight irregular 
 twitching movements. If this condition lasts long 
 trophic signs are usually seen, nutrition is lowered, 
 and wasting occurs. It is not convenient here to 
 discuss the relation of such trophic changes to the 
 motor phenomena of irritability, but let me refer 
 the reader again to chap, vii., p. 113, where some ex- 
 periments upon the sensitive plant are described. 
 Abnormal conditions in the body, particularly in 
 the abdomen, may render the subject irritable; so 
 may fever, gout, etc. 
 
 Nutrition is a matter of the highest importance. 
 We must consider its expression. I am, however, 
 unwilling to enter at any length upon the expres- 
 sion of nutrition in this volume, because the subject 
 is so extensive and so important ; in fact, the whole 
 of this volume is preparatory to an attempt to 
 gain knowledge upon the subjects nutrition, and 
 
NUTKITION. 231 
 
 development, as affected by external forces. The 
 first point I wish to insist on is that nutrition may 
 be expressed by (A) trophic, or material visible 
 signs ; (B) kinetic, or motor signs, the direct out- 
 come of nutrition. The trophic signs are commonly 
 known; the kinetic signs are perhaps too often 
 passed over with scant notice. As evidence that 
 kinetic signs or , movements, and the results of 
 movements, may express nutrition, let us examine 
 a few examples. 
 
 (1) In an ill-nourished infant spontaneous move- 
 ment is much lessened, or the child may lie almost 
 motionless, instead of being constantly full of move- 
 ment while awake. The return of spontaneous 
 movement is a sign of the improved nutrition. 
 
 (2) In a man after a severe illness, such as a 
 fever, the tone of the voice is usually altered so 
 that we can no longer recognize the individual by 
 his voice. This motor sign indicates, as well as the 
 worn countenance, the man's lowered nutrition. 
 Returning health is indicated by the patient "look- 
 ing like himself " and " recovering his old voice." 
 
 (3) In a child seven years old emaciation and 
 ill nutrition, indicated by loss of weight, may be 
 accompanied by chorea or finger-twitching, which 
 disappears when weight increases and nutrition is 
 improved. 
 
 (4) A strong well-nourished man is less fidgety 
 than a weak one. 
 
 Now as to the expression of nutrition by trophic 
 signs. Proportional development is often an 
 indication of conditions of nutrition. A seedling 
 
232 PHYSICAL EXPfiESSION. 
 
 pea-plant, if kept in a room with deficient light, is 
 not well nourished, and the ill nutrition is indicated 
 by the small yellow leaves and the long white 
 stem. That assimilation has not occurred during 
 the life of the plant is demonstrated by the fact 
 that the plant when dry weighs less than the seed 
 from which it grew. Here ill nutrition is expressed 
 by the relative growth of leaves and stem, the 
 leaves being v^ry small, the internodes very long. 
 In children we often see growth for a tiiiie occur in 
 height without lateral development ; then the pro- 
 portions of growth change, and the child fattens. 
 
 Best is probably a condition of nutrition, leading 
 to the signs of recreation indicated by subsequent 
 activity. The most essential element in the ex- 
 pression of the condition rest is the subsequent 
 activity, i.e. the sequential series of movements and 
 reflexea Take a case uncomplicated by sleep. 
 During rest there is impressionability, which affords 
 a distinguishing character between simple rest and 
 sleep. Arising out of this we have the fact that in 
 rest, uncomplicated by sleep, the eyelids usually 
 remain open ; that is, the levator palpebrse stUl re- 
 ceives a stronger impulse than the orbicular muscle. 
 
 One of the special characters of rest is the 
 absence of movement, although impressionability is 
 retained. Rest is usually preceded by fatigue, and 
 it is followed by activity ; the sequential signs of 
 recreation and activity indicate that during the 
 period in which movement was absent there was 
 rest. Rest is expressed by the present signs of 
 rest, followed by the signs of recreation and activity. 
 
BEST ANB ACTIVITY. 233 
 
 As a matter of interest it may be noted that 
 forces, such as the sound of soothing music, may 
 produce an inhibition of movements. Music may 
 cause a man to keep quiet and rest. As a matter 
 of speculation it seems to me probable that when 
 the kinetic function of the nerve-mechanism is in 
 abeyance the trophic action prevails, and more 
 nutrition takes place. One reason for this view, 
 among many others, is that a general good state of 
 nutrition of the body promotes rest. Conditions 
 of ill nutrition are often accompanied by signs of 
 irritability. 
 
 In contradistinction to the state of rest we have 
 activity. The condition of activity is indicated by 
 actions, i.e. movements. In activity with strength, 
 the movements are probably fewer in number than 
 in the staj;e of irritability, and the combinations 
 and sequences of movement differ in the two con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Healthy activity is indicated by a quick response 
 of movement upon stimulation, that is to say, for 
 example, that the movement follows quickly upon 
 the sight of an object or on hearing a sound. 
 If such movements are looked upon as reflex 
 actions, the quick and ready answer is a reflex 
 seiies of movements where the period of latency is 
 short. This, of course, implies also that impression- 
 ability is good. 
 
 Impressionability, as a property of the nerve- 
 mechanism, is especially interesting as being an 
 essential factor among the properties of the brain 
 necessary to mentation. In the first two chapters 
 
234 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 I explained what is here meant by the term im- 
 pressionability, and it was shown to be a property 
 possessed by inorganic bodies as well as living 
 beings ; and impressionability of the brain is 
 dwelt upon in the chapter on "Expression of the 
 Mind." This is a very large subject, and there are 
 many kinds of impressionability, such as to the 
 effects of light, sound, etc. 
 
 A curious form of impressionability is the ready 
 susceptibility to the formation or building up 
 (trophic action) of new reflexes. A picture when 
 first seen attracts the attention but little ; the head 
 and eyes do not with certainty and quickness turn 
 towards the picture when it comes within the field 
 of vision, but after a time the picture makes an 
 impression upon the nerve-centres by the light it 
 reflects, and the head and eyes then always turn 
 towards it when it is in view. It is more difficult 
 to understand how a series of movements spreading 
 over some considerable period of time can follow 
 from a single short impression. When the brain 
 readily retains impressions it is said to be retentive, 
 and retentiveness in the brain is very important to 
 ^intellectuality. 
 
 The emotions are usually considered as the out- 
 come of the mind, and before considering any of 
 the expressions of mind it is convenient to consider 
 what can be said about the expression of instinct. 
 
 Instinct is defined by Professor Bain* as un- 
 taught ability. " It is the name given to what can 
 be done prior to experience or education ; as suck- 
 
 * " Mental and Moral Science," 1872, p. 68. 
 
INSTINCT, 235 
 
 ing in the child, walking on all fours in the newly 
 dropped calf, pecking by the bird just emerged 
 from its shell, the maternal attentions of animals 
 generally." 
 
 In the larger edition of his works, p. 256, Pro- 
 fessor Bain says, "Instinct is defined by being 
 opposed to acquisition, education, or experience ; we 
 might express it, as untaught ability to perform 
 actions of all kinds, and more especially such as 
 are necessary or useful to the animal. In it a 
 living being possesses, at the moment of birth, 
 powers of acting of the same nature as those sub- 
 sequently conferred by experience and education." 
 Again, later he lays some stress on " the primitive 
 combined movements;" "the primitive arrange- 
 ments for combining movements in aggregation or 
 succession;" as examples, locomotion, and the 
 aggregation of movements dependent upon the con- 
 struction of the nerve-mechanism at birth seen in 
 the movements of the eyes. 
 
 Walking is said to be due to instinct in the 
 lower animals. Marey describes walking as a 
 series of movements. 
 
 Sir Charles Bell,* speaking of alteration of 
 the respiratory movements under the influence 
 of passion, cites as an example the movements of 
 alarm, the sudden and startled exertion of the 
 hands and arms, etc., and he then adds, "Such 
 combinations of the muscular actions are not left 
 to the direction of the wiU, but are provided for in 
 the original constraction of the animal body." 
 • Op. cit, p. 191. 
 
236 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 It seems, then, to be acknowledged that what is 
 called instinct is expressed by " movements in 
 aggregation or in succession," due to the congenital 
 or bom condition of the nerve-system. If this be 
 the meaning of what is understood by the term 
 " instinct," we see that instinct may be expressed 
 by combinations and sequences of movements, the 
 direct outcome of the spontaneous action of the 
 central nerve-mechanism as it exists at birth, or in 
 addition by combinations and sequences of reflex 
 actions, and these are in part dependent upon 
 external stimulus. I think the chief notion implied 
 by the term " instinct " is that the movements which 
 express it, whether spontaneous or reflex, are the 
 outcome of the inborn condition of the nerve- 
 centres, and are not acquired ; if they are shown to 
 be acquired I suppose they would be called signs of 
 " mind" We have, then, a more or less arbitrary 
 definition, and a definition proves nothing ; what 
 needs demonstration is that instinct as thus defined 
 does exist as a property or condition of things. 
 
 In our chapter on " Expression of Mind in the 
 Infant " it is assumed that mentation is a function of 
 the brain; we are now concerned with a certain 
 class of mental phenomena called the emotions. 
 The expressions of the emotions have been well 
 described by many observers and authors, and I 
 propose to analyze their descriptions instead of 
 reattempting their task. 
 
 Pain is an emotion, and can be expressed in the 
 body by certain physical signs. "Pain" in the 
 abstract is outside the sphere of objective knowledge, 
 
EXPRESSION OF PAIN. 237 
 
 and is incapable of investigation by phyaical means. 
 In talking of pain in this work, I take some 
 description of pain generally understood and 
 adopted by us all, then observe cases where pain 
 is present, and note and analyze the coincident 
 physical signs. That is to say, we take the general, 
 social description of the abstract emotion, and 
 deal by our principles with the physical signs 
 accompanying it. I do not wish here to say any- 
 thing about the emotion itself, but only to deal with 
 its expression in physical signs. To us the signs of 
 emotion are physical signs, or indications of brain 
 changes, and we grant that a physical sign can only 
 be produced by a previously existing physical force. 
 We do not say that an emotion is a physical force, but 
 we do say that the physical sign which indicates 
 the emotion is the direct outcome of a physical 
 change, or force in the nerve-centres. We wiU not 
 now discuss what may be the mutual relation of 
 (a) the emotion ; (b) the physical sign which expresses 
 it ; (c) the force or change in the nerve-centre which 
 produces the nerve-muscular expression. 
 
 The errwtion of beauty may be taken as another 
 example. In this work we put aside the consider- 
 ation of all subjective states, and abstract ideas. It 
 is the expression of the sense of beauty that will 
 engage our attention. I know not what " beauty " 
 in the abstract is, but we can observe the physical 
 signs which express that a man is affected by what 
 we know is beautiful, or what we have reason to 
 believe is beautiful to him. Here we touch upon a 
 matter of interest and of importance to our subject. 
 
238 PHYSICAL EXPBESSION. 
 
 Objects may be beautiful to one man that are not 
 beautiful to another. The same object — say^ a scien- 
 tific instrument — is beautiful to one man, not to 
 another ; it affects them differently. Probably there 
 is no property " beauty " resident, as a property, in 
 the instrument; the sense of beauty, and the expres- 
 sion of beauty at the sight of the instrument, are 
 found only in some men. It follows, then, that when 
 we see the expression of the sense of beauty in a man' 
 at the sight of the instrument, this indicates one of 
 his properties, one of his forms of impressionability. 
 In fact, the expression of the sense of beauty at the 
 sight of a certain object is a reflex movement of a 
 certain kind. I regret to be unable to describe the 
 expression of the sense of beauty in man, but I 
 think the following are important points in such 
 expression : — The sight of the object causes the 
 head and eyes to turn towards it, as when the 
 attention is attracted ; then the visual impress of 
 the object is usually inhibitory, rather than stimu- 
 lating ; movements are commonly inhibited thereby, 
 and the primary appearances of rest are produced, 
 just as when the attention is attracted by anything ; 
 sometimes, as in children, there may be signs of 
 excitation rather than inhibition. There is, I think, 
 sometimes a tendency to extension of the head, 
 which may even occur to such an extent as to 
 remove the eyes from a position where they can see 
 the object. These motor signs at the sight of a 
 particular object occur only in some people; they 
 serve as phj'sical signs indicating what kind of 
 brain they have, or, as it might commonly be said. 
 
EMOTION OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 239 
 
 what knowledge and power of appreciation they 
 have. A well- dissected anatomical preparation may 
 excite in one man the expression of the sense of 
 beauty, but in another it may excite the expression 
 of mental pain. The series of reflex movements 
 produced in the two observers by the sight of the 
 preparation are diff"erent. The difference expresses 
 certain properties of brain in each man. 
 
2i0 PHYSICAL EXPaESSION. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 EXPRESSION OF MIND IN THE INFANT AND ADULT. 
 
 Materialistic questions only entertained — The criteria of mind, 
 what are they? — Physical study of signs of mind from 
 infancy upwards — A subjective condition is only known 
 to us by its physical expression — Brain properties necessary 
 to mentation — Impressionability — Eetentivenesa — Kelatinn of 
 outcomings to afferent stimuliis^Comparison of an infant 
 with the adult, and an idiot with a healthy child— Deserijition 
 of an infant; its development and signs of potentiality — 
 Impressionability : its attributes^; delayed expression of im- 
 pressions — Modes of expression are criteria of mind — Ex- 
 pression of distress — Memory — Subjective conditions studied 
 by their expression — Thought. 
 
 The physiologist and the physician, dealing in 
 their work only with things material, must of 
 necessity seek for realistic methods of investigation 
 and description. We have not here to consider any 
 metaphysical properties of mind, but, putting aside 
 all such considerations, it is oxir business at present 
 to consider only the realistic, objective, physical 
 signs by which the physical investigator may judge 
 of the presence of what is called mind. 
 
 What are to be taken as the criteria of mind or 
 the faculty mentation ? We leave this question to 
 be partially answered in the course of this chapter. 
 
METHOD OF INQUIRY. 241 
 
 It has been very usual in inquiries into the faculties 
 of mind to refer to the structure and properties of the 
 adult brain, and then to argue from that basis all 
 round the subject. I propose here to consider first 
 the human infant, seeking for physical signs of its 
 mind, or of the faculties of mind actual or potential, 
 and to trace the signs of its mental development 
 upwards towards adult age. The object of my 
 work is to give such description and definition of 
 the conditions of the brain when exercising the 
 faculties of mentation, as may enable us, as observers 
 and experimenters, to note with exactness how 
 certain forces acting upon the man elicit the signs 
 of mentation, and generally to attempt a physical 
 experimental inquiry into the function of mentation. 
 It has often been said by authors that we study 
 mind by recording subjective feelings, their associ- 
 ations, and combinations, but we can only know 
 the subjective feeling of another man by its 
 physical expression in movements, speech, and other 
 results of movements. 
 
 Our method of inquiry is based upon observation 
 and experiment, and is intended to elicit know- 
 ledge as to the action of external forces as factors 
 in the evolution of the faculty " mentation." On 
 account of the nature of this inquiry and its 
 objects, it is necessary to deal with the question 
 purely from a physical point of view, so that 
 we have nothing to do with " feelings " or '' con- 
 sciousness" as elements of mind, for they cannot 
 be directly observed or experimented upon. It 
 is also necessary in each portion of such an inquiry, 
 13 
 
2412 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 before giving observations and experiments as 
 proof of points concerning any property or func- 
 tion, to decide upon physical signs which are to 
 be considered as criteria of that function. It is 
 only these physical signs that we can observe or 
 experiment upon. 
 
 The principal properties of the brain necessary 
 to mentation are — (1) impressionability, the effect 
 and outcome of the impression varying according 
 to the afferent force or stimulus ; (2) retentiveness 
 or permanent impressionability ; (3) special associa- 
 tion of the outcomings as dependent upon the 
 afferent stimulus. Or we may say that the expres- 
 sion of these properties in part indicates the 
 potentiality for mentation. One method of 
 determining the physical signs of mind is to 
 compare subjects possessed of mind with others 
 devoid of mind, or nearly so. 
 
 It will be granted that an infant at birth does 
 not show well-marked signs of mind ; the principal 
 signs of mind are absent at birth. An adult man 
 who presented no more signs of mind than a child 
 at birth, would be said to be " mindless " — in a con- 
 dition of amentia. An infant at birth may be said 
 to possess none of the actual faculties of mind 
 although it is healthy ; it may possess potentialities, 
 but it shows no actual, present signs of mentation. 
 An idiot in growing up from infancy, does not show 
 those objective signs appropriate to its age which 
 indicate potentiality for the functions of mentation. 
 To catalogue the signs which indicate idiocy, is to 
 summarize the signs of the absence of mind (see 
 
THE HEALTHY INFANT. 243 
 
 chap. ii. p. 13). The infant is said not to show actual 
 signs of mind, though it may show potentialities. 
 The infant does not walk, talk, or turn its eyes 
 and head towards a bright object within its field 
 of vision; its movements are not modified in any 
 marked degree by the action of light or sound, 
 except that the orbiculares oculi contract spasmodi- 
 cally to light. The* infant is less impressionable, 
 and the impressions produced by light, etc., are less 
 permanent than in the adult. 
 
 Again, to speak of infant development, the signs 
 of its brain development are identical with the 
 signs of its mental development. Speaking of 
 either mode of development in an infant we may 
 give its expression. 
 
 The healthy infant bom at full time weighs 
 between six and ten pounds ; its limbs and members 
 are complete in all parts — fingers, toes, nails, etc. 
 The head measures in circumference from eleven to 
 twelve inches ; the sutures or junctions of the bones 
 of the vault of the skull are not closed or ossified, 
 and the anterior fontanelle is open. We may also 
 observe the form, size, and proportions of the body, 
 and particularly of the head, as signs which indicate 
 to some extent the degree and condition of brain 
 development. 
 
 Kespiratory movements in the infant are estab- 
 lished at birth, and continue without interruption ; 
 the child cries when its skin is cold or wet, and 
 when the stomach has been empty more than two 
 hours. 
 
 The nerve-muscular mechanism and the sensory 
 
S** PHYSICAL EXPEESSIOX. 
 
 surfaces allow of the occurrence of certain reflexes. 
 An object placed in the mouth stimulates the 
 movements of sucking ; cold to the skin is followed 
 by crying ; light causes contraction of the orbicular 
 muscles of the eyelids, and if the eyelids are raised 
 the iris contracts to light. The tone of the 
 sphincter apparatus enables the hollow viscera to 
 retain their contents. In a newborn child a few 
 hours old, the attempt to straighten the elbow 
 when flexed may be strongly resisted. 
 
 Frequent spontaneous movements may be seen 
 while the infant is awake ; movements apparently 
 irregular, are almost constant in the hands, fingers, 
 and toes. A short period of wakefulness is usually' 
 followed by sleep, indicated by subsidence of move- 
 ment in the limbs and closure of the eyelids. We 
 say that the newborn infant does not give expres- 
 sion of the faculties of mind, because it does not 
 present physical signs showing that it is impressed, 
 even temporarily, by the sight of surrounding 
 objects; it does not move its hands towards objects 
 within its field of vision, and no movements indi- 
 cate that it is impressed thereby — reflexes of sight 
 and sound are almost entirely absent. 
 
 In the early stages of development there is 
 inability to put out the hand, moving it in a 
 straight line towards an object. There is also 
 inability to touch a definite part of the body 
 where there may be pain. When one leg itches 
 the child is unable to scratch it with the hand, 
 but tends to do so with the other foot. The power 
 to grasp an object by its own act is a later develop- 
 
246 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 ment. The ability to transfer an object from one 
 hand to the other is not acquired for some months, 
 and the association of the two hands in playing 
 \yith an object is still later in development. 
 
 Very important signs are the movements indi- 
 cating recollection upon hearing the names of well- 
 known objects (retentiveness). In such a case only 
 waves of sound act upon the brain from without, 
 and the movement that results in the child, indi- 
 cates that the sound has been heard. A certain 
 name may always cause the same facial gesture 
 (expression) ; thus, " bottle," " bed," excite the 
 fascial expression of pleasure, disappointment. The 
 word is said, and the face changes. However 
 complex in mechanism and function the brain 
 which moves the face may be, still it is the sound 
 that stimulates the movement. 
 
 Retentiveness of the effects of the sight of an 
 object is very important. Does the chUd remember 
 objects shown to it? Here the "memory" is 
 indicated by the movements the infant makes 
 when shown an object that it has had sight of often 
 before. The undulations of light are reflected from 
 the particular object ; these, falling upon the retina, 
 produce, by their action on the brain, the gestures 
 in the face, hands, etc., the expression of joy, pain, 
 etc.; the sight of this special object always pro- 
 ducing similar effects, subject to modifications. 
 The sight of a funny doll makes the child laugh; 
 a dog makes it cry and clench its fists. 
 
 Upturning of the eyes in their orbits, accom- 
 panied by elevation of the eyelids, in looking at 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFANT. 247 
 
 an object high up, is a late development in the 
 infant, and indicates the advance of intellectuality.* 
 It is noteworthy that in hydrocephalus the eyes 
 frequently roll upwards, but the eyelids remain 
 drooped, hiding the cornese. 
 
 In the list given above, which is by no means 
 complete, the order followed is about that in which 
 the development o£ these signs takes place. We 
 will now attempt some kind of physiological classi- 
 fication. Some of these nerve-muscular signs 
 follow and result from external agencies. Thus, 
 turning towards a light or an object depends upon 
 light passing from these things to the child's eyes 
 and brain ; f turning to a sound is the direct efiect 
 of the sound-undulations of the air. So, again, 
 when movement is checked or altered by "the 
 sight of an object" or "a sound," the result is 
 the effect of the waves of lightj or of air upon the 
 nerve-mechanism ; in every healthy brain the efiect 
 of such waves is probably nearly identical. Other 
 motor signs are more directly intrinsic, the physio- 
 logical outcome of the structure and properties of 
 the nerve-mechanism, thus: crying, reflex actions, 
 parallelism in the movements of the eyes, the 
 constant movement of the fingers and limbs while 
 the infant is awake, some movements of expression 
 in the face, playfulness ; and later on, the repetition 
 of identical movements upon similar stimulation, 
 the acquired power of co-ordinating movements of 
 the hand ; and still later, the power of using both 
 
 * Chap xii. p 223. t Sco chap. x. p. 185. 
 
248 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 hands together — these are the outcome of the 
 properties of the nerve-mechanism itself. 
 
 The following observation on one of my children 
 when eighteen months old illustrates how the 
 dawning intellectuality is indicated by the com- 
 plication and fitness of certain sets of movement. 
 " The child having both hands full of toys, desired 
 to grasp a third; he then put the toy from one 
 hand quickly between his knees, and thus set one 
 hand free to take hold of the desired object." 
 
 The following kinds of movements as signs of 
 a healthy infant brain deserve separate attention : — 
 Movements following certain external agencies, light, 
 sound. Movements the outcome of the essential 
 (untrained) properties of the nerve-mechanism. 
 Movements resulting from the acquired association 
 of nerve-centres (training). Movements similar 
 to those previously occurring from a like cause, 
 showing retentiveness. Movements in different 
 areas, such as the small joints in contrast with 
 large joints ; or a different condition of movement 
 of adjacent parts, such as the fingers. There may 
 also be asymmetry of movements. 
 
 The muscles of the face are seen to act earliest 
 in the lower zone,* those about the mouth causing 
 expression before those on the forehead (corrugators), 
 which seem to be specially connected with menta- 
 tion. If the organization of the infant is not very 
 strong, the eyes as they move in their orbits do not 
 maintain a strict parallelism of their axes ; f this is 
 
 * Compare with cerebral facial palsy, see p. IC8, cliap. vii. 
 ■)• See account of eyes in sleep, chap. xii. p. 218. 
 
child's attention attbacted. 249 
 
 most commonly observable while the child is suck- 
 ing from its bottle. 
 
 Now, as to the child when four months old, wo 
 say that the attention is easily attracted, because 
 the sight of objects and sounds cause the head to 
 be moved (by reflex action) towards the light or 
 source of sound. More than this, after the stimulus 
 of the sight of an, object has caused the head and 
 eyes to be turned towards the object, the further 
 stimulation of the brain may inhibit the kinetic 
 functions of the brain, arresting all movement ; * this 
 often happens when the attention is attracted. On 
 the other hand, the sight of an object, after it has 
 caused the head and eyes to be turned towards the 
 object, may increase the amount of movement in 
 the child. The difference in the effects of the visual 
 impression is an expression of the condition of the 
 child. 
 
 Playfulness is probably the result of spontaneous 
 movements, together with an increased susceptibility 
 to reflex action. The "playful child" has a happy 
 face, owing to the healthy tone of the facial muscles 
 and their nerve-centres. 
 
 The table given on page 250, is for a healthy, 
 weU-developed infant of good class. 
 
 Perhaps of all the means of expression enume- 
 rated, those which indicate impressionability are 
 the most important, and in some particulars the 
 most difficult to understand. 
 
 Thoroughly to grasp this conception we must 
 consider the attributes of the property " impression- 
 
 * See chap, vi. p. 101, Fig. 9. 
 
