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 Food and feeding, 
 
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FOOD AND FEEDING 
 
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 rig^.2. 
 
 THERMOMETERS USED IN COOKING. 
 
THERMOMETERS USED IN COOKING. 
 
 Fig. 1 is used in large braising pots, as for a ham. Range 
 of temperature from 60° to 220° Fahr., so as to safely 
 cover the boiling point 212° when required. The usual 
 range for "slow cooking " is marked on the scale as lying 
 between 130° and 175.° Its length is eight inches not 
 reckoning the ring at the upper end. 
 
 Fig. 2. (A) is a smaller instrument with a range of tem- 
 perature from 120° to 220° Fahr. for use in a small 
 saucepan or shallow stewpan. 
 
 (B) represents a metal socket in which it stands 
 upright, so that the temperature may be read with ease. 
 In hashing a few slices of meat, for example, the 
 temperature should never exceed 135° to 140°, at which 
 heat no hardening takes place, and this is the best kind 
 of instrument to employ. In its socket it is five-and-a- 
 half inches in length. 
 
FOOD AND FEEDING 
 
 SIR HENRY THOMPSON, Bart. 
 
 F.R.C.S., M.B. LOND., ETC. 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX 
 
 TENTH EDITION 
 
 LONDON 
 FREDERICK WARNE AND CO. 
 
 AND NEW YORK 
 1899 
 
 iAll rights reserved) 
 
 ^ ,3 
 
PREFACE TO THE NINTH 
 EDITION 
 
 ENLARGED AND REVISED 
 
 During the last few years several large editions of 
 this book have been called for, and much new matter 
 has been added to three or four of them. 
 
 The last edition has, however, been exhausted, and 
 the work is out of print. I propose in this, my final 
 edition, to bring the subject up to the present date, 
 and to utter my last words respecting it. For 
 scientific research, never ceasing to progress, has 
 naturally added something to our knowledge of the 
 digestive processes, during the last few years, as well 
 as of the value to man of certain food-principles from 
 which his body derives nutrition. 
 
 The art of cooking also has, like other arts, been 
 sedulously cultivated by a few, leading to improve- 
 ments in appliances and in the methods to be adopted 
 for the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable 
 diet. Moreover, the selection of food and the pre- 
 paration of it for the table are far more widely 
 understood and appreciated now than they were 
 when the little volume first appeared nearly twenty 
 years ago. 
 
6 Preface. 
 
 In the present and enlarged edition I have 
 attempted to classify the various processes employed 
 in cookery and its staple products in a more complete 
 and natural order than heretofore, and to explain 
 more fully the principles on which they are employed, 
 the objects aimed at, and the rationale of each 
 procedure. 
 
 The subject of " slow cookery " is one which I 
 have practically studied of late with much interest, 
 and I have recorded the result of various experiments. 
 I am satisfied that in cooking food, especially that 
 derived from the animal kingdom, the longer applica- 
 tion of low temperatures will render it more easily 
 digestible and nutritious, as well as more agreeable 
 than the old methods. By these latter I mean the 
 long-established custom of cooking "joints" by the 
 highest temperature obtainable through boiling water, 
 or radiation from a fire in the course of two or three 
 hours, viz. the familiar processes of "boiling" and 
 " roasting " respectively. 
 
 I venture to hope that the numerous elementary 
 observations and practical hints relating to the very 
 wide subject of Food and Feeding which have thus 
 been brought together may prove useful, and tend 
 to promote a still wider appreciation of one of the 
 most important and interesting branches of inquiry 
 demanded by the necessities of life and social 
 intercourse. 
 
 35, WiMPOLE Street, 
 June, 189& 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Importance of proper selection and preparation of food — Improper 
 feeding common among all classes, and at all periods of life 
 — The purpose and the elements of food — To repayr the waste 
 of the body, to maintain the animal heat, and provide a store 
 of energy for activity — i. The proteids, or nitrogenous 
 elements — 2. The hydro-carbons, or fats — 3. Carbo-hydrates 
 — 4. Inorganic elements : water, various salts — AU these 
 obtainable from animal and vegetable kingdoms — Comparison 
 between elements derived from the two sources — Difference 
 between digestive organs in animals eating only vegetables 
 and those consuming animal food also — Man accustomed to 
 " a mixed diet " — In some regions can live only on animal food 
 — Climate decides proportion of animal food necessary — Few 
 persons can live solely on vegetables in temperate zone — 
 Mixed diet of monkey tribes — Personal peculiarities in 
 diet — Desirable to utilize all sources of food from both 
 kingdoms 13 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Materials at man's command for food from the vegetable kingdom 
 — Seeds cultivated becoming grain, or cereal foods, as wheat 
 and its derivatives, flour, wheaten bread — Oats and oatmeal — 
 Maize and Indian corn meal, polenta — Rice — Legumes : 
 haricots and lentils, etc. — Potato — Roots, the carrot, etc., 
 arrowroot — Fatty matters from seeds, nuts, etc. — Green 
 vegetables — Gourds — Fungi — Fruits and bananas — Analyses 
 of their composition, showing comparative amounts of proteids, 
 carbo-hydrates, fats, salts, and water — Sugar — Tea, coffee. 
 
8 Contents. 
 
 and cacao — Common salt — Importance of perfect mastication 
 of food by the teeth in relation to digestion explained and 
 insisted upon 42 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Foods from the animal kingdom — Domestic animals and their 
 derivatives, milk, butter, and cheese — Deer and its varieties 
 — Ground game — Large foreign game — Birds, domestic and 
 other— Fish in great variety—" Shell-fish "—Reptiles— Man 
 omnivorous ; nature of food largely determined by circum- 
 stances ; prone to consume too much animal food, or to be 
 careless in regard to selection of diet — Table showing the 
 proportion of food-principles necessary to the daily dietary of 
 an average adult, taking a moderate amount of exercise, in a 
 temperate climate ... 51 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Food of the English peasant — Food of the middle class generally 
 too solid or stimulating — Tending to corpulence as age advances 
 — The cause of chronic complaints in later years — The produce 
 of land in grain with pigs and poultry larger than when devoted 
 solely to grazing — Value of fish as an article of diet — Supply 
 ought to be more abundant and cheaper — Regimen suited to the 
 sedentary and those who are chiefly brain-workers — Elementary 
 principles in selecting, combining, and cooking different forms 
 of food— That of the agricultural labourer and other hard 
 workers — The legumes : haricots, lentils — Various modes of 
 cooking them — Also hints for their use at middle-class tables — 
 Bread made of whole wheat-meal and its use — Receipts for 
 making it — Combination of elements to produce a complete 
 food — Cheese as diet for the working man : its use by the 
 Swiss guides — Rice, and the necessary additions to make with 
 it palatable, nutritious dishes — The potato, and similar com- 
 binations 61 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Food of the middle-class Englishman, and its routine — Cookery, 
 the process of rendering food digestible and nutritious by heat 
 — First, heat applied through water — (a) Boiling — ^The process 
 
Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 described —The effect of temperature in coagulating albumen — 
 Treatment of meat in cooking depends solely on this action — 
 Temperatures observed by thermometer during process of 
 boiling and roasting — System of slow cooking at low tempe- 
 ratures — The "Bain Marie" — Captain Warren's pot — The 
 Norwegian cooker — Boiling of vegetables — {}>) Steaming — (c) 
 Stewing and braising — The distinction between them — Slow 
 cooking at low temperatures and its value — Receipt for cooking 
 a ham thus in thirty-six hours — Boeufh la mode . . .90 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Secondly, cooking by dry heat in hot air — (a) Baking — In dry 
 compartments heated by steam — Becker's process and others 
 — Atkinson's American oven — The English kitchener — {b) 
 Roasting — The " taste of the fire " — Its attractive peculiarity 
 — (1:) Broiling, another illustration of this — The process ex- 
 plained — The third method, cooking by high temperature in 
 heated oil or frying — Process explained — A careful attention 
 to minute particulars necessary to insure success — The omelette 
 — Opposite principles in French and English cookery con- 
 sidered — Superiority of each in certain particulars . . -US 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Soups — Not sufficiently esteemed — Better understood in France — 
 Poi-au-feu—T:hs "stock-pot " — Bouillon — Consommi — Endless 
 varieties produced from these — Three distinct classes of soup — 
 I. The clear : of meat, fowl, and game ; and vegetables or 
 maigre — 2. The thick or /a^-^ej; of the same — ^Various illustra- 
 tions of these — 3. More substantial soups : turtle, ox-tail, and 
 other examples — Bouillabaisse — Soups, gras and maigre — 
 Receipts for vegetable soup — Practical hints in making the 
 above 136 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Sauces — The two chief foundation sauces, the brown or £spa- 
 gftole, the white or Velouti — Their derivatives — English melted 
 butter — Mattre cC Hotel— Ravigotte, etc. — Author's receipt 
 for Bigarade sauce — Garnishes — Their variety and use in 
 
10 Contents. 
 
 supplementing dishes — Cookery of vegetables d VAnglaise and 
 h la Franfaise — The tomato — Macaroni — Best modes for pre- 
 paring for the table — Rice : various ways of preparing — The 
 value of mincing in preparing flesh for food — Cold meats, the 
 service of— Aspic jelly — Salads, in variety . . . .150 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Fish, and its value as food — The various constituents of flesh, of 
 wheaten bread, and of fish compared — Analytic table, showing 
 the same — Fish is desirable food for many persons — Ought to 
 be less costly than it is — Varieties of fish, and their distinctive 
 characters as food — Some contain large proportion of fat — The 
 conger and the sturgeon — Preparation of fish for the table — 
 Value of head, bones, and fins for sauce making — Fish sauces 
 — Salmon in perfection — Crimping of ditto — Mode of cooking 
 it — Baking of fish — Roasting and broiling — Boiling and steam- 
 ing — Fish soups and stews, excellent — Receipts — Bouillabaisse 
 — A working man's stew 178 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Milk, an example of a natural " complete " food — That of the cow 
 is its type — Its use as food almost univfersal — Essentially an 
 animal food — Most important that it should be pure and un- 
 contaminated — Being very susceptible of injury, in distribu- 
 tion and otherwise, thus becomes a fertile source of 
 disease — Many epidemics of fever, etc., caused by the milk 
 trade — Tuberculous milk — Analysis, and nutritive value — 
 Milk essentially food for the young growing animal — Whey 
 — Koumiss — Strict sanitary measures employed to ensure the 
 purity and wholesomeness of milk — Prudence requires it to 
 be generally regarded as a raw product, to be taken only 
 after boiling, especially by travellers abroad .... 202 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The combination of dishes to form a meal — Three typical systems 
 of arranging daily meals — The French or Continental — The 
 provincial (Great Britain)— That of town life (London) — 
 
Contents. 1 1 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Characteristics of each meal — Breakfast — Lunch — Dinner, of 
 two kinds : the family meals, the dinner of invitation — The 
 rationale of the initial soup — Plan of dishes to follow dis- 
 cussed — Hon-cCauvres — More in vogue on the Continent than 
 in this country — Most of all in Russia — As a dietetic habit, it 
 is undesirable for reasons given 214 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Dinners of invitation — Two kinds : small and select ; large but 
 complete — The old pretentious style described — Scheme of a 
 rational dinner-party — Priority in the service of various courses 
 or dishes discussed — Dessert — The quart oCheure after dinner 
 — Turtle and fish dinners — Curry — Sketch for a small dinner. 225 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The question of wine with dinner — Remarks on the habitual use 
 of alcoholic drinks of any kind — Wine should be taken chiefly 
 during dinner, never before, not much, if any, after — Should 
 be sound and pure, and without pretence — How to attain 
 this — Relation of various wines with certain dishes — Cigarettes 
 after dinner — Tobacco suggests coffee, and is incompatible 
 with fine wine — The supply of water at dinner — Aerated 
 waters — Foreign mineral waters — Their use at home and 
 abroad — Sweet drinks at dinner objectionable . . . 237 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 In order to arrange a dinner some practical acquaintance with food 
 is necessary — Also of the season at which various kinds are 
 in perfection — The art of menu writing — The scheme or 
 elementary outline of a dinner — Menus should be written 
 in French — Examples of simple menus for each month in the 
 year — Some in English, chiefly in French, for comparison — 
 Mentis of higher character — Further remarks on the order in 
 which dishes should be presented — And on other matters 
 arising out of the subject 2^9 
 
1 2 Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The public dinner — Its undue length — Toasts too numerous — 
 Suggestions for shortening the proceedings — Good cookery 
 independent of pedantic and complicated receipts — Schools 
 of cookery — Elementary scientific teaching wanted to make 
 cookery interesting and a progressive art — Better food, in 
 better condition, and in more abundant supply, a pressing 
 want for London — Conclusion 272 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 On the Pot-au-Feu, Soups, etc. 
 
 Pot-au-feu : Jules Gouffe's instructions for making it — Gouffe's in- 
 structions for braising — Bauf h la mode — Vegetable Soup — 
 Author's directions for beef-tea — Table of French equivalents 
 for the English words denoting fish, as a guide in writing 
 menus — Table showing when fish is in season — Children's 
 dinner tables — Author's receipt for cheap, nutritious soup — 
 The dinner of the working man, and Mr. Atkinson's sug- 
 gestions respecting it 285 
 
 INDEX 301 
 
FOOD AND FEEDING 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Importance of proper selection and preparation of food — 
 Improper feeding common among all classes, and at all 
 periods of life — The purpose and the elements of food — To 
 repair the waste of the body, to maintain the animal heat, 
 and provide a store of energy for activity — i. The proteids, 
 or nitrogenous elements — 2. The hydro-carbons, or fats — 
 3. Carbo-hydrates — ^4. Inorganic elements : water, various 
 salts — All these obtainable from animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms — Comparison between elements derived from the 
 two sources — Difference between digestive organs in animals 
 eating only vegetables and those consuming animal food 
 also — Man accustomed to " a mixed diet " — In some regions 
 can live only on animal food — Climate decides proportion 
 of animal food necessary — Few persons can live solely on 
 vegetables in temperate zone — Mixed diet of monkey tribes 
 — Personal peculiarities in diet — Desirable to utilize all 
 sources of food from both kingdoms. 
 
 I THINK I shall not be far wrong if I say that there 
 are few subjects which deserve more choice of 
 careful study by man than the selection important 
 and preparation of his food. Our fore- study, 
 fathers in their wisdom have provided, by ample and 
 generously endowed organizations, for the dissemina- 
 tion of moral precepts in relation to human conduct, 
 
14 Food and Feeding. 
 
 and for the constant supply of sustenance to meet 
 the cravings of religious emotions common to all 
 sorts and conditions of men. In these provisions no 
 student of human nature can fail to recognize the 
 spirit of wisdom and a lofty purpose. But it is not a 
 sign of ancestral wisdom that so little thought has 
 been bestowed on the teaching of what we should eat 
 and drink ; or on the relations necessarily existing 
 ~ not only between food and a healthy population, but 
 between food and a virtuous life. 
 
 Indeed, the process of digestion and the influence 
 it exerts on the sources of mental and moral power, 
 have received little attention in any scheme for 
 fitting men and women for the practical duties of 
 life. No doubt the truth has long been accepted, at 
 all events by intelligent persons, that a man's temper, 
 and consequently the character of his actions, often 
 depend on the contingency that what he eats is pro- 
 perly converted, or not, into healthy material, suitable 
 for the ceaseless work- of building up both muscle 
 The relation and brain. But the truth of that fact 
 foorind ^^^ never been generally admitted to an 
 
 character. extent at all comparable with its exceed- 
 ing importance. It produces no practical result 
 on the habits of men in the least degree com- 
 mensurate with the claim it has to be believed and 
 acted upon. For it is certain that an adequate prac- 
 tical recognition of the value of proper food to the 
 individual in maintaining a high standard of health, 
 in prolonging healthy life (the prolongation of 
 
Its Influence in Childhood. 15 
 
 unhealthy life being small gain either to the individual 
 or to the community), and thus largely promoting 
 cheerful temper, prevalent good nature, and improved 
 moral tone, would achieve almost a revolution in the 
 habits of a large part of the community. 
 
 The general outlines of a man's mental character 
 and physical tendencies are doubtless influence of 
 largely determined by the impress of ''**^^* 
 race and family. That is to say, the scheme of the 
 building, its characteristics and dimensions, are in- 
 herited ; but to a very large extent the materials 
 and filling in of the individual's framework depend, 
 in regard of their quality, upon his food j - 
 and training. By the latter term may of food and 
 be understood all that relates to mental 
 and moral and even to physical education, assumed 
 to be fairly provided for, and not to be considered 
 here. No matter, then, how consummate the scheme 
 of the architect, nor how vast the design, more or 
 less of failure to rear the edifice results when the 
 materials are ill chosen or for the most part un- 
 worthy to be used. Other sources of failure there 
 may be which it is no part of my business to note ; 
 but the influence of food is not only itself cardinal 
 in rank, but, by priority of action, is the source of 
 various forces, injurious or the reverse, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 A very slight sketch of the course of development 
 observed in the most ordinary types of human life will 
 suffice to illustrate this truth. 
 
1 6 Food and Feeding. 
 
 To commence, then, I fear it must be admitted that 
 
 _ . the majority of British infants are reared 
 
 Errors in , -n /• j 
 
 feeding in- on imperfect milk by weak or ill-fed 
 
 fonts. mothers. And thus it follows that the 
 
 signs of feeble vitality, of fretful disposition or of 
 disease, may be observed at a very early age, and 
 are apparent in symptoms of indigestion or in the 
 cravings of want manifested by the " peevish " and 
 sleepless child. In circumstances where there is no 
 want of appropriate nutriment, over-feeding or com- 
 plicated forms of food, suitable only for older persons, 
 produce for another infant troubles which are no less 
 grave than those of the class whose supply is impure 
 or deficient. 
 
 In the next stage of life, when infancy has been 
 Children passed and childhood is attained, among 
 
 often Ul-fed, the poor, the little one takes his place 
 at the parents' table, where lack of means, as 
 well as of knowledge, deprives him of food more 
 suitable than the rough fare of the adult, and more- 
 over obtains for him, perchance, his little share of 
 tea, or even of beer or gin. On the whole, perhaps 
 he is not much worse off than the child of the well- 
 to-do, who becomes a pet, and is already familiarized 
 with complex and too solid forms of food, as well as 
 with stimulating drinks, which custom and self- 
 means indulgence have placed on the daily 
 
 frequent in- table. And soon afterwards commence 
 disposition ; 
 
 in consequence — and entirely in conse- 
 quence, a fact it is impossible too much to emphasize 
 
During Period of Growth. 17 
 
 — the " sick headaches " and " bilious attacks," which 
 
 pursue their victim through half a lifetime, to be 
 
 exchanged for gout or worse at or before the 
 
 grand climacteric. And so common are these evils 
 
 that they are regarded by people in general as a 
 
 necessary appanage of " poor humanity," and together 
 
 with measles or hooping cough, to be part of the 
 
 natural and necessary development of the full-grown 
 
 and complete man ! No notion can be 
 
 .... , most com- 
 
 more erroneous, smce it is absolutely true plaints so 
 
 that the complaints referred to are self- *^*"^^°' 
 engendered, form no necessary part of our physical 
 nature, and for their existence are dependent almost 
 entirely on our habits in relation to food and drink. 
 I except, of course, those cases in which hereditary 
 tendency is so strong as to produce certain evils, 
 some special care notwithstanding, exercised on be- 
 half of the unfortunate victim of an ancestor's self- 
 indulgence. Equally, however, on the part of that 
 little-to-be-revered progenitor were ill-chosen food 
 and drink, or more probably an excessive indulgence 
 in the quantity thereof, the cause of his disease, and 
 not the physical nature of man. 
 
 The next stage of boyhood transfers the child just 
 
 spoken of to a public school, where too , 
 ^ '^ Improper 
 
 often insufficient or inappropriate diet, food at 
 at the most critical period of growth, has 
 led to the habit of supplementing the supply from 
 other sources. It is almost unnecessary to say that 
 chief among them are those unsuitable purveyors, the 
 
 B 
 
1 8 Food and Feeding. 
 
 pastrycook and the vendor of portable provisions, 
 with their wares of questionable character consumed 
 not at meal times, but at irregular hours. Many an 
 unhappy dyspeptic owes his complaint to a confirmed 
 habit of taking such, or indeed any food in the 
 intervals between regular meals, when the stomach 
 ought to be at rest. 
 
 After this period arise the temptations to drink, 
 among the youth of all classes, whether 
 habits of at beerhouse, tavern, or club. For it 
 
 ng. j^^^ been taught in the bosom of the 
 
 family, by the father's example and by the mother's 
 precept, that wine, beer, and spirits are useful, nay, 
 necessary to health, even for young persons, and that 
 they augment or sustain the strength. And the 
 lessons thus inculcated and too well learned have 
 proved to be the steps which lead to wider experience 
 in the pursuit of health and strength by larger use 
 of the same means. Under such circumstances it 
 often happens, as the youth grows up, that a flagging 
 appetite or a failing digestion habitually demands a 
 dram before or between meals, and that these latter 
 are regarded rather as occasions to indulge in variety 
 of liquor than as repasts for nourishing the body. It 
 is not surprising, with such training, that the true 
 object of both eating and drinking is entirely lost 
 sight of The gratification of acquired tastes usurps 
 the function of that zest which healthy appetite pro- 
 duces ; and the intention that food should be adapted 
 to the physical needs of the body and the healthy 
 
Eml of Drinking Habits. 19 
 
 action of the mind is forgotten altogether. So it 
 
 often comes to pass that at middle age, r -i r 
 
 when man finds himself in the full earljrindi- 
 
 , , ,.r I ^.' ^ ,. gestionthus, 
 
 current of life s occupations, struggling 
 
 for pre-eminence with his fellows, indigestion has 
 become persistent in some of its numerous forms, 
 shortens his "staying power," or impairs his- judg- 
 ment or temper. And, besides all this, how apparent 
 it is that few causes are more potent than an incom- 
 petent stomach to engender habits of selfishness and 
 egotism. A constant care to provide little personal 
 wants of various kinds, thus rendered necessary, 
 developes the growth of these sentiments, and they 
 influence the man's whole character in consequence. 
 On the other hand, the poor man, ad- ^nd other- 
 vancing in years, shows signs of damage '''^^ caused, 
 to his constitution from continuous toil with inade- 
 quate food, the supply of which is often diminished 
 by his expenditure for beer, which, although not 
 seldom noxious, he regards as the elixir of life, 
 never to be missed when fair occasion for obtaining 
 it is offered. Many of this class are prematurely 
 crippled by articular disease, etc., and become per- 
 manent inmates of the parish workhouse or infirmary. 
 It must be obvious to every one how much more 
 of detail might be added to fill in the outlines of this 
 little sketch. It is designed rather to be suggestive 
 than complete, and thus it amply suffices for my 
 purpose ; other illustrations will occur to any ob- 
 server who cares to pursue the subject further. 
 
