l^-b BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrg W. Sage iSgi i.ldiS% ']\nrii± %r^. The date shows when this volume was taken. To renew this book copy the call No. and give to . the librarian U HOME USE RULES. All Books subject to Recall All books must be re- turned at end of college year for inspection and repairs. Students must re- tv»n all books before leaving town. Officers should arrange for the return of books wanted f during their absence from town. Books needed by more than one person are held on the reserve list. \ Voltimes of periodi- cals and of pamphlets are held in the library as much as possible. For special purposes they are given out for a limited time. Borrowers should not use their library privileges for the bene- fit of ot;her persons. Books of special value and gift books when the giver wishes it, are not allowed to circulate. Readers are asked to report all cases of books marked or mutilated. Do not deface books by marks and writing. Cornell University Library D 103.H85 3 1924 027 778 483 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY THE ROMAN WALL^ (FRONTISPIECE) The picture shows llic Romans repairing pari of tlie Great Wall huilt by the Emperor Hadrian early in the second century A .D. Tlie wall ex- tended from Wallsend on the Tyne to Bowness on the Solway, a distance of about seventy-three miles and a iialf. The Romans are here represented as employing British labor on tlic Wall. The stonemasons are at work under the directions of a Roman centurion; an occasional arrow from Pictish marauders in the bushes outside keeps the workers in a state of anxiety, while the bowmen on the wall retaliate. In constructing the wall the Romans used wedge-shaped stones for the outer part. They filled up the inner part with rubble and mortar, the thin end of the wedge-shaped stones being inside; the mortar as it was poured in welded the inner and outer parts together into a solid whole. A tower, castellum-, is shown in the middle distatue. One of these towers occurred at intervals of a mile along the whole length of the wall, and there were also smaller towers at a distance of two hundred yards from each other. In the camp below is shown the general' of the garrison, with a detach- ment of troops, conducting an embassy of " Winged Hats " or Norsemen round the fortifications . They are much interested in a catapult which has just arrived in camp. ^ Reproduced by permission from Ike picture by H. J . Ford. {Longmans' Historical Wall Pictures.) ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY BY SAMUEL BURNETT HOWE, A.M. HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY IN THE PLAINFIELD HIGH SCHOOL PLAINFIELD, NEW JERSEY SECOND EDITION LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. FOURTH AVENUE & 30TH STREET, NEW YORK LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA I9I3 COPYRIGHT, 191 2, BY LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. First Edition, December, 1912 Reprinted, September, 19 13 THE-PLIMPTON 'PRESS [ W • D ■ O ] NORWOOD- MASS-U'S'A OOH DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER SAMUEL BURNETT HOWE, Ph. D. CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS AT SCHENECTADY, NEW YORK FOR THIRTY-SEVEN YEARS; WHOSE SYMPATHETIC INTEREST AND ENCOURAGEMENT WERE OF INESTIMABLE VALUE IN THE WRITING OF THIS BOOK PREFACE The recommendations of the Committee of Five of the American Historical Association and the appearance of the New York State Regents' Syllabus in History have encour- aged the author to offer these essentials in early European history for Part I of the course in Modern History. There are several excellent manuals for Part II, but at this writing this is the only text yet published for Part I. In the selection of these essentials, many details formerly deemed vital to a knowledge of history have been purposely omitted in an attempt to mirror tlie customs and hfe of the people and to explain the meaning of the great economic, social, and political movements of ancient, medieval, and early modern times, always having in mind their influence on present civihzation. The author will be glad to receive con- structive criticism. The author desires to acknowledge the assistance given him in the preparation of this book by the following persons: Dr. James Harvey Robinson of Columbia University, Dr. Livingston Rowe Schuyler of Columbia University, Dean Benjamin H. Ripton of Union College, Dr. Frank S. Hoff- man of Union College, Dr. J. H. Logan of Rutgers College, Dr. D. C. Knowlton of the Newark, N.J., High School, Dr. H. M. Maxson, City Superintendent of Schools, Plainfield, N.J., Superintendent I. W. Travell of Morristown, N.J., Mr. Harold F. Biddle of the Morristown, N.J., High School, Miss Grace E. Per Lee of the Cortland, N.Y., State Normal VIII PREFACE Faculty (now Mrs. Harry Howe of Sioux Falls, S.D.), Mr. C. H. Douglas of Boston, Mass., Mr. G. H. Fisher, Jr., of Plainfield, N.J., and my associates here — ■ Miss E. K. Gumming, Miss Esther Egerton, and Miss Cornelia Louns- bury. To the last-named I am indebted for many of the maps. I desire also to make acknowledgment for the use of illustrative material found in Longmans' "Historical Pic- tures," Gardiner's "Students' History of England," Grant's "European History," Bourne's "Medieval and Modem History," Woodburn and Moran's "American History," Becchetti's "Restorations of the Roman Forum," "Kunst und Geschichte," and the collections of the Metropolitan Museum. SAMUEL BURNETT HOWE Plainfield, N.J., September i, 1912 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PAGE 1. Nature and methods of historical study 3 2. Relation between history and other fields of Icnowledge 4 3. Primitive man 5 CHAPTER ONE THE ANCIENT MEDITEESANEAN WORLD 4. The beginnings of history 10 5 . Early Egypt 10 6. The second period of Egyptian greatness 14 7. Social conditions in the later empire of Egypt 15 8. The Tigris-Euphrates region 16 9. The Semitic kingdoms of western Asia Minor 19 10. The Mycenean civilization in Crete and Greece 21 11. The East at the close of the Babylonian supremacy. A summary 23 CHAPTER TWO THE RISE OE THE GKEEK CITY STATES 12. The physiography of Greece 25 13. The Homeric age 27 14. The period of colonization 29 15. Sparta 33 16. Early Athens 35 17. The rise of Persia 37 18. Wars between the Greeks and Persians 39 19. Summary of early Greek history 42 CHAPTER THREE THE ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 20. Origin of the Athenian empire 44 21. Periclean Athens 45 22. Artistic and intellectual supremacy of Athens 48 23. Athenian education and educators 52 24. The Peloponnesian war and the decline of the Greek city states 55 X CONTENTS PAGE 25. Macedon and Alexander the Great 58 26. The Hellenic world after the death of Alexander 60 27. Summary of the splendor and decay of Hellas 63 CHAPTER FOUR THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 28. Early Italy and its inhabitants 66 29. The legends of old Rome 70 30. Primitive Roman society 71 31. The religion of the early Romans 73 32. Establishment of Republic 75 33. Establishment of Roman supremacy in Italy 75 34. Italy and the conquest of the Mediterranean 79 35. Summary of early Roman history 82 CHAPTER FIVE THE CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 36. The relations between classes 85 37. The relations between Rome and her subjects 87 38. Plans to correct these evils 88 39. Civil strife between Marius and Sulla 91 40. The rise of Pompey 94 41. The rise of Julius Caesar 96 42. The rule of Julius Caesar gg 43. Summary of the change from republic to empire loi CHAPTER SIX THE ROMAN EMPIRE 44. The empire a settled fact 105 45. A summary of the political history of the early empire .... no 46. Social conditions during the early empire 113 47. The reorganized empire ng 48. The break-up of the empire 125 49. The Byzantine empire 127 50. A summary of the history of the Roman empire 130 CHAPTER SEVEN THE GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 51. The rise of the papacy 132 52. The rise of monasticism 134 53. The Frankish kingdom 136 54. The rise of Islam 139 CONTENTS XI PAGE 55. Charlemagne's life and work 143 56. The decline of Charlemagne's empire 148 57. A summary of the German kingdoms and the papacy .... 150 CHAPTER EIGHT EMPIRE AND PAPACY 58. The growth of the medieval empire 153 59. The question of church reform 154 60. Pope Gregory VII's struggle with the empire 156 61. The papacy and the Hohenstaufen emperors 158 62. The Crusades 160 63. The triumph of the papacy and the end of the medieval empire 166 64. The organization of the medieval church 167 65. Summary of the empire and the papacy 170 CHAPTER NINE ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 66. Britain 1 73 67. Saxon England 176 68. Conversion of England 180 69. The England of Alfred the Great 183 70. The close of the Saxon period of English history 186 71. Norman England , 190 72. Effects of the Norman Conquest 193 73. Feudalism 195 74. Summary of early English history 197 CHAPTER TEN ENGLAND UNDER THE PLANTAGENETS 75. Henry II and the re-establishment of a strong government. 200 76. Hem-y II and Thomas Becket 201 77. Struggle between the Angevins and the Capetians for su- premacy in France 203 78. Magna Carta 207 79. The birth of the House of Commons 209 80. The reign of Edward I 210 81. Summary of Plantagenet England 212 CHAPTER ELEVEN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 82. Life on the manor 215 83. Life in the towns 219 xil CONTENTS PAGE 84. Medieval commerce 223 85. Medieval art and architecture 227 86. Medieval education 231 87. Medieval languages and their literatures 236 88. Summary of the Ufe of the middle ages 239 CHAPTER TWELVE THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 89. The Hundred Years' War 242 90. Social conditions in England during the Hundred Years' War 249 91. The Wars of the Roses and the first Tudor king 252 92. The eclipse of the papacy 255 93. The renaissance 261 94. The age of great discoveries and inventions 269 95. Summary of the close of the middle ages 273 CHAPTER THIRTEEN THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION 96. Europe at the opening of the Protestant Reformation 276 97. Germany on the eve of the Protestant revolution 279 98. Life and work of Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms .... 282 99. The Diet of Worms and its consequences 285 100. Charles V and the Protestant revolt 287 loi. Protestantism in France 289 102. The Catholic Reformation and the Jesuits 292 103. The revolt of the Netherlands 293 104. The Reformation in England 295 105. Summary of the era of the Protestant Reformation 303 CHAPTER FOURTEEN THE RISE OF MODERN ENGLAND 106. The Tudor monarchy 305 107. Extension of national power abroad 306 108. The rise of Puritanism 311 109. Social and economic conditions under the Tudors 312 no. Division between king and parliament 315 111. Civil war and the commonwealth 319 112. Restoration and revolution 323 113. England and the continent 326 114. England and Ireland 332 115. Social conditions under the Stuarts 333 116. Summary of the rise of modern England 336 CONTENTS XIII CHAPTER FIFTEEN COLONIAL ENGLAND PAGE 117. Explorations and early settlements before Jamestown 342 118. Virginia, a typical Southern colony 344 1 19. Other Southern colonies 349 120. The Massachusetts settlements 352 121. Development of American institutions in New England .... 358 122. New York under the Dutch and English 364 123. The end of New France 370 124. The middle colonies in the eighteenth century 372 125. Summary. The colonies in 1760 378 CHAPTER SIXTEEN THE ASCENDANCY OF PRANCE AND THE AGE OF LOUIS FOURTEENTH 126. Richelieu and the estabUshment of the absolute monarchy . . . 382 127. Louis XIV and his court 386 128. Colbert and the French people 390 1 29. Louis XIV's wars 392 130. England and France at the close of the reign of Louis XIV 394 131. A summary of early European history 396 Appendix I. Important Events in Early European History 401 Appendix II. A Select List of Books including those referred to in the Suggestions for Further Reading 405 LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS PAGE Two Wonderful River Valleys. (Colored) facing lo Greece and her Colonies 32 Plan of Alliens ,34 Empire of Alexander the Great 59 The World as known about the Time of Christ 63 Early Italy 67 Map of the City of Rome 85 Greatest Extent of Roman Power 118 The Roman Empire. {Colored) facing 124 The Main Migrations of the Germanic Tribes, 150-600 126 Europe in the Hands of the Germanic Tribes. {Colored) . . .facing 132 Italy in 814 138 The Saracen Dominion at its Greatest Extent. {Colored) . .facing 142 The Empire of Charlemagne in 814, with the Three Subdivisions made in 843 149 Extent of the Hohenstaufen Empire about 1 180. {Colored) . .facing 159 The Mediterranean World in the days of the Crusades. {Colored) facing 160 British Isles and Northern France in the Time of William I. {Colored) facing r93 Plan of a Medieval Manor 216 Comparative Maps showing the Hindrances to Medieval Com- merce 224 Plan of a Medieval Castle 229 Plan of a Temple, Basilica, and Cathedral 233 Comparison of the World To-day with the World of Columbus's Time 270 Dominions of Charles V and his Brother Ferdinand Prior to 1555. {Colored) facing 276 Division of England, January, 1643 320 Western Europe in 1660. {Colored) facing 328 The Charters of 1606 and 1609 345 The Middle and Southern Colonies 350 The New England Colonies 356 America at the Opening of the Seven Years' War 370 America at the Close of the Seven Years' War 373 Terms of the Peace of Utrecht. {Colored) facing 392 LIST OF CHARTS AND GENEALOGICAL TABLES PAGE The Government of Rome in the Times of the Kings 72 The Government of Rome During the RepubHcan Period 103 Table to Illustrate the Hundred Years' War 245 Table to Illustrate the Wars of the Roses 253 Three Hundred Years of English Rulers with Their Principal Con- temporaries 27s Table of Protestant Groups in England 3ig A Table of English Rulers 340-341 Chart Showing Principal Matters to be Remembered about the Intercolonial Wars, 1689-1 763 369 EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY INTRODUCTION Sources of History Reasons for studying History 1. Nature and Methods of Historical Study. — History is what is His- a record of the life of mankind. In its broadest sense it '"■'y'' includes all that has influenced man as well as all that man has ever done, written, or even thought. In studying history it is necessary to limit attention to those periods "^ concern- ing which there remain sources of information. Historical sources are of many kinds: books which record the events of certain times; carvings and inscriptions on buildings or statues; remnants of costumes, implements, buildings, etc. ; even the remains of the dead. From a study of such sources scholars are enabled to construct an account of how man lived at different stages of his development. We study history chiefly to understand what is going on in the world. We must learn not only how things have happened, but also why they have so happened. By getting this in- formation we strengthen the memory. When we put to- gether various related facts and bits of information in order to understand why things happened in a particular way, we are training our reasoning powers. History trains the memory and reasoning faculty and fits us to take part in the political affairs of our country^ There are different ways of ' For convenience, historians have been accustomed to divide the field of history into periods. Ancient history extends from eariiest historic times until the ancestors of the German race became the masters of Europe (800 a.d.). Modern history deals with the period since 800 a.d. The first si.x hundred years of modern history are sometimes called the middle ages. This book on Early European history begins with a study of the civilizations of the East that have influenced modern his- tory and traces the progress of culture among the Greeks, Romans, and Teutons through ancient, medieval, and early modern times to the middle of the eighteenth century a.d. ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Methods of Historical Study Physiography Economics and Industrial History studying history. The simplest or text-boolc method in- volves a close study of one or more manuals, together with questions and answers in class, or written tests and examina- tions. Another method requires the use of a series of topics embodying the essential features of a certain period. Upon these topics, in the form of an outline or syllabus, the student builds up his knowledge of the period studied by reading extracts from the various authorities, source-books, and manuals to which he has been referred.' 2. Relation between History and Other Fields of Knowl- edge. — The relation between history and physical geography is very close. Climate, rainfall,- and the character of the soil have always been important factors in determining the occupations and social relations of man. Culture first began in warm climates and in lands whose soil was very fertile. The earliest historic races were those which first began to cultivate their lands. Their nearness to large bodies of water, by offering opportunities for commerce and the inter- change of ideas, gave certain nations an earlier civilization than their neighbors. The adaptability of the soil of certain countries to particular crops has often moulded history to a far-reaching extent. For example, the soil of Virginia is well adapted to the cultivation of tobacco. This led to the importation of slaves from Africa to cultivate the crop, and thus shaped the history of our own country. Economics, which treats of the industries and wealth- using activities of man, is closely related to political history. The growth of the cotton industry increased slavery and gave rise to several of our gravest political questions, such as ' An authority in history is a standard work prepared by one or more eminent scholars from a study of the sources or of earlier authorities. A source-book is a collection of accounts of historic events or movements in the words of the contemporary writer of these accounts (primary source) or of some writer who lived some time after the events occurred, but who was in a position to know considerable about the events (second- ary source). This work is an example of a manual. ^ Too much rainfall has never proved conducive to a high degree of culture. On the other hand, lands with little or no rainfall have seldom been the scenes of a high state of civilization. INTRODUCTION 5 emancipation and the tariff. Historians are beginning to realize the importance of the industrial side of history. There is much dispute concerning the origin of the different Ethnology races of mankind. People formerly thought that all the races which speak one of the so-called Aryan or Indo-Euro- pean group of languages had a common origin. To this group belong Greek, Latin, German, and even the ancient language of India. The most recent conclusion is that neither similarity of language nor even marked physical features, such as color, enable us to classify the races of man. 3. Primitive Man. — From the earliest times, even before The Hunting the dawn of historical knowledge, it is assumed that great '^""1 Fishing migrations of peoples of diverse physical characteristics have *^^ taken place successively in all parts of the world. The earliest inhabitants of Europe of whom we have any remains were little if any above the beasts of the forest in intelligence. They lived in caves along river banks, in the tree tops of the vast continental forests, or in rudely constructed shelters built upon piles in the mountain lakes. They were engaged in a constant struggle for existence against the savage animals of those days, beasts much larger, more plentiful, and more ferocious than their modern descendants. For thousands of years they had no knowledge of fire. Their only weapons were rough pieces of stone; their only occupation to keep themselves alive. Clothing they did not need, as they were covered with shaggy hair, as are animals. Their only foods were the flesh of beasts which they killed by superior cunning, or fish caught with their hands or on rude bone hooks in the rivers and brooks, and also in season the mid fruits and nuts of the forest. Countless centuries after man's first appearance on earth. Discovery of some experimenter struck two stones together in such a man- ^"^ ner that sparks of fire flashed forth. This invention, more wonderful than that of wireless telegraphy, at once marked a distinction between man and animal. "^ Man learned to cook his food and heat his dwelling place. He now had ' E. B. Tylor questions the possibility of races living without fire. ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY " The Pol- ished Stone Age " Primitive Government The Family Domestication of Animals The Pastoral Stage Primitive Industries The Clan The Origin of Commerce more wants and used polished stone implements and weapons to satisfy them. He also developed a more complex lan- guage to express his wants and the beginning of what we call government, in the family relation. At first the family ties were weak, as among animals. Little by httle the father gaiaed control over the members of his family. The head of the family made rules for the government and was the sole judge of violations of these primitive rules of conduct or laws, with power of life and death over his children. The possession of power over others brings responsibility. The father was obliged to provide food and shelter for his family. Animal parents care for their young, it is true, but this care seldom endures for many years, nor is there any considerable provision made by the parents for the later welfare of their young. In order to insure food for his family, in case that the animals should leave his part of the world for new pastures, the early hunter must either follow the retreating animals, abandoning his rude shelter for unknown scenes, or he must make captives of certain animals, feeding and maintaining them when their supply of food was ex- hausted. Probably it was a long time before the savage hunter thought of adopting the second of these two alterna- tives. For centuries, generation after generation of mankind roamed from place to place in search of food. When man began to keep herds he ceased to be a hunter and fisher and became a shepherd, — the pastoral stage of his development had begun. In this stage man made a tremendous stride forward in ci\'ilization. He left the caves and erected temporary dwellings of skins or of tree-bark wherever his herd wandered in search of pasturage. Industries, such as cloth-weaving and the making of rude pottery, commenced in this stage. Groups of interrelated families began to associate together, and reached the second stage of pohtical development — the clan. Whenever wandering families met, each found the other in possession of desirable articles. A wish to exchange these articles led to barter or the beginnings of trade. As time went on it became harder and harder to find INTRODUCTION pasture grounds because of the constantly increasing pastoral clans with their herds of animals. In the pastoral stage men had not thought that the grazing grounds would ever be exhausted and therefore had sowed no fields, trusting that they would find sufficient fodder in the next halting place. Some men, wisely foreseeing that a time of scarcity was sure to come if they made no provi- sion for the future, settled down in one place and began to culti- vate the soil. When this became the prevailing custom, man had reached the agricultural stage. Savage man made use of the first stick or conveniently shaped stone that came to his hand for his first weapons and tools. He next chipped off pieces of flint and shaped them into axes or arrow heads, binding them on wooden handle or shaft with thongs of leather, as did the American Indians their toma- hawks. Other implements of primitive man were made of bone, ivory, or horn. It is probable that the weapons were invented by men and the useful implements by women. While the men were hunting, the women prepared the food and cloth- ing and made many useful inventions for family use. The Agricul- tural Stage Flint Arrow Head the A product of the rough stone age. CZ3 In the fourth stage man learned to make articles by hand. The word "manufacture" (from the Latin, to make b)' hand) was origin- ally appHed to the process of making cloth, etc., in the home by hand, whereas today the word brings up the image of machinery. In this stage man became much more civilized than in the former stages. He now lived in cities or towns for protection and for convenience of trade. He made many articles of great intrinsic value — rare and costly plates, necklaces, and Cutting Instrument Showing the advance over the rough stone age in making instru- ments — the stone is smoothed and polished. The Handi- craft Stage The Bronze Age 8 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY other articles of jewelry. At first he worked in the softer metals, and for centuries employed bronze, an alloy of copper and tin capable of taking a keen cutting edge, for his swords and war implements. To secure protection from the marauding pastoral peoples who sur- rounded them, the town dwellers built walls around their dwellings. Gradually the cluster of houses within the wall assumed a regular arrangement into streets; public buildings, temples for the worship of their divinities, gathering places for those who made their laws, and market stalls were erected. Family government gave place to rule by the elders of the clan and then to tribal government, in which the clan elders chose a leader to govern the group of the clans or the tribe and I A BO.^T OF THE E.4RLY EGYPTIANS Picture of a model found in a tomb in Egypt. acted themselves as a deliberative and advisory body. Several tribes frequently united to found a city — the city-state of antiquity, which will be explained in a later chapter. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY What further reasons can be given for the study of history? Why should history be studied sympathetically? Which method of history study do you prefer? Why? Give additional instances of the influence of physiography on history. Make a list in your note-books of the Aryan languages, showing the groups into which they may be divided. Compare the occupations of primitive man and woman. Reference Readings Robinson, An Introduction to the History of Western Europe, Chapter I: Ginn and Co. Channing and Hart, Guide to American History, pp. 19 passim; Ginn and Co. INTRODUCTION 9 History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, General Introduction, D. C. Heath and Co. Bourne, The Teaching of History and Civics, pp. 4-23: Longmans. Mason, Women's Share in Primitive Culture, pp. 139-160: Appleton. ¥Ay, Evolution of Industrial Culture, pp. 3-73: Macmillan. Illustrative Fiction Jack London, Before Adam: Macmillan. Stanley Waterloo, The Story of Ab: Doubleday, Page Co. CHAPTER I Two Wonder- ful River Val- leys The Rile The Tigris- Euphrates Antiquity of Egyptian Civ- ilization THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 4. The Beginnings of History. — The study of ancient history begins with a brief review of the civilizations which sprang up in two wonderful river valleys of the old world. The river Nile has its origin in Central Africa, flowing north- ward hundreds of miles and emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. In the lower part of this river valley was developed one of the two earliest civihzed states. In this narrow valley the majestic river, swollen with the rains of tropical Africa, pours out over its low banks in June, flooding the level fields on each side for miles and leaving a rich deposit of fertile loam. When the river recedes in the fall, the natives are enabled to harvest abundant crops with little toil of preparation. This annual inundation of the Nile has from earliest antiquity made of this valley a rich grain producing land, abundantly able to support a large population, within its long and narrow limits. The change from earlier hunting and fishing habits of the inhabitants of this region to the agricultural stage of civilization in very early times made necessary their organization under laws and regulations and hence gave rise to one of the first two great states. In Asia another great river system favored the growth of a state. The waters of the Tigris-Euphrates system were carried by means of irrigation over the level fields of Chaldea, as the lower valley of this system was called; and, as in the case of Egypt, the people of this region were bountifully suppKed with the food elements necessary to the buflding up of a great state. 5. Early Egypt. — While man had existed in the lower valley of the Nile for thousands of years before joining him- self with his fellows to form a state, the records show that ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN WORLD as early as 5000 B.C. the Egyptians had advanced along pohtical and social lines and had organized several small states in dilTerent sections of the valley. Our knowledge of early Egyptian historj^, based on inscriptions called hierogl}'phs found upon ruined buildings, was enor- mously increased by the discovery of a tablet, the Rosetta Stone, which con- tains a royal decree writ- ten in the Egyptian char- acters and also in Greek. From a knowledge of the Greek language it was pos- sible to gain the meaning of the various hieroglyphs on the tablet, and in this way other inscriptions in the Egyptian language have been translated, until we know that a family of Pha- raohs (kings) made Egypt a united state about 3400 B.C. Making their capital at Memphis, near modern Cairo, they constructed huge masses of stone for their tombs and erected many massive temples. These tombs, or pyramids, are the admiration of the modern world, and must have required an extensive knowledge of engineering for their erection. The early Egyptians were advanced not only in architec- ture and engineering: in the museum at Berlin is treasured an A Section of the Rosetta Stone The Rosetta Stone was discovered on the banks of the Rosetta branch of the Nile by soldiers of Napoleon on his Egyptian campaign, and was trans- lated by Champollion, a celebrated French scholar. It is no^^' treasured at the British Museum in London. Rosetta Stone Pyramids Ptahhotep 12 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY old manuscript, perhaps the oldest book in the world, which contains a number of wise sayings attributed to Ptahhotep, a high-born Egjrptian of six thousand years ago. Among ^ i prehistoric knowledge in both archi- tecture and art. Discoveries in Crete 24 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Summary Civilization first sprang up in the valleys of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates rivers. Each centre developed a high degree of culture, which was carried to the Mycenean Greeks by the Phenicians, and thus has left its impress upon the history of later Greece. The Egyptians gave the doctrine of immortality of the soul and certain forms of architecture; the Hebrews taught the doctrine of monotheism; the Baby- lonians discovered scientific laws; the Phenicians raised commerce to the dignity of a profession and caused a trans- fusion of ideas throughout the Mediterranean world. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Show on an outline map of the Mediterranean world the countries, cities, rivers, and seas mentioned in the chapter and show the boundaries of Egyptian and Chaldean empires at their greatest extent. Make a synchronological chart of the chief periods and events of the ancient Mediterranean world. Make notes from the references given below concerning the origin of "the forms of household furniture, of columns, statues, weapons, seals, the use of the arch, the calendar, the alphabet, moral law, business forms." Reference Readings Seignobos, History of AncieutCivilization: Scribners. Egj^pt, Chapter III; Assyria and Babylonia, Chapter IV; Phenicians, Chapter VII; Hebrews, Chapter VIII. West, Ancient World, Part I, pp. 5-63 : AUyn and Bacon. Contains more recent material and the results of advanced scholarship. Especially valuable for its maps, illustrations, and illustrative extracts from the sources. Botsford, A History of the Ancient World: Macmillan. Egypt, pp. 6-20; Tigris-Euphrates Valley, pp. 21-36; Syrian Kingdoms, pp. 37-47; Crete and Mycene, pp. 68-80. A most interesting and scholarly presentation of these topics. An especially fine feature consists of the many restorations of ancient buildings and scenes. If but one book for collateral readings on the ancient period can be obtained, the author recommends this work. Shepherd, Historical Alias: Henry Holt and Company. (The most recent and authoritative maps of European history.) Physical map of Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa, pp. 2-4; Mycenean Greece and the Orient, 1450 B.C., p. 4; Assyria, p. 5; Palestine, pp. 6-7; The Orient, 600-500 e.g., p. 8. CHAPTER II THE RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES Divisions of Hellas 12. The Physiography of Greece. — Instead of separating the various Greeli tribes, the Egean Sea served to unite them in a common love of ships and of commerce, and thus furthered an early rise in civilization. Greece proper, or Hellas, is divided into Northern, Central, and Southern Greece. The latter division is also called the Peloponnesus, and contained the three important states Corinth, Laconia or Sparta, and Argolis. Of the former two states we shall hear more fully hereafter; Argolis contained the ruined cities of Mycene and Tiryns, the most splendid of the Mycenean period. In Elis were held the famous 01}'mpian games. Central Greece contained Attica with its cMef city. Famous Cities Athens, the most famous of all Greek cities; Beotia, in which were located its capital, Thebes, and the famous bat- tlefields of Platea, Leuctra, and Chaeronea; and Phocis, containing Delphi, famed for its shrine of the god Apollo. Northern Greece was divided into the partly Greek states of Epirus and Thessaly, and was bounded on the northeast by Macedon, whose people became the dominant race in Greece. Famous are the islands of the Egean and Ionian seas: Ithaca, the home of Ulysses, a famous hero of Greek myth; Crete, the seat of an early and glorious culture; Delos, important in the development of Athenian empire; Lesbos, which sheltered the greatest Greek poetess, Sappho; Euboea, ravaged by the Persians in their first attack on Greece. On the western shores of Asia Minor were many Greek cities: Troy of Homer's story; Ephesus, the sacred city of the moon goddess^ and Miletus, famed for her commerce. The Islands of the Egean and Ionian Seas 26 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY The lonians Greeks of Asia Minor are commonly spoken of as Ionian Greeks. Mountains While the seas rendered communication with distant lands not difficult, the many ranges of mountains naturally sepa- Restoeation of the Palace of Tiryns An ancient Mycenean fortification unearthed by Schliemann in 1885. rated the Greek tribes and prevented their union. Among the most famous of these mountains were those in Thessaly. The Greeks were a commercial people because of their near- ness to the sea and also because the chief agricultural prod- RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES 27 Achean Inva- sion ucts of Greece were particularly well adapted for com- merce. Olive oil, derived from the olive groves that grew in Agricultural abundance on the sides of the hills of Greece, and wine from Products the many vine3-ards made ideal commercial commodities, because they represented great value in small bulk, in the times written of by the poet when he describes supreme well-being as follows: " He anointeth my head wdth oil: my cup [of wine] runneth over." The freedom of the Greek's life, the ease with which he could move from country to country, learning new customs and broadening his mind, undoubtedly accounts for the freedom of religious and political thought that characterized the race. 13. The Homeric Age. — Between 1500 and 1200 B.C., a stranger people entered Greece, called by Homer Acheans. These were men of a ruddy complexion and hair, larger bodied and more barbarous than the Myceneans. After a few centuries of retarded civilization, while the newcomers were picking up the ways of the people whom they had conquered, Greece progressed much faster than the other eastern Mediterranean countries. The intermarriage of races and consequent mingling of the Mycenean and Achean civilizations resulted in a complete transformation of Greek society. Our principal sources of information concerning Greek life in this far-away period of history are the two epic poems, the "Ihad" and the " Odyssey," attributed to a poet named Homer. Greek legend told that Paris, a son of Priam, l;ing of Troy, had been one of many suitors among the Greelc chieftains for the hand of a beauti- ful princess, Helen, who chose Menelaus, the brother of the head-chief, Agamemnon. All the suitors had agreed to abide by her decision and to aid her husband against disappointed suitors. Accordingly, when Paris refused to abide by this agreement and carried Helen ofi by force to his walled city of Troy, the other chiefs began a siege of that city. The poem of the "Iliad" begins when the siege had lasted ten years, and The " Iliad ' relates the deeds of the great Greelc warrior, Acliilles, who kills Hector, Troy's hero. There is related elsewhere the stratagem employed by Xhe Latin Ulysses to get into the the city, — the apparent retreat of the Greeks Epic of lea\'ing behind them a gigantic wooden horse which the Trojans drew Aeneas into their city as a gift to their god. This horse contained within its The " Odyssey" Homer 28 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY hollow interior tlie picked warriors of the Creeks, who, after night had fallen, came out of the horse, took the city by surprise, and destroyed it, together with its inhabitants. The "Odyssey" takes up the wonderful adventures of the hero Ulysses, or Odysseus on his way home from the Trojan War. After twenty years of wandering from one coast to another, he returns to Ithaca, where he drives off the swarm of suitors for the hand of his supposed widow. To the Greeks and Romans Homer was a real personage, but whether he ever Hved is doubtfuL It is probable that both poems were composed in parts at different times and by different poets. From these poems we can reconstruct Method of PRiMiTi\rE Transportation Pictures of models found in a tomb in Egypt. These were made at least three thousand years ago. the everyday life of both chieftain and peasant during the Homeric or heroic age. These people were mostly in the agricultural or pastoral stages of industry. All classes lived on farms and the cultivation of the soil was regarded as the most honorable of occupations. Even the great Ulysses followed the plough. Other pursuits were the keeping of cattle or swine, blacksmithing, shipbuilding, and commerce, while a few men adopted the profession of leech or physician, of the fortune-teller, or of the musician. There were three elements of government in Homeric society: the head-chief, or king, the council of subordmate chiefs, and an irregularly constituted assembly of the common people. The head- RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES 29 chief was the war leader, judge of disputes between other citizens of the tribe, and high priest of the tribal gods; but he had no particular social pre-eminence over the other chiefs, while the common citizen, Thersites, dared to "pour forth his upbrai dings even upon goodly Agamemnon." The council of chiefs was at all times able to control the head- chief, and from the tenth to the fifth century B.C. they formed oligarchies or governments by the few, which drew more and greater restrictions around the powers of the king, at the same time refusing to the common people a right to share in governing. Among the Homeric Greeks two religions existed. To Greek Re- the ancestor worship of the Myceneans the coming of the ''g">° Acheans added a worship of the powers of nature, — the sun, moon, and sea, the thunderbolt and earthquake. Around these phenomena the poetic Greek built up mythical explanations of all matters beyond their reasoning powers. They personified the powers of nature. The supreme god, whom they called "The God" (Zeus), had the thunderbolt as his weapon to punish those who offended him. The sun was personified as Phoebus Apollo; the wind as Hermes, patron of commerce and messenger of the gods; fire as Hephaestus, patron of the forge and maker of the armor of the gods; the sea as Poseidon (Latin, Neptune). Among the female divinities were Hera, wife of Zeus and goddess of the sky; Artemis, moon goddess and patroness of the hunt; Athena, the goddess of TOsdom; and Aphrodite (Latin, Venus), goddess of love. The Greeks believed in a shadowy future life in Hades which was ruled by Dis (Pluto), the god of the under-world. These gods were served by priests who performed the religious ceremonies, consisting chiefly of offering up burnt sacrifices of oxen or other animals. The early Greeks were deeply religious and believed that the gods usually acted justly toward mankind; yet some of the Greek stories picture them as having the same passions and failings as mortals. The priests never attained to as great power as a class asS chd the Hebrew priesthood. 