250 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 ability" — quantity, time, kind. The impression 
 made at one time may not be immediately followed 
 by an outcome ; the outcome may be long delayed, a 
 mere question of the attribute time; it may be 
 delayed till certain forces again act upon the subject 
 An impression may be latent till certain circum- 
 stances call the effect of that impression into 
 activity. 
 
 s 
 g 
 
 
 J 
 
 Point indicating Stage and ProgrcsB of 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 Uevi'lopment. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 inch OB. 
 
 
 1 
 
 710 
 
 li-5 
 
 Power to suck ; regular succession of feeding 
 and sleeping ; hand reflex. 
 
 2 
 
 110 
 
 15-25 
 
 Hair in eyelashes and eyebrows; may be 
 occasional strabismus. 
 
 3 
 
 13-5 
 
 16-5 
 
 Capability of shedding tears ; no strabismus. 
 
 4 
 
 150 
 
 17-0 
 
 Constant movement while awake. 
 
 5 
 
 15-5 
 
 170 
 
 Turning head to a light or sound. 
 
 6 
 
 160 
 
 17-25 
 
 Kecugnizing objects, as mother, nurse. 
 
 7 
 
 17-5 
 
 17-5- 
 
 Holding object in hand, and carrying it to 
 
 mouth. 
 Various sounds made; commencing dpntition. 
 
 8 
 
 18-5 
 
 17-75 
 
 9 
 
 19-5 
 
 18-0 
 
 Some power to hold up head while lying 
 down. 
 
 10 
 
 in'6 
 
 18-25 
 
 Can hold an object without drop|iing it. 
 
 H 
 
 19-7 
 
 18-4 
 
 Power to transfer object from one hand to 
 the other. 
 
 12 
 
 20-0 
 
 18-5 
 
 Commencing to crawl or stand with assist- 
 ance. 
 
 We cannot know the impression upon the brain 
 itself ; we only know the effect in the outcome of 
 that impression. 
 
 A child of four years old quietly looks at some 
 one putting a letter into a pillar post ; we cannot 
 at the time see the impression produced upon the 
 
IMPEESSIONABILITy. 251 
 
 child's brain, but we guess that an impression has 
 jeen produced because the child's head and eyes 
 turned towards the pillar post. We know that an 
 irapression has been made when next day, on the 
 child finding a letter on the table, " he takes it and 
 posts it behind the door." 
 
 The attribute time, of the property impression- 
 ability, is veryjimportant as a factor in this case ; the 
 series of the child's movements on the second day, 
 under the stimulus of the sight of a letter, are the 
 expression of its impressionability and of the more 
 or less permanent nature of the impression, and 
 as such are evidence of the faculty mentation. An 
 idiot would not do so. It is, then, very important 
 to appreciate the attribute time of the property 
 impressionability. In the above example the kind 
 of impression is susceptibility to the production of 
 a series of movements upon the visual stimuhis of 
 a letter ; the quantity, or, as it is often termed, the 
 depth of the impression is indicated by its dura- 
 bility and the readiness with which the special 
 series of movements is excited. 
 
 One of the great signs that an infant possesses 
 potentially the faculty mentation is, that its atten- 
 tion is easily attracted to the sight of objects, and 
 to a light. Such stimulus produces expression by 
 movement at an early age in a healthy infant. 
 The head rotates, and the eyes turn towards the 
 object or the light, and spontaneous movement is 
 stimulated, or inhibited. It is well known that a 
 moving object especially attracts the attention, if 
 the movement be not too rapid. Can we give any 
 
252 PHYSICAL EXPKESSION. 
 
 explanation? As the object moves, different 
 portions of the retina will be stimulated ; and the 
 greater the area of retina stimulated, tha greater 
 the stimulus transmitted to the nerve-centres 
 which move the head and eyes, the greater also the 
 inhibitory or stimulating effect produced upon the 
 spontaneous movements. 
 
 In the adult the objective criteria of mind are 
 modes of expression ; the expressions of the emotions, 
 feelings, passions, thoughts are indications of the 
 mind ; and all these modes of expression have been 
 shown to be produced by direct action of the nerve- 
 system. It is, then, admitted that conditions of 
 the mind are directly expressed by nerve-muscular 
 signs. This implies that some material, physical 
 change occurs along with " mentation," which 
 material change is expressed in the muscles of the 
 body. It is this inherent physical change, thus 
 directly expressed, which the physiologist investi- 
 gates in his studies of mind ; and whether that 
 inherent nerve-change, thus directly expressed, be 
 mind itself, or in some way allied to mind, is a 
 metaphysical question I shall not attempt to discuss. 
 Here we only discuss material, physical action. 
 
 Let us take an example or two. A mother just 
 after the loss of her infant comes to speak of its 
 death. We then see the face tending to flush, the 
 mouth quivering, the angles depressed ; she speaks 
 with a trembling voice, half choked by her emotion. 
 
 The term " mind " is used as the collection of aU 
 the properties that make up the faculty mentation. 
 We cannot by physiological methods investigate 
 
SUBJECTIVE CONDITIONS. 253 
 
 "mind" itself, as we know not what it is, but if we 
 agree to consider certain physical signs as indices 
 or criteria of mentation, these criteria can be 
 observed. Thus memory is an abstract phenomenon, 
 but by processes of analysis we can determine 
 certain criteria as indices of the property " memory," 
 and these physical signs can be observed and even 
 experimented^ upon, thus enabling us to deal by 
 physical processes of inquiry with the faculty 
 " memory." 
 
 Subjective conditions, pain, joy, fear, etc., can be 
 studied by observing their modes of expression. It 
 is the expression that we can record and analyze. 
 When a child touches a hot teapot his movements 
 and combinations and sequences of movements con- 
 vince us that he felt the heat. An idiot, when he 
 touches the hot teapot, does not move much, may 
 not move at all ; this would be taken as a sign of 
 his mental deficiency. A very strong-minded man of 
 the Spartan type might inhibit the reflex movement 
 stimulated by touch of the hot object. An object 
 impressing by sight, such as a beautiful flower, may 
 inhibit the spontaneous movements of an intelli- 
 gent man. It will not so affect a blind man, and it 
 will produce no efiect, present or prospective, on 
 a comatose man; he is not at all impressionable. 
 Similarly, a deaf man is not stimulated to move- 
 ments or otherwise impressed by sounds. Impres- 
 sionability is one of the expressions of mentation. 
 
 No account of the methods of studying mind 
 can be complete without reference to the processes 
 of thought. Now, " thought " is not a physical 
 
254 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 thing, and is not therefore within the range of our 
 consideration, but we can deal with the expression 
 of thought. We know that a man has thought by 
 what he subsequently says and does. While deeply 
 thinking there is but little movement, but little 
 outward expression; the kinetic functions of the 
 brain are suspended while it is performing its 
 mental functions. The subsequent series of actions, 
 the sequential modification of spontaneous move- 
 ments, and the susceptibility to new reflexes and 
 fresh impressions — these are the expression of the 
 unknowable process thought or mentation. 
 
 Physical stvdy of mind. Table of brain pro- 
 perties necessary factors of the faculty of mentation. 
 It is interesting to notice that the properties of the 
 brain which indicate its potentiality for mentation, 
 are analogous to properties found in plants and 
 inorganic things : — 
 
 Impressionability : phonograph, telephone (pp. 
 18, 19). 
 
 Retentiveness : phonograph (p. 19). 
 
 Reflex action: Drosera (p. 152). 
 
 A series of actioTis : (a) resulting from an apparent 
 force, — paper organ machine; folding of leaf of 
 Mimosa; (b) a combination or aggregation of 
 actions as the result of a stimulus. 
 
 Change of function : see p. 39. 
 
 Inhibition : see p. 94. 
 
 Nutrition : see p. 234. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 Analysis of the expression of fatigue — Localize the oxpreasion — 
 Observe trophic signs, postures, movements — Analyze and 
 classify movements according to the principles given — Ana- 
 lysis of Darwin's description of laughter, and Sir Charles 
 Bell's description of joy — The importance of such analysis — 
 Pope's description of Achilles — Study of a nervous subject — 
 " A school inspection " — National modes of expression. 
 
 Looking at a certain man we recognize that he is 
 fatigued. How can we analyze the expression of 
 fatigue ? Being sure upon general knowledge that 
 the man is fatigued, we seek to analyze the expres- 
 sion of fatigue. The first process is observation. 
 We may commence by trying to localize the signs 
 of fatigue in certain parts ; look at the head, face, 
 trunk, limbs, their postures and movements; also 
 look to the trophic signs, the form and fullness of 
 the face, etc. In all these points compare what 
 is seen with what experience teaches would be 
 seen under like circumstances if the man were not 
 fatigued. 
 
 As an example, a man is seen sitting in an arm- 
 
256 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 chair, doing nothing but talking. The limbs are 
 not free; the feet rest on a foot-stool, the hands 
 rest on the sides of the chair, the head rests on the 
 back of the chair; the face is free and the eyes 
 and tongue are also free (their nerve-centres are 
 free) to be acted on by external stimuli. It is, 
 then, to the face, eyes, tongue that we must look 
 for the best signs of expression in the man. We 
 may then request him to hold out his hands, that 
 we may observe the spontaneous postures that 
 foUow. We study his movements, and results of 
 movements, analyzing the face, observing the move- 
 ments of the eyes, and noting the speech, at the 
 same time describing the postures seen ; by so doing, 
 all the motor factors in the expression may be 
 analyzed and classified according to the principles 
 of analysis and classification of movements given 
 in chap. v. 
 
 We want to lay down some kind of rules for the 
 analysis of modes of expression ; thus — 
 
 1. Localize the expression. 
 
 2. Notice whether the kind of expression be 
 trophic or motor ; if motor, analyze it according to 
 the principles * for analysis of movements, giving 
 an anatomical description. 
 
 3. If there is movement, is it primary and spon- 
 taneous ? or is it stimulated by external f forces, 
 and thus to be considered a reflex action ? 
 
 4. An element in an expression may be the in- 
 hibition of spontaneous '^ movements usually present. 
 
 5. The mode of expression may be trophic in 
 » See chap. v. p. 75. t See p. 100. J See pp. 58, 64. 
 
LAUGHTER. 257 
 
 kind ; if this be so, search to see if it be a mode 
 of expression direct, or by coincident development.* 
 
 If my principles of expression and descriptions 
 of the modes of expression be somewhat true to 
 nature and practically useful, they will enable us 
 to analyze any good classical description of expres- 
 sion in man, if given in physical terms. Taking 
 any such desc^ption, we ought to be able to analyze 
 it, and replace, if necessary to our purposes, the 
 terms used by the author by our own terms, thus 
 giving his account in such terms as enable us to 
 submit the description to the test of direct obser- 
 vation. Such points in our author's description as 
 cannot be thus translated suggest that either cm- 
 principles are defective and incomplete, or that the 
 author's description is metaphysical or imperfect 
 from our point of view. 
 
 If we take C. Darwin's f description of laughter, 
 we find it given in terms of nerve-muscular signs, 
 as are almost all his descriptions : — 
 
 " During laughter the mouth is open more or less 
 widely, with the corners drawn much backwards, 
 as well as a little upwards; and the upper lip is 
 somewhat raised. The drawing back of the corners 
 is best seen in moderate laughter, and especially in 
 a broad smile — the latter epithet showing how the 
 mouth is widened. . . . Dr. Duchenne t repeatedly 
 insists that, under the emotion of joy, the mouth 
 is acted on exclusively by the great zygomatic 
 muscles, which serve to draw the corners backwards 
 
 * See p. 273. + « Expreseion of the Emotions," p. 202. 
 
 J " M^camsme dc la Physionomie Humaine," Album, Legendo vi. 
 
258 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 and upwards ; but, judging from the manner in 
 which the upper teeth are always exposed during 
 laughter and broad smiling, as well as from my 
 own sensations, I cannot doubt that some of the 
 muscles running to the upper lip are likewise 
 brought into moderate action. The upper and 
 lower orbicular muscles of the eyes are at the same 
 time more or less contracted ; and there is an inti- 
 mate connection, as explained in the chapter on 
 weeping, between the orbiculars, especially the 
 lower ones, and some of the muscles running to 
 the upper lip." 
 
 Sir Charles Bell * says — 
 
 "In joy the eyebrow is raised moderately, but 
 without any angularity; the forehead is smooth, 
 the eye full, lively, and sparkling; the nostril is 
 moderately inflated, and a smile is on the lips. In 
 aU the exhilarating emotions, the eyebrow, the 
 eyelids, the nostril, and the angle of the mouth are 
 raised. In the depressing passions it is the reverse. 
 For example, in discontent the brow is clouded, 
 the nose peculiarly arched, and the angle of the 
 mouth drawn down." 
 
 Having these descriptions before us, we can make 
 some comparisons, or analogies, and can apply the 
 principles of antithesis. In laughter, which is an 
 expression of joy or happiness, we have material 
 problems to deal with capable of physical investi- 
 gation. The angles of the mouth are said to be 
 drawn upwards; this is the very opposite to the 
 expression of physical suffering. By defining the 
 
 * Op. (At, p. 172. 
 
ANALYSIS OF EXPBESSION. 259 
 
 expression of the abstract thing, happiness, in terms 
 of nerve-muscular signs, we find material problems 
 to deal with capable of physical investigation. 
 John Bulwer's* descriptions of expression were 
 given in terms of nerve-muscular signs. 
 
 In Bell's account of joy, the first paragraph is 
 in terms of nerve-muscular movements ; then comes 
 the paragrapji, " the eye full, lively, and sparkling." 
 This is an artistic expression I fail to analyze. Does 
 the " full eye '' mean a condition of parts outside 
 the eye ? Does the term " lively " apply to a mus- 
 cular condition ? Does the " sparkling " eye depend 
 on tension due to muscular action ? I trust that 
 further knowledge may enable us to include these 
 under our principles of expression. 
 
 Analyzing Bell's description, we find, then, that 
 with the exception of one paragraph the terms 
 used are all movements and results of movements. 
 
 What good, what advantage is there in these 
 special modes of describing what we see ? Oui- 
 modes of description are such as allow of compari- 
 sons being made. We translate abstract quantities 
 such as "joy" into concrete terms, such as nerve- 
 muscular signs, or conditions of form or development. 
 We translate the terms used to describe the abstract 
 property into other terms the expression of the 
 abstract. The term "happiness" is a word in- 
 tended to indicate a certain condition of feeling 
 which we all more or less understand; the thing 
 happiness in the abstract is an abstraction, it has 
 no material existence as an entity ; but if we can 
 * See chap, xviii., p. 323. 
 
260 PHYSICAL EXPllESSION, 
 
 define an expression of happiness in man, we can 
 deal with the material expression of happiness, 
 analyze it, study the coincidences and successions 
 of movements seen in this condition and their con- 
 comitants, etc. 
 
 Sometimes a term is used in common language 
 which cannot be thus directly translated, but re- 
 quires analysis, such as the common term "jolly;" 
 thus, "John looks jolly." There is no metaphysical 
 expression "John;" and the modes in which his 
 condition is expressed are material : analysis is then 
 possible. If we observe a lot of jolly boys, I think 
 we shall agree that the predominant characters are 
 good nutrition and active movements. " Jolly " is, 
 then, a compound condition, partly trophic and 
 partly kinetic; the movements, or kinetic brain 
 function, can, of course, be analyzed and its com- 
 ponents classified as in any other expression by 
 movements. 
 
 We will now take for analysis Pope's descrip- 
 tion of the condition of Achilles : * 
 
 " Achilles heard, with grief and rage oppress'd ; 
 His heart swell'd high, and labour'd iu his breast. 
 Distracting thoughts by turns his bosom rul'd, 
 Now fir'd by wrath, and now by reason cool'd." 
 
 This description we should find hard to analyze 
 according to our principles, on account of the 
 number of metaphorical expressions used. 
 
 Instead of analyzing an author's description let 
 us now consider a common example — " A lady seen 
 in her drawing-room looks nervous," This may be 
 * Pope's translation of the " Iliad," line 251. 
 
STUDY OF A NERVOUS SUBJE'JT. 261 
 
 one's general, social impression. How shall we pro- 
 ceed by scientific process to analyze the expression 
 before us. Observe the permanent conditions of 
 development — the head, the build, and proportions 
 of the body. As to the head, note its size, pro- 
 portions, form, and angles ; the shape of the facial 
 features — ears, lips, eyelids, nose ; note whether the 
 form on either side be symmetrical. Observe the 
 postures seen on the average, or occasionally, espe- 
 cially the postures of head, head and eyes, spine, 
 hands, and face ; note signs of symmetry and coin- 
 cident movements. In looking for movements note 
 also whether the hands and other parts are kept 
 free, or whether they are purposely engaged, as in 
 holding book or fan, — this mechanical occupation of 
 the hand preventing the fingers from twitching and 
 performing meaningless antics, and so preventing 
 the nervousness and fidgetiness from being socially 
 observable. In this nervous lady the hands will 
 probably be kept not free, — she will, unless very 
 young, have learnt to keep her hands engaged when 
 talking, that she may not gesticulate unduly — but 
 when her hands are free, finger-twitching may be 
 seen. When her hand is held out, or if it hang 
 free over the arm of a chair, we may see "the 
 nervous posture " or " the feeble hand ; " if this be 
 seen, look to the posture of the other hand, and 
 note the coincident posture of the head, which 
 usually lolls over away from the side which shows 
 most markedly the nervous hand. Among head 
 postures and movements, slight flexion with rota- 
 tion and inclination to the same side is common in 
 
262 PHySICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 the nervous condition ; * there may be occasional 
 extension or lifting up of the head so as to carry 
 the eyes upwards and place their field of vision 
 above objects around.f 
 
 Among the muscles of the face there is likely to 
 be over-action, especially of the occipito-frontales 
 and zygomas, causing respectively "the surprise 
 look " and " very broad smiling ; " this latter is often 
 unequal on the two sides. These and other points 
 may indicate, after analyzing the lady's expression, 
 that she is nervous. The erect head without incli- 
 nation shows general firmness ; frequent inclination 
 with rotation to the same side expresses a certain 
 amount of independent action of nerve-centres, such 
 as is seen to excess in nervous people. 
 
 Fidgetiness of fingers shows a great amount of 
 separate action of small nerve-centres, or the centres 
 for small parts ; thus by analysis, and applying the 
 principles for analysis of movements, we may study 
 the lady's nervousness by analyzing its expression ; 
 at the same time it may be noted what circum- 
 stances increase and what diminish it. 
 
 At a school inspection the children may be 
 observed, and the expression of their condition may 
 be analyzed. In carrying out such a work it would 
 be well to make observations under difierent cir- 
 cumstances: (1) while the children are at their 
 ordinary school work; (2) while under the in- 
 hibitory influence of being told to keep silence; 
 (3) when at play ; (4;) a personal inspection may be 
 made of the individual child. 
 
 * See chap. x. p. 188. t See chap, xiii p. 238. 
 
ANALYSIS OF EXPBESSION. 263 
 
 Now as to what to observe, and how to analyze 
 the expression seen at the same time. 
 
 I think that in practice the most important 
 observations are most easily to be obtained by pro- 
 cedure in the above order ; but, for convenience of 
 analysis, I think it convenient to consider the last 
 point first. On looking at an individual child 
 there must always be some expression ; it may be 
 expression of the normal, the quiescent condition. 
 The trophic signs may be normal in due proportion, 
 and the nerve-muscular conditions may be in rest. 
 In making observations we look for the following 
 points : — 
 
 (a) Spontaneous movements, and postures. 
 
 (b) Reflex movements. 
 
 (c) Trophic conditions. 
 
 There may be no movements seen, or but very 
 few. Absence of spontaneous movements is the 
 absence of signs that ought to be present as being 
 signs of health. It may be, however, that the brain 
 is healthy though it produce no movements; the 
 motor power may be inhibited for the time being. 
 This absence of movement may be due to a want 
 of nutrition of the nerve-centres ; the brain may be 
 so exhausted as to be unable to produce the normal 
 quantity of movement.* It follows, then, that an 
 important question arises. Is the absence of move- 
 ment due to some external force preventing the 
 display of the kinetic action of the brain ? or is it 
 due to exhaustion of the child, resulting from ill 
 nutrition ? Now, then, we may look for other signs 
 
 * See description of fatigue, cl.ap. xiii. p. 228. 
 
264 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 indicating the condition of nutrition * of the body 
 at large, of which the brain is a part ; we note the 
 present size and proportions of the body, the fullness 
 and fatness of the face, its paleness or colour. In 
 looking for causes of iU nutrition of body and 
 brain, we should, of course, examine for the signs 
 of disease, — consumption and heart-disease may 
 cause ill nutrition of body and brain ; but, as this 
 is not a medical essay, we pass over such matters 
 here. 
 
 "While looking to the general trophic conditions, 
 the observer should look out for the signs of any 
 special diathesis. In chap. xvi. a description of 
 the signs of the scrofulous diathesis is given ; to 
 detail the signs, which indicate certain physical 
 tendencies, is important in analj-zing a child's 
 condition. 
 
 If there be signs of good nutrition, with the 
 absence of movements, we may suspect that the 
 kinetic function is inhibited. Inhibition of spon- 
 taneous movements upon due occasion is a very 
 important result of school training and discipline. 
 A certain degree of inhibition of movements is 
 necessary to the display of intellectuality ; it is a 
 valuable result of training when the self-contained 
 power of the child stops its movements, and makes 
 it sit or stand still. It is obviously a very different 
 matter to find, as the result of analysis, that a 
 child's movements are inhibited at will, to what it 
 is to find that they are absent from ill nutrition. 
 
 To examine the child's nerve-muscular system 
 
 • See expreaaion of nutrition, p. 2.30. 
 
INSPECTION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN. 265 
 
 further and analyze the results, let him hold out 
 his hands free, then some of the spontaneous 
 postures described as expressive of certain brain 
 conditions may be seen, such as the straight hand, 
 the feeble or the nervous hand. The condition of 
 the facial muscles, and in particular the orbicular 
 muscle of the eye, should be specially noted.* Finger- 
 twitching may be seen at the same time. 
 
 Inasmuch as many nerve-muscular signs in the 
 child are reflex actions, we should vary the circum- 
 stances surrounding the child: we speak to him, 
 show him things, and see how he is impressed or 
 affected by them ; that is, we observe the outcome 
 following certain afferent stimuli. If there be any 
 doubt about the condition of the special senses, we 
 note if his head and eyes turn towards a sound or 
 a light. 
 
 We note, then, signs in movement, in nutrition, 
 and in proportional development, and consider what 
 they respectively express. 
 
 In class we may observe the children's move- 
 ments of various kinds : — 
 
 (a) Spontaneous movements. 
 
 (j3) Spontaneous movements modified by sur- 
 roundings. 
 
 (•y) Spontaneous movements inhibited in part. 
 
 (S) Keflex movements. 
 
 Observing the children at play enables us to 
 form some kind of judgment as to the amount of 
 spontaneous movement; and by comparing the 
 action of a child at play with its action in class 
 
 * See chap. xi. p. 206. 
 13 
 
266 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 we form an idea of its susceptibility to inhibition 
 of movements. 
 
 It would be an interesting and curious inquiry 
 to analyze and describe the national modes of ex- 
 pression and gesticulation. I was much interested 
 one day to meet in a railway carriage an English- 
 man, an Irishman, an Italian, and a Frenchman, 
 engaged in animated conversation ; the gesticula- 
 tions of each were different, and characteristic ot 
 the respective countries of their birth. 
 
. CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 CONSIDERATIONS AS TO THE ATTRIBUTES OP A PRO- 
 PERTY OR FUNCTION — TIME, QUANTITY, KIND; 
 AND AS- TO THEIR RELATIONS. 
 
 Tho attributes of a property or function : time, quantity, kind^ 
 Attiibutea of the functions trophic and kinetic action, in one 
 subject, in two or more subjects — Combinations and sequences 
 of action — Proportional growth ; equal proportional growth ; 
 similar development — Analogy between aeries of kinetic and 
 trophic actions — Special combinations of action may result 
 from afferent forces ; this an important element in evolution 
 — Heredity — Summary. 
 
 Any property or function may be described as 
 having the three attributes — (1) time; (2) quantity; 
 (3) kind. 
 
 As examples of vital function, let us consider 
 growth, or trophic action, and movement, or kinetic 
 action. Concerning every function or property, 
 whether it be physical or vital, we may describe 
 the attributes time, quantity, kind. 
 
 As to Time; we may observe the moment of 
 action, frequency, duration of the active appearance, 
 and of the quiescence or disappearance of the 
 function. Time is the only attribute of totally dis- 
 similar functions that can be directly compared. 
 
268 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 As to Quantity ; if we can observe and measure 
 this at each period of time, we thus determine the 
 total quantity of the function. To describe the 
 quantity of a function, it is necessary to adopt a 
 unit of quantity. If any unit of quantity can be 
 found as common to two dissimilar functions, a 
 comparison may be made between them as to 
 quantity. 
 
 As to Kind ; it is not convenient to consider this 
 here. In some cases the " kind " may be described 
 in terms of time, and quantity of the function or 
 action. Nerve-muscular movement has practically 
 only two attributes — time and quantity. What we 
 commonly call "kinds of movement," are usually 
 series of movements, each separate movement 
 having its own time and quantity. It may be here 
 remarked that one of the great differences between 
 the properties of living and non-living things is, 
 that in the former properties often vary in time, 
 quantity, and kind ; whereas in non-living things 
 a property, such as hardness, is more permanent 
 in its duration, and more unchangeable, except 
 under the agency of obvious afferent forces. Iron 
 retains its hardness except under the influence of 
 heat. 
 