20 Food and Feeding. 
 
 But it is necessary to say here, and I desire to 
 
 say it emphatically, that this question of 
 "Taste" in ^ ', , •'.,,. . , 
 
 food to be food need not, even with the views just 
 
 cultivated. enunciated, be treated in an ascetic spirit. 
 The selection of food is to be considered in relation 
 to a principle, in which we may certainly believe, 
 , . namely, that aliments most adapted to 
 
 ing subject develop the individual, sound in body 
 and mind, shall not only be acceptable 
 to the palate, but that they may be selected 
 and prepared so as to afford scope for the exercise 
 of a refined taste, and produce a fair degree of an 
 innocent pleasure naturally associated with the act 
 of eating, and derived from a study of the table. 
 For it is certain that most of the results of culinary 
 taste met with in English society until late years, has 
 often been the result of faith without knowledge ; and 
 no more a source of gratification to the eater's gusta- 
 tory sense than of digestible sustenance to his body. 
 The subject of this little work will therefore take 
 the following form in regard of the 
 food to the matter, and the method of considering 
 " ^' it. Food must first be regarded in re- 
 
 lation to its value as material to be used for building 
 up and sustaining the activity of that composite 
 structure, the human body, under the varied con- 
 2. Modes of '^'^'°"s ^" w^ich it may be placed. 
 
 preparing Secondly, the selection of food, and the 
 a dish." , 
 
 best modes of preparing it, resulting in 
 
 the production of "the dish," a subject of oreat 
 
Uses of Food. The Proteids. 21 
 
 extent and importance, must be dealt with so far 
 as the limits of my design will permit. 3. Art of 
 Lastly, the exercise of taste in relation d?shei"fo^ 
 to the serving of food and drink, or "a meal." 
 the art of combining dishes to form " a meal," must 
 also be considered in relation to various purposes. 
 
 We have to consider, first, what constitutes food 
 for man. Its objects are threefold — to xhe objects 
 repair the daily waste of the body itself, "^ ^°°^' 
 a necessary consequence of life and its activity; to 
 maintain the natural heat of the body, always in our 
 climate a temperature many degrees above that of 
 the surrounding media, whether earth, air, or water ; 
 lastly, to provide the means of supplying energy to 
 support an active existence. 
 
 For this purpose, fresh elements similar to those 
 of which the body is composed, must be Necessary 
 furnished to it in such form and pro- elements, 
 portions as to repair the loss. Additional elements 
 must be supplied, by the oxidation of which more 
 heat and energy are produced in proportion to the 
 existing demand. All these are only to be obtained 
 through digestion, and must be acquired in response 
 to the instinctive demands of hunger and thirst. 
 
 These elements are regarded as divisible into four 
 distinct classes, as follows : — 
 
 I. The Proteids. — This group contains an essential 
 element for renewing the tissues of the j_ xi,e p^g. 
 body, named "protein," without which teids: 
 life is impossible, since starvation must take place 
 
22 Food and Feeding. 
 
 unless a sufficient quantity is supplied by food. It 
 is a definite compound of carbon, oxygen, and 
 hydrogen with nitrogen, but often associated with 
 a little sulphur and phosphorus also. " Proteids " 
 fromani- ^r^ found in all animals used as food 
 
 mals ; j^y jjj^n ; and also in many produc- 
 
 tions of the vegetable kingdom — from which two 
 sources the body can alone be supplied. We find 
 the proteid element abundantly in lean meat, the 
 muscle of animals, where it is known as " myosin," 
 also in the blood and other parts as " fibrin." There 
 are, moreover, two modifications of nitrogenous com- 
 pounds allied to, but not identical with, true proteids, 
 viz. " gelatin " and " chondrin," in bones and cartilage 
 respectively. Proteids are largely present in eggs, 
 forming " albumen," or what is familiarly known as 
 the " white of eggs ; " and in milk" as " casein," the 
 nitrogenous constituent of cheese. Again, in wheat, 
 from vege- and existing therefore in bread, in smaller 
 *^" proportion, as " gluten ; " and in the 
 
 leguminous seeds (peas and beans) abundantly, as 
 " legumin," which is almost identical with " casein." 
 
 2. The hydro-carbons, or fatty matters, carbon, 
 2. The hydro- hydrogen, and oxygen, in a certain pro- 
 carbons, portion, are also necessary for nutrition ; 
 and these may be obtained also from both animals 
 and vegetables. 
 
 3. Carbo-hydrates, also carbon, hydrogen, and 
 3.Thecarbo- oxygen, but in different proportions 
 hydrates. {^^^ t^ogg ^f ^j^^ preceding class, not 
 
Fats, Carbo-hydrates, Salts. 23 
 
 absolutely essential to life like the proteids, although 
 they are most desirable elements of food. They 
 are largely furnished by the vegetable kingdom, 
 consisting chiefly of the starches of all grain, roots, 
 and tubers, with the sugars and the gums ; in milk 
 they exist as milk sugar, or " lactose." 
 
 4. Lastly, there are certain products no less essential 
 than the first class, all belonging solely 4. inorganic 
 to the inorganic or mineral kingdom, ^|ter"saits 
 namely, water in large quantity, with etc. 
 various salts of soda, lime, magnesia, potash, traces 
 of iron, and other metals. All these must be present 
 in the food supplied, and are obtained in all ordinary 
 forms of food from both animal and vegetable sources. 
 
 Meantime, as a result of chemical changes which 
 take place in every portion of the body How 
 through the assimilation of all these "t'^'^ed- 
 elements, chiefly by oxidation, heat is produced ; 
 while not only the proteids, but also the fatty matters 
 and the carbo-hydrates of our food, as well as the 
 inorganic constituents, are utilized in the repair of 
 wasted tissues. 
 
 Thus we may regard the human body as a complex 
 and highly organized machine, adapted ^ comolex 
 
 to execute work of varied but specific machine, 
 
 self -supply- 
 kind, but one which is self-supplying ingand 
 
 by means of food, and also automatically '■ep^"''°&' 
 
 regenerates itself in order to maintain a condition of 
 
 good repair. 
 
 Thus, any material which is competent to supply 
 
24 Food and Feeding. 
 
 these requirements is a complete or perfect food. 
 Examples of complete food exist in milk and the 
 egg, sufficing as these do for all the wants, of the 
 young animal during the period of early growth. 
 Nevertheless, a single animal product like either of 
 the two named, although complex in itself, is not 
 more perfect than an artificial combination of various 
 simpler substances, provided the mixture (dish or 
 meal) contains all the elements required in due pro- 
 portion for the purposes of the body. 
 
 Now, as above seen, all these constituent elements 
 of the food, the proteids, the fats, arid the carbo- 
 hydrates, together with the inorganic salts, may be ob- 
 tained both from the animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
 
 The wide range of animals available in the endless 
 Animal forms of " flesh, fish, and fowl," to name 
 
 sources, them in popular terms, need not be 
 
 further enumerated at present. This subject will be 
 more fully considered hereafter. 
 
 The vegetable kingdom may be held to corn- 
 vegetable prehend the following list : the cere^s, 
 sources, namely, wheat, oats, barley, maize, rice, 
 
 etc. ; the legumes ; the nuts and their oil ; roots and 
 tubers ; starches, gums, and sugars j green vegetables, 
 herbs, and fruits. 
 
 But there is a marked difference in the kind of 
 
 vary in value P^'o^is^o" afforded on comparing the 
 
 and in products of the two kingdoms. While 
 
 the vegetable kingdom is conspicuous 
 
 for the plenty and value of the carbo-hydrates present, 
 
Vegetable Food, its Components. 25 
 
 it will be seen that the proteids, as well as the fats, 
 are not only less bountifully supplied, but exist in 
 a form generally not so well adapted for man's 
 digestion as those which are obtained from the 
 animal kingdom. The most valuable proteid of the 
 vegetable kingdom, since it is easily assimilated by 
 the human stomach, is furnished in moderate quantity 
 by certain members of the cereal class 
 above named, viz. " gluten," and is con- 
 sumed for the most part here in the form of wheaten 
 bread. Next comes the extensive order of leguminous 
 plants, beans, peas, and lentils, which, containing a 
 very considerable amount of the proteid 
 " legumin," or " vegetable casein," furnish ^Sumin. 
 cheap and excellent food, although inferior to wheaten 
 bread, which contains less of the nitrogenous element. 
 It is quite true that chemical analysis shows the 
 presence of a larger proportion of that element, the 
 legumin, in dried peas, lentils, or haricots, than is 
 found in an equal weight of butcher's meat, of its 
 corresponding proteid. But, on the other hand, 
 none of the former furnish a proteid in so digestible 
 a form as that of beef or mutton, many human 
 stomachs failing to digest easily the leguminous 
 product.* From the flesh of animals man acquires its 
 
 * For further information respecting this indubitable fact, 
 see the work below named, where it is attentively and impartially 
 considered. The tabulated result is given of carefully made 
 experiments by Fr. Hofmann, on the power of man's digestive 
 organs to assimilate the nitrogenous elements (albumen) from 
 animal and vegetable sources respectively. From the data 
 
26 Food and Feeding. 
 
 products readily, and if he happen to be a delicate 
 
 invalid, unable to digest solid food, an 
 Superiority . , . , , , -^i 
 
 of animal infusion of the meat, together with some 
 
 proteids. ^^^^^ ^j ^j^^ ^^^y^^ ^jjj yj^jj sustenance 
 
 of the greatest value in an easily assimilated form. 
 
 No such treatment of the beans will produce an 
 
 equivalent, and their special proteid "casein," like 
 
 cheese, its congener in milk, is then quite unsuitable. 
 
 The lower animals, living on vegetables only, have 
 
 stomachs and allied organs widely differing from our 
 
 own, specially adapted to deal with vegetable foods, 
 
 and to convert them into flesh. Thus it is that oxen 
 
 and sheep, exclusively vegetable feeders as they are, 
 
 consuming only grass and a few roots, produce 
 
 largely and rapidly the necessary proteids in the 
 
 form of flesh, as man himself is wholly incapable of 
 
 doing, and meat thus becomes for him a concentrated 
 
 food of exceeding value, admirably adapted to his 
 
 digestive system. The need for an 
 Valuable 
 to the abundant supply of easily digestible 
 
 a ourer. proteids to sustain the hard-working 
 
 inhabitants of the British islands is obvious. And 
 
 hence it is, that almost all those who ordinarily 
 
 supplied, it appears that while four-fifths of the albumen con- 
 sumed from animal sources are digested (Si parts in the loo), 
 not quite half (46'6 in the loo) is digested of albumen derived 
 from vegetable sources, cereals, legumes, etc. This is cor- 
 roborated by other experiments made by Rubner. 
 
 " Food in Health and Disease,'' by I. Burney Yeo, M.D. 
 F.R.C.P., Physician to King's College Hospital, etc. (Cassell! 
 1896), p. 148, et seq. 
 
The Child Reared on Milk, 27 
 
 classify themselves as "vegetarians," a numerous 
 
 body of earnest adlierents to a rule which Hence 
 
 forbids them to eat flesh, are mostly T^?^^'. 
 
 ' ' tanans" use 
 
 compelled to consume not only milk, them largely, 
 butter, and cheese, but also eggs,* all of which are 
 nevertheless choice foods from the animal kingdom. 
 In these the proteids are largely present, 
 also fats in abundance, and in forms 
 better adapted to the human stomach than are olive- 
 oil, cotton-seed oil, and various nut-oils, the fats of 
 the vegetable world. 
 
 It is most desirable, therefore, that an intelligible 
 definition should be framed to indicate nve^e- 
 
 accurately the diet thus erroneously de- tarian,"a 
 
 . misleading 
 
 scribed as " vegetarian. This can only and inaccu- 
 
 denote a dietary containing foods pro- used by a 
 
 duced by the vegetable kingdom, and '^""^^ c\a.%s. 
 
 can by no possibility be accurately, that is, honestly, 
 
 used to include anything else. At any rate, it must, 
 
 before all things, exclude the use of the specific 
 
 proteids and fats, which animals have produced in 
 
 a concentrated form (milk) for the pur- ,,.„ 
 
 ^ / ^ Milk, con- 
 pose of insuring a healthy, rapid, and centrated 
 
 ^, r ^, . rt • animal food, 
 generous growth for their offspring, 
 
 when they are too young to eat any vegetable food, 
 
 and could not digest it if they did. In no single 
 
 * Every egg contains a chicken ! that is, the entire material 
 wherewith to make one ; and requires nothing to produce a 
 living animal but a little rise of temperature, 103° or 104° Fahr., 
 either naturally or artificially apphed. 
 
28 Food and Feeding. 
 
 instance is the young of the mammals, to which 
 
 necessary for ^'^^^'^ "^^^ belongs, capable of feeding 
 
 infant life on any vegetable product, whether 
 
 through- , .-.„,, , , , . 
 
 out the natural or artificially blended, during in- 
 
 mammals. ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^.j^. childhood. And when 
 the mother's milk is deficient, or naturally ceases, that 
 of the cow, slightly modified, but containing animal 
 proteids, fats, carbo-hydrates, and salts, best serves to 
 maintain healthy condition, and confer full growing 
 power on the young and active animal. All forms 
 of vegetables are non-digestible by the infantile 
 organs, and when given too early, as they not 
 infrequently are, produce great disturbance, diarrhoea, 
 colic, and, by no means rarely, fatal results. Not 
 until some teeth have appeared is the child, as a 
 rule, ready to make its first trial of vegetable food ; 
 and, for the first year, or even more, of life, it will 
 generally thrive better on wholesome milk than on 
 
 .. . any substitute. Thus man is born into 
 
 Man bom 
 
 an animal the world a consumer of animal food, 
 
 and it is for the "vegetarian" to show 
 
 cause for determining at what age, if at any, he 
 
 should henceforth be compelled to restrict himself 
 
 to a diet from the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 In another form of abstention — viz. that from 
 
 alcohol in all its forms — which has been of great 
 
 service, and might be far more largely extended, 
 
 with incalculable advantage to the community, the 
 
 practice is clear and defined. The " total abstainer " 
 
 means what he says, and does not take his daily or 
 
Which is an Animal Food. 29 
 
 occasional glass of wine or beer unless strongly 
 
 advised by his doctor, and by no means always then. 
 
 The term "vegetarian" will, assuredly, 
 
 "Vege- 
 soon cease to have a meaning, if clearly tarian," 
 
 drawn definitions be not adopted to dis- ^^g^for^those 
 
 tinguish the man who consumes only who consume 
 
 , . , , a mixed diet, 
 
 products of the vegetable kingdom, from 
 
 the man who adds thereto the animal proteids and 
 fats which exist richly in eggs, in milk and its 
 derivatives. The two individuals support really means 
 life on wholly different dietetic principles ; "» n">re than 
 the latter being certainly a " mixed feeder " and not 
 a vegetarian. It is no part of my duty to discover 
 an appropriate definition ; but, in view of the present 
 loose practice in regard to dietary, the terms " a 
 vegetarian" and simply "a flesh ab- «flesh 
 stainer," appear correctly to indicate abstainer." 
 respectively the two classes I have described. 
 
 And here let it be remarked that there are indi- 
 viduals, a few perhaps, in this country, Many are 
 who are strictly vegetable-eaters ; while vegetarians 
 large populations exist on little else in inthetropics. 
 the tropics, where a small proportion of animal food 
 only is consumed, and that mostly fat. On the other 
 hand, in northern latitudes, little or in high 
 nothing besides animal food is attainable, v^*g"<^rfa^^ 
 and a vegetarian diet, if procurable, would cannot exist, 
 not sustain life in those regions. For climate is an 
 important factor in relation to food. Man, wherever 
 he exists, has to maintain his body at a constant 
 
30 Food and Feeding. 
 
 temperature of at least 98° Fahr. ; and it is obvious 
 that an enormous difference must exist between the 
 needs of the individual who lives near the equator 
 with all surrounding objects, at a constant tempera- 
 ture of 85° to 95°, and those of one who inhabits 
 northern latitudes, where it is continuously below the 
 freezing-point, 32°, often to the extent of many 
 degrees. In each case the temperature of the body 
 must be maintained at 98°, or a little more, or man 
 will cease to exist. In the large and populous zone 
 we inhabit, which forms so extensive a portion of 
 Europe, Asia, South Africa, America, and Australasia, 
 and very few and is known as the "Temperate Zone," 
 tSnperate*^ there are very few persons, indeed, who 
 zones. can sustain their health and a fair amount 
 
 of strength for many years on a strictly vegetable 
 diet. I have met with a few, but a very few, indi- 
 viduals who have been able to assure me that they 
 have long enjoyed continuous good health and 
 strength upon a diet of bread, made solely from 
 flour or meal of any kind, and water, the best green 
 vegetables, roots, and fruits, avoiding all milk, butter, 
 cheese, and eggs. Hence, it is only possible to 
 regard man — considered as an inhabitant of the 
 world at large — and manifesting as he does a strong 
 and increasing impulse to explore and colonize in 
 
 Man i ^"^ ^^"^ °^ ^^ globe, as now naturally 
 
 naturally omnivorous ; in other words, possessed 
 
 omnivorous. r ^-i. ^. , . , 
 
 01 a constitution which requires a mixed 
 
 diet of animal and vegetable foods for his well-being, 
 
Man naturally Omnivorous. 31 
 
 in relative proportions varying according to tempera- 
 ture and activity of life. 
 
 This conclusion is not to be determined by 
 inferences drawn from the nature of his teeth, which 
 may perhaps offer some indications, but by no 
 means any decisive evidence respecting the question, 
 although the character of his stomach and intestinal 
 canal prove the accuracy of the state- Anatomical 
 ments here made. In any case, evidence, 
 anatomical evidence only indicates the results of 
 a long course of development in the organs of a 
 given animal, adapting it to the circumstances by 
 which it has been surrounded, with the accommoda- 
 tions of structure which have enabled it to survive 
 in its struggle for existence, to occupy a prominent 
 place in the fauna of its country. The history of 
 man's passage through the stages of what is under- 
 stood by civilization, indicates that he has gradually 
 extended his resources in the matter of food, and 
 has long been omnivorous to the extent which cir- 
 cumstances have permitted. The present condition 
 of his digestive organs as a whole is but the expres- 
 sion of what his environments and his energy through 
 long ages of evolution have made him. 
 
 In the same manner, the great vegetable feeders 
 have acquired special arrangements Anatomical 
 already referred to in the "compound Sf^evS" 
 stomachs" of the numerous and im- table feeders, 
 portant varieties of " ruminating " animals ; and some, 
 like the rabbit, for example, have an enormously large 
 
32 Food and Feeding. 
 
 caecum, which is utilized for the digestion of the 
 bulky green food they consume ; while the corre- 
 sponding organ in the human subject exists in little 
 more than name, being merely a slight dilatation of 
 the large intestine. 
 
 For it is a significant and important physiological 
 fact, that the digestive apparatus of an animal must 
 correspond to the extent of change which its food 
 has to undergo in order to convert it into the flesh 
 which constitutes the animal consuming it. 
 
 Thus if grass, which is very low in the scale of 
 vegetable growths, has to be converted into the 
 highly composite animal fibre constituting beef and 
 mutton, a long and complicated apparatus is required. 
 It consists of four stomachs, from the first of which 
 after eating, the food is returned into the mouth 
 during the act of "chewing the cud," after which it 
 is transmitted in turn through the other three, a 
 process which confers the characteristic distinction 
 of " ruminant " upon the animals referred to. No 
 human stomach under any circumstances has the 
 power of effecting the changes in question. 
 
 The carnivore, living exclusively on flesh, requires 
 for his purpose nothing more than the digestion and 
 assimilation of animal tissues identical with those 
 already composing his own body. This process, com- 
 pared with that above described, is a very simple 
 one; and accordingly the stomach and digestive 
 organs are far less complex in structure. 
 
 Man holds a position between the two extremes, 
 
The Diet of Monkeys. 33 
 
 with his varied surroundings and his ability to select 
 and adapt ; for he possesses the power to support 
 life by consuming the best products of the vegetable 
 kingdom, and also all animal foods, suitable to his 
 purpose and tastes. The animal fibres of fishes, birds, 
 and tender meat, with the concentrated extracts of 
 the latter, being identical in nature and form with 
 the structures of his own body, are assimilated with 
 greater ease than the nitrogenous products of the 
 vegetable kingdom. His digestive apparatus is more 
 highly developed than that of the carnivore, but more 
 closely resembles it than the complicated apparatus 
 of the exclusively vegetable feeder. 
 
 Man is therefore manifestly adapted for a mixed 
 diet from the animal and vegetable kingdom, and 
 must be regarded beyond all controversy as an 
 omnivorous animal. 
 
 In respect of teeth, stomach, and intestine, the 
 human type closely corresponds with that which 
 predominates among the various species of monkey, 
 the caecum being rather larger in monkeys than it 
 is in man. Monkeys are often spoken The monkey 
 of as living exclusively on vegetable ^i^ed 
 diet, but this is very far from the truth, feeders. 
 Moreover, the four genera of anthropoid apes which 
 more nearly approach man than any other, viz. the 
 gibbons, the orang-outang, gorilla, and chimpanzee, 
 in a state of nature obtain their sustenance from 
 both animal and vegetable sources.* The numerous 
 
 * See " Anthropoid Apes," by Robert Hartmann, Prof. Univ. 
 
34 Food and Feeding. 
 
 species of smaller monkeys, as well as the great 
 baboons, all ranking lower in the scale of approach 
 to man, live largely on insects * and small lizards, 
 which abound in the African and South American 
 forests ; the baboons preying on eggs and young 
 Thelarg-e birds. The large anthropoids, just re- 
 anthropoids, ferred to, also eat eggs and birds as 
 well as small mammals, whenever they can get them, 
 in addition to the fruits and nuts which form the 
 great staple of their diet. Their mode of life, largely 
 spent on the branches and higher parts of lofty trees, 
 affords them great facilities for obtaining such food. 
 