14. The Period of Colonization. — About the year 1000 30 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY The Dorian Invasion Periods and Motives for Colonization The Oracle at Delphi B.C. a new people spread over Greece, causing a great change in the population of Hellas. At that time the Myceneans and Acheans had become united into a fairly uniform people called lonians, to distinguish them from the newcomers or Dorians. Some of the lonians were driven to seek shelter on the shores of Asia Minor, where they settled in cities in the district later called Ionia; but the stronghold of the lonians was Attica, where developed the great city of Athens, the light of all Greece. This period of change is sometimes called the first period of colonization. The motives for colonization are three-fold: the desire to escape religious, political, or economic oppression; the love of adventure and of change; and the ambition for acquiring power, or love of leadership. The first movement of colonization was actuated chiefly by the first of these motives. The Dorians drove the lonians from their ancestral fields forcing them to find others or starve. The second period of colonization began about two hundred years after the Dorian invasion and continued for several hundred years. It was caused by all three motives. The method of founding colonies is worth studying. The first thing done was to consult the oracle at Delphi, whether the expedition would be successful. There, in a temple erected in honor of Apollo, the Pythia or prophetess seated herself upon a tripod, or three-legged stool, near a crevice in the rocky floor of the temple, and under the influence of a gas which escaped from the crevice, uttered incoherent words which the priests pretended to interpret. They usu- ally so worded the response that it might be taken to mean anything. Then, whatever happened, it appeared that the Pythia had prophesied truly. An example of the double meaning of some of the oracular responses is the famous answer to the question of the Athenians regarding the out- come of the impending battle of Salamis mth the Persians: "Salamis, thou shalt cause sons of women to perish, either when the grain is sown or when it is harvested," a wonder- fully ambiguous sort of answer. If the oracle's response seemed favorable, a leader for the RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES 31 expedition having been chosen, volunteer emigrants were The Method invited to embark with their families and movable posses- "fColoniza- sions, taking with them also sacred fire from the home altar, The Okacle of Apollo Restored The sacred shrine is near the centre. The amphitheatre is on the hillside above the temple. which was carefully tended until they were able to place it on the new shrine. The new city begun, an altar was RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES 33 erected therein, and with impressive rehgious rites the old fire was transferred to the new altar as a symbol of the binding tie between colony and mother city.' During the period of colonization the chiefs became Greek wealthier than those of the Homeric age. Aided by their Tyrants wealth they Kmited the power of the head-chief, or king, and instituted oligarchies, thus giving rise to the name of the oligarchic or aristocratic period. In many of the Greek cities pretended champions of the people arose, who overthrew the aristocracies and ruled absolutely. These men were called tyrants. The Greeks meant by tyrant a man who possessed himself of the powers of government by force and without legal sanction. To the nobles and wealthier people such a ruler seemed very cruel, hence our conception of the word ; but his rule was frequently ad\'antageous for a city, because many public works were built from the tribute collected from the wealthier citizens, while the poorer class was not crushed under the burden of taxation. There was no age of tyrants, as some writers have supposed, because such rulers are common to nearly every period of Greek history. 15. Sparta. — About 900 B.C. the Dorians, who had settled Spartan Cov- in the central part of Laconia in the little city of Sparta, ^'■°™^°' organized their government on the oligarchic plan. This reform was attributed to a semi-mythical leader named Lycurgus. The government consisted of two kings, who divided power with each other, a senate of thirty clan- chiefs or elders, and an assembly of all Spartans capable of bearing arms. For two hundred years thereafter the senate exercised the sole political power. About 700 B.C. the government became slightly more democratic. Five officials, called ephors, elected annually by the assembly, were intrusted with important duties. Among these were ' This tie was strongly felt by most of the Greeks, although colonies were usually independent of the parent city. Athens founded the only colonies not possessing this independence. A few of her colonies were garrisoned and governed by Athenian settlers, who retained all rights of citizenship in Athens. This type of colony is called a cleruchy. The cleruchy and the true colony were the models for all other colonial efiorts. 4 34 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Classes of Society the following: ' to make war and peace, to act as judges over certain cases, to supervise the kings who became commanders in wartime only, to consult with the senate on matters of state, and to announce laws to the assembly for its approval. Sparta held in slavery the people whom she had despoiled of land. These were called helots and outnumbered their masters ten to one. They had no political rights. The government forced them to labor for the Spartan citizens in return for the military service which every Spartan citizen had to render. A third class of inhabitants of Laconia was composed of those who dwelt in the villages of Laconia. These people, called perioeci, were subject to Sparta and were Spartan Edu- cation Plan of Athens obliged to serve in the Spartan army, but they enjoyed many rights and privileges. The government of Sparta was socialistic to the extent that every man's family and possessions were the property of the state. The ideal of Spartan education was to render the citizen useful to the state; therefore the boys were trained for military ser\dce and the girls were trained in gymnastics so that they might be strong and well and able RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES 35 to rear healthy children for the state. Everything centred around the mihtary traditions of the city. The boy was removed from the home of his parents at an early age and brought up by the state in company with other lads of his own age. The Spartans scorned the culture and refinement of other Greek cities. Except for a slight training in reading and martial music, their education was purely physical. Is it strange that Sparta for hundreds of years sent forth the finest armies in all Greece, or that no great name in art, philosophy, or literature is found in her history? 16. Early Athens. — With Athens, on the other hand, the history of Greece is chiefly concerned. Some authorities attempt to account for the progressive spirit shown by the Athenians by showing that Athens was made up of so many diverse elements of population. The Athenians wrote more important books, built finer temples, erected more beautiful statues, and developed a freer government than did other Greek cities.' Early in the oligarchic period the "well-born" (nobles) took from the king all his powers except those of priest and gave them to new officials chosen from their own number who were called archons. Not satisfied with having all the powers of government in their own hands," the " well-born " reduced the common people of Athens to slavery. There were no written laws, so the poor people were obhged to endure every imposition put upon them by their masters. They had to labor on the estates of the rich for a miserable pittance that was often insufficient to pay their living ex- penses. If they got in debt they and their families were seized by the wealthy landlord and sold into slavery. At last the common people rebelled against such injustice and ' Like all primitive peoples, the Athenians were unable to trace their early history. So they invented various myths to explain how the city was built. Two of their great heroes were Codrus, a king, of whom it was told that he sacrificed his life to save the city and Theseus, who killed the monster Minotaur in the Cretan labyrinth. ' The king, called king-archon, was elected for a short term from the "well-born." The other archons were "the archon," who assumed most of the old regal powers, and the polemarch, or war-archon. Origin of Athens Government by the "Well- born " 36 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Laws of Draco Solon's Re- forms demanded that the laws of Athens be written down, so that the judges (who were always members of the well-bom class) might not make decisions to suit their own interests.' In 621 B.C. the archon Draco was instructed to make a code of laws. After these laws had been carved on wooden tablets and set up in the public square the people saw how inhuman and cruel many of them were. A few years later another man was appointed archon to reform economic and political evils. This man, Solon, brought forward ^ a law, called the " Removal of Burdens," which freed the Athenians from slavery and debt (593 B.C.). He also ga\'e to the common people a greater ^ control over the government and deprived the nobles of most of their political power. In order to insure popular interest in government, a law was made by which any citizen, who refused to serve his city in war or who would not assume political responsibilities such as assembly or jury duty, might be deprived of his citizenship. Solon also insisted on the miiversal education of the Athenian youth. Solon was one of the most remarkable men of ancient times. Before he had shown his statesmanship he had conducted a brilliant military campaign for Athens. All his life he was a successful ' An uprising against the government led by Cylon, who wished to make himself tyrant of Athens as his father-in-law was at Megara, in the course of which the citadel itself was seized by the rebels, was finally put down by the well-born. But the popular discontent against the injustice done the poor finally forced the rulers to consent to reform. 2 The "Removal of Burdens" provided: (i) All Athenians were freed from slavery ; (2) Mortgages held by the rich on property of the poor were cancelled, or, as some think, the boundary marks on mort- gaged property were removed, thus preventing the holder of the mort- gage from locating the land so pledged; (3) The amount of land that could be held by one person was limited; (4) Public and private debts were cancelled; (5) The coins were made smaller, thus benefiting the debtor class. ' Plad Solon not reformed the government of y\thens, the economic reforms mentioned above would speedily have been set at naught by the rich. He gave to the popular assembly the right to elect the archons and to try them at the expiration of their term of ofifice if any charges were brought against them. He took away the right of preparing laws from the archons and gave it to a newly constituted body, the senate. RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES 37 business man; but he also was one of the best poets of his time. Athens was on the high road to democracy when an un- Tyranny at fortunate strife arose between factions and temporarily so A*^^"^ weakened the state that a distant relative of Solon took advantage of its weakness and made himself tyrant. This man, Pisistratus, was a man of the highest character and ideals, who sought to preserve the forms of the constitution introduced by Solon, while playing the role of a political boss. After numerous conspiracies directed against his life had been thwarted, he became more of a "tyrant," surrounding him- self with a bodyguard and giving less attention to keeping up Solon's reforms. During his long rule Athens was made a city beautiful, yet he taxed the people heavily to build temples and roads. The Athenians rejoiced when Clisthenes, another Solon, drove out Hippias, the son and successor of Pisistratus, and restored and made improvements upon Solon's democratic government. Clisthenes rearranged the wards of Athens, so as to destroy Reforms of the old tribal distinctions that had offered Pisistratus an Clisthenes opportunity to overthrow the democracy. He also threw citizenship open to all residents in Athens, and invented a device by which dangerous agitators or would-be tyrants could be banished from the city.^ The assembly was given greater control over the government. 17. The Rise of Persia. — During the lifetime of Draco Beginnings of the mountain pastoral tribes li^•ing east of Babylonia were the Persian 1 • '7 T ■ 1 • r ■ i\ T 1 Empire organized mto a kmgdom b}' one of their cfueftams, a Mede, who also gained an overlordship over a kindred people called the Persians, who lived on the eastern shores of the Persian Gulf. Wlien Babylon revolted from AssjTia, the Medes aided in the destruction of their common foe and di^'ided OTth Babylon the former Assyrian dominions. Fifty years later, as Pisistratus was entrenching himself in power in Athens, Cyrus, a Persian prince, overthrew successively ' Ostracism, as this plan was called, consisted of an election or ballot to determine the name of the most unpopular citizen of Athens. The man recei\Tng the votes of si.x thousand citizens was banished (ostracized) . 38 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Media and Babylon with all their tributary states in Asia Minor. His son added Egypt to the Persian empire and extorted a heavy tribute from the Ionian cities. Darius was the next ruler of Persia who left his mark on the empire. His work was the construction of the government rather than conquest. He divided the empire into provinces, called satrapies, in which the civil matters were controlled by a governor, called satrap, while the army was under the com- mand of a general appointed by Darius.' The Persian The Persians were a half barbarous people at the time of Civilization Darius. They had adopted the architecture and literature of the Babylonians. Unlike the nations by whom they were surrounded, the Persians did not worship a multitude of gods. Zoroaster, a Persian prophet of the sixth century B.c.,^ taught that there were two supernatural forces con- tinually at war. These they called Ahura-mazda, the benef- icent god of light, symbolized by the sun, and Ahriman, the spirit of evil and darkness. They believed that Ahura- mazda would eventually conquer Ahriman and bind him fast for eternity. These beliefs, together with prayers and hymns, make up the Avesta, the Bible of the Per- sians. The early Persians believed in truth-telling and in honesty of life and were morally superior to other ancient peoples.^ other Eastern The sixth century before Christ was a period of religion building and Religions q{ moral reform. Thousands of years before, a branch of the Turanian people, which had developed the Sumerian civilization in the Tigris- ' In addition to this plan of dividing authority, an officer, called "The King's Ear," resided in each satrapy and gave frequent reports in writing to Darius. An inspector, called "The King's Eye," supervised the administrations of all the satraps. By these oflicials and by a network of state roads, constructed from one end of his empire to the other, Darius was enabled to bind together an empire of vast e.xtent while he planned to increase its size by European conquests. ^ Some authorities place Zoroaster as far back in history as looo B.C. Others question whether such a man ever lived. ' The Magians, or priests of the Persian religion, destroyed the former high ethical standards of the I^ersians by insisting on the importance of form and ceremony in worship and by neglecting wholesome living. RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES 39 Euphrates region, had wandered across the plains of Turkestan and China to tlic shores of the Yellow Sea. There they developed a high civiliza- tion for thousands of years and gained a wonderful knowledge of me- chanical arts. Their teacher, Confucius, preached a new standard of Confucianism morality in these words: "Do not to others what you would not have others do to you." A people akin in language to the Greeks had settled in very early times along the Indus and Ganges rivers, where they developed a strong caste system and a complicated religion. Society organized on a caste system is one in which strong distinctions are made between the various classes of society. In India the castes are the Brahmins or priests, the warriors, the peasant freemen, the slaves. Beneath all these were the Pariahs or outcastes. The earliest Hindoo religion was probably monotheistic. There was one supreme god, called Brahma. Later he was regarded as three-fold; the creator, Brahma; the saviour, Vishnu; and the destroyer, Siva. The priests corrupted this religion by the introduction of hundreds of lesser gods and by the magnifying of religious rites over religious ideals. In the sixth century a princely 3'outh, named Gautama, gave up his riches and devoted his life to the service of mankind. He taught his followers to lead noble lives, overcoming c\'il with good. His disciples called him Buddha (the enlightened one). The great world religion which developed from his teachings spread over India and China. It has been choked out in India by a revival of Brahminism in its worst forms. The Caste System Hindoo Re- ligion 18. Wars between the Greeks and Persians. — The Ionian Greeks rebelled against the tyrants whom the Persian ruler had permitted to rule them and, with the aid of the Athenians, captured Sardis, the most important city in the western possessions of Persia. Their triumph was short- lived, for Darius threw a strong army into Ionia and, after a short struggle, forced the cities to accept again the Persian yoke. He then turned his attention to Hellas, partly to punish the Athenians and partly to carry out his designs for empire in Europe. His first e.xpedition against Greece was only halfway successful, and the loss of his fleet in a storm postponed for two years the attack on Athens. In 490 B.C. a large Persian army under the leadership of the generals Datis and Artaphernes landed on the island of Eubea, destroyed the city of Eretria, an ally of Athens, and then crossed to the shore of Attica. They were met on the plains of Marathon by a small army of ten thousand Athe- The Ionian Revolt Marathon 490 B.C. 40 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Its Impor- tance Party Politics at Athens The Invasion of Xerxes 480-479 B.C. nians and one thousand Plateans only'; yet, owing to the superior generalship of Miltiades, who is rated as one of the greatest of Greek iniUtary heroes, the Persians were totally defeated. The battle of Marathon encouraged the Greeks to withstand all attempts upon their hberty by foreign powers. It also prepared the way for Athenian leadership of Greece. It was the first great conflict between East and West to prevent Europe from being orientahzed. No further attempt to conquer Greece was made by Darius for ten years, owing to an Egyptian revolt from Persian rule. His energies were fully occupied in suppressing this revolt. By this time the democratic party had become the only party in Athens, much as the Federahst was the only party in Washington's administration, yet on the point of dividing again. Those who were satisfied with the reforms already won and opposed further progress, who may be called con- servatives, were led by Aristides, one of the greatest Greek statesmen. Themistocles was the leader of the radical party which favored further reform. He advocated that Athens should build a large navy so that she might be pre- pared if Persia attacked again. Aristides, pointing to the success of the Athenians on land at Marathon and elsewhere, seriously objected to the waste of money involved in the building of a fleet. Themistocles beheved that the matter was one of life or death to Athens and so brought about a vote to determine popular sentiment. Aristides was ostra- cized and Themistocles was encouraged to carry out his policy. Xer.xes, the son of Darius, was a vain man of small talents and mentally unbalanced. With many boasts and great display, he led an army of nearly a million fighting men and a fleet of twelve hundred ships against Greece.^ As his 1 The Athenians had sent a famous runner to Sparta with a request for aid, but the Spartans superstitiously refused to allow their army to set forth before the full-moon. In the meantime the battle had been fought. 2 When the Greeks learned that the Persians were advancing they RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES 41 army came through the mountain passes of Thessaly, it was met at Thermopylae by a gallant Spartan band under Leonidas. The Spartans died for their country and estab- hshed a fame that will last as long as history itself. The Athenian fleet, on the same day, delayed the Persian advance in the straits of Artemisium, and later anchored in the harbor of Salamis, west of Athens, to discuss further plans for defence. Here they were attacked by the Persian fleet,' and, to the consternation of Xerxes, who witnessed the battle, the Persians were as decisively beaten on the sea as they had been on the land at Marathon. The enormous Persian army was defeated soon after this at Platea by the combined forces of Sparta and Athens, and on the same day the Athenian fleet won another signal victory over the Persians at Mycale. The former battle closed the Persian war in Hellas; the second began the struggle to free the Ionian Greeks. Greatly encouraged at their success in resisting the most powerful empire of their day, the Greeks pressed on to the highest development of the intellectual and artistic superiority for which they are famous in history. Had the Persians conquered the Greeks, it is doubtful whether the great achievements in art, drama, held a congress of the Greek cities at Corinth, where the question of defence was discussed. The people of the Peloponnesus selfishly advo- cated that all Greeks should retire within that peninsula and fortify the Isthmus of Corinth, connecting it with central Greece. This would have left Athens defenceless, and therefore the Athenians would have none of the plan. Another plan, to attempt to guard the mountain passes leading from Thessaly to central Greece, was adopted. 1 When Themistocles discovered that the Spartans were about to desert the cause of the Greeks he determined to force a battle with the Persians in order to hold them. Accordingly he sent a false message to Xerxes in which he agreed to betray the Greeks to him and advised him to block up the harbor of Salamis with his fleet. The stratagem suc- ceeded. The fleet of Xerxes blocked up the narrow mouth of the harbor and the Greeks were cauglit like rats in a trap, yet they could still fight. In order to win, Xerxes had to capture the Greek fleet. Accordingly he ordered his ships to enter the harbor. This was exactly what Themis- tocles had hoped he would do. As the Persian ships came through the narrow channel in single file, the Greek ships attacked and sunk them. Aristides returned to aid the Athenians in this battle. Significance of the Out- come of the Wars 42 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY architecture, and philosophy would have been brought forth during the next period of Greek history. 19. Summary of Early Greek History. — The Greek race was made up of at least two stocks, the Myceneans and the Achean-Dorians. (For the Dorians were probably a later wave of invasion from the same stock.) They Hved in a land peculiarly adapted to commerce. This commerce led to colonization and to the growth of a wonderful, many-sided civilization. The Spartans stood for military elBciency and for the subordination of the individual to the state; the Athenians beUeved in intellectual and commercial supremacy and in the utmost development of the principle of personal liberty possible to an age when slavery was an economic necessity. Clisthenes carried on still further the great work of turning aristocratic Athens into a democracy that had been commenced by Solon and checked by the tyranny. During this period the Spartan army was approaching perfection and the Ionian cities were developing intellectual culture and commercial relations, which attracted the attention of the Persians. The Persians developed from a pastoral people to a strong empire under Cyrus and Darius. After having mastered the Orient, they attempted to conquer the Greek city-states. The Greeks won because they were fighting for their homes and on familiar ground; because they were better trained and better officered; finally because their navy was made up of Athenian ships and not of unwilling mercenaries. The Greek victory rescued Europe from the bhghting effects of the oriental civilization. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Show on an outline map of Greece the principal physical features of Greece; locate the important cities and states mentioned in the chapter; indicate where battles were fought. Relate the stories of Jason and tiie Golden Fleece, Theseus and the Minotaur, the Labors of Hercules, Cadmus, the siege of Troy, the wanderings of Ulysses. Find out how the Greeks reckoned time. Explain the nature and influence of the Greek Olympic games. Compare the Mycenean and Achean civiliza- tions and peoples. Mention some of the important Greek colonies, RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATES 43 locate them, and tell by whom founded. Relate the story of typical tyrants, such as Pisistratus, Pittacus, Periander, and Clisthenes of Sicyon. (Good accounts may be found in Bury, pp. 146-159.) How did Sparta treat deformed children? What was the effect of Spartan educa- tion on character? Of Athenian? Read the description of a Persian higliroad in Wheeler's Life of Alexander the Grcal, pp. 196-197. Read some longer account of the lives of Themistocles, IMiltiades, and Aristides. Compare their political views and services to the city of Athens. Why are the accounts of the battles so brief in this book? Compare the part played by Athens in this war with Sparta's. Reference Readings Seignobos, Ancient Civilisation. Topics: Greece and the Greeks; Colonization, Chapter IX; Greek Myths and Religion, Chapter X; Sparta, Chapter XI; Athens, Chapter XII; Rise of Persia, Chapter VI; Persian Wars, Chapter XIII. Fling, Source-Book of Greet: History: D. C. Heath and Co. (Selections from the original sources of Greek history, invaluable for class reference reading.) Primitive Greek Society, pp. 1-28; Coloniza- tion, pp. 29-40; Unification of Greek Life, pp. 41-53; Rise of Sparta and Athens, pp. 54-97; Persian Wars, pp. 98-99, 105-141. Bury, History of Greece: Macmillan. (About the best single volume Greek history.) ilaterial for this chapter may be found in the first 321 pages. Bryant, Translation of the Odyssey, Books VI, VII. Botsford, A History of the Ancient World, pp. S1-182. Andrews, Alexander the Great, Persia, pp. 187-207. Shepherd, Historical Atlas: Beginnings of Historic Greece, p. 8; Refer- ence maps of Ancient Greece, pp. 10, 11, 14, 15; Greek Colonies, p. 12; Persian Wars, pp. 13, 16. CHAPTER III The Delian League Growth of the League THE ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 20. Origin of Athenian Empire. — The Spartans were jealous of the growing power of Athens and showed actual hostility to her.^ Aristides proposed in 466 B.c.^ a con- federacy of the states friendly to Athens. Its object should be to free the Egean and its coasts from Persian rule and, at the same time, balance the land league which Sparta had built up in the Peloponnesus. Athens acted as presi- dent of this league, somewhat as the kingdom of Prussia rules the German empire through its king, who is also em- peror. The treasury was at first kept on the island of Delos, hence the name Delian League. Each member of the league agreed to furnish a certain number of ships and sufficient money annually to carry on its wars. During the following ten years the league won many victories, until nearly all the islands of the Egean Sea and the most important cities of Thrace and Ionia were freed from Persia. With the disappearance of Persian power the lonians were less anxious to have a large fleet; hence, instead of contributing ships, they paid equivalent sums of money into the common treasury. This money was intended as insurance against future attacks, but Athens used it to ' Sparta attempted to prevent Athens from rebuilding her fortifica- tions which had been destroyed by the Persians. Themistocles deceived the Spartans and misrepresented what Athens was trying to do. He went to Sparta and kept the Spartan leaders occupied mth daily con- ferences, while the Athenians completed the fortifications of the city. They were forced to use the ruined walls of temples and public buildings for quarries. 2 Aristides was at this time in command of the allied Greek fleet which was engaged in freeing the Greek cities of Ionia from Persian rule. ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 45 build new ships, gradually replacing a fleet of allies with her own vessels, until the fleet was entirely Athenian built and manned. Now Athens was in a position to act the tyrant over the rest of the league. When Naxos refused to pay its assessment on the ground that it was no longer needed, the Athenian fleet compeUed payment. Rebellious cities were treated as conquered provinces by Athens. She took away their citizenship and levied excessive tribute. With these acts of tyranny Athens no longer called together the congress of the league and removed the treasury of the allies from Delos to Athens, where its funds were used for beautify- ing and strengthening the city. The Delian League had been converted into an Athenian empire. 21. Periclean Athens. — After the death of Aristides Character of new leaders came to the front, among them Pericles, the Pericles greatest statesman of Athens. An aristocrat by birth, he fought for the common people, as did Julius Caesar at Rome. He was a cold, haughty, reserved man of fine physique and noble face, but he possessed the power of ^^nning the worship of his adherents. He held no important public office except His Influence that of general, yet he was practically emperor of the Athenian empire for over a score of years. He had great influence over the officers of government. If he lived today he would be a political leader of national strength. His aim was His Aim to make Athens the most prominent politically, the most popular and best governed, the most artistic and the most beautiful of all the cities of Greece. After he became the leader of his party he attempted to His Policy build up a land empire for Athens, and ^vithin ten years had added most of central Greece, Thessaly, and Euboea to the Athenian control. He completed the fortification of Athens ' by building long walls from the city to and enclosing the Pireus, the port of Athens. This effectually prevented Sparta from besieging the city on all sides \vith a land force ' Themistocles, although a more brilliant general than Aristides, had been banished from Athens some years previous to the death of Aristides because of a serious mistake that he made in carrying on the affairs of the city. 46 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY and cutting off her supplies. He gave aid to Egypt in her war for independence from Persia. Just at this time calamity after calamity overtook the Athenian empire. The great Athenian fleet and army in Egypt was overwhelmed, Euboea and Beotia revolted, and Sparta invaded Attica. Pericles was glad to be able to make peace with the Peloponnesians, which is kno-ivn as the Thirty Years' Truce. (It lasted only fifteen years.) The Acropolis Today The art of the Ancients, neglected and in ruins. Athenian Democracy Although Athens had lost some of her prestige abroad, she was nevertheless at the height of her power at home. This period is called her golden age. Athens had become a democ- racy, of which the foUo^ving are the principal features: (i) The council and officers who represented the nobles had no real share in the government. (2) The elective office of general had increased in importance until it resembled that of our president. He had the power to propose laws to the assembly and, after the laws had been made, he had the ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 47 right to see to their execution. (3) The assembly, now composed of all free-born Athenians who cared to attend, had the power not only to make all important laws, but together with the general also the right to supervise their execution. (4) The courts became truly representative of the people and acted with the assembly on all matters. The Acropolis at Athens — Restored Tliis fortified hill, wliich contained some of tlie most splendid produc- tions of Greek art, was approached by the steps shown at the lower left comer of the picture. The Parthenon is seen near the top of the restora- tion. The theatre of Dionysus is at the right of the Parthenon. The dicasteries, or popular courts, were chosen annually by lot. Each court was made up of five hundred jurors and had jurisdiction over dis- putes between members of the league, charges brought against pubhc officials, and civil suits. After the evidence had been presented by the popular orators on each side, the majority vote of the five hundred dicasts or jurors would be the final judgment. With such a large number of men constantly in the ci\'il service, and with the precedent estabhshed 48 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Classes of Society Slavery Architecture and Sculpture of only one term in office, it will be readily seen that public life was required of nearly every free-born Athenian. The consequence was that the Athenians developed the sense of democracy to a higher degree than other peoples of ancient times. The population of Athens during the age of Pericles was probably 250,000. About 35,000 were accorded full citizen- ship. "^ There were at least 10,000 foreigners, called metics, residing and engaging in business in Athens at this time. These were sometimes admitted to citizenship by a secret ballot of the assembly in return for great public service. (The general attitude toward the metics was exclusive.) Every family in Athens had at least one slave, and there were probably over 150,000 slaves at work in the shops, mines, or on the country estates of the Athenians in Attica. The employment of slaves in the trades was universally recognized as legitimate, honorable, and profitable. The Athenian usually treated Iris slaves with consideration and kindness, the law proliibiting cruelty except when neces- sary to compel a slave to confess a crime. The slaves felt the same loyalty to their masters as was shown by many Southern negroes before the Ci^-il War; as a result no slave rebellion took place until centuries after the time we are studying. Although Athens was the leader of the ancient world in free thought, she failed to reach a very high point in ideas of universal brotherhood because she fostered the institution of slavery, adopted a narrow policy toward for- eigners, and excluded women from all political rights. 22. Artistic and Intellectual Supremacy of Athens. — Great as Athens was in political growth, she was far greater as the producer of the greatest artistic and intellectual works of antiquity and perhaps of all time. Phidias created in the Parthenon a type of perfect architectural design. This can never be duplicated. He built on a slight curve all those lines which our architects must now make absolutely square ' Full citizenship was given only to one whose father's and mother's families were each citizen stock. Serious crimes against the state, such as bribery, embezzlement of public money, perjury, or cruelty to parents, were punishable by loss of citizenship. ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 49 and straight. As curved lines are more beautiful than straight lines, so his temple -will always be the most beautiful building in the world. His pupil, Praxiteles, his superior in sculpture though not in architecture, has given the world the beautiful statue of Hermes. Greek statues are master- pieces not because they accurately reproduce the lines of the human body, but because viewed from no matter what side, the proportion of the body seems perfectly foreshortened Reasons for Greek Artistic Supremacy The Restored Pakthenon From a model in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. to the eye. This art of proportion is what distinguishes their work from even the most beautiful of modem works. At no other period of the world's history were there so Greek Litera- many artists of rank and writers and thinkers within the '"^'^ walls of a single city. The writing of this period was chiefly of two kinds, dramatic poetry and history. The Greeks attached great importance to the drama because they re- garded it in the nature of a religious service in honor of the gods. The serious drama which they called tragedy, grew out of the old choral ode, a hymn sung by a group of wor- S Thespis The Drama 50 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY shippers. Thespis, an Athenian poet, wrote a hymn in which one actor or singer carried out the main story while the worshippers joined in the chorus. This was the germ of Greek tragedy. The tragedy more closely resembled grand opera than drama. The lines of the acts were declaimed or An Interior View of the Restored Parthenon sung, and the chorus was accompanied with the music of Aeschylus flutes. Aeschylus, a contemporary of Aristides, improved on the drama of Thespis by adding a second actor and made the two soloists do the principal work of the drama, leaving to the chorus the task of emphasizing their feelings. He ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 51 had been a spectator of the battles of the Persian War and his patriotism made him choose lofty themes connected with the history or religion of his country. His masterpiece is "Prometheus Bound," the story of a human benefactor, who was chained to a rock and tortured by an eagle because of his kindness to man. In his agony Prometheus utters great truths concerning the nature of life and death. The Athenians held contests at which contestants for Sophocles dramatic fame presented their work. Aeschylus was de- feated in one of these contests by a young man of twenty- eight named Sophocles. The new dramatist added a third actor to the principals and made the chorus still less promi- nent. He wrote over a hundred tragedies, of which se\'en only have been preserved. Among these is "Electra," the story of how Electra avenges the death of her father, Agamem- non, who was murdered after his return from the Trojan War. Euripides, the third great tragedian, was also sombre in Euripides tone, and while his dramas are more polished than those of his predecessors, it is T\'ith relief that we turn to the sole hu- morist among the early great dramatists. Aristophanes was the first great writer of comic drama. From his satirical stories of everyday life in Athens during the period immedi- ately follo\™g the death of Pericles, we get good pictures ' of the important men of the day. In his "Clouds" he ridicules the work of certain Athenian teachers, among them Socrates. (See p. 55.) These dramas were presented in the only place for such The Greek representations in Athens, the Dionj-sian theatre. This Theatre edifice was built on the southeastern slope of the Acropolis, the tiers of seats rising on the hillside; its stage, a separate structure facing the Acropolis. Between the stage back- ground, or scena (scene), wth its narrow platform on which the principal actors chanted their parts, and the seats of the audience was a broad space called the orchestra, which was used by the chorus for its symboUc dances. This theatre seated over thirty thousand spectators and was open to the beautiful blue sky of Greece. A small admission fee was collected from those who attended, the city paying for History 52 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY those who were too poor. The dramas presented religious and patriotic teachings, and hence served in the cause of public education. The historical writing of this period and of the one im- mediately before and after was mainly the chronicle of war. Xenophon, a pupil of Socrates, accompanied a war expedition into Persia and in the "Anabasis" ' gives us a clear idea of the military customs of the time. " n ^^^^K^ 1^ ^ ^^S ■T)'y-i Restoration of the Theatre op Dionysus A Sound Mind in a Sound Body 23. Athenian Education and Educators. — The Greeks included in education physical, mental, and moral training. The Athenian boy studied three subjects: gymnastics, music, and grammar. As these terms mean so much more than they do at present, they must be carefully explained. Physical training was practised in the palestra or wrestling grounds, under the direct supervision of a director who taught it ' This book is the basis of elementary study of Greek, because of the le 11 simplicity and interest of its style and contents. (See p. 25.) ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 53 the boj's wrestling, boxing, running, the broad jump, and casting the discus and spear.' All citizens' sons were also trained in the use of weapons. IMusic included learning to sing to the accompaniment of the lyre or small harp, and to play on the lyre and the flute, a clarinet with two pipes. The student was taught the biography of the poet who wrote the song and the motives involved in writing the poem; hence he received considerable literary training. Ruins O]? the Theatee op Dionysus (As it is today.) Grammar was studied at regular schools and consisted of reading and writing. They ^vrote with a sharp-pointed iron stylus, or pencil, on wooden tablets covered with wax, usually copying a model set by the instructor. Others wrote with a reed pen on a rough paper made from the ' Traclc atiiletics was the popular sport among the Athenians. At the national religious games the boys of Athens frequently carried off the crown of victory from older men. 54 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY The Sophists Egyptian papyrus plant. ^ The text-books of these schools were the "Iliad" and "Odyssey," which were committed to memory in whole or in part. Mathematics was not studied by the average Athenian. For counting they required an abacus or counting board.^ The Greek boy had no training in science and a very meagre study of history, and therefore was probably extremely happy in his games of ball, marbles, jackstones, or kite-flying. The train- ing of Athenian girls was along domestic lines. They learned to read and write, but, aside from these studies, they were taught only sewing, weaving, and embroidery. Two years after the death of Pericles there came to Athens from Sicily a gifted orator, named Gorgias, whose eloquent speeches frequently brought the Athenians together into the market-place. " For all the Athenians and strangers which were there spent their time in nothing else but either to tell or hear some new thing." ^ The science of public speaking (rhetoric) was thereafter a favorite study at Athens, and the teachers of oratory were called Sophists. The fault of sophistry was that it tended to exalt the words used above the thought thereby expressed and to make of the intellectual grandeur of Athens a showy but shallow "smartness." 1 They called this a book (bibles); hence the word "Bible," meaning The Book. ^ The abacus may be seen in use in Chinese laundries, or in primary school work. ' Acts xvii. 21. Doric Columns Ionic Columns ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES ^^ Aristophanes ridiculed Socrates as one of these Sophists. In reahty he was far greater than they. A poor sculptor by profession, he preferred to spend most of his time loitering in the market-place in order to get into arguments with the passers-by. He was short and poorly clad, barefooted and homely, but he was able to refute the opinions of his opponents by skillful argument. His method of questioning his opponents is famed as the Socratic method of teaching.' His motto was " Know thyself." He had many enemies, who finally had him thrown into prison on two charges; that of treason and of impiety. After an unfair trial, in which he argued that he deserved a reward, not punishment, he was condemned to die by drinking poison. His greatest pupil was the philosopher Plato, who taught that the soul is immortal and that man's mind is superior to his body. Yet few of the Greeks had any conception of a future life except as a shadowy continuation of this present existence. 24. The Peloponnesian War and the Decline of the Greek City-States. — The truce made by Pericles with the Pelopon- nesian League had lasted only fifteen years when the great war between the rival leagues began again in earnest. The ' Socrates first apparently accepted his adversary's opinion, then by skillful argument he would lead him to contradict himself, and thus expose him to the laughter of the bystanders. Socrates Bust of Soceates Plato The Com- batants $6 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY reasons for hostility were as follows: the Athenian League was composed chiefly of democratic and commercial cities; the Spartan of aristocratic and landholding states. Some of the states, of the latter league, such as Corinth, wished to gain some of Athens' commercial supremacy. The causes then were two-fold: the difference between the character of the two leagues and strife for commercial leadership. Athens had the command of the sea, but her army was inadequate to a long campaign on land. Sparta had the better army, but was unable to keep this army long in the field because she lacked a navy to support its operations and to furnish it with supplies. Pericles clearly recognized these conditions and advocated a policy of delay. The Athenians retired within their fortifications and rehed upon their fleet to feed them by bringing in grain from far-away shores of the Black Sea. In the meantime the Spartan army ravaged the fields of Attica, but did no serious damage to Athens, whereas Athenian war vessels retaliated on the shores of Laconia. End of Athe- This plan proved successful until the unwonted crowding manSuprem- q£ ^j^g ^j^y g^j^j ^j^g jj^j-j. q£ pj-Qper sanitary precautions brought pestilence upon Athens, from which over a fourth of the population of Athens ched, among them the great leader and counsellor.^ His successors, men of unquestioned hero- ism, but lacking his tact and generalship, led Athens from • An Athenian historian has written the following funeral oration, which he puts into the mouth of Pericles. "To sum up; I say that Athens is the school of Hellas, I would have you day by day fix your eyes upon the greatness of Athens, until you become filled with the love of her; and when you are impressed by the spectacle of her glory, reflect that this empire has been acquired by men who knew their duty and had their courage to do it, and who in the hour of conflict had the fear of dishonor always present in them. " For the whole earth is a sepulchre of famous men; not only are they commemorated by columns and inscriptions in their o\\'n country, but in foreign lands there dwells an unwritten memorial of them, graven not on stone, but in the hearts of men. Make them your examples, and esteeming courage to be freedom and freedom to be happiness, do not weigh too nicely the perils of war." This is surely the only funeral oration in any language worthy to be classed with the Gettysburg Address. acy ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 51 defeat to defeat.' At last Persian gold aided the Spartans to destroy the power of the most enlightened of the Greek cities. Sparta destroyed the fortifications of Athens and declared Hellas free. The destruction of Athenian power left Sparta in the most prominent position in Greece.' She ruled the members of Decline of the Greek City- States A Greek Banquet Hall the former Athenian League with a rod of iron, placing over each a committee of ten men, called decarchy, which was supported by a military garrison. Her supremacy reacted disastrously upon Sparta, for the city of Thebes, under the leadership of a brilliant statesman-general, Epaminondas, 1 The culminating tragedy was an ill-advised expedition against Syracuse, a Sicilian state allied to the Peloponnesian League. Here a fleet of over two hundred ships and an army of forty thousand men, the picked soldiers of Athens, were destroyed. After this defeat Athens struggled along for nine years before she was forced to surrender. 2 It was during this period that Cyrus (a brother of the then reigning Persian king, .Artaxerxes) made an expedition from Ionia to Babylon with Greek mercenaries, to take the throne from his brother. Cyrus was kUled in a battle near Babylon and Xenophon led the Greeks back across the mountains to the Black Sea. This famous expedition is described in the " Anabasis." 58 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY humbled her armies in the field and crushed her political hopes. This general was successful because he improved upon the military tactics of his day. The Spartans had invented the phalanx, a fighting unit made up of compact bodies of men who marched and fought as one. Epaminon- das improved upon this plan by making his line of battle deeper at one particular point and by concentrating his attack upon the enemy at that point. The other detach- ments of his army fell upon the flanks of the enemy struggling with his deep phalanx and put them to rout. Epaminondas was killed in battle after ten j^ears of success, and no Greek was able to carry on his work of leadership. The city-states had failed. Each of the leading states had been given an opportunity to weld all Hellas together under its leadership, but each in turn failed, chiefly because its motives were selfish. Each strove for wealth and power at the expense of the other states. It was left for an outsider to unite the Greek world into a great empire. The Rise of 25. Macedon and Alexander the Great. — Before the time of the Theban supremacy the people of Macedon were " without fixed habitations, clad in animal skins, pasturing sheep among the mountains." They were somewhat differ- ent from the other Greeks in racial characteristics. Philip II, who had spent his boyhood at Thebes, proved a great ruler and conqueror. He introduced the Theban phalanx and improved upon it, making his soldiers able to perform military manoeuvres similar to those of modern battalions. While getting his army trained, he deceived the Greek cities as to his real motive. Having amassed a fortune, secured a seaport for Macedon, and perfected his plans against Greece, he threw his army across the border and speedily crushed al) resistance. The Greek states met at Corinth and acknowl- edged Philip as the ruler or leader of all Hellas. He then planned to invade Persia, but died at the moment of entering upon the expedition, lea^-ing his well-trained army, his treasury, and the prestige of his name to his youthful son, Alexander. Alexander was twenty years old when his father died. Macedon ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 59 and a few malcontents thought that they could take advan- tage of his youth. But in less than two years he had so thoroughly chastised these rebels that he felt secure in taking up the task his father had planned. Entering Asia Minor (334 B.C.) with a small but fully ecjuipped army, he fought three world-famous battles with the Persian forces at Grani- cus, Issus, and Arbela. After capturing the ancient city of Tyre, he visited Egypt and founded at the mouth of the Nile the famous city named after himself, Alexandria, which became one of the chief intellectual cities of the world. Within five years he was master of the East as far as the ■#.^ Spaj \ , / ^ ■ ^' 'JV-^.j^^Perfl epulis 4' \ -"-'^iy-<\ Empire of Alexander the Gre.\t — At Its Widest Extent Indus, had deposed the king of Persia, and had welded the Hellenic and Persian world together into one vast empire, the greatest then known to history. He returned to Babylon, where he died suddenly of a fever brought on by excesses in eating and drinking, or, as some believe, from poison. The importance of his career and conquests is incalculable. He was a man of great breadth of mind, fond of science and history. He was trained by the great philosopher Aristotle, the pupil of Plato. His passions were not always under the best control. He inherited from his mother a violent temper that caused him to commit many acts of folly and violence; and, while under the influence of wine, he murdered his The Life of Alexander the Great His Character and Place in History 6o ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY friend Clitus. His generalship was of the highest order. Only once did he suffer a defeat, and that was at the hands of the Hindoo princes, when, with a tired and discontented army, he tried to conquer the lands beyond the Indus. His statesmanship is shown by his policy of uniting the Greeks and Persians in marriage, and he set an example by marrying the daughter of the deposed Persian ruler. His love of learning is shown in his regard for his tutor, Aris- totle, the most famous scientist of ancient times. Alexan- der was the most attractive in person of all the world's great conquerors. Of magnificent proportions, with handsome face and eyes, he is an ideal of the man of force. The chief importance of Alexander's career lies in the spread of the Greek civilization over the entire eastern Mediterranean region. The entire ci^dlized world at that time became Greek in language, learning, and customs, all except the struggling republic of the West, Rome. In building cities to be the centres of Greek thought throughout his dominions, he greatly broadened the minds of the people of the East. Greece gained wealth of temple and city, plundered and sent home by the soldiers of his army, but she lost the thousands of strong men who made up that army. Those who remained at home were the physically unfit. The consequence was that the Greek race declined physically, while the new-found wealth sapped its moral vigor. Division of 26. The Hellenic World after the Death of Alexander. — the Empire Alexander's infant son was unable to hold his empire, and it was accordingly divided up between four of his generals,' ' The wars between Alexander's generals are called the wars of suc- cession. At their close there grew up three great states: Egypt, Syria, and Macedonia. Hellas fell a prey first to one and then to another of these powers. Curiously it was during this period of political decline in general that the most successful unions of city-states were made in Hellas. Achea had not played an important part in earlier Greek his- tory, althougli the name Achean will be remembered as applied by Homer to the conquerors of the Myceneans. The cities of Achea during the third century B.C. formed a league which later took in all the city-states of the Peloponnesus except Sparta and Elis. Its constitution resembles that of the American confederation from 1783 to 17SS, and also, but ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 6l among whom the most important was Ptolemy, who chose for liis share the rich, ancient land of Egypt, adding later by conquest the region of Syria. He made his capital at Alexan- dria, wliich was the royal seat of his descendants until nearly the beginning of the Christian era. Some of the Ptolemies were patrons of learning and of public works, but the greater number were of weak or depraved character. The century of the spread of Hellenic ideas saw a great Aristotle advance in philosophical knowledge. Aristotle wrote weighty scientific works and established a school at Athens where many sciences were taught. His travels enabled him to gain geographical knowledge and to collect specimens of plants and animals for classification. His thought was so profound that, in the middle ages, his works were rev- erenced by learned men with a respect almost equal to that given the Bible. During the later Greek period we also find two widely differing systems of ethics, the science of conduct. The Athenian Epicurus preached that happiness is to be sought above all else, but by happiness he meant the knowledge that one has acted honorably in all the relations. The Epicurean school of thinkers, however, departed from their founder's teachings, in that they regarded any sort of happi- ness as right. To such men no higher ideal would appeal than the famous saying attributed to the Epicureans, "Eat, drink, and be merry, for to-morrow we die." Entirely opposed to such teachings were those of Zeno, caUed the Stoic because he taught in the Stoa (porch) at Athens. Zeno said that man's chief ideal should be ^'irtue, Epicurus and the Epicureans Zeno and the Stoics less obviously, our federal constitution. Twice annually a congress of as many representati\'es of the cities of the league as cared to attend was held at which important officers were elected. These were a general, a cabinet of ten men, and a senate. Taxation was made by the senate at the advice of the cabinet. Each state had only one vote in congress, without regard to the number of representatives present. Sparta also built up a league, and the struggle between the rival leagues again weak- ened Greece so that she fell into the hands of iSIacedon a second time. Soon after this Rome conquered the East and both leagues were merged with the Roman empire. 62 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY by which he meant acting according to one's reason. Be good for the salce of being good; not merely be good to be happy, as Epicurus had taught. Unfortunately Stoicism came to mean something as far different from its founder's Ptolemy Crowned by Upper and Lower Egypt. Edfou teachings as did Epicureanism. In contrast to the lu-xurious living of the Epicureans, the Stoics denied themselves many pleasures, because they mshed to attain goodness. They even went so far as to say that happiness is a sin, and prided ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 63 themselves on their indifference to pleasure and pain. Hence we speak of a man who cjuietly endures pain as a stoic. The greatest thinkers of the time lived and worked either Beginnings of at Athens or Alexandria. The germ of the modern university "^^ Umversitj developed at Athens in the so-called Museum. This origi- nated as a religious society for the worship of the muses, goddesses of learning, and the fine arts, and it became a school for the promotion of useful knowledge. Plato taught and Aristotle studied here, but it was at the Academy at The World as Kno\^'N About the Time of Christ Athens, a different sort of a school, that the latter taught science. Alexandria possessed an institution along similar lines, estabhshed by one of the Ptolemies, endowed with an enormous library of five hundred thousand manuscript books. With such a reference hbrary to draw upon, it is not wonderful that Alexandria became the centre of scientific education. 27. Summary of the Splendor and Decay of Hellas. — From the time of the Persian Wars Athens was the home of great generals, matchless sculptors, brilliant thinkers, and wonderful writers who transformed Athens from a struggling village with no fortifications, Kttle political freedom, and as little commercial importance into the most important city of the eastern Mediterranean. The impress of the work of 64 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY these men remains on present civilization, as practically all the foundation for our philosophical ideas and scientific and literary theory was laid by them. Although she exerted this influence intellectually, politically she had httle influence. It is true that she developed democratic ideals, but these perished with her political power. The unification of Hellas and the Orient was accomplished by a semi- Greek race under the leadership of one of the world's greatest generals. His work was to spread the Greek civilization over the entire East, to be adopted and modified by Roman and German in turn until our present civiUzation was produced. Greece was the educator, Rome the organizer, the German race the liberator of Europe. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Distinguish between a federacy and a confederacy. Look up the differences between tire Delian and Peloponnesian leagues. Show on an outline map the states belonging or allied to each. Compare the government of Athens with that of our own country in the following particulars, using outline form: name and duties of the executive; name and principal powers of the legislative branch; composition and jurisdiction of the jury. Read the story of Aspasia, the friend of Pericles, and compare the freedom of Athenian women with American. Define metope, pediment, frieze, cornice, architrave, triglyph, entablature. Read the story of Alcibiades. Read Chapter XXI in Botsford and give a summary of the wars between the western Greeks and the Cartha- ginians Read how Demosthenes the great Athenian orator attempted to warn Athens against Philip of Macedon. Wtiy did the empire of Alexander break up? Compare the Achean and Delian leagues in respect to organization, object, and strength. Describe an Athenian house. Describe the daily life of the Athenian. Reference Readings Fling, Source-Book: Supremacy of Athens, Chapter VI; Peloponnesian Wars, Chapter VII; Philip of Macedon, pp. 287-295; Ale.xander, pp. 296-988. Gulick, Life of Ike Ancient Greeks: Appleton. (Rich in illustrative material.) Outward Surroundings of Athenian Life, Chapter IV; People of Athens, Chapter V; School Training, Chapter VII; Civic Functions, Chapter XVI; The Warrior, Chapter XV. ATHENIAN AND MACEDONIAN EMPIRES 65 Mahaffy, Old Greek Life: American Book Company. Education, etc., pp. 62-73. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 322-836. Seignobos, Ancient Civilisation: Arts in Greece, Chapter XIV; Alex- ander's Empire, pp. 173-187; The Last Years of Greece, pp. 188-198. Botsford, A History of the Ancient World, pp. 182-309. Andrews, Alexander the Great. Shepherd, Historical Atlas: Greece at Beginning of Peloponnesian War, p. 17; Under Theban Headship, p. 17; Macedonian Empire, pp. 18-19; Asia Minor under the Greelis and Romans, p. 20; Plan of Athens, p. 23. Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens: Macmillan. (Told in very interesting style.) Pubhc Buildings and Streets, pp. 29-53; Classes of Citi- zens, pp. 55-85; House and Furniture, pp. 87-104; Social Life of a Typical Citizen, pp. 105-152; Woman, pp. 153-174; Education and Training, pp. 175-189; Festivals and the Theatre, pp. 219-242; An Athenian Trial, pp. 255-263; Athenian Art, pp. 275-30S; Modernness of the Athenian, pp. 309-315. CHAPTER IV THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME Historical Geography of Italy 28. Early Italy and its Inhabitants. — The peninsula of Italy projects in a southerly direction from the continent of Europe into the Mediterranean and commands the centre of that great highway of commerce. In area Italy is about equal to California. Its climate, for the most part, is mild in winter and warm and dry in summer. Both climate and soil are extremely favorable to agriculture, and olive groves and vineyards are everywhere. The early Romans thought of Italy as that portion of the peninsula south of the tiny Rubicon River. North of that lay the rich Po river valley, called Cisalpine Gaul. (Gaul on this side of the Alps Moun- tains.) The backbone of the peninsula was the rugged range of the Apennines. The harbors were all on the west coast, away from Greece and her refining influences. The city of Rome grew from a settlement upon one of seven hills on the western coast near the mouth of the Tiber River. Its real origin is obscured in legend, and even the date of its founding is unknown, but the Romans regarded the legend as so sacred that they dated time from it. Like other ancient tribes, the Romans built upon a hill and near a river, so that they would have both defence and fresh water if an enemy besieged them. Just when or how Italy was peopled is at best a matter of conjecture; perhaps it occurred about the same times that the various tribes entered Greece. The same great move- ment of folk that brought the Myceneans into Greece carried The Etruscans along further a branch of the same race to settle north of the Tiber along the western shore, where they founded a kingdom known as Etruria.' These Etruscans, or Tuscans ' Italy had been peopled long before the Myceneans first came. In early Roman times fragments of prehistoric races, such as the Ligurians, Rome 753 ? B.C. Early Inhab itants of Italy THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 67 CEOHG£ PKILIPI SON Early Italy 68 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY as they were called by their neighbors, developed an important civiHzation which had great influence on the early develop- ment of Rome. Among their contributions to Rome were the methods of interpreting signs and omens, and the essen- tials of government; for tradition relates that Etruscan kings ruled over Rome. Etruscan War Chariot The Italians About the time that the Acheans overthrew the Mycenean Greeks, the kinsmen of the former, driving their flocks before them, found their way through the winding passes of the Alps and across the Po valley into the mountains of Italy. These tribes soon won control over all Italy south of the Rubicon River and east of the Tiber, except the lower existed in the northwest, and the Venetians in the northeast. These races finally disappeared, exterminated by the newcomers or assimilated with them in marriage. THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 69 part of the peninsula, which had been colonized by the Greeks. The Italians were an agricultural and pastoral people and contributed the sturdiness of character so noticeable in the Roman. The Greek cities established colonies in lower Italy and The Greeks Sicily, notably at Syracuse, Rhegium, and at Messina, which so recently suffered from a tidal wave and earthquake. Of equal importance were Tarentum, on the gulf of the same name, and Naples, an important commercial city on the southwestern coast on a beautiful bay overshadowed by Straits of Messina This narrow strait was feared bj' the ancients who believed that two monsters dwelt there and destroyed aU passing ships and devoured their crews. Sicily lies at the left of the picture; Italy at the right. The nearness of Sicily to Italy was an important factor in moulding Roman history. Mount Vesuvius, the dreaded volcano of Italy. Because of the supremacy of the Greeks in lower Italy and in Sicily, the name Greater Greece was applied to all that region. The Greeks soon entered into commercial relations with their northern neighbors and became the teachers of the ItaUan tribes.^ ' About the time that Xenophon made his famous Persian march, a barbarous tribe known as the Gauls or Celts invaded the valley of the 70 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Roman 29. The Legends of Old Rome. — We know little about Legends ^j^g gj-gj- centuries of Roman history. In order to account for customs already established, the Romans invented the names of imaginary heroes and described their supposed deeds.' After much repetition the Romans believed these stories and added considerable detail to them, but it should be remembered that all the records of the city were destroyed when the Gauls sacked Rome about 390 B.C. How the Romans could get such faulty ideas about their early history will be better understood if you attempt to imagine the amount of accuracy that there would be in a history written by yourself of the last two hundred years of American history without reference to any book. It is true that some real historic information may be ob- tained from an examination of the monuments and other structures that remain in the city, but unfortunately few of these date back earlier than the third century before our Po and made a settlement there. For a time they threatened to conquer all Italy, for their war-bands ravaged the fields of the ItaHans and cap- tured and sacked the city of Rome. Driven back at last into the Po val- ley, they settled there and gave their name to the region. They did lit- tle for the culture of Italy except to draw the Italian tribes together to act against a common danger, and so perhaps aided Rome in her later work. ' The Romans believed that the city of Rome was founded by Romulus, a great warrior, who, when an infant, had been left to die on a river bank, but was saved and adopted by a wolf. He became king of his people, established the city of Rome on a hill south of the Tiber, and ruled wisely. During his reign the city of Rome spread from its original site on the Palatine Hill over other neighboring hills, and various Italian tribes were conquered and incorporated into the Roman people. This story was invented to e.xplain how the city was founded. Romulus was probably one of the gods of the Romans of centuries before. The Romans accounted for their religious customs as follows: Romulus was succeeded on the throne by a king named Numa, who was very religious and who drew up their laws of religion. Other stories told of the en- largement of Roman territory; of the subjugation of other Italian cities; of the origin of the military system of Rome; of the gradual division of the population into serfs and nobles; of the increasing wealth of the latter; of the alleged tyranny of later kings and their downfall; of the establishment of a republican form of government; and of strife between the nobles or patricians and the serfs or plebeians for power in this new government. THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 71 era. Most of the early historj', then, is made up of traditions handed doT\-n from father to son plus fictitious incidents added b}' persons of \i^dd imagination. Among the primitive Romans certain men toolc the leader- ship by virtue of their strength and valor, and thus a mon- archy was estabhshed by common consent. As the society of Rome became more complex, the wealthy exerted more and more political power, until the}- were able to drive out the kings and to establish an oligarchy, which, veiling itself behind a few democratic features, called itself the Roman repubhc. 30. Primitive Roman Society. — The unit of Roman society was the family. This consisted not only of a man, his mfe and children, but included also all of the same blood: cousins, uncles, grandchildren, etc. The governing power lay in the hands of the oldest male, the father of the family. Each family had its own set of gods, its own rules of conduct. For this reason, when a woman married, a religious ceremony was held to denote her adoption into the family. After the ceremony she was entitled to share in all the privileges accorded to other women in her new famil}', and she lost all rights in the family from which she had come. In the course of time a family had so many branches that it became necessary for each branch to be represented at the councils by certain leachng men. Such a lamih- is called a clan or gens. The clan had its own chief for leader in war or for high priest in peace, and its council of the elder men. A number of clans frequently associated themselves for purposes of defence. This union of clans was called the curia. In the curia the chiefs formed an executive coimcil or senate and one of their number was chosen to lead in war. A still more elaborate form of government was the tribe, in which we find similar elements of government. As at Athens, ^•arious tribes, li\ing on the hills now the site of Rome, combined into a city-state, ha^^ng a king, senate, and an assembly of the leading men of the curias.^ ' Latin colonists of the tribe of Ramnes or Romans built a village on the Palatine HiU. An Italian tribe, known as the Sabines, settled on Summary of Early History The Roman Family the Unit of Society Origin of Re- ligious Cere- mony of Marriage Families ex- pand into Clans; Clans into Curias; Curias into Tribes; and Tribes com- bine to Form the City-state 72 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Classes of Society Regal Consti- tution of Rome ^ There were two classes of society among the early Romans — the patricians and plebeians. The former were nobles and the latter had no political rights until they won them. The former were descendants of the original population of Rome, but the plebeians were sprung from the people conquered by Rome in her wars, or from those whom the kings brought into the city.^ As the patricians became more and more powerful in government, they were disposed to treat the king and all his dependents with more harshness, and denied all political rights to the plebeians. Elements Composition and Term Powers King One, elected for life by popular vote of patri- cians War-chief, high priest, chief judge Senate The number of senators was fixed by law until late in Roman history and then it was fre- quently changed. The senate was composed of the clan-chiefs, who served for life An advisory body. In the interval between the reign of one king and the election of his successor, the senate assigned to its members the duties of the king. This in- terval was known as an in- terregnum, and the senator temporarily filling the office was called the interrex Comitia curi- ata or assem- bly of the curias Composed of all patri- cians of the curias able to provide themselves with equipment for war This body met at the call of the king or interrex to approve laws which he pro- posed, to ratify his acts, or to elect his successor the Quirinal Hill nearby. One of the many interesting legends of Rome tells of the seizure of Sabine women for wives by Roman men and of the resulting union of these tribes. While we do not know how the tribes united, it is certain that their union and the addition of a third tribe of Etruscan origin was the beginning of the Roman state. The third tribe was the Luceres, who settled on the Celian Mount. 1 Dr. Botsford does not believe that the social classes originated in the manner described above, but rather that the "plebeians were like the commons of most other states of ancient or modern times." There is good authority, however, for the classification given. THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 73 Nature Wor- ship and An- cestor Wor- ship The rights of the patrician became fixed as follows: to Their Rights hold public office ; to make laws ; to hold property securely ; to marry the woman of his choice; and, if accused of crime, to demand a public trial in the patrician court. The plebeian had none of the former rights: he could neither hold office nor attend meetings of the assembly or of the senate; he had no standing in the courts of law; he could not own property nor marry out of his class. Newcomers brought in by the patricians and dependent upon them were known as clients. While they had no legal rights, their lot was much happier than that of the plebeians. 31. The Religion of the Early Romans. — The early religion of the Romans was very simple, consisting of the worship of the powers of nature and of the family ancestors. Each household had its family altar on which the father, in his role of priest, offered up sacrifices to the family gods and protecting spirits which were known as Lares and Penates. As they came into contact with the Etruscans, the Romans borrowed from them their belief in signs and omens and established certain offices for those who could interpret the meaning of a flight of birds or of the motions of a dying animal slaughtered for that purpose. Such officers, called augurs or haruspices, became very powerful in matters of govern- ment, because, like the Greeks, the Romans made a practice of consulting the wishes of the gods before undertaking any important enterprise. The Greeks, who came up from southern Italy to trade with the Romans, brought TOth them their beautiful legends and myths, and before long the Romans identified the gods and goddesses of Hellas with their own nature deities. The religion soon became very complex and had great political importance. Before declaring war or making peace, the colleges or societies of augurs were consulted. As these officials were stationed at Rome, the growing city became the rehgious centre of the Itahan peninsula. ^ Religious festivals and games were frequently held at different seasons ' When pagan Rome became Christian Rome, this religious pre- eminence of Rome over the other cities of the Roman empire remained Influence of the Greek Religion 74 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY The Life of an Early Roman Education of a Roman Girl Importance of Precedent and of the Roman Religion of the year, at which sacrifices were offered up in payment of vows made by citizens who considered that they had success- fully sought the favor of the gods. The Roman boy was trained at first by his parents and later by his schoolmaster to respect his elders, to obey the laws, and to lead a virtuous life. He learned Httle from books, but much from example. His education included the practical subjects of how to manage his estate, to cultivate his fields, and to understand his country's laws. When he became of age the Roman served for a short time in the cavalry. After performing his duty to the state in that particular, he returned to his home, married, and became the solid citizen of the next generation. Like the Athenian, the Roman patrician made a business of politics; neither thought he was getting into an ungentlemanly occupation when he became a professional office-holder, as do some of our own countrymen who regard politics as beneath them. The girl's education was more limited. As a woman had no right to hold property, and as her only duties were those of the mother and housevnfe, the girl of old Rome learned whatever was decided for her by her father, and later by her husband, as unquestionably her duty. To understand Roman history we must know the extent to which the Roman was ruled by precedent. The father was absolute over his family because of precedent. When the young Roman in his turn became a father and the head of a new family, he found that he had exchanged the tyranny of one father for the tyranny of many fathers, for wherever he went he was subject to the established customs of Rome. If he violated these customs his name might be erased from the roll of the senate by the censors, officers whose duties were to look out for just such offences, or else he might be prose- cuted for violation of the law. These customs were largely a result of the teachings of the Roman religion, in which the family and its tradition was the chief object of worship. The good results of this system were that the Roman became as one of the determining causes of the prominence of the Roman bishop. (See p. 133.) THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 75 the lawmaker for the world. Our legal codes and methods of action are in many cases based directly upon Roman custom and law. 32. The Establishment of the RepubUc. — Tradition re- lates that the last king of Rome, a man named Tarquin, was of Etruscan birth. According to these legends/ both Tarquin and his family were haughty and tyrannical. At length the Romans rebeUed under the leadership of Brutus and drove the kings out of Rome. A repubhc was established and two consuls were annuall}- elected to perform the duties hitherto devohdng upon the king. Probably the last kings were Etruscan conquerors, who ruled Rome with a firm hand and introduced many good customs. One of the last kings organized a new assembly, in which the more influential of the plebeians had some power. This was called the comitia centuriata, because it was made up of centuries or companies. These reforms were displeasing to the patricians. They were further incensed at the king's favors to the plebeians, many of whom were doubtless his o^ti countrj-men, who had followed him to Rome and had settled there under his protection.