 When we come to consider the attributes of 
 growth, or trophic action, and movement, or kinetic 
 action, in two or more subjects, other points present 
 themselves to our notice. 
 
 As to the attribute Time of growth or movement 
 in two subjects. The time of growth or movement 
 in each subject may coincide, or it may not coincide. 
 
QUANTITY OF GROWTH. 209 
 
 With three subjects, A, B, C, growth or movement 
 may occur in eacl^ separately, or we may have 
 coincidence in the following combinations : A, B, C, 
 AB, AC, BC, ABC. We may, then, in considering 
 the growth, or any other action or function, in two 
 or more subjects have coincidences, combinations, 
 sequences, series. 
 
 As to the attribute Quantity of growth or move- 
 ment in two subjects. We may find equal quantities 
 (in equal times) in each subject, or unequal quantities. 
 We may, then, in considering the growth, or any 
 other action or function, in two or more subjects, 
 compare the ratios of growth. We may, in two or 
 more subjects, compare the same function as to the 
 attributes time and quantity. 
 
 I. " Arthur and John are twin brothers, and they 
 are very much alike." 
 
 Further observation and analysis may enable us 
 to write thus : — 
 
 II. " Arthur and John are twin brothers ; they are 
 alike in height, form, and proportions of the head 
 and body ; they are also alike in their manner of 
 walking and speaking." 
 
 Paragraph I. is a mere arbitrary statement, pre- 
 senting a proposition. Paragraph II. is a proposi- 
 tion giving also some evidence. Let us analyze the 
 evidence, and the statement made. 
 
 (1) " They are alike in height, form, and propor- 
 tions of the head and body." All these points are 
 statements concerning trophic action, and they are 
 capable of further analysis and description. 
 
 (2) " And they are alike in their manner of walk- 
 
270 PHYSICAL EXPKESSION. 
 
 ing, and speaking." These latter statements con- 
 cern kinetic action. , 
 
 Further to analyze the statements, (1) here we 
 have examples of equal proportional development; 
 (2) here we have examples of similarity in walking 
 and speaking. Both walking and speaking consist 
 of a series of movements. If Arthur and John 
 have a similar manner of walking, that can be 
 described and demonstrated in terms of a series of 
 movements ; it is a series of kinetic actions that is 
 said to be alike in Arthur and John. 
 
 It remains to explain the terms " equal propor- 
 tional growth" and "a similar series of kinetic 
 actions." When we speak of proportional growth 
 we really refer to two subjects, and we compare 
 in each the function growth as to its quantity. 
 
 We will first inquire what is meant by "pro- 
 portional growth," and then consider some of its 
 variations. 
 
 Proportional growth. — This tenn, as it concerns 
 a proportion, must imply something about the 
 quantity of the growth; it is only as to quantities 
 that we can make a proportion or ratio. It con- 
 cerns, at least, two subjects, and implies the condi- 
 tion that the ratio of growth of two or more parts 
 or members of one subject, is equal to the ratio of 
 growth of the corresponding parts or members of 
 the other subject. 
 
 When we speak of proportional growth in John, 
 we really consider two subjects, not one; we are 
 using in reality a condensed phrase. Statement (1) 
 speaks of equal ratios of the head and body in 
 
PEOPORTIONAL GROWTH. 271 
 
 Arthur and John; the ratio of the quantity of 
 growth, and the size which indicates the result 
 of growth, in the head as compared with the body 
 is identical in each man. 
 
 When we speak of equal or good proportion, 
 or otherwise qualify the kind of proportion, wo 
 are in reality considering at least four things. Thus, 
 when I say thq^ a child's head is in good propor- 
 tion, I compare the size of its head with the size 
 of its body, and then compare this ratio with the 
 ratio of the head and body in a perfect child. 
 
 Equal propoHional growth.^-Th\s term is con- 
 venient, but it requires explanation. The meaning 
 of "proportional growth'' has been explained. It 
 was found that the term was applicable to two 
 subjects : it concerns the ratio of growth, and 
 denotes the proportion of the quantity of the 
 growth in the one subject to the quantity of growth 
 in the other subject. 
 
 The term " equal proportional growth " implies 
 that two ratios are equal. Two subjects, each pre- 
 senting two similar parts for comparison, are here 
 referred to; the ratio of the quantity of growth 
 in the two parts of the one subject is said to be 
 equal to the ratio of the quantity of growth in 
 the two corresponding parts of the other subject. 
 
 " In Arthur and John the proportional growth of 
 the head and body were the same." 
 
 The quantity of growth in the head and body 
 of each man was observed ; it then appeared that 
 the ratio of the quantity of growth of head and 
 body in each was the same. 
 
272 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 Good proportional growth. — We often say that 
 a certain man is well proportioned, or that he 
 presents good proportional growth. This is one 
 mode of expression of beauty in the human form. 
 In speaking of a proportion we must refer to two 
 subjects, as to the quantity of growth. "When we 
 say that the proportion of growth in two parts of 
 the subject (head and body) is good, we are really 
 making a further comparison. We compare the 
 ratio of growth observed, say, in John, as to his 
 head and body; and we compare this with the 
 ratio found on inquiry between corresponding 
 members in a perfectly formed model : the " good- 
 ness" of the proportion depends upon how near 
 the ratio of the size (quantity) of head and body 
 in John approaches to that of the perfect model. 
 A good proportional growth depends upon the 
 comparison of the ratio actually observed with 
 the similar ratio of the perfect model. Thus, when 
 I say that a child's head is in good proportion, I 
 compare the size of its head with the size of its 
 body and thus obtain a ratio; then, ascertaining 
 the ratio of head and body in a perfect child, I 
 compare the two ratios, and contrast the actual 
 with the perfect proportional development. If 
 John's proportional growth is the same as that of 
 the perfect model, we say that John is well pro- 
 portioned. It seems, then, that the "kind" of 
 development may be a question of proportion. 
 
 The consideration of the term " a similar series of 
 kinetic actions " is postponed (see p. 276). 
 
 In examining the attributes of functions, we have 
 
COINCIDENT DEVELOPMENT. 273 
 
 inquired as to some points concerning time and 
 quantity. Now, as to the attribute Kind, I have 
 no suggestions to give here as to the essential 
 character of kinds of growth. Observation shows 
 that the kind of growth occurring in a part of the 
 body may be good, bad, or indiflferent. It generally 
 happens that if the growth of parts of the body 
 that can be seen is good, the growth of organs 
 that cannot be seen is likewise good. This is an 
 empirical statement. 
 
 This leads us to study a mode of expression 
 referred to in chap. iii. p. 42, under the term " Coin- 
 cident similar development." 
 
 It often happens that after extended observation 
 we find the condition of growth or development 
 of one part of the body expresses, or indicates, the 
 presence of certain properties in the subject not 
 directly connected with the special sign observed. 
 Dull heavy-looking features usually accompany a 
 dull inactive mind (brain), not because the dull 
 features cause an inactive condition of mentation, 
 but because this cast of features usually accom- 
 panies a make of brain with slow action. This 
 mode of expression is, then, indirect and empirical ; 
 in many examples no causal connection can be seen 
 between the two subjects of similar growth. In 
 an Englishman excessive development of the epi- 
 canthic fold of the eyelids (chap. vii. p. 137) is often 
 accompanied by mental dulness ; here, then, there 
 is similar bad development in eyelids and in brain. 
 The want of symmetry of bilateral or correspond- 
 ing parts often indicates poor development of 
 
274 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 brain. Asymmetry of ears in dull children is 
 common. 
 
 Similarity of development in two parts may be 
 good in kind. Handsome, regular features of the 
 face often accompany mental perfection. In giving 
 a list of examples of similar development it will 
 be seen that some are empirical, and not at present 
 capable of explanation ; such are probably due to 
 a common force acting alike on both subjects. In 
 other cases the coincidence can be explained. 
 
 Emaciation or fatness of the face usually (not 
 always) indicates emaciation or fatness of other 
 regions of the body. 
 
 Absence of the organ of hearing indicates deaf- 
 ness, and usually indicates deaf-mutism. 
 
 Congenital absence of eyes indicates blindness, 
 and probable atrophy of the optic tracts. 
 
 A congenital condition of the skin, termed icthyo- 
 sis, indicates usually a liability to bronchitis; in 
 this condition the skin cannot perspire, and too 
 much work is thrown upon the lungs. 
 
 Plants with small ill'developed leaves show much 
 constitutional delicacy; the small leaves cannot 
 assimilate material enough for nutrition. 
 
 A very small or microcephalic head is a sign of 
 congenital idiocy. The absence of the faculty 
 mentation depends upon the smallness of the brain 
 consequent upon the microcephalism. If the skull 
 of the infant at birth be fully ossified expansion 
 will not occur, and the brain must ever remain 
 microcephalic; but still it is not certain that the 
 brains of such children would be capable of gi'owth 
 
DIATHESIS. 275 
 
 and development if the bony case were expansive 
 as in a normal child. 
 
 Cleft-palate may accompany marasmus ; both 
 may be due to similar ill development, or the cleft- 
 palate may cause difficulties in feeding the child 
 and lead to marasmus. Congenital coUapse of lung 
 may lead to patent foramen ovale in the heart. 
 
 The principle has long been admitted that the 
 tendencies in the development of a child or adult 
 may be studied by determining the diathesis, as it 
 is called. Certain things are observed in the man, 
 and then experience enables us to say that such 
 and such will be his constitutional tendencies. 
 
 When we observe in the individual that certain 
 functions are of one kind, we infer therefrom the 
 kind of other functions. Thus, Mr. F. Treves * gives 
 the following description of the strumous diathesis, 
 and shows such persons liable to certain pathological 
 conditions : " The physiognomy of scrofula, the type 
 of face and form supposed to be indicative of the 
 disease, have for ages been subjects upon which 
 writers have loved to exercise their imaginative 
 and descriptive powers" (p. 83). "The general 
 features of this class are sufficiently well marked to 
 enable us to separate them into two divisions, that, 
 for want of better words, may be known by the old 
 terms — the sanguine and the phlegmatic types of 
 scrofula" (p. 85). 
 
 " The sanguine type. Individuals placed in this 
 class are credited with these features, and they 
 refer more particularly to children. They are tall, 
 ♦ « Scrofula and Gland Disease." 1883. 
 
276 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 slight, and graceful, with well-formed limbs, hands, 
 and feet, a fine clear skin, and usually a fair com- 
 plexion. The face is oval, the lower jaw small, the 
 features delicate and regular, the lips thin. The 
 eyes are bright, and covered with long eyelashes, 
 and the hair is often remarkably fine and silken. 
 A sprightly and excitable disposition may be added, 
 and the picture is complete " (p. 86). 
 
 "•In the phlegmatic type are comprised indivi- 
 duals, as a rule, short and burly, with coarse limbs, 
 large hands and feet. The face is broad, the lower 
 jaw large, the malar bones often prominent, the 
 features coarse and irregular. The nose is generally 
 thick, the lips tumid, the lobes of the ears large, 
 and the neck unshapely. The skin is coarse, harsh, 
 and thick. The amount of subcutaneous cellular 
 tissue is considerable, and often sufiieient to conceal 
 the muscular outlines of the body. The skin in 
 the previous type is fine, and it is possible to pinch 
 up with the fingers a little portion of it; but in 
 these individuals none but a large fold of skin can 
 be picked up, as it is so coarse. Speaking generally, 
 persons of this class appear flabby and heavy- 
 looking; they are apathetic, have little muscular 
 power, and are soon tired. The vascularity of their 
 tissues appears to be impaired, and leads to certain 
 peculiarities of parts " (p. 87). 
 
 We now have to define and illustrate what is 
 meant by the term "a similar series of kinetic 
 action." This is a series of movements alike in 
 time, and in quantity, to a second series. The use 
 of the term involves the consideration of two series, 
 
SERIES OF MOVEMENTS. 277 
 
 and takes cognizance of the attributes time and 
 quantity. 
 
 The term " series of movements " may be quali- 
 fied in other ways than by the adjective " similar;" 
 we may have a good series of movements. In an 
 idiot the series of movements following upon the 
 sight of an apple are not good ; they are not such 
 as follow in a healthy child from the sight of an 
 apple. 
 
 If we measure the size of the head and dif- 
 ferent parts of the body of the idiot, we shall 
 probably find that the proportions of such measure- 
 ments are not good ; they are not according to the 
 proportions established by anthopometry as the 
 normal for the age of the child. Mr. Roberts * has 
 constructed tables indicating such proportions for 
 normal children. If, further, we compare the series 
 of movements observed in the idiot, with the 
 normal series of movements, we shall probably 
 find the kinetic scries as defective as the series of 
 measurements. The child's movements may be 
 recorded by the experimental method,t and analyzed 
 according to the principles of analysis,^ and thus 
 compared with a normal series as ascertained by 
 previous experiments. 
 
 Many other considerations as to the attributes of 
 a function might be presented as modes of expres- 
 sion, but sufficient has been said to illustrate the 
 principles of analysis advocated in this work. 
 
 Some care has been taken to describe the attributes 
 of trophic and kinetic functions, in the hope that, 
 * Op. cit. t See chap. xix. t Page 25fi. 
 
278 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 in studying the physical forces affecting motor 
 action, a method may be found by which we may 
 gain further knowledge of the processes of nutrition. 
 Working towards this object, we proceed to show 
 how the expression of development and other 
 conditions may be described by series of movements 
 and. trophic actions; this will principally be demon- 
 strated by examples. 
 
 Examine kinetic and trophic combinations in an 
 infant. Is there not as much expression in the 
 kinetic activities and successions as in the trophic 
 actions, variations, and growth ? 
 
 We say a body is well proportioned, or iU propor- 
 tioned, large headed, small bodied, big mouthed, etc. 
 All are expressions indicating the results of pro- 
 portional development ; the development or growth 
 is the result of a series of trophic actions ; the series 
 may be well proportioned according to the normal. 
 So the series of movements may be the normal or 
 not. If the trophic series be abnormal the kinetic 
 series is apt to be abnormal. In an infant, ill-pro- 
 portioned in its head and body, the movements, 
 combinations, and series of movements, and the 
 reflex actions, are apt to be abnormal. The trophic 
 abnormality is an expression that probably the 
 movements and reflexes will be abnormal. In an 
 idiot the movements are automatic in uniform 
 series, in place of being varied as in health ; the 
 trophic action also occurs in abnormal series pro- 
 ducing abnormal growth. 
 
 Expression may be described by series of move- 
 ments and trophic actions. A series or succes- 
 
SERIES OF MOVEMENTS AND TROPHIC ACTIONS. 279 
 
 sion of movements may be highly expressive. 
 When we see a child turn his head towards an 
 apple, extend his shoulder and elbow, then flex 
 wrist and fingers till they grasp the apple, we 
 observe a succession of movements expressing to 
 us that the child sees the apple, and desires to 
 have it; the expression is a series or succession 
 of movements. When we compare the body of 
 an infant one year old with a child aged three, 
 the difference of their bodies in size, weight, pro- 
 portional development, etc., indicates or expresses 
 the difierence of age. Some modes of expression 
 are by kinetic function in the subject, others by its 
 trophic functions. The expressive movements de- 
 scribed in the child taking the apple are its kinetic 
 functions; the points of difference between the 
 body of the infant and the older child are its 
 trophic manifestations. 
 
 Now, most of our biological works deal mainly 
 with the description of the material presence of the 
 subject, i.e. its trophic functions. Say the subject 
 of the biologist's description is the growth of the 
 common bean. The seed swells, each cotyledon 
 enlarges, the radicle of the embryo elongates by 
 growth, and protrudes from the opening in the 
 seed covering called the micropyle. Then the 
 covering is burst, the plumule protrudes, its hypo- 
 cotyls bend towards the light, the leaflets of the 
 plumule open out, etc. If cariefully analyzed, the 
 process of development described briefly wiU be 
 found to consist of the enumeration of a series of 
 trophic and kinetic actions of the parts of the sub- 
 
280 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 ject. "The seed swells; "this is due to "enlarge- 
 ment of each cotyledon " (trophic). " The radicle 
 grows and protrudes " (trophic action). In this 
 example of growth, the ratio of the quantity of 
 growth in the testa and the radicle is not constant 
 as germination proceeds. Growth occurs more 
 rapidly in the radicle than in other parts. The 
 covering, or testa, bursts as a secondary result of 
 growth of the cotyledons ; the rupture is due to the 
 absence of equal proportional development in 
 embryo and testa. The plumule protrudes; rapid 
 growth DOW occurs here (quantity of trophic action). 
 
 We may now inquire more closely as to each of 
 these trophic processes. It is obviously desirable 
 whenever we speak of a function, to know ex- 
 actly what is the subject displaying that function. 
 When we speak of the trophic function displayed 
 in a bean as the radicle elongates, we do not mean 
 to say that all parts are nourished to cause the 
 radicle to grow, though this may be true: clearly 
 we mean that the radicle displays the trophic 
 function; the radicle is the subject, the vital action 
 in it is said to be " trophic action." The question 
 now arises, is this subject one and indivisible, or is 
 it an assemblage of cells ? If the latter, do all the 
 colls composing the radicle go through a similar 
 series of trophic action ? 
 
 The regular circumnutation of the radicle in- 
 volves numerous minor subjects, the cells of the 
 radicle undergoing a regular series of trophic 
 actions. It is also true that the nutrition produces 
 partly trophic, partly kinetic, expression (see 
 p. 283). 
 
GROWTH AND MOVEMENT COMPAEEO. 281 
 
 We will compare descriptions of growth and 
 descriptions of movement. It is very desirable to 
 know how to give scientific descriptions. A 
 description may be given of the body of a 
 tadpole and the body of a frog ; the difference 
 between the two is the growth or development of 
 the individual. The description would be much 
 more perfect if all the stages of the growth 
 were given; the greater the number of "stages 
 of growth" given, the fuller and more com- 
 plete the description. Now contrast this with the 
 description of the movements of the hand. We 
 may observe the open " straight extended hand," 
 followed immediately by the " convulsive hand ; " we 
 thus note two passive conditions, or postures, states 
 of quiescence : the difference between them is an 
 indication of the movement that has occurred. The 
 description might be given by stating all the move- 
 ments that actually occurred, flexion of all the 
 joints of all the digits with adduction of the thumb 
 upon the palm. 
 
 Again, in each of the examples the description 
 might be given with great exactness and fullness, 
 by recording the combinations and sequences of 
 trophic and kinetic action as they occur, in time, 
 quantity, and kind. 
 
 The object specially in view, in thus insisting 
 on such methods of description, is the attempt 
 to bring biological processes within the range of 
 calculation. And it is also desirable to have a 
 common form of expression of trophic and kinetic 
 energy, so that we may more easily apply the same 
 
282 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 principles of analysis to both functions. It may 
 be — I think it is true — that external forces, or the 
 environment, do often bring about the special 
 combinations and sequences of trophic action and 
 kinetic action ; and I imagine that here we have 
 an important factor in the process of evolution of 
 the individual and of the species. 
 
 Forces afferent to the subject may alter the 
 succession of a kinetic series or the succession of 
 a trophic series. 
 
 A child is at play, showing us much spontaneous 
 movement and many reflex actions ; speak to the 
 child — the sound of your voice totally alters the 
 character of his movements ; the sei-ies of his kinetic 
 actions is altered by the afferent force, your voice. 
 
 If a branch of vine be placed in darkness it will 
 grow in abnormal porportions, with long internodes 
 and small leaves, but will bear fruit. The propor- 
 tional trophic series in the vine is altered by the 
 action of light or darkness. It appears to me that 
 often it is easier to observe this in the kinetic 
 functions, than in the trophic functions. I believe, 
 also, that very often in organic nature, plants and 
 brains, a trophic action — indicated by permanent 
 impressionability — does occur upon each display of 
 kinetic function, and that this is the explanation of 
 movements becoming automatic. 
 
 If this theory be true, it may be put to the test 
 by my experimental methods. I believe that a 
 subject may, as the result of its vital properties and 
 nutrition, display the two functions T := trophic 
 action, K = kinetic action; but, however much 
 
EVOLUTION OF THE BRAIN. 283 
 
 these two may vary, T +• ^ = t^^ total func- 
 tion. Probably in most cases the time and dura- 
 tion of both functions are alike j hence we may 
 use either T or K to indicate time and duration of 
 the total function of the subject. The element or 
 attribute " time " is thus made an essential part of 
 the description. 
 
 In an inves|igation as to the development or 
 evolution of a child's brain, we may proceed as 
 follows, investigating only its development in 
 growth, the changes in its material structure ; at 
 different ages its size, weight, anatomy, histology, 
 chemistry, etc. 
 
 Again, we may investigate its kinetic functions 
 by recording nerve-muscular signs. We find, at 
 first, purely spontaneous movements, automatic, and 
 not readily inhibited or controlled by light and 
 sound. At three months old these movements are 
 co-ordinated upon stimulus by light, later by sounds 
 also. At this stiU early age, the special combina- 
 tions and series of movements, following upon a 
 stimulus are uncertain, not uniform upon similar 
 stimulations. Thus food placed in front of a new- 
 born infant produces no uniform series of move- 
 ments of its hands ; food placed in front of a boy 
 of six years stimulates him by the sight of it to 
 move his hands and eat the bread and butter, his 
 movements being so uniform — movements of hands, 
 head, mouth, jaw, etc. — that we may call them 
 uniform or automatic because they occur so regu- 
 larly, so uniformly. Has this automatic action 
 resulted from external agencies ? 
 
284 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 Given a description- of the brain of a child two 
 years old, such as may indicate whether it be 
 healthy, we may conduct observations thus. As 
 regards its material structure we can gain but 
 little direct evidence. We can measure and take 
 note of the form and size of the skull, or brain- 
 ease, and any changes occurring during the period 
 of observation ; we can test the special senses, 
 examine the optic nerve, etc. But these methods 
 of examination give us but little idea of the real 
 condition compared with the knowledge gained by 
 observing conditions of sleep (trophic) and con- 
 ditions of movement. The rhythmical successions 
 of sleep and of the recurrence of appetite for food, 
 are successions of trophic conditions, highly expres- 
 sive of health ; the movements of the child, the 
 coincidences of movements, and their series upon 
 stimulation teach us much more. It is, then, the 
 coincidences and successions of trophic and kinetic 
 action that give the best kind of expression. 
 
 In a coincidence of movements many parts or 
 few may concur. In the growth of a body many or 
 few parts may grow at the same time. 
 
 Now I will give some reasons why it is 
 desii-able to give descriptions in this form. We 
 have ample proof that the coincidences of move- 
 ments are influenced by external forces : the sight 
 of an object and sounds can cause special series of 
 movements, this action makes it probable that 
 external forces regulate the series of trophic 
 actions. 
 
 In studying examples of proportional develop- 
 
ENVIRONMENT AFFECTS EVOLUTION. 285 
 
 ment, as illustrated in the case of the twins Arthur 
 and John, it will be said, no doubt, that the cause 
 of their equal proportional development is heredity; 
 and this may be true. The question may, then, be 
 raised. What is heredity ? If proportional growth, 
 and a definite series of movements be due to 
 heredity, we have in such series a direct expression 
 of heredity in a measurable form. 
 
 A child is growing like one or other parent in 
 features (trophic combinations) and in manner of 
 walking, speaking, or writing, etc. It is the series 
 of trophic and kinetic actions that express the 
 heredity. This seems easier to admit with regard 
 to trophic than with regard to kinetic series. It 
 seems more in accord with common observation 
 that a certain mode of growth should follow on 
 given external conditions than that a certain series 
 of movements should succeed. 
 
 In the growth of children, on the average, the 
 proportion of growth of limbs and parts of the 
 body, is similar in different subjects at the same 
 age. Is this owing to the impress made upon the 
 embryo (or its germ) and upon its ancestors ? It is 
 certain that afferent forces may alter this, increase 
 size of head, or hands, etc. 
 
 In the plant the variations of proportional 
 growth are easily affected by light (internodes) 
 and by heat. 
 
 In the case of the twin brothers, the reader will, 
 from general knowledge, probably be inclined to 
 accept the view that Arthur and John are of equal 
 proportional development owing to heredity, owing 
 
286 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 to the fact of their being twins, owing to all the 
 events of intra-uterine life having been similar to 
 each. Is it not probable that the same cause is 
 connected with the similarity of the series of 
 trophic actions, and the series of kinetic actions ? 
 It is possible to describe walking and speaking in 
 terms of a series of movements. 
 
 This suggests that "If two or more living 
 subjects be co-nourished during the period of 
 development they wiU tend to ' similar proportional 
 development' and 'similar series of kinetic 
 actions.' " 
 
 Let us try and see exactly what it is that is 
 thus compared. 
 
 The series of trophic actions in each subject 
 corresponds, or is similar in the same periods of 
 growth ; only observation can prove this. Observa- 
 tion shows in Arthur and John that growth is 
 similar in kind, and in quantity, in each successive 
 period of time ; it is the attributes time, quantity, 
 and kind of growth that are similar. 
 
 Summary. — Any property or function may be 
 described as having the three attributes — time, 
 quantity, kind. This may be illustrated with 
 regard to growth, or trophic action ; and also with 
 regard to movement, or kinetic action. 
 