 Few people are aware that the large chimpanzee, 
 The chim- so popular and well known as " Sally," 
 and^r ''"^ i" t^i<^ Zoological Gardens, was not in- 
 Berlin. frequently supplied with animal food, 
 
 which she evidently consumed with great satisfaction. 
 It has been observed also that the gorillas and 
 chimpanzees in the Zoological Gardens at Berlin 
 have a marked preference for animal food, of which 
 they enjoy a small proportion. As above noticed, 
 their organization indicates that while they are 
 certainly " mixed feeders " — that is, obtain their food 
 from both the animal and vegetable kingdoms — they 
 have been accustomed to consume a larger proportion 
 of vegetable matter than is now usually adopted by 
 
 Berlin. Translated as vol. liii. in " International Scientific 
 Series." London : Kegan Paul and Co., 1885. Pp. 227-255. 
 
 * Hence the small monkeys at the Zoological Gardens have 
 a daily supply of meal worms, to afford the necessary small but 
 important animal contribution to their dietary. 
 
Too much Flesh often Eaten. 35 
 
 man. And lastly, having regard to the evidence 
 which inquiries into pre-historic records m^n's early 
 of man's life have revealed, as well as to progenitors, 
 our knowledge of his existence since, with what we 
 have learned respecting the habits of savage tribes 
 of recent date, it is impossible to doubt that his 
 diet has long been derived from both animal and 
 vegetable kingdoms. The chase was a favourite pur- 
 suit and supplied a certain quantity of animal food, 
 always regarded as a welcome addition to the roots 
 and fruits which must doubtless have largely con- 
 tributed to sustain his daily life. 
 
 At the same time, I cannot doubt that more flesh 
 is consumed by a large part of our existing population 
 than is absolutely necessary or desirable. But this 
 is mostly to be observed among those who possess 
 ample means, and whose employments do not neces- 
 sarily demand great muscular exertion, „, 
 
 ■^ *= The use of 
 
 exposure in all weathers, or other causes flesh liable 
 
 of wear and tear to the animal tissues. 
 Where exercise is very largely taken and manual 
 labour is hard and prolonged, the concentrated and 
 easily digested proteids of flesh are the most valuable 
 food for man's purpose. Where there is but little 
 physical labour or activity, a smaller proportion is 
 mostly advisable ; and a better state of bodily health 
 may be generally assured by adopting an animal 
 food— fish, poultry, and game, for example — less rich 
 perhaps in proteids, and especially so in fat, than 
 are beef or mutton, together with a considerable 
 
36 Food and Feeding. 
 
 proportion of the products of vegetable origin. The 
 
 selection, however, has to be judiciously made. 
 
 Theoretically, the vegetable eater, pure 
 
 tarianism ' ^nd simple, can doubtless find in his 
 
 lomlln"'^""^ dietary all the principles adapted for 
 
 certain the growth and support of the body as 
 
 conditions. . , 
 
 well as for the production of neat and 
 
 energy, provided that he selects vegetable growths 
 
 that contain all the essential elements named ; but 
 
 he should also possess that precious but somewhat 
 
 rare endowment, an unimpaired and naturally strong 
 
 digestion, capable of assimilating enough to support 
 
 a fair average amount of activity. His life should 
 
 be largely spent in the pure open air of the country, 
 
 and he should select certain proportions of wheaten 
 
 bread, oatmeal, and dried lentils, peas and beans, 
 
 say with macaroni as a change, for the staple of his 
 
 diet, chiefly to supply proteids, some carbo-hydrates 
 
 and salts ; moderate quantities of potato, rice, sago, 
 
 fruits, and vegetables as supplementary carbo-hydrates 
 
 and salts ; and maize in the form of polenta, and 
 
 olive oil with salads to furnish additional fats. In 
 
 this way all the necessary elements are obtained and 
 
 in due proportion, so that the total sum of food per 
 
 diem is not too bulky, which a strict vegetarian diet 
 
 Example of is prone to become ; otherwise he must 
 
 hydrates in swallow and digest a large weight of 
 
 excess. vegetable matter of less nutritive value, 
 
 and therefore containing at least one element in 
 
 large excess, in order to obtain all the elements he 
 
Many thrive on Cereals and Milk. 2)1 
 
 needs. Thus the Irishman, if confined solely to a 
 
 potato diet, would require for his support from twelve 
 
 to fifteen pounds daily, which contain chiefly starch 
 
 — a superfluous quantity, and an overload for any 
 
 stomach — in order to obtain a barely sufficient 
 
 quantity of nitrogen of which this tuber contains 
 
 so little, with scarcely any fat. Hence he eats less 
 
 of the potatoes, and obtains when he can milk, lard, 
 
 bacon, or a herring to supply the deficiency. The 
 
 Highlander, living mainly on oatmeal, requires a 
 
 very much smaller weight, since this grain contains 
 
 not only starch, but a moderate amount of nitrogen 
 
 and fat, although not sufficient for his purpose ; hence 
 
 it is usually supplied by adding milk, and fish or 
 
 bacon also when he can obtain them. 
 
 No doubt there is, as all observation in every 
 
 department of natural history testifies, 
 
 a great variety of results in comparing there is great 
 
 the individuals of any species, their ^^i^^^^ 
 
 wants, qualities, and endowments, etc. tastes of 
 A , ,.,, . , individnals. 
 
 And no differences are greater m regard 
 
 to such particulars than those which are manifested 
 by man himself, the famous dictum notwithstanding, 
 which declares his " equality " with his fellows, what- 
 ever that inay be taken to signify. And thus it may 
 be admitted that some persons are stronger and 
 more healthy who live very largely on vegetables, 
 while there are many others for whom a proportion 
 of animal food appears not merely to be desirable 
 but absolutely necessary. On the other hand, the 
 
38 Food and Feeding. 
 
 man who lives on a well-chosen mixed diet con- 
 The perfect taining about the due proportion of pro- 
 diet is an teids, fats, carbo-hydrates, and mineral 
 adequate , , ., 
 supply of constituents to support the daily require- 
 
 fn due^'^°^°* ments of an average activity, without stint 
 proportion. ^^ ^^ ^^^ hand, or over supply on the 
 other, will require a total of only two or three pounds 
 of solid food as a perfect equivalent.* In studying this 
 matter, individual habit must be taken into account. 
 Again, an animal feeder may by slow degrees accustom 
 himself to a diet chiefly vegetable, without loss of 
 weight or strength, not without feeling some incon- 
 venience in the process ; but a sudden change in diet 
 in this direction is for a time almost equivalent to 
 starvation. The digestive organs require a consider- 
 able period to accommodate themselves to the per- 
 formance of work different from that to which they 
 have been long accustomed ; while many persons, 
 although able to diminish considerably the proportion 
 of animal food, cannot relinquish it altogether without 
 manifest injury to health. 
 
 Moreover, in matters of diet essentially, many 
 persons have individual peculiarities ; and while cer- 
 tain fixed principles exist, such as those already laid 
 down as absolutely cardinal, in the detail of their 
 application to each man's wants, an infinity of 
 stomach-eccentricities will be encountered if the 
 sphere of observation is considerable. The old 
 proverb expresses the fact strongly but truly : " What 
 * See tables on pp. 59, 60. 
 
Individual Peculiarities. 39 
 
 is one man's meat is another man's poison." Yet 
 
 nothing is more common — and one rarely 
 
 , . , ,. , , . , No universal 
 
 leaves a social dmner table without rule appli- 
 
 observing it — than to hear some good- ^ etoal. 
 
 natured person recommending to his neighbour, with 
 
 a confidence rarely found except in alliance with 
 
 profound ignorance of the matter in 
 
 , J • T /■ r /■ 1 Great indi- 
 
 nand, some special form of food, or vidualvariety 
 
 drink, or system of diet, solely because dli^'?*'"'' ^^ 
 
 the adviser happens to have found it power and 
 
 useful to himself. More rationally might 
 
 the adviser recommend the universal use of a hat 
 
 moulded to the form of his own head, or of a boot 
 
 made on the last contrived for his own tender foot ! 
 
 For the differences between the parts just named in 
 
 different individuals are far less, and are also much 
 
 more easily estimated than the differences to be met 
 
 with in their digestive organs, and in the capabilities 
 
 with which these organs are endowed. 
 
 Finally, I think we should carefully consider the 
 
 question whether it is prudent or desir- ,„, ,. .^ 
 ^ Why limit 
 
 able to accept vegetarian limitations to man's 
 
 , . 1 I.- i r J • resources? 
 
 man s resources in relation to food m 
 
 face of the world's rapidly increasing populations. 
 Flesh, as heretofore shown, is a most useful concen- 
 trated form of nutritious elements, easily portable in 
 small compass, already cooked, and easily digestible 
 under many conditions, in which vegetable foods 
 cannot be readily obtained, or are too bulky for 
 transport, or more difficult to cook than the former. 
 
40 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Would any commander be justified in accepting the 
 responsibility of chartering a large 
 siScS'in vessel freighted with passengers and 
 which animal ^rew for a three months' voyage, with a 
 absolutely commissariat solely supplied with vege- 
 tarian produce ? Even with the additions 
 of those animal foods, milk, butter, cheese, and eggs, 
 which are so much used and so unwarrantably in- 
 cluded under the denomination of vegetarian diet, it 
 would be a rash proceeding. Still more the attempt 
 to sustain an army in the field with similar rations. 
 
 And why should man be required to reject alto- 
 Why reject gether the entire animal life of the sea, 
 produce oT* where Nature affords bounteous supplies 
 the sea? of wholesome food on every habitable 
 
 shore? The limitation of our food resources is in 
 no sense desirable, but on the contrary is at this 
 stage of the world's progress a flagrant anachronism. 
 Man's enormously increased travelling facilities tend 
 to render him naturally more cosmopolitan, more 
 versatile in his tastes, appetites, and capabilities, and 
 he can only gain advantage from a widened ex- 
 perience of new foods from both kingdoms, which 
 modern enterprise must in time develop. The very 
 idea of restricting our resources and supplies is a 
 step backwards— a distinct reversion to the rude and 
 distant savagery of the past, a sign of decadence 
 rather than of advance. 
 
 Let us have all the world can be made to produce ; 
 it will yet yield new and useful, possibly even better 
 
Why limit Sources of Food? 41 
 
 foods than those of the past, to the scientific inquirer, 
 be he animal-breeder, agriculturist, or gardener, and 
 furnish additional proof that wisdom lies in accepting 
 every form of wholesome food from whatever source, 
 and without limiting the bounty of Nature in any. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Materials at man's command for food from the vegetable 
 kingdom — Seeds cultivated becoming grain, or cereal foods, 
 as wheat and its derivatives, flour, wheaten bread — Oats 
 and oatmeal — Maize and Indian corn meal, polenta — Rice 
 — Legumes : haricots and lentils, etc. — Potato — Roots, the 
 carrot, etc., arrowroot — Fatty matters from seeds, nuts, etc. 
 — Green vegetables — Gourds — Fungi — Fruits and bananas 
 — ^Analyses of their composition, showing comparative 
 amounts of proteids, carbo-hydrates, fats, salts, and water 
 — Sugar — Tea, coffee, and cacao — Common salt — Import- 
 ance of perfect mastication of food by the teeth in relation 
 to digestion explained and insisted upon. 
 
 It will be interesting now to take a general but brief 
 The survey of the vast range of. materials 
 
 mln'in^rela- which civilized man has at his command 
 tion to food, for the purpose of food : the foregoing 
 remarks on the chemical constituents of food and 
 their relation to the needs of the human body having 
 been intended to aid us in further appreciating the 
 value of different kinds. 
 
 Commencing with the vegetable kingdom, the 
 
 The cereals, ^^^^^^^^ ^"^^5 of man, during long ages, 
 
 as already seen, obtained much of their 
 
 sustenance from seeds, herbs, roots, and fruits, in 
 
 addition to their gains by hunting and fishing. As 
 
Vegetable Foods, the Cereals. 43 
 
 the art of cultivating the first-named was acquired, 
 the cereals appeared as improvements on the seed- 
 bearing grasses, and now conspicuously take the first 
 place, as containing nearly all the elements necessary 
 to life, and being therefore the most largely con- 
 sumed. Wheat and its congeners, which rank 
 highest in quality, had been distinguished, in the 
 form of bread, as " the staff of life," long before 
 the physiological demonstration of the fact had been 
 attained. Wheat, oats, rye and barley, maize and 
 rice, are the chief members of this group, wheat 
 containing most of the nitrogenous or flesh-forming 
 material, besides abundance of starch, a very small 
 amount of fat, together with sufficient saline and 
 mineral elements. 
 
 I. Composition of Wheat. 
 
 Proteids 12 '42 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 70'S3 
 
 Fats 170 
 
 Salts 179 
 
 Water .... . . I3'S6 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 2. Flour. 
 
 Proteids io-8 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 7o'S 
 
 Fats 2-0 
 
 Salts 17 
 
 Water iS'o 
 
 1 00-0 
 
44 Food and Feeding. 
 
 3. Composition of Wh eaten Bread. 
 
 Proteids 8-1 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 5i'o 
 
 Fatty matter i -6 
 
 Mineral matter 23 
 
 Water 37-0 
 
 loo-o 
 
 4. Oatmeal. 
 
 Proteids I2'6 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 63"8 
 
 Fats 5-6 
 
 Salts 3'o 
 
 Water 15-0 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 5. Indian Corn Meal. 
 
 Proteids ii-i 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 65 'i 
 
 Fats 8-1 
 
 Salts i"j 
 
 Water 14-0 
 
 ICXJ'O 
 
 6. Rice. 
 
 Proteids 6-3 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 70-5 
 
 Fats 07 
 
 Salts o"5 
 
 Water 13-0 
 
 vxro 
 
Legumes, Tubers, Roots. 45 
 
 7. Legumes— Haricots and Lentils (almost alike). 
 
 Proteids 25 •; 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 58'6 
 
 Fats 2-8 
 
 Salts 3-2 
 
 Water 9-9 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 8. Tubers— Potato. 
 
 Proteids 2-1 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 22-0 
 
 Fats o'2 
 
 Salts 07 
 
 Water 75-0 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 9. Roots — Carrots and Parsnips (almost alike). 
 
 Proteids 1-3 
 
 Carbo-hydrates .... 14-5 
 
 Fats 0-2 
 
 Salts I'o 
 
 Water 83-0 
 
 1000 
 Turnips are almost the same, but water no less than go'o.* 
 
 Rice, on the other hand, contains but a moderate 
 
 share of proteids, almost no fats and 
 
 . that which 
 
 mineral constituents, but starch in great the cereals 
 
 abundance ; while maize, with a good "™'^ ' 
 
 supply of proteids and starchy matter, contains the 
 
 most fatty material of the whole group. As derived 
 
 * I am indebted for the above analyses, etc., to Dr. Pavy's 
 encyclopEEdic work, entitled "A Treatise on Food and Dietetics." 
 Churchill. 
 
46 Food and Feeding. 
 
 from wheat must be named those valuable aliments, 
 macaroni, vermicelli, and all the Italian pastes. De- 
 rived from barley is malt-saccharine, parent of the 
 large family of fermented liquors known as beer. 
 And from various other grains are obtained by 
 fermentation and distillation, several forms of ardent 
 spirit. Vinegar, best when produced from the grape, 
 is also largely made from grain. Millet, dhoora, and 
 buckwheat are all lower but useful members of the 
 cereal group, and feed large populations in Eastern 
 Africa and India. 
 
 The legumes, such as beans, lentils, and peas, 
 
 „. form a valuable aliment, containinsf more 
 
 The legu- . , / , . „x , 
 
 minous proteids ("legumm ) even than the 
 
 ^ ^" ■ cereals, but with fat in small proportion, 
 
 while starchy matter and the mineral elements 
 
 abound in both groups. 
 
 The tuber finds its type in the potato, which 
 
 Tubers contains far less of proteids than rice, 
 
 and roots. rnuch starch, and almost no fat, few 
 
 mineral salts, no less than three-fourths of the 
 
 weight being water ; the same may be said of the 
 
 yam also. The roots may be illustrated by the beet, 
 
 carrot, parsnip, and turnip, all containing little 
 
 nitrogen, no fat, but much sugar, and water in very 
 
 large proportion. Derived from roots and stems of 
 
 foreign growth, we have arrowroot, tapioca, and sago, 
 
 all pure starches and destitute of nitro- 
 Oils and fat. „ 
 
 gen. Fatty matter is abundantly found 
 
 in the olive, which supplies a large part of the world 
 
Oils, Greens, Nuts,, Bananas. 47 
 
 with an important article of food. The almond and 
 other seeds, as rape, cotton, mustard, are also fruitful 
 sources of oil. 
 
 Under the term " green vegetables," a few leading 
 plants may be enumerated as types of The green 
 the vast natural supplies which every- vegetables, 
 where exist : — The entire cabbage tribe in great 
 variety ; lettuces, endive, and cresses ; spinach, sea- 
 kale, asparagus, celery, onions, artichokes, and tomato, 
 all valuable not so much for nutritive property, which, 
 is not considerable, as for admixture with other food, 
 chiefly on account of salts which they contain, and 
 for their appetizing aroma and varied flavours. 
 
 Thus condiments are useful, as the 
 
 ... Condiments, 
 
 sweet and aromatic spices, the peppers, 
 
 mustard, and the various potherbs, so essential to 
 an agreeable cuisine. Seaweeds, under Seaweeds, 
 the name of laver, and the whole tribe -"^jg nuts 
 of mushrooms, should be named, as breadfruit, 
 ranking much higher in nutritive value than green 
 vegetables ; while truffles contain a still larger amount 
 of the nitrogenous element. Pumpkins, gourds or mar- 
 rows, and cucumbers are useful adjuncts to the dietary, 
 especially in warm countries ; while chestnuts and 
 other nuts contribute to the support of life in Spain and 
 the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, and acorns 
 also are still serviceable in some parts. The bread 
 fruit is of high value ; so also are the cocoanut and 
 the banana in tropical climates, all containing valuable 
 proteids and carbo-hydrates. 
 
48 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Lastly must be named all those delicious but not 
 very nutritive products of most varied 
 and their kind and source, grouped under the 
 
 enva ives. name of fruits. These are characterized 
 chiefly by the presence of sugar, acid, vegetable 
 jelly, the principle of which is known as " pectine," 
 and valuable saline matters, often combined with 
 scent and flavour of exquisite quality. Most contain, 
 e.g. apples and pears, grapes, cherries, strawberries, 
 gooseberries, plums and peaches, about 80 to 86 
 per cent, of water with free acid, and varying pro- 
 portions of sugar. Derived from grapes as its chief 
 source, stands wine in its innumerable varieties, so 
 closely associated by all civilized nations with the 
 use of aliments, although not universally admitted 
 to rank in technical language as a food. Next may 
 be named sugar itself in its various forms, a non- 
 nitrogenous product of great dietetic value, and, in 
 a less degree, honey. No less important, from a 
 Tea, coffee, different point of view, are the tea plant, 
 cacao. the coffee berry, and the seeds of the 
 
 cacao tree, source of cocoa and chocolate, owing to 
 the presence in each of the two former of an element 
 known as " caffeine," a mild and agreeable stimulant 
 promoting mental activity. An analogous element, 
 theobromine, distinguishes the cacaonut. 
 
 There is a single element belonging to the mineral 
 Common kingdom which is taken in its natural 
 
 salt. state as an addition to food, namely, 
 
 common salt ; and it is so universally recognized as 
 
The Act of Mastication. 49 
 
 necessary, that it cannot be omitted here. The 
 foregoing list possesses no claim to be exhaustive, 
 only to be fairly typical and suggestive; a few 
 omissions, which some may think important, doubt- 
 less exist. In like manner, a rapid survey may be 
 taken of the animal kingdom. 
 
 Before quitting this, however, I shall add a few 
 observations on the process of eating, Pfocessof 
 which is in itself too important to be eating, 
 left without some consideration. For it has a 
 special relation to the great classes of cereal foods 
 and tubers, not popularly known as it deserves to 
 
 be. The act of mastication by means „ 
 
 , , , , . Mastication, 
 
 of the teeth and tongue, exerts an m- 
 
 fluence of two kinds on the food during its transit 
 
 through the mouth. Primarily, of course, 
 
 4.1, • ^u u • 1 ffl 1 First object, 
 
 there is the mechanical process of finely 
 
 dividing all solid matters before they are swallowed. 
 And that is the sole effect produced on flesh of all 
 kinds, and is essential to good digestion, so that it can 
 be acted upon easily when it arrives in the stomach, 
 where it is exposed to the chemical action of the 
 gastric juice and prolonged moist heat about 98°. 
 But with another class of foods, the carbo-hydrates, 
 chiefly starch, largely derived from grain of all kinds, 
 and, therefore, all forms of bread, biscuit, and fari- 
 naceous pudding, the act of mastication performs 
 much more than merely mechanical second 
 division. For by means of the saliva object; 
 poured out during that process, and the peculiar 
 
 D 
 
50 Food and Feeding. 
 
 principle, "ptyalin," which it contains, a specific 
 
 digestive action takes place on the starch, which, 
 
 ^03t being naturally insoluble in water, is 
 
 important. t-jjus converted into a soluble material 
 
 called "glucose," and so prepared for absorption 
 
 into the system. In fact, by a proper amount of 
 
 mastication, all starches should have undergone this 
 
 change, or nearly so, before they arrive 
 
 does not in the stomach, which does not deal 
 
 taffefo^oT^" ■^ith them. Any resulting deficiency 
 
 nor any of which may have occurred through hasty 
 the starches. ' , 
 
 or inefficient mastication in the mouth, 
 
 cannot be remedied until after they have left the 
 
 stomach and entered the first intestine, where they 
 
 meet with the juices of the pancreas, which complete 
 
 the process. 
 