^ To prevent the further breaking do^^m of old customs, the patrici?.ns stirred up revolution and regained control, taking care to di^•ide the powers, formerly exercised by the king, between two men called consuls, who were to act as checks on each other. They were further restrained by annual election. In later years the patricians sought to justify their rebellion in the eyes of all classes by painting the characters of the last kings as black as possible. It is quite possible that the Tarquins were no worse than most of their contemporaries, and that the e\il deeds attributed to them were whoUj' imagined by the patricians. 33. Establishment of Roman Supremacy in Italy. — The Wars for In- newly established republic found it necessary to secure dependence recognition from its former mistress, Etruria, as did our own coimtry from Great Britain. For many years Rome was ' These and other legends of Rome were related by patricians, and were always biased strongly in favor of that order. ' See note on page 72. 76 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Wars for Con- quest Roman Legionary Soldiers Showing armor and method of formation. at war with the neighboring Etruscan cities, but at last they not only recognized the independence, but also the supremacy of Rome. Shortly after this occurred the invasion of the Gauls. The city of Rome was captured and only the citadel was saved from de- struction by the fire in which perished all the official records of old Rome. The other Latin cities aided in driving back the in- vaders, and a league of offence and defence was formed by the cities of Latium, with Rome at the head. This league was of great help to Rome in the series of wars to follow. One of the most serious of these was the series of campaigns known as the Samnite Wars. The Samnites were a race of shepherds living in the mountains of central Italy, south of Latium. They quarrelled with their kinsmen in Campania, the fertile plain extending along the coast south of Latium, in which were many Greek towns of considerable culture and wealth. The Campanians appealed to Rome to aid them against the Samnites, and after a protracted struggle Samnium was conquered and became subject to Rome. Rome now proceeded on a definite policy of conquest. In spite of revolts on the part of the Latin alKes and of in- effectual protests from other Italian tribes, she organized the governments in these lands to suit herself. Alarmed at Rome's aggressions, Tarentum, the most powerful and wealthy of the Greek cities, declared war against Rome. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, came over to help his countrymen. The Romans were at first troubled at the coming of this ally of their foes, but after they had lost several battles they so THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 77 weakened his army that he was forced to retire from Italy. The Greeks were punished for presuming to war on Rome, and all Italy south of the Rubicon passed under the Roman yoke.^ These wars were of immense benefit to Italy. The various General Re- peoples were combined under the leadership of a strong ?"^*^ "^ ^^^^^ nation; the good points of each people were assimilated by the Romans; the plebeians gained equahty ■^^•ith the patri- cians by refusing to fight at critical times unless the patricians granted them certain concessions; Roman culture was brought to many tribes which were barbarian at the be- ginning of the struggle; Rome was trained in the art of war so that she was able to compete successfully with her strong rival, Carthage. At the close of these wars Rome found herself Tilth greater Roman Land territories than before. She took possession of some of the ^°^'^y conquered land, and di^^chng it up into large farms, used it to pay off the \'eteran soldiers who had helped T\in it.- A portion of the land was retained by the go\-emment and rented to rich contractors, who hoped to make a great profit from it. The latter practice gave rise to frauds, exactly as has a similar practice in the western part of the United States. Rich men obtained possession of government land by illegal methods and then claimed to o\mi it. Large estates began at this time to be cormnon, and ^^ith the decline of small fanning, sla^•er}' vrlih aU its e\-ils increased. In some parts of Italy the Roman government established Colonies towns and promised all the rights of Roman citizenship, except that of voting in the assembly,^ to those who would 1 In early Roman history the conquered army had to pass under a low gate formed by sticking two spears into the ground and fastening a third spear across the tops of tliem. This bore a faint resemblance to a yoke, such as was used for cattle, and signified that the vanquished passed into serWtude to the conqueror; hence the phrase " sub jugimi," or "under the yoke." ^ The American goverrunent adopted a similar poHcy after the Revo- lutionary War, granting tracts of land to its creditors, among them the old soldiers. ' The Roman had nearly the same conception of citizenship as that expressed in the .\merican Declaration of Independence. He wanted 78 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY go out from Rome to colonize them. Such towns were called Latin colonies, to distinguish them from a different form of colony which possessed all the rights of citizenship and which was called a Roman colony. The Roman idea of a colony differed considerably from that of the Greeks. (See p. 30-) Roman De- There were other classes of communities besides colonies pendencies ^^ ^jjg ^jj^.^g jj^ Italy. As Rome extended her conquests to include all of southern Italy, she became the mistress of the Greek cities. These she made into mimicipia or pre- fectures; the former if they assented to, the latter if they resisted her plans for their government. The municipia were towns that retained their local governments, but whose citizens might obtain Roman citizenship in time if they satisfied certain requirements: such as to serve in the Roman army and to pay a share in the expense of government. The prefectures were less favored. They were the to'ivns which had caused Rome the most trouble, and accordingly were not allowed to govern themselves, but were ruled by military governors, called prefects, who were sent from Rome to rule over them. As Roman influence extended in the peninsula, a few of the Italian cities were treated as allies by Rome and shared in her general prosperity. The unfortunate country folk of Italy, whose lands were seized by Rome for her soldiers, were treated as subjects. The peoples of Italy at the close of the conquest of that peninsula may be grouped as follows: (i) Those having complete citi- Roman citizens and Roman col- zenship onists (2) Those having partial citizen- Latin colonists, municipia ship (3) Those having no citizenship Prefectures, allies, subjects It will be noted that class (3) comprises widely differing groups. protection and justice, the right to vote, and the right to gain and hold property in safety. His ideas of the duties of a citizen were similar to ours. He must pay taxes for the support of his government and fight for her if necessary. THE BrLGINNINGS OF ROME 79 34. Italy and the Conquest of the Mediterranean. — WTien Rome entered upon her conquest of the Mediterranean region, the important states outside of Italy were Carthage, a colony of Phenicii:, and the three kingdoms mto which the dominions of .\lexander had been di^ided by the wars of succession. Carthage, located on the northern coast of Africa opposite Sicil}-, was attempting to gain the commercial leadership of the ^Mediterranean and to add to her territory by the conquest of Sicily. A company of brigands seized the SicUian city of ^Messina, and, when attacked by the allied forces of SjTacuse and Carthage, they appealed to Rome for aid. This began a terrible contest for supremacyj"^ which • The first war, which began in the manner described above, consisted Summary of of an intermittent warfare of t«-enty-four years (264-241 B.C.). Forced the Cartha- to build a fleet in order to meet the Carthaginians on the sea, the Romans S'"' " " Wars became skilful sailors as a result of this war. Carthage was compelled to pay a large indemnity to Rome, and Sicih- became a protectorate and soon after the first province of Rome. For over twenty years after the first Carthaginian War a semblance of peace was maintained between Rome and Carthage. In the mean- time a great Carthaginian general, named Hannibal, completed the conquest of the lower part of the Spanish peninsula, which he organi^^ed as a Carthaginian province. Spain was rich in agricultural and mineral products; hence Rome was unwilling to permit such a valuable territory to remain in the possession of her foes. \\'hen an independent citj" on the eastern shore of Spain, Saguntum, appealed to her for aid against Hannibal, Rome again declared war on Carthage. In this war (218-202 B.C.J Rome found an antagonist worthy of her steel. Not waiting for the Romans to strike the first blow, Hannibal led his army from Spain, through the passes of the .-Vlps, enduring terrible hardships, into the fertile plains of northern Italy. \^'ithin a few months he had defeated three Roman armies and made the name of Hannibal e\"er fearful to the Romans. .\t length the Romans, wearj-ing of the policy of delay, main- tained by their leader Fabius in an attempt to e.xhaust the resources of the Carthaginian army, resolved to muster an o\-em-helming force and to attempt to destroy Hannibal. The two armies met at Cannae, and although the Romans outnumbered the Carthaginians four to one, Hannibal's generalship vron the day. The Roman army was nearly annihilated. After this ovenvhelming defeat the Romans feared that Hannibal would attack their citj', but he thought best to secure re-en- forcements and to win to his side some of the Italian cities that were discontented with the tyrannical government of Rome. Unfortunately fur Hannibal, the re-enforcements did not arrive. His brother, who had 8o ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY ended in the destruction of Carthage and the mastery of the western Mediterranean by Rome; a contest which also led to Roman mastery in the eastern Mediterranean. Incensed at the Macedonian attempt to aid the Carthaginians in these wars, Rome sent her armies into the powerful kingdoms that had grown up on the ruins of Alexander's empire. One after the other, Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt were con- quered or overawed by the young republic of the West. Macedonia was made a province; Egypt and Syria became protectorates. The Greek cities were plundered for their wealth and objects of art. The Mediterranean had become a Roman lake. Results of the Carthage was nominally a republic, but her government Wars of Con- .^^.^g ^^ better than that of Rome, because the political power was controlled by a few of the more wealthy famiHes. Her religion and morals were those of the East, and many de- grading beliefs were held by her people. The Carthaginians been carrying on the war in Spain during his absence, was surprised by the Romans, while hurrying to Hannibal's aid, and his army destroyed. The first news of this disaster received by Hannibal was the bloody head of his brother, which, by order of the Roman general, was throv™ into his camp soon after the battle. For a few years thereafter Hannibal held his ground in southern Italy, but at last he was recalled to Carthage by a faction hostile to him. On the soil of his o\vn country, practically betrayed by his treacherous countrymen, he made a last stand against the Roman Scipio, and re- ceived the first defeat of his brilliant career. Thus overwhelmed for the second time, Carthage ceded Spain to Rome, burned her navy, promised a huge indemnity, and agreed to become dependent upon Rome for her foreign policy. Rome was now the mistress of the West. Scipio was the idol of the hour and received the honorar)' title of Africanus in recognition of his victory over Hannibal. He had previ- ously destroyed the Carthaginian power in Spain, which was soon or- ganized into two provinces of Rome. Yet Rome was still unsatisfied. Giving as a pretext that Carthage had acted treacherously toward an ally of Rome, the Romans forced the Carthaginians to give up their weapons. Cato, an austere Roman then prominent in public hfe, demanded that Carthage be destroyed. Scipio's grandson by adoption was commissioned to carry out the destruction of the ancient city, and after a short but bloody war (150-146 B.C.) the Roman legions took the city, burned it to the ground, and ploughed up its site, to efface it more surely from the memory of man. THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME 8 1 were not as good soldiers as the Romans, hence the govern- ment emploN'ed many mercenaries who deserted in time of danger. If Carthage had won, the whole trend of European history would have been changed. The purer standards of the Romans prevailed and saved Europe from as threaten- ing an attempt to give her the ci\-ilization of the East as was the Persian attack on Greece. At the close of the first Carthaginian War Sicily became a The First protectorate or protected state under the influence of the ^°™^° P™^- Rohan Boarpixg Bridge A great swinging bridge was attached to the prow of the Roman vessel. When the vessel was brought near enough, the bridge was dropped on to the enemy's ship. Roman government. Rome had the right to dictate to the nominal ruler of SicUy what foreign poUcy he should pursue. Little by Uttle Rome exercised more control over Sicily, until the power of the native princes ceased entirelv and Sicily was organized as a province of the Roman republic. Not long afterward the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, the district of Cisalpine Gaul, the peninsula of Spain, the northern coast of Africa, and Macedonia were successively erected into pro\dnces. 7 82 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY The Provin- The government of the provinces was quite different from cial System (-jj^j- Qf other Roman territories. The provincials, until the time of Caesar, were regarded as subjects of Rome and as sources of revenue for those politically powerful in the home government. The governor of a province, termed proconsul or proprietor, was chosen by the Roman senate to be the absolute military commander, judge, and general executive officer over the province. He supervised the collection of the tribute due to Rome, and the senate did not care how he secured this tribute. As a result the administrations of these provincial governors were notoriously corrupt. The collecting of taxes was farmed-out, or put out on contract to a class of professional tax-gatherers, called pubHcans, whose methods were so cruel and arbitrary that the name publican became a term of reproach in the provinces. (" Pub- licans and sinners," the Bible.) In some cases the provincials appealed to Rome to protect them from the greed of their rulers, who grew enormously wealthy on the money wrung from the people by repeated taxation. In every case the governors were able to buy their acquittal from the corrupt home senate. Cicero, a famous Roman writer and states- man, thus jests concerning the methods of one of these gov- ernors: "In the first year he could secure booty for himself; in the second year for his friends; in the third year for his judges." The proceeds of this dishonest system were em- ployed by those in control of Roman politics to beautify the city of Rome and to furnish the common people with amusements. In this way the conscience of the Roman people became deadened to the evils suffered by the prov- inces. Rome was sowing for a terrible harvest. 35. Summary of Early Roman History. — The Roman republic, Europe's organizer, began in a settlement of shep- herds upon seven hills near the mouth of the Tiber River. Because the Romans possessed what the Greeks lacked, the power of uniting city-states, this settlement became a regal city whose influence began to be felt throughout all Italy. Having driven out her kings, Rome adopted an aristocratic form of republican government. One by one she conquered THE BEGINNINGS OF ROxME 83 her neighbors in Italy and showed her genius for organiza- tion by the governments she set up in them. From Italy her greed led her to attack the Phenician colony of Carthage, her strongest rival for Mediterranean commerce. Even the great general Hannibal could not stop her armies, which overran Spain, northern Africa, Greece, and Asia Minor. The enormous profits of these wars caused the growth of a capitahstic class at Rome, which soon took possession of the government for its own purposes, displacing the former nobility and creating many difficult political and economic problems. How the attempts to soh'e these problems caused a \-ital change in the Roman government is the subject of the next chapter. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY Show on an outline map of the Jlediterranean region the states, cities, sites of battles, rivers, and mountains mentioned in the chapter. Show the provinces gained by Rome during these wars. Relate the myth of Romulus and Remus, the Tarquins; read in some more extended work the accoimt of the Decemvirs and their reforms; the organization of the Roman army; the gradual rise of the plebeians. Explain the sig- nificance of each of the names of Scipio (Publius Cornelius Scipio Afri- canus). Relate the storv of the destruction of Corinth. REFERENCE ^READINGS Botsford, A History of llic Ancient World. West, Ancient World, \o\. II, pp. 253-350: .^Ibm and Bacon. Botsford, The Story of Rome: Macmillan. (A source-book containing interesting illustrative material.) Introduction to the Sources, p. i; Prehistoric Ital}', pp. 14-29; Italian Wars, pp. 60-S3; E.x- pansion of Roman Power, pp. 102-126. Munro, Sonrcc-Book oj Roman History: D. C. Heath. Geography of Rome, p. 2; Religion, pp. 6-22; Institutions of the Regal Period, pp. 41-47; Early Repubhc, pp. 47-64; Stories of the Early Period, pp. 66-77; Pro\-incial System, pp. 217-221, 225-226. Seignobos, Ancient Civilization: Formation of the Roman Citv, Chapter XIX. Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, pp. 1-198: Putnam. {.\ more ad\'anced text than any mentioned above; about the same calibre as Burj's Greece.) 84 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Shepherd, Historical Atlas, pp. 20-35. Contains the following maps: Asia Minor under the Greeks and Romans; Plan of Republican Rome; Ancient Italy; Growth of Roman Power in Italy; Rome and Carthage; Growth of Roman Power in Asia Minor; Territorial Expansion of Rome. Ritual Scene, Palatine Wall Painting CHAPTER V THE CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 36. The Relations between Classes. — This period is one Phases of the of struggles which may be summed up under three principal Revolution heads: a struggle between the classes of people within the Map of the City of Rome city of Rome, a struggle between Rome and her subjects in the Itahan peninsula, and a struggle between Rome and her provinces. Class struggles are always vety bitter. 86 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Causes of Class Hatred (i) Growth of Great For- tunes (2) Changes in Roman Character (3) Lowering of Moral Standards (4) Decline of Small Farm- ing and Growth of Mob Spirit Today some people talk about the wrongs inflicted on the poorer class by those possessed of great fortunes. This same cause of class dissensions existed in old Rome. A few men took advantage of their influence in governmental affairs to build dishonest fortunes. Others gained wealth in perfectly legal ways, yet ways that worked hardship to those less able to make a success of their business. To such unfortunates a wealthy man was an object of envy, because they saw the rich man enjoying many luxuries of life that they were unable to earn. One reason for the growth of hatred between the rich and poor was the great increase in wealth that resulted from the wars. Almost all of the rich men of the time imported costly foods and articles of clothing from the more luxurious East. It was thought fashionable to copy the manners and customs of the orientals because they were new and seemed to give greater refinement to life. This changed the character of the wealthy Roman. He became luxurious and lazy and contemptuous of the old Roman virtues and ideals. But the poor did not change, so the classes grew apart for this reason also. As in our own times, all the rich did not acquire their wealth honestly. Unless a man sets up for liimself a good standard of honesty in business matters, he is apt to become weak in the power of choosing between right and wrong in other matters. This is what happened in Rome when the standards of business honesty declined. Although a few right-minded men saw that things were not being well done and attempted to preach reform, the mass of the people were eager to follow the example of those who seemed so successful in business. The result was that they regarded honesty and truth and virtue as old-fashioned. Another cause of class struggles was the lowering of moral standards. The earlier Roman had been content to live frugally on his small estate, cultivating his fields with his own hand, aided by his sons and servants. As Rome became the centre of fashion and luxury, the Roman farmer of simple tastes and honest life was regarded by the city dwellers as CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 87 more or less of a clo'wii. In order to have any standing in the community, a man must own a large estate. iNIanual labor was despised. For this reason small farming became unprofitable. Soon those who had small farms were glad to dispose of them to the wealth)-, who combined many of them into larger estates. The small farmer moved to Rome, where he speedily drifted into the position of a man without a job — the idler, ready to join the city mob of those who expected the rich to support them. He thus lost the old spirit of Roman independence and became a beggar, easily mo^-ed by crafty pohticians to clamor for unmse laws of every description.'- The rich man necessarily imported a great number of (5) Growth of slaves to work his large farms. At the same time the poor Slavery freeman thought it beneath his dignity to work at the same task beside a sla\-e. Deprived of work, he became a pauper dependent upon pubhc charit)". This gave him no love for the rich and led to class struggles. 37. Relations between Rome and her Subjects. — In Old Roman the earlier daT,-s of the republic Rome's poUcy toward the ^°^'^y '^°^- ... , \ .^ I 1 1 1 r • -1 cermng De- conquered cities and races m Italy had been one of assimila- pendencies tion. By this is meant that Rome held out the promise of future incorporation into the Roman state to a conquered city. Perhaps this policy was not stated in as many words at the time. We may question whether the purposes of this policy were at any time wholly unmLxed with a certain selfish- ness which led the Romans to understand that by conciliating their conquered foes thej' might themselves gain. As Rome became more powerful she no longer felt the Change of need of conciliating her subjects and allies in Italy. She P°l"^y accordingly granted the rights of Latin colonists no longer, and withdrew from man}' towTis privileges already enjoyed. 1 The landless Roman who returned to Rome was, nevertheless, a voter in the popular assemblj", the comitia tributa, or assembly of the tribes, which had displaced the assembly of the centuries. As the stand- ard of morality declined, he was quite as justified in earning his live- lihood by selling his vote as was the rich man who reaped a fortune from govermnent contracts. ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Struggle be- tween Rome and her Prov- inces Cato Scipio Africa- nus Tiberius Gracchus Thus the policy of assimilation was abandoned. A course which roused as strong a spirit of resentment in the hearts of the subject Italians as did the legislation of parliament on the eve of our war for independence, but every attempt at revolt was ruthlessly crushed by the prefects sent by Rome. The system of farming the taxes in the provinces (see p. 82) caused great hardships and led to discontent -svith Roman rule. In order to enforce their demands the governors called for large garrisons to prevent any pohtical outbreak by the provincials. Governing by means of an army has caused many rebellions. The case of the English colonists in America is an illustration. 38. Plans to Correct these Evils. — That the Romans recognized that conditions were not wholesome is proved by the fact that several men tried to reform conditions, among them Cato and Scipio. Marcus Cato, who lived at the time of the destruction of Carthage, belonged to a family of small landowners of ancient hneage, and represented the ideals and virtues of old Rome. He despised the evidences of luxury and set no store on great wealth. Especially repugnant to him was the dishonesty of men in public and private hfe. As censor he exerted some influence in causing public condemnation of those who gave the strongest examples of -wrong-doing. For many years he restrained the downward tendency of Roman morals. Scipio Africanus, the Younger, was a Roman noble, who had sadly carried out the order for the destruction of Car- thage. He was a broader minded man than Cato, yet lacked his determination, and on that account exerted even less influence for reform than Cato had done immediately before him. Both Cato and Scipio believed that a return to the old habits of life of the primitive Roman was necessary before the evils in the state could be corrected. The second plan for reform was urged by Tiberius Gracchus, the elder of two famous brothers. He was the grandson of that Scipio who had defeated Hannibal, and he inherited from his mother the same intrepid courage which had dis- CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE tinguished the elder Africanus. Although an aristocrat by birth, he was able to see the wrong-doings of his class; while his love of fair play made him champion the poor against the injustice of the rich. For this reason he was regarded as a traitor to his class. When as tribune of the people ' he proposed that the government of Rome should confiscate all estates larger than fi\-e hundred acres (about two hundred and fifty of our acres), that the lands thus secured should be divided into small farms and granted to worthy poor men on the sole condition that they should not sell them, he was actively opposed by the men of wealth. There are many peo- ple who believe that the rights of man are higher and to be considered be- fore the rights of proper- ty. Others argue that only by respecting the rights of prop- erty can the rights of man be secured. This question is as hve today as it was in the days of the Gracchi, and there are many honest men to be found upholding each side of tlie argument. SciPio Africanus Major ^The famous historian Mommsen says that he ruled practically as absolute ruler, "watched over the distribution of grain, selected jury- men, founded colonies in person, notwithstanding that his magistracy legally chained him to the city, regulated highways and concluded business contracts, led the discussions of the senate, settled the consular elections"; in short, he accustomed Rome to one-man rule. In many respects he was like one of our owm recent presidents — honest, aggres- sive, fearless, sometime lacking in tact, a master of politics — and he possessed the priceless gift of being able to attach people to himself . 90 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Land Laws Murder of Tiberius Gracchus In short, Gracchus believed that the accumulation of large estates had been accomplished by harsh and unfair means, with the consequence that the small landholders had been deprived of their livelihood. He also believed that the veterans should be granted small farms on which to spend their declining years. The rich men feared that this policy would create a desire for greater concessions to the poor, as a result of which a complete change in the government would be brought about. They induced one of the tribunes to veto a law embodying the ideas of Gracchus. Contrary to law, Gracchus induced the assembly to pass the law embody- ing his ideas over the tribune's veto and also to arrange for a commission of three men to superintend the execution of the law. This last was of great importance, for a law not enforced is of little importance. The rich men were enraged at the fear of losing their property and delayed the election of candidates for the city offices until the mob rose to compel the re-election of Tiberius, who was again a candidate for the office of tribune. Then the rich senators declared that he had incited rebellion against the government, and arming themselves, attacked him and his too zealous partisans. In the street riot which followed Tiberius Gracchus was killed. Like John Brown he attacked the rights of property, and in his zeal to bring about good, he broke the laws of his country and paid the penalty with his life, but his spirit went marching on. In the next few years after his death the committee on the allotment of public lands provided by his famous agrarian (land) law had settled nearly one hundred thousand small farms. If this movement could have continued, many of the evils that later overwhelmed the republic might have been averted; for the small farmer has more interest in the cultivation of his land and is more apt to be a sturdy, honest, patriotic citizen than the pampered aristocrat, whose every wish is anticipated by slaves, and whose interest in his estate is limited to the amount of money he can get from it. Ten years later the younger brother. Gains Gracchus, came forward with a third plan for reform; namely, to re-estabhsh CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 91 the policy of assimilation, in order to win to the government Reforms of the support and good-will of the pro\'incials, also to encourage '^^'-^^ Grac- the needy Romans to colonize. On this platform he was elected tribune and had an opportunity to put his plan into execution. Gaius established a Roman colony on the site of ruined Carthage, where many needy citizens found homes and for- tunes. The members of the senate believed he was usurping their constitutional po\\-ers and took up arms against him as they had done against his brother. Another street battle was fought and histor}' repeated itself. In despair over the fatal ending of his plans, Gaius committed suicide. Plutarch says the people showed how much they regretted the Gracchi, for they had statues of the two brothers set up and offered sacrifices on the spot w-here they fell. The Americans in 1776 found it necessarj' to defy the established laws and precedents of the British nation. They took up the sword in rebellion to secure the rights they claimed under their understanding of the constitution of England. As a result, a new constitution was formed. The same thing happened at Rome. The Gracchi attempted to bring about reforms peacefully, }-et were un^^•illing to abide by the laws of Rome. By aligning class against class and by accustoming Rome to one-man rule they did much to bring on a re\-olution \\hose end was far from what they had mshed to accomplish. 39. Civil Strife between Marius and Sulla. — Although Jugurthine the people re\-ered the memory of the Gracchi, the ^'\•ealthy were again in control of the government. They undid all the work of the brothers: the agrarian law was repealed; the colonies were recalled; the newly gained rights of the poor were all repealed or nulUfied. The government settled once more into its wallov,- in the mire of pohtical corruption. The senate took bribes to allow Jugurtha to usurp the throne of a state dependent on Rome, but a few of the better minded senators forced the country to make war on him. In this war two of the strongest figures in Roman history recei^-ed their training. 92 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Early Career of Marius Early Career of Sulla The first of these was Marius. He was born of an obscure family. Coarse and violent in nature, he was nevertheless brave and patriotic, and possessed great powers of con- centration and endurance. A natural captain of men, he quickly rose to the chief command in the war, defeated Jugurtha, and sent him in chains to Rome. Two years later, as consul in command of the Roman army, he met the first onset of the Germanic race and defeated it in two great campaigns in southern Gaul and the valley of the Po. For five hundred years these barbarians were checked, and lingered on the borders of Roman civilization. On his return to Rome he was for the sixth time chosen consul contrary to the constitution. He became the champion of the popu- lar party, which was called the Marian party. When he attempted to force reforms upon the unwilling senate, street fighting again began between the senatorial and Marian par- ties, and as a result Marius lost popularity and went into exile. In the meantime his great rival, Sulla, had come rapidly to the front. This young aristocrat had seen service in the Jugurthine War, in which Marius had first gained prominence, and it was Sulla who had brought the conquered Jugurtha to Rome. He soon became a leader of the senatorial party and bitterly opposed the illegal candidacy of Marius for the consulship. When Marius was for the time driven from public life, Sulla found a new antagonist in his own rank in the person of Drusus. An aristocrat and son of the man who had been most opposed to the Gracchi, Drusus became converted to the policy of assimilation and held that the Italians should all receive citizenship in the Roman state. When he attempted to secure the passage of such a law he was murdered by the aristocrats. His death aroused the Italians to a desperate revolt. The rebels had almost reached the gates of Rome when the Roman army under the leadership of Sulla met and totally defeated them. This victor made Sulla the logical candidate for leadership in the wars of Rome. Mithridates, king of Pontus, a new risen kingdom of the southeastern coast of the Black Sea, had taken advantage CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 93 of the civil strife in Italy to conquer Macedonia, Greece, Beginnings of and Asia. Just as the senate voted for war against jMithri- MUitary , ,1-tr' ■■ 1-T -1 Despotism dates, the iManan party regained enough influence m the assembly to order Marius to the command of the Roman forces. Sulla hastily gathered his troops, marched on Rome, and frightened the assembly into a recognition of his right to leadership. This was an epoch-making event. The transition to empire was begun. Sulla set out for the East, conquered Mithridates in a The Marian wonderful campaign, and brought the rebellious provinces ^*'^° °^ again under the sway of Rome. In his absence Marius returned to Rome and attempted to discredit the successful general, who was even then winning great \-ictories for his country. For days the streets of Rome ran red with the blood of aristocrats who dared to oppose him. In the midst of this reign of terror Marius died, but his party remained in power for four years more. His wars successfully ended, Sulla returned to Rome, the The Triumph idol of his army. After overthrowng the hated rule of the °^ ^^^ Marian party, Sulla became \-irtually king. The senate voted him the title of perpetual dictator, and he took advan- tage of his power to inaugurate a complete return to the absolute rule of the senate. All the gains made by the popu- lar party were swept away. He retained his power by means of his loyal army and through the influence of the gratified senate. He rid himself of enemies by wholesale murders, and he posted lists of the names of the men whose deaths he desired. These Ksts were called proscription hsts. Men whose names were on these hsts were outlawed and their murders were rewarded. Sulla is said to have remarked grimly upon one occasion : "I have posted now [the names of] all those I can recall; I have forgotten man}', but their names -nill be posted as they occur to me." After four years of absolute power, and after ha^ving amassed an enormous fortune, consisting of the property confiscated from those on the proscription Hsts, Sulla resigned to the restored senate the control of the Roman empire and then retired forever from public Ufe. Apparently the work of fifty years had 94 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY been undone. Apparently the good old days of corrupt government officials and grasping senators had come again; really it was but a lull in the great storm that finally swept away the last vestiges of republican Rome. 40. The Rise of Pompey. — The death of Sulla left Rome leaderless for only a short time, for his unconstitutional invasion of the city of Rome under arms produced important results. Other generals came to Rome and secured election to important positions, and other favors from the senate and assembly, by means of their army. The first to threaten Sertorius to do this was Sertorius, a leader of the popular party. For a number of years he had lorded over Spain as governor and he had openly defied Sulla to remove him. No serious effort was made to punish him until after Sulla's death, which occurred the year following his retirement into private life. Stung by the fear that Sertorius was planning to lead his armies across southern Gaul and through the passes of the Alps against the city of Rome, the senate commanded Pompey to march against him. Pompey had served under Sulla, who had for him great affection and had accordingly advanced him in military positions for which he showed great ability. Pompey was an aristocrat of temperate habits, integrity of character, and possessed great personal magnetism, but at this time he was no match for the experienced Sertorius, who successfully resisted all his attempts to bring on a decisive battle. After five years' campaigning Sertorius was murdered by a lieu- tenant who hoped to receive a reward from Pompey. On Pompey's return to Rome he found the senate strug- gling wth domestic war. Spartacus, a famous gladiator, had stirred up a vast rebellion of slaves and gladiators. The last stand of the gladiators was in the north of Italy, where they were utterly crushed by Pompey on his return from Spain. He shared with the pretor, Crassus, the honors of this campaign, and both desired as recompense the oiSce of consul. When this honor was refused them they joined forces and marched against Rome and forced the unwilling people to elect them both consuls. CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 95 As the commerce and wealth of Rome increased there Pompey and grew up on the shores of the Adriatic Sea a community of *® Pirates men whose sole trade was piracy. They plundered the rich merchant ships carrying the comforts and luxuries of the East to Rome. Because