 The attribute time includes the moment of action, 
 frequency, duration of the active appearance, and of 
 the quiescence or disappearance of the function. 
 Time is the only attribute of totally dissimilar 
 functions that can be directly compared. As to 
 quantity, this is measurable, but some unit of 
 
BUMMAllY. 287 
 
 quantity must be adopted ; before a comparison can 
 be made between two quantities, it is necessary to 
 determine a unit of measure common to the two. 
 
 The " kind " of a function may, in some cases, be 
 stated in terms of time and quantity. 
 
 The properties of inorganic things vary less than 
 those of living subjects. 
 
 The considQfation of the attributes of properties 
 in two or more subjects raises some important pro- 
 blems. The time of growth, or movement, in three 
 subjects. A, B, C, may occur separately in each or 
 may coincide in any of the combinations A, B, C, 
 AB, AC, BC, ABC : thus considerations of time lead 
 to coincidences, combinations, sequences, series. 
 
 As to quantities of growth, or movement, in two 
 or more subjects, we are now able to make ratios or 
 proportions. Proportional growth, inasmuch as it 
 concerns a proportion, must imply something about 
 the quantity of the growth ; it is only as to quan- 
 tities that we can make a proportion, or ratio. The 
 term 'proportional growth is applicable to two 
 subjects : it concerns the ratio of growth ; and 
 denotes the proportion of the quantity of the 
 growth in the one subject, to the quantity of 
 growth in the other subject. 
 
 The term equal proportional growth implies that 
 two ratios are equal. Two subjects, each present- 
 ing two similar parts for comparison, are referred 
 to ; the ratio of the quantity of growth in the two 
 parts of the one subject, is said to be equal to the 
 ratio of the quantity of growth in the two cor- 
 responding parts of the other subject. 
 
288 PHYSICAL EXPKESSION. 
 
 When growth is found to be good or bad in one 
 part of a subject, it often happens to be similarly 
 good or bad in other parts ; this is termed the 
 principle of similar development. The similarity is 
 as to kind. In some cases this similarity as to kind 
 is explicable, in other cases it is empirical. This 
 principle is the basis of what are termed the 
 " temperaments, or diathesis," in medicine. 
 
 One object of the analysis given, and the enun- 
 ciation of principles in this chapter, is to show the 
 usefulness of analogy between a series of move- 
 ments and a series of trophic actions. A series of 
 movements may be compared with the normal, as 
 easily as a series of measurements is compared 
 with fixed tables of the normal measurements. 
 The expressions of development may be described 
 in terms of series of kinetic and trophic actions; 
 this is illustrated by examples. 
 
 Probably it may be demonstrated that forces 
 afferent to the subject may bring about special 
 combinations and sequences of trophic and kinetic 
 action. I imagine that here we have an important 
 factor in the process of evolution of the individual 
 and of the species. A subject, as the result of vital 
 action, may display two or more functions — say, 
 trophic and kinetic action ; the relative proportion 
 of the two may vary in quantity — thus the total 
 function of the subject may appear to vary in 
 kind : all this may result from the action of afferent 
 forces. 
 
 Some of the principles concerned in heredity 
 may be illustrated by the principles enunciated in 
 this chapter. 
 
.CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 ART CRITICISM. 
 
 Alt teaches the physiologist; all men can study expression — 
 Bulwer's opinion — All expression of feeling is by nerve- 
 muscular action — Importance of such stuilies — Expression of 
 mental states — Hand and face specially indicative of the 
 mind — Venus de' Medici, the nervous hand — Diana, the ener- 
 getic hand — Composition — Etruscan drawing — Cain at Pitti 
 Gallery, the hand in fright — The Dying Gladiator — Writings 
 of Camper ; his descriptions of expression — Antony Raphael 
 Mengs — Study of nerve-muscular action — Weakness should 
 not be expressed in place of beauty — The free hand — The 
 object of figure composition in art — Fixed and mobile expres- 
 sion — Principles of analysis. 
 
 As I gladly acknowledge my indebtedness to art 
 for many suggestions as to modes of expression 
 and the principles involved therein, I may perhaps 
 be excused from the charge of rashness if I, though 
 not an artist, venture to suggest some principles 
 for the guidance of art representations of the emo- 
 tions and other general conditions in man. The 
 principles by the aid of which it is proposed to 
 criticize art works, are those described in chaps. 
 V. and ix. Ancient art has recorded indelibly in 
 sculpture and on pottery the modes of expression 
 14 
 
290 PHTSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 seen in former times; the writings of Camper, 
 Lavater, and Le Brun have taught much as to 
 expression : and we shall inquire presently how 
 far modern and contemporaneous art complies with 
 the high requirements of the principles of expres- 
 sion in illustrating conditions of the body and the 
 mind. 
 
 It is not necessary to speak hei-e of artistic 
 technique and execution; even without special 
 knowledge on such matters any observer who 
 thinks for himself and can compare the expression 
 of a statue, or a painted figure, with living men 
 and women, may form his opinions. If the prin- 
 ciples for the analysis of expression contained in 
 this volume be true and capable of wide appli- 
 cation, they should be applicable to the criticism 
 of artistic representations of expression. In framing 
 those " principles " the analysis and comparative 
 study of paintings and sculpture gave much help, 
 as well as the analysis of examples in life ; it is, 
 then, not unnatural to apply the principles thus 
 framed and enunciated to art criticism. All kinds 
 of postures are produced by the action of the central 
 nerve-mechanism, and, being the direct outcome of 
 its function, are indices of its condition, and, as 
 such, are worthy of study by observation, descrip- 
 tion, and analysis. Many admirable treatises have 
 been written on expression, describing, in such 
 terms as are above referred to, the motor outcome 
 of those brain conditions whose mental manifesta- 
 tions are the emotions. 
 
 John Bulwer gave his descriptions in terms of 
 
JOHN bulweb's criticism. 291 
 
 muscular action (" Criticism on Art," p. 5) : " More 
 strange yet, that no Artists should have made this 
 the subject of their orations, but should have all 
 to this Day, either turned their discourse to the 
 structure only of the Humane Fabrique, the per- 
 fections or Symmetry of the Body, or the excellency 
 and antiquity of the Anatomique Art, or the Enco- 
 miums of the Antient and moderne Anatomists; 
 whereas nothing could have set a greater glosse 
 upon the Art, or have bin more glorious and honour- 
 able, than together with their Dissections, to have 
 inriched their discourse with a relation of the 
 EssMice, Regiment, and properties of the Soule, 
 whose well-strung instrument the Body was ; . . . 
 for, what is more easie than to discerne the parts 
 manifest to Sense, and the fidelity of a Ocular 
 assurance ? that are so subject to our touch, that 
 in the semblances of those motions wrought in the 
 parts by the endeavour of the Muscles, we may 
 not only see, but as it were feele and touch the 
 very inward motions of the Mind; if you aske what 
 delight will hence acrew to the understanding? 
 What is so delightfuU as to know by what kind 
 of movings those varying motions and expressions 
 of the Head and Face are performed ? . . . Wliere- 
 fore we will think it a thing worthy to be corrected 
 with the whip of Ignorance, if any rashly plunge 
 himself into the -Muscular Sea of corporal Anatomy, 
 or of the outward man, without any mention of the 
 Internal man, since the Soule only is the Opifex of 
 all the moving of the Muscles, whose invisible Acts 
 are made manifest by their operations in those parts 
 
292 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 into which they are inserted. ... If they are con- 
 tented to allow me to have bin the first that by Art 
 endeavoured to linke the Muscles and the Affections 
 together in a new Pathmyogamia ... I ask no 
 more." 
 
 "AH the outward expressions we have or can 
 make are performed by motion, and therefore 
 signify the affections of the mind, which are 
 motions ; the moving of the instruments and parts, 
 answering in a kind of semblance and representa- 
 tive proportion, to the motions of the mind " (p. 4). 
 
 " The Eyes of Man are the most cleere Interpre- 
 tors of the affections of the mind ; wherefore since 
 they were for that purpose to be endued with a 
 voluntary motion, and all motions are performed 
 by Muscles, therefore the great Architect gave 
 muscles to the Eyes, whereby they are most swiftly 
 moved according to the inward motions of the 
 mind, whence the Eye by the Philosopher is said 
 to be the most moveable part of our Body, by which 
 advantage it hath more opportunities to express the 
 motions of our mind " (p. 166). 
 
 All the descriptions of expression given by 
 Bulwer are muscular movements or nerve-muscular 
 signs. 
 
 All expression of feeling is effected by muscular 
 action, whether it be by words, by facial movement 
 or gesture, movements effected by voluntary muscles; 
 or expression may be produced by dilatation of the 
 pupil, erection of the hair, or disturbed action of 
 the heart, these being due to the conditions of 
 involuntary muscular fibre. 
 
ATTITUDE AND TOUCH EXPJRESSIVE. 293 
 
 Examples may easily be given showing how we 
 commonly judge of the state of a man by muscular 
 conditions. Note the stooping attitude and spirit- 
 less gait of a tired man as compared with that of 
 the same individual when rested and refreshed. 
 Incipient intoxication is indicated by a reeling gait, 
 unsteady hand, and muscular tremor. Expression 
 may be indical^pd by the position of the head : it -is 
 seen firmly upright in defiance, drooping in shame ; 
 it is commonly held on one side in nervous women, 
 and girls convalescent from chorea, a good example 
 of an asymmetrical gesture. The artist's brush 
 or pencil, the sculptor's modelling tool and chisel, 
 the pianist's and violinist's finger-touch, indicate 
 the training and actual condition of the working 
 of his brain. The educated and refined singer 
 trains and refines his whole mind, i.e. his brain, 
 and is well aware that his "whole soul," as he 
 may express it, comes out in the action of the 
 muscles concerned in producing his song and 
 musical notes. 
 
 In the infant the condition of the nerve-system 
 is best recorded in terms of nerve-muscular phe- 
 nomena. It laughs and is playful; reflex action 
 is well marked when a finger is placed in the 
 child's hand or mouth; the ej'es are moved and 
 directed towards any object looked at; these are 
 conditions of healthy action. It is well known 
 that in the convulsive state the fists are often 
 closed with the thumbs turned in. 
 
 All these examples of expression are nerve- 
 muscular conditions; the movement, the attitude. 
 
294 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 the gait, result from states of the brain or spinal 
 cord. 
 
 In the observations to be referred to, examples 
 are chiefly drawn from the ocular and facial muscles, 
 and those of the upper extremity. 
 
 If anything can aid our studies of man, the 
 matter becomes of interest to several classes of 
 writers, to all those who study the body of man 
 as indicating the activities of his brain or mind, 
 and as giving the knowledge of the means whereby 
 the idea of his mental states and feelings may be 
 expressed. If the matters discussed in this work 
 are of use in this direction, they concern not only 
 the physician but also the artist. 
 
 It is the work of the painter and sculptor, to 
 express by form and posture, the conceptions he 
 may wish to produce of the condition of men and 
 women, in certain conditions of mind, states of 
 strength and weakness ; expressions of mental and 
 physical pain, states of rest or repose, feminine 
 coyness and defiance : the poet has to describe all 
 these things in words. Clearly, also, it is a mistake 
 for conditions of the limbs characteristic of disease 
 to be used as mere expressions of feeling, unless the 
 feeling be the result of disease. 
 
 There is, then, in the subject before us, conditions 
 of the muscles expressive of the states of the nerve 
 system, a field for observation and description, in 
 which the artist and the physician may work 
 together, observing and analyzing with as much 
 exactness as may be, the modes by which the yrary- 
 ing conditions of the brain and mind are indicated 
 
INDICES OF THE MIND. 295 
 
 to our eye, and may therefore be described by words, 
 or by drawing, or sculpture. We must study man 
 in all aspects of the case, and when we see in 
 the face, limbs, or body indications of his brain or 
 mental condition, we should analyze and describe — 
 first, the position of features and parts as we see 
 them, then the muscles which produce these posi- 
 tions or movegients, knowing that the muscular 
 condition which has produced the movements or 
 positions is the result of the state of the correspond- 
 ing nerve-centres of the brain. It has been said 
 that a man's face is the index of his mind, and this 
 is true, for all the varying changes of expression in 
 the face (except those of colour) are due to changes 
 in the facia,! muscles, and these solely depend upon 
 changes in nerve-cells. 
 
 The muscles of the hand and face are probably 
 the most specialized as the agents, and indices of 
 the mind. These muscles suffer most commonly 
 from injury or disease of the brain. Another reason 
 for speaking of the hand as specially indicative of 
 the brain condition is because the hand has a large 
 number of small muscles, capable of performing 
 delicate actions, and bearing slight weights. The 
 muscles of the hand are particularly under the 
 guidance of the brain. 
 
 In 1879, when visiting Florence, it struck me 
 that the posture of the hands of the Venus de' 
 Medici was similar to the posture often seen in a 
 nervous child when the hands are held out. 
 
 The hand posture of the Venus is similar on 
 either side to that described as the " nervous hand " 
 (see chap ix. p. 163). 
 
296 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 It is a posture often represented in drawings 
 and in sculpture. The wrist is slightly flexed or 
 bent, the knuckle-joints are moderately extended 
 
 Fig. 32 —Venus de' Medici. 
 
 back beyond the straight line of the metacarpus ; 
 the fingers are slightly flexed ; the thumb is extemded 
 backwards, and often slightly separated from the 
 
HAND POSTURES. 297 
 
 fingers. This spontaneous posture I have seen in 
 hundreds of cases, usually in females of nervous, 
 excitable temperament; in nervous children, bad 
 sleepers, etc. In a child in whom this posture is 
 usually seen when the hand is held out during the 
 day, it is not seen when at rest. If, in such a child 
 when asleep, the hand be held out by the wrist- 
 band during sleep, the hand naturally falls into the 
 posture of " the hand in rest." 
 
 Fig 33.— Tbo Nervous Hand. 
 
 The most essential character of this nervous hand, 
 is the extension backwards of the knuckle-joints 
 and the thumb ; this may be seen in some of the 
 knuckle-joints only, as is well illustrated in Fig. 
 35, where each hand of the seated figures, if not 
 engaged in holding a shield or bowl, presents one 
 or more knuckles bent back beyond the straight 
 line of the hand. 
 
 At the British Museum we have the statue of 
 Diana next to that of Venus; the figure of a 
 strong energetic woman in contrast with the figure 
 
298 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 expressing nervousness and coyness. In the Diana, 
 the head is erect, the advanced right foot gives an 
 expression of firmness. Now examine the hand 
 
 Fig. 34.— Diana. Britiall Museum. 
 
 postures : the right is grasping a spear ; the left 
 arm hangs by the side, under the influence of 
 gravity, but the hand is free, it is not engaged in 
 
GREEK VASES. 29 D 
 
 doing anything, but its posture is the representa- 
 tion of the outcome of brain action only. As to the 
 posture of this free hand under the influence of that 
 condition of brain which makes a woman energetic, 
 it is that described in chap. ix. as " the energetic 
 hand ;" it is often seen in children eager to answer a 
 lesson in class and holding out their hands, or in 
 a child running to a friend ; it is commonly seen in 
 an orator or preacher. The wrist is extended back- 
 wards, the fingers and thumb are all in moderate 
 flexion. I believe this posture of the hand is com- 
 mon as the outcome of an active, energetic condition 
 of the mind, and that the brain condition, which 
 causes " an energetic condition of the mind," causes 
 also at the same time, in many cases, the energetic 
 hand. If the artist had so composed his figure 
 that the left hand, as well as the right, had been 
 represented engaged in holding some object, we 
 should have had less expression of the woman's 
 mental energy. The artist's skill appears in the 
 composition in thus indicating by the right hand 
 the physical strength, in the left hand the state 
 of mental energy.^ 
 
 Fig. 35 is the photographic copy of an engraving 
 by Mr. Kirk, in his work, " Outlines from Figures 
 upon Greek Vases, etc., of the late Sir William 
 Hamilton, MDCCCXIV." 
 
 "Plate I. represents a festival in honour of Bac- 
 chus, and consists of both sexes, who seldom or 
 never were together except in these feasts." As 
 already noticed, all the hands of the seated figures, 
 where they are not engaged in holding some object. 
 
300 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 present over-extension of the knuckle-joints, and 
 
 r 
 
 this is an essential element of the "nervous 
 
STATUE OF CAIN. 301 
 
 hand." Now observe the hands of the Genius, 
 who is not a partaker of the feast, and is not 
 affected to nervousness. His hands are in the 
 posture of energy; he alone of all the figures has 
 the wrists extended. This contrast of the hand 
 postures in the plate leads us to note that, just 
 as nervousness and energy are the antithesis of 
 one another, so "the nervous hand" and "the 
 energetical hand" are antithetical postures (see 
 chap, ix ). 
 
 Now let us look at the Cain in the Pitti 
 Gallery, Florence. The whole figure expresses 
 horror or mental fear. Each hand is free or dis- 
 engaged, and in similar posture. The wrist is 
 extended backwards as in the energetic hand of 
 the Diana, indicating the large amount of nerve- 
 force going to the muscles of the arms. This pos- 
 ture could serve no useful purpose to the man — 
 it is not an act performed for the sake of doing 
 something ; it seems to be only the result of the 
 force coming off from that condition of brain of 
 which the " mental manifestation " is horror or fear. 
 Here, as in the Venus, both hands are in similar 
 posture. Analogous hand postures are seen in 
 the members of the Niobe group. In the Dying 
 Gladiator we learn a different lesson. Neither 
 hand is here free. All the postures of the com- 
 position of this figure are the representation of a 
 man in mortal agony, whose urgent dyspnoea 
 determines the position of the body and of the 
 limbs, which are thus not left free or disengaged 
 to be acted upon solely by the spontaneous action 
 
302 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 of the brain. Sir Charles Bell,* in his critical 
 analysis of this posture, drew attention to this 
 point ; he says — 
 
 Fig. 36.— Cain. 
 
 "The Dying Gladiator is one of those master- 
 pieces of antiquity which exhibits a knowledge of 
 
 * " Philosophy and Anatomy of EspressioB," 3rd edition, p. 195. 
 
THE DYING GLADIATOJJ. 303 
 
 anatomy and of man's nature. He is not resting ; 
 he is not falling ; but in the position of one wounded 
 in the chest, and seeking relief in that anxious 
 and oppressed breathing which attends a mortal 
 wound with loss of blood. He seeks support to 
 his arms, not to rest them or sustain the body, 
 but to fix them, that their action may be trans- 
 ferred to the chest, and thus assist the labouring 
 respiration. The nature of his sufferings leads to 
 this attitude. In a man expiring from loss of 
 blood, as the vital stream flows, the heart and 
 lungs have the same painful feeling of want, which 
 is produced by obstruction to the breathing. As 
 the blood is draining from him, he pants and looks 
 wild, and the chest heaves convulsively. And so 
 the ancient artist has placed this statue in the 
 posture of one who suffers the extremity of difficult 
 respiration. The fixed condition of the shoulders, 
 as he sustains his sinking body, shows that the 
 powerful muscles, common to the ribs and arms, 
 have their action concentrated to the struggling 
 chest. In the same way does a man afflicted with 
 asthma rest his hands or his elbows upon a table, 
 stooping forwards, that the shoulders may become 
 fixed points ; the muscles of the arm and shoulder 
 then act as muscles of respiration, and aid in the 
 motion of the chest during the heaving and anxiety 
 which belong to the disease. 
 
 "When a man is mortally wounded, and still 
 more if he be bleeding to death, as the gladiator, 
 he presents the appearance of suffocation ; for the 
 want is felt in the breast, and relief is sought in 
 
304! PHYSICAL EXPIIESSION. 
 
 the heaving chest. If he have at that moment the 
 sympathy and aid of a friend, he will cling to him, 
 half raising himself, and twisting his chest with 
 the utmost exertion; and while every muscle of 
 the trunk stands out abrupt and prominent, those 
 of the neck and throat, nostrils and mouth, will 
 partake the excitement. In this condition he will 
 remain fixed, and then fall exhausted with the 
 exertion ; it is in the moment of the chest sinking 
 that the voice of suffering may be heard. If he 
 have fallen on the turf, it is not from pain, but 
 from that indescribable agony of want and instinc- 
 tive struggling, that the grass around the lifeless 
 body is lodged and torn." 
 
 In the figure of " Hercules at Rest " the position 
 of the limbs is mainly determined by gravity ; the 
 figure presents in its build the signs of gigantic 
 strength, but there is little or no expression of 
 mentation. 
 
 The significance of the action of muscles as 
 indicating brain conditions has long been dwelt 
 upon by writers. Camper, who wrote in 1821, has 
 shown how the Laocoon presents evidence as to 
 how deeply the ancients had investigated the 
 influence of pain as expressed in the figure and 
 the muscles. In this group, " not merely does the 
 face, but the arms, legs — in short, all the muscles 
 of the body indicate anguish.'' Further on he 
 quotes from the words of Paulo Somazzo's work, 
 " DeU' Arte della Pittura," published 1531, in which 
 he describes the influence of the passions upon the 
 muscles of the face, and still more minutely the 
 
CAMPEES CRITICISM. 
 
 305 
 
 different postures and contortions of the body. 
 Camper there complains that authors have usually 
 either confined themselves to appearances^ or have 
 
 37.— Hercules at Rest. 
 
 " reasoned metaphj'^sically concerning the operations 
 of the mind, without attending to the physical 
 causes of the changes produced by these operations, 
 but in my opinion [that is. Camper's] speculations 
 
306 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 concerning the manner of the soul's working, or 
 concerning the seat of the soul, are of no use to the 
 artist. These belong to metaphysicians, who, by 
 the way, lose themselves in a labyrinth of terms, 
 or words with no definite meaning, without having 
 in the least explained the action of this immortal 
 principle upon the corporeal and mortal frame." 
 Camper proceeds to give examples of the con- 
 ditions of the muscles as indicating conditions of 
 the mind, and then says, " the observation deducible 
 from these effects is, that in every emotion of the 
 mind particular nerves are affected ; consequently 
 every painter ought to make himself acquainted 
 with the construction and connection of the nerves 
 productive of these changes." 
 
 Camper * (p. 134) gives the following illustrations 
 of expression, which he describes in terms of nerve- 
 muscular signs thus (the figures are borrowed from 
 his work) : — 
 
 " Contemplate first the placid countenance (Fig. 
 38). Every feature is at rest; no one muscle is 
 brought into particular action ; all are in a state of 
 repose, without appearing relaxed or inert. There 
 is a tranquillity in the eye void of languor, and 
 the lips are in unconstrained contact. 
 
 " Let us suppose something to present itself which 
 excites a degree of surprise or wonder (Fig. 39). The 
 intercostal nerves are immediately affected, and act 
 upon the third pair; hence the eyelid is opened, 
 and the eye stands motionless in the socket. The 
 same nerve acts upon the eighth pair at the same 
 * Camper, Works, transLitcd by T. Oogan, M.D., 1821. 
 
FACIAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 307 
 
 time; respiration is suspended, the free motion of 
 the heart is impeded, and the mouth is opened, as 
 the maxillary muscles destined to this purpose are 
 affected; but as these act alone upon the lower 
 maxilla, the teeth are not discovered. The hands 
 are extended, and more particularly the fingers, 
 from the action of this muscular plexus. 
 
 "The e&ecisot contempt are very different (Fig. 40). 
 The fifth pair of nerves are put in motion. Thus 
 
 Fig. 38. — A conntenanco perfectly 
 placid. 
 
 Fig. 39.— Expressing Surprise. 
 
 are the eyebrows drawn inwards and downwards; 
 the mouth is firmly closed; but as the lower lip 
 rises in the middle it becomes arched. The eyes 
 are drawn sideways, the musculus abducens and 
 adducens acting together by the force of habit. 
 By making the head to turn towards the right, and 
 the eyes toward the left hand, the passion is ren- 
 dered more expressive. 
 
 (Fig. 41.) "In complacency, friendly greetings, 
 and tacit joy, those parts alone act which have an 
 
308 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 immediate communication witli the seventh pair 
 of nerves. The angles of the mouth must never be 
 drawn up alone, without other tokens of an incipient 
 smile. Great care should be taken to avoid drawing 
 the eyebrows inwards : an error frequently com- 
 mitted by the French in their portraits. 
 
 "Laughter (Fig. 42). In laughter all the effects pro- 
 duced by the former affection are greatly increased, 
 and others are superadded. The whole countenance 
 
 Fig. 40. — Contempt. 
 
 Fig. 41. — Complacency, Friendli- 
 ness, Tacit Joy. 
 
 inclines forwards, but without the attention being 
 fixed upon any determinate object. The outward 
 edges of the orbicular muscles of the eye are con- 
 tracted, producing wrinkles and folds around the 
 eyes. The lips are opened by the action of the 
 orbicular muscle, on the external sides ; hence 
 the teeth, particularly the upper, are made to 
 appear ; small wrinkles arise at the corners of the 
 mouth, and the cheeks become fuller, etc. 
 
LAUGHTER — SORROW. 
 
 309 
 
 " If you would add an arch, or a wanton look, 
 place the eye sideways, and contract the upper 
 eyelid expressive of a wink. 
 