 These facts should never be forgotten, and to 
 
 Mastication *^^ ^"'^ °"Sht to be taught, among 
 
 the neces- other elementary rules of health, in very 
 sary prelimi- , ,.. . . . 
 
 nary to early life, smce thorough mastication of 
 
 iges ion. ^jj j-^^j jg essential to our well being. 
 The child should be made to practice this, not only 
 when eating meat, but for soft foods, such as 
 potatoes, bread, and even farinaceous puddings, in 
 order to ensure the easy performance of digestion, 
 the failure of which, in later life, is so often due to 
 the early habit of swallowing rapidly and thought- 
 lessly large masses of unchewed food. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Foods from the animal kingdom — Domestic animals and their 
 derivatives, milk, butter, and cheese — Deer and its varieties 
 — Ground-game — Large foreign game— Birds, domestic 
 and other — Fish in great variety — " Shell-fish " — Reptiles — 
 Man omnivorous ; nature of food largely determined by 
 circumstances — Prone to consume too much animal food, 
 or to be careless in regard to selection of diet — Table 
 showing the proportion of food-principles necessary to the 
 daily dietary of an average adult, taking a moderate amount 
 of exercise, in a temperate climate. 
 
 I SHALL here offer a brief sketch of man's chief 
 resources in the matter of food derived from the 
 animal kingdom. 
 
 First, the flesh of domestic quadrupeds : the ox 
 and sheep, both adult and young ; the Animal 
 pig ; the goat ; the horse and ass, chiefly ^°f "f°" 
 in France. Milk, butter, and cheese in milk and its 
 great variety are derived chiefly from derivatives, 
 this group. More or less wild are the red deer, 
 the fallow deer, and the roe-deer. As 
 ground-game, the hare and rabbit ; while 
 abroad, the bison, wild boar, bear, chamois, reindeer, 
 and kangaroo are esteemed for food among civilized 
 nations ; but many other animals are eaten by 
 
52 Food and Feeding. 
 
 half-civilized and savage peoples, among which are 
 the buffalo, elephant, beaver, whale, seal, tortoise, and 
 crocodile ; also locusts and many other insects may 
 be named. All these are rich in proteids, fatty 
 matters, and saline materials. 
 
 Among birds, we have domestic poultry in great 
 Poultry. variety of size and quality, with eggs 
 
 Eggs. in abundance furnished chiefly by this 
 
 class ; all the wild fowl and aquatic birds ; the 
 pigeon tribe, the quail, and the smaller birds ; winged 
 game in all its well-known variety. 
 
 Of fish it is unnecessary to enumerate the enormous 
 supply and the various species which 
 exist everywhere, and especially on our 
 own shores, from the sturgeon to whitebait, besides 
 those in fresh-water rivers and lakes. All of them 
 furnish nitrogenous matter largely, but, and par- 
 ticularly the white fish, possess fat in very small 
 quantity, with a fair proportion of saline materials. 
 The salmon, mackerel, eels, and herring tribes, in- 
 cluding the pilchards, sprats, sardines, and anchovies, 
 have more fat, the last-named in considerable 
 quantity, forming a useful food well calculated to 
 supplement cereal aliments, and largely adopted for 
 the purpose both in the south and north of Europe. 
 The cod-fishery furnishes an important source of 
 food ; like some other fish, the cod contains large 
 quantities of oil in its liver only, its flesh, when in 
 season, containing a very small proportion. 
 
 The so-called reptiles furnish turtle, tortoise, and 
 
Animal Foods used by Man. 53 
 
 edible frog. Among articulated animals are the 
 lobsters, crabs, and shrimps, which fur- Reptiles and 
 nish a large amount of proteids, but are articulata. 
 not generally very easily digested. Among molluscs, 
 the oyster and all the " shell-fish," so- Molluscs or 
 called, which, as well as the above- "shell-fish." 
 named, closely resemble, in chemical composition, 
 that of fish properly so-called. 
 
 Amidst this profusion of supply from the varied 
 products of the animal and vegetable ]yia„'searl 
 
 kingdoms, man's selection must have experience 
 
 ,.,.,. , . in selecting 
 
 been made, in different climes, almost material for 
 
 entirely by individual experiment with °° ' 
 
 the materials nearest to his hand. Having no certain 
 
 knowledge of the structure and functions of his body, 
 
 or of the relation of food thereto acquired other than 
 
 empirically, the process must have been progress 
 
 often marked by failure, sometimes with ®'°^" 
 
 injury to the experimenter. And progress has 
 
 doubtless been extremely slow. 
 
 At the present time, man appears for the most 
 
 part to consume more in quantity than „ . 
 
 is necessary for the healthy perform- persons eat 
 
 , , ... . , , too much, 
 
 ance of the animal functions. More- 
 over, he has little knowledge of, or interest in, the 
 processes by which food is prepared for Few men 
 the table, or the conditions necessary to ^iiowleJge 
 the healthy digestion of it by himself, of food, 
 Until a tolerably high standard of civilization is 
 reached, he cares more for quantity than quality, 
 
54 Food and Feeding. 
 
 desires little variety, and, if immersed in engrossing 
 pursuits as so many must be, is disposed to regard 
 any innovation in the shape of a new aliment as 
 
 impertinent, preferring the same food at 
 in its the same hour daily, his enjoyment of 
 
 which apparently depends greatly on his 
 ability to swallow the portion with extreme rapidity, 
 that he may apply himself to other and more im- 
 portant occupation without delay. Eating is treated in 
 fact by multitudes much as they are disposed to treat 
 religious duty — for eating is indeed one of the most 
 important of all duties if my opening remarks are 
 true — namely, as an observance which is generally 
 irksome, but unfortunately necessary to be performed. 
 Men even boast of their ignorance of so trivial a 
 subject, regard it as unworthy the exercise of their 
 powers, and — small compliment to their wives and 
 sisters — fit only for the occupation of women. 
 
 We shall find it an interesting inquiry to ascertain 
 
 what materials, under the empirical con- 
 Food 
 depends ditions named, have furnished the staple 
 
 on climate. r j r ^i i i- • 
 
 food of the common people of various 
 
 climates and races — what, in short, supports the life 
 
 and labour of the chief part of the world's population. 
 
 In the tropics and adjacent portions of the tem- 
 
 Foodinthe perate zones, high temperature being 
 
 tropics. incompatible with the physical activity 
 
 familiar to northern races, a very little nitrogenous 
 
 material suffices, since the expenditure is small. 
 
 Mostly only a moderate quantity of fat is taken, the 
 
His Food in Warm Regions, 55 
 
 demand for heat and for force being inconsiderable. 
 The starchy products supply nearly all the nutri- 
 ment required, and such, with a moderate amount of 
 proteids but almost no fats (see pp. 44-5), are found 
 in rice, millet, etc. Rice by itself is the principal 
 food of this wide zone, including a large part of 
 China, part of Africa, America, also the East and 
 West Indies ; and as temperature decreases by dis- 
 tance from the equator, some fish, fowl, or other 
 animal food in the form of soups or broth, are added. 
 All adopt to some extent "a mixed diet." Yet in 
 the islands of tropical Polynesia are many fine native 
 races who consume freely some animal food. 
 
 In the north of Africa, Arabia, and some neighbour- 
 ing parts, the date, which contains sugar 
 in abundance, is largely eaten, as well as 
 maize and other cereals. The variety of millet known 
 as "Doura" is largely cultivated in Egypt, as are 
 lentils, and flesh is generally used in small proportion. 
 
 Crossing to Europe, the southern Italian is found 
 subsisting on macaroni, legumes, rice, j^ southern 
 fruits, and salads, with oil, cheese, fish, Europe. • 
 and small birds, but very little meat ^' 
 
 More northward, besides fish and a little meat, maize 
 is the chief aliment, mostly in the favourite form of 
 "polenta," the meal well boiled in water producing 
 a substantial porridge ; rye and other cereals take a 
 second place. The chestnut also is largely eaten by 
 the poorer population, both it and maize containing 
 more fatty matter than wheat, oats, and legumes. 
 
56 Food and Feeding. 
 
 In Spain, the inhabitants subsist chiefly on maize 
 
 and rice, with some wheat and legumes. 
 Spain. 
 
 Among the latter the garbanzo, or "chick- 
 pea " {cicer arietinum), is one of the principal vege- 
 table components of the national olla, which contains 
 also a considerable proportion of animal food in 
 variety, as bacon, sausage, fowl, etc. The chick-pea 
 is cultivated in the East, and being roasted is known 
 as "parched pulse," as portable food for travellers 
 there. Fruit is fine and abundant ; especially so are 
 grapes, figs, and melons. There is little or no butter, 
 the universal substitute for which is olive oil, pro- 
 duced in great quantity. Fowls, meat broths, and the 
 pig furnish the chief animal food, and garlic is the 
 favourite condiment. 
 
 Going northward, flesh of all kinds occupies a 
 
 „.„ , more considerable place in the dietary. 
 
 Different '^ ■' 
 
 foodneces- In France the garden vegetables and 
 
 Northern legumes form an important staple of diet 
 
 Europe. f^^ ^jj classes ; the very numerous small 
 
 land proprietors subsist largely on the 
 direct products of the soil, with some milk, poultry, 
 and eggs, the produce of their small farms. Beef is 
 employed for their national pot-au-feu, an admirable 
 mixed dish, in which a small portion of meat is 
 made to yield all its nutritive qualities, and to go 
 far in mingling its odour and savour with those of 
 the fragrant vegetables, including sweet and savoury 
 herbs, which are largely added to the stock. The 
 beef, which is an essential portion of the dish, is 
 
Food in Colder Regions. 57 
 
 often eaten hot after the soup, but sometimes cold, 
 with plenty of green salad and oil, doubtless the 
 most palatable mode of serving, while it furnishes 
 a source of fat, if not otherwise provided for by- 
 butter, cheese, etc.* 
 
 Throughout the German Empire, the cereals, 
 legumes, greens, roots, and fruits supply 
 an important proportion of the food con- 
 sumed by the common population. Wheaten bread 
 chiefly, but also black bread made from rye, is largely 
 used throughout the north of Europe ; it is somewhat 
 inferior in nutritious quality to the former, although 
 by not so much as some have supposed ; also beans 
 and peas are used abundantly. Potatoes and green 
 vegetables of all kinds are served in numerous ways, 
 but largely in meat-soup, a favourite dish. Sauer-kraut 
 is a preparation of the cabbage-leaf after fermentation 
 in salt brine, by which it is preserved for use at all 
 seasons of the year, and is largely used and esteemed 
 as a wholesome and palatable addition to other food. 
 Meats, chiefly pork, are greatly esteemed in the form 
 of sausage, and appear also in small portions or joints, 
 but freely garnished with vegetables, on the tables of 
 those who can afford animal diet. Moreover, sweet 
 farinaceous dishes, containing more or less butter or 
 lard, abound. Going further north, where the climate 
 is no longer adapted for the production of wheat, 
 as in Norway and Sweden, the common people rarely 
 
 * For full details as to the nature and preparation of the 
 poi-au-feu, see the Appendix. 
 
58 Food and Feeding. 
 
 see bread, living on oat and rye meal porridge, pota- 
 Norway and t°ss> adding much bacon and herrings 
 Sweden. foj- necessary fat and more proteids. 
 
 Hard rye cakes hanging in the cottage rafters half 
 the year are esteemed, as are sour milk in summer, 
 and coffee or weak beer at all times. In northern 
 Russia the same cereals, salted fish, and 
 bacon form the staple foods, while much 
 coarse-grain spirit is consumed. 
 
 Lastly, it is well known that the inhabitants of the 
 The Arctic Arctic zone are compelled to consume 
 Circle. large quantities of oily matter, in order 
 
 to generate heat abundantly ; and also that animal 
 food is necessarily the staple of their dietary. Vege- 
 tables, which moreover are not producible in so 
 severe a climate, would there be wholly inadequate 
 to support life. As a matter of fact, the considerable 
 populations here which may be classed as Esquimaux, 
 Greenlanders, and others, owe their existence and ex- 
 tremely active life to their ability to thrive on animal 
 food alone ; while inhabitants of Iceland, northern 
 Siberia, and some tribes of North American Indians, 
 live almost solely on the flesh of animals. 
 
 Before closing this chapter, the present appears to 
 be a fitting place in which to give a brief rhumi 
 of particulars relating to the practical application, 
 suitable to our own portion of the temperate zone, 
 of those principles which scientific research has 
 established concerning nutrition. 
 
 As affording a typical example of the relative 
 
Dietary of Average Adult. 59 
 
 quantities of the four classes named as essential for 
 human food, I offer the following table, from Dr. 
 Pavy's work named below : — * 
 
 "A diet containing the requisite combination of 
 alimentary principles for just maintain- 
 ing health, in a person of average height 
 and weight, under exposure to a tem- 
 perate climate and a moderate amount 
 of muscular work. It must be of course 
 understood that very considerable deviation from the 
 proportions here named may be regarded as suitable 
 for different constitutions ; in some cases, less of the 
 proteids and more of the fats, in others, more or less 
 of the carbo-hydrates, etc. 
 
 Average 
 requirement 
 for adult male 
 of each class 
 of food- 
 principles. 
 
 Dry food. 
 
 In ozs. avoir. 
 
 In grains. 
 
 In grammes. 
 
 Proteids .... 
 
 Fatty matter . 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 
 
 Salts .... 
 
 4-587 
 
 2-964 
 
 14-250 
 
 1-058 
 
 2006 
 
 1296 
 
 6234 
 
 462 
 
 404 
 30 
 
 Total 
 
 22-859 
 
 9998 
 
 648 
 
 " Thus about 23 ozs. form the quantity of dry solid 
 matter contained in this standard diet, and a fifth of 
 
 * " A Treatise on Food and Dietetics," by F. W. Pavy, M.D., 
 Consulting Physician to Guy's Hospital, etc. London : ChurchiU. 
 Second Edition, p. 452. 
 
 See also the latest views on this subject in "A Text-Book 
 of Physiology," by M. Foster, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., etc.. Professor 
 of Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Part II, 
 Macmillan. 1895. 
 
6o Food and Feeding. 
 
 it is composed of nitrogenous matter. If we reckon 
 that our ordinary food contains, say, 50 per cent, of 
 water, these 23 ozs. will correspond to 46 ozs. of solid 
 food in the condition in which it is consumed. To 
 complete the alimentary ingesta, a further quantity 
 of from 50 ozs. to 80 ozs. of water may be put down 
 as taken, under some form or other, daily." * 
 
 Such a scheme may be practically represented as 
 realized in the following allowance of food for a day's 
 consumption by an individual, as above described, of 
 the male sex, recalling, of course, the remarks just 
 quoted in respect of " considerable deviation " neces- 
 sary " for different constitutions " and tastes : — 
 
 Daily Dietary. 
 
 1. Bread 7 to 10 ozs. 
 
 2. Butter, bacon, including the former used in 
 
 cookery 3 „ 
 
 3. Fish, cooked 4 to 5 „ 
 
 4. Meat, cooked, including poultry, game, and for 
 
 soup 7 or 8 „ 
 
 5. Eggs, 2 or 3, including those used in cookery. 
 
 6. Rice, macaroni, oatmeal, or other farinaceas, 
 
 and flour in cookery 4 to.5 „ 
 
 7. Potatoes, cooked 4to6 „ 
 
 8. Sugar, including cookery 1 „ 
 
 g. Green vegetables and fruits . . . . 4 to 6 „ 
 
 10. Milk, including that used in cookery, | pint. 
 
 11. Mineral salts, mostly included in foregoing food. Except 
 
 salt used in cookery and at table. 
 
 12. Water in tea, coffee, and other forms of drink, about 3 
 
 or 4 pints. 
 
 * " A Treatise on Food and Dietetics," by F. W. Pavy, M.D., 
 p. 452. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Food of the English peasant — Food of the middle class gene- 
 rally too solid or stimulating — Tending to corpulence as age 
 advances — The cause of chronic complaints in later years — 
 The produce of land in grain with pigs and poultry larger 
 than when devoted solely to grazing — ^Value of fish as an 
 article of diet — Supply ought to be more abundant and 
 cheaper — Regimen suited to the sedentary and those who 
 are chiefly brain-workers — Elementary principles in select- 
 ing, combining, and cooking different forms of food — That 
 of the agricultural labourer and other hard workers — The 
 legumes : haricots, lentils — Various modes of cooking them 
 — Also hints for their use at middle-class tables — Bread 
 made of whole wheat-meal and its use — Receipts for making 
 it — Combination of elements to produce a complete food — 
 Cheese as diet for the working man : its use by the Swiss 
 guides— Rice, and the necessary additions to make with it 
 palatable, nutritious dishes — The potato, and similar com- 
 binations. 
 
 We will now consider the food which the English 
 peasant and artisan provide. The former Foods con- 
 lives, for the most part, on wheaten bread ^"aboJring 
 and cheese, with occasionally a little classes, 
 bacon, some potatoes, and perhaps garden greens ; 
 it is only occasionally indeed that he can obtain fresh 
 meat. To this dietary the artisan adds meat as a 
 
62 Food and Feeding. 
 
 rule, mostly beef or mutton, and some butter. A 
 ften ill piece of fresh, and therefore not tender 
 
 selected beef, is baked, or cooked in a frying- 
 
 pan, in the latter case becoming a hard and not 
 very digestible morsel ; by the former 
 wastefully process a somewhat better dish is pro- 
 prepare . duced, the meat being usually surrounded 
 by potatoes or by a layer of batter, since both con- 
 tain starchy products, and absorb the fat which leaves 
 the meat The food of the peasant might, however, 
 be cheaper and better ; while the provision of the 
 artisan is often extravagant and badly cooked. At 
 this period of our national history, when food is 
 scarce, and the supply of meat insufficient to meet 
 the demand which our national habits of feeding 
 perpetuate, it is an object of the first importance to 
 consider whether other aliments can be obtained at a 
 cheaper rate, and at the same time equal in quality 
 to those of the existing dietary. Many believe that 
 
 this object may be accomplished without 
 Susceptible 
 of much im- difficulty, and that the chief obstacle 
 
 provemen ^.^ improvement in the food-supply, not 
 
 only of the classes referred to, but in that of the 
 
 English table generally, is the common prejudice 
 
 which exists against any aliment not yet widely 
 
 known or tried. The one idea which the working 
 
 classes possess in relation to improvement in diet, 
 
 and which they invariably realize when wages are 
 
 high, is an abundant supply of butcher's meat. To 
 
 make this the chief element of at least three meals 
 
English Middle-Class Diet. 63 
 
 daily, and to despise bread and vegetables, is for 
 them no less a sign of taste, than a declaration of 
 belief in the perfection of such food for the purposes 
 of nutrition. This belief doubtless arises from 
 observing the habits of those who are better pro- 
 vided than themselves with pecuniary resources. 
 
 For I have already intimated that Englishmen 
 of the middle classes generally have Englishmen 
 adopted a diet adapted for a somewhat too much 
 more northerly latitude than that which animal food, 
 they occupy ; that their food is mostly richer in fats 
 and proteids than it need be, and that their numerous 
 forms of indigestion and much resulting chronic 
 disease are further necessary consequences of the 
 same error. They indulge, not necessarily in quantity, 
 but in a kind of food generally reputed " simple and 
 wholesome," which nevertheless for them creates a 
 condition of corpulence, not merely inconvenient, but 
 prejudicial to health, and to their prospects of 
 longevity. Such tendencies existing, and especially 
 if the individual does not, or cannot take much 
 exercise, the choice of food, free from fatty con- 
 stituent, or from fat-producing elements, is a matter 
 of no small importance. Then, again, it is absolutely 
 certain, contrary to the popular belief as this is, that 
 while a good supply of food is essential q ,. , 
 during the period of growth and active food to be 
 middle life, a diminished supply is desir- in advancing 
 able in relation to health and prolonga- 'S^'^^- 
 tion of life during declining years, when physical 
 
64 Food and Feeding. 
 
 exertion is small, and the digestive faculty sometimes 
 becomes less powerful also. I shall not regard it 
 as within my province here to dilate largely on this 
 topic, but I desire to point out that the system of 
 " supporting " aged persons, as it is termed, with 
 increased quantities of food and stimulant, is an 
 error of cardinal importance, and, without doubt, 
 tends to shorten, or to embitter life. This erroneous 
 Serious evils practice ignores the important fact that 
 neefert*of ^^ ^S^ increases, the ability to eliminate 
 this course. food unnecessarily consumed notably 
 diminishes. The functions by which surplus and 
 effete matters are thrown off from the system are 
 less active than in youth and middle age; and the 
 results of over-feeding, which a robust constitution 
 can get rid of without obvious evil, become a source 
 of dangerous embarrassment to the feebler organiza- 
 tion of one advanced in years. Hence numerous 
 chronic disorders, often regarded as peculiar to the 
 latter third of life, are to a great extent avoidable. 
 So far from continuing to select the strong nourish- 
 ment which may have been necessary during the 
 toil and anxieties of thirty years or more of adult 
 energy and activity throughout the prime of life, the 
 elderly man who desires to preserve fair health, and 
 to attain to longevity, should gradually diminish his 
 use of strong nitrogenous and especially of much 
 fatty food. He should substitute a lighter dietary, 
 as he subsides naturally, and more or less gradually, 
 into the class of the sedentary, and adopts the 
 
National Resources of Food. 65 
 
 regimen best adapted thereto, hereafter to be con- 
 sidered.* 
 
 These things being so, a question also inviting 
 consideration arises in relation to the 
 economical management of the national national 
 resources. For it is generally under- ref^ed^to 
 stood that every acre of good arable the subject 
 land devoted to the production of grain 
 is capable of becoming the source of a much larger 
 amount of produce of equivalent value as food, than 
 if applied to the feeding of sheep and oxen. In 
 other words, a given area of such land cropped with 
 cereals and legumes, will support a more numerous 
 population than that which can be sustained on 
 pasture land, mostly of inferior quality, devoted 
 solely to the growth of cattle. And for another 
 reason, because the corn-land will also produce, 
 without much extra cost, a considerable quantity of 
 animal food, in the form of pigs and poultry, upon 
 the offal or coarser parts of vegetable produce which 
 are unsuitable for human consumption. Moreover, 
 the animals are useful to a considerable extent to 
 the land, by destroying injurious insect life, and by 
 depositing valuable manure. 
 
 But owing to our increasing population, and to the 
 uncertainty of the climate, this country has to pur- 
 chase every year a large and increasing quantity of 
 
 * See " Diet in Relation to Age and Activity," where the subject 
 is discussed at length. Kegan Paul, Trench and Co., Paternoster 
 Row. By the Author. 
 
66 
 
 Food and Feeding. 
 
 corn and flour from foreign countries, while more 
 of our own land is yearly devoted to 
 grazing purposes. The increased import 
 of corn and flour and other agricultural 
 produce by Great Britain during the last 
 twenty-six years (that is, previous to the 
 end of 1 895, which is the latest information at present 
 obtainable), is exhibited in the following table : * — 
 
 Large meat 
 production 
 here causes 
 large import 
 of foreign 
 grain. 
 