of other wars and the lack of a na\y, the government of Rome had been unable to punish these robbers as they deserved. The pirates became so bold that they stopped ships loaded with grain and other neces- sities, and the people of Rome suffered from famine owing to their depredations. Provincial governors were powerless to check the pirates because they had no jurisdiction outside of their ovm provinces, whereas the pirates operated over the whole Mediterranean and could easily escape from the shores over which the pursuing governor had authority. At this juncture Pompey was given absolute power over all the Significance shores haunted by the pirates until he had completed their ofPompey's conquest. The appointment of Pompey to this office is another important step towards empire. Never before had one man exercised dictatorial powers o^'er almost all territory ruled by Rome. Hitherto a dictator had power only in Italy and a governor only in his o\^'n province. Many of the senators realized the seriousness of granting so much power to one man, but they were powerless to stay the tide of popular enthusiasm which voted the office to Pompey. Pompey justified the trust imposed in him. In a whirl- wind campaign of less than two months he swept the pirate fleets from the sea and cleaned out every pirate stronghold on the shores of the Mediterranean. Just at this time Mithridates of Pontus renewed the struggle "with Rome, and the lieutenant of his former conqueror was sent to reconquer him. Pompey speedily crushed Mithridates and turned on into Armenia, whose king he humbled. For five years Pompey marched here and there in Asia Minor, re- cei\ang the submission of all the kings and remodelhng the administrations of the proidnces. He also created new pro\-inces from the conquered kingdoms. At the end of this work he returned to Italy and returned to the Roman people the office intrusted to him. He was unquestionably g6 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY the greatest Roman at that particular time. Had he been as great in politics as he was in war, he might have prevented the foolish quarrelling then going on in Rome. He had however, become ambitious for higher honors. Soon after his return he formed a secret agreement with his old ally Crassus, who had become immensely wealthy from his govern- mental contracts, and with a daring aristocrat named Julius Caesar. This agreement had no official recognition, yet it was, nevertheless, an attempt at tyranny by three men at the same time. Cicero Denouncing Catiline A profligate nobleman, Catiline, organized a conspiracy to overthrow the government. In this plot he was seconded by the more reckless of the popular party. The conspiracy was detected and Catiline denounced in the senate by one of the consuls, a great orator named Cicero. As a result the leaders were executed. Cicero believed Caesar was a party to this plot and as a result a lite-long hostility between these men arose. Character of Caesar 41. The Rise of Julius Caesar. — Gaius Julius Caesar was a member of one of the oldest families of Rome. His aunt was the wife of Marius and his first wife was also of the Marian party, so he was popular with the democrats. He was a medium-sized man with a striking face and personality. His most noticeable traits were his ambition to influence CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 97 other men, his desire for fame, his unusual capacity for hard and exhaustive work, both physical and mental, his miUtary foresight and daring. These characteristics were not at first apparent, for he spent his boyhood and early manhood in the idle sports and amidst the degrading associations of the majority of his class. When Sulla came into power Caesar was compelled to flee in disguise from Rome. After many romantic adventures he returned to Rome soon after Sulla's death and became an active worker in the popular party. An iU-timed uprising of the discontented at Rome tempo- Reasons for rarily clouded Caesar's popularity, and he was forced to seek Formation of an alliance -ndth Pompey, but lately returned from his virate""™' successes in the East, to gain a share in that great general's renown. The senate was en\'ious of Pompey's distinction and denied him new honors, so he was glad to secure an ally. Crassus was the third member of this triple aUiance and added his immense fortune to the political sagacity of Caesar and the renown of Pompey, wiih immediate results. The Its Work bemldered senators found themselves unable to carry through any plan opposed by the three. Caesar was elected consul, Pompey's pohcy in the East was approved, and Crassus was given opportimities to augment his wealth. Cicero, the spokesmen of the conservative senators, was discredited and driven into exile. Thus secure at home, Caesar turned to further triumphs. At the expiration of his consulship, he was elected governor Caesar's of most of Gaul for five years Here he drove back from the Campaigns in Rhine the Germans, who were attempting to cross into Gaul, made the rebellious Stoss acknowledge Roman sway, and twice invaded Britain. He established the northeastern boundary of the Roman dominion at the Rhine, thus adding all of modem France to Rome's possessions. At the conclu- sion of his first term he secured reappointment. During these years Cicero's term of banishment expired. He re- turned to Rome and rallied around him the disheartened aristocrats, who now clearly saw the trend of affairs and who put aside their personal friendships to save Rome from the tyranny which would result if the general returned to 98 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Breach be- tween Caesar and Pompey Rome for the purpose of seizing the reins of government. These senators were soon to receive a powerful ally. In the midst of his campaigns in the East, Crassus died, and at almost the same time Caesar's daughter, whom Pompey had married, died. There was no longer any bond of union between Caesar and Pompey. The senatorial party saw its opportunity. They made Pompey jealous of Caesar, whose more recent exploits in Gaul were making the fickle people forgetful of the former's great deeds against Mithridates. Caesar felt the breach growing up between himself and Pompey and tried unsuccessfully to justify himself in the eyes of the senate. When he heard that the senate was preparing to take active measures against him he took up his winter quarters at Ravenna, the principal town in Cisalpine Gaul, which is located on the Po River, not far from the boundary line of his province — the Rubicon River. At length the blow fell. The senate passed a decree ordering Caesar to resign his governorship of Gaul under penalty of being declared a traitor if he refused. Caesar knew that if he obeyed it would leave Pompey master of Rome. He naturally refused to resign his command unless Pompey would agree to do so also. Pompey remained singularly inactive at this time. Instead of collecting an army and taking active measures against Caesar, he relied more on the magic of his former fame. Caesar, at the little town of Ravenna,' now struck hard. It was against the law for a governor to enter Roman territory at the head of his army. Even Pompey had obeyed this law on his return from the East. Caesar crossed the Rubicon ' "He had every reason to be indignant. All that had gone well with Pompey had gone ill for him. Together they had courted the crowd, corrupted the nation, opposed the senate — all to win glory, riches, and power. But Pompey had not been forced to mount the ladder of office by slow degrees. Thrice consul, his victories had made him the greatest general of his day; he had won the respect of the great without losing the admiration of the humble. Caesar with endless intrigues and difliculty and danger had climbed into office. He was the most despised and best hated man among the upper classes," (Ferrero.) Now the senatorial class sought to deprive him of the fruits of his hard work in his province. CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 99 and seized town after town on Roman soil. Pompey and the senate seemed paralyzed. The adherents of Caesar got the upper hand at Rome and Pompey retired to Greece to await Caesar. However, Caesar was unable to follow him for the time, owing to lack of transports. In the meantime Spain, sympathizing with Pompe}-, shut off her shipments of grain to Rome. Spain was at this time the gran- ary of Rome and without her aid the citizens of Rome would soon ha\'e starved.' Caesar lost no time in leading his legions into Spain, where the forces of the svmpathizers with Pompey were speedily de- feated and the embargo on the grain trade was re- moved. This accomphshed, Caesar returned to Rome and received the gratitude of the people. He was elected dictator and soon after consul. Now in a position to attack Pompey, he followed him into Thes- saly. At the almost blood- less battle of Pharsalus, Pompey's troops refused to fight against Caesar, and Pompey fled from the field, a discour- aged and beaten man. Caesar was master of the Roman repubhc." 42. The Rule of Julius Caesar. — The ser\'ility of the Julius C.\e=ae 1 We have only to imagine the effect on a large city like New York of the cutting of? of all lines of communication and the stopping of incommg commerce in order to understand the seriousness of the crisis at Rome. ' Soon after this Pompey was murdered at the command of Ptolemy, king of Egj-pt, who hoped thereby to win the support of Caesar in a struggle for the throne. 100 HSSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Offices held by Caesar His Reforms Growth of Feeling against Caesar senate and assembly to Caesar was remarkable. A short time before he had been denounced as a demagogue, the leader of a motley rabble, a second Catiline. He now was elected dictator for a term of ten years (later for Hfe) and titles of " Father of his Country " and Imperator, or general- in-chief for life, were conferred upon him. Already pontifex maximus or high priest, he was also elected censor and con- sul. He had all the powers of a king, yet he hesitated to take the last step and announce the end of the republic. He preferred to pose as its foremost citizen. As soon as he had put down the final effort of the senatorial party, which was made in Africa and Spain shortly after he defeated Pompey, he turned his attention to the evils that were troubling Rome. Government corruption, wholesale seizure of government lands by private persons, oppression of the poor, slavery, unfair taxation were considered in turn. He distributed thousands of acres, confiscated from those who held them illegally, to worthy soldiers, and also bor- rowed from Gracchus the policy of establishing colonies in distant provinces to serve as homes for the poor. He also revived the policy of assimilation by the passage of a law incorporating Spain and Gaul within the Roman state. As censor he corrected some of the evils in the government and in the tax lists. The Julian Law concerning munici- palities provided for a uniform system of city government throughout the empire and promoted freedom among the inhabitants. As pontifex maximus he reformed the calendar to make the year consist of 365 days instead of 355 days as before. He introduced a new gold coin, the aureus, and provided a just method of paying debts together with interest, in these ways aiding commerce. Many of his plans were cut short by his death: among them the drainage of the marshes, the enlargement of the port of Rome, the erection of large public buildings, and a campaign against the Parthians. He grew wearied and irritable. He had lived hard, and although only fifty-six years of age, he was growing very old. He began to distrust everyone and his friends whispered that he was growing CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE loi insane. 1 His good judgment seemed to desert him. His enemies con\-inced many of his friends that they must free Rome of what they fancied was a great evil. Caesar was accustomed to attend aU important meetings, Death of partly to show the people that he meant to maintain the old Caesar customs of the repubhc, and partly to prevent any action hostile to his plans. One day in March (44 B.C.), as he entered the senate, a group of men surrounded him T\'ith petitions. While he was considering these, at a signal twenty daggers were buried in his body. "The tyrant was dead, but the tyranny still lived." Juhus Caesar was one of the greatest men of all histor}-. Estimate of While the lasting effects of his work are few, they are of the ^^ Work utmost importance. Like some other men of history he died at a time most fortunate for his future fame. The outcome of his proposed Parthian campaign might have reversed history, for there v'ere many strong men left at Rome. Few men have been so many sided. He was great as a soldier, a governor, a lawmaker, a judge, a moulder of public thought, and a historian. He was weak because of vanity, selfishness, and lack of self-control. Yet on the whole the world is much better because such a man hved. 43. Summary of the Change from Republic to Empire. — The growth of large fortunes resulting from foreign wars caused great chscontent and suffering at Rome. A struggle to better the condition of the poor caused the formation of parties and an attempt upon the part of the subjects of Rome to win their freedom. In the resulting disorder it ^ .\lthough he proposed wonderful laws which brought good to Rome he often acted foolishly. He became infatuated for a time with Cleopatra, the queen of Egj-pt, and erected a statue of her in a temple dedicated to Venus. His former friend, Brutus, a sincere if somewhat conceited descendant of a very illustrious Roman family, was convinced that Caesar desired to restore a monarchy. Cicero, who for a time had been less hostile to Caesar, perceived that Caesar had no real intention of preserv- ing the republic. Caesar probably induced his lieutenant, Anton)', to ofler him the kingly crown at one of the religious festivals. He refused it three times, but the whole proceeding further exasperated Brutus and his faction. 102 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY became possible for successful army leaders to control the government of Rome. The government of the Roman republic, never a democracy, had been controlled at first by the nobles and later by the men of great wealth, who formed a new aristocratic class known as the senatorial party. The wealthy had to control the government in order to prevent the passage of laws which would make them contribute their just share to the expenses of the state. That this was unjust to the poor was evident to many high-minded men, some of whom sacrificed their lives in the vain attempt to change conditions. Affairs went from bad to worse until mihtary heroes, posing as champions of the poor, overturned the mock republican constitutionj substituting for it a military despotism. Civil war -resulted in the estabhshment of a one-man government, controlled by Julius Caesar, who combined in his person all the offices of importance and was virtually the first emperor of the Roman empire. CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE 103 The Government of Rome during the Republican Period Elements No.I Composition Cur-ici: Powers Limitations Consuls ; chosen annually b}- centuries War-chiefs and must be noble leader in foreign affairs Pretors 2 ditto Judges ditto Ediles (Aediles) 4 ditto ditto by tribes PoHce and |)ubhc ditto works board Dictator i chosen b\- consul with con- sent of senate in time of danger to Rome Absolute ruler Term not over six months Tribunes 2 chosen annually bj- tribes Hater additional tribunes were elected) Power of veto Must not over senate, lea\"e Rome, leader of tribes Could not be re-elected Censors 2 chosen for fi\-e-}-ear term Power of depri\-ing nobles of their rank because of their dutj' of making up the census of the senate Tlie Senate During good behavior a noble was member of the senate. Vacancies in the senate were filled b)' the censors, who ap- pointed former city officials to fill the place "The foremost pohtical cor- poration of all time." As no official found it expedi- ent to bring forward any public measure without the senate' s approval, this body became the real govern- ment of Rome. The de mocracy of the assemblies was a show The Assemblies (i) Comitia curiata. Very important in the regal period, but a mere shadow in the later republic period. Composed of the heads of the curias. (2) Comitia of the centuries. Composed of the wealthier and nobler citizens. }ilet to elect important officers. (See above.) (3) Comitia of the tribes. The law-making body, composed of the landholders of the countrjr districts, together nith all citizens of the city. 104 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Were the Gracchi justified in disobeying the laws of Rome? At what time did the revolution begin? Make a statement for your note-books, summarizing the steps in the progress of the change from republic to empire. How were the gladiators trained? What would have been the result if Caesar had obeyed the command of the senate instead of cross- ing the Rubicon with his army? Show that the government as ruled over by Caesar was a compromise between the hero-worship of the masses and the conservatism of the aristocrats. Write in your note- books a brief biographical sketch of Cicero. Compare Marius and Caesar; SuUa and Pompey. Why was Caesar the greatest man of his time? Reference Readings Botsford, Ancient World, pp. 399-450. West, Ancient World, Part II, pp. 350-397. Botsford, Story of Rome Munro, Source-Book Cato pp. 150-157 Gracchi pp. i59-r77 pp. 104-114 Marius pp. 1 71-180 pp. 116-119 Sulla pp. 181-187 pp. 119-124 Scipio pp. 141-144 Scipio pp. 144-150 Pompey pp. 189-198 pp. 1 24-141 Caesar pp. 199-218 pp. 131-141 Pelham, Outlines of Roman History. Cicero, pp. 247-248, 253-256, 343, 357, 363- CHAPTER VI THE ROMAN EMPIRE 44. The Empire a Settled Fact. — The murderers of Caesar had counted on popular approval of their ^-iolent deed; instead, they found it necessary to flee from Rome in order to save their lives. The furious soldiers of Caesar, un- der the leadership of his heir, Octa\'ius,^ his close friend, Marc Antony, and his lieutenant, Lep- idus, followed the con- spirators into Greece as Caesar had followed Pompey years before. These three men had been appointed a trium- virate to restore the state. They defeated the conspirators at the battle of Phihppi, and thus gained absolute con- trol of the Roman world which they then di\dded between themselves.^ OcTA\rus ^ Caesar, having no son to Augustus Caesar, the Illustrious, succeed to his power, had formally adopted his grandnephew, Octavius, and had a law made that the latter should be his heir. ^Lepidus received Italy; Octavius took Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa; Antony was given Gaul. The Second Triumvirate Io6 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY THE ROMAN EMPIRE 1 07 Octavius soon forced Lepidus to resign his honors, leaving the mastery in the hands of Antony and himself. In the rearrangement of lands Antony chose the wealthy East, while Octavius chose the West.'^ After perfecting his plans Octavius brought about a breach between Antony and him- self, and when war was begun between their forces Antony's fleet was beaten at the battle of Actium. Antony soon after committed suicide, leaving Octa\ius supreme. On his return to Rome he received all the titles and honors which had been bestowed upon his illustrious uncle. The Roman world, weary of war and hopeless of a restora- tion of the republic, made no further struggle against the establishment of a monarchy. Octavius took the title of Augustus (the illustrious) 27 B.C. and ruled Rome according to the example set him by his uncle. Cold in disposition, calculating, and selfish, Augustus is The Princi- one of the strangest men of history. He was insigniiicant p^'^ in personal appearance and tricky in character, and yet his reign was one of the greatest importance to the empire. His caution in making decided changes in the government and the absence of strong rivals aided him greatly. The senate continued to rule in the city of Rome, yet it was strongly guided by the emperor in his role of princeps or first citizen. In the provinces the emperor was supreme as the representative in his person of the Roman people. This arrangement whereby the senate and emperor seemingly had co-ordinate powers is sometimes spoken of as the dyarchy ' Antony chose the East because he wished to have control of the immensely wealthy empire of Egypt, which was then ruled over by the fascinating Cleopatra. (See p. loi, note.) Cleopatra was the sister of Ptolemy, the murderer of Pompey. Her cause had been espoused by Caesar and for a number of years she had ruled in Egypt under his protection. After his death she decided to captivate Antony, who seemed to her the probable successor of Caesar. He readily fell a victim to her charm of mind and beauty of person and remained inactive at her court while Octavius took measures to gain his inheritance. After the battle of Actium, Antony deserted his fleet and returned to Egypt, where shortly afterward he committed suicide. Cleopatra, unwilling to grace the triumph of Octavius, also died by her own hand. I08 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY THE ROMAN EMPIRE 109 (dual rule) or as the principate. The history of the first three centuries of the empire is a story of alternating prin- cipates and mihtary despotisms. jHp^;tV.« Ruins of the Claudia An aqueduct completed by the Emperor Claudius. These arches ex- tending originally more than seven miles across the plain, carried the pure water of the hills to the residents of Rome. The structure was nearlj- a hundred feet high. Augustus organized the government of Rome without Policy of arousing the jealousy of the senate. He divided up the Augustus duties of administration between diiiferent departments, re- newed the work of colonization, encouraged manufacturing and conamerce, took a census of the empire for the purpose of aiding his tax collectors, and built many public roads and other pubKc works. During his reign the Latin language received its highest state of development, and as a result the period is named, in his honor, the Augustan age of Latin. The poet Vergil wrote the great Latin epic poem of the Aeneid in his honor. The empire gained no important territory to the north during this reign, for while attempting the conquest of the lands of the Germans be- tween the Rhine and Elbe rivers, the German hero no ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Arminius, or Herman the Great, defeated the Roman legions under the command of Varus. Augustus was con- tent thereafter with the Rhine for his northern boundary. In the southeastern part of Europe, he was more success- ful, for three important provinces between the Alps and the Danube River were added to the empire. After the death of Cleopatra, he annexed Egypt to the empire. 45. Summary of the Political History of the Early Empire. — His immediate successors were hated by the nobles be- RoMAN Coins A. Nero Caesar Augustus. B. Trajan. cause they showed favor to the provincials and commoners. As the only historian of this period was in sympathy with the nobles we have no fair treatment of their reigns. Doubtless each was less forbidding, less cruel, and less vicious than he has usually been painted. During the reign of Tiberius the crucifixion of Christ occurred. Claudius attempted the conquest of southern Britain. Nero Nero, the stepson of Claudius, came to the throne when a boy. He was of a happy disposition, and had studied under Seneca, a teacher of philosophy, some of whose writings impress us with respect for his high ideals. As • Nero entered young manhood he fell under bad influences. Suspecting his old friend Seneca of plotting against him, he had him executed. With all restraint removed, he there- after plunged into all sorts of foolish and harmful pursuits, THE ROMAN EMPIRE in even appearing in the arena as a gladiator. During his reign a terrible fire swept through Rome, destroying a large part of the city. It was whispered that the emperor had himself caused the tire in order to amuse himself by watching the grand though terrifying spectacle. Perhaps he wished to get rid of the narrow, dirty streets and low huts of the Rome of his day, and to erect beautiful build- ings in their places. However, Nero put the blame on the First Persecu- Christians, and charging them with a conspiracy, had them *""' °^ "^^ ' , , • , , Christians savage beasts, or covered with tar and A.D. 64 torn to pieces by set to burn as living torches to hght his gardens. It is not surprising that after a few years of tyranny the people rose against him and he fell by his own hand. After a brief interval of military despotism one strong The Flavian general, Vespasian, was able to estabUsh his family, the Emperors Flavian, in the principate. Titus, his older son, besieged the city of Jerusalem and punished it for the rebeUion of the Jews by destroying the famous temple, carrying back the sacred vessels to Rome. During the reign of Titus, Mount Vesuvius destroyed under a shower of ashes and lava the beautiful cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. These are being excavated and may be visited by the traveller to Naples in Italy. He may see the ruined walls of the first stories of the buildings, the paved streets, show- ing the wheel-tracks of long-since crumbled chariots, or may step aside into the market-place or shattered amphi- theatre, no longer humming with hfe. The third Flavian emperor, Domitian, was hated by the nobles as bitterly as was Tiberius. He completed the conquest of Britain and persecuted the Christians for the second time. At last the nobles of the senate murdered Domitian and chose a Spanish senator, Nerva, as their emperor. His adopted son and successor, Trajan, pushed the boundaries of the empire across the Danube, adding the province of Dacia, and extended his dominions in the East to the Euphrates. The third persecution of the Christians took place during his reign. (See p. 116.) Trajan's famous kins- man, Hadrian, caused to be constructed the frontier wall Trajan and Hadrian 112 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY The Anto- nines in Britain that bears his name. (See p. 175.) His suc- cessors, the two Antonine emperors, were men of blame- less character and high ideals who greatly strengthened the government of Rome. One of the sayings of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus expresses the noble philosophy of their reigns. "The best way to avenge thyself is not to become like him who did thee wrong." After the murder of the The Barrack Empeiors A Street in PoiiPEn as it Appears Today Note the paved roadway, the sidewalks and curbing, the stepping stones at the street corner (in the background) , the city block arrange- ment and brick construction of the houses, the square watering basin in the foreground. infamous son of Marcus Aurelius, Roman history becomes for the most part a dreary record of mihtary despotisms in which the imperial title was often put up at auction by the pretorian guard, the picked bodyguard of the emperors. Some of these military adventurers, who are known as the barrack emperors, were men of infamous character, but who possessed sufficient wealth to buy the army's support. During the reign of Caracalla, the wisest of these rulers, the policy of universal citizenship within the empire, for which so THE ROMAN EMPIRE 1 13 many great men had given up their lives, finally triumphed. Every freeman in the empire was granted citizenship. 46. Social Conditions during the Early Empire. — The great wealth of a few prominent famihes of Rome, together with slavery, tended to degrade the national character during the early empire. The idle freeman demanded amusement and refreshment. The Greek theatre was brought o\-er, Restoration of the Colosseum This is probably the way it appeared in the days of the Empire. To- day it is in ruins. "with its comedies, and pantomimes were frequently pre- sented, because the Roman wanted to be amused, not in- structed, by his drama. Many attended the races at the Circus Maximus, a huge stadium or athletic park built between two of the Roman hills, tier upon tier of seats rising on either side to accommodate the two hundred thousand spectators who sometimes crowded them. Not far from the forum or principal pubhc square of Rome, The Colos- the Flavian emperors built the famous structure kno\i,'n as ^*"™ the Colosseum, a huge, elliptical pile of masonry in which were 9 114 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY held gladiatorial combats and other public spectacles. Around the sides were tiers of seats rising over one hundred feet in the air, which accommodated eighty thousand spectators, who were protected from the sun by awnings. The central part of the amphitheatre was open to the sky, and underneath the floor upon which the gladiators fought were corridors and cells in which were kept the wild beasts used in the battles between men and animals. Although used for centuries as On the Appian Way in the Days of Roman Magnificence The Gladia- torial Contests a stone quarry for the palaces of the medieval Roman lords, it is still the most impressive ruin in the Eternal City. The gladiatorial contests were spectacular dramas in which the actors fought bloody duels or reproduced famous battles. The gladiators were trained fighters. Many of them were as famous in their day as are the pugilists of present times. The luxurious living of the wealthier Romans caused many evils in Roman society. As the cost of hving increased the Romans did not scruple to expose their infants to die THE ROMAN EMPIRE 115 in order to escape the expense of a family. Divorce became ver}' common and happy family life a rarity. As the prin- cipate changed into a miHtar}' tyranny, and as the Romans saw the imperial title openly purchased by undeser^•ing men, public honesty became almost unheard of. While morals declined, the best in literature and art also decayed. The Romans lost the power to create new ideas. But there was working within the empire a force so powerful that it was later able to revolutionize conditions. The Pantheon From model in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. The Roman government at first tolerated all religions. There still stands in Rome a beautiful building called the Pan ■ theon, which was erected during the reign of Augustus. " It is a circular structure one hundred and thirty-two feet in diameter and of the same height, surmounted by a majestic dome that originally flashed with tiles of bronze. The interior is flooded with light from an aperture in the dome. The inside walls were formed of splendid columns of yellow marble, supporting noble arches, upon which rested more pillars and another row of The Persecu- tion of the Christians Il6 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY arches up to the base of the dome. Under the arches in pil- lared recesses stood the statues of the gods of all religions; for this grand temple was symbolic of the grander toleration and unity of the Roman world." (West, "An- cient World.") Yet toward the Christians the Roman govern- ment showed hostility. The reasons for this attitude are not hard to find. Secret meet- ings were suspicious in the eyes of the govern- ment. Tiberius had officers, called delators, whose duty was to spy upon such meetings or upon public men and to bring accusations of Interior or the Pantheon treason against them. The Christians per- sisted in holding secret meetings, and thus were suspected of treason.^ ^ That the government was puzzled how to proceed against them is show n by the following letter written by Pliny, the governor of the prov- ince of Bithynia, asking Trajan for instructions. "I have never taken part in the trial of Christians, therefore I do not know for what crime nor to what e.xtent it is the custom to punish or investigate. Therefore I have followed this custom in. regard to those charged with being Christians." He goes on to say that he was gentle to those who would recant, but those who would not do so he had no option but to put to death. In consequence the new religion spread so rapidly that it be- came a serious problem to him, especially so as, after making inquiries, he found that the Christians had no beliefs dangerous to the empire. Trajan laid down the following rules for the treatment of Christians: "They ought not to be sought out; but if they are brought to trial and convicted, they ought to be punished, provided that he who denies that he is a Christian, and proves this by making prayers to our gods, shall secure pardon on repentance." THE ROMAN EMPIRE 117 A second reason for the persecution of the Christians was because they felt that in a sense they were better than the average Roman of their day. They would not mix with them in social gatherings because the Romans offered up hbations to the heathen gods. They would not \dsit the circus nor attend the gladiatorial games, for these things were " of the world and they were not of the world." From a religious standpoint the Roman could not under- stand the mental position of the Christians. The Roman PoLLicE Verso The \-ictorious gladiator turns to the spectators to learn if he shall kill the \-anqu)shed — the fatal signal is given by pointing domiward with the thumbs. was ready to accept any new di\'inity. Were a crazy man to arise in the streets of Rome and proclaim a new religion there would be plenty of men who would gladly build altars to the new god. The Christian, however, would neither accept the gods of the Romans, nor permit the Roman to worship his god unless he would give up his other gods. The Roman government persecuted the Christians because politically, socially, and from the standpoint of religion they Il8 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY THE ROMAN EMPIRE 119 were an alien people. Yet, notwithstanding the terrible persecutions, Christianity spread rapidly throughout the Roman empire of the West. 47. The Reorganized Empire. — After the mihtary misrule Government of the third century a soldier of peasant origin succeeded to of "leRe- the imperial title. He detected two elements of weakness Empire in the government — first, the lack of any law of succession, a defect which had made the imperial power the plaything of successful generals; second, there was insufficient system in the administration — the emperor had no suitable ofBcials on whom to rely for the faithful governing of the city of Rome while he was campaigning on the frontier. To remedy these defects he reorganized the entire imperial system. Instead of one emperor there were to be two of equal author- ity. Each of these should select a man to fill the office of Caesar (a title equivalent to \ice-emperor). This system of partnership emperors secured a peaceful succession to the throne and better means to combat attempts at rebellion. Diocletian, the organizer of this system, divided the empire into four parts, each under the rule of one of the emperors or Caesars. These four districts were further divided and redivided into dioceses and provinces. He also ceased to call upon the senate for advice, so that the principate or dyarchy established by Augustus came to an end. The absolute character of the new government revealed itself in greater pomp and display at court. During his reign one of the Caesars ordered a persecution Last Perse- of the Christians, which for a decade caused great suffering. ^"''.''°.°' ""^ The Christians were too numerous, and after ten years of oppressive measures, such as the destruction of Christian churches and the execution of members of the faith, the government saw the uselessness of continuing this policy. In 311 A.D. a decree tolerated the practice of the Chris- tian religion, and thereafter the growth of the church was exceedingly rapid. In 325 A.D. the first general council of the church met at Nicene Creed the call of the Emperor Constantine at Nicea in Asia Minor. It was held to decide which set of religious teachings were to 120 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Elements of Strength (i) Govern- ment (2) Public Works be considered the standard doctrines of the church. The two leading men in this council were Athanasius and Arius, both Alexandrian priests, who had come to think quite differently concerning the founder of the Christian religion. Arius argued that Christ was not equal to God, but Atha- nasius had a majority of the delegates, and the council decided that Arius was wrong. Accordingly, the assem- bly drew up a statement of their belief which is known as the Nicene creed. The Arian be- lief was declared to be heresy and orthodo.x be- lievers were forbidden to accept it.' One source of strength in the later empire was the carefully organized administrative system. By means of his subor- dinates throughout the empire, the emperor was able to keep in close touch with the needs and wishes of remote provinces and to act ac- cordingly. The great public works of the em- pire, such as the won- derful highways which connected Rome mth 'The medieval church differed from the church of the first three centuries, not only by its persecution of those who disagreed with it, but also by the adoption of many of the ceremonies, feast-days, and other customs formerly used by the pagan religions. In the primitive church the organization was very simple. Whenever groups of people met for worship, one of their number was chosen to lead them in the service. He was called elder (Greek, presbyter). The word "presbyter' Arch of Constantine Showing the Colosseum in the background. THE ROMAN EMPIRE every part of her empire, the temples and triumphal arches/ the aqueducts for carrying water into the principal cities, the excellent fortifications which protected vulnerable places along the frontier, — all these gave strength to the empire. The merchants who carried their wares over these roads (3) Commerce made the inhabitants of one part of the empire feel that they had things in common with the people of other provinces. This feeHng of common interest was also a bond of union. Travellers along the roads were assured of justice in cases of difference of opinion or of oppression by the excellent courts and laws of the empire. It will be remembered that the apostle Paul rejoiced in the fact of his Roman citizenship and that he appealed from the procedure of the Syrian courts to the square dealing of Rome.- Education is a failure if (5) Education it does not promote true patriotism. Roman education was another source of strength. The educational system was both highly organized and well regarded, and there were both higher and lower institutions of learning. At Rome, (4) Roman Law gradually became shortened into the more famihar word " priest." The distinction between pastor (shepherd) and laity (sheep) was at first scarcely distinguishable. The medieval church, on the other hand, adopted the administrative organization of the partnership emperors, and thereafter the line between clergy and laity became sharply defined. Those priests who officiated in important churches were looked up to by the other priests of the diocese in which they lived, and were called upon to act as overseers (Greek, episcopus) over them. The early English writers translated this word by sound into their language as bishop. The bishops of the more important regions were called archbishops, or metropohtans, because they were usually bishops of the larger cities. We shall have occasion to study how certain metropolitans gained a supremacj' over all the other clergy and assumed the titles of Pope and Patriarch. ' The Romans excelled in architecture and created a highly decorated form of arch known as the triumphal arch. Among the better known arches erected by the emperors to commemorate their most famous victories are those of Trajan and Constantine. The former stands in Trajan's Foriun, the latter within a stone's throw of the Colosseum. Both arches are richly sculptured and bear Latin inscriptions honoring their imperial builders. 2 Acts xsv, the entire chapter, or more especially verses 10, 11. 