 "In a sorrowful countenance (Fig. 43) the fifth pair 
 of nerves are principally affected; the mouth is 
 drawn downwards by the descent of the upper lip. 
 To add despair to this emotion, the face must be 
 made to look upwards and somewhat obliquely ; 
 
 Fig. 43— Sorrow. 
 
 the brow must be furrowed with wrinkles; and 
 the middle of the eyebrows be drawn upwards, 
 
 " In weeping (Fig. 44), all the muscles which re- 
 ceive the fifth pair of nerves act in a very forcible 
 manner. Hence the corners of the mouth are 
 drawn downwards, the lower part of the nose 
 upwards, the eyebrows descend, the eyes are nearly 
 closed, and tears are pressed out of the lachrymal 
 glands." 
 
 The following quotation is from the writings of 
 Antony Raphael Mengs. He says : — 
 
310 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 " By expression I mean the art of judiciously dis- 
 covering the affections, by every sort of external 
 signs. The union of the Soul with the body is of 
 such a nature, that the emotion of the one, cannot 
 happen without exciting a correspondent motion in 
 the other. As the Painter ought therefore to repre- 
 sent his figures in action, he ought likewise to 
 express in their appearance and in everything else, 
 that situation and those emotions which the soul 
 would produce in the body if it were really found 
 
 Fig. 44. — Weeping. 
 
 in that state ; but since among these emotions, 
 enter more or less, some which are forced, and 
 others which are natural, some noble, and others 
 ordinary, and of a thousand other manners ; it 
 depends therefore upon the Taste of the Painter, to 
 know how to choose those which produce Beauty ; 
 and likewise to know how to produce it with due 
 precision" (vol. i. p. 117). 
 
MENOS' WKITINGS. 311 
 
 " Of the Proportions of the Human Body* — 
 Infinite are the descriptions of the proportions 
 of the human hody, but scarce any two accord. 
 Those which I have read are not very clear, nor 
 do I believe they can give to painters a just 
 idea of the subject. Besides that, some authors 
 have limited too much the combinations that could 
 produce an uniform proportion in the figures. 
 Others, and rimong whom is Albert Diirer, have 
 explained a great number and variety of propor- 
 tions ; but they serve for nothing, except to those 
 who would wish to imitate his taste. I shall there- 
 fore also say something on this subject, which 
 might serve for all tastes, founding it upon nature 
 and art. 
 
 "It is a general maxim to divide a figure in a 
 determinate number o£ heads or faces; but this 
 method will be good for sculptors only, and not for 
 painters, who never see the heads just, because the 
 perspective hides at least one third of the fourth 
 superior part ; and the width of the members can- 
 not be measured with such exactness as they are 
 measured by sculptors, because they would appear 
 meagre and straight upon the plain surface, in 
 opposition to what it appears by the perspective ; 
 because as we see all things with two eyes, we 
 see the contour of things greater than the just 
 diameter; and this happens in nature as well as 
 in statues, but not in painting. The ancients also 
 observed that, and therefore we see, that their bas- 
 reliefs are thicker than their statues. 
 * Mengs' Works, vol. ii. p. 159. 
 
312 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 " Painters have occasion to use variety injBnitely 
 more than sculptors, and of course have less sub- 
 jections. Raphael, in a certain sense, only multi- 
 plied the taste of the ancients of the second order, 
 by uniting it with a certain truth of which sculpture 
 has not availed, either from rule or from taste, of 
 all sorts of proportions, without being able to decide 
 if one were better than another ; and I know some 
 of his figures, which have little more than six heads 
 and an half; a proportion which would not be 
 sufferable in any other than Raphael. 
 
 "The structure of the human body has such a 
 symmetry, that it gives the idea of its motion, and 
 this concordance of members is such, that to be able 
 to produce that effect, one has to observe, what is 
 called correctness of design. I shall therefore pro- 
 ceed to treat of this succinctly, proposing that which 
 one ought to do to obtain it. 
 
 " The figure which one would wish to make being 
 determined, one may design the head o£ the size 
 one likes, observing, notwithstanding, for a rule, 
 that the smallest head a painting admits of, is the 
 ninth part of the figure, and the largest is a sixth 
 part ; these two dimensions are the two extremes ; 
 the general size being of an eighth or a seventh 
 part of the figure. The neck should then be 
 made equal to half of the head" (vol. ii. ch. xii. 
 p. 159). 
 
 Mengs held that the affections of man may be 
 discovered by every sort of external sign ; that an 
 emotion cannot occur in man without exciting a 
 corresponding motion. He points out that the 
 
MIND EXPRESSED IN THE FACE. 313 
 
 descriptions given of the proportions of the human 
 body do not agree. 
 
 Some points in favour of the study of nerve- 
 muscular conditions of the face are illustrated by 
 the passive, expressionless face which may be woke 
 up, "lighted up," made to express "the whole soul 
 in the face" simply by conditions of tension of 
 the facial muscles resulting from the mental state. 
 Thus often great and most pleasing beauty is seen 
 in faces unattractive when at rest. Conversely 
 some faces are beautiful in their passive condition, 
 but lack expression and interest when in action 
 from mental work; such women talk but little. 
 Surely from these two considerations it is sug- 
 gested that the passive form and colour of a face 
 are qualities not as great, not as much mind-indi- 
 cating, as the mobile expressions produced by 
 muscular tension. 
 
 Possibly we may for a moment be allowed to 
 step out of our groove and see how education, and 
 thoughts and habits of thought, and feeling, im- 
 planted in the individual can and do produce an 
 effect on the individual's higher nerve-centres ; for 
 certainly direct observation shows that these prin- 
 ciples, these forces or modes of force, alter the facial 
 expression. 
 
 It is presumed that in composing and executing 
 a work of art the object is to give expression and 
 beauty to the whole. The expression, to tell its 
 tale to the looker-on at the picture, must be more or 
 less true to nature. The beauty of the picture is 
 not a quality of the picture merely; it is such a 
 15 
 
314 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 quality in the picture as shall excite in the average 
 or particular observer the sensation, feeling, or emo- 
 tion of beauty. Sir Charles BeU * says, " In proceed- 
 ing to define beauty, all that writers on art have 
 been able to affirm is, that it is the reverse of 
 deformity. Albert Diirer so expressed himself. If 
 we intend the representation of beauty, then let 
 us mark deformity, and teach ourselves to avoid 
 it. The more remote from deformity, the nearer 
 the approach to beauty." Bell tells us, on the 
 next page, that Leonardo da Vinci searched for 
 ugliness. 
 ^ I would submit the proposition that the posture 
 of every member of the body, in a drawing or 
 sculpture, should be such as would in nature be 
 produced in the subject under the circumstances 
 represented or supposed in the composition. 
 
 Again, it is not allowable to use a posture at 
 haphazard. The nervous hand should not be used 
 except when the subject is weak with some degree 
 of excitement or irritability ; it should not be used 
 as a posture merely to represent beauty, and should 
 seldom be represented in men. It should never 
 appear in a subject coincidently with signs of 
 strength and energy ; a nervous hand at the end of 
 a strong arm would produce a most curious and 
 grotesque appearance. 
 
 A head posture with slight rotation and inclina- 
 tion is appropriate to a subject directing the head 
 towards an object on the side of rotation below the 
 level of the head, or to a female subject with slight 
 * Op. cit, p. 21. 
 
THE HAND FREE AND IMPRESSIVE. 315 
 
 weakness, but is inappropriate to sternness and 
 defiance. 
 
 A not uncommon hand posture is the closed fist, 
 or some modification of the convulsive hand, but 
 this is inappropriate to the expression of rest. A 
 slight modification of the convulsive hand is ex- 
 pressive of slight " shock " or terror, as in the piece 
 of sculpture called "You Dirty Boy;" but "the 
 hand in fright " is, I think, the outcome of terror. 
 
 It is to the free or disengaged hand that we must 
 look for examples illustrating the condition of the 
 brain which governs it. If the muscles be employed 
 in some definite work, such as holding an object, or 
 ia an act of manipulation such as sewing, then the 
 movements are directed to accomplish the aim 
 attempted, and are not simply indicative of the 
 condition of the brain, as may be the case with the 
 free hand when unconsciously expressing the mental 
 condition by gesticulation. When, on the contrary, 
 the hands are left free and disengaged, as the hands 
 of the orator, which unconsciously express by their 
 position, or movements, the general mental state of 
 the speaker, we have in these muscular movements 
 an expression of the man's mind. It is as reasonable 
 to look for the state of the mind to be expressed in 
 the position and action of the hand engaged in 
 definite voluntary, purposive acts, as to look for 
 expression in the face when the sun is shining full 
 in the eyes, or the lips are engaged in eating, or 
 moved with the other movements of dyspnoea. Still 
 it is true that in either case the manner of perform- 
 ing the act may be indicative of the mental state, 
 
316 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 but the muscles of the face or hand are not there 
 engaged in expressing the mental state. 
 
 In art at the present day we but seldom see the 
 hands represented as disengaged ; usually they are 
 painted or sculptured holding some object, or resting 
 on some part of the figure ; such are hands engaged 
 or resting from labour, or performing some act of 
 toU, not engaged in expressing the action of the 
 mind.* 
 
 As to the average figure-compositions produced 
 in the present time. When expression is desired, is 
 care always taken to give to the figure its due form, 
 proportions, and signs of development ; and then so 
 to compose the postures, and results of movements 
 or other indications of movements, as to express 
 something of the brain condition and mind of the 
 living subject ? 
 
 A thoroughly educated and able artist so draws 
 his figure as to show thereby what kind of man 
 he represents, and by his nerve-muscular signs 
 shows us the mood of the man at the time of 
 representation on the canvas. It is the postures 
 and results of movement that directly represent the 
 state of mind at the time. 
 
 Do most of our annual figure-pictures represent 
 brain action ? In order to give the highest effect 
 to the representation of mobile expression, some 
 parts of the figure should be left free and disengaged, 
 especially hands and face. How common it is to 
 
 * Examples of the disengaged hand are seen in the statues of 
 Oain in the Pitti, Florence ; the Venus de' Medici ; and the Diana, 
 British Museum. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF ART COMPOSITION. 317 
 
 see the hands engaged in holding some object, in 
 supporting the body, in resting upon other parts 
 of the body. Such hands are not free to express 
 the emotions; they express no other conditions 
 than fatigue, rest, sleep, etc., states of mental 
 inactivity. 
 
 I think there can be no doubt that the mobile 
 conditions of, expression, being the direct outcome 
 of brain action, are higher in artistic value than 
 mere proportions and signs of body growth ; mere 
 representations by colour effects are, I suppose, the 
 least intellectual of all art productions, but not 
 necessarily, therefore, the least pleasing. 
 
 Principles of Analysis and Composition. — Cer- 
 tain principles, derived from scientific study, may 
 be suggested to the artist as likely to be useful in 
 the analysis and composition of figures; they are 
 the same as those given in chap. ix. ; but it seems 
 convenient here to put them in the form of rules 
 and propositions. We have, then, in analyzing or 
 composing a figure, to consider the proportions of 
 the body, the more permanent and fixed conditions 
 of the body (coincident development), and also 
 the mobile expression. 
 
 The "principles" are applied to the analysis of 
 the typical postures in the tables in chap. ix. 
 
 I. "Anatomical analysis." — In any figure-draw- 
 ing the posture of every joint and part should be 
 considered, and it should be possible, not only for 
 the artist to see each posture in his imagination, 
 but the looker-on at the picture should see the 
 postures in each portion of the figure intended to 
 
318 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 be expressive, so as to be impressed by their meaning 
 and significance. 
 
 II. " Small parts contrasted with large parts." — 
 The significance of a shoulder movement differs 
 from that of a finger movement ; and a movement 
 of the eyes in the head difiers in signification from 
 a movement of the skuU (see p. 189.) 
 
 III. " Consider the different relative postures seen 
 in the large, and small joints." — In a quiet, even 
 action of the different parts of the brain and mind, 
 there would probably be a similar condition of all 
 joints; moderate flexion of all parts is the condition 
 seen in rest and in sleep. A departure from such 
 condition is therefore noteworthy and expressive. 
 
 IV. " Collateral differentiation." — Consider the 
 relative condition of posture in collateral parts, 
 whether it be similar in all the fingers, etc. Pro- 
 bably a certain amount of difference in posture, or 
 movements of the fingers, is highly expressive of 
 brain conditions — it may indicate mind or absence 
 of mind. Look at the hand postures of brain 
 disease in Fig. 16, p. 130. It is the different postures 
 of fingers that makes them look like " hands gone 
 mad." 
 
 When a nervous hand has all the knuckles over- 
 bent, the expression of nervousness is greater than 
 when only some of them are over-extended with 
 the wrist flexion, as seen in the seated figures in 
 Fig. 35, p. 300. 
 
 V. " Symmetry." — This term, as applied in art 
 literature and description, is usually employed to 
 indicate that the form of the body is alike on the 
 
ARTISTIC COMPOSITION. 319 
 
 two sides of the body. In speaking of mobile ex- 
 pressions, the term symmetry is intended to signify 
 similar movements, or similar postures as the 
 results of movements. In the Venus the hands 
 are. symmetrical, though the arms are not symme- 
 trical. Thus we speak of symmetry of action when 
 the limbs on each side move alike. 
 
 VI. "Excitation of weak centres." — A certain 
 amount of mental excitement is expressed by the 
 over-action of small muscles. Thus the backward 
 extension of the fingers in Venus, and the straight 
 extension of the fingers in Cain, show mental ex- 
 citement. In the face the action of the small 
 corrugator muscles of the forehead shows mental 
 excitement; contrast this with the animal spirits 
 expressed by the action of the larger (zygomatic) 
 muscles used in grinning. 
 
 VII. "General excitement or weakness." — If a 
 similar condition of excitement or weakness afiect 
 the body generally the stronger flexor muscles 
 prevail. Hence, in convulsion, the hand is clenched, 
 " the convulsive hand ; " the same action is seen in 
 strong passion. 
 
 If all the muscles are similarly relaxed, as in 
 sleep, the stronger prevail, hence flexion results. 
 In rest the hand is partially flexed. 
 
 VIII. and IX. " Analogy " and " Antithesis " are 
 principles that will, I think, often assist in com- 
 position. 
 
 In a piece of sculpture exhibited at the Royal 
 Academy, a child's hands were represented with 
 the fingers flexed and the thumbs turned in — a 
 
320 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 posture very analogous to what would be seen if 
 the child were going off into a fit. This analogy was 
 not pleasing. In the admirable piece of statuary 
 executed for Messrs. Pears and Co., and exhibited 
 by them at the Paris Exhibition, the " Dirty Boy " 
 does not like being washed ; he rebels against it, 
 and would escape if he could. The free hand is 
 very expressive : the knuckles are somewhat flexed 
 though the fingers are straight, and the thumb is 
 strongly pressed against the index finger. This 
 posture is so analogous to the convulsive hand as 
 to express well the semi-convulsive condition of 
 the boy. 
 
 Antagonistic conditions of the mind are probably 
 often indicated by antithetical postures. 
 
 Fig. 45.— Showing Facial Zones. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 LITEEATUEE. 
 
 Bulwer — Hartley — Gregory — Camper — Blane — Marshall Hall — 
 Tyndall — C. Darwin — Bibliography, with dates. 
 
 In looking over the writings of some authors on 
 subjects cognate to that of the present work, 
 there appears to be abundant evidence, in the few 
 extracts here made, that some of them are in accord 
 with the general principles expressed in this volume, 
 although, of course, they are not enunciated in the 
 same way, owing to the present advanced condition 
 of knowledge in cognate matters. If it can be 
 shown that the methods of inquiry now proposed 
 are in unison with the thoughts of men long past, 
 but whose works are still of value, it appears to 
 me that the probability of useful results following 
 from such work is strengthened. 
 
 Bulwer* says, "Being their motions, then, are 
 diametrically opposite, so are their significations; 
 for if we use, as we do, the flexion of the Head to 
 show our assent, and that properly according to 
 the universal intention of Nature; the contrary 
 
 * Bulwer, op. ciL, p. 56. 
 
322 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 motion to that must as naturally imply dislike, or 
 dissent, or resentTnent." 
 
 "And wlio, I pray you, that is well versed in 
 Philosophy, does affect to behold the cold effects of 
 common Actions, without a Discourse of their causes 
 and intrinsicaU Agents, the Soule and the Muscles ? 
 Since that is familiar to Sense, and so by con- 
 sequence to Beasts. But this is subjected to the 
 Intellect, to-wit, the InternaU Principal of man, 
 wherefore we will think it a thing worthy to be 
 corrected with the whip of Ignorance, if any rashly 
 plunge himself into the Muscular Sea of Corporal 
 Anatomy, or of the outward man, without any 
 mention of the InternaU man, since the Soule only is 
 the Opifex of all the movings of the Muscles, whose 
 invisible Acts are made manifest by their operations 
 in those parts into which they are inserted. Not 
 that any perfection or exact knowledge of this 
 nature can be acquired ; since the wisdome of the 
 Creator in the fearefuU and wonderfuU structure of 
 the Head is not yet fully found out, although it has 
 beene sought after by illustrious men, with much 
 Piety and Deligence " (Introductory chapter, p. 10). 
 
 " Of the Muscles serving to the generall expres- 
 sions, or most important motions of the Face or 
 Countenance. 
 
 " Many are the affections of the Mind that appeare 
 in the significant motions of the Face, even when 
 the Bones are at rest ; for whereas some parts of 
 our skin are altogether immovable and pertinacious 
 in their circumduction over the subjacent parts; 
 other parts thereof vei-satile indeed, but they are 
 
JOHN BULWEK. 323 
 
 Dot actuated with any voluntary motion : the skin 
 of the whole Face participates of motion, which 
 being voluntary, does necessarily imply the use of 
 Muscles, by whose benefit those motions should be 
 orderly and significantly performed " (p. 97, No. ii.). 
 
 " But in the face, it hath a publique and locall 
 motion that is most Emphatically significant, where- 
 in the perturbf^tions of the Mind discover themselves, 
 being moved in the Face by the streighfc annexion 
 to Muscles, which are the organs of voluntary 
 motion ; for. Nature would have so ordered, that by 
 the benefit of certaine Muscles working under the 
 skin, and afiiecting the parts of the Face, (being all 
 of them furnished in their originals with Nerves 
 from the third Conjugation of Nerves that come 
 from the Braine) Man with his very Countenance 
 alone, should expressse all his Will, Mind, and Desire, 
 when at any time it happened to be inconvenient 
 or unlawful to open it in words at length " (p. 101). 
 
 "All the outward expressions we have or can 
 make, ai-e performed by motion, and therefore 
 signifie the affections of the mind, which are 
 motions ; the moving of the instruments and parts, 
 answering in a kind of semblance and representa- 
 tive proportion, to the Tnotions of the mind " (p. 4). 
 
 "Now the Braine is the Universall organ of 
 voluntarie motion, the great mysterie whereof is 
 thus ordered. The Braitie commandeth as soone as 
 it hath judged whether the thing is to be avoided 
 or prosecuted " (p. 13). 
 
 " You shall find in it that which I use to call the 
 clock work of the Head, or the Springs and inward 
 
324 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 Contrivance of Instruments of all our outward 
 motions, which give motion and regulate the Dyall 
 of the Affections, which Nature hath placed in 
 the face of Man ; Being a New Light, and the first 
 Irradiation which ever appeared through the Dis- 
 sections of a Corporeal Phylosophy" (Dedicatory, 
 p. 2). 
 
 "The whole head with its comprised parts, by 
 the benefit of certain Muscles might be enabled to 
 move, and by imotion, to expresse the afiections of 
 the mind" (p. 51). 
 
 "Having resolved to trace the Discoursing 
 Actions of the Head to their Spring and Principle 
 upon which their outward significations depend; 
 when I had passed the superficial parts, and digged 
 a little more than stin-deepe into the Minerall of 
 Cephalicall Motion; I came to the Muscles, the 
 instruments of voluntary motion; or the instru- 
 ments of those motions that are done by an earnest 
 affection, that is, from an inward principle. The 
 effects of whose moving significantly appeare in 
 the parts moved, when by an arbitrary motion we 
 freely reject or embrace things understood (not 
 with our minde only, but with our mind and body 
 both) " (p, 4). 
 
 " There hath not been any one who. Data Opera, 
 had undertaken a generall Survey and Cognomina- 
 tion of the muscles of the Body, as they are the 
 necessary Instruments of all those motions of the 
 Mind, which are apparently expressed and made 
 manifest by the effect of their use and moving in 
 all the parts of the Body ; although more Emphatic- 
 
JOHN BULWER— HAETLEY. 325 
 
 ally, by those operations they have in the Head 
 and the most remarkable parts thereof" (A. 3). 
 
 " When we lightly dislike, refuse, deny, or resent 
 a thing, we use a cast up backward Nod of our 
 Head, a motion diametrically opposite to the 
 forward motion of assent ; and this signification of 
 the mind is performed by the extension of the 
 Head" (p. 54). 
 
 Bulwer (pp. 56 and 54) suggests the principle 
 of antithesis. He saw that movements, or nerve- 
 muscular signs, are indices of the brain condition 
 which accompanies mental states (see p. 4). 
 
 Hartley,* in his " Theory of the Human Mind," 
 writes (p. 31): "Association not only converts 
 automatic actions into voluntary, but voluntary 
 ones into automatic. For these actions, of which 
 the mind is scarce conscious, and which follow 
 mechanically, as it were, some precedent diminutive 
 sensation, idea, or motion, and without any efibrt 
 of the mind, are rather to be ascribed to the body 
 than the mind ; i.e. are to be referred to the head 
 of automatic motions. I shall call them automatic 
 motions of the secondary kind, to distinguish them 
 both from those which are originally automatic, and 
 from the voluntary ones ; and shall now give a few 
 instances of this double transmutation of motions, 
 viz. of automatic into voluntary, and of voluntary 
 into automatic. The fingers of young children 
 bend upon almost every impression which is made 
 upon the palm of the hand, thus performing the 
 action of grasping, in the original automatic manner. 
 
 * Edition by Joseph Priestley, F.E.S., 1775. 
 
326 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 (a) After a sufficient repetition of the motions which 
 concur in this action their ideas are associated 
 strongly with other ideas, the most common of 
 which, I suppose, are those excited by the sight 
 of a favourite plaything which the child uses to 
 grasp and hold in his hand. He ought, therefore, 
 according to the doctrine of association, to perform 
 and repeat the action of grasping upon having such 
 a plaything presented to his sight. But it is a 
 known fact that children do this. By pursuing 
 the same method of reasoning, we may see how, 
 after a sufficient repetition of the proper associa- 
 tions, the sound of the words grasp, take, hold, etc., 
 the sight of the nurse's hand in a state of con- 
 traction, the idea of a hand, and particularly of the 
 child's own hand, in that state, and innumerable 
 other associated circumstances, i.e. sensations, ideas, 
 and motions, will put the child upon grasping, till 
 at last, that idea or state of mind, which we may 
 call the will to grasp, is generated, and sufficiently 
 associated with the action to produce it instan- 
 taneously. It is, therefore, perfectly, voluntary in 
 this case ; and by the innumerable repetitions of it 
 in this perfectly voluntary state, it comes at last 
 to obtain a sufficient connection with so many 
 diminutive sensations, ideas, and motions as to follow 
 them in the same manner as originally automatic 
 actions do the corresponding sensations, and con- 
 sequently to be automatic secondarily. And, in 
 the same manner, may aU the actions performed 
 with the hands be explained, all those that are 
 very similar in life passing from the original auto- 
 
HARTLEY — GEEGORY. 327 
 
 inatic state through the several degrees of volun- 
 tariness till they become perfectly voluntary, and 
 then repassing through the same degrees in an 
 inverted order, till they become secondarily auto- 
 matic on many occasions, though stiU perfectly 
 voluntary on some, viz. whensoever an express act 
 of the will is exerted." 
 
 "I will here, add Sir Isaac Newton's words, con- 
 cerning sensation and voluntary motion, as they 
 occur at the end of his Principia, both because 
 they first led me into this hypothesis, and because 
 they flow from it as a corollary. He affirms, then, 
 ' both that all sensation is performed, and also the 
 limbs of animals moved in a voluntary manner, by 
 the power and actions of a very subtle spirit ; i.e. 
 by the vibrations of this spirit, propagated through 
 the solid capillaments of the nerves from the ex- 
 ternal organs of the senses to the brain, and from 
 the brain into the muscles.' " * 
 
 Hartley refers to consciousness as an item in the 
 voluntary character of certain movements. He 
 also refers to the movements of young children as 
 being at first automatic, then voluntary, giving out 
 the idea that the study of infantile movements is 
 a basis for the study of mind. 
 
 Gregory, in his work entitled "A Comparative 
 View of the State and Faculties of Man with those 
 of the Animal World," writes (p. 4) : " Enquiries 
 into the structure of the Human body have, indeed, 
 been prosecuted with great diligence and accuracy. 
 But this was a matter of no great difficulty. It 
 
 * TIartley, op. cit., p. 39, Cor. 4. 
 
328 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 required only labour and a steady hand. The 
 subject was permanent ; the Anatomist could fix it 
 in any position, and make what experiments on 
 it he pleased. 
 