 Consumption of IMPORTED Foods PER HEAD on 
 Population in the United Kingdom. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1869. 
 
 1888. 
 
 1895- 
 
 Com and flour . 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Bacon and hams . 
 
 Eggs . 
 
 155-85 pounds 
 
 4-52 ,, 
 
 3-52 „ 
 
 2-68 „ 
 
 14-38 number 
 
 220-14 pounds 
 8-16 „. 
 5-56 „ 
 10-25 .. 
 30-0 number 
 
 285-09 pounds 
 
 7-92 „ 
 
 S'93 .. 
 14-63 „ 
 38-97 number 
 
 At the same time our importation of meat has 
 been enormously increasing during the last ten years. 
 Thus the value of dead meat and of animals has now 
 reached the annual amounts here quoted : f — 
 
 1887. 
 
 1889. 
 
 1896. 
 
 Dead meat 
 
 Animals 
 
 Butter and margarine 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Eggs . 
 
 £ 
 14,662,100 
 
 6,346,727 
 
 18,601,309 
 10,360,807 
 
 24.753.002 
 
 10,438,699 
 
 17,842,508 
 
 4,900,428 
 
 4,184,567 
 
 * Statesman^ Year Book, 1897, p. 86. And what might be 
 the extra cost of obtaining this supply in time of war ? — a 
 contingency we ought seriously to reckon on. We should then, 
 perhaps, draw much more largely than we do at present on the 
 enormous resources which exist on all our shores, referred to in 
 the succeeding paragraph. 
 
 t Statesman's Year Book, 1897, pp. 84-86. 
 
Inadequate Supply of Fish. 67 
 
 Lastly, those who are interested in the national 
 
 supply of food must lament that, while 
 
 ^ T, - . , , Our fish 
 
 Great Britam possesses perhaps the best supply 
 
 opportunities in the world for securing a °*^ ^^ ^ ' 
 large and cheap supply of fish, she fails to attain it, 
 and procures so little only, that it is to the great 
 majority of the inhabitants an expensive luxury. 
 Fish is a food of great value ; nevertheless it ought 
 in this country to be one of the cheapest aliments, 
 since production and growth cost absolutely nothing, 
 only the expenses of catching, and of a short transport 
 being incurred. This is a question which must sooner 
 or later be solved by the public themselves, unless 
 some persons in the trade, more enterprising than 
 those who now pursue it, will abandon existing con- 
 ventional rules and habits, and venture on the 
 assuredly safe and profitable enterprise of supplying 
 fish, good and fresh, at prices far lower than those 
 which it is agreed shall rule at present* 
 
 * Something has been done to meet the wants of fish consumers 
 by the fish dealers at the docks of Grimsby, Lincolnshire, to 
 afford a regular, prompt, and cheap supply of fresh fish to families 
 in London, and also in the country for those who reside at no 
 great distance from a railway station. The result I believe to 
 be tolerably satisfactory ; but, with enterprise, it might be 
 rendered more so. For a regular and varied kitchen supply — 
 and I believe- a weekly fish-dinner is a welcome as well as a 
 wholesome change for the " servants' hall " — it may be depended 
 on as fresh in quality and reasonable in price. But for " live 
 salmon " or a choice turbot, as well as for " the pick of the 
 market " in soles and other fish, a town fishmonger of the highest 
 repute should be always applied to. 
 
68 Food and Feeding. 
 
 A very large proportion of our town population 
 Fish would profit by exchanging some of their 
 
 food'fo'r nieat, as an article of daily diet, for fish, 
 
 many, Where occupation is chiefly of an in- 
 
 tellectual kind, and demands little physical exertion, 
 fish is often much more suitable than butcher's meat. 
 Without active exercise in the open air, the digestive 
 system is apt to become overloaded and oppressed 
 by meals consisting chiefly of meat ; and even if the 
 primary digestion of it is, in these circumstances, 
 fairly accomplished, many a constitution suff'ers from 
 an over-supply of nutritive matters, which cannot 
 be disposed of easily without considerable habitual 
 muscular activity. 
 
 There is no doubt that the obvious and admitted 
 value of a highly nitrogenous food, of which meat is 
 a concentrated form, to the labouring man, has oc- 
 casioned the almost universal belief that such meat, 
 of which let beef and mutton be the type, is the most 
 desirable food staple for all. " If you wish to be 
 strong, eat plenty of meat;" "If you are feeling 
 weak, eat more meat, and at every meal ; " such are 
 the well-known articles of a creed which is deeply 
 graven in the popular mind. Nevertheless, few state- 
 ments relating to diet can be more misleading, and 
 this is, as already intimated, one which often gives 
 rise to serious ill-health. 
 
 It is this habit of adopting meat as the chief ele- 
 ment of his dietary, which the sedentary man, with 
 little opportunity for bodily exercise, the man who 
 
Prevention Better than Cure. 69 
 
 uses his brain more than his muscles, should avoid, 
 But especially, also, should he abstain and 
 from fatty matters in large quantity, §esh ^^the" 
 taking only a moderate proportion, sedentary, 
 which is not only permissible, but to a small extent 
 necessary. For if he habitually consumes for whom 
 these two classes of food freely, materials f^od^'ig*'*^ 
 are introduced into' the system which it undesirable, 
 cannot eliminate under the conditions named, and 
 which must ultimately obstruct the function of some 
 internal organ. Thus the periodical bilious attack, 
 or the recurring fit of gout, or some other relentless 
 tormentor, clears the system for a time of the offend- 
 ing matter which the daily error in diet is perpetually 
 reproducing and accumulating. Those who are thus 
 affected often endeavour to ward off their troubles by 
 systematic muscular exercises, fencing. Effect of 
 rowing, and the like, and they do so ^ercise'^ 
 with a certain amount of success. It is etc- 
 for the purpose of getting rid of superfluous nutritive 
 materials that others (who may be wholly unconscious 
 of the need which impels them) secure their yearly 
 shootings, make Alpine excursions, or seek the 
 mineral springs of a foreign spa — more or less agree- 
 able contrivances, all of them, for effecting the required 
 elimination once or twice a year, but which would not 
 be necessary had food suitable to a sedentary life only 
 been taken. On the other hand, the pleasurable 
 pursuits named would — the proviso as to diet having 
 been obeyed — be more enjoyed for their own sake \ 
 
yo Food and Feeding. 
 
 and the considerable amount of training essential for 
 the over-loaded constitution would not be a trouble- 
 some preliminary. Many a man might indeed safely 
 pursue a sedentary career, taking only a small 
 amount of exercise, and yet maintain an excellent 
 standard of health, if only he were careful that the 
 _. „.jj_ "intake" in the form of diet corresponded 
 
 take " and with the expenditure which his occupa- 
 
 the "out- . ,,,.,, , -T 
 
 put" should tions, mental and physical, demand. Let 
 
 correspon . j^j^^ j^y ^jj jjje^j,s gnjoy his annual 
 
 pastime, and profit by it, to rest his mind and 
 augment his natural forces, but not for the mere 
 purpose of neutralizing the evil effects of habitual 
 dietetic wrong-doing. 
 
 It is for this large and increasing class of the com- 
 Fish diet and munity, who are emphatically brain- 
 brain work, workers, that a fair proportion of fish 
 furnishes an appropriate food ; and as the tendency 
 of civilization is slowly but surely to develop mental 
 activity, and to dispense with laborious handicraft, a 
 good supply of cheap fish becomes every day more 
 important to the community. 
 
 For the sedentary man, whatever his calling in life, 
 whose engagements permit him only to take just that 
 moderate amount of muscular exercise which is in all 
 circumstances essential to health ; for a great propor- 
 tion of women, whose engagements are incompatible 
 with much activity in the open air, — the nutritive 
 elements afforded by fish admirably supply an im- 
 portant part of the wants of the body. The moderate 
 
Changes in Diet to be Gradual. 71 
 
 amount of flesh-forming material present in fish, and 
 in a form which entails little labour on the digestive 
 organs — for most persons certainly less than meat — 
 and the facility with which fish may be associated 
 with other elements — some fatty matters, with cereals 
 and vegetables, as well as fruits — place it in the first 
 rank of foods in that mixed dietary which is suitable 
 to those who lead more or less the kind of life 
 referred to. I by no means say that it should 
 supersede the use of meat altogether, although it 
 may do so sometimes with advantage ; a point only 
 to be determined in each individual instance after 
 some observation and experiment. For in all cases, 
 it is to be remembered — and I repeat the statement 
 on account of its importance — that a person who has 
 habitually eaten meat two or three times daily cannot 
 at once exchange it for fish and cereals or vegetables, 
 without some discomfort, to say the Changes in 
 least. All radical changes in diet, even ^ be made 
 in the right direction, require to be by degrees, 
 gradually made ; the stomach conforms slowly, when 
 long accustomed to deal with highly nitrogenized 
 animal food, to the task of deriving from unac- 
 customed materials the support necessary to the 
 body. Given time for such modification of function, 
 and it is remarkable — at least, it appears so to those 
 who have not practically studied the subject — that a 
 diet which, if adopted suddenly might fail to be either 
 digestible or nutritious, may become the most whole- 
 some and appropriate which the individual can adopt. 
 
72 Food and Feeding. 
 
 I may here advert to a belief which appears to be 
 Fish diet widely entertained, viz. that fish con- 
 
 ww-k'^*'" tains certain elements which adapt it in 
 continued. an especial manner to renovate the brain, 
 and so to support mental labour. There is no 
 foundation whatever for this view : the value of fish 
 to the brain-worker is due simply to the facts already 
 referred to, viz. that it contains, in smaller pro- 
 portion than meat, those materials which, taken 
 abundantly, demand more physical labour for their 
 complete consumption, and which without this pro- 
 duce an unhealthy condition of body, more or less 
 incompatible with the easy and active exercise of 
 the functions of the brain. 
 
 Having enunciated some general principles, which 
 The dietary it is important should first be estab- 
 
 °^*'j^. lished, I shall offer some illustrations of 
 
 man. the manner in which they may be applied. 
 
 This brings us to the second division of the subject, 
 viz. the selection of food and the best modes of 
 preparing it for general use ; in other words, a sketch 
 of the elementary principles of cooking with typical 
 illustrations. Dealing first with that of the agri- 
 cultural labourer, our object is to economize his small 
 pittance ; to give him, if possible, a rather more 
 nutritive, wholesome, and agreeable dish — and it is 
 assumed that he can have but one — than his means 
 have hitherto furnished. But here there is little scope 
 for change ; already said to live chiefly on bread and 
 cheese, with bacon occasionally, two indications only 
 
Food of Outdoor Labourer. 73 
 
 for improvement can be followed, viz. augmentation 
 of nitrogenous matter and of fatty matter, to support 
 the body and to furnish heat and force. A fair pro- 
 portion of meat, one of the best means of fulfilling 
 
 them, is not within his reach. First, his 
 ,.,;,, . ,, , Bread, 
 
 daily bread ought to contam all the con- 
 stituents of the wheat, instead of being made of flour 
 from which most of the mineral elements have been 
 removed ; a subject to be considered at some length 
 hereafter (see pp. 78-80). But beans and Legumin- 
 peas are richer in nitrogen than wheat, °"® foods, 
 although not so easily assimilated, and contain less 
 fat, the last being in small quantity, while maize has 
 three times their proportion of fat. Hence all of 
 these would be useful additions to his dietary when 
 they can be well digested, being cheaper than wheat 
 in the market, although the retail demand being at 
 present small, they may not be so in the small shops. 
 
 It may be remembered how well the ^, „ ^ , 
 
 ■^ The"Erbs- 
 
 " Erbswurst," which derives its value, for wurst" and 
 
 , r J- i- its value, 
 
 men whose powers of digestion are 
 
 sharpened by hard labour in the open air, from the 
 legumes combined with animal fat, supported the 
 work of the German armies during the winter of 
 1870-71. It consisted of a well-cooked purie of peas, 
 mixed with a considerable proportion of bacon or lard, 
 and dried so as to be portable, constituting in small 
 compass a perfect food, especially suitable for sup- 
 porting muscular activity and exposure to cold. It 
 probably nearly equalled in value preserved meat, 
 
74 Food and Feeding, 
 
 prepared by salting or other processes for transport, 
 being not only less bulky, but more convenient for 
 use without delay at any time. By no means to be 
 depended on as a staple, or to take the place of 
 fresh meat, it was a most valuable supplement 
 when the latter was not available. It was better 
 also, because it was relished cold, or could be con- 
 verted in a few minutes into good soup with boiling 
 water. But for our labourer probably the best of 
 the legumes is the haricot bean, red or white, the 
 dried mature bean of the plant whose pods we eat 
 in the early green state as " French beans." * For 
 this purpose they may be treated thus : Soak, say, 
 
 a quart of the dried haricots in cold 
 Haricots. , /• i , • , 
 
 water for about sixteen to twenty-four 
 
 hours, after which place them in a saucepan, with 
 
 two quarts of cold water and a little salt, on the fire ; 
 
 when boiling remove to the corner and simmer slowly 
 
 until the beans are tender ; the time required being 
 
 about at least three hours.f This quantity will fill 
 
 * What we call " French beans " may be the product of several 
 kindred varieties of the kidney bean, dwarf or climbing, varying 
 according to locality and soil, and distributed over a very large 
 part of Europe. When gathered early, before it is fully grown, 
 the bean is green, hke a green pea, and forms an admirable 
 dish, known in France a.^ flageolets. When the ordinary French 
 beans (immature green pods) are mixed in about equal propor- 
 tions with ikis. flageolets, the dish, which is a very palatable one, 
 is well known in France as haricots verts panaches (variegated), 
 and might be served at our tables with advantage. 
 
 t If the water is hard, a httle soda should be added to 
 soften it. 
 
The Legumes: Simple Cookery. 75 
 
 a large dish, and may be eaten with salt and pepper. 
 
 It will be greatly improved at small „ . 
 
 Various 
 cost by the addition of a bit of butter, methods of 
 
 or of melted butter with parsley, or if *^°'' '"^' 
 an onion or two have been sliced and stewed with 
 the haricots. A better dish still may be made by 
 putting all or part, after boiling, into a shallow 
 frying-pan, and lightly frying for a few minutes with 
 a li.ttle lard and some sliced onions. With a few 
 slices of bacon added, a comparatively luxurious and 
 highly nutritive meal may be made. But there is still 
 in the saucepan, after boiling the haricots, a residue 
 of small value, which the French peasant's wife, who 
 turns everything to account, utilizes in a manner quite 
 incomprehensible to the Englishwoman. The water 
 in which dried haricots have stewed, and also that in 
 which green French beans have been boiled, contains 
 a proportion of nutritive matter. The Frenchwoman 
 preserves this liquor carefully, cuts and fries some 
 onions, adds to it these and some thick slices of 
 bread, a little salt and pepper, with a potherb or two 
 from the corner of the garden, and thus serves hot an 
 agreeable and useful cro^lte au pot. It ought to be 
 added that the haricots so largely used by the work- 
 ing classes throughout Europe are not precisely either 
 "red" or "white," but some cheaper local varieties, 
 known as haricots du pays. These are now supplied 
 here at about twopence a pound, and in large quantity 
 might be obtained at a somewhat cheaper rate, their 
 quality as food being not inferior to other kinds. 
 
76 Food and Feeding. 
 
 But haricots — let them be the fine white Soissons — 
 The finest ^""^ good enough to be welcome at any 
 haricots ; table ; and our artisans, whose means are 
 
 much larger than those of the class above named, 
 might improve their dietary by adopting some of 
 the foregoing hints, as well as those which follow. 
 A roast leg or shoulder of mutton may be garnished 
 by a pint boiled as just directed, lying in the gravy 
 of the dish ; and some persons think that, with a good 
 their place supply of the meat gravy, and a little 
 furnished ^^^^ ^^^ pspps''i " the haricots are by no 
 
 tables. means the worst part of the mutton." 
 
 Then with a smooth /«r/g of mild onions, which have 
 been previously sliced, fried brown, and stewed, served 
 freely as sauce, our leg of mutton and haricots become 
 the gigot d. la bretonne well known to all lovers of 
 wholesome and savoury cookery. Next, white haricots 
 stewed until soft, made into a rather thick pur^e, deli- 
 cately flavoured by adding a small portion of white 
 purie of onions (not browned by frying as in the pre- 
 ceding sauce), produce an agreeable garnish for the 
 centre of a dish of small cutlets, or an entree of fowl, 
 etc. Again, the same haricot purh blended with a 
 Haricot ^^^ stock, well flavoured with fresh 
 
 soups, vegetables, furnishes an admirable and 
 
 nutritious white soup. The red haricots, in like 
 manner, with a beef stock make an excellent brown 
 soup, technically known as potage d la Condi, and 
 usually served with small fried croutons. The same 
 may be said of lentils, known as " Chantilly," which 
 
The Legumes: at their Best. 77 
 
 have much the same nutritive value, and often an 
 agreeable change, especially in winter, when these 
 as well as split peas are usually met with in the 
 well-known form of a purie. If, instead of meat, we 
 employ a good vegetable stock, agreeably flavoured 
 with carrot, turnip, onion, and savoury herbs, a first- 
 rate soup maigre is produced. When, in place of 
 meat, a broth chiefly made from game — especially 
 from the remains of a hare, the prime parts of which 
 have been consumed at table — is thickened with red 
 haricot purde, the result is an excellent and other 
 soup, which in texture and in flavour "ombina- 
 would by many persons not be distin- t'ons. 
 guishable from a common purde of game itself. A 
 hint for those who do not despise economy in cuisine, 
 when the value of the product is unquestionable. 
 Stewed haricots also furnish, when cold, an admirable 
 salad, improved by adding slices of tomato, etc., the 
 oil supplying the one element in which the bean is 
 deficient ; and a fairly nutritious food is produced 
 for those who can digest it in this form. The same 
 dietetic principle, it may be observed, has, although 
 empirically, produced the well-known dishes of beans 
 and bacon, ham and green peas, boiled pork and 
 pease-pudding, all of them old and popular but really 
 scientific combinations. Thus also the French, serving 
 petits pais as a separate dish, add butter freely and 
 a dash of sugar, the former making the compound 
 physiologically complete, the latter agreeably height- 
 ening the natural sweetness of the vegetable, especially 
 
78 Food and Feeding. 
 
 when the peas are a little old, insipid, or have lost 
 their accustomed flavour. 
 
 I have just adverted to the bread of the working 
 Remarks on nian, and recommended that it should 
 meal bread. ^jg made from entire wheat meal ; but 
 it should not be too coarsely ground. Extreme 
 coarseness in "whole wheat meal," as it is usually 
 termed, is a condition designed to exert a specific 
 effect on the digestion for those who need it, and, 
 useful as it is in its place, is not desirable for the 
 average population referred to. At the same time, 
 no portion of the husk of the grain should be removed 
 J, , from the wheat when ground, whether 
 
 not removing coarsely or finely, into meal. That a 
 the husk. . , , . - ,, , 
 
 partial removal is systematically advo- 
 cated by some as an improvement, is one of the 
 numerous illustrations of the modern and almost 
 universal craze which just now exists among food 
 purveyors of almost every description, for eliminating 
 all inert or innutritions matter from the food we eat. 
 This extraordinary care to employ nothing in our 
 diet but matter which has nutritive value, that is, 
 can be absorbed into the system, is founded upon 
 want of elementary knowledge of the first principles 
 of digestion ; and yet, strange to say, the mistaken, 
 indeed mischievous, practice is supported, probably for 
 want of thought, by many who ought to know better. 
 It seems now to be almost overlooked that no 
 proper action of the intestines can take place unless 
 a very considerable quantity of inert matter is present 
 
Whole Meal Wheaten Bread. 79 
 
 in our daily food, existing as material which cannot 
 be digested. By this character we are ^ , 
 not to suppose that it is in the least inert matters 
 degree " indigestible " in the sense of 
 that term when employed to signify " difficult diges- 
 tion," but only that it passes unchanged through the 
 body, neither receiving nor exciting any action. 
 When there is a considerable proportion of this in 
 the food, the bowels can act daily and regularly, 
 having a mass which they can transmit. When, on 
 the other hand, the food is so " nutritious " as to be 
 almost entirely absorbed, there is very little solid 
 matter to transmit, and the action of the bowels is 
 therefore scanty, irregular, and insufficient. This is, in 
 fact, a very extensively recognizable cause of a great 
 deal of the habitual constipation so prevalent among 
 the middle classes at the present time. To return to 
 the subject of coarse wheat meal, let me observe that 
 it does not readily produce light agreeable bread 
 when made in the form of ordinary loaves : a solid 
 mass of this meal being a bad conductor of heat, will 
 have a hard flinty crust if baked sufficiently to cook 
 the interior ; or it will have a soft dough-like interior, 
 if the baking is checked when the crust is properly 
 done. Consequently the form of a flat Best form 
 cake, resembling that of the ordinary for baking, 
 tea-cake, is preferable, about i\ inch, or at most ij 
 inch thick, since it admits of the right amount of 
 heat operating equally throughout the mass. 
 
 The following receipts will be found successful, 
 
8o Food and Feeding. 
 
 probably after a trial or two, in producing excellent, 
 
 light, friable, and most palatable bread in the form 
 
 recommended. 
 
 The first directs the mode of making it with baking 
 
 Receint for powder. — Take two pounds of coarsely 
 
 whole-meal ground whole wheat meal, and add half 
 cakes, using , . . _ , .,, , 
 
 baking a pound of fine flour, or, better still, the 
 
 pow er. same weight, or more if preferred, of 
 
 fine Scotch oatmeal. Mix thoroughly with a suf- 
 ficient quantity of baking powder and a little salt ; 
 then rub in two ounces of butter and make into 
 dough — using a wooden spoon — with cold skimmed 
 milk or milk and water, soft in consistence, so that 
 it can almost be poured into the tin ring, which gives 
 it form when baked. In this manner it is to be 
 quickly made into flat cakes (like tea-cakes), and 
 baked on a tin, the rings used being about an inch 
 high and seven or eight inches in diameter, each 
 enclosing a cake. Put them without delay into a 
 quick oven at the outset, so that the external surface 
 may be instantly hardened or sealed to prevent the 
 gas formed by the baking powder from escaping, 
 otherwise the result will be a dense, thin, and heavy 
 cake instead of a light and spongy one. This is a 
 cardinal point in the process which is often over- 
 looked. When the object is accomplished, which will 
 occupy some five or seven minutes, the temperature 
 should be lowered to complete the process gently and 
 completely.* 
 ' The following is a simple and excellent formula for " baking 
 
Receipt for making It. 8i 
 
 If made with yeast, which is for general purposes 
 preferable, when either good German or 
 the fresh home product can be obtained, ' ^^^ ' 
 add the necessary quantity to the dough, made as 
 above directed with the two meals, butter, salt, and 
 warm milk and water ; make the cakes and put them 
 on the tin with their rings, and set near the fire to 
 rise, which they will do in an hour or little under. 
 Then bake in a medium oven in_ the same way as 
 for any other fermented bread. When yeast is 
 used and not baking powder, a medium coarse oat- 
 meal may be added to the wheat meal instead of fine 
 oatmeal, which is necessary in the foregoing receipt. 
 