122 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY as today at Washington or Albany, the study of law was aided by the opportunities given the student to observe the workings of the machinery of government. At Athens students had the inspiration of the beautiful works of art and of literature left by the Greeks. The successors of Alexander had built up a great scientific school at Alexandria in which medicine astronomy, and mathematics were studied. In every large town the imperial government maintained grammar schools for the children of the better classes, in which they received Interior of a Roman House about the equivalent of a high school education. Elemen- tary instruction was given everywhere to all classes. The Roman empire retained most of its strength for five centuries, for the forces tending to unite it were stronger during that period than the forces tending to break it up. The elements of strength were the splendidly organized government, the magnificent system of public works, the province-imiting commerce, the just legal code, and the opportunities for education. Yet with all these forces working to hold the empire to- THE ROMAN EMPIRE 123 gether, other forces were tearing it apart. Economic distress, Forces tend- slaver}', and profound changes in the character of the Roman ^s to Destroy people e\'entually broke the empire up into a numljer of smaller states and ushered in an epoch of general decline commonly spoken of as "The Dark Ages." As the government became more highly organized it became more and more expensive to run it. The court became extravagant, wliile the salary list of public ofificials the Empire (i) Heavy Taxation 1 k ^ ^ 9 ^^g^d^K'^ ^^^^^^H ^B^^H Ai^^vRSi wBKm ■HI ^^Bs^B'^wM j^J WM Bsi^^^ - « ^^H^^^^^^^^|Oh^P^ r- ''i^ffi ^I^^^^BIj^BHHHHnHHBI^^^ j'-Q^^M H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^J'^ '*' "^ <- *y ^:^j i > §SM Carcassonne Cit\' on the Aude in southern France, probably on foundations of Roman walls. Fortified by the Visigoths, constantly increased; accordingly it was necessary to in- crease the amount of money collected by taxation. As a (2) Excessive result the cost of li\'ing became so great that thousands of ''°^' °^ Living men were ruined financially and became practically slaves to their creditors. Because of the cost of living, no man in moderate circumstances could afford to rear large famihes (3) Decline in of children. Hence the population of the empire declined Population 124 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY (4) Introduc- tion of For- eigners (5) Slavery Founding of Constan- tinople Invasion of thie Visigoths to such an extent that there were not enough freemen in the empire to fill out the legions of the army or even to carry on absolutely necessary farm work. This want was supplied by enlisting foreigners in the Roman legions, and by bringing a large number of slaves into the empire to work on the farms or in the small shops left idle by the disappearing Roman workmen. Whenever and wherever slavery has been tried, it has proved to be destructive to society. It brings honest labor into disrepute, whereas each man and woman should learn the vital truth that all kinds of toil are honorable and that the laborer is worthy of one's highest respect. Slavery tends to limit the kinds of industry, since slave labor is not profitable in all trades. Furthermore a population made up to a large extent of foreign-born soldiers and slaves is not the best stuff out of which to build a patriotic people. The changed character of the population, owing to high cost of living caused by the excessive taxation, from a native-bom and free people to an alien and servile stock, disrupted the Roman empire. 48. The Break-up of the Empire. — Constantine removed his capital from Rome to Byzantium, a city on the Bosphorus wliich he renamed after himself. Constantinople was better situated to control the commerce of the world than Rome; furthermore it was entirely free from the traditions of republican simphcity that hovered over the city on the seven hills. Soon after his death the disintegration of the empire became apparent. A German tribe called the Visigoths (West Goths) were driven into the empire by the raids of the Huns, a terrible race of Mongolian horsemen who began at this time to harass the empire. They were at first disposed to be friendly to the Roman government, but when they were treated unfairly they took up arms and inflicted a crushing defeat on the empire at the battle of Adrianople (378 A.D.), in which the Emperor Valens was killed. His successor managed to remain on fairly peaceful terms with the Goths. After his death a young chieftain of the Goths, named Alaric, led his people into Italy and captured and sacked the city of Rome (410 a.d.). This was the first time Rome had been p 20° lO" 0^ 10' 20' 7\ / -"ri 1 'v y "w^ /^-^.J i^\ y^'^^r. \ MiJ I if:?!>#^ .y / A ^•'^ 7=i=4-ls£jl^ \^^ JL '">! \ '^\ I it,m J '^ i\ ^~~"'^ ^ / ] ^-^-1 yi Lv "*! A Sv^ '^ U^r-^^jUi^ rv-^ (J l\ {-f V '^'^ >-. 1 y~~—\ /^ * y^ M / \/ \v^ \j ^ ys / ^^~>'^ s^ * ' ^\r~^ f . O^ ] /I Xf/s) I 35 \^— — ^ / A^.^-76' 1r -^^^»tt^^ ??•? *^ ••""'" / """"iSX \ /^ /C^ TPIE ROMAlsr EMPIKE \ ^^^^TN /~ IN 395 A.D. \ .'i ^ \ Included the parts of modern Europe. Asia and V / Africa within the red lines. North of the frontier -l , T K I P" 'St I ;. ,— ^ dwelt German or Slavic tribes 1 The Empii-e was divided into four prefectures. | ^' r**" 25 ^ these into dioceses, one of which is indicated witlim / / black lines on the map of France and Western Ger- / y many. Each diocese was divided into provinces, of / > 1 which an example is indicated by the broken linea \( / within the diocese of Gaul. — _________^ f \ / ^~r ~ / \ ' — L 0" 10' Longltude Emi from Greenwicli issa THE ROMAN EMPIRE 125 menaced by a foreign army since the days of Hannibal. Although Alaric died suddenly during a campaign in southern Italy, his people were enabled to establish a permanent home \\ithin the empire. They chose the Spanish peninsula and drove into Africa another German tribe, who thereafter estabhshed themselves on the site of ancient Carthage. This tribe, the Vandals, attacked and ravaged Rome in such The Vandals a frightful manner that their name has ever since been a term of reproach (455 a.d.). TojiB OF Theodoric at Ravenna This was constructed during his reign and used during the Middle Ages as the choir of a church. The roof is a single block of Istrian marble, ^^i f^^t in diameter, weighing 300 tons. It is fortunate for our ci^^lization that these Germans were able to build up some degree of power in the West by 451 ..\,d.; for they were then called upon by the Roman empire to check the advancing horde of Huns, who now threatened to destroy ci\'ilization. Hideous in personal appearance, vile in their habits, demons in battle, the Huns cared nothing The Huns 126 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY THE ROMAN EMPIRE 127 at all for the civilization of the empire, but spent their lives in the saddle and in battle. Such was the people that the combined Gothic and Roman armies hurled back at the battle of Chalons. Attila, the "Scourge of God," king of Chalons the Huns, turned aside into Italy and appeared before the city of Rome; but pestilence smote his camp and he was forced to retreat into Germany with the Roman forces hot in pursuit. Shortly after his death his forces suffered another terrible defeat and mthdrew from Europe forever. In the meantime Britain and other pro\dnces had been The So-called conquered by various Germanic tribes. At last a boy ^^ "^ Rome emperor, \Yho singularly enough bore the names of the city's founder and of the first emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by Odoaker, a German army officer, and the emblems of his authority were sent to his co-emperor at Constantinople (476 a.d.). Some have thought that this act constituted the ending of the Roman empire in the West, but better authority holds that it was but one of a series of dramatic events connected with the change from a Roman to a German control of western Europe. Xot altogether pleased with the administration of Odoaker, The Ostro- whom he had appointed ^ice^oy of Italy with the title of Gothic King- patrician, the emperor appointed a yoimg East Goth named ""^ "" ^ Theodoric to succeed him. Theodoric led his people into Italy, and after kiUing Odoaker, estabhshed another Ger- manic kingdom on Roman soil (493 a.d.). Theodoric ruled his Roman and Gothic subjects justly, and by a series of royal marriages with the \'isigoths and other German tribes, estabhshed friendly relations throughout western Europe. In his relations with the church Theodoric was not as happy, because he and his people were Arian Christians (see p. 120). His daughter was rmable to hold the throne against other claimants, and Justinian, the Roman emperor, intervened. After twenty years of war that foUowed, the East Gothic kingdom in Italy was destroyed and the Gothic race in Italy practically exterminated. 49. The Byzantine Empire. — From this time the Roman Work of Jus- empire, with its capital at Constantinople, is commonly t™*" 128 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY spoken of as the Byzantine empire. Justinian was one of the greatest of the rulers of this empire. His great achieve- ments were in constructive rather than in destructive works. During his reign silkworms were brought from the East and the manufacture of silk was begun by the Greco-Romans. Among the many pubhc buildings constructed during his reign is the church dedicated to the Divine Wisdom (St. Sophia), now used as a Mohammedan mosque. The laws of the empire were codiiied by his lawyers at his order, in the form upon which almost all medieval law was based. Justinian Dictating his law codes to his lawyers. The Byzan- tine Empire in the Middle Ages Although the successors of Justinian were by no means as able as he, yet the Byzantine empire withstood all attacks for centuries after Roman dominion had entirely ceased in the West. The contrast between the state of civilization in Constantinople with that of western Europe at the same time is marked. This Byzantine civilization performed useful services for the rest of Europe. First, it protected against Mohammedan invasions until the West was strong enough to resist them; second, it kept commerce ahve until the ItaUan cities had become wealthy and powerful enough to THE ROMAN EMPIRE 129 engage in trade; third, it preserved the learning and culture of the Greco- Romans for the use of later generations; and fourth, it Christianized and civilized the rest of eastern Europe. It was less than fifty years before the discovery of America that the Turks were able to capture the city of Constantinople and put an end to this wonderful empire of the East.i Saikt Sophia At Constantinople, erected by Justinian in 538 as a church, converted by the Turks into a mosque. ' "Travellers from western Europe were astonished to iind such an enormous city, such wealth and such refinement. In the West learning was conlined to the clergj'; safety in travelling could be secured only by an armed force; and the homes of the most powerful nobles were rough castles, destitute of comfort and built mainly for defence. The kings of France and Germany were obliged to travel from one to another of their farms in order to secure the food necessary for their meals. Loathsome skin diseases were common, and there were no skilful doctors; pestilences and famines swept over the population from time to time. In Constanti- nople the travellers found lighted and paved streets, extensive public parks, hospitals, and homes for orphans. Order was maintained by a well-organized police force; theatres and circuses were maintained for 130 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY 50. A Summary of the History of the Roman Empire. — In this survey of the Roman empire three things especially are to be fi.xed in the mind. The first is the importance of Roman organization and law. The second is the story of the growth and influence of the Christian church. The third is the remarkable way in which the Roman institutions were adopted by the barbarous Germans. The Romans so organized this world empire that each part felt itself as truly Roman as Rome herself, subject to all Roman laws and speak- ing a common language, the Latin. The Christian church quietly but surely grew into the form of the organization of the empire, and when the civil authorities became unable to administer Roman law, the church was ready and able to carry on the necessary governmental functions, and it thus saved for us the culture both of Greece and Rome, which would otherwise have been destroyed by the barbarians. Coming under the influence of the church, the Germans learned to appreciate the benefits of much of the older civilization, which they modified and then adopted. SUGGESTIVE TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY (The following studies are based on Tucker's Life in the Roman World of Nero mid St. Paul, published by Macmillan. This is the best of the recent books dealing with the social life of the empire. Page references are given.) Describe travel within the empire upon Roman roads, 16-25. De- scribe the office of emperor under the principate, 49-56. Draw a map of the Roman Forum and its neighborhood and locate the Rostra, the temple of Julius, the arch of Titus, the palaces of the Caesars, the arch of Constantine, and the Colosseum, 102-129. Describe the appearance, construction, lighting of Roman streets, 130-135, the water supply of the amusement of the populace. There were flourishing schools in which the scholars pursued not merely the elementary subjects taught in the West, but also those pertaining to law, medicine, and science. The nobles lived in magnificent buildings which far surpassed the palaces of the Western monarchs. The artisans were comfortably housed, and worked together in great factories, producing rich stuffs which were so rare and so highly prized in the West." (Munro, A History of the Middle Ages.) THE ROMAN EMPIRE ' 131 Rome, 135-137- Describe the materiak used for the construction of Roman houses, 137-138. Compare a Roman city block with those of our large cities, 139-142. Describe the to^n-house of the Roman, 143-168. Describe the social day of a Roman aristocrat; morning, 193-220; after- noon and dinner, 221-237. Describe the occupations of the middle and lower cl^ssK, 244-259. Describe the Roman theatre and its amuse- ments, 263-273. Describe the Circus JIa.dmus and the events which were held there, 273-280. Describe the amphitheatre and the spec- tacles there produced, 280-288. Describe Roman education, 319-335, the beginnings of Christianity, 381-387. FUKTHEE ReFEEENXE Re.4DINGS Botsford, Ancient World, pp. 442-546. West, Ancient World. Part II, pp. 397-529. Robinson, Introduction to tlie History of Western Europe, pp. 8-33: Ginn and Co. Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, pp. 337-598. Robinson, Readings in European History, Chapters II, III. Ginn and Co. Botsford, Story of Rome: Early Roman Empire, pp. 233-315. Munro, Source-Book : Early Empire, pp. 143-163; Christian Church, pp. 163-17S; Roman Life and Society, pp. 179-216. Bemont and ilonod, ilediccval Europe: Henn,- Holt and Company. Roman Empire at the End of the Eourth Centur\', pp. 1-20; Ger- manic Invasions, pp. 33-62 ; Roman Empire in the East, pp. 99-1 14. Munro, History of the Middle Ages: Appleton. Byzantine Empire, pp. 95-100. SYitphtrA, Historical Atlas: Plan of Rome, pp. 22-23; Plan of the Forum, p. 24; Territorial Expansion of Rome, pp. 34-35; Jlap of the European Provinces of the Empire, pp. 38-39; Roman Empire about 395 A.D., pp. 42-43; Germanic Migrations and Conquests, p. 45; The Roman and Hunnic Empires about 450 .a.d., p. 48; The Germanic Kingdoms and the East Roman Empire in 486 a.d., pp. 50-51; in 526-600 -A.D., p. 52. CHAPTER VII THE GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY The Lombard Conquest of Italy and its Effects Reasons for the Growth of the Papal Power 51. The Rise of the Papacy. — Although Justinian was chiefly a constructive statesman, his generals were successful in restoring to the control of the emperor the lands of the Ostrogoths in Italy and of the Vandals in Africa. The renew'cd control of Italy lasted only a short time, for another German tribe invaded the peninsula and gained the mastery. The newcomers, the Lombards, lacked a strong sense of nationality, and in consequence were unable to establish a united kingdom over the whole peninsula. Many small dukedoms grew up, and during the period of misrule that followed, the bishop of Rome gained greater temporal power. The Lombard conquest was important because it divided Italy into a number of small states; second, because it laid the foundations for the temporal rule of the pope. The three zones into which Italy was thenceforth divided were as follows: the northern, the valley of the Po, called Lombardy; the central, its capital at Rome, associated in men's minds with the bishop of that city; the southern, dominated by the cities of Beneventum and Naples. During the troubled times of Lombard misrule the officials of the Roman church, particularly the bishop of Rome, were forced to accept many responsibilities of government. This was due to a number of circumstances. The civil author- ities, representatives of a distant emperor at Constantinople, had little interest in the people of Italy and usually regarded them as lawful plunder. The church officers sympathized with their flocks, hence the people came more often to them for advice and leadership than to the government officials. This was natural because, with scarcely an exception, the officers of the church were exceedingly able men, none more justly respected than the bishops of Rome. u O GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 133 There were several bishops throughout the empire, -whose responsibilities \Yere great, and whose abilities were even greater. The bishop, or patriarch, of Constantinople and the bishop of Alexandria ruled great spiritual parishes, but the bishop of Rome was recognized as the head of bishops, the pope (from the Italian word for "father") of all the church. Authorities gi\'e us the following reasons for the universal recognition of the claims of the pope to suprem- acy: the importance of the imperial city greatly increased the honor of the bishop of that city; the superior abilities of the Roman bishops won the respect of the other bishops; the government of the empire, by se\'eral lav.-s bearing on the subject, established and recognized the Roman bishop as head of the church; imphcit confidence was given to the literal interpretation of a passage in the Bible in which Peter, whom Roman tradition made the first bishop of Rome, was declared to be the head of the church.' All other Roman bishops received, in what is known as the apostohc succession, the powers possessed by the first bishop. While Italy had been ravaged by one German tribe after another the eastern emperors still kept up the fiction of rule over the peninsula, and were for a long time recognized as supreme by the popes. The Emperor Leo the Iconoclast (from the Greek, meaning "image-smasher"), so called because of his policy, did not approve of the use of images of saints in the churches and issued a decree forbidding their use and ordering the destruction of all images then standing in the churches. The pope considered the use of images perfectly legitimate and refused to carry' out the decree of destruction in the region under his control. In consequence a quarrel between the emperor and the pope led to the separation of the eastern part of the CathoKc Church from that in the West. The West acknowledged the supremacy of the pope; the East looked up to the patriarch of Constantinople, the emperor's city.- This schism in the church made the pope ' Matthew xvi. 13-20. ' The modem Greek Catholic Church, the successor of the Eastern church, differs in doctrine, form of worship, and organization from the Reasons why the Roman Bishop be- came the Head of the Church (i) Trans- ferred Impor- tance of Rome itself (2) Character of Early Popes (3) Govern- ment Recog- nition (4} Authority of the Bible Breach be- tween the Emperor and the Pope Origin of the Greek Catho- Uc Church 134 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Change in dating Time The Ascetic Life Reasons for adopting a Monastic Life (i) Religious Fervor (2) Unsettled State of Soci- ety (3) Physical Weakness of Rome much stronger and was an additional reason for the supremacy of the papacy in the West. A further result of this quarrel was the beginning of the present method of reckoning time; i.e., from the birth of Christ. Before the pope and emperor disagreed, the papal laws were dated accord- ing to the years of the reign of the ruling emperor. Seven hundred eighty-five years after the birth of Christ, Pope Hadrian dated a papal decree 781 a.d. (Anno Domini).' 52. The Rise of Monasticism. — In all ages and among all peoples there have been men and women who desire to live a life apart from the everyday affairs of the world. People call such persons hermits or ascetics and have attrib- uted to them supernatural and prophetic powers. Asceti- cism, the desire to live a life in which the bodily desires are gratified only so far as necessary to support life, is even today not rare. We all know people who practise self-denial in various ways, and there is no doubt that self-denial is helpful in building up self-control. Among many races there have been individuals and groups of persons who believe that the practice of extreme self-denial, even to the extent of infhcting pain upon the body, is an act of worship acceptable to God. Closely related to this idea is that of the sacrifice of living creatures upon the altars of the gods, which played such an important part in the religion of the ancient peoples. It is not strange that men and women became monks and nuns. In the middle ages they were induced to enter the monastic life for several reasons: religious fervor urged them to devote their lives to the service of God, and this was thought to mean that they must separate themselves from everything pertaining to everyday life ; the unsettled condi- tion of society rendered family hfe unhappy and the rearing of a family uncertain, hence many men and women were Roman Catholic Church. This separation of the churches began at the time of the iconoclastic dispute, and has since greatly widened. 1 It will be seen that the pope made an error of several years, and that according to this method of reckoning time Christ was bom in the year 4 B.C. GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 135 glad to take the vows never to marry, required on entering a monastic order; the bitter struggle for a hvelihood outside of the monasteries forced behind their protecting walls many persons who were physically unable to cope mth outside conditions, yet who were well adapted for the scholarly life of these orders. During the first three centuries of the Christian era, at TheBenedic- various places in the empire, groups of devout persons of '""^ Monks ascetic tendencies associated together for the sake of protec- tion in small villages rudely constructed, but often fortified. As they had many things in common they found it necessary to have a definite agreement to govern them in their relations to each other. The most important of these agreements is The Benedic- the set of regulations dra^^m up for the monastery of Monte ''°® ^"^^ Cassino by its abbot or head about 530 a.d. These regula- tions, called in honor of their framer the Benedictine rule, were adopted by the majority of the monasteries of western Europe, and the monks who obeyed them were called Bene- dictine monks. By this rule the monks bound them- selves to obedience, silence, humihty, poverty, chastity, and service. Among the most important of all of these vows in its effects Occupations on European civilization was that of service. The monks °* ^^ Monks were required to labor in the fields, thus teaching the more ignorant peasants how to cultivate the best crops, and also setting them an example of honest toil at a time when almost all manual labor was performed by slaves and therefore regarded as degrading for freemen, as it was in the South before the Ci\'il War. Those whose physique would not permit hard physical work copied laboriously for several hours each day in the scriptorium or ^Titing room of the monas- tery. As all books had to be made by hand, the work of getting out a book was an extremely slow process. Had it not been for these patient workers, much of the literature of ancient times would have been lost. Quaint writers were some of these old monks, and many books have come down to us, beautiful in lettering and gorgeous with colored illumi- nations, as the pictures and colored initial letters are called. the Work of the Monks 136 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Other monks gathered around them classes of young men and in this manner kept the germs of education alive through a period of great ignorance and violence. When travel was dangerous and accommodations for the traveller few, the monasteries served as hotels and hospitals for the weary or injured wayfarers. Indeed the two words, " hotel " and " hospital," are of common origin, as is shown in the word " hospitality." The monasteries thus served to promote commerce by furnishing merchants and traders with places of refuge and refreshment. The greatest work of the monks was that of mission work. It is to Roman Cathohc monks of western Europe that credit must be given for Christianiz- ing and then civilizing the German tribes, even as due praise must be awarded to the Greek Catholic Church for the civiliz- ing of the Slavic race of Russia and the rest of eastern Europe. Importance of The contributions of the monastic orders to hterature, education, industry, commerce, rehgion, and general culture are of utmost importance. Clovis 53. The Prankish Kingdom. — While Theodoric the East Goth was winning Italy for his kingdom, Clovis, king of the Franks, wrested all northwestern France from the Roman empire. The Franks had in earlier times occupied the country of modern Holland. Clovis forced the Visigoths to retreat from the lands between the Loire and the Garonne, and defeated another German tribe, the Alemanni, in a battle near Strasburg. Other rival Frankish chieftains were either murdered or forced to acknowledge his supremacy. He died in 511 a.d., feared by his enemies and acknowledged king of that part of the empire. Strangely enough he appears in the annals of the early monkish chroniclers as the saintKest of kings, although a man of violent life; yet it must be re- membered that he was liberal to the church. Probably the good bishop, Gregory of Tours, seeing the many good char- acteristics of the man, chose to be bhnd to the too appar- ent evil traits of his character. The chief importance of the work of Clovis is that he founded the first permanent Ger- man state on the soil of the old empire, the Franks having been the ruling race in that region ever since, although GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 137 the form of government and the djTiasty of rulers have frequently changed. The work of extending Frankish rule went on during the next half century, until all France, except Brittany, acknowledged the control of one of the Frankish kingdoms; for after the death of Clovis his possessions had fallen apart into Neustria, the country of the West Franks, Austrasia, that of the East Franks, and in the southeast Burgundy. His successors were less able men and are nicknamed rois faineants (do-nothing kings). They left the affairs of state more and more to their subordinates and gave themselves up to idle, often evil hves. The principal officer of the king's household was called the mayor of the palace. He had charge of the aflairs of the kingdom and led the army in the king's name. The mayors were more able than their sovereigns and frequently ignored the ruler. Pippin of Heristal was mayor of the palace for the king of Austrasia, and forced the kings of Neustria and Burgundy to make him their principal minister also. A similar arrangement today would prevail if the prime minister of England were to compel the French govern- ment to make him prime minister of France also, and the German government to make him chancellor of the empire. Such an arrangement made the mayor of the palace a more important figure than the kings and furthered a imion be- tween the countries. Pippin transmitted his triple ofiSce to his son Charles, who was called "The Hammer" because of his great victory over the invading Mohammedans at the battle of Tours in 732 a.d. Shortly after the death of Charles Martel his older son. Pippin, became sole mayor of the palace. After consulta- tion -with the pope, -with his approval and that of the Frankish people, Pippin deposed the faineaiit king then on the throne and himself assumed the cro^^n of the Franks. This was a recognition of the merit of his family, a tribute to the states- manship of his father, and an acknowledgment of his own superiority over the line of Clovis. The participation of the pope in his accession to the throne was a reintroduction The " Do- nothing Kings " The Mayors of the Palace Pippin of Heristal Charles Mar- tel (The Ham- merj Pippin, King of the Franks 138 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY of the close relation which had existed between church and state in ancient Hebrew history, when the king was regarded as the "Lord's anointed." This idea was to reach its flower in the theory of the divine right of Kings.' (See p. 315.) ' Dr. Robinson points out the significance of papal participation in the selection of a Prankish ruler as follows: "The kings of the Germans up to this time had been military leaders, selected, or holding their office, by the will of the people, or at least of the aristocracy. Their GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 139 The pope felt the need for a closer relation between the Origin of the church and the rising family of Prankish princes. In addition church°or*^ to the rehgious sentiment which unquestionably prompted papai states his action, the ruler of the church had material motives which made the alliance ^'aluable. It was at this time that the pope was ha\ing his controversy with the emperor, and nearer home the Lombard rulers of the Po valley were plan- ning an in\-asion of his territon.'. When the most ambitious of the Lombard kings, desirous of founding a new German kingdom to take in all the peninsula, in\-aded the papal lands, Pope Stephen commanded Pippin to come to his aid. This act was of momentous importance. It further widened the breach between the emperor and the pope and put an end to a project for the unification of Ital)'.^ Pippin entered Italy at the head of a large army, conquered the Lombard king, and compelled him to surrender the central zone to the pope. This region, which the Lombards had previously taken from the \'iceroy of the Byzantine empire. Pippin granted to the pope, and thus formed the territory known for over a thousand years as the papal states or states of the church. Pippin's reign is important because of the papal recognition of his position and because the temporal authority of the pope was recognized by a ci\il ruler. 54. The Rise of Islam. — In the deserts of Arabia a -nild, Mohammed heroic people had existed from the earhest days of recorded history. They had been the conquerors of the proudest empires of ancient times and had never bowed the knee to Rome. The religion of the Arabs was similar to that of the Hebrews, monotheistic, although some idolatrous practices had been introduced during the first few centuries of the Christian era. At Mecca, the seat of their supreme god, there was bom in the year 570 a.d. a pecuhar and sickly rule had no divine sanction, t)Ut only that of general acquiescence backed up by sufficient skill and popularity to frustrate the efforts of ri\'als. By anointing Pippin in accordance with ancient Jewish custom, first by Boniface and then b)' the pope himself, 'a German chieftain was', as Gibbon expresses it, 'transformed into the Lord's anointed.'" ' The fjapacy remained a barrier to the unification of Italy until 1870, 140 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY child. Of noble descent, but poor, he adopted the occupa- tion of stock-raiser, and was fortunate enough to mn the heart of his employer, a wealthy widow. After his marriage he had abundant means to adopt another mode of Ufa. About the age of forty the disease with which he had always been fighting seems to have gained the upper hand, for he then announced that the angel Gabriel had appeared to him in a dream. He claimed that he was ordered to preach against The Kaaba Located at Mecca. The chief sanctuary of Islam. First erected, ac- cording to the legend, by Abraham and Ishmael. In its walls is set the sacred black stone. This was broken by fire in 683 , but its parts were held together in a setting of silver. The Kaaba has been reconstructed several times since Mohammed's day. The building is covered with a heavy black silk damask — the sacred carpet — which is replaced by a new one each year. the idolatry which had entered into the Arab religion, and to proclaim as the true doctrine that there is but one God and GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 141 that ^Mohammed is his prophet.^ He was sincere in his delusions, for \\ithin a quarter of a century he had converted all of his countrjTnen. Within a centurj- after his death his followers outnumbered the Christians. Mohammed was at first received ^^ith scorn and hostiUty The Hejira by the Arab chieftains. In the year 622 a.d. he was forced to flee for his life from Mecca to Medina, where he made many friends and converts to his views. This flight, called the Hejira by his followers, took place in the year i of the ^Mohammedan's calendar, for his converts reckon time after that event, as do Christians from the birth of Christ. Mo- hammed was unable to read or write, but was, nevertheless, familiar ^\iih the best literature of the Semitic races, including the Bible. He dictated to his disciples many rules of con- The Koran duct, forms for prayers, and short anecdotes of his life and work, which have been collected into a volume called the Koran, the sacred book of the faith. His rehgion is called Islam Islam, which means submission to God's •nill ; for he taught that Kismet, or fate, rules everything. Its rules of conduct are few and simple. A Mohammedan must pray five times daily wth his face toward the holy city, and make at least one pilgrimage thither during his hfe. He must give a tenth of his wealth to the poor, abstain from all alcoholic drinks, fast at certain seasons of the )'ear, and do nothing dishonorable. Mohammed taught that there is a future life of the utmost physical happiness, such as feasting and the like, in store for true behevers, but the wcked and the unbeHevers are to suffer torments in hell. War against unbelievers is sacred and obligatory upon true Mohamme- dans, and since Allah is ^^ith his followers, those who fall in battle \A\l go direct to Paradise. After his death his work was carried on by men called ' His sjinptoms were those of epilepsy or of a mild form of delusionary insanity. JIany famous characters of histon,- by the fer\'or of their convictions and the singular purity and nobleness of their hves have gained wonderful fame, while at the same time the}' have shown the symptoms of serious mental disorder, such as the belief in the delusions which constantly hovered over them. 142 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Growth of Mohamme- dan Power Tours or Poitiers kalifs, who possessed greater power throughout the Mo- hammedan world than that of the pope in Christendom. The kalifs gave an unbelieving people its choice of accepting the faith of Islam, of paying a heavy tribute, or of death. To most of the Eastern people it is probable that Islam seemed merely another Christian heresy, especially as Mohammed taught that Christ is indeed a great prophet. Within a century the new faith had spread from Persia to Spain, and over two hundred million men today accept as true gospel the teachings of the fanatical Arab. Wherever Islam has spread it has at first produced vigorous results which seemed good, but "it seems gradually to sap the energy of the nations which adopt it, and leads, after a few generations of greatness, to a stagnation and decay, which the Moslem in his self-satisfied bigotry is too blind to perceive. Islam is a good religion to die by — but not a good rehgion to live by." (Oman, "The Dark Ages.") The rapid growth of the Mohammedan empire after the death of its founder was facilitated in the East by the ex- haustion of the eastern Roman empire, which was resting after conquering a terrible opponent. This was a revived Persian kingdom, which had conquered SjTia, Palestine, and Egypt, under the great Persian Chosroes. He who had ordered the emperor of Constantinople to come as a suppliant to him was commanded by Mohammed to rec- ognize Islam, and it can be imagined wdth what scorn he treated this order. Heraclius, the Byzantine ruler, at last defeated Chosroes and restored the lost provinces to the empire of the East. Both the Byzantine and Persian empires were so weakened that they were within twenty years at the mercy of the kalifs. The Mohammedans gained all the north coast of Africa and established a Moorish state in the Spanish peninsula, after having over- come the Gothic kingdom there. In 732 a.d. the Moors invaded southern France, but were met by Charles Martel between Tours and Poitiers and defeated with great loss. This \'ictory of the Franks put an end for a time to the inroads of the Moors, and by some authorities is con- GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 143 sidered to have saved western Europe from becoming Mohammedan in ci\'ihzation.^ 55. Charlemagne's Life and Work. — Charles, the oldest Personal Ap- son of Pippin, afterward called Charlemagne or Carolus P«*y«i>'=e ^^^ Magnus (Charles the Great), became ruler of the Franks in 768. He was tall, of good build, with fair hair and skin and blue eyes, a typical German. He was strong in body and mind and dehghted in manly sports of all kinds, excelling in s\\imming and riding. "He wore the dress of his native country; next his body a linen shirt and hnen drawers; then a tunic with a silken border, and stockings. He bound his legs \\ith garters (like the puttees of the present day) and wore shoes on his feet. In the winter he protected his shoul- ders and chest mth a vest made of the skins of otters and sable. He wore a blue cloak and was always girt wth his sword, the hilt and belt being of gold and silver. Sometimes he wore a jewelled sword, but only on great festivals or when receiving foreign ambassadors. On festivals he was clad in a garment woven with gold and shoes studded with jewels, his cloak fastened with a golden clasp, and wearing a crown of gold set with precious stones. At other times his dress differed little from that of a 'private person.' " Charlemagne was fond of listening to music and to reading and was fairly well educated, according to the standards of the time, as he was able to speak Latin and to understand some Greek, in addition to a good knowledge of his own tongue.^ Romance has made of him a very Alexander, who swept His Con- over Europe during the half century of his reign leading a i"*^*^ m\Tiad lances, conquering and ci\ilizing countless hordes of barbarians. Had he possessed half the generalship attributed to him by these medieval legends, he would have forced the Mohammedans out of Europe, and have planted his banners upon the walls of Constantinople. During his reign 1 Others hold that this was a temporary setback to the Mohamme- dans, and that its importance has been greatly overestimated. ^ He was never able to learn to write, although he kept writing materials near him at all times, even under his pillow, so that he could -practise at every spare moment. 