 " The Human Mind, on the other hand, is an 
 object extremely fleeting, not the same in any two 
 individuals, and ever varying even in the same 
 person. To trace it through its almost endless 
 varieties, requires the most profound and extensive 
 knowledge, and the most piercing and collected 
 genius. But tho' it be a matter of great diiS- 
 culty to investigate and ascertain the laws of the 
 mental constitution, yet there is no reason to 
 doubt, however fluctuating as it may seem, of its 
 being governed by laws as fixt and invariable as 
 those of the Material System. It has been the 
 misfortune of most of those who have study'd the 
 philosophy of the Human Mind, that they have 
 been little acquainted with the structure of the 
 Human Body, and with the laws of the Animal 
 CEconomy; and yet the Mind and Body are so 
 intimately connected, and have such a mutual in- 
 fluence on one another, that the constitution of 
 either, examined apart, can never be thoroughly 
 understood. For the same reason it has been an 
 unspeakable loss to Physicians, that they have been 
 so generally inattentive to the peculiar laws of the 
 Mind, and to their influence on the Body. 
 
 "A late celebrated professor of Medicine in a 
 neighbouring nation, who, perhaps, had i-ather a 
 clear and methodical head, than an extensive genius 
 or enlarged views of Nature, wrote a System of 
 
UREGOKY, 329 
 
 Physic, wherein he seems to have considered Man 
 entirely as a Machine, and makes a feeble and vain 
 attempt to explain all the Phenomena of the 
 Animal (Economy, by mechanical and chymical 
 principles alone. Stahl, his cotemporary and rival, 
 who had a more enlarged genius, and penetrated 
 more deeply into Nature, added the consideration 
 of the sentient principle, and united the philosophy 
 of the Human Mind with that of the Human Body : 
 but the luxuriancy of his imagination often be- 
 wildered him, and the perplexity and obscurity of 
 his style occasion his writings to be little read and 
 less understood. 
 
 "Besides these, there is another cause which 
 renders the knowledge of Human Nature very lame 
 and imperfect, which we propose more particularly 
 to enquire into. 
 
 " Man has been usually considered as a Being 
 that had no analogy to the rest of the Animal 
 Creation. The comparative anatomy of brute 
 Animals hath indeed been cultivated with some 
 attention; and hath been the source of the most 
 useful discoveries in the anatomy of the Human 
 Body. But the comparative Animal (Economy of 
 Mankind and other Animals, and comparative Views 
 of their states and manner of life, have been little 
 regarded. The pride of Man is alarmed, in this case, 
 with too close a comparison, and the dignity of 
 philosophy will not easily stoop to receive a lesson 
 from the instinct of Brutes. But this conduct is 
 very weak and foolish. Nature is a whole, made 
 up of parts, which, though distinct, are yet inti- 
 
330 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 mately connected with one another. This con- 
 nection is so close, that one species often runs into 
 another so imperceptibly, that it is difficult to say 
 where the one begins and the other ends. This is 
 particularly the case with the lowest of one species, 
 and the highest of that immediately below it. On 
 this account no one link of the great chain can be 
 perfectly understood, without the knowledge, at 
 least, of the links that are nearest to it." 
 
 "The active principle is so vigorous and over- 
 flowing in a Child, that it loves to be in perpetual 
 motion itself, and to have every object around it in 
 motion. This exuberant activity is given it for the 
 wisest purposes, as it has more to do and more to 
 learn in the first three years of its life than it has 
 in thirty years of any future period of it. But 
 that lively and restless spirit, which in infancy 
 seemed to animate everything around it, gradually 
 contracts itself, as the Child advances in Life, nature 
 requiring no more motion than is necessary for its 
 preservation, and sinks at last into that calm and 
 stillness which close the latter daj'^s of human 
 life" (p. 61). 
 
 Gregory speaks of the human mind as an object 
 extremely fleeting and ever varying. He believed it 
 to be governed by laws as fixed and invariable as 
 those of the material system. Gregory thought 
 that an inquiry as to mind, should embrace con- 
 siderations concerning other living beings in nature 
 besides man. It would appear that one of the great 
 difficulties that he saw in the way of the study of 
 mind was the fleeting character of its signs, or 
 
camper's lectures.. 331 
 
 manifestations. If those signs can be permanently 
 recorded, and automatically enumerated, this ob- 
 jection seems greatly lessened. 
 
 Camper* thus wrote: "An oppressed, sorrowful, 
 and melancholy person, lets his head sink down- 
 wards, or he supports it with his hand ; the equipoise 
 is no longer maintained by the muscles of the neck ; 
 that is, the nei'ves belonging to those muscles are 
 rendered inert. 
 
 " A lively contented laugher, on the other hand, 
 raises his head, and his breast is agitated. In the 
 excess of his emotion, he places both his hands to 
 his sides, as it were to support his body. At length 
 his legs begin to refuse their office, and he would 
 fall to the ground if the fit continued. 
 
 "A person in the impetus of rage, beats with 
 hands and feet, stamps till the ground shakes under 
 him ; and his face is convulsed in a thousand forms. 
 
 " Deep reverence makes the tongue to falter, an 
 inward trembling impedes the motion of the body ; 
 the most lively and expressive eyes are abashed, 
 and look downwards ; the heart flutters ; if shame 
 accompany this emotion, as is frequently the case, 
 the face, neck, and breast are immediately painted 
 of a crimson colour. 
 
 "It would be endless to particularize every 
 emotion in a similar manner. The observation 
 deducible from these effects is, that in every 
 emotion of the mind particular nerves are afiected ; 
 . . . orators and public actors have the superior 
 advantage of giving the greatest force to the 
 
 • " On Painting, Sculpture, etc.," p. 129. 
 
332 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 expressions of the features, by exciting requisite 
 movements in the parts themselves.'' 
 
 Camper is one of the writers wlip fully recognized 
 the significance of nerve-muscular signs as means 
 of expression. 
 
 Sir Gilbert Blane* in his Croonian Lecture, 
 delivered before the Royal Society, says (p. 233) : 
 
 " So far as we know, either from actual observa- 
 tion, or from analogy, there does not exist in nature 
 any such thing as absolute rest ; for when we con- 
 template the motions of the earth and heavenly 
 bodies, the various complications of the planetary 
 revolutions in their rotation round their own axes, 
 and in the paths of their orbits, in the irregularities 
 arising from the disturbances of their mutual 
 gravitation, and from the precession of the 
 equinoxes, not to mention the influence of the 
 innumerable sidereal systems upon each other, it 
 may be affirmed, on incontestable principles, that no 
 particle of matter ever was, or will be, for two 
 instants of time, in the same place, and that no 
 particle of it ever has returned, or will return, to 
 any one point of absolute space which it has ever 
 formerly occupied. Whether motion, therefore, can 
 strictly be called an essential property of matter or 
 not, it is, certainly, by the actual constitution of 
 nature, originally and indefeasibly impressed upon 
 it ; and as rest does not exist in nature, but may be 
 considered in a vulgar sense, as a fallacy of the 
 senses, and in a philosophical sense, as an abstraction 
 
 * " Select Dissertations on several Subjects of Medical Science." 
 1822. 
 
SIR GILBERT BLANE. 333 
 
 of the mind, it follows, that what is called the vis 
 inerticB of matter, is not a resistance to a change 
 from rest to motion or from motion to rest, but a 
 resistance to acceleration or retardation, or to 
 change of direction. If it should be alleged, that 
 any given particle or portion of matter is carried 
 along by value of the motion of the planet to which 
 it belongs, it may be answered, that the earth or 
 any other planet is nothing more than a congeries 
 of such particles, each of which must possess a share 
 of the same energy which animates the whole 
 mass." 
 
 " I have already acknowledged my ignorance of 
 the manner in which stimuli in general operate, 
 and that this must be admitted as an ultimate fact 
 in nature. But the operation of the will through 
 the nerves, seems involved in double obscurity; 
 for as it depends on the nature of thought, it can- 
 not be made a subject of experimental investigation. 
 For this reason I shall decline the enquiry, as not 
 being adapted to the ends of this Society : and it 
 seems impossible for human sagacity to penetrate 
 the connection of matter with sensation and volition. 
 All such attempts have consisted of abortive and 
 unsatisfactory inferences drawn from hypothetical 
 assumptions. The properties of different bodies, in 
 relation to each other, appear to be the only proper 
 subjects of experimental reasoning; for, in their 
 relation to the mind, they are only the effects, 
 perhaps the remote effects, of their intimate nature 
 upon the senses ; and we may venture to affirm that 
 human reason can no more fathom the connection 
 
334 PHYSICAL EXPEESSION. 
 
 of thought with the corresponding changes in the 
 corporeal organs, than the eye can see itself" 
 (p. 258). 
 
 " Not to mention the well-known effects of grief, 
 fear and joy, which affect the whole circulation, 
 there are certain passions and sentiments which 
 produce partial and local effects. 
 
 "Fear produces debility, almost amounting to 
 palsy. Courage and ardor of mind, on the contrary, 
 adds to the natural strength. When the mind is 
 agitated by some interesting object, and calls upon 
 the body for some extraordinary exertion to effect 
 its end, the muscles are thereby enabled, as it were 
 by magic, to perform acts of strength, of which they 
 would be entirely incapable in cold blood. In 
 circumstances of danger, for instance, where life or 
 honour are at stake, exertions are made in over- 
 coming mechanical resistance, which seem incredible, 
 and would be impossible, were not the mind in a 
 sort of phrenzy ! and it is truly admirable, in the 
 economy of nature, that an idea in the mind should 
 thus in a moment augment the powers of motion 
 and inspire additional resources of strength, 
 adequate to the occasional calls of life. The great 
 increase of strength in maniacs, is also referable to 
 the passions of the mind. These considerations 
 would almost lead us to doubt whether or not the 
 accounts we have of the great feats of strength 
 ascribed to individuals in the heroic ages are 
 fabulous or not " (p. 259). 
 
 " The other class of stimuli to be enumerated are 
 the external. These consist in impressions made 
 
SIR GILBERT BLANE. 335 
 
 by outward bodies. They are either immediate, 
 as in the case of those motions which are excited, 
 whether by mechanical means, or by acrimony, 
 directly and artificially applied to a muscular fibre ; 
 or they are remote, as in the various instances of 
 sympathy, and in the case of those instincts which 
 nature has implanted for the purpose of self-pre- 
 servation in brutes, and in the early part of human 
 life. I shall here confine myself to a few remarks 
 on instinct, as the other branches of this subject 
 have been fully and ably handled by those who 
 have gone before me in this Lecture. There is a 
 connection established between the impression of 
 certain external bodies and the action of certain 
 muscles, analogous to what has already been noticed 
 with regard to the internal motions excited in 
 vessels by the peculiar stirmdus of their fluids. 
 Nature having instituted certain habitudes between 
 outward stimuli and the moving powers, whereby 
 natural propensities are established equally neces- 
 sary to the support of life as the internal functions. 
 Thus, in a new-born animal, the first contact of 
 the external air excites the act of respiration, and 
 the contact of the nipple excites the act of sucking ; 
 both of which actions are absolutely necessary to 
 the maintenance of life, and require the nice co- 
 operation of a great number of muscles, prior to 
 all experience. Actions of this kind are called 
 instinctive, and differ from voluntary motions in 
 this respect, that the latter are the result of memory 
 and experience, whereas the former are the imme- 
 diate effect of external impressions, in consequence 
 
336 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 of an established law of nature, and independent 
 of consciousness. The actions of instinct and those 
 of volition, nevertheless, run imperceptibly into 
 each other, so that what was at first instinctive 
 may afterwards come to be a matter of deliberate 
 choice. The same muscles are the instruments of 
 both, and they differ from the muscles obeying the 
 internal stimAili, such as the heart, in this respect, 
 that they are liable to fatigue, and thereby concur 
 with the exercise of sensation and of thought, in 
 rendering sleep necessary. There are no muscles, 
 except those of respiration, of which the constant 
 action is necessary to life, and which are void of 
 consciousness in their ordinary exercise, but which 
 are occasionally under the control of the will. The 
 principal end answered by this power of the will 
 over the muscles of respiration in man, is to form 
 and regulate the voice. 
 
 "But though instinctive motions are in some 
 cases convertible into those which are voluntary, 
 we should be so far from confounding them, that the 
 former are even compatible with the want of con- 
 sciousness and sensation ; for those animals which 
 are destitute of brain and nerves, are capable of 
 actions analogous to the instinctive. There is 
 something very similar to this even in vegetables, 
 as in the case of tendrils and creeping plants being 
 stimulated by the contact of other bodies, to cling 
 round them in a particular direction " (p. 260). 
 
 Blane (p. 2.58) taught that will and thought 
 could not be subjects of scientific inquiry, because 
 they could not be submitted to experimentation. 
 
BLANE — MARSHALL HALL. 337 
 
 The properties of different bodies in relation to each 
 other appeared to him to be the only proper subjects 
 of experimental reasoning. If, then, we can show 
 how, under the action of various forces, the parts 
 of the brain concerned in thought act in relation 
 to each other, we may obtain some knowledge as to 
 what forces bring about that relationship, although 
 we cannot affirjn the connection of thought with 
 the corresponding changes in the corporeal organs. 
 We do not know much about heat, light, and 
 electricity, except as to their display in corporeal 
 subjects. 
 
 Blane then proceeds to describe certain means 
 of expression of the emotions by motor signs. He 
 considered that no sharp line could be drawn 
 between instinctive and voluntary actions; he 
 thought instinctive movements to be comparable 
 with movements seen in the tendrils of plants. 
 
 Marshall Hall * said, " The particular circum- 
 stances embraced in an examination of the morbid 
 states of the countenance are the changes induced 
 in the cuticular surface, the cutaneous circulation, 
 the cellular substance, the muscular system,, some 
 -particular features, and the general expression." 
 
 "§61. The state of emaciation, so important to 
 observe and trace in chronic diseases, depends on 
 the loss of cellular and muscular substance, and 
 must be always distinguished from mere vascular 
 shrinking. 
 
 " § 62. The muscular system is principally affected 
 by diseases attended with pain, languor, or paralysis." 
 
 * " The Principles of Diagnosis,'' vol. i. p. 31, prir. 58. 
 16 
 
338 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 " § 64;. Of the general expression of the coun- 
 tenance I shall rarely venture to speak. It aifords 
 an important and essential source of information in 
 Dispensary practice, § 50, and assists the experienced 
 physician in discerning the nature of the disease 
 where the superficial observer sees only the general 
 look of indisposition." 
 
 " § 121. I employ the term attitude in a rather 
 comprehensive sense, intending to embrace, under 
 this head, the consideration of the postures and 
 motions of the body, the state of Tnuscular debility, 
 power, contraction, and motion, some particular 
 actions, and the general manner of the patient." 
 
 "§ 125. Certain movements of the head, certain 
 actions of the hand, and certain peculiarities of the 
 general manner, also occur as characteristic of par- 
 ticular diseases, and will be noticed hereafter." 
 
 " § 127. In healthy and undisturbed sleep, the 
 usual posture is that on one side, the body being 
 frequently inclined rather to the prone than to the 
 supine position ; the head and shoulders are gene- 
 rally somewhat raised, and together with the thorax, 
 bent generally forwards; the thighs and legs are 
 in a state of easy flexion. The position is apt to be 
 changed from time to time, the person lying on one 
 or other side alternately." 
 
 " § 133. In the severe forms of Typhus Fever the 
 position of the patient becomes more and more 
 supine, and the actions more and more tremulous ; 
 from being able to retain the posture on the side, 
 perhaps, the patient falls upon his back, with the 
 lower extremities extended and sometimes with a 
 
MARSHALL HALL. 339 
 
 tendency to sink towards the bottom of the bed ; the 
 hands and arms are moved with effort and tremor, 
 and at length there is constant subsultus tendinum. 
 To this state, picking of the bed-clothes, or of flocci 
 volitantes, delirium, or coma, is superadded." 
 
 " § 135. As this position is occasioned by extreme 
 debility, any change of posture is of favourable 
 omen, as denoting a return of strength. The 
 patient, perhaps, raises the knees, or puts the arms 
 out of bed, or places them above his head. These 
 movements are among the first symptoms of re- 
 covery. At length the patient is capable of sup- 
 porting the position on the side — a certain mark 
 of returning muscular strength, and an indication 
 of a favourable change in the disease." 
 
 "§140. The form of tremor which I have de- 
 scribed seems to depend on muscular debility, and 
 perhaps on a morbid condition of the brain and 
 nervous system. There is a kind of tremor of a 
 more spasmodic character, which occurs from 
 various causes, and which I shall notice towards 
 the conclusion of the present chapter." 
 
 Marshall Hall studied the general appearance of 
 his patients and their various modes of expression : 
 the condition of nutrition, the attitude, postures 
 and movements of the body, the movements of the 
 head and hand. He described the position of 
 the body in sleep, in typhus fever, and in conditions 
 of debility, especially noting that in the latter 
 condition tremor was often a symptom. 
 
 Tyndall * says in his lectures : " The matter of 
 
 * "Heat a Mode of Motion," p. .501, par. 722. 
 
340 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 our bodies is that of inorganic nature. There is 
 no substance in the animal tissues which is not 
 primarily derived from the rocks, the water, and 
 the air. Are the forces of organic matter, then, 
 different in kind from those of inorganic? AU 
 the philosophy of the present day tends to nega- 
 tive the question, and to show that it is the 
 directing and compounding, in the organic world, 
 of forces belonging equally to the inorganic, that 
 constitutes the mystery and the miracle of vitality. 
 "(723.) In discussing the material combinations 
 which result in the formation of the body and the 
 brain of man, it is impossible to avoid taking side 
 glances at the phenomena of consciousness and 
 thought. Science has asked daring questions, and 
 will, no doubt, continue to ask such. Problems will 
 assuredly present themselves to men of a future 
 age, which, if enunciated now, would appear to 
 most people as the direct offspring of insanity. 
 StiU, though the progress and development oi 
 science may seem to be unlimited, there is a region 
 beyond her reach — a line with which she does not 
 even tend to osculate. Given the masses and 
 distances of the planets, we can infer the pertur- 
 bations consequent on their mutual attractions. 
 Given the nature of a disturbance in water, air, 
 or ether, we can infer from the properties of the 
 medium how its particles will be affected. In all 
 this we deal with physical laws, and the mind 
 runs freely along the line which connects the 
 phenomena from beginaing to end. But when we 
 endeavour to pass, by a similar process, from the 
 
PROFESSOR TYNDALL. 341 
 
 region of physics to that of thought, we meet a 
 problem not only beyond our present powers, but 
 transcending any conceivable expansion of the 
 powers we now possess. We may think over the 
 subject again and again, but it eludes all intel- 
 lectual presentation. The origin of the material 
 universe is equally inscrutable. Thus, having ex- 
 hausted science, and reached its very rim, the real 
 mystery of existence still looms around us. And 
 thus it will ever loom — ever beyond the bourne of 
 man's intellect — ^givir.g the poets of successive ages 
 just occasion to declare that — 
 
 " ' We are such stuff 
 As dreams are made of, and oui- little life 
 Is rounded by a sleep.' " 
 
 Professor Tyndall did not, in 1868, look hope- 
 fully forward to the possibility of an experi- 
 mental inquiry as to the causes of mentation or the 
 faculty of the brain to produce mind. I think the 
 methods of inquiry proposed in chap, xix, are 
 analogous, not to say copied from, the modes used 
 by the physicists. It may be maintained that the 
 work entitled "Heat a Mode of Motion" chiefly 
 deals with the obvious expressions of heat in a 
 manner very analogous to that in which we propose 
 to study mind, by observing and experimenting 
 with the forces producing "mentation." To illus- 
 trate this, quotations are taken from the "con- 
 tents " of the volume referred to : — 
 
 I. Instruments; II. The nature of heat; III. 
 Expansion ; IV". The Trevelyan instrument ; V. Ap- 
 plication of the dynamical theory ; VI. Convection 
 
342 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 of heated air; VII. Conduction; VIII. Cooling a 
 loss of motion ; IX. Law of diminution with the 
 distance ; X. Absorption of heat ; XIII. Discovery 
 of dark solar rays ; XIV. Dew. These are matters 
 concerning relations, time, quantity, visible pheno- 
 mena, etc. Such are the proper subjects of scientific 
 study, and such phenomena accompanying menta- 
 tion are capable of experimentation. I think, then, 
 that Professor TyndaU's remarks and his whole 
 work sustain the advisability of the work proposed 
 as a study of brain centres. 
 
 Charles Darwin gave a biographical sketch of an 
 infant in Mind, 1877. The following extracts are 
 illustrative of our subject : — 
 
 "During the first seven days various reflex 
 actions, namely sneezing, hickuping, yawning, 
 stretching, and of course sucking and screaming, 
 were well performed by my infant. On the seventh 
 day, I touched the naked sole of his foot with 
 a bit of paper, and he jerked it away, curling at the 
 same time his toes, like a much older child when 
 tickled. The perfection of these reflex movements 
 shows that the extreme imperfection of the volun- 
 tary ones is not due to the state of the muscles or 
 of the co-ordinating centres, but to that of the seat 
 of the will. At this time, though so early, it seemed 
 clear to me that a warm soft hand applied to his 
 face excited a wish to suck. This must be con- 
 sidered as a reflex or an instinctive action, for it is 
 impossible to believe that experience and association 
 with the touch of his mother's breast could so soon 
 have come into play. During the first fortnight he 
 
BIOGEAPHT OF AN INFANT — C. DAEWIN. 343 
 
 often started on hearing any sudden sound, and 
 blinked his eyes. The same fact was observed with 
 some of my other infants within the first fortnight. 
 Once, when he was sixty-six days old, I happened 
 to sneeze, and he started violently, frowned, looked 
 frightened, and cried rather badly; for an hour 
 afterwards he was in a state which would be called 
 nervous in an older person, for every slight noise 
 made him start. A few days before this same date, 
 he first started at an object suddenly seen; but for 
 a long time afterwards sounds made him start and 
 wink his eyes much more frequently than did 
 sight; thus when 114 days old, I shook a paste- 
 board box with comfits in it near his face and he 
 started, whilst the same box when empty or any 
 other object shaken as near or much nearer to his 
 face produced no effect. We may infer from these 
 several facts that the winking of the eyes, which 
 manifestly serves to protect them, had not been 
 acquired through experience. Although so sensi- 
 tive to sound in a general way, he was not able, 
 even when 124 days old, easily to recognize whence 
 a sound proceeded, so as to direct his eyes to the 
 source. . . . The movements of his limbs and body 
 were for a long time vague and purposeless, and 
 usually performed in a jerking manner; but there 
 was one exception to this rule, namely, that from 
 a very early period, certainly long before he was 
 forty days old, he could move his hands to his own 
 mouth. When seventy-seven days old, he took the 
 sucking-bottle (with which he was partly fed) in 
 his right hand, whether he was held on the left or 
 
344! PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 right arm of his nurse, and he would not take it 
 in his left hand until a week later although I tried 
 to make him do so ; so that the right hand was 
 a week in advance of the left. Yet this infant 
 afterwards proved to be left-handed, the tendency 
 being no doubt inherited — his grandfather, mother, 
 and a brother having been or being left-handed. 
 When between eighty and ninety days old, he 
 drew all sorts of object? into his mouth, and in two 
 or three weeks' time could do this with some skill ; 
 but he often first touched his nose with the object 
 and then dragged it down into his mouth." 
 
 In this description we clearly see what import- 
 ance C. Uarwin attached to movements, and to 
 movements in children as modes of expression of 
 infantile development, especially as to the nerve- 
 system and capacity for mentation. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 The following works are referred to in the text, 
 or contain matter of interest in relation to the 
 modes of expression : — 
 
 1.519, Leonardo da Vinci died this, year. His 
 "Treatise on Painting" published 1651. 
 
 1644, Bulwer, John, " Chirologia, or the' Natural 
 Language of the Hand," etc. 
 
 1649, Bulwer, John, "Pathomystomia, or a Dis- 
 section of the Significative Muscles of the Affections 
 of the Mind," etc. 
 
 1667, Le Brun, " Conferences sur I'Expression des 
 differents Caractferes des Passions." 
 
Ln'EKATUllK. 345 
 
 1747, Parsons, James, M.D., " Human Physio- 
 gnomy explained." Illustrated. This author gives 
 a list of forty -one old authors who have written on 
 Physiognomy. Philosophical Transactions, 
 
 1750, Mengs, Antony Raphael, the works of, 
 translated 1796. 
 
 1775, Hartley, "Theory of the Human Mind." 
 Edited by Joseph Priestley, F.R.S. 
 
 1777, Greg^y, John, M.D., "A Comparative 
 View of the State and Faculties of Man, with those 
 of the Animal World." Seventh edition. 
 
 1788, Blaine, Sir Gilbert, Croonian Lecture. 
 
 1792, Camper, Pierre, " Discours sur le Moyen de 
 reprdsenter les diverses Passions," etc." Illustrated. 
 
 1805, Moreau (de la Sarthe). 
 
 1807, Lavater, G., "L'Art de connaitre les 
 Hommes.'' Illustrated. 
 
 1822, Siddons, Henry, '• Practical Illustrations of 
 Gesture and Actions," from a work on the subject 
 by M. Engel, member of the Royal Academy of 
 Berlin, 
 
 Sartandifere, "Physiologic de I'Action musculaire 
 appliqu^e aux Arts d'Imitation." 
 