 The butter and milk supply fatty matter in which 
 the wheat is somewhat deficient ; all the saline and 
 mineral matters of the husk are retained ; and thus 
 a more nutritive form of bread cannot be made, 
 combined with a desirable proportion of inert matter. 
 Moreover, it retains the natural flavour of the wheat, 
 in place of the insipidity which is characteristic of 
 fine flour, although it is indisputable that bread 
 produced from the latter, especially at Paris and 
 Vienna, is unrivalled for delicacy, texture, and colour. 
 
 powder ; " one which has been long used for this and other 
 purposes. It may be obtained at any chemist's and in any 
 quantity, based on the following proportions : — 
 
 Tartaric acid, 2 ozs. 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda, 3 ozs. 
 
 Common arrowroot, 3 ozs. 
 Mix well ; place in a wide-mouthed corked bottle, and keep 
 perfectly dry. 
 
 F 
 
82 Food and Feeding, 
 
 Whole wheat meal may now be bought in most 
 towns, but by no means always in such perfect 
 condition as it ought to be. When it cannot be 
 Domestic obtained, a useful corn mill, the cutting 
 erindin? P^*^* *° ^^ made of steel, is now con- 
 
 wheat, structed cheaply for home use ; the best 
 
 white wheat should be procured, and the grain can 
 be ground so as to supply a meal of any degree of 
 coarseness desired.* 
 
 An important object in furnishing the foregoing 
 details is to illustrate how combinations 
 binationof of the nitrogenous, starchy, fatty, and 
 Mc™lsary for ™i"eral elements may be made, in well- 
 *, l"^°?i' J proportioned mixtures, in order to pro- 
 duce what I have termed a " complete " 
 dish — that is, one which supplies every demand of 
 the body, without containing any one element in 
 undue proportion. For it is obvious that one or two 
 of these elements may exist in injurious excess, 
 especially for delicate stomachs, the varied peculi- 
 arities of which, as before insisted on, must some- 
 times render necessary a modification of all rules. 
 Thus it is easy to make the fatty constituent too 
 large, and thereby derange digestion, a result fre- 
 Result of quently experienced by persons of seden- 
 
 port^on^of" tai^y habits, to whom a little pastry, 
 one element a morsel of foie gras, or a rich cream 
 is a source of great discomfort, or of a "bilious 
 
 * Kent & Co., the well-known makers of domestic appli- 
 ances, in High Holborn, supply such mills. 
 
" Complete " Food or Dish. 83 
 
 attack ; " while the outdoor labourer, who requires 
 much fatty material for his work, would have 
 no difficulty in consuming a large quantity of 
 such compounds with advantage. 
 
 Cheese as a supplement to bread is largely used by 
 the labouring man, especially in agri- 
 cultural districts. It is a food well valuable diet 
 adapted to his wants ; while his digestion, 
 unlike that of many a factory operative who works 
 under cover, generally deals with it easily. Cheese 
 is one of the most concentrated forms of nitrogenous 
 food, and admirably supports hard labour in the open 
 air. Thus it is that Swiss guides and Use of it 
 mountaineers always demand a good n^jw^afn. 
 supply of cheese and butter among the ^ers. 
 provisions when a long day's work is planned. When 
 taken at the end of a full meal as a savoury morsel, 
 the flavour only is required, and the quantity should 
 be small. Many persons whose daily life affords 
 little opportunity for muscular activity find cheese, at 
 all events when uncooked, not easily digestible. 
 And when such do employ it as an article of food, 
 it should be regarded as taking the place of meat, 
 which is not so rich in nitrogen. Mr. Mattieu 
 Williams has some good remarks on this subject,* 
 from which it appears that when properly improved 
 cooked, cheese is probably more easily by cooking, 
 assimilated by an ordinary stomach, than when eaten 
 
 * *' The Chemistry of Food," by Mattieu Williams, pp. 135-40. 
 London : Chatto & Windus. 1885. 
 
84 Food and Feeding. 
 
 in the raw condition. The well-known "cheese 
 The fondu " is an example. Here is the 
 
 ^'^dheese* Swiss peasant's form as he gives it, and 
 
 fondu." of the dish thus produced he speaks 
 
 highly, from observation as well as from personal 
 experience, in relation to its sustaining power, and 
 its right to form the staple dish of a substantial meal, 
 appropriately adding, " It is rather too good — over- 
 nutritious — for a man only doing sedentary work." 
 
 Mix grated cheese and eggs beaten as for an 
 omelette, adding a little new milk or butter. Place 
 the mixture in a saucer-shaped pan which bears the 
 fire, over which it is to be gently cooked, stirring well 
 until the whole is dissolved, and the mixture is homo- 
 geneous ; serve it in the pan, and eat it with a good 
 supply of bread, and with salt and mustard to taste. 
 . Mr. Williams further suggests that a 
 
 Williams' small quantity of bicarbonate of potash 
 may be added with advantage to the 
 ingredients before cooking — say 15 or 20 grains 
 for a dish sufficing for two persons. It appears to 
 facilitate solution of the casein, and at all events 
 cannot be an unwholesome addition. Indeed, as he 
 observes, it supplies potash salts, which are naturally 
 present in meat, but which are wanting in cheese. 
 By adding bread crumbs, or slices of bread, and more 
 milk, an excellent savoury pudding may be made, 
 and baked in a pie-dish, or in a shallower one if pre- 
 ferred. This preparation may be easily rendered an 
 elegant one for other tables if required. 
 
Rice, Modes of sewing. 85 
 
 Quitting the subject of wheat and the leguminous 
 seeds, it will be interesting to review 
 briefly the combinations of rice, which 
 furnishes so large a portion of the world with a 
 vegetable staple of diet. Remembering that it con- 
 tains chiefly starch, with nitrogen in small proportion, 
 and almost no fat or mineral elements, and just 
 sufficing perhaps, with a small quantity of the former, 
 to meet the wants of an inactive population in a 
 tropical climate, the first addition necessary for the 
 people who dwell on the temperate margin of this 
 limit, and just beyond it, will be a notable proportion 
 of fat, and with it a little addition of nitrogen. 
 Hence an illustration of one of the first efforts to 
 make a dish of rice " complete," is afforded by the 
 addition of butter and a little Parmesan cheese, in 
 
 the simple risotto, from which, as a start- 
 Needful ad- 
 ing pomt, improvement, both for nutri- ditions in the 
 
 "risotto " 
 tive purposes and for the demands of the ' 
 
 palate, may be carried to any extent (see p. 164). 
 Fresh additions are made in the shape of marrow, of 
 morsels of liver, etc., of meat broth with onion and 
 spice, which constitute the mixture, when well pre- 
 pared) nutritious and highly agreeable. The analogue 
 
 of this mainly Italian dish is the pilau 
 
 , . . asa "pilaff." 
 
 ox pilaff oi\h& orientals, consistmg, as it 
 
 chiefly does, of rice lightly boiled in the broth of a 
 fowl, a basis susceptible of various slight modifica- 
 tions and additions (see p. 167). The curry of 
 rabbit or of poultry and the kedgeree of fish are 
 
86 Food and Feeding. 
 
 further varieties which it is unnecessary to describe. 
 
 Following the same combination to Spain, we find it 
 
 a popular national dish, not greatly differing from the 
 
 " Fowl with foregoing, in the polio con arroz, which 
 
 "ce." consists of abundance of rice, stewed 
 
 with meat-broth and containing morsels of fowl, 
 
 bacon, and sausage, with appetizing spices, and 
 
 sufficing for an excellent meal. 
 
 Another farinaceous product of world-wide use is 
 
 the maize or Indian corn. With a fair 
 
 amount of nitrogen, starch, and mineral 
 
 elements, it contains also a good proportion of fat, 
 
 and is made into bread, cakes, and puddings of 
 
 various kinds. It is nearly complete, but capable of 
 
 improvement by the addition of nitrogen. Hence, in 
 
 the United States, where it is largely used, it is often 
 
 eaten with beans, under the name of " succotash." 
 
 In Italy it is ground into the beautiful yellow flour 
 
 which is conspicuous in the streets of almost every 
 
 town ; when made into a firm paste, by boiling in 
 
 water, and sprinkled with Parmesan cheese, a nitro- 
 
 „ . genous aliment, it becomes what is known 
 
 Polenta. ^ , , . , , 
 
 as polenta, and is largely consumed 
 
 with some relish in the shape of fried fish, sardines, 
 
 sausage, little birds, or morsels of fowl or goose, by 
 
 which, of course, fresh nitrogen is added. Macaroni 
 
 has been already alluded to in connection with wheat, 
 
 from which it is made ; although rich in nitrogenous 
 
 and starchy materials, it is deficient in fat. Hence it 
 
 is boiled and eaten with butter and Parmesan (i 
 
Potato^ how Made Complete. 87 
 
 Vltalienne) and with tomatoes, which furnish saline 
 matters, with good meat gravy or with milk (see p. 
 163). 
 
 Nearer home the potato forms a vegetable basis, in 
 composition resembling rice in abundance 
 of starch, but with much less proteids, 
 and requiring therefore additions of nitrogenous and 
 fatty elements. The Irishman's inseparable ally, the 
 pig, is the natural, and to him necessary, complement 
 of the tuber, making the latter a complete and 
 palatable dish. The everyday combi- requires 
 nation of mashed potato and sausage is ^^'*3 matter, 
 an unconsciously made illustration of the sapie 
 principle. In the absence of pork, the potato eater 
 substitutes a cheap oily fish, the herring. The com- 
 bination of fatty material with the potato is still 
 further illustrated in our baked potato and butter, 
 in fried potatoes in their endless variety of form, in 
 potato mashed with milk or cream, also as served 
 in the ordinary way with Maitre d" hotel butter ; finally 
 arriving at the most perfect and finished combination 
 in the pommes de terre sauties au beurre of a first-class 
 French restaurant, where it becomes almost a plat de 
 Itixe. Even the simple bread and butter Bread 
 or bread and cheese of our own country ^„'i[te^^oj 
 equally owe their form and popularity cheese, 
 to physiological necessity ; the deficient fat of the 
 bread being supplemented by the fatty elements of 
 each addition, the cheese supplying also its proportion 
 of nitrogenous matter, which exists so largely in its 
 
88 Food and Feeding. 
 
 peculiar proteid, caseine. So again, all the suet 
 puddings, "short cake," plum cakes, pie-crust, or 
 pastry, whether baked or boiled, which consist simply 
 of farinaceous food rendered stronger nutriment by 
 the addition of fatty matters contained in the butter, 
 lard, milk, and eggs, inevitably used in making them. 
 All are illustrations of the same principle practically 
 applied by their inventors, without the slightest 
 consciousness that they were fulfilling a natural and 
 essential law of life. 
 
 In the same way almost every national dish might 
 be analyzed, up to the pot-au-feu of our neighbours, 
 the right management of which combines the nutritious 
 quality of flesh with the abundant aroma and flavour 
 of fresh vegetables, together with their useful saline 
 constituents, which enter so largely into this 
 economical and excellent mess (see pp. 138, 139). 
 Among the poorer classes this dish is, of course, 
 intended to supplement a considerable quantity of 
 bread, which contains the efficient complement 
 of carbo-hydrates. 
 
 It will be apparent that, up to this point, our esti- 
 AU the fore- ™ate of the value of these combinations 
 
 going dishes has been limited, or almost so, by their 
 are the . . ' ■' 
 
 simplest physiological completeness as foods, and 
 
 "complete" by their economical value in relation to 
 
 food. tiig resources of that great majority of all 
 
 populations, which is poor. But when the inexorable 
 
 necessity for duly considering economy has been 
 
 complied with, the next aim is to render food as 
 
Food to be Agreeable also. 89 
 
 easily digestible as possible, and agreeable to the 
 senses of taste, smell, and sight. 
 
 The hard labourer with simple diet, provided his 
 aliment is complete and fairly well cooked, will suffer 
 little from indigestion. There may be a sameness 
 in the small range of foods within his reach ; but he 
 eats with appetite and zest, for, after all, "hunger 
 is the best sauce." He cannot be guilty, for want 
 of means, of eating too much, fertile source of 
 deranged stomach with those who have an unlimited 
 supply ; physical labour being also in many circum- 
 stances the best preventive of dyspepsia. " Live 
 on sixpence a day and earn it," attributed to Abernethy 
 as the sum of his dietary for a gluttonous eater, is 
 a maxim of value, endorsed by millions. But for the 
 numerous sedentary workers in shops, offices, in 
 business and professions of all kinds, the dish must 
 not only be " complete ; " it must be so prepared as 
 to be easily digestible by stomachs of moderate 
 power, and it should also be as appetizing and agree- 
 able as circumstances admit. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Food of the middle-class Englishman, and its routine — Cookery, 
 the process of rendering food digestible and nutritious by 
 heat — First, heat applied through water — (a) Boiling — The 
 process described — The effect of temperature in coagulating 
 albumen — Treatment of meat in cooking depends solely on 
 this action — Temperatures observed by thermometer during 
 process of boiling — System of slow cooking at low tempera- 
 tures — The " Bain Marie " — Captain Warren's pot — The 
 Norwegian cooker — Boiling of vegetables — (J?) Steaming— 
 {c) Stewing and braising — The distinction between them — 
 Slow cooking at low temperatures and its value — Receipt 
 for cooking a ham thus in thirty-six hours — BcBuf d la mode. 
 
 On questioning the average middle-class Englishman 
 as to the nature of his food, the all but universal 
 Indifference answer is, "My living is plain, always 
 
 to cookery roast and boiled " — words which but too 
 among , , . ,. , , 
 
 middle clearly indicate the dreary monotony, 
 
 c asses. ^^^ ^^ ^^^ unwholesomeness, of his 
 
 daily food ; while they furthermore express his satis- 
 faction, such as it is, that he is no luxurious feeder, 
 and that, in his opinion, he has no right to suffer from 
 an indigestion. Joints of beef and mutton, of which 
 we all know the very shape and changeless odours, 
 follow one another at his table in the same unvarying 
 order, six roast to one boiled, and have done so ever 
 
^^ Roast and Boiled.'" 91 
 
 since he began to keep house some five and twenty 
 years ago ! I am not sanguine enough to suppose 
 that this uniform routine, which rules the dietary of 
 the great majority of British families of moderate 
 and even of ample means, will be disturbed by any 
 suggestions of mine. Nevertheless, in some younger 
 households, where habits, gradually forming through 
 the force of example, have not yet hardened into 
 law, there may be a disposition to adopt a healthier 
 diet and a more agreeable variety of aliment. And 
 this, it may be safely affirmed, will probably not be 
 discovered by any researches for new forms of animal 
 food. Often as the lament has been uttered, that 
 some hitherto unknown product in the shape of meat 
 or bird, cultivated or wild, is not to be found, seeing 
 that the butcher's shop affords so small a range for 
 choice, it is not from such a source that whole- 
 some and pleasing additions to the table will be 
 obtained. 
 
 But the consideration of variety, and the method 
 of attaining it, will occupy us hereafter. "Roast and 
 At present we must deal with the " Roast Boiled." 
 and Boiled " already referred to. These are, in fact, 
 the Alpha and Omega, not as two terminal items in 
 a series, but as constituting the sum total of the 
 culinary forces known to our respected paterfamilias, 
 excepting that he may, perhaps, admit with more 
 or less hesitating approval, that the frying-pan, as 
 a kitchen utensil, is certainly not to be entirely for- 
 gotten. 
 
92 Food and Feeding. 
 
 But of these processes, the principles which govern 
 
 their application, and the elementary rules of the art 
 
 in making it, he knows nothing, having never felt 
 
 , interest therein. His cook probably 
 Ignorance of 
 the principles knows little more. She learned by 
 
 "rule of thumb," and has always found 
 its light suffice for the limited requirements hitherto 
 made on her powers in such service. When she has 
 to prepare one of the aforesaid joints, whether by 
 "boiling" or by "roasting," it has probably never 
 occurred to her to inquire what temperature the meat 
 should attain in order to achieve her purpose, by 
 either method ; nor, to tell the truth, was she ever 
 curious about the matter. And there are not many 
 mistresses who could inform her respecting the 
 principles referred to, whatever familiarity they may 
 possess with the practice of the culinary art. But 
 No true art an acquaintance with principles tends 
 Mderetand- largely to facilitate the perfect exercise 
 ingthem, of all art; hence I shall very briefly 
 
 sketch those which should be known, and are happily 
 now being taught to the pupils who pass through 
 a really efficient school of cookery. Completely 
 yet rarely ignored by all the old kitchen manuals 
 explained in and receipt books, being, in fact, un- 
 known to their writers, they are equally 
 wanting in some of the most popular modem guides 
 to cooking. A few teachers and authors have learned 
 to insist on their importance and expound them j 
 but these are at present exceptions to the rule. 
 
Definition of Cookery. 93 
 
 First, in order to illustrate what I mean by prin- 
 ciples, I will define cookery as almost rnnkerv a 
 invariably implying a process of render- process of 
 ing various foods, whether animal or food attrac- 
 vegetable, which cannot be agreeably or nuta-itious 
 safely eaten in their natural state, attrac- ^"3 heat, 
 tive, digestible, and nutritious, by the application of 
 heat through different means or media, and at greatly 
 differing degrees of temperature. 
 
 I shall briefly consider, first, the process of cooking 
 
 food through the medium of water, „ . 
 
 Various 
 employed at a temperature of 212 Fahr., methods 
 
 as («) boiling ; by the steam only of 
 boiling water, as {p) steaming ; afterwards as (c) 
 stewing and braising, in which lower temperatures 
 than boiling are adopted, while the process is con- 
 tinued for a much longer period. 
 
 Secondly, will follow the process of cooking food 
 in dry heated air, as in («) baking ; or by radiation 
 of heat from a clear fire, as in (5) roasting ; or on 
 a grill above it, commonly known as (c) broiling. 
 
 Lastly, the process of cooking by immersion in oil 
 at a much higher temperature than can be obtained 
 by any boiling in water, which is " frying.'' 
 
 First, the cooking of meat by means of boiling 
 water, although this is really effected in By means 
 the interior of the portion or joint con- ^^t^j.. " 
 siderably under the boiling temperature, "boiling." 
 Water "boils" when heated to 212° Fahr. at the sea- 
 level; but to attain the best results from cookery, 
 
94 Food and Feeding. 
 
 a much lower temperature may be employed, as we 
 shall learn hereafter ; " boiled meat " being, in fact, 
 never really boiled throughout. It should also be 
 remembered that the heat obtained by the act of 
 boiling varies in proportion to the elevation of the 
 spot above the level just named, at which the process 
 takes place. Thus, water boils at a temperature 
 several degrees lower for every thousand feet of 
 elevation ; therefore in mountain climbing, it is quite 
 possible to reach a height at which water boils when 
 not sufficiently hot even to cook an e%'g efficiently, 
 which can be done at i8o°. 
 
 Now, in the culinary treatment of flesh of all kinds 
 Two modes and of fish, by water, the object to be 
 coSg attained by the process must first be 
 
 °ieat ; distinctly apprehended. If from a given 
 
 portion of flesh it is desired to extract as much of 
 the soluble portions as possible, as for the purpose 
 of making soup or beef-tea, the course pursued will 
 be directly opposite to that which is necessary when 
 the object is to prepare the portion for a dish to be 
 consumed at the table. In the latter case, we desire 
 to retain all the nutritive and sapid qualities of the 
 meat within the portion, leaving none in the water 
 used for cooking. In the former case, we leave the 
 flesh, if possible, exhausted of flavour and nourishino- 
 juices, nearly all of which we desire to find in the 
 water employed. 
 
 The principle relied on to accomplish our aim in 
 each case is based on the fact that the albumen, 
 
Cooking Meat by Hot Water. 95 
 
 which pervades both flesh and fish, is fluid and soluble 
 
 at low temperatures, say above the 
 
 depending on 
 freezing-pomt up to about 1 50° Fahr., effect of heat 
 
 , ., .. J 11 1 1- 1- on albumen, 
 
 while it gradually becomes more solidi- 
 fied and insoluble at temperatures of about 160° and 
 upwards. Hence, if we desire to realize the first- 
 named object, for stock soup or beef-tea, some meat, 
 previously cut fine, is macerated for two i_ por 
 or three hours in cool or tepid water, beef-tea; 
 after which the temperature is very slowly raised to 
 about 150°, and maintained there for some time. 
 At the end of the process, not only much soluble 
 nutritive matter referred to as albumen, but other 
 valuable constituents, "extractives," and salts, will 
 be found dissolved in the liquid also. See the 
 process for making beef-tea, which will be found in 
 the Appendix. 
 
 If, on the contrary, we desire to retain within the 
 portion, say a leg of mutton, all its 2. For cook- 
 nutritive quality and its natural juices ins a joint, 
 and its flavour, for a dish at table, the joint is to be 
 immersed in a capacious pot of boiling commence 
 water, to which a little salt has been with boiling 
 added, and kept boiling for from five to seven 
 minutes. The object of this is to solidify or coagu- 
 late, as it is usually termed, a thin layer of albumen 
 on the entire surface of the joint. By a few 
 this means, the meat is enclosed in ^aUhl*" 
 an impervious casing, which effectually surface; 
 prevents the escape of all the fluid albumen of the 
 
96 Food and Feeding. 
 
 interior, and of the salts into the surrounding water, 
 
 however long the joint remains there. When the 
 
 boiling has continued for the short time named, 
 
 nothing will be gained by maintaining that high 
 
 then a con- temperature ; it is, on the contrary, rather 
 
 tinuous lower injurious than otherwise. The meat will 
 temperature; , . , ,. . , , .. , 
 
 "simmer- be m better condition at table if the pot 
 
 ^^' is removed a little from the fire, so that 
 
 a temperature of six or eight degrees below boiling 
 is sustained for the usual period of time required, 
 which, of course, varies according to the size of the 
 joint. This is what is understood by the term "sim- 
 mering." Maintaining the water in a state of con- 
 stant ebullition involves a large waste of fuel, and 
 does not raise the temperature, either of the liquid 
 or the meat a single degree. 
 