144 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Statesman- ship Government of the Franks the Frankish dominions were increased, partly by his own efforts and partly as a result of the work of the counts of the marches, officers whom he put in charge of the border provinces. Among the most important conquests of Ms reign was the overthrow of the heathen Saxons, who occupied the north-central part of Germany. The rehgion of this people was of the gloomiest sort of battle worship, and savage and cruel customs prevailed. After nine campaigns, lasting for thirty years in all, the foundation for modern Germany was laid in the forests along the Elbe River. Towns sprang up, monasteries were built; everywhere the zealous Benedictines went to and fro, spreading the civili- zation of the Romans and Franks. Charlemagne tried to force the Moors out of Spain, but was unable to drive them permanently further south than the river Ebro.' Another important campaign of Charlemagne was undertaken against a Lombard king who had seized cities in northern Italy and thus was threatening the supremacy of the pope. As his predecessor had appealed to Pippin, so this pope appealed for aid to Charlemagne, and reminded him of the friendly relations which had existed between the papacy and his family. Charlemagne responded by invading Lombardy with a large army, by capturing Pavia, its capital, and by forcing the Lombard king to abdicate in his favor. Thence- forth Charlemagne was king of the Lombards as well as of the Franks. By conquering the Bavarians, who occupied the lands between Ms Saxon conquests and Lombardy, he rounded out his empire. As a statesman Charlemagne was pre-eminent. This is shown in two ways. He realized the necessity of having some co-operation of the people with himself in the affairs of government, and he won a greater loyalty to his rule by preserving the local customs of the people he conquered. In the spring of each year an assembly, called the Mayfield, composed of the principal landowners and clergymen of the 1 The slaughter of a part of his army in the pass of Roncevalles by the fierce Basques of the Pyrenees furnished the suggestion for the Song of Roland, one of the greatest medieval epics. GERMAN KINGDOMS AND TPIE PAPACY 145 realm, met at the call of the king and talked over the cap- itularies or laws proposed by him. At an autumn meeting of the chief officials, affairs of administration were discussed. The king was assisted by a permanent council of important officers, among whom were the high almoner, a representative of the church in its relations "with the government; the chancellor, who drew up in the form of capitularies the king's ideas in regard to needed legislation; the chamberlain, the chief officer of the court, who arranged all pubKc cere- monials; and the count of the palace, who had chief control over the administration of justice. Charlemagne gained the loyalty of the people of several conquered provinces by permitting them to retain their old customs and laws. In the cases of Brittany and the Spanish province he appointed the defeated native chief to rule as the king's representative under the title of duke. Border provinces, called marches, were ruled by grafs or counts. The missi dominici, a highly important feature of his adminis- trative system, were pairs of superintendents, sent by the king from county to county to examine into the acts and finances of the large landholders. Thus Charlemagne kept himself well informed about his great vassals. He was in no danger of being deceived by misleading reports from a pair of missi acting in collusion with a landholder, because, as he always sent a clergyman and a layman out on such a tour, they never agreed sufficiently to be able to deceive him. As a promoter of learning Charlemagne ranks high. In the turmoil of barbarian invasion and bloody kingdom- building which had fUled the centuries immediately preced- ing his reign, education had been sadly neglected except ia a few monasteries. E\'en the churchmen had become careless of their learning, as is showTi by the poorly constructed letters written by prominent clerics of the eighth century. In 789 A.D. Charlemagne issued an order to the clergjTnen to open schools for the education of the young men of the kingdom. He set an example to his people by opening a school within his ovm palace for the education of his sons and those of the Frankish nobility, and called to his head the famous Enghsh- Assemblies and Impor- tant Officials Administra- tive System Patronage of Learning Coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor 146 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY man named Alcuin. Other famous professors in this school were Paul the Deacon, a Lombard clergyman, whose history of the Lombard people is extremely valuable source material, and Eginhard, from whose biography of Charlemagne the quotation on page 143 is taken. The most important event in the life of Charlemagne was the re-establishment of the Roman empire in the West. ^HP' ,1 \ :..\^^M| 1^ jM^ «'•»- ^J ,>...-- ' Alx-la-Chapelle (Aachen) The round church at the left was built by Charlemagne as a palace chapel. In the fourteenth century a Gothic choir was added to transform the whole into a cathedral. Eginhard relates that Charlemagne had gone down into Italy to hear charges against the pope. "On his arrival Pope Leo went to meet him. He received the pope rever- ently and dined with him. On the birthday of our Lord GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 147 (December 25, Soi) the king went to mass at St. Peter's (the pope's own church in Rome). As he knelt in prayer before the altar, Pope Leo set a crown upon his head, while all the Roman people shiouted, ' Long life and victory to the great and pacific emperor of the Romans! ' After this he was called emperor and Augustus." The pope's reasons for thus restoring the old Western empire were threefold: sincere regard for Charlemagne and gratitude toward him for his friendly attitude; knowledge that he was the actual ruler of nearly all of western Europe and therefore merited the imperial title; hatred for the iconoclastic Eastern rulers provoking the wish to deprive them of even the semblance of authority in the Italian peninsula. Although Charlemagne was caUed emperor of the Romans, it is important to note differences between his empire and the older one. His was essentially German in language and institutions and one in which church and state were co-ordi- nate, while the religion was Christian. The empire of Augus- tus was Roman in language and institutions, and one in which the church, which was pagan, was subordinate to the state. 56. The Decline of Charlemagne's Empire. — Notwith- standing the strongly organized system of government, the revival of interest in general culture, and the spread of Chris- tianity \rith its tendencies toward order, the empire of Charlemagne disintegrated shortly after his reign. Even before his death he had assigned large parts of his empire to his three sons, of whom Louis the Pious was the only one left to succeed him. Louis' weak reign sowed seeds of future disaster in the Prankish kingdom, and forced to abdicate by his rebellious sons, he took refuge in a monastery. To these sons we must look for the beginnings of at least two of the modern states of Europe. Lothair, who held the imperial title, was forced by his brothers, Charles and Louis the Ger- man, to share his domain \\ith them. The agreement binding Charles and Louis to mutual offence and defence against Lothair is kno\Mi as the Strasburg Oath, and is important because it gives the first written examples of the medieval Differences between Charle- magne's Em- pire and the Old Roman Empire Weakness of Louis the Pious 842 A.D. 148 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Strasburg Oath Treaties of Verdun and Mersen French and German languages. Louis the German took his oath in French before the Prankish soldiers of Charles, while Charles used German for a like reason; namely, that the soldiers might understand him. Early French Pro Deo amur at pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament Early German In Goddes minna ind in ttiese christianes folcbes ind unser bedhero gealtinissi Translalion For God's love and for this Cbristian people and for our mutual salvation I will henceforth from this day as far as God endows me with knowl- edge and ability treat my brother as one should rightly treat a brother providing that he does likewise to me; and with Lothair will I go into no treaty that may work harm to this my brother." The early French was little different from Latin, but both languages differed considerably from their modern forms. A year later they forced Lothair to agree, in the famous Treaty of Verdun, to the division of the empire into three portions: Charles received the western land, which was later called France; Louis gained the lands east of the Rhine, including Saxony and Bavaria, the beginnings of Germany; and Lothair retained the title of emperor and the sovereignty over a kingdom with no geographical unity extending from the North Sea to the southern part of Italy, between the possessions of his brothers. After the death of Lothair, in 870, Charles and Louis redivided between them Lothair's kingdom north of the Alps, leaving Italy and the empty imperial title to Lothair's son.^ This division of Charle- magne's empire is of the utmost importance because it marks the beginnings of modern France, Germany, and Italy as geographical facts. The middle kingdom was a cause of strife between France and Germany for a thousand years, which was ended by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, after which Prussia formed the German empire and annexed Lorraine. (Lothair's kingdom ex-pressed in Latin is Lo- thairii regnum, which became successively shortened to Lotharingia and Lorraine.) The reasons for the break-up of Charlemagne's empire were the weakness of Charlemagne's successors and their ' Treaty of Mersen. GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 149 150 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Reasons for the Decline of Charle- magne's Em- pire (i) Weakness of his Suc- cessors (2) Invasions of the North- men (3) Growth of Power of Great Vassals; Feudalism inability to hold together the wdde extent of territory; second, invasions by the Northmen, the sea robbers who came from the shores of Denmark and the Scandinavian peninsula. At first they ravaged the coasts and such inland districts as they could reach by rowing up navigable rivers, but after a time a second stage of invasion began with the settlement of bands of these rude folk in districts granted to or conquered by them. They were called vildngs or sea-kings, and in their long, swiftly rowed, dragon-prowed ships they pene- trated to coasts far remote from their native shores. Such were Leif Ericson, the reputed discoverer of Vinland or North America; Rollo or Rolf, the Ganger or Wanderer, the founder of the duchy of Normandy in northern France; Ruric, who penetrated Russia by the roundabout route of the Medi- terranean and Black seas and estabhshed there a kingdom which was the germ of modern Russia; and Robert Guiscard, a Northman or Norman, who formed an alliance with a pope and received the crown of Sicily. A third reason for the weakness of the empire was the growth of the power of the rulers of subordinate parts of the empire, until these great vassals, or landholders, could not be controlled by the emperor. An instance of this was the ruthless seizure of part of the emperor's personal domain in the Treaty of Mersen. 57. Summary of the German Ejngdoms and the Papacy. — During the troubled time of Lombard misrule the officers of the Christian church were the chief factors which kept civilization from being destroyed by barbarism. Aided by the monastic spirit, which prompted to deeds of heroism and self-sacrifice, the fathers of the church taught the bar- barians to govern themselves and to value law and order. A theological dispute between the Roman emperor and the bishop of Rome caused a breach between the church of the East and the church of the West and further strengthened the pope in his position as supreme authority in the Western church. In the East an Arab fanatic preached a new religion which in less than a century had conquered western Asia and northern Africa. Under the eyes of the popes there GERMAN KINGDOMS AND THE PAPACY 151 developed in western Europe a strong Prankish kingdom which thrust back the wave of Mohammedan invasion and thus prevented Europe from becoming oriental in its later civilization. Pippin punished the Lombards for attacking papal territory and founded the states of the church. His son, Charlemagne, laid the foundations of three modern Remains or a Viking Ship European states and by his patronage of education and of the church set up a higher standard of culture. After his death his dominions were di\dded. The story of how each became a great nation is the history of modern Europe. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY Show on outline maps of Europe the Mohammedan empire at its widest e.ftent; locate Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria, Damascus, Byzantium, Granada, Poitiers (Tours). Show on outline map of western Europe the empire of Charlemagne; locate Aix, Stras- burg, Rome, Ravenna, Verdun, Mersen, the states of the church; with different colored lines show the divisions by the treaties of Verdun and 152 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Mersen. Write in your note-books a brief discussion of each of the following topics : The Saracen Conquest of Spain; Important Teachings of the Koran; Brief Accounts of the Lives and Work of Gregory the Great, St. Columban, Boniface, Gregory of Tours; Influences of the Early Church; Conversion of Clovis; the SaUc Law; Charlemagne's Conception of the Duty of a Ruler as Found in the Capitulary of Year 802 ; The Pal- ace School; Reasons for the Invasions of the Various German Tribes; The Rival Mohammedan Kalifates (Caliphates). Compare the careers of Julius Caesar and Charlemagne. Reference Readings Robinson, Western Europe: The Rise of the Papacy and of Monasticism, pp. 44-59; also Readings, Chapters IV and V. Thatcher and McNeal, Source-Book for Mediceval History, pp. 92-102: Scribners. Oman, European History, 476-giS: The Dark Ages: Rivingtons. HeracHus and Mohammed, pp. 205-220; Contest of the Eastern Empire and the Caliphate, pp. 235-255; Charlemagne, pp. 339-382; also Robinson, Readings, Chapters VI and VII. Robinson, Western Europe: Decline of Charlemagne's Empire, pp. 92-103; also Emerton, Media:val Europe, pp. 3-40: Ginn and Co. Shepherd, Historical Atlas: Development of Christianity to 1300, pp. ifi-^T, The Califate in 750, p. 53; Growth of Frankish Power, p. 53; Carolingian and Byzantine Empires and Califate about 814, pp. 54-55; Disruption of the Carolingian Empire, 843-888, p. 56. CHAPTER VHI EMPIRE AND PAPACY 58. The Growth of the Medieval Empire. — For nearly Otto the a century after the Treaty of JNIersen the history of the '^"*' eastern part of Charlemagne's realm is of little interest. The power of the emperor was Httle respected and no great figure appeared on the stage of action. With the reign of Otto the Great closer relations were established again between the German rulers and the papacy. The imperial title gained by Charlemagne had not been retained by his suc- cessors, who were too busily occupied in defending their possessions against the invading Northmen or in trjing to prevent their hereditary lands from breaking up into the folk duchies of the tribes conquered by Charlemagne. Mean- while the imperial name had been borne by a number of Italian princes. Otto was able to repel all invaders, defeating the Magyar hordes and dri\ing them across the Danube, where they founded the kingdom still bearing their name.^ He also bound the troublesome vassal states more closel)- to his own central government by the wise policy of putting his own relatives upon their ducal thrones. After thus rendering tranquil aflairs at home, he turned his eyes to Italy, whence an appeal for aid had come to him from a sadly troubled pope, who hoped to find in him a second Charles the Great. In return for his aid against a troublesome Italian prince 962 A.D. the pope crowned him emperor of the "Holy Roman Empire," thus signally indicating the mystic bond which united the empire and the papacy, a union productive of much trouble to pope and emperor alike, in that neither was willing to yield precedence to the other in state affairs. • Hungary, the kmgdom of the Magyars. 154' ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Annexation of Burgundy to the Empire Investiture The successors of Otto the Great endeavored to follow in his footsteps. Conrad II, who ruled about fifty years later, was very successful in his administration. He adopted Otto's policy in regard to the stem duchies and secured the annexation of the kingdom of Burgundy to the empire. Burgundy or Aries lay in the southeastern part of what is now France, east of the Rhone River. Through it ran the great arteries of trade between the cities of Italy and of western Europe, and its people were among the most enlightened and prosperous of the time. 59. The Question of Church Reform. — One of the chief causes of dispute between the emperor and the pope was the question of leadership. Each desired to rule and each thought himself the only person competent to govern and even to reform the other. Without doubt both church and state had permitted conditions to arise which required im- provement. In becoming wealthy the church had certain problems to solve, none harder than the group of difficulties connected with the ownership of real estate. The church held many lands, willed to it by devout Christians or ac- quired by purchase. Over such land as was within the empire, the imperial government naturally claimed authority; whereas the churchmen, as representatives of the Divine Power, felt that it ill became a mere temporal ruler to inter- fere with them. The dispute came to an issue on the question of investiture, the ceremony by which the bishop or high churchman was inaugurated into office. The bishop was not only the supervising priest of a diocese; he was fre- quently the imperial representative in the division of the empire coextensive with that diocese. Hence the emperor claimed the right of inaugurating the candidate for episcopal honors. Nothing more clearly illustrates the truth of the statement that there are two sides to every question than does this quarrel between church and state. From the standpoint of the emperor and the state some control over the appointment of church officials was necessary; but, on the other hand, to the churchman it seemed almost sacrilege for a violent statesman or blood-stained war-chief to bestow EMPIRE AND PAPACY 155 the sacred office of bishop. This question was the central point around which raged the cjuarrel between empire and papacy. Within the church itself other matters called for attention. Simony Men of great wealth but of worldly life had frequently been able to secure for themselves or their favorites important church positions for the sake of the added wealth or dignity thereby conferred. This practice, condemned by the best men of that time, is known as simony, after Simon the Magician, who attempted to buy the power of performing miracles from the apostles. This exil tended to bring the church officers into disrepute, and even to destroy the spiritual motives of the clergy. Another matter for re- Celibacy of form was the marriage of clergymen. The rule of the ^^^ Clergy church which forbade clergj'men to marry was often disobeyed, but as the church became richer, the enforce- ment of this rule became more and more necessary from the standpoint of the church. A regular clergyman was supposed to surrender all his property to the common owner- ship of the church, and therefore a married monk who might desire to provide for his family was a danger to the property rights of the church. Furthermore the church believed that he would be less able to devote all his time and mind to the interests of his calling. Finally a married clergy under feudal conditions threatened the establishment of an heredi- tary priesthood which was contrary to the democratic practice of the church. The early church fathers had recognized these objections to a married priesthood, and numerous church councils and popes enjoined celibacy (bachelorhood) upon the clergy. The chief agent for reform within the church was the The Reforms Cluniac movement. This began at the Burgundian mon- °^ Cluny astery of Cluny, which belonged to the pope and into which none of the e\dls mentioned above had crept. The Cluniac monks were renowned as earnest, hard-working men, who contributed much to education and culture and who en- deavored to elevate the moral standards of the time. This was due perhaps to the fact that instead of maintaining a 156 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Policy of Gregory VII The Dictatus shut-in life in their own monastery, the monks of Cluny founded many branch houses, which were known collectively with the mother house as the Congregation of Cluny. The Congregation was subject to the abbot of Cluny and to the pope and aided the church in its struggles with the German rulers. 60. Pope Gregory VII's Struggle with the Empire. — Among the most noted of the early supporters of Cluniac ideals was Pope Gregory VII, the story of whose struggles with Henry IV of Germany is one of the most thrilhng and significant in European history. Early in his papacy he announced at a church council that thereafter no clergyman who had gained his ofhce by the payment of money would be allowed to retain his ofBce or to perform any rites of the church. Shortly afterwards he issued a papal bull forbidding all clergymen to receive investiture from the hand of any layman, thus throwing down the gage of battle before the emperor. A very famous document of the period, often called Gregory's Dictatus, although not the work of that pontiff, expresses the platform of the papal party in this struggle by the following claims: The pope has the sole power of deposing rulers, of making new laws for the church, of calling church councils, of absolving subjects from their oaths of fidelity to wicked rulers. He is the supreme judge of Christendom and no act of a church council is legal mth- out his consent. Not content with merely asserting such claims, Gregory tried to force several rulers to recognize them by sending his legates, or papal ambassadors, to the several courts. The answer that he received from William the Conqueror of England is characteristic of that sturdy monarch: "I refuse to do fealty, nor will I ; because neither have I promised it, nor do I find that my predecessors did it to your predeces- sors." But Gregory was too much absorbed in his struggle with a nearer ruler to attempt to humble the English king. The German emperor Henry IV was a rash and hot-tempered youth who paid no heed to Gregory's edict against lay investiture, but who returned this reply to the EMPIRE AND PAPACY 157 pope's letter of censure: "Henry, king not by usurpation, but by the holy ordination of God,' to Hildebrand,- not pope, but false monk. Come down, then, from that apostoUc seat which you have obtained by violence; for you have been condemned by us and our bishops for your e\il rule." Gregory's answer was to excommunicate, or declare outlawed from the church, the inso- lent emperor. The German bishops, Canossa on whose support Henry had relied, became luke- warm after he ^\•as ex- communicated by the pope, and many of his lords combined against him. He was compelled to seek forgiveness of Gregory, and the once proud king became a humble suppliant at the gates of the little town of Canossa in northern Italy, wherein the pope was mntering. Armed with the Victory of the pope's forgiveness, Emperor The PE^'ITE^•CE at Caxossa ^ Note the reference to the sacred character of the kingly office. ' Each pope, after his election to the papacy, re- nounces his former name and styles himself one or several names most com- mon to the early church fathers. Hildebrand, on becominR pope, chose the name Gregory, being the seventh pope of that designation. Barefooted, clad in the meanest rags, without protection from the inclemency of the wintry weather, Henry drank the cup of humihation to the dregs in order to make his peace with the little man whose slender form to him embodied the might of the church. 158 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Investiture compromised by the Con- cordat of Worms Henry returned to Germany and attempted to crush the dis- contented nobles who had set up a rival leader as emperor. Henry broke his promises to the pope, and Gregory finally took sides with Henry's rival by issuing a second excommu- nication against him. The majority of the German princes regarded the interference of Gregory in purely German af- fairs, such as the choice of a king, as attempted usurpation of their rights, and therefore raUied around Henry. Within two years Gregory surrendered Rome into the hands of the emperor and withdrew from public hfe forever. Yet even in defeat this hero of churchly ideals towers up grandly. In the reign of Henry's son, Henry V, the question of in- vestiture was peaceably settled by the Concordat of Worms, 1122 A.D., by which the king agreed that, while he should thereafter invest the bishops with their fiefs, the pope or his representative had the sole right to invest them with the spiritual office and its emblems. 61. The Papacy and the Hohenstaufen Emperors. — Scarcely had the investiture dispute been settled when the popes were required to hold the balance of power between the emperor and the thriving mercantile cities of Lombardy.' With the reign of the third ruler of the Hohenstaufen line, Frederick I, called Barbarossa or Redbeard, the medieval empire reached its height. Frederick had a high ideal of the importance of his position, as is shown in a letter announcing his election to the imperial title: "God has estabUshed two powers by which this world should be ruled, the empire and the papacy." His reign was one long struggle to retain the supremacy over temporal affairs against the efforts of dis- contented nobles of Germany, who tried to place the Guelph claimant - on the throne, against the intrigues of the popes, and against the attempts at independence on the part of the Lombard towns. ^ The Po valley has been called Lombardy since its occupation by the Lombards. ^ The right of the Hohenstaufens to the imperial throne was fiercely contested for over a century by members of the Guelph family which ruled in Saxony. EMPIRE AND PAPACY 159 Formation of the Lombard League With the reign of Frederick a new era began in the un- The Lombard folding of town life. Townsmen gained a new sense of Towns political freedom, brought into being by the struggle against imperial oppression. The towns of northern Italy began at this time to grow in wealth and prominence as their commerce and industry increased. Through many of them lay the highroad between the German ruler's pecu- liarly hereditary domain and his imperial capital. Through them he must pass on his journey to receive the imperial crown from the hands of the pope. By forming leagues, these towns were able to win certain poUtical privileges from the emperor. The most famous of these leagues was formed as follows. The city of Alilan, one of the largest and wealthiest of the cities of northern Italy, insulted the imperial representative, who had been sent to inciuire into complaints of extortion and cruelty laid against the city by some of the neighboring small towns. This outrage brought Frederick into Italy, where he received envoys from several to\^'ns with complaints against Milan. In a short time an assembly was called at RoncagUa, 115S a.d., at which representatives of the towns and of the emperor discussed the respective rights of the to^^Tl and of the imperial government. This assembly de- cided most of the disputed points in favor of Frederick, whereupon the leading tOTSTis of northern Italy, realizing that submission would be fatal to their hbert}-, formed the Lombard League. After inflicting a decisi\-e defeat upon the imperial forces at the battle of Legnano (11 76), the league opened up negotiations which led to the Peace of Constance (1183), in which the emperor, while retaining a shadowy sort of overlordship over them, gave up the right of ta.xing the to-^^Tis without their consent. The German rulers had long desired the lands of southern The Story of Italy and Sicily, but Frederick was the first to gain them, Sicily by successfully arranging a marriage treaty between his son, Henry, and the heiress to the Norman kingdom of Naples and Sicily. Sicily has had a history of wonderful changes: colonized by the Greeks, partly conquered by the Cartha- l6o ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY ginians, incorporated into the Roman empire; then, upon the downfall of Roman rule in the West, alternately ruled by- native princes, viceroys of the Byzantine emperors or Moham- medan corsairs, until organized in the eleventh century as a Idngdom jointly with southern Italy by a family of northern sea-kings. Henry VI Hardly had Henry VI taken up the administration of his wife's dominions when word came of the death of bis father, Frederick I. The ruler of Germany and all Italy and Sicily found that his path was beset with difficulties. In Germany the Guelph claimant raised the standard of revolt, while his wife's subjects, preferring the rule of a countryman to that of the German husband of their queen, chose Tancred, a Norman count, to rule over them. Fortune favored Henry in his hour of need: Richard Lionheart, on his way home to England^ from the Third Crusade, was captured by a loyal vassal of Henry VI and held prisoner because of the aid given Tancred by the English king. The great ransom •paid by Englishmen to rescue their king enabled Henry to buy off many of his rebellious subjects, and the opportune death of Tancred left him in undisputed possession of the empire. In the midst of his triumph Henry fell a victim to disease, leaving an infant son, Frederick, and a brother, Philip, to uphold the honor of the Hohenstaufens. (See p. 167 for the outcome of the family.) Occasion for 62. The Crusades. — The decline of the medieval empire was contemporaneous with the Crusades, the warlike expe- ditions of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, usually aimed against the Mohammedans in Syria. In the eleventh cen- tury the Byzantine empire had reconquered most of western Asia from the Arabs; but about the time that William the Norman was making his plans for the conquest of Eng- land, a more formidable people than the Arabs appeared, — namely, the Seljuk Turks, — who defeated the Eastern em- peror and drove his forces across the Bosphorus. Fearing that they would capture Constantinople, the Emperor Alexius asked Pope Urban II to arouse western Europe against the Turks. ' See page 207. the Crusades EMPIRE AND PAPACY i6i Urban had adopted the pohcy of his famous predecessor, Gregory VII, against the world rulers, and was even then carrying on the contest against Henry IV of Germany, and also against the son of WiUiam the Conqueror. He doubtless welcomed the opportunity to bring peace to Europe by dramng the attention of the temporal rulers to affairs out- side of their own dominions, at the same time stimulating their interest in rehgion and the tilings of the church. At a great council held at Clermont (1095), Urban set forth the dangers threatening Constantinople and announced the capture of Jerusalem by the Turks. Jerusalem had always been a holy city in the eyes of Christians, so the news that the Turks were in possession and were not only mistreating Christian pilgrims to that city, but were even planning to invade Europe, as stated with great fervor by Urban, aroused the assembly to a high pitch. Urban painted a picture of Syria as a land flowing ^l^th milk and honey, in which homes might be obtained by all the poor and needy of Europe. The assemblage, excited at the thought of the desecration of the holy place, and further stimulated by the appeal to their desire for gain, cried with one accord, " It is the will of God." An agreement called the "Truce of God," which forbade warfare or dueUing in western Europe for four days in each week, was made at this time, and the rulers decided to suspend all sentences against condemned persons who would agree to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. All these facts help to e.xplain the eagerness of the Crusaders. The general movement of thousands of Western Europeans, in response to the appeal made at Clermont, is known as the First Crusade, and had two phases. Within a few weeks after the council had adjourned, Peter the Hermit, a fanatical exhorter, collected a motley crowd of poor knights and dis- contented peasants and started by way of the forests of central Europe for the Holy Land. This phase did not prove dangerous to the Turks, for most of these misguided Crusaders fell in skirmishes with the Hungarians, whose fields they had foraged for supphes, and the remnant that reached Turkish soil was easily mastered. The second CouncU of Clermont The First Crusade 1 62 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY About 1 1 00 A.D. The Third Crusade 1187 A.D. phase, under the leadership of Count Godfrey of Bouillon and other famous knights of the time, proved more effective. A large and well-equipped army under these leaders reached the Holy Land, and after a number of difficulties captured the city of Jerusalem. They established four principali- ties, known as the Latin kingdoms of Syria, one of which, the kingdom of Jerusalem, lasted one hundred and fifty years. Fifty years later the capture of one of the Christian cities in the Holy Land by the Turks led to a second but unsuc- cessful Crusade to recapture it. The city of Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin, the heroic sultan of Egypt, and there immediately followed the Third Crusade, one most far- Crusadees Mounted Crusaders on their way to the Holy Land. When a Crusader set out he wore a cross on his breast; returning he wore it on his back. reaching in its consequences. The leaders were Richard Lionheart of England, Philip Augustus of France, his bitter enemy, and Frederick Barbarossa. The latter had just arranged the marriage of his son to the heiress of Sicily. (See p. 159.) Feeling affairs secure at home, he started for Syria, but while attempting to cross a stream in Asia Minor, was drowned. The remaining leaders quarrelled with each other more than with the Saracens of Saladin, but the general- ship of Richard won the respect of that skilful leader. A peace was concluded between the Christians and Saladin, EMPIRE AND PAPACY 163 by which he granted to them the right to visit the sacred places at Jerusalem. An instance of the fanaticism of the crusading spirit may be found in the Children's Crusade (1212). Thousands of children started out from Germany in the hope that by the sinlessness of their lives they might accomplish the miracle of retaking the Holy Sepulchre. Some discouraged, re- turned home safely, but many were captured and sold as Other Cru- sades The Holy Sepulchre The sepulchre is located under the large dome. slaves long before they reached the Hoi}- Land. The Crusad- ing spirit was at times diverted from its original purpose. The Venetians, urged by Innocent III to retake Jerusalem, turned aside to Constantinople and captured the capital of the Byzantine empire. For nearly sixty years this wealthy city, with its enormous commerce and industry, its stores of learning, and its high state of general culture, was in the hands of the Venetians, to the incalculable gain of their city in wealth and learning. Another Crusade was directed by Innocent III against the heretics of southern France. Two rehgious sects in that part of Europe were causing 1 64 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Heresy Effects of the Crusades Map the church considerable anxiety. The Albigensians, or people of Albi, believed the doctrines of the Roman Church were entirely wrong; and the Waldensians, or followers of Peter Waldo, taught that the doctrines of the church were true, but that many of the church officials led e\dl lives. Heresy was regarded in the middle ages not only as a sin, but even as a crime, because the officers of the church so frequently were also officials of the state that anyone who criticised one was considered the en- emy of the other. If a person was found guilty of heresy by the court of the In- quisition, a stern tri- bunal of churchmen, he was handed over to the civil authori- ties to be burned at the stake or buried alive. ^ Albi could not be tried indi- vidually for its her- esy, so the pope induced Simon de to put to the sword A Venetian Ship These ships, propelled partly by sails and partly by oars, were familiar figures upon the Mediterranean in the middle ages. They presented a gay appearance with their deco- rated sails and flying pennants. Montfort,^ a noble of southern France the inhabitants of the to-wn. There were several other Crusades directed against the Turks, but by 1244 the Latin kingdoms had failed and the civiUzation of western Europe, which the French leaders had 1 The church shed no blood; that is, it determined the guilt of the ac- cused, but took no part in the execution except that of spiritual comforter. 2 Simon de Montfort was the father of the Simon de Montfort who led the barons of England against Henry III. (See p. 209.) EMPIRE AND PAPACY 165 endeavored to transplant to that part of the world, died out in the towns of Syria. But the Crusades had an important effect upon the West from the standpoints of education, commerce, and standards of Living. The Arab scholars were much broader in thought than the educated men of the same time in Europe. They had de\-eloped algebra and the rudiments of chemistry and had translated many of the works of old Greek philosophers into their o'wn language. By coming in contact with them the Europeans gained educationally. The two centuries during which bands of Crusaders or indi\idual pilgrims journeyed to the East were productive of a great increase in commerce. The people of Syria welcomed the importation of articles produced in the West, and the Franks who had settled there wished to obtain home comforts. Thas a market for European goods was created in the East. The merchants of the Lombard towns grew wealthy from carrying eastward the homely goods of the West and in bringing back the costlj' spices, silks, and jewels of the Orient. Everywhere in Europe the standard of living was improved. Articles pre\'iousIy regarded as luxuries for princes were thereafter used in even the humbler families. The tOT\iismen engaged more in manufacturing, in order that the demand of the Eastemers for linens and woollens might be met, and with the growth of towns went hand in hand a greater freedom of thought and action, which brought truer political liberty and higher religious \iews to the people of the towns. Among the interesting features of the Crusades was the The Crusad- formation of three important military-religious orders — ""S Orders the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights. These societies were formed to defend pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem and to aid generally in the work of conquering and retaining the Holy Land. The Templars became very wealthy, and after the Crusades were over established them- selves in powerful monasteries in France and England.' ' The haughty Templar is well pictured in Ivanhoe, and it is probable that in many instances these "Red-cross Knights" became oppressors of the poor. l66 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Innocent III and John of England The Last of the Hohen- staufens The order received its name from the circumstance that it was formed to guard the Temple at Jerusalem. The Hos- pitallers, or Knights of St. John, began as a corps of men who looked after the sick and wounded Crusaders, but they acquired property and formed branches throughout Europe. The Teutonic Knights were formed for a similar purpose by a German merchant. At the conclusion of the Crusades they conquered the lands of the Prussians south of the Baltic Sea and estabUshed there a state destined to be the nucleus of the present German empire. 