 1844, Bell, Sir Charles, "Anatomy and Philo- 
 sophy of Expression." Third edition. Illustrated. 
 
 1853, Little, W. J., M.D., "On Deformities." Il- 
 lustrated. 
 
 1855, Spencer, Herbert, "Principles of Psy- 
 chology." 
 
 1862, Duchenne, " M^canisme de la Physionomie 
 
 humaine." 
 
 1865, Gratiolet, "De la Physionomie." 
 
346 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 1865, Lemoine, Albert, "De la Physionomie efc 
 de la Parole." 
 
 1868, Trousseau, " Clinical Medicine.'' New Syd. 
 Soc. translation. In article on Tetany, describes 
 the " convulsive hand." 
 
 1868, Tyndall, John, " Heat a Mode of Motion." 
 Third edition. 
 
 1872, Darwin, Charles, " The Expression of the 
 Emotions in Man and Animals." Illustrated. 
 
 1872, Tuke, Daniel Hack, "Illustrations of the 
 Influence of the Mind on the Body." 
 
 1874, Marey, E. J., " Animal Mechanism." 
 
 1874, Meillet, H., "Des Deformations per- 
 manentes de la Main." Illustrated. 
 
 1876, Ferrier, David, F.R.S., " The Functions of 
 the Brain." 
 
 1877, Charcot, " Lectures on the Diseases of the 
 Nervous System." New Syd. Soc. translation. De- 
 scribes the "writing hand" in Paralysis agitans — 
 also other postures. Illustrated. 
 
 1878, Roberts, Charles, "A Manual of Anthro- 
 pometry." 
 
 1879, Lindsay, N. Lauder, M.D., "Mind in the 
 Lower Animals." With Bibliography. 
 
 1883, Romanes, George John, F.R.S,, "Mental 
 Evolution in Animals." 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 METHODS AND APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING GRAPHIC 
 RECORDS OF MOVEMENTS IN THE LIMBS, ETC., 
 AND ENUMERATING SUCH MOVEMENTS AND 
 THEIR COMBINATIONS ; PROBLEMS TO BE INVES- 
 TIGATED BY THESE METHODS. 
 
 Movement as a result of vital action is capable of physical experi- 
 mentation — Early attempts to record movements — Apparatus 
 described : the motor gauntlet ; the recording tambours ; the 
 contact-making tambour ; electrical counter ; method of using 
 the apparatus — Problems ; as to muscular twitching in exhaus- 
 tion—Movements of an infant — Inhibition by light — Measure- 
 ment of differentiation of movements — Eetentiveness — Signs 
 of emotion — Poteatiality for mind — Co-ordination — Athetosis 
 — Chorea. 
 
 Throughout this essay I have endeavoured, as 
 far as possible, to describe modes of expression in 
 terms of movements and results of movements. 
 This has been done purposely, for it has long been 
 my conviction that, of aU the results of vital action, 
 movement is the outcome or result most suitable 
 for direct experimentation. 
 
 About five years ago I commenced some experi- 
 ments with the object of producing a mechanical 
 
348 PHYSICAL EXPBESSION. 
 
 method of recording movements. At first I fixed 
 writing points to the tips of the fingers, making 
 them touch a travelling sensitive surface. This 
 was a clumsy and inefficient plan. Various 
 arrangements of tambours attached to the moving 
 parts were tried, after the methods employed by 
 M. Marey, and described in his work. 
 
 At length it occurred to me that an arrangement 
 might be used attached to the hand, but leaving 
 it free to move. 
 
 The following account was published in the 
 Bntish Medical Journal, September 22, 1883 : — 
 
 The apparatus * employed consists of — 
 
 1. A "motor" made of india-rubber to be attached 
 to the hand, one tube to each finger, or moving part 
 (Fig. 46, A, B, G, etc.). From these, pieces of thin 
 conducting-tube (a, b, c) carry air to a set of re- 
 cording tambours. 
 
 2. A frame supporting the recording tambours, 
 and electrical signals (Fig. 49). 
 
 3. A new " electrical contact-making tambour " 
 (Fig. 50). It is a modification of the Marey tam- 
 bour adapted to the purpose of actuating an 
 electrical counter. 
 
 4. An electrical counter (Fig. 51). 
 
 Now, as to the further details of each piece of 
 the apparatus and its uses. In the motor which 
 is attached to the hand (Fig. 46), the principle em- 
 ployed is as follows: — When a cylindrical tube 
 
 * Towards the expenses of this apparatus, a grant was made by 
 the British Medical Association on the recommendation of the 
 Scieutific Grants Cummittee. 
 
MOTOR GAUNTLET. 349 
 
 closed at one end is bent, flattened, or compressed, 
 its capacity is lessened, and therefore air is pressed 
 out of it and driven into the tambour with which 
 it is connected. The needle of the recording tam- 
 bour is thus moved by the bending of the tube of 
 
 I'ig. 46.— Motor Gauntlet. 
 
 the motor attached to the finger; the movement 
 of the recording needle corresponds to the move- 
 ment of the finger and the activity of that part 
 of the central nerve-mechanism which moves the 
 
350 
 
 THYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 finger. These tubes are moulded for me in soft 
 red rubber by Messrs. Warne and Co. ; they are 7f 
 
 Fig. 47.— Motor Gauntlet on Hand. 
 
 millimetres in external diameter; one end of the 
 tube, X, is pointed and pierced, the other end, Y, is 
 
APPARATUS. 351 
 
 closed by a moulded cap (Fig. 46, Y) ; and a band 
 moulded to the cap gives the means of fastening 
 the tube to the finger. These tubes are mounted 
 on a " foundation " of sheet red rubber, which is 
 fastened round the hand like a glove (see Fig, 47). 
 The arrangement represented in Fig. 48, a and b, 
 is convenient in the 'case of adults, in whom the 
 thickness of the finger makes a considerable drag 
 upon the upper surface of the tube during flexion 
 of the finger. It consists of a, pair of moulded 
 caps mounted on a ring back to back : the septum 
 between the two is divided halfway down, and the 
 lower portion is pierced, allowing air to pass from 
 
 Fig. 48.— Junctions for Motor Tubes. 
 
 one cap to the other. The band is fastened to the 
 middle of a phalanx, and, the finger-tube being cut 
 at this point, the divided ends are inserted one in 
 each cap. The whole is thus rendered air-tight, 
 and the tension of the upper surface of the tube 
 during flexion of the finger is thus relieved. 
 
 The recording tambours mounted in a frame (see 
 Fig. 49) give tracings upon a revolving cylinder, 
 showing the frequency and coincidence of the 
 
352 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPliESSION. 
 
 various movements. The electrical signals give 
 the means of marking time, indicating events, etc. 
 
 "The electrical contact-making tambour" is re- 
 presented in Fig. 50. Across the ordinary shell 
 of a Marey's tambour, a main bracket, a, a, is 
 fixed, to which three smaller ones are screwed, 
 having holes in them to take two ai-bors. One 
 
 Fig. 49. — ^Frome supporting the recording tambours, and electrical signals. 
 
 arbor, h, has a beam, d, e, with a small weight at 
 one end, e, and is connected by a short link with 
 the india-rubber head of the tambour. To the 
 other arbor, C, a block of ebonite is fixed to insulate 
 two wires, /, g, with platinum ends, which lie under 
 and nearly touch the beam d, e. Each of these 
 
CONTACT-MAKING TAMBOUR. 
 
 353 
 
 wires is connected with terminals k and i by a coil 
 of thin copper wii-e. A light bent blade-spring is 
 inserted between the ebonite block and the bracket, 
 
 to resist the motion of the arbor C. The beam 
 d, e has platinum soldered on the part where the 
 platinum ends of the wires are to touch. A ter- 
 
354 
 
 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 minal, Ic, is fixed to the main bracket. Increase 
 of air-pressure in the tambour raises one end of 
 the beam, e, and depresses the other, d, which thus 
 comes in contact with its insulated wire /, com- 
 pleting a circuit through the terminali; diminished 
 air-pressure allows the beam to move in the oppo- 
 site direction, completing a circuit through the 
 terminal h. 
 
 The instruments are made for me by Mr. W. 
 
 Fig. 51 . — Electrical Counter. 
 
 Groves, 89, Bolsover Street, W. The electrical 
 counter (Fig. 51) consists of a clock, to the pen- 
 dulum of which a small piece of soft iron, c, is 
 attached, opposite an electro-magnet, d. In use for 
 counting the movements of a finger, the conducting 
 tube (Fig. 50, I) from the finger is attached to 
 the electrical contact-making tambour. One pole 
 of a Leclanch^ battery of four cells is connected 
 
METHOD OF ENDMERATING MOVEMENTS. 355 
 
 with Ic, and a wire connects i with a in Fig. 51, 
 while h is connected with the other pole of the 
 battery. Each flexion of the finger thus allows 
 the escapement of the clock to pass one tooth, and 
 the hands indicate on the dial the number of finger- 
 flexions, and the number of times the portion of the 
 nerve-mechanism connected with the finger-flexion 
 has been in aqjiivity. 
 
 If it be desired to record by figures the number 
 of times that certain special movements (coin- 
 cidences of movement) have been made, we may 
 proceed as follows : — Let us consider only flexor 
 movements of the fingers. There are five digits; 
 it is required to count how many times each of the 
 possible combinations of flexion of the five digits 
 occurs. There are thirty-two such possible com- 
 binations of fiexion. Let the digits be called A, 
 B, C, D, E; there are thirty-two possible combi- 
 nations of these five factors, viz. ABODE, AB, 
 ABO, ABODE, etc. Now, by the following method, 
 it is possible to show, on thirty-two counters, how 
 many times each of these possible combinations 
 of finger-flexion has occurred in a given length 
 of time. 
 
 Say it is desired to make a counter enumerate 
 how many times the digits A and B have flexed 
 together. The conducting tubes from the fingers 
 A, B are to be connected each with a contact-tam- 
 bour; then, by making the electrical connection 
 between these as indicated in Fig. 50, and includ- 
 ing the counter in the circuit, that counter will be 
 actuated every time that the fingers A, B bend 
 
356 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 together, and will enumerate how many times this 
 special combination of movements has occurred. 
 
 This apparatus has been used, and results have 
 been obtained, but the labour of obtaining results 
 is very great. During the last year I have been 
 endeavouring to make the apparatus more complete 
 and more serviceable. I am replacing all electrical 
 apparatus by pneumatic mechanism, as being 
 simpler ; numerous causes of delay have arisen, but 
 when the whole is completed a full account will 
 be published. Experiments are arranged for 
 recording the movements of the eyes, head, and 
 fontanelle, but they are not completed. As to the 
 uses of this means of investigatiag the nerve- 
 centres, I will state the propositions and problems, 
 and say how I propose to follow out such inquiries. 
 
 As to the problems, and how to work at them. 
 
 In each case, for the sake of simplicity, we will 
 suppose hand movements, and the nerve-centres 
 causing them, to be the subjects of inquiry. 
 
 (1) In exhaustion, finger twitching is some- 
 times an expression of the condition. Here the 
 number of finger twitchings in a given period of 
 time, say one hour, may be counted; we can 
 enumerate the frequency with which each separate 
 finger has moved, and also the frequency with 
 which any combination of fingers twitched to- 
 gether. The external circumstances may be varied ; 
 say the enumerations are taken for half an hour 
 while the subject is alone and unoccupied, then 
 during half an hour whUe he is engaged in con- 
 
PROBLEMS. 357 
 
 versation. We can thus obtain some information 
 as to the effect of conversation upon the nerve- 
 centres of an exhausted man. Conversation may 
 excite or inhibit the separate discharges of the 
 nerve-centres, and may cause them to occur in 
 larger or smaller combinations; experiment alone 
 can demonstrate these points. 
 
 (2) The amqjint of spontaneous finger movements 
 in an infant may be similarly demonstrated by 
 enumeration and by graphic records. 
 
 (3) The effects of the sight and sound of objects 
 upon the action of the nerve-centres, and particu- 
 larly the effect in producing special combinations 
 of movements, will be shown best by taking tracings 
 of those movements. The time of the sight of an 
 object, or of hearing a sound, is easily indicated 
 on the tracing by the action of an electrical signal. 
 The inhibitory action of light upon the spontaneous 
 movements of an infant is shown by a tracing (see 
 Fig. 9, p. 101). 
 
 (4) Applying motor tubes over all the joints 
 of the upper extremity, and enumerating the 
 movements, will show (a) the relative frequency 
 of movement of large parts as compared with small 
 joints; (6) if tracings be taken, the frequency of 
 interdifferentiation of movements will be demon- 
 strated ; that is, the frequency with which fingers 
 move without the elbow, or vice versa, etc. 
 
 (5) Retentiveness, or permanent impressionability, 
 is best demonstrated by the graphic method. If 
 the same stimulus on different occasions produces 
 similar movements, we may conclude that the 
 
358 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 nerve-mechanism is retentive, and is not very 
 changeful. 
 
 (6) Special combinations of movements, as the 
 outcome of certain brain conditions or emotions, 
 may be demonstrated by enumeration or by the 
 graphic method. A series of movements vfould 
 best be demonstrated by the graphic method. 
 Thus, I think that some of the signs of general 
 brain conditions may be recorded by numbers, 
 with as much accuracy as the temperature of the 
 body, which is one sign of fever, and can be recorded 
 by the thermometer. 
 
 (7) All those signs in an infant which show its 
 capacity for the development of mind, in as far 
 as mind is expressed in movements, might be 
 recorded by the graphic method in terms of lines, 
 and enumerated in figures corresponding to isolated 
 movements and combinations of movements. By 
 repeating the examinations at different ages and 
 under various external circumstances, expressions 
 may be obtained, in terms of lines and figures, 
 indicating the evolution of the physical indications 
 of mind. At the same time, it would be easy to 
 observe the effects of external circumstances upon 
 this evolution. 
 
 (8) A very interesting question is to find out how 
 co-ordination of movements is brought about. A 
 co-ordinated movement is a series of movements, 
 a series of combinations of movements, and single 
 movements. A series of movements can be recorded 
 by the graphic method ; the time of each movement 
 is indicated by the tracing, and the time of the 
 
PROBLEMS FOE SOLUTION. 359 
 
 action of external forces, such as seeing a light, 
 may be marked on the same paper by one of the 
 electrical signals. 
 
 Here, then, there seems to be data for observations 
 as to the production of co-ordination by external 
 forces. 
 
 To give an example in detail. Take a healthy 
 active infant, j5ix months old. Adapt the motor 
 gauntlet to its hand, and make connections with 
 the other part of the apparatus. Take tracings 
 of the movements, and enumerate them and their 
 combinations. 
 
 Now show the child an orange; let the light 
 reflected by the orange fall well within its field 
 of vision. Note the time of showing the orange 
 upon the tracing, by means of one of the electrical 
 signals. The co-ordinated movements of the infant's 
 fingers, wrist, and elbow are indicated by the 
 recording points. If aU the fingers flex together 
 the combination of that special set of movements 
 will be recorded by the enumerator for that special 
 combination of finger movements. Repeating the 
 experiment several times, we shall find out whether 
 this special combination of movements occurs more 
 frequently and certainly upon the stimulus of being 
 shown the orange, than it does in simple spon- 
 taneous movements of the fingers. A nurse would 
 say the child's attention is attracted by the orange 
 when it sees it. If after many such trials on many 
 days the special movements of the hands occur with 
 greater certainty and quickness on seeing the orange, 
 the nurse would say that the infant has learnt to 
 
360 PHYSICAL EXPRESSION. 
 
 know or recognize the orange, that it remembers 
 the orange, — and so it is. 
 
 The growing power of co-ordination of move- 
 ments is expressed by the enumeration of certain 
 movements counting a higher figure during that 
 period of time in which the infant has often been 
 shown the orange. 
 
 Enumeration will show the increasing co-ordina- 
 tion; tracings wiU. show the interval of time be- 
 tween the stimulation and the co-ordination of 
 movements resulting. 
 
 If instead of making observations on a healthy 
 child, with a healthy brain, the experiment be 
 made on one whose brain was defective at birth, 
 we may get very different results. A special 
 feature of the spontaneous movements of an idiot 
 consists in the repetition of a very few combinations, 
 occurring over and over again, in monotonous and 
 useless succession. Such movements are seen in 
 the condition termed athetosis (see chap. vi.). 
 
 By saying that these combinations of movements 
 are useless, I mean they are not excited by external 
 stimuli directly, and are not in unison with, and 
 do not vary with the external stimuli, and so they 
 are useless to the individual. Such a child, owing 
 to its defective brain, would give results on our 
 enumerators showing that certain combinations 
 only, occur with a high degree of frequency. Other- 
 wise expressed, we may say that the high degree 
 of frequency of a very few combinations of move- 
 ments, together with the fact that these combina- 
 
STUDY OF CHOREA. 361 
 
 tions are not readily changeable by the action of 
 external stimuli, indicate the brain defect. 
 
 In studing chorea by these methods, it has been 
 possible to show that cases differ from one another 
 in the character of the movements ; in some cases 
 the movements are singularly simple, in others each 
 gross movement is compounded of several smaller 
 ones. Again, it has been possible to show what 
 causes increase or diminish the amount of move- 
 ment in a limb; the effects of talking to the 
 patient, keeping her in darkness, making her sit 
 up in bed, etc., in as far as these circumstances 
 affect movement can be investigated. Tracings 
 have been taken showing ankle-clonus; senile 
 tremor; movements of the sternum in health and 
 in chorea; the movements of athetosis, and those 
 due to the sucking of an infant, etc. ; the move- 
 ments of the limbs due to pulsation. 
 
 I. trust that in this chapter it has been shown 
 that there is reason for trying to describe brain 
 conditions in terms of movements and the results 
 of movements, inasmuch as these signs are capable 
 of observation and experimental inquiry. I cannot 
 tell what results may come from such work, but, 
 as previously said, it was undertaken with the 
 desire to determine what forces are necessary to aid 
 brain development, such as is necessary to the 
 ■ mental and moral evolution of the child. 
 
 17 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Absence of movements expressive, 227, 
 263 
 
 Action described as a scries of move- 
 ments, 70 
 
 Isinctic, 45 
 
 trophic, 33 
 
 Activity, expression of, 233 
 
 Actor on stage, 40 
 
 Afferent force eliciting expression, 37, 
 
 Amoeba described, 83 
 Analogy between chorea and move- 
 ments in plants, 111 
 
 between series of trophic and 
 
 kinetic actions, 278 
 Analysis of expression, 255, 257 
 
 of movements, 75 
 
 Anatomical analysis of movements, 
 79 
 
 — — principle of, 75 
 
 description of a movement, 75 
 
 Anatomy of head movements, 183 
 
 of the upper extremity, 155 
 
 Anger, expression of. Bain on, 50 
 
 Bell's description, 51 
 
 Siddons' description, 51 
 
 Antecedent force is indicated by every 
 
 movement, 49 
 Antithesis, principle of, 319 ; referred 
 
 to by Bulwer, 325 
 Ants lose their wings, 39 
 Anxiety, expression of, 197 
 Apparatus for a reflex action, 36 
 Army corps, its movements, 74 
 Art, average productions, 317 
 — — may teach physiology, 289 
 
 Artistic composition, 313, 317 
 
 expression by postures, 152 
 
 touch, 293 
 
 Ascidian, its nerve-mechanism, 84 
 
 Aspect of anxiety indicates a cause 
 of fear, 16 
 
 of headache, 206 
 
 Assumption that mind depends upon 
 structure, 8 
 
 Asymmetrj' of action, 78 
 
 of ears, 274 
 
 of face, 200 
 
 of movement, 78 
 
 Athetosis, 127 
 
 of face, 208 
 
 Attention attracted, 59, 249, 251 
 
 Attributes of a property, 267 
 
 of a function as modes of ex- 
 pression, 277 
 
 B 
 
 Bain, Professor, on anger, 50 
 Barrett, W. F., on the sensitive flame, 
 
 17 
 Beard, its growth at manhood, 38 
 Beauty, 313, 314 
 
 emotion of, 237 
 
 not to be represented by weak- 
 ness, 314 
 Beautiful faces, 313 
 Bee, movements of, from flower to 
 
 flower, 62 
 Bell, Sir Charles, description of anger, 
 
 51 ; of joy, 258 ; of the Dying 
 
 Gladiator, 303 
 on laughter, 52, 258 ; on the 
 
 permanent form of head in contrast 
 
 to expression, 182 
 
364 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bibliography, 344 
 
 Biography of an infaot, 342 
 
 Biology capable of advancement by 
 mathematical processes, 281 
 
 Blane, Sir Gilbert, 332 
 
 Blindness, congenital, 274 
 
 Body, proportions of, 278 
 
 Brain, areas affected in chorea, 115 
 
 disease may produce special pos- 
 tures, 169 
 
 evolution of, in child, 283 
 
 of monkey, experiments on, 86 
 
 properties necessary to menta- 
 
 I tion, 242 
 
 Bulwer, John, on art, 281 ; on move- 
 menta, 321 
 
 Cain, statue of, 301, 319 
 
 Camper, 331 
 
 his value of metaphysical reason- 
 ing, 305 
 
 on expression of joy, 307 
 
 Capacity to feel joy, 42 
 
 Cases of athetosis, 127 
 
 of coincident defective develop- 
 ment, 133 
 
 of expression from brain disease, 
 
 208 
 
 Cast of face, 21 
 
 Cave animals lose sight, 101 
 
 Cerebral facial palsy, 107 
 
 localization, 108 
 
 Change of function, 38, 39 ; in stomach, 
 39 
 
 of postures, 143 
 
 Character, judgment of, 15 
 
 Chorea, 110, 115, 361 
 
 Child at play, i'82 
 
 its impressionability, 20 
 
 study of a, 284 
 
 Children growing like parents, 285 
 
 irritable, 230 
 
 nervous, 117 
 
 Circumnutation in plants, 26, 280 
 
 City life, 62 
 
 Classification of movements, 79 
 
 • of spontaneous postures, 151 
 
 Cleft-palate, 136, 275 
 
 Chlorophyll, significance of, 22 
 
 Coincidence of action of many or of 
 few members or units, 284 
 
 Coincident development of parts, 42, 
 273 
 
 Coincident development of postures, 
 
 151 ; of head and hand, 151, 188 
 
 similar development, 273 
 
 Collateral deviation of head and eyes, 
 
 105 
 
 differentiation, 77, 179 
 
 Colour a means of expression, 27, 38 
 
 contrasted with form, 317 
 
 Coloured vision with headaches, 121 
 Combinations and sequences of action, 
 
 279 
 
 of movements, 70 
 
 Combined movements. Bain on, 235 
 Comparison of a kinetic and a trophic 
 
 series of actions, 277, 281 
 of an idiot and an intelligent man, 
 
 13 
 Complacency, Camper's description of 
 
 facial expression, 306 
 Compositiou of figure-dramngs, S13- 
 
 317 
 Compound movements, 112 
 Conflict of muscles in face expressing 
 
 emotion, 213 
 Congenital blindness, 274 
 Consciousness, 225 
 its physical indications in man, 
 
 226, 262 
 not the cause of physical pheno- 
 mena, 189, 226 
 Contempt, expression of, described by 
 
 Camper, 307 
 Co-nutrition in two subjects produces 
 
 similar proportions of growth, 286 ; 
 
 and similar series of movements, 
 
 286 
 Convulsive hand described, 156 
 Co-ordinated movements, 71 ; of eyes, 
 
 227 
 Co-ordination b}' external forces, 286 
 Corpus striatum, destruction of, 105 ; 
 
 irritation of, 106 
 Criteria of life, 12 
 
 of mind, 28, 252 
 
 Criterion of a property, 12 
 Crystals, growth of, in process of re- 
 pair, 40, 41 
 
 Dance, movements of, 80 
 Darwin, C, biography of an infant, 
 342 
 
 description of laughter, 257 
 
 on snarling, 15 
 
INDEX. 
 