 In order to ascertain what is the maximum tempe- 
 
 „ . rature attained by " boiling " a lee of 
 
 Experiment 00 
 
 to ascertain mutton in the usual way, I have several 
 
 interior of times pushed a self-registering thermo- 
 
 joint while meter, provided with a pointed metal 
 
 end, closely alongside the central bone 
 
 to the middle of the joint ; and have never found, 
 
 however thoroughly the meat has been cooked, that 
 
 the mercury has risen above 186° or 187°; it has 
 
 generally been a little below that limit. Let me say 
 
 that such experiments have been made many years 
 
 ago, I believe thirty or forty. At least twelve or 
 
 fifteen years have elapsed since it was repeated by 
 
 myself in both boiled and roasted meats in order to 
 
Experiments on Temperature. 97 
 
 ascertain by personal observation that in eacii case 
 meat could be well cooked at the temperature named. 
 During the last winter, 1897-98, I have repeated 
 these experiments very carefully, expressly for this 
 edition, taking note of the exact result on each of the 
 trials, twenty-four in number. They are as follows : — 
 
 No. 
 
 How- 
 cooked. 
 
 Name of joint. 
 
 Time of 
 cooking. 
 
 Temp, 
 found. 
 
 
 
 
 hours. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 I 
 
 Boiled 
 
 The top side of the round : beef . 
 
 2j 
 
 I87i° 
 
 2 
 
 Braised 
 
 Ham, slow process, p. no . 
 
 36 
 
 170° 
 
 3 
 
 Boiled 
 
 The top side of the round : beef . 
 
 2i 
 
 182° 
 
 4 
 
 Roast 
 
 Sirloin of beef .... 
 
 2i 
 
 186° 
 
 5 
 
 Boiled 
 
 Tongue 
 
 S 
 
 193° 
 
 6 
 
 J, 
 
 The top side of the round : beef . 
 
 2j 
 
 i85° 
 
 7 
 
 )) 
 
 Leg of mutton .... 
 
 2i 
 
 185° 
 
 8 
 
 Roast 
 
 )> )»•••• 
 
 2 
 
 187° 
 
 9 
 
 ji 
 
 Sirloin of beef .... 
 
 2 
 
 1901° 
 
 10 
 
 )» 
 
 Leg of mutton .... 
 
 2 
 
 i87§° 
 
 II 
 
 >> 
 
 Ribs of beef, rolled . 
 
 2 
 
 184° 
 
 12 
 
 J} 
 
 Turkey 
 
 I 
 
 184° 
 
 13 
 
 Boiled 
 
 Top side of the round : beef 
 
 2i 
 
 i86J° 
 
 14 
 
 Roast 
 
 Sirloin of beef .... 
 
 2i 
 
 i87r 
 
 15 
 
 ,t 
 
 Saddle of roe venison from Black 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forest, Germany . 
 
 I 
 
 176° 
 
 16 
 
 )i 
 
 Leg of mutton .... 
 
 2 
 
 187° 
 
 17 
 
 
 Top side of the round : beef 
 
 2i 
 
 iSSi" 
 
 18 
 
 )i 
 
 Saddle of mutton 
 
 li 
 
 185° 
 
 19 
 
 jj 
 
 Leg of pork .... 
 
 2 
 
 183° 
 
 20 
 
 a 
 
 Leg of mutton .... 
 
 2 
 
 184° 
 
 21 
 
 ,, 
 
 Sirloin of beef .... 
 
 2 
 
 188° 
 
 22 
 
 1, 
 
 Fillet of veal .... 
 
 2j 
 
 I84i° 
 
 23 
 
 )) 
 
 Top side of the round : beef 
 
 2 
 
 185° 
 
 24 
 
 j» 
 
 Sirloin of beef .... 
 
 2 
 
 i8sJ° 
 
 But it has long been known that for the purpose of 
 thoroughly cooking flesh of any kind, Lo^^gy 
 there is no necessity to maintain so 
 high a temperature as that adopted by 
 the ordinary method above described, 
 
 temperatures 
 cook best if 
 enough time 
 is given. 
 
98 Food and Feeding. 
 
 provided that the time of exposure to the lower 
 degree of heat is considerably prolonged. There is 
 a generally accepted table, current in all cookery 
 books, indicating the time which every joint requires, 
 grounded on its weight ; but this always presupposes 
 the boiling point of water, of course to commence 
 with, and almost boiling sustained by continual com- 
 bustion of fuel afterwards. The flavour of animal 
 food is, by the system of prolonged low temperature 
 referred to, better, and the meat itself more tender 
 and more digestible ; a result which will inevitably 
 bring into favour the practice of slow cooking 
 when the best methods of conducting it have been 
 adopted. 
 That flesh so treated is easily digested is due to the 
 
 Whv cook- ^^'^'^ ^^^ ^* *^^ temperature of 170° to 
 
 ingatlow i8o° the albumen contained therein is 
 
 heat makes „ . , , , , 
 
 flesh sufficiently cooked but not overheated 
 
 iges 1 e. g^j^^ hardened. Any temperature higher 
 than the above-named tends to solidify it, and when 
 exposed to too much heat, as often happens to a fried 
 or over-broiled steak, it then becomes diminished in 
 thickness and curved instead of being plump and 
 tender, while the shrunken and indurated fibres of 
 the over-cooked portion are difficult of digestion by 
 an average stomach. 
 
 An excellent mode of securing the desired object 
 in boiling is to move the pot containing the portion 
 of meat, as soon as the initial boiling of six or 
 seven minutes is completed, to a small gas ring or 
 
Bain-marie : Warrens Pot. 99 
 
 lamp, by which a gentle heat, that is, between i8o° 
 and 190°, can be maintained for five or six hours 
 or more, instead of the two hours usually required, 
 say for a joint weighing twelve pounds or there- 
 about. 
 
 The " Bain-marie " is an old and very simple appli- 
 cation of the principle chiefly employed i^^ "Bain- 
 for the heating of sauces and for other "narie." 
 purposes where it is desirable to avoid a temperature 
 which might injure a delicate product, and especially 
 any burning of it. It is simply a small thin saucepan 
 suspended within a larger one adapted for the fire, 
 and containing water which, when boiling, or nearly 
 so, suffices to heat to a few degrees below its own 
 temperature the contents of the inner vessel. This 
 resembles the method on which the carpenter's 
 glue-pot is constructed, with which most persons 
 are familiar. * 
 
 Captain Warren's cooking-pot is a further develop- 
 ment of the same principle, which has 
 
 long been a favourite with many who Warren's 
 
 ,, , cooking-pot. 
 
 appreciate excellence and economy com- 
 bined in the work which it is capable of doing. It 
 is constructed on the plan of the "Bain-marie" just 
 described, but is associated with a steam chamber 
 on the top, to be used or not when required. This 
 latter may be used for the cooking of vegetables, fish, 
 and other foods, thus utilizing the steam formed by the 
 boiling water contained in the larger outside vessel, 
 which heats the inner one. But the inner is used not 
 
loo Food and Feeding. 
 
 only for stewing and boiling purposes, but also as a 
 
 dry cooker ; for no steam can enter it 
 Its use in 
 
 " drjr " from without, however used ; that is to say, 
 
 a fowl or a portion of meat being placed 
 therein can be slowly cooked without water by a pro- 
 cess occupying about twice or three times as long 
 as that employed for ordinary boiling or roasting. 
 In this case the flesh furnishes a quantity of liquid, 
 slowly disengaged by low temperature, rising as 
 vapour at first, and becoming condensed, with its 
 own natural juices, into a broth or gravy, in which, 
 at the conclusion of the process, the flesh is found 
 partially or wholly immersed. On the top of this 
 floats more or less fat in a melted state, and this 
 No loss by ^^" ^^ removed in the usual manner, 
 this process. ]\Jq Jqss whatever takes place by this 
 method. All the albumen, extractives, and juices of 
 the flesh will be found in the inner saucepan when 
 
 the process is completed. Thus a most 
 How to cook ^ '^ 
 
 an Irish admirable and tender Irish stew may be 
 
 made by placing, say about three pounds 
 of neck of mutton, cut chiefly from the lower half 
 of it in the usual way, or improved, of course, by 
 including some cutlets from the upper, with most of 
 the fat removed, a little onion, sliced, adding no 
 liquid whatever, only a little black pepper and salt 
 Example of to taste. The outside pot should con- 
 figlit low *^*" sufficient water to form a shallow 
 temperature, bath for the inner pot which contains 
 the meat ; the water should be boiling at the 
 
Value of Warren's Pot. loi 
 
 commencement of the process, and for about a 
 quarter of an hour afterwards, to antagonize the effect 
 of the cold meat introduced. Then the pot should 
 be removed to the corner of the fire, or over a gas 
 ring, so as to maintain the external bath water at 
 or about boiling point. At the end of five or six 
 hours or so the meat will be found perfectly tender, 
 delicately cooked, full of flavour, and amply supplied 
 with its own excellent gravy. In fact, the cooking 
 has been finally completed by means of a braise 
 consisting of the gravy thus produced. When the 
 melted fat has been removed, the potatoes, which 
 have been partially cooked in the upper chamber or 
 steamer, or in some other vessel separately, should 
 be added to the meat in the inner chamber for about 
 half an hour before serving in the usual manner, and 
 a little stock added if required. 
 
 The meat has been cooked at a temperature of 
 about 185° or 190° at most, never approaching 200° : 
 hence its digestibility from the circumstances ex- 
 plained above. If the potatoes for the stew are 
 cooked in the steamer, above the meat, the water 
 must be kept boiling during the latter part of the 
 process, about an hour, to supply steam for the 
 purpose. The above, or a good-sized Cooking of 
 
 fowl, can be cooked in a Warren pot of Ff"'*'^ '" 
 ' ^ same 
 
 the smallest or least expensive size; but manner. 
 I advise that a fowl should be first boiled in a 
 separate vessel for five minutes only for reasons 
 already given. Some think it an improvement to 
 
I02 Food and Feeding. 
 
 add about half a pint of warm stock, to make, with 
 the juices which escape, the basis of an excellent 
 sauce when skimmed and thickened. And on the 
 whole I think that poultry may be generally " boiled " 
 with advantage in about a quart of light stock, when 
 the ordinary process with a saucepan is used ; in 
 either case adopting the slow process by low tem- 
 perature, i.e. about 170° Fahr,, any of the liquor not 
 required for sauce going to the stock-pot for white 
 soups and sauces. And larger portions of meat may 
 be cooked in the same manner in Warren pots of 
 appropriate size. 
 
 But still lower temperatures suffice if more time 
 be devoted to the cooking ; and this is advantageous 
 where the material to be cooked is unusually tough. 
 An illustration of this principle has been familiar 
 
 .^ . to some for many years, in the action 
 
 Norwegian ■' ■' 
 
 cooking of the Norwegian cooking apparatus ; 
 
 but few people know how effective a 
 prolonged moderate temperature is in producing 
 tender and well-cooked viands of various kinds. 
 
 This apparatus consists of a stout tinned iron cylin- 
 Construction der 12 ins. high and 10 ins. in diameter, 
 described. ^jj.jj ^ handle like that of a pail, which 
 renders it portable, and a well-fitting cover. It is 
 lined with a close packing of woollen materials i\ ins. 
 thick, to prevent the escape of heat from the inner 
 vessel, which contains the portion to be cooked. This 
 vessel, also a cylinder, is made of tin, and has a " hot- 
 water jacket " to be filled with boiling water, the only 
 
Norwegian Cooker. 103 
 
 source of heat for the entire cooking operation. And 
 
 its cavity, measuring 7 ins. in depth and 5J ins. in 
 
 diameter, will hold a fowl weighing over two pounds 
 
 in the vertical position, or the best end of a neck 
 
 of mutton containing five bones when neatly trimmed ; 
 
 and this latter should be accompanied with a few 
 
 slices of onion and a little black pepper and salt, 
 
 nothing else. 
 
 The following mode of using it has been employed 
 
 in my own kitchen, and the temperatures taken 
 
 by myself. A fowl weighing two or two and a half 
 
 pounds is put into a four or five quart saucepan, 
 
 boiling on the fire or gas stove. Ebul- 
 
 ° Practical 
 
 lition ceases for half a minute, owing to directions 
 
 the coldness of the body introduced, ^'"^"singit. 
 
 and then reappears : it should be continued actively, 
 
 but for five minutes only. Then remove at once and 
 
 place it without addition of any kind in the central 
 
 cavity of the Norwegian cooker. Boiling water is 
 
 next to be poured in to fill the hot-water jacket 
 
 which surrounds it, and the lid made fast. But no 
 
 fluid of any kind is put into the cavity with the 
 
 fowl. The apparatus is now accurately closed, and 
 
 set aside in a corner, screened from draughts, but 
 
 not near to any source of heat, after which it is 
 
 to remain untouched for eighteen or twenty hours. 
 
 On opening it the fowl will be found perfectly 
 
 cooked and tender throughout, and the „ . 
 
 ... , . Results, 
 
 temperature of the liquor will be from 
 
 about 80° to 90°. This should be skimmed from all 
 
104 Food and Feeding. 
 
 fat, and serve as a basis for the sauce. The initial 
 No waste boiling is of course intended to seal 
 possible. |-jje surface, and to prevent the Juices 
 
 of the bird from escaping ; but some portion will of 
 course find its way out into the cavity, and is to be 
 utilized in the manner suggested, so that no particle 
 is lost. The fowl can be served at once, masked 
 with a good white sauce or otherwise, according to 
 Process for taste. The same process and time will 
 mutton. cook mutton admirably. It will be quite 
 
 tender, and its juice is also served as gravy in the 
 dish. Vegetables can be cooked apart to garnish, 
 chosen either for the purpose of a "haricot" or for 
 an " Irish stew." 
 
 A most useful lesson is thus afforded to illustrate 
 the power of a low temperature, if continued long 
 enough, to cook meat thoroughly, and at the same 
 time to render it tender and digestible. It is not 
 necessary, however, to adopt this apparatus for 
 ordinary purposes. Equal results can be obtained 
 in a shorter time by the Warren pot for all practical 
 purposes, following the directions before given. 
 
 A few words are necessary here respecting the 
 
 Boiling of boiling of vegetables ; some of these are 
 
 vegetables. perhaps better steamed, a question which 
 
 will be considered below. For the most part, green 
 
 vegetables are better boiled. They should be first 
 
 thoroughly washed, to free them from 
 Preparation. ,. , . , 
 
 dn-t and msects, but not allowed to soak 
 
 for an hour or more in water, which only does harm. 
 
Boiling Vegetables : Steaming. 105 
 
 When ready to be cooked, they should be put into 
 
 a saucepan of boiling water, to which salt has been 
 
 added at the rate of a tablespoonful to half a gallon ; 
 
 and if the water be hard, a very small 
 
 Use of soda, 
 quantity of soda should be used also ; 
 
 if rain or any other soft water can be obtained, no 
 
 soda should be employed. They should be kept 
 
 briskly boiling during the time required, and generally 
 
 without the saucepan-lid ; and the cooking should 
 
 commence so as to be finished exactly at the time 
 
 they are required at table, as they take injury by 
 
 being kept standing for any length of time before 
 
 they are served. It is best to transfer them at once, 
 
 after careful draining, into hot vegetable dishes. 
 
 Nothing looks more slovenly and disagreeable than 
 
 water drained from the vegetables occupying the 
 
 bottom of the vegetable dish. It should 
 
 ,. , , Boilingpeas. 
 
 be remembered m boiling peas that soda 
 
 is never to be used ; it destroys their delicate flavour ; 
 if any addition is made, besides the usual quantity 
 of salt, it should be a little sugar. 
 
 b. Steaming, for various purposes, especially for 
 cooking fish and some vegetables, is pre- 
 ferable to boiling, because so much of 
 their best constituents is lost by the latter process. 
 Respecting its applicability to fish, see the chapter on 
 the subject. Vegetables are deteriorated by the loss 
 
 of their saline elements in boiling water : 
 , . . ., . , . , • ,, ,- potatoes, 
 
 this IS strikingly evident in the case of 
 
 potatoes, which, peeled and boiled as they usually 
 
io6 Food and Feeding. 
 
 are, become insipid, in comparison with those which 
 are steamed or boiled in their "jackets." The value 
 of the jacket is well-known to the Irish peasant, who 
 rarely or never removes it until the tuber is cooked, 
 and other ^^"^ other vegetables, such as cauliflower, 
 
 vegetables. broccoli, brussel-sprouts, etc., should be 
 steamed for the same reason, although the colour 
 is not so bright and clear as when boiled, as 
 they usually are, with a little soda added to the 
 water. 
 
 A simple steamer consists of a saucepan half- 
 Tljg filled with water kept at boiling, and 
 
 steamer. replenished as it wastes, with a cylin- 
 
 drical receiver for the fish or vegetable, of about 
 equal capacity, fitting to its top when the lid is 
 removed, to take its place at the top of the 
 receiver instead. This receiver admits through its 
 base, which is perforated with small holes, a constant 
 atmosphere of steam' at 212°. The cooking is thus 
 ciTected with but very slight loss of the saline 
 elements referred to. 
 
 c. Stewing and Braising, processes by which meat 
 and poultry are prepared and served in the most 
 tender condition possible, and in an attractive form 
 for the table, are somewhat neglected in this country. 
 There is a marked distinction between "braising" 
 and " stewing " not sufficiently recognized here ; 
 hence, probably, the infrequency with which a true 
 braise appears at our tables. 
 
 Stewing. This consists in nothing more than a 
 
stewing, Bcettf a la Mode. 107 
 
 long cooking in water at low temperature. Appli- 
 cable to either beef or mutton, from which most 
 
 of the fat should be removed, the 
 
 ,,,,,, , Stewing, 
 
 meat should be placed, more or less 
 
 divided into small portions with the bones belonging 
 
 thereto, in an enamelled saucepan with a moderate 
 
 quantity of water, a few vegetables for flavour, very 
 
 little salt, and some pepper to taste. ^ „ 
 
 ^ '^^ On the pnn- 
 
 The cover being put on, it should be ciplebylow 
 1 , ,, . , , temperature, 
 
 placed over a small gas rmg or charcoal, 
 
 or on a portion of the hot plate, where it cannot rise 
 to boiling-point. In fact, the temperature should 
 never be above 170°, and continue three, four, or 
 six hours according to the quantity ; at all events, 
 until the meat is quite tender. The coarser and 
 even tougher portions become by this process very 
 digestible, appetizing, and nutritious. Much the 
 same result may be obtained in the "Warren's 
 cooking-pot " already referred to. 
 
 A standard illustration of effective stewing or 
 common braising exists in the produc- . 
 
 tion of a well-known French dish, boeuf " boeuf a la 
 d la mode, which is always good, when 
 served in a simple, inexpensive manner for the 
 people, and may be rendered most excellent with 
 more care and refinement, so as to be suitable 
 at a table of the highest rank. I shall subjoin 
 Gouffd's receipt ; he regards the process as an im- 
 portant and typical one, and gives it at length. See 
 Appendix, p. 288. 
 
io8 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Braising. Of this there are two methods, one 
 
 simple, another more complex. In the 
 
 ' former, the meat may be just covered 
 
 with a strong liquor of vegetable and animal juices 
 
 (technically called braise or mirepoix) in a closely 
 
 t^Q covered vessel, from which as little 
 
 methods; evaporation as possible is permitted, 
 
 and is cooked in the same manner as that above 
 
 recommended here for stewing. By this treatment 
 
 tough fibrous flesh, even if old, whether 
 what it ^ ' 
 
 accom- of poultry, of cattle, or meat unduly 
 
 ^'^ ' fresh, such as it is difficult to avoid 
 
 during the summer heat in towns, is made tender 
 and easily digestible. Moreover, it becomes im- 
 pregnated with the odours and flavour of fresh 
 vegetables (carrots, turnips, celery, onions) and sweet 
 herbs, while the liquor itself, slowly reduced in the 
 process, furnishes the most appropriate, fragrant, and 
 delicious sauce, with which to surround the portion 
 
 , ... when served at table. Thus, also, meats 
 
 should be ' ' 
 
 more popular which are dry, or with little natural 
 flavour, as veal, become saturated with 
 vegetable juices, and combined with sapid substances, 
 which render the food succulent and delicious to the 
 palate. Small portions sufficing for a single meal, 
 however small the family, can be thus dealt with ; so 
 that a r^ckauffi, or cold meat for to-morrow, is not a 
 thing of necessity, but only of choice when preferred. 
 To judge by the braised products which rarely 
 appear on English tables, and by such descriptions of 
 
Braising, two Modes. 109 
 
 it as exist in our cookery books, the process itself is 
 scarcely understood. Certainly it is not one uniform 
 method, to which the term is applied, and conse- 
 quently an ordinary cook's conception of it is apt to 
 be somewhat loose and indefinite. 
 
 The first principle essential to a braise is, that the 
 meat so to be treated must be very principles 
 slowly cooked, that is, at a comparatively °^ braising, 
 low temperature, and in a closely covered vessel, and 
 with a small quantity of liquid. 
 
 The second principle is, that the meat shall be im- 
 pregnated in this process with the flavours of vege- 
 tables, herbs, of highly flavoured cured meats, and 
 some spices, and, if desired, with wine. This may be 
 done without the mirepoix above described, namely, 
 by placing in the braise-pot around the meat, slices of 
 ham, smoked sausage, or bacon, cut carrots, parsnips, 
 turnips, onions, various herbs, a bay leaf, cloves or 
 other spices, together with a small quantity of good 
 meat stock. Another way of conducting the braise, 
 as already intimated, is to make beforehand a strong 
 decoction of all these materials, with stock and wine, 
 serving in part to flavour and in part to preserve the 
 liquor or mirepoix, so that it may be kept for a time, 
 ready for use when wanted. A small quantity of this 
 is then to serve as the fluid in which the portion of 
 meat or bird, etc., is to be braised. 
 
 Perhaps no better illustration of the process can 
 be afforded than the method of cooking a ham, 
 which I have adopted for a good many years, with 
 
no Food and Feeding. 
 
 results known to not a few of my friends, as successful 
 in producing this favourite dish as a hot entremet, 
 full of flavour, while the lean portion is absolutely 
 tender and digestible. 
 
 I have carefully formulated the steps of the process 
 here, after experiments at different temperatures, and 
 times devoted thereto. 
 
 Receipt for cooking a ham at a low temperature 
 Recent fo ^°"S continued. — I prefer a thick, plump 
 cooking a ham, say from lo to 12 lbs. for a 
 moderate sized party (12 to 16), York 
 or Cumberland by choice. It must first lie some 
 hours in cold water; if a highly smoked one, and 
 you desire to retain the flavour, 8 or 10 hours will 
 suffice ; if it is not much smoked, but has been fully 
 salted, it should remain 12 hours or more. This 
 to occupy process should be concluded at least 36 
 36 hours. hours before the hour fixed for dinner. 
 
 As soon as it is removed from the cold water, 
 Previous scour with a softish scrubbing brush, so 
 
 preparations. ^3 ^^ remove all dirt from the surface. 
 
 You will have already prepared the day before a 
 good meat stock well flavoured with vegetables, 
 carrots, turnips, parsnips, onions, and a faggot of 
 kitchen herbs. 
 
 The ham is to be placed in an oval cooking-pot just 
 adapted to its size ; sufficient of the above stock to 
 cover the ham is to be added, allowing room for a 
 few slices of the fresh vegetables just named to be put 
 in also. Place the pot on the fire, and bring the stock 
 
Slow Cooking; for a Ham. 1 1 1 
 
 soon to the boiling point, maintaining this for five 
 
 minutes only, no more. Then withdraw the pot from 
 
 the fire so that the stock may gradually cool to a 
 
 temperature about 170°, but not exceed- Temoerat 
 
 ing that. Keep it thus 12 hours. For never to 
 , . ... , . exceed 170°- 
 
 this purpose it is best to place it over a 
 
 gas ring, which is easily regulated ; and to have a 
 thermometer which ranges up to 212°, the boiling 
 point, precisely like a "bath thermometer," that is, 
 with a tin receptacle at the lower end guarding the 
 bulb, only that the bottom of the receptacle should 
 be cut away for kitchen use, otherwise organic matter 
 would lodge there, soon decompose, and become 
 noxious.* 
 
 Suppose at the end of this time that by means of 
 the thermometer, and by adjustment of the gas, that 
 the temperature has been steadily maintained, pre- 
 paration must be made for leaving it for the night, so 
 that the temperature shall not henceforth exceed 
 1 50° ; on the other hand, it shall not fall below 1 30°, 
 With a little observation, it is easy to ascertain how 
 much gas suffices to do this during the night ; and a 
 small quantity of fresh stock to fully cover the ham is 
 added the last thing. The cover of the pot being 
 always on, the loss by evaporation is very small ; but 
 towards the close of the process, the stock may be 
 allowed to diminish one-third or so of the original 
 quantity. 
 
 * Negretti & Zambra, Regent Street, supply these made as 
 described. See frontispiece for thermometer used. 
 
112 Food and Feeding. 
 
 You will examine the thermometer on arriving at 
 the kitchen in the morning. It may be found perhaps 
 a little less than 130° which is a smaller error than a 
 rise above 170°. With a sharp skewer ascertain in two 
 places at least whether the ham is becoming tender. 
 If it is quite so, all you have to do is to let the tem- 
 perature be about 140° or so during the day until the 
 next step in the proceeding. If still not tender 
 enough, let it be 160°. If quite tender, let it be 130° 
 or so. 
 
 Supposing you have arrived at about four hours 
 The wine before the time for serving, the ham is 
 added. jjq^ taken out and skinned in the usual 
 
 manner, then returned to the pot, together with a 
 bottle of good wine emptied into it, which, of course, 
 reduces the temperature. Raise this gradually to 
 140° as before. If a red wine, let it be a good 
 mid-quality Burgundy ; or a good red Italian wine 
 may suffice. If white be preferred, a bottle of fair 
 Sauterne or Graves. 
 
 The temperature last named is to be continued 
 
 „. until the ham is served. The remaining 
 
 The SciucCi 
 
 contents of the pot are now to be care- 
 fully skimmed to remove fat, a portion strained 
 through a tammy without addition, reduced to a 
 glaze in a small saucepan, and served in a sauce-boat 
 apart. Or, if preferred, a cherry or other acid-sweet 
 sauce may be substituted. I strongly recommend 
 the former for a ham which is served hot. 
 
 It is very easy to overcook a ham in 36 hours, so 
 
Braising, the Complete Process. 113 
 
 that the flesh falls from the bones, and can scarcely 
 
 be cut. It is equally certain that it 
 
 Ml . 1 , , . .,t , Caution, 
 
 will not be so, although it will be 
 
 deliciously tender, provided that the rules above 
 
 given respecting the temperature are followed. 
 
 The third principle in braising is not generally 
 considered essential to the process, although it is un- 
 doubtedly the last refinement necessary to produce a 
 first-rate example. It is that of partially browning or 
 half-roasting the portion also ; and this may be accom- 
 plished in two ways. The legitimate or original way 
 of doing this, is, to have well fitted to the braise-pot a 
 sunk copper or iron cover, in which some hot cinders 
 or charcoal are placed, towards the end of the process, 
 when the braise is nearly finished, in order to transmit 
 downwards a scorching heat to the top of the portion 
 which is uncovered by the liquid in the pot below. 
 The upper surface of the meat thus obtains that 
 browning of the surface which is the crowning addi- 
 tion to other flavours, before referred to as " the taste 
 of the fire." In treating it thus, the portion should be 
 covered, especially if a fowl, with a piece of white 
 paper, which serves to shield a delicate morsel from 
 a too fierce heat. The other and inferior way is to 
 very lightly roast the meat, before putting it into the 
 pot to braise, and so dispense with the hot cinders or 
 charcoal on the cover ; but this hardens the flesh, and 
 tends to prevent the juices penetrating it, and cannot 
 be recommended. 
 
 It may be seen, then, that a braise in which no 
 
 H 
 
114 Food and Feeding. 
 
 roasting is employed, does not, after the necessary 
 materials have been prepared, require a great deal of 
 attention, if the cook knows the corner of the fire or 
 hot plate, where the slow and very gentle temperature 
 will maintain itself regularly for three or four hours, 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Secondly, cooking by dry heat in hot air — (i^) Baking — In dry 
 compartments heated by steam — Becker's process and others 
 — Atkinson's American oven — The Enghsh kitchener — (fi) 
 Roasting — The " taste of the fire " — Its attractive peculiarity 
 — (c) Broiling, another illustration of this — The process 
 explained — The third method, cooking by high temperature 
 in heated oil or frying — Process explained — ^A careful atten- 
 tion to minute particulars necessary to insure success — The 
 omelette — Opposite principles in French and English 
 cookery considered — Superiority of each in certain par- 
 ticulars. 
 
 This chapter will be devoted to the application of 
 heat in dry air for various processes of cooking 
 ordinarily thus conducted, being the second method 
 referred to at the opening of the last chapter, leading 
 finally to the third and last method, viz. the use of 
 the highest temperatures, obtained by "frying" in 
 heated oil. 
 
 Secondly, the application of heat in dry air by 
 the processes known as "baking," "roast- ii_ cooking 
 ing," " broiling." '" d""? ^'■■ 
 
 (a) Baking. — Cooking in closed vessels, ovens or 
 other compartments in dry heated air, whether the 
 heat is obtained from adjacent fires, or from steam 
 
ii6 Food and Feeding. 
 
 at a high temperature externally applied, may be 
 regarded as a process of baking. The latter mode in 
 which successful cooking is thus accomplished, with- 
 out hardening the albuminoid tissues of meat, has 
 been adopted on a large scale for institutions where 
 the demand is constant and uniform in kind. A 
 good example of this is the apparatus patented 
 
 „ , , by Becker, of Berlin (1882). The 
 
 Becker's ^ ' 
 
 process; principle consists in ascertaining the 
 
 temperatures best adapted for cook- 
 ing each kind of food — for example, for making 
 soup ; for producing tender flesh, juicy, and not 
 over- dried ; and for serving vegetables in a condition 
 adapted for digestion. The highest temperature of 
 the three is generally demanded for the last-named, 
 or the longest exposure to heat ; for the starch cells 
 throughout the tissue must be burst to scatter their 
 contents, before the required condition is attained. 
 Different compartments in the apparatus are main- 
 tained at varied temperatures by regulating the steam 
 supplied to each, and the economy in fuel thus 
 effected on the large scale on which this method is 
 applied is considerable. This plan was adopted and 
 systematically applied a few years ago by my friend, 
 Mr. L. O. Smith, of Stockholm, for the operatives 
 and their families in that city ; and detailed accounts 
 of it were published at the time (1884) in this 
 country. And the results were accepted as demon- 
 strating the efficiency and the economy of cookery 
 at low temperatures. 
 
Cooking in Hot Air. 117 
 
 The Rev. Canon Moore Ede, of Gateshead, was 
 
 attracted by Mr. Smith's successful use „ 
 
 , Rev. Moore 
 
 of Becker s apparatus, and visited Stock- Ede's 
 
 holm for the purpose of testing its value. ^^P^'®" ^• 
 
 He embodied his observations, which were in the 
 
 highest degree favourable, in an admirable lecture 
 
 on cheap food and cooking at Sunderland in 1884, 
 
 which has since been cheaply printed, and had a 
 
 deservedly large sale.* He employed for his cheap 
 
 dinners for children a large box of sheet-iron, felted 
 
 throughout inside, two and a half inches thick, and 
 
 lined with tin-plate. Two gas jets will raise the 
 
 contents (thirty gallons) to the boiling point, and a 
 
 very small amount of flame suffices to maintain the 
 
 lower temperatures preferred for as many hours as 
 
 are required. 
 
 Some twelve years or more ago, a very complete 
 
 and efficient apparatus, adapted for all Mr. E. At- 
 
 the uses of a small or large family, ••Aladdin 
 
 was designed and thoroughly tested in Oven." 
 
 America by Mr. Edw. Atkinson, of Brookline, Mass. 
 
 He first introduced the apparatus to the public as 
 
 the "Aladdin Cooker," for boiling, stewing, etc., and 
 
 has rendered it more useful and efficient for all 
 
 methods of cooking, except broiling and frying, 
 
 under the name of the "Aladdin Oven." 
 
 * " Cheap Food and Cheap Cooking." London : W. Scott, 
 14, Paternoster Square. Price id. 1884. There are excellent 
 hints on the management of penny dinners for school children. 
 See also " Children's Dinner Tables," in the Appendix. 
 
1 1 8 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Much is often said of the economy effected by all 
 
 „ . , these methods of slow cookery, on the 
 Question of , . , 
 
 economy ground of the smaller loss m weight 
 
 consi ere . produced by them, as compared with 
 roasted meats. This is much less than would appear 
 at first sight to be the case. It is quite true that 
 a joint weighing fourteen pounds when roasted or 
 baked may weigh only eleven, and if cooked in the 
 low-temperature chamber may be finished at twelve 
 pounds and a half. The difference in weight is due 
 to loss of water only ; the far-reaching cooking odours 
 amount to nothing. These are produced by slight 
 scorching of the surface, one result of which is a highly 
 appreciated and appetizing flavour in a very thin 
 superficial layer, giving character to roasted and 
 broiled meats, which cannot be obtained by any slow 
 or closed-chamber process. Mr. Atkinson cleverly 
 imitates the appearance of a roast in colour and dry- 
 ness of surface by slightly buttering the outside of 
 the joint to be "roasted," and covering it with fine 
 crumbs, or better still, the raspings of a French roll, 
 which will give a browner and a crisper covering. 
 But a true roast which " tastes of the fire " can only 
 be really produced in front of a well-prepared open 
 range. 
 
 The principle on which all of them act is to 
 prevent the escape of heat by constructing the oven 
 of materials which are thoroughly non-conducting, 
 and therefore do not consist of metcil, invariably em- 
 ployed for kitchen ranges. Metal conducts heat away 
 
Various Modes: Atkinson's. 119 
 
 rapidly, and requires constant supplies of fresh heat, 
 a process which renders difficult the maintenance of 
 an equable temperature, besides being costly through 
 wasteful consumption of fuel. The thick Construc- 
 sides of the Aladdin oven are made of *'°°' 
 indurated and incombustible papier mdcM, or of a 
 wood pulp, desiccated, which is practically almost the 
 same thing, one of the best non-conductors of heat 
 known, with a thin metallic lining ; the interior cavity 
 available for cooking, which is divided by movable 
 horizontal partitions for different dishes, measuring 
 from a foot to a foot and a half in every direction, 
 in the sizes at present mostly used. The heat is 
 supplied to the oven by means of an oil lamp below, 
 or by gas ; in either case the amount supplied being 
 always under the control of the cook. The whole 
 of this heat, or nearly so, is conveyed into the interior 
 of the chamber — no admission of the products of 
 combustion from the lamp or of gas with the air 
 there being possible — to be utilized for culinary pur- 
 poses. A chimney is unnecessary, as the waste pro- 
 ducts of the small flame required are inconsiderable, 
 and may escape into the apartment. There being 
 so little loss of heat, the plan is admirably adapted 
 for hot summer weather, since the stove radiates no 
 perceptible warmth into the surrounding air. It is 
 not intended for cooking rapidly, but at Mode of 
 a rate during the day requiring fully "^'"S- 
 double the time consumed by the common kitchen 
 range, while for soup-making, stews, or any other 
 
I20 Food and Feeding. 
 
 procedure which it is desired to accomplish at a low 
 
 temperature, and by which the best results are 
 
 attained, it should be left at work all night with a 
 
 small jet of gas beneath as the only source of heat. 
 
 Bread may be made in it very successfully when the 
 
 boiling and baking processes necessary for a meal 
 
 have been completed, and much heat remains still to 
 
 be utilized.* 
 
 ip) Roasting, or the cooking of meat by heat through 
 
 Cooking radiation, and by heated dry air in front 
 
 meat by qj- ^ clear, bright fire : the heat radiating 
 
 radiation. » t> > t> 
 
 (b) " Roast- from which into the " roaster,'' a metallic 
 '"S- enclosure open towards the fire only, and 
 
 containing the joint, turned therein by means of a 
 bottle-jack. The fire, being at its best, the joint, 
 poultry, or game, is placed very near at first — an 
 analogous proceeding to the initial step in boiling — 
 in order to seal the entire surface by coagulating its 
 albumen at the outset, and so enclose the fluids 
 securely within (see p. 95). This is accomplished in 
 about eight to ten minutes for a large joint, or in four 
 
 * " The Art of Cooking," by E. Atkinson, LL.D. New York : 
 Appleton. 1889. A paper reprinted from the Science Monthly 
 for November, 1889, and other reports and papers subsequently. 
 
 Since that date Mr. Atkinson has carried his researches much 
 further, embracing the economic and scientific bearings of food- 
 production, the nature of man's wants in relation thereto, with 
 their results in the form of dietetics appropriate under varied 
 circumstances, in a work full of information on all these subjects, 
 entitled " The Science of Nutrition, and the Art of Cooking by 
 the Aladdin Oven," with directions and receipts. Boston : 
 Damrell & Upham. 1896. 
 
Roasting : Taste of the Fire. 121 
 
 or five for a piece of poultry. The roaster is then 
 
 drawn half a foot to a foot further back, so as to 
 
 diminish the heat thenceforward. The „. 
 
 Gives oppor- 
 
 opportunity of basting the joint, which, tunity for 
 
 especially towards the close of the pro- ' 
 
 cess, should be frequently done with dripping from 
 
 the pan below, is one of the advantages of this mode 
 
 of cooking, which cannot be secured by any process 
 
 of baking in an oven. The surface would 
 
 value of. 
 become over-dried by the heat, cracked, 
 
 thus permitting vapours to escape, and even charred, 
 
 were it not for the basting, which preserves it moist 
 
 and flexible, and ensures only that precise degree of 
 
 browning, with its agreeable aroma, which is found 
 
 by a connoisseur so precious for its peculiar flavour 
 
 and scent. Want of diligence in using the ladle, and 
 
 of care in regulating the fire, occasions the fat to be 
 
 decomposed and burnt with much evil odour and 
 
 savour. Certainly the proper roasting of poultry 
 
 and game is quite unattainable by any other 
 
 method. 
 
 The well-known " taste of the fire," so appreciated 
 
 by the gourmet, is produced by actual xhe " taste 
 
 carbonization of the surface of the of the fire." 
 
 roasting portion of the food, and may be largely 
 
 recognized as precious to man, far beyond the domain 
 
 of cookery, strictly so-called. Within it, however, this 
 
 specific quality gives character and value to the 
 
 surface of all broiled and grilled meats ; to those 
 
 also which are well browned in frying ; to a slice 
 
122 Food and Feeding. 
 
 of well-made toast (bread) ; to a thoroughly baked 
 potato, the coat of which is partly browned and 
 crackled ; to the "black onion," which develops a 
 marvellous sweetness by the same process ; and 
 almost always its peculiar charm to the pancake, 
 which without it would be flabby and flavourless. 
 All the character possessed by caramel, or browned 
 sugar, is derived from the carbonization being carried 
 so far only that a little sweetness should still linger, 
 although a delicate aromatic bitter is produced, each 
 flavour enhancing the attraction of its associate ; 
 while a new beauty, that of colour, also results. All 
 the inimitable fragrance of coffee is an effect of the 
 same remarkable change of which partial carboniza- 
 tion by heat is the agent. Then the burning of 
 almonds, and the roasting of nuts in all their variety, 
 furnish further illustrations of the principle. 
 
 So, carbonized wood, for the sake of the essential 
 oils which are burned and volatilized in the rising 
 smoke, the odours of which are thereby changed and 
 communicated to salted meats and fish, thus con- 
 ferring upon them a peculiar aroma with a slight 
 bitterness of taste, as we all so well know, in 
 smoked bacon, hams, tongues, herrings, haddock, 
 and salmon. 
 
 Thus it is also to the sense of smell, so closely 
 allied as it is with that of taste — of which I shall 
 have to say something hereafter — that the odour of 
 burning weeds and other vegetable matters is so 
 delightful on a fine quiet evening in the country 
 
The Range: Baking, Broiling. 123 
 
 as it floats in an atmosphere undisturbed by the 
 breeze. 
 
 To return after this I hope permissible digres- 
 sion ; a joint of meat may, however, be well cooked 
 in the oven of an ordinary kitchener or complete 
 cooking range, as now usually made, so as closely to 
 resemble the result obtained by true roasting. The 
 conditions are a good supply of heat, ^s , 
 far as possible from the top and both to roast in 
 sides of the oven, the ability to ventilate ^ °'^°* 
 when desired, a pan to catch the dripping beneath 
 the grating on which the joint rests, that pan resting 
 on another an inch or two deeper, containing water 
 below, the evaporation of which maintains the dripping 
 at a moderate temperature, rendering impossible its 
 decomposition or burning with its all-pervading 
 offensive odour. In this way the nearest approach 
 has been made to accomplish in an oven the results 
 achieved by roasting; and for joints of meat it is 
 almost successful. It is not possible thus to acquire 
 the effect which constant basting of the roast attains, 
 and for game certainly the latter process should be 
 employed. Those who desire to pursue j^ . 
 this subject further are strongly advised Williams' 
 to make themselves acquainted with a 
 work, already referred to, by Mr. M. Williams. It 
 deals with the subject very fully, while its lucid and 
 interesting style renders it very attractive ; moreover, 
 it abounds in quaint and suggestive hints, and is 
 valuable, particularly to those who desire to avoid 
 
124 Food and Feeding. 
 
 needless expenditure, and to preserve an intelligent 
 method in the exercise of the household economies.* 
 
 (c) Broiling. — Respecting this, I shall say no more 
 , > BroUine- ^^"^^ *^^" *^^^ ^^ operation resembles 
 directions that of roasting, but is applicable to a 
 
 ' small portion of flesh, and can be rapidly 
 
 conducted on the gridiron over a clear fire or upon 
 a gas grill, which latter can be made available at a 
 moment's notice. A clear and smokeless fire is often 
 not to be had without considerable delay and pre- 
 paration, and then must be exclusively devoted to 
 the grill as long as this is required, to the exclusion 
 of other processes, except those which are to be 
 conducted on the adjacent hot plate. The object 
 is to seal the surface of the meat by heat at first, not 
 permitting the temperature of the interior to rise to 
 a higher point than just suffices to render it tender, 
 as it becomes filled and expanded by its own juices, 
 which are yielded abundantly in the form of rich red 
 gravy when the meat is cut by the consumer a few 
 minutes afterwards. Hence the morsel, plump and 
 rounded by the action of the heat, must not be touched 
 by a fork, the perforations thus made permitting the 
 rich natural juices of the meat to escape, but be 
 turned when necessary with a pair of light tongs. 
 The value of the grill is, perhaps, nowhere better 
 understood than in England, especially in relation 
 to chops, steak, and kidney ; portions of fowl, or a 
 
 * " The Chemistry of Cooking," by Mattieu Williams. 
 London : Chatto & Windus. 1885. 
 
Broiling and Frying. 125 
 
 split chicken, the bladebone, or even a small shoulder 
 of mutton — all of which may be thus served in per- 
 fection by a competent hand. Still, it is not quite 
 so widely appreciated as it deserves to be in the 
 
 preparation of many a small dish of .. ,, 
 
 . , ^ , , „ available for 
 
 fish, fowl, and meat, or " a bone, to say many little 
 
 nothing of a grilled mushroom, either 
 alone, or as an accompaniment to any of them. And 
 it may be worth while, perhaps, remarking that the 
 sauce par excellence for broils is mushroom ketch- 
 up ; and the garnish cool lettuce, watercress, or 
 endive. 
 
 Lastly, Frying. — Cooking by immersion in oil 
 
 or melted fat at temperatures greatly 
 
 FrvinsT 
 exceeding that of boiling water, and 
 
 popularly known as frying. This process is rarely 
 
 understood, and is generally very imperfectly practised 
 
 by the ordinary English cook. The products of our 
 
 frying-pan are often greasy, and there- 