63. The Triumph of the Papacy and End of the Medieval Empire. — A good example of the great power of the papacy is afforded by the dealings of Innocent III with John of England. A dispute over the archbishopric of Canterbury gave the pope an opportunity to act as arbiter and to win from the king a recognition of his overlordship over England, a victory sought in vain by Gregory VII and Urban II. The ignoble King John, who later was forced to grant Magna Carta to the English people, refused to accept the choice of the monks of Canterbury, preferring a man of his o^^^l party. When asked to settle the dispute. Innocent III solved the problem by rejecting both the former candidates and by appointing as archbishop Stephen Langton, a man of the highest ability.^ John was furious at the pope's decision and refused to receive Langton, but after the pope had placed an interdict over England, excommunicated the king, and threatened to give his crown to the son of the French king, John surrendered, received Langton as archbishop, acknowledged the pope to be his feudal superior, and promised to pay him an annual tribute. Henry VI's infant son was a ward of Innocent III, while the boy's uncle carried on the struggle of the house against a Guelph claimant to the throne. In this war of factions Innocent III reached the height of his power, as did the papacy also; for he favored first one side, then the other, and exercised, as in the case of John, the power claimed by ' This was a most momentous choice, for Stephen Langton was the leader of the barons who wrung Magna Carta from King John. EiMPIRE AND PAPACY 167 Gregory of deposing and of setting up earthly rulers. When only fiity-six Innocent died, leaving to his successors a struggle greater than any of his reign. Frederick II had been educated by both Christian and Mohammedan scientists and professors, at the court of the Sicilian rulers, and was very broad in his rehgious views. He decided to make his name more famous than that of his grandfather. Although he was insignificant in personal appearance, this slight man became the restorer of order in Germany, overcame the Lom- bard League, made his reign a truly golden age for the cities by curbing the powers of their feudal lords, recaptured for a short time the city of Jerusalem, although under the dis- pleasure of the pope, and is considered by competent his- torians to have been the first of modern kings. Like his father, he died of disease on the eve of a new expedition. Within four years, 1254, his son followed him to the grave and the power of the Hohenstaufen family was ended. The medieval empire may be said to have come to a close with. Frederick II, for a period of anarchy followed his death, and thereafter no German emperor made any definite attempt to regain his lost Italian kingdom. 64. The Organization of the Medieval Church. — The Differences papacy reached its height in the thirteenth century, ■\^dth ?5'Y.^^^.'^® the pontificate of Innocent III. By examining its organiza- ^n^ the Mod- tion at this time, a conception can be formed of the immense em Church historic importance of this institution and of the church of which it was the head. Between the medieval church and any modern church are many differences. In the first place membership in the medieval church was compulsory; a citizen of any medieval state was, whether he Vvished to be so considered or not, a member of the church, and could not separate himself from its authority mthout losing his right of protection from the state. Secondly, its revenues were raised by a definite system of taxes, called tithes, the pay- ment of which was as necessan,' as the payment of the assessments of the civil government. Lastly, unhke the modem church, it performed all the functions of the state. It had its own courts and administrative officers, who often ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Power of the Pope The Parish Priest The Regular Clergy took upon themselves the duties neglected by state oflScials; it was organized like a monarchy, its king being the pope, who exercised tremendous power. All the claims to power set forth in the Dictatus (see p. 156) had by this time been acknowledged by one or more of the temporal rulers. The pope exercised this power in four ways — over legislation, over the courts, over rulers, and over other churchmen. He controlled law-making by means of dispensations, that is, orders annulling church laws in cer- tain cases; the courts by granting the right of appeal from decisions rendered elsewhere to his own court; rulers by threat of interdict — the closing of all religious services within the territory of a rebellious ruler, or by excommuni- cation — the expulsion of an offender from membership in the church'; and other churchmen by exercising the right of removal and appointment. The unit of organization within this spiritual empire was the parish, at the head of which was the parish priest. His duties were those of a priest of modern times and, in addi- tion, the direction of the affairs of the parish in a much more autocratic manner than that of any modern CathoUc pastor. The importance of his office cannot be overestimated. The priest in the services of the church, in the celebration of mass in which the church taught transubstantiation,' some- times seemed to his congregation to possess superhuman power. Hence each parish became a compact unit of or- ganization under the nearly absolute rule of its parish priest. In addition to the secular clergy, as the priests and bishops of the church were called, there were numerous establish- ments of regular clergy, so called from the fact that they agreed on entering the order to live up to its rule (regula, ' The full force of excommunication is dif&cult for many modern people to realize. In the middle ages it was accepted as an utter blasting of all the hopes of future life; it rendered the excommunicate person an outlaw — even worse, a despicable criminal. 2 Transubstanliation was the name given to the process by which the officiating clergyman changed the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. EMPIRE AND PAPACY 169 rule). These had no connection with the parish organiza- tion. Besides the older orders of monks, as the Benedic- Plan of the Abbey de Cite..\ux The abbey church stands at the back of the central block of buildings and forms the north side of the cloister. tines or the Cluniacs, who from the first had their fixed places of abode in the monasteries of the order, there were 170 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY The Francis- can Friars The Domini- can Friars two orders called friars, or brothers, who did much to combat heresy, promote education, and carry on charitable work. The order of Franciscan friars was founded by the son of a wealthy tradesman of Assisi, who in his early years had lived a frivolous and worldly life, but who thereafter had suddenly turned to the life of a religious enthusiast. This Francis of Assisi soon drew to himself a httle band of relig- ious workers who followed out literally the command of the Bible, "Take nothing for your journey, neither staff, nor wallet, nor bread, nor money," and who went apart from place to place, living lives of service to the poor and suffer- ing. After his death this order increased greaj;ly in numbers and wealth and finally adopted the customs of the older monks, becoming one of the wealthiest and most influential of all the monastic orders. The other order of friars, which did much to combat heresy, was established by Dominic, a Spaniard, to teach and preach against the Waldensian heresy. (See p. 164.) He recognized the truth of some of the charges brought by Waldo, and determined to reform the lives of the clergymen of his time. The Dominicans rapidly adopted the customs of the monastic orders and became a bulwark of the church against heretical teachings, at the same time promoting education and charity. 65. Summary of the Empire and the Papacy. — The empire of Charlemagne was revived and put on a new basis by Otto the Great. He and his immediate successors be- stowed the great folk-duchies upon relatives of the emperor and added to the territories of the empire. In a struggle with the papacy over temporal supremacy, the emperors com- promised the question of investiture, but, coming in contact with the gromng independence of the commercial cities of Italy, just as the Crusades were opening up trade with the East, they were defeated by the spirit of nationality arising within their Italian possessions. The Crusades broadened the West and increased the commerce of that section with the East. The church attained to a high point of authority, as is shown by the fact that the popes of the thirteenth cen- EMPIRE AND PAPACY . 171 tur}' were masters of the states. Within the church evidences of laxity appeared which caused various heretical opinions, and also gave rise to new reform organizations within it. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY Why was the assumption of the imperial title by the kings of Germany a mistake? Compare the idea of empire held by Charlemagne with that of Otto the Great. What inventions and scientific discoveries were brought to Europe as a result of the Crusades? Describe the relations between the eastern Roman empire and the Crusaders. Write in your note-books a report on the experiences of a Crusader: motives, vows, privileges, preparation, dress, armor, routes, benefits, and disadvantages of the e.xperience. What were the sources of the pope's income? Ex- plain the duties and importance of the medieval archbishops and bishops. How were they chosen? What were the seven sacraments of the medi- eval church? Explain the significance and importance of each. Quote Lea's description of the medieval church. Explain the methods of the Inquisition. Tell the story of the life of St. Francis, of St. Dominic. Contrast the Dominicans and Franciscans. Explain why Frederick II was "the first modem king." On a map of central Europe and Italy show the boundaries of the dominions of Frederick II at their widest extent. Locate Burgundj', Saxony, Lombardy, the states of the church, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Milan, Venice, Florence, Naples, Rome, Genoa. On a map of the Mediterranean region show the Latin kingdoms in Syria, the eastern Roman empire, the routes of the Third Cru- sade. Locate Naples, Constantinople, Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, Acre, Jerusalem. Reference Reades'cs Robinson, Western Europe. (Especially good for this chapter.) Re- vival of the German Empire, pp. 148-153; The Question of Church Reform and Struggle with the Empire, pp. 153-1S6; The Crusades, pp. 187-200; The Medieval Church at its Height, pp. 200-215; Heresy and the Friars, pp. 216-232. Robinson, i?ea(f/Hgj.- Concordat of Worms, pp. 135-136; Account of the Lombard Cities, pp. 140-144; Pope Urban's Speech, pp. 146-149; A Glimpse of the Court of Constantinople, pp. 154-157; BeUefs of the Jledieval Church, pp. 159-165, 167-168; Heresies, pp. 170- 175; Life and Character of St. Francis, pp. 175-179. Thatcher and McNeal, Source-Book: The Dictatus, pp. 136-139: Papal Decrees Illustrative of the Policy of Innocent III, pp. 172 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY 208-220; The Royal Policy of Frederick II, pp. 233-236; 238-240, 256-259; Story of the Third Crusade, pp. 529-535. Emerton, Mediaval Europe: Struggle between Henry IV and the Papacy, pp. 240-259; Life and Work of Innocent III, pp. 314-343. Shepherd, Historical Atlas. The Peoples of Europe about 900, p. 57; Europe and the Byzantine Empire about 1000, pp. 58-59; Central Europe, pp. 62-63; Europe and the Mediterranean Lands about 1097, pp. 66-67; Asia Minor and the States of the Church, p. 68; Europe and the Mediterranean Lands about 1190, pp. 70-71; The Mediterranean Lands after 1204, p. 73. CHAPTER IX ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 66. Britain. — The British Isles were located so far Geography of from the centres of ci\alization in the ancient world that *f British Isles they were almost unknown until the time of Caesar. The waters separating these islands from Europe are twenty-one miles wide at their narrowest point, the Straits of Dover, and three hundred miles wide at their broadest extent, the North Sea. Thousands of years before the dawn of history, but in comparatively recent geological times, England was connected by land ^\'ith the continent of Europe, and it is assumed that the first inhabitants came into these regions overland. The larger of the two islands is di\dded by mountains into three natural divisions — England, Scotland, and Wales — of which England, by reason of its nearness to the continent, has had the most stirring history and earhest attained a state of civilization. The gradual sinking of the lands con- necting the British Isles with the continent, and of the coast line generally, has left the shore indented with many harbors suitable for shipping, while the numerous rivers, affording passage to sea-going crafts, have from earhest times accus- tomed the inhabitants to trade and commerce. England proper may be divided into three parts. In the south there is a rolling country of hills, moors, and downs; in the north a series of rough mountains and moorland; between there is a great plain known as the IMidlands. Scotland is divided into the northern highlands and south- ern lowlands. Ireland also has three regions: highlands in the south and north and, between, a central plain. Omng to the influence of the surrounding ocean and of the warm Caesar's Invasions 174 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY winds blowing from the west, the isles enjoy a much milder, though foggier, climate than does the corresponding latitude in America. When Julius Caesar made his expeditions against the early inhabitants of England, he wished to punish them for giving aid to the Celtic tribes of northern France, against whom he was campaigning. The Celts of England were called Britons, or Gaels, and England was known as Britain. They had Stonehenge On Salisbury Plain in southern England stands a mysterious ruin, called Stonehenge, which consists of a number of gigantic, upright stones, standing pillar-like in a circle. Originally horizontal stones were placed across these. Nothing is known concerning the architects of the build- ing or as to its purpose. Some have conjectured that it is what is left of a great Druid temple. entered the island centuries before written records were kept, and had conquered and intermarried with an earlier race of men whom they found in possession of the land. The Britons were a pastoral people, engaging also in a little agriculture, and with a few rude arts. Like their kinsmen ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 175 in France, they had a complicated religious system, known as Druidism, with a regular priesthood and human sacri- fices. Caesar made two unsuccessful campaigns in south- ern Britain, and finally mthdrew to take up his struggle against Pompey. The Roman conquest of Britain began in earnest about a The Roman century later, during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, Conquest and was completed ■^^ithin a generation by the great general Wall of Hadrian (117-138) It extends from the mouth of the T\-ne to Sohvay Firth, j^i miles; height 12 feet (with parapet, 16), thickness about 8 feet. Material, con- crete, faced with square blocks. On the north a ditch, 10 to 15 feet deep, about 32 feet wide at top. Along the hne, 18 walled camps, watch towers and " mile-castles " between. Agricola, whom Domitian sent to conquer and govern the island. During his administration the island became thor- oughly Roman in language, dress, rehgion, and customs, and for three hundred years thereafter the Britons enjoyed the Pa.x Romana (Roman Peace). The Romans were unable to conquer the wild tribes of the northern highlands, therefore they constructed mighty walls from sea to sea — the wall of Kesults 176 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Hadrian over the Cheviot Hills, and the wall of Antonine at the Firth of Forth. To facilitate the movement of their troops and to promote commerce, the Romans constructed great highroads, like those on the continent. Portions of the walls and roads are still to be found in England. From the Firth of Forth to the English Channel, mth the exception of the mountainous region of Wales, Roman country estates or fortified cities filled the land. The people of England MULTI- ANGULAR ToWER IN RoMAN WaLL AT YORK Characteris- tics of the Germans grew so accustomed to rely upon the Roman legions for protection that they lost their early warlike spirit. When the German tribes began to overrun the empire and the Roman soldiers were withdrawn to defend the imperial city, the Romanized Britons were unable to defend them- selves against the same invaders and England became another of the Germanic states. 67. Saxon England. — The writer who gives us the best contemporary picture of the customs of the Germans is the Roman Tacitus, a son-in-law of Governor Agricola, who lived ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 177 in the first century a.d. He says: "They have fierce blue eyes, ruddy hair, large bodies, fit only for sudden exertion. They cannot endure heat and thirst, but are used to cold and hunger. Whenever not fighting, they pass much time in hunting, and still more in idleness, giving themselves up to feasting and to sleep. Their food consists of wild frmt, game, and sour milk. Every German, according to his means, receives his guest with a well-furnished table. In quenching their thirst they are not moderate, but indulge their love of drinking in a liquor fermented from grain and in wine. So fond are they of gambhng with chce that they will stake the freedom of their own persons, the loser going into voluntary slavery. They dehght in gifts from neighbors, such as choice horses, heavy armor, and jewellery, or even of cattle or grain." The Germans were in about the same stage Comparison of civihzation as were the Iroquois Indians in the seventeenth °* ""^ Early century. Their pohtical system was similar, for, like the ^j^g iroquois Indians, they were divided into tribes and were led in war Indians by chiefs, and were influenced by priests who, hke the Indian medicine-men, called upon the powers of nature. This resemblance is further shown in the following extract from Tacitus: "They have no cities, dwelUng apart, and making no use of stone. It is a duty among them to adopt the feuds as well as the friendships of their family. They think it tame to plough the earth and to wait for the produce." Yet in one respect the earliest German settlers in England were in advance of the Indians. The Indians, it is true, had their councils for the discussion of matters which con- cerned the tribe, but these were unlike the assemblies of the German tribes, at which all the freemen of the tribe were entitled to take part in judging public affairs. These assem- bhes, or folk-moots, were more like the town meetings of New England, and probably were the germ from which have grown all the legislatures and courts of the English government and of our own. The purpose of education among the Germans was to train warriors. Boys of noble birth associated themselves with men of strength and bravery and fought for them in war. ' 13 178 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY The Comita- tus, or Com- panion Cus- tom Religion of the Germans Legal Forms In return they were supported by their leader and received a share in the booty taken under his guidance. This ar- rangement is known as the coinitatus, or companion cus- tom, and its common acceptance by the people of the early middle ages was one of two factors in the growth of feudalism. The religion of the early Germans was a gloomy worship of the powers of nature. Their principal gods were fighters, whose names have come down to us in the names of the days of the week. Woden (also spelled Odin), the All-father, and Thor, the Thun- derer, are commemo- rated by Wednesday and Thursday. It was believed that the hero dying on the battlefield was carried off to Val- halla, the banquet hall of the gods, by the Valkyries, daughters of Woden, to enjoy an im- mortality of feasting and fighting. Yet even this was only tempo- rary, for there was to come a Twilight of the Gods, when the powers of evil would triumph and heaven and earth would pass away. The German tribes sometimes permitted a criminal to atone for his crime by paying a sum of money, called wer- gild, to the family of the injured person. The guilt of the accused was determined by compurgation or by ordeal.' ' Somewhat later a third form of trial was instituted. This was the trial by combat, in which the accused and his accuser fought a duel, Elevation of a Saxon King Like all German tribes, the Saxons signified the election of their king by raising him on their shields. ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 179 Compurgation, or wager of law, was accomplished by having a number of men, called compurgators, take solemn oaths for or against the plea made by the accused. If more persons swore to his innocence than to his guilt he was acquitted, but the oath of a noble was worth as much as the oaths of several common citizens. The ordeal was a physical test of the accused, based on the behef that the gods would preserve the innocent man from harm. The accused was sometimes required to carry a red-hot iron in his hand. If after three days his hand appeared to be well, or at least healing satisfactorily, the man was declared innocent. Sometimes the accused was thrown into deep water. If he SAXON CHAIRS AND SEATS FROM PICTURES IN MSS, ^==§i sank he was considered innocent and was rescued, but if he floated on the water his guilt was believed. After the withdrawal of the Roman legions various bands The Saxon of Germans belonging to the tribes of Angles, Jutes, and Conquest of , , , , , ■ r England 417 Saxons ravaged the coasts and entered the service of 4j)_ Celtic princes. As soon as they were strong enough they conquered the natives and established German states. The Angles settled on the eastern coast and formed the kingdoms of East Anglia, Bernicia, Deira, and later penetrating into the Midlands, the border country between the remnants of the British and their own countrj'men, established there a march state, Mercia. The Jutes in the southeast were known as Kentishmen and their kingdom, Kent. The tribes des- tined to become most prominent in English history were of and the case was decided in favor of the winner. Either side was per- mitted to select a chanapion to fight for it, as in the story of Ivanhoe. l8o ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY the Saxon-folk. The Saxons established three kingdoms in the south, called after them Sussex (South Saxons), Essex (East Saxons), and Wessex (West Saxons). For over four hundred years the Anglo-Saxons, as the German tribes of England are generally called, were busy conquering the Britons, whom they called Welsh, or foreigners, and striv- ing with each other for leadership. Edwin, king of North- umbria, the combined kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira, north of the Humber River, made his power felt throughout England, and built a strongly fortified city on the Firth of Interior of St. Martin's Church A part of this church was a ruined temple, dating from the Roman occupation. Here Augustine and his monks carried on their mission in Kent. Forth, which was called in his honor Edwin's City or Edin- burgh. At another time Mercia all but won the supremacy. 830 A.D. Finally, two hundred years after Edwin's death, Egbert, king of Wessex, was recognized by Saxons, Angles, and Celts as ruler of the island south of the Firth of Forth. 68. The Conversion of England. — The story is told of a bishop of the church, who afterward became the great Greg- ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES l8l ory, patron of missions, that, seeing some beautiful slaves The Mission for sale in the Roman market-place, he inquired of the °} ^'' ^"6"^- mer chant whence he procured them. The merchant replied: "Deira." Gregory is said to have made a pun in Latin upon the country of these Angles. "Truly," said he, " De ira" (■s\ithdra\vn from God's wrath, in that they had been brought to a Christian country). "And Angels, not An- gles." Whether this story is true or not, Gregory, when he became pope, sent the monk Au- gustine on a mission to the Anglo-Saxons. Tak- ing about forty compan- ions, Augustine landed in Kent and won from King Ethelbert permis- sion to establish there a church. About thirty years after, this church of Canterbury had be- come strong enough to engage in further mis- sion work. Accordingly one of its leaders en- tered Northumbria and presented the teachings of his faith before King Edmn, at a council called by the king to decide whether his people should adopt the new faith. The sayings of two of his -nise men are helpful to an understanding of the character and behefs of the Anglo-Saxons. Coifi, the high priest of the old religion, when asked for his opinion on Christianity, rephed: "The religion that we have hitherto professed has no usefulness Conversion of Northumbria St. il.lETIx's ChUKCH (C.-\XTERBURy) The oldest church in England. 1 82 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY in it, for none of our folk have served in the worship of its gods with greater faithfuhiess than I, and yet there are many who are more prosperous than I." Another said, with the poetry of the Saxon mind: " The present life of man on earth, King, seems to me, in comparison with eter- nity, like the swift flight of a sparrow through the room wherein you sit at meat in winter, with your friends and a good fire in the midst, whilst the storms of rain and snow beat without; the sparrow flying in at one door and immediately out at the other; for an instant he is safe from the wintry storm, but soon vanishes into the storm without. Even so appears the life of man. If this new teaching contains something more definite, it deserves to be followed." The Council As these monks from the south of England continued their at Whitby 664 mission work in the north, they came into conflict with other missionaries, who had been sent from Ireland and western Scotland. Long before this the famous St. Patrick had con- verted the Irish; but during the centuries since his death, the Roman church had developed new customs and beliefs, and these were neither accepted nor understood by the Irish monks. Accordingly the king of Northumbria called a council of the churchmen of both missions at Whitby, in order that he might hear both sides and decide which teach- ings to adopt. The Roman monks set forth their claim to have received their authority from the bishop of Rome, ■ to whom, as the successor of St. Peter, had been given the keys of heaven. The Irish monks sadly confessed to the king that they were unable to claim such authority for their preaching, whereupon Edwdn decided in favor of Roman Christianity. The importance of this decision was great. England was retained by the Roman church and gained materially from her association with the higher civilization of Rome and other Roman Catholic countries. Literature soon began to flourish, churches and monas- teries were built, monastic schools were estabhshed, and the monks brought in better methods in the cultivation of the soil and in manufacturing. In the monastery at Jarrow lived a monk, famed for his piety and great influence as the ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 183 "Venerable Bede," who was the first English historian. His "Church Histor}- of England" gives us much important information about early Saxon England. Caedmon, an uned- ucated but inspired servant in a monastery at Whitby, com- posed poems deahng \vith the stories of the creation and with other Bible narratives. Although both authors used the old Anglo-Saxon language in many of their works, Bede's chief work, the church history, was written in Latin, the official language of the church. The extracts giving the words of the old Saxons are taken from his history. The share of the church in the unification of England was very important. Theodore, another monk, organized bishoprics in all the Bede and Caedmon Influence of the Church Anglo-SjVXONs on a Journey Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, and placed them all under the spir- itual leadership of the mother church at Canterbury, thus preparing the different tribes for a political union when the leader appeared, strong enough to bring all England under his rule. 69. The England of Alfred the Great. — During the period The North- of the Christianizing of England (Angle-land), Northumbria, ™^°/'^*'^'^ Mercia, and finally Wessex, had taken turns at holding a kind of overlordship over the other Anglo-Saxon states. A year after Charlemagne took the imperial title, Egbert, who had been educated at the school of the palace (see p. 145) and who had there studied statesmanship to some advantage, England 184 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY was recalled to Wessex. He soon forced the other states of England to acknowledge that he was king of the Anglo- Saxons. His son and grandson were forced to defend their kingdom against the Danes, other Northmen, who were at this time terrorizing all of northern Europe. The first invasions of these Vikings were made in their long ships along the coasts and up the rivers. After ravaging the country far and wide they retired with their booty to their Ship of the Norse Sea-Kings After being buried for nearly a thousand years, this ship was found at Gokstad, in South Norway. In such a ship Eric the Red sailed to Greenland about 980 a.d. own land. Later, as in the case of their cousins the Nor- mans of France, these piratical expecUtions gave place to 878-886 A.D. attempts at colonization. By the time of Alfred, Egbert's grandson, the Danes had won the greater part of the An- glican kingdoms and were threatening to crush the remain- der of the Ai:glo-Saxons. Alfred proved to be a general of no mean ability, and although many times defeated, at ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 185 Line of the So-called Treaty of Wedmore The Reforms of Alfred the Great last stopped the Danish advance, and estabHshed a hne from the Thames to Chester as the boundary between Danelaw, or the Danish kingdom, and Wessex. Alfred is rightly considered the greatest of the early kings of England. Although he was unable to win back the Dane- law from the Danes, a work reserved for his successors, his influence on English history was greater than that of any other Anglo-Saxon. He ranks high as a military genius, as a promoter of learning and literature, and as a statesman. He organized an army system whereby one half of his sol- diers would be in the field fighting the Danes, while the other half was engaged in raising the necessary food for the country. By this miUtia system he was enabled to carry on the unecfual struggle against the Danes until he conquered and Chris- tianized them. In imitation of Charlemagne's school he established a court school for the education of the young men of prominent families. He translated into \-igorous Anglo- Saxon several extracts from classical authors. He aided in the writing of history by ha\'ing accurate records kept year by year. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle," which records the important events of English history from the ninth to the twelfth centuries, was begun during his reign. The follow- ing extract from the " Chronicle " shows the nature of the record kept and the difference between Alfred's and our own English speech: Pa sona Eefter PEem com Hxsten mid LXXX scipa up on Temese-muhan, Tben soon after that came Hastings with 80 ships up within Thames'-mouth, ond worhte him geweorc at Middettun, ond se oher here set Apuldre. (worlds) and wrought him fortifications at Middletown, and the other army at Appledoor. Alfred drew up a set of dooms, or judgments, for various offences, and carefully super\dsed the work of his judges in order to secure to all his subjects the greatest possible justice. In character Alfred was superior to all other rulers of his Alfred's Char- time. The following prayer attributed to him shows the *<=*«'' sweetness and intensity of his religious convictions: "O Lord, Creator and Ruler of all things, I beseech Thee to guide "Anglo- Saxon Chronicle * Saxon Gov- ernment 1 86 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY me better than I have deserved from Thee; direct me accord- ing to my need, better than I can; strengthen me against temptation; shield me from my enemies; and teach me to do Thy will, that I may love Thee above all things with a pure mind and pure body. Amen." 70. The Close of the Saxon Period of English History. — After the death of Alfred his descendants carried on the war against the Danes until Danelaw was recon- quered for Saxon England. Alfred's grandson added the title "Lord of Britain" to the earlier title "King of Entrance to an Anglo-Saxon Walled Town the Anglo-Saxons." In the Saxon kingdom the unit of government was the hundred, which corresponded closely to our town. Several families who lived in one neigh- borhood, usually about a hundred in number, met several times a year to transact business of common interest and to settle neighborhood disputes. These meetings, or hundred- gemotes, were the sole agency of government within the hundred, and corresponded to the New England town meet- ing. A number of hundreds grouped together formed a shire or county, which, like the hundred, had its gemotes ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 187 or courts at which justice was dispensed and the laws of the king were proclaimed and explained. The shire differed from the hundred in that the king was represented in the former by an official, called the shire-reeve (later sheriff), who raised the taxes and enforced the royal laws. The noble famiUes of the shire were represented by the alderman, who com- manded the shire militia in war. A century after Alfred's death a new movement of the Danish Con- Danes, directed by the government of Norway and Den- i"®^* mark, began a more systematic attempt at conquest. For Residence of an Anglo-Saxon Thane several years the Danes were bought off by the paj'ment of an annual tribute, called Danegeld. This was levied upon their subjects by the Saxon rulers, and is the first instance of national taxation in English history. A vigorous Danish leader, Canute, king of Denmark, at last forced Ethelred the Unready to abandon England and to take refuge at the court of Normandy. Canute was recognized as king of England and proved an able, if somewhat severe ruler. By combining several shires he formed earldoms and concen- trated the power of several aldermen in the hands of one earl. ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY Reign of Ed- ward the Con- fessor Soon after the death of Canute the Saxon line was restored to the throne in the person of Ethehed's weak son Edward. The long reign of this king, who was called "Confessor" because of his preference for the life of a monk rather than that of a statesman, was marked by little of political signifi- cance, except the growth of the power of the great earldoms, which corresponded quite closely to the folk-duchies of the " '' ^ ^ ^ pg^^*Sr"-^""'-: ■ ■' miiK^veHj^'im^Ks^ B^ i M ' ; ; ; i -. 1. ln| f ^y S ' o"-',l^^^| •.-USI^^Km tt^^^H rM^^'^-^^jBH^^HHj^B i^ MHHpl Bu^jMHR^K^^f^-j^ ^I^^KrWc ■^BnW^^bJii^ ^S^^^K '*^?sH■k^^ <*J^ IBrjsi^ ''^^'■Q^^hS ^ W^m « /' W JE^^F^^S^^^JJS^^tii ^^^Ur ^ Castle or Faiaise The birthplace, in 1027, of William the Conqueror, son of Duke Robqrt the Devil, and of Arlette, a tanner's daughter. German empire. During this time religion flourished in England and monasteries and abbeys were erected in great numbers, among them the predecessor of the present famous Westminster Abbey. The Earls of Wessex and Northum- bria became very powerful and each strove to be the real ruler of England. Harold, Earl of Wessex, the brother-in- ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 189 law and adviser of the childless King Edward, desired to succeed him on the throne. Edward, however, favored his cousin, William of Normandy, because his youth had been spent under the influence of the Norman court, and he surrounded himself with Norman courtiers. These so dis- gusted the witan, or council of great lords of England, that they exercised their right of electing Edward's successor by choosing Harold for their ruler. One hundred years after the reign of Charlemagne a band Origin of of Vikings had ravaged the coasts of northern France. In Normandy order to gain the friendship of so powerful a foe, Charles the Simple granted their leader a dukedom in northern France, which was called, after them, Normandy. In the century that followed they developed into the most progressive of the French states, as they adopted the French language and customs. Their capital, Rouen, became the centre of relig- ious and commercial activity for northern France. Their ruler, Duke William, Edward's cousin, believed he had a better claim to the English crowm than had Harold. Fur- thermore, he alleged that Harold, while on a visit to his city, had most solemnly sworn to aid him in securing the crown. In 1066 William set forth for England with a large army Invasion of and landed at Hastings on the southern coast. William's ^^'^^^^ enterprise was supported by the pope, who excommunicated Harold for breaking his oath of loyalty.^ Just previously Harold's treacherous brother, Toste, invaded Northumbria. Toste was in league with the king of Norway, who claimed the throne by right of descent from Canute. Hurrying north, Harold defeated and killed these invaders at the battle of Stamford Bridge, and then, although weary and poorly supplied, made a forced march southward to meet the advan- cing army of Duke William. Had he been fresh for this battle of Hastings, or Senlac, English history might have ' Since an oath was a solemn promise to God, the church claimed the right to try cases of oath-breaking. It was for this reason that the church courts for so long claimed superior authority to those of the state in cases involving contracts of all sorts, such as marriage, divorce, wills, etc. 190 ESSENTIALS IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY been fundamentally changed; but as it was, his tired soldiers gave way before the onslaught of the Nor- mans, and Harold _ himself was killed. The Conquest . , fF^M\\^!j^2Z: IJ^I^n. A 71. Norman Eng- land. — Harold's death left England without a defender. William marched upon London, where- upon the witan, ter- rified, offered him the crown, which he ac- cepted. During the next five years he was busy in all parts of England, complet- ing the conquest and establishing a strong government. He showed wisdom as a ruler in several ways, particularly in his governmental policy and in his relations with the papacy. In- stead of crushing out EngUsh forms of gov- ernment, he wsely adopted most of the old system, thus ren- dering his control less irksome to the Sax- ons. It is true that he replaced Saxon lords wth Norman lords and, by scatter- ENGLAND IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 191 ing their possessions in difierent parts of the island, pre- vented the growth of the large earldoms which had been such a menace to the power of the later Saxon kings; and yet he retained intact the shire system, the laws issued by the Saxon rulers, the royal power of taxation (Danegeld), and most important of all, he recognized the right of the -ffipuir -ffa. em. car [■n'inia.er urOy'V-uitti -r Vtit-tori-a^.„. 'n A^ltJeSefi^Mni-hi^. iriixlo^ 1 .T>tSA7 una ^ -fjae'J.car'jTiSnio ^«>tTcJr'-'7ttit. uttK riit.t>or^cu.n. oaf-. lbi-'i-(crui-7maUfi'ie.;)Mj.raliir.-7."fo^^j,.,„.^,„ir7ttnJ;<5. 1111.