 365 
 
 Darwin, C, on stamping of rats, 54 
 
 Deaf mutes, 274 
 
 Defiance, 293 
 
 Deformity to be avoided in art, 314 
 
 Delayed expression, 250 
 
 Depressing news, effect on face, 201 
 
 Description by means of a series of 
 kinetic or trophic actions, 278 
 
 in anatomical terms, 178 
 
 of a germinating seed, 279 ; ana- 
 lyzed, 280 
 
 — — of growth and movement com- 
 pared, 281 
 
 of the growth of a f{og, 281 
 
 Despair, 309 
 
 Development, a mode of expression, 
 35 
 
 indicated by growth and move- 
 ment, 71, 278 
 
 of an infant, 247 
 
 Developmental defects, 133 
 
 Diana, statue of, 143, 298 
 
 Diathesis, 275 
 
 Diiferenoe between living and non- 
 living things, 268 
 
 Differentiation of ovule, 23 
 
 Direct expression by postures, 148 
 
 defined, 20 
 
 Disease, expression of, to be avoided 
 by artists, 294 
 
 Drawing of modem figures, 190 
 
 Drooping wrist, 168 
 
 Brosera rotundifolia, 152 
 
 Dull countenance, 273 
 
 Dying Gladiator, 145 ; Sir C. Bell's 
 criticism, 303 
 
 E 
 
 Ears, asymmetry of, 274 
 
 deformity of, 134, 137 
 
 ICducation, defects of, 313 
 
 Emaciation, 275 
 
 Emotion evidenced by postures, 149 
 
 expression of, 43 
 
 of the beautiful, 237 
 
 limotions, 234 
 
 excite movement, 812 
 
 how to be studied, 226 
 
 Empirical expression defined, 21 
 Energetic hand, 164 
 
 spealcer, his postures, 143 
 
 Environment, or external force, its 
 importance, 282, 285 
 
 Epicaothic fold of eye, abnormal, 
 
 137, 273 
 Epilepsy, study of, 110 
 Epinasty, a mode of vegetal growth 
 
 39 
 Equal proportional growth, 271 
 Equilibrium of posture, 58 
 Evolution of child's brain, 283 
 Excitation of weak nerve-centres (a 
 
 principle), 179 
 Exhaustion, signs of, in man, 229 
 Experimental method, 248 
 Explanation of the nervous hand, 167 
 Expression by a series of movementH 
 and trophic actions, 279 
 
 by change of function, 38 
 
 by colour, 27, 38 
 
 by form, 27 
 
 by movement, 39, 48 
 
 by results of movement, 53 
 
 by sound, 38 
 
 by temperature, 27 
 
 described by Camper, 305 
 
 direct, 20 
 
 empirical, 21 
 
 free and mobile, 182 
 
 in the eye, 217 
 
 of feeling, 292 
 
 of the emotions, 43 
 
 the term defined, 11 
 
 External forces, importance of their 
 study, 282 
 
 regulate trophic and kinetic 
 
 series, 282 
 Evolution of the brain, 283 
 
 resulting from the environment, 
 
 285 
 Eyeball distinguished from the eye' 
 lids, 214 
 
 nearly expressionless, 217 
 
 Eyelids, 217 
 
 movements of. Dr. Gowers on, 
 
 223 
 Eye-movements during sleep, and 
 coma, 227 
 
 intellectuality of, 222, 224 
 
 express condition of the mind, 
 
 221 
 Eyes, application of principle of small 
 and large parts, 224 
 
 attracted, 144 
 
 attracted and repelled, 220 
 
 attraction and repulsion of, 
 
 under visual stimulus, 222 
 
 engaged, 222 
 
 free or disergaged, 222 
 
366 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Eyes, liorizontal movements of, 222 ; 
 compared withtke vertical, 223 
 
 lateral movements of, 219 
 
 loss of associated movements of, 
 
 218 ; in sleep, 227 
 
 lost from want of light in cave- 
 living animals, 101 
 
 movements of, in a train, 220 
 
 spontaneous movements of, 222 ; 
 
 in infant, 220 
 
 upward movements compared 
 
 with the vertical as to their intel- 
 lectuality, 219 
 
 Face, an index of the mind; 193 
 
 action of gravity on, 147, 202 
 
 anatomy of, 194 
 
 asymmetrical, 200 
 
 athetosis of, 208 
 
 defined, 194 
 
 dull or bright, 198 
 
 engaged, and not free to express 
 
 emotion, 207 
 
 fatness of, 274 
 
 how to examine, 196 
 
 in fatigue, 229 
 
 in headache, 119 
 
 intellectual or vulgar, 198 
 
 its muscles and nerves, 194 
 
 long, 201, 229 ; seen in fatigue, 
 
 205 
 
 method of analyzing, 196 
 
 movements of, 195 ; in a case of 
 
 brain disease, 208, 211 
 
 nutrition of, 198 
 
 usually free, 144 
 
 Faces of idiots, 198, 204 
 Facial expression: of mental suffer- 
 ing, 197 ; of bodily sufEering, 200 ; 
 
 of fatigue, 205 
 paralysis, 202 ; from brain 
 
 disease, 107 
 signs of previous nerve-muscular 
 
 action, 199 
 
 zones defined, 196 
 
 Fat, absorption of, in face, 198 
 Fatigue expressed in the face, 105 
 
 signs of, 58, 228 
 
 I'eatures, handsome, 274; regular, 
 
 274 
 
 of the face, 141, 197 
 
 Fear, 253 
 Feeble hand, 158 
 
 Feeling expressed by nerve-muscular 
 
 action, 292 
 Ferrier's experiments on the brains of 
 
 animals, 90 
 Figure-drawing, 317 
 Finger-twitching, 125, 229 
 Fist, clenched, 57 
 Flexion and extension of head, 184 
 Formula giving the possible number 
 
 of combinations of a given number 
 
 of units, 2», 70 
 Foster, Professor, on mechanism of 
 
 voice, 64 
 Free, or disengaged parts, 144, 315 
 Frequency of movements, 69 
 Fullness under the eye, 120 
 Function in two subjects compared as 
 
 to time and quantity, 269 
 
 6 
 
 Gait in walking is a series of move- 
 ments, 72 
 
 reeling, 293 
 
 spiritless, 293 
 
 Gang of slaves working in unison, 74 
 General excitement of nerve-centres, 
 179 
 
 weakness of nerve-centres, 180 
 
 Geranium with pink flowers of feeble 
 
 constitution, 22 
 Germination of seed, 279 
 Glands change their function, 39 
 Good proportional growth, 277 
 Graphic method, 348 
 Gravity, action of, on face, 147 
 
 ■ on living beings, 146 
 
 effect in producing postures, 146 
 
 of, on head, 147, 188, 192 
 
 Greek vases, 299 
 Gregory's works, 327 
 Grinning, 203 
 Growth, 32 
 
 a series of trophic actions, 279 
 
 indicates life, 33 
 
 is a material change, 33 
 
 of body, 41 
 
 results from nutrition, 33 
 
 H 
 
 Hair, colour of, 42 
 
 grey, 41 
 
 on face, 39 
 
INDEX. 
 
 367 
 
 Hand, an index of the mind, 295 
 
 convulsive, 156 
 
 drawn away from a hot obiect, 
 
 36, 253 
 
 energetic, 164 
 
 feeble, 158 
 
 free or disengaged, 316 
 
 in fright, 167 
 
 in rest, 159 
 
 nervous, 163 
 
 often not expressive in art repre- 
 sentations, 317 
 
 straight, 160 
 
 straight with thumji drooped, 161 
 
 Hands gone mad, 129 
 
 Handsome features, 274 
 
 Hartley's theory of the human mind, 
 325 
 
 Head, application of principle of con- 
 trast of small and large parts, 189 
 
 flexion and extension, 184 
 
 inclination, 184 
 
 its axes described, 183 
 
 its postures and movements de- 
 fined, 184 
 
 measurements, 243 
 
 method of describing movements, 
 
 184 
 
 movements effected by light, 98 
 
 not free or disengaged, 144 
 
 rotation, 184 
 
 ■ • shape of, in idiots. Dr. Shuttle- 
 worth on, 191 
 
 usually free, 144, 189 
 
 weak posture of, 188 
 
 Headaches, facial appearance of, 120 
 
 in children, causation, 123 
 
 Healthy activity, 233 
 
 Heart, physical signs of its action, 14 
 
 Heat expressed by temperature, 14 
 
 how studied by Tyndall, 340 
 
 Hemiplegia described, 106 
 
 " Hercules at Kest," statue, 304 
 
 Heredity, 43, 46, 285 
 
 physical properties its necessary 
 
 accompaniments, 46 
 
 Horror, expression of, 161 
 
 Hydrocephalus with athetosis, 199 
 
 Hyper-extension of knuckles, 166 
 
 Hyponasty, a mode of vegetable 
 growth, 39 
 
 Icthyosis, 138, 274 
 
 Idiot but slightly sensitive to pain, 253 
 
 Idiot compared with an intelligent 
 man, 13, 242, 277, 278 
 
 facial expression of, 204 
 
 — ;— microcephalic, 274 
 
 Idiots' faces. Dr. Langdon Down on, 
 198 
 
 Illness may prevent expression, 59 
 
 111 proportion of the body, its signi- 
 ficance, 278 
 
 Imitation of anger, 40 
 
 Impressionability, 32 
 
 absent in young infant, 244 
 
 consideration of ita attribute 
 
 " time," 251 
 
 in nerve-mechanism, 233 
 
 its expression delayed, 228 
 
 permanent, 33 
 
 Impression of past nerve-muscular 
 action in face, 199 
 
 Inability in the infant to move the 
 hand straight, 244 
 
 Inclination of head, 184 
 
 Inco-ordinated movements, 71 
 
 Index of the mind, 193 
 
 of the hand, 295 
 
 Infant at birth described, 96, 243 
 
 biographical sketch of, by C. 
 
 Darwin, 342 
 
 compared with the adult, 242 
 
 mindless at birth, 213 
 
 nerve-system of, 293 
 
 table of its development, 250 
 
 Infants ill propoiitianed, 278 
 
 Inhibition, 94 
 
 by light and sound, 100, 101 
 
 Instinct, 234 
 
 Intellectual face, 198 
 
 Intellectuality of action in each facial 
 zone, 203 
 
 of eye-movements, 222, 224 
 
 Intelligent and non-intelligent move- 
 ments, 79 
 
 Interdifferentiation of condition of 
 parts, as a principle, 76 
 
 of postures, 178 
 
 Iris nerve-supply, 215 
 
 Irritability, expression of, 229 
 
 Irritative lesion of brain, 106 
 
 Iron may be magnetized, 39 
 
 .Taw, movements of, 192 
 
 Joy, described by Bell, 258 
 
 expression of. Camper on, 307 
 
368 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 K 
 
 " Kind," as an attribute of a property, 
 
 2fi8 
 Kinds of movement, 268 
 
 of movements in an infant, 248 
 
 of property, described In terms 
 
 of time and quantity, 8 
 Kinetic action, 45 
 
 I-abourer digging, 144 
 
 Langdon Down, Dr., on idiots' faces, 
 
 198 
 "Laocoon," Camper's criticism of, 304 
 Large heads in children, 278 
 Larynx, changes occurring in, 39 
 Lateral deviation of head and eyes in 
 
 hemiplegia, 105 
 Laughing humour, 16 
 Laughter, Bell's description, 53 
 
 Darwin's description, 257 
 
 Laws of nature, 8 
 
 Leaves, ill developed, 274 
 
 Left hand wealter than the right, 126 
 
 Life, signs of, 12 
 
 non-understandable, 12 
 
 Light, action of, on brain, indicated by 
 
 reflex action, 98-100 
 
 on vegetation, 103 
 
 inhibitory action, 100 
 
 its action on the eye, 96 
 
 movement of, attracts attention, 
 
 99 
 produces permanent impressions, 
 
 99 
 
 stimulates head rotation, 98 
 
 trophic action of, 101 
 
 Localization in the brain, 108 
 
 Locomotion, 73 
 
 Locomotor ataxy, gait of, 72 
 
 Long face, 201 
 
 Ludicrous idea, 53 
 
 Lungs of foetus, 39 
 
 M 
 
 Magnet shows change of function, 39 
 
 Man, study of, 294, 295 
 
 Manhood, signs of, 38 
 
 Marasmus, 276 
 
 Mai-ey, M., on walking, 73 
 
 Marshall Hall's works, 537 
 
 Materialistic views in science neces- 
 sary, 240 
 Measurement of head and body, 277 
 Mechanism of a reflex movement, 43 
 
 of the eyelids, 217, 223 
 
 of postures, 141 
 
 Memory, 246 
 
 indicated by movements, 246 
 
 Mengs, Antony Eaphael, on painting. 
 
 Mental anxiety, expression of, 197 
 
 states, expression of, 295 
 
 Mentation, the term defined, 5 
 Metaphysical abstractions not con- 
 sidered in this work, 67, 226 
 Method of analyzing a face, 196 
 
 of biological description, 281 
 
 of demonstrating a posture to be 
 
 nerve-muscular action, 168 
 
 of physical inquiry as to mind, 
 
 241 
 Microcephalic idiot, 274 
 Mimosa pudica, 24 ; experiments 
 
 upon, 113 
 Mind in the infant, criteria of, 244 
 
 physical study of, 28, 241 
 
 what is it ? 252 
 
 Mobile expression, 183 
 
 Modern pictures, 316 
 
 Modes of expression, 12 
 
 Molecular motion, probably the cause 
 
 of coincident development, 67 
 Motion, physical investigation of, 6 
 Movement a mode of expression, 39, 
 48 _ 
 
 a visible and physical action, 48 
 
 capable of measurement by 
 
 graphic method, 67 
 
 complex in the adult, 61 
 
 correlatable with force, 49 
 
 in art indicated by postures, 
 
 152 
 
 indicates antecedent force, 49 
 
 in one subject, 58 ; in two or 
 
 more, 68 
 
 in the body is change of posture, 
 
 142 
 
 its time and quantity, 68 
 
 kinds of, 268 
 
 lessened by bad feeding or ill- 
 ness, 231 
 
 manner or kind of, 48 
 
 notable by two observers, 49 
 
 of an aggregation of members, 74 
 
 of the whole subject or of its 
 
 parts, 74 
 
INDEX. 
 
 369 
 
 Movement, subsidence of, 58 
 
 Movements, analysis of, 75 
 
 classified according to attributes, 
 
 67 ; according to mode of produc- 
 tion, 67 
 
 combinations of, 68 
 
 co-ordinated, 71 
 
 described in anatomical terms, 
 
 75 
 
 in aggregation or in succession. 
 
 Bain on, 236 
 
 in children, 244 
 
 inco-ordinated, 71 
 
 in plants, 21, 114 « 
 
 in regular series, 80 
 
 intelligent and non-intelligent, 
 
 of a bee from flower to flower, 62 
 
 of an actor in anger, 36, 40 
 
 of hand described in terms of 
 
 postures, 281 
 
 said to proceed from feelings, 80 
 
 spontaneous, reflex, voluntary, 
 
 60, 67 
 
 stimulated by external forces, 
 
 100, 247 
 
 two or more considered in rela- 
 tion to time, 68 
 
 Musical box attracts child's attention, 
 20 
 
 Music, soothing effect of, 233 
 
 Mutes-born deaf, 274 
 
 N 
 
 National modes of expression, 266 
 
 Negation, expressed by bead rota- 
 tion, 192 
 
 Nerve-centre, 91, 168 
 
 Nerve-mechanism of vertebrates, 84 
 
 of Ascidians, 83 
 
 of reflex movement, 36 
 
 Nerve-muscular action, 85 
 
 in Art, 107 
 
 may express feeling, 292 
 
 study of, necessary to Art, 
 
 294 
 
 Nerve-supply to face, 194 
 
 Nerve-system, its importance, 1 
 
 Nervous children, 117 
 
 hand, 163, 297, 299 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac, 327 
 Nutrition, an expression of life, 33 
 
 expressed by movement, 69 
 
 expression of, 230 
 
 Nutrition, its signs, 23, 231 
 
 its total outcome in trophic and 
 
 kinetic function, 283 
 
 of vegetable ovule, 23 
 
 produces trophic and kinetic 
 
 functions, 283 
 
 growth and movement, 283 
 
 the term defined, 22 
 
 
 
 Objective, or physical facts, 12 
 
 Observation on material structure, 6 
 
 of movements as well as his- 
 tology wanted, 6 
 
 on ingoings and outcomings, 7 
 
 Organic postures, 146 
 
 Orbicular muscles of eye in sleep, 227j 
 relaxed in headache, 120, 206 
 
 Outcome of a subject always expres- 
 sive, 14 
 
 of any function an expression, 
 
 38 
 
 Oxalis, its pulviriiis, 25 
 
 corniculaia, imperfect pulvinus, 
 
 Pace defined as a series of movements, 
 
 73 
 Paget, Sir James, on repair of crystals, 
 
 40 
 Pain, 236, 253 
 
 not itself a cause of movement 
 
 or expression, 17 
 Passionate children, 117 
 Patent foramen ovale, 275 
 Pea plant grown in darkness, 232 
 Permanent impressionability, 33 
 
 may be indicated by reflex 
 
 action, 33 
 
 opposed to evolution, 33 
 
 Phlegmatic temperament, 276 
 Phonograph, mechanical action neces- 
 sary to its working, 19 
 shows permanent localized im- 
 pressionability, 19 
 Physical forces aid development of 
 mind, 4 
 
 pain, 200 
 
 phenomena capable of analysis, 3 
 
 signs of hidden properties, 4 
 
 signs of mind, 240 
 
370 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Physiognomy, 2 
 
 its signs unsatisfactory, 2 
 
 of scrofula, 275 
 
 Physiological principles of analysis, 
 77 
 
 study useful to art, 294 
 
 Pink geranium of feeble constitution, 
 76 
 
 Plants, growth of, 285 
 
 movements of, 26 
 
 unicellular, 23 
 
 Plaster cast of head, 21 
 
 Playfulness, 249 
 
 Political procession, its significance, 
 74 
 
 Pope's description of Achilles, 260 
 
 Porcupines, noise made by, 55 
 
 Postulate as to nerve-centres, 168 
 
 physical phenomenadue to physi- 
 cal causes, 2 
 
 Posture, term defined, 57, 140 
 
 Postures a means of describing move- 
 ments, 281 
 
 classification of, 151 
 
 difliculty of description, 162 
 
 due to brain disease, 1 69 ; to 
 
 reflex action, 148 
 
 fallacies concerning, 149 
 
 in animals, 162 
 
 ■ in art, 162 
 
 in plants, 152 
 
 organic, 146 
 
 ■ the result of last movements, 
 
 57 
 
 • voluntarj', 150 
 
 Potentiality for mind, 242 
 
 Pottery presents ancient figure-draw- 
 ing, 299 
 
 Primitive combined movements, Bain 
 on, 235 
 
 Primary meristem, 23 
 
 Principle as to small and large parts 
 (interdifferentiation), 76 ; ajiplied to 
 head, 189 ; applied to eyes, 224 
 
 contrasting large parts and 
 
 small parts as to posture or move- 
 ment, 76 
 
 ■ collateral parts (collateral 
 
 differentiation), 77 
 
 of antithesis, 181 
 
 of general excitement of nerve- 
 centres, 179 
 
 Principles of analysis and composi- 
 tion (artistic), 109, 317 
 
 of movements, 75 
 
 of postures, 178 
 
 Principles of physiological analysis, 
 
 77 
 Problems as to coincidences of move- 
 ment, 69 
 Properties demonstrated by external 
 
 forces, 44 
 Proportional growth, 270 
 development a sign of nutrition, 
 
 232 
 Proportion of height, weight, age, 
 
 41, 279 
 Proportions of the human body, 107, 
 
 278, 311 
 Prostration of the body, 55 
 Pulse-tracing, 14 
 Pulvinus, 25 
 Pupil, 119, 215 
 
 in emotional states, 221 
 
 in sleep, 227 
 
 Puppy, its development described in 
 
 terms of growth and movement, 71 
 
 Q 
 
 Quantity as an attribute of a property, 
 268 
 
 of growth, 269 
 
 of movement, 68 
 
 Quiet frame of mind, 201 
 
 Rabbits stamping, 54 
 
 Kadicle of a seedling, its circumnu- 
 
 tation, 280 
 Rate of movements, 68, 69 
 Records of movement capable of 
 
 analysis, 49 
 Reflected action, 36 
 Reflex action, 92 ; congenital, 36, 
 
 244 J acquired, 36 
 a mode of expression, 35, 
 
 36 
 
 at birth, 244 
 
 movements, mechanism of, 36, 
 
 83 
 
 postures, 148 
 
 Relation of the outcome to afferent 
 
 stimulus, 37 
 Rest, a condition of nutrition, 232 
 
 expression of, 232 
 
 posture of hand, 159 
 
 Result of movements, 64 
 Retentiveness, 22 
 — — in brain, 234 
 
INDEX. 
 
 371 
 
 Retenlivenegs indicated by reflex 
 
 actions, 234 
 
 in infant, 246 
 
 not necessarily permanent, 34 
 
 to liglit, as in nerve-mechanism, 
 
 100 
 Root of plant, its mode of growth, 26 
 Rotation of head, 105, 184, 185, 187 
 Rules for analysis of expression, 256 
 
 S 
 
 Sanguine type, 275 • 
 
 School inspection, 262 
 
 Secondary movements, 55 
 
 Seed, growth of, 279 
 
 Sensitive flame, 17 
 
 Sensory centres in brain, 91 
 
 Sequences of action, 276 ; determined 
 
 by external forces, 282, 284 ; not 
 
 determinable by calculation, 70 
 Series of kinetic actions, 276 
 
 of movements, 276 
 
 and trophic actions, 279 
 
 as signs of evolution, 283 
 
 or succession of movements, 276 j 
 
 example of, 279 
 Shaking the mane, 55 
 Shame, indicated by head drooping, 
 
 293 
 Shuttleworth, Dr., on heads of idiots, 
 
 191 
 Siddons, H., on expression of anger, 
 
 52 
 Sight of a toy, its effects, 15 
 Signs due to an afferent force, 14 
 Similar growth due to an impression 
 
 on the germ, 285 
 
 series of kinetic actions, 276 
 
 Similarity of development, 274 
 Sleep, 58, 227 
 
 disturbed, in children, 123 
 
 • expression of, 189, 227 
 
 may prevent expression, 15 
 
 Small-headed children, 274 
 
 Small parts compared with large parts, 
 
 as a principle, 76 
 Sneering, 201 
 Snow plant, 23 
 
 Sorrow, expression of. Camper on, 309 
 Sound, a means of expression, 38 
 Speech, a criterion of life, 13 
 Speed of movement, 68 
 Spinal muscles affected in chorea, 116 
 Spine bent in fatigue, 229 
 
 Spiritless gait, 293 
 
 Spontaneous and voluntary move- 
 ments, 60 
 
 movement in children, 29 
 
 movements, 59 ; in infancy, 59, 
 
 244 ; lost in illness, 59 
 
 subside in deep sleep, 58, 65 
 
 postures, 148 
 
 Stages of growth, 28 
 
 Statue, expression of, 36 
 
 Stimuli, extrinsic, 101 
 
 mediate, 101 
 
 immediate, 101 
 
 Stomach, changes in its secretion, 39 
 
 Stooping attitude, 293 
 
 Straight hand, 160 
 
 Study of a child, 284 
 
 of a man, 294 
 
 of a man's face, 199 
 
 of a nervous subject, 261 
 
 Subject displaying a function, 280 
 
 Subjective conditions studied by their 
 expression, 253 
 
 Subsidence of movement, 59, 64; 
 in sleep, fatigue, and when attention 
 is attracted, 58 
 
 Subsultus tendiniim, 167 
 
 Summary, chap, ii., 11 ; chap, iii., 31 ; 
 chap, iv., 61 ; chap, v., 80 ; chap, 
 viii., 152 ; chap, x., 191 ; chap, xvi., 
 286 
 
 Surprise, expression of. Camper on, 
 307 
 
 Symmetry of movement, 77 ; its sig- 
 nificance, 78 
 
 of postures, 179 
 
 Synchronous movements, 68, 69 
 
 Table of signs of development in an 
 
 infant, 250 
 Teeth indicate age, 41 
 
 shown in anger, 54 
 
 Telephone exhibits impressionability, 
 
 18 
 Temperature indicates heat, 14 
 Thermometer indicates heat, 16 
 Thought, 254 
 Time as an attribute of a property, 267 
 
 occupied by reflex movement, 93 
 
 of action in two subjects, 269 
 
 Tooth-grinding, 119, 122 
 Tossing of head, 55 
 
372 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tracing of a movement analyzed, 67 
 Treves, F., on physiognomy of 
 
 scrofula, 275 
 Trophic action as an accompaniment 
 
 of movement, 281 
 defined, 33 ; illustrated by 
 
 growth of crystals, 40, 41 
 
 -expressive, 33, 40 
 
 of li^ht, 101 ■ 
 
 and kinetic action abnormal in 
 
 an idiot, 277 
 Turgid face in anger, 51 
 Twins as examples of coincident 
 
 development or growth, 269, 285 
 Two or more movements considered 
 
 in relation to time, 69 
 Tyndall, 341 
 Types of faces, 197 
 
 U 
 
 Unconsciousness, 227 
 Unequal growth in parts of plants, 39 
 Unicellular plant, 23 
 Uniform coexistence, a mode of ex- 
 pression, 12 
 Uniformities in nature, 8 
 Upper extremity, postures of, 164, 156 
 
 Vegetable cell growth, 26 
 
 life, reasons for reference to, 6 
 
 Venus de' Medici, 162, 296, 319 
 Vine branch, growth in darkness, 282 
 Visual impression, effects of, 99 
 
 perception, its effects, 15 
 
 Vital phenomena can only be studied 
 
 by their physical signs, 28 
 Voice in illness, 231 
 
 in irritabilit}', 230 
 
 mechanism of, 54 
 
 result of movement, 40 
 
 Voluntary movement, 60 
 
 postures, 150 
 
 Vulgar face, 196 
 
 W 
 
 Walking, 72 
 
 a series of movements, 235 
 
 said to be due to instinct, 235 
 
 Wanton look. Camper on, 309 
 
 Watch, movement of, 63 
 
 Weakness not a representation of high 
 
 beauty, 214 
 Weak posture of head, 188 
 Weeping, 341 
 Winking, 200, 309 
 Wonder, expression of, 306 
 Work done, 56 ; by movement, 56 
 of art an expression, 66, 79 
 
 Zones of face, 106 
 
 THE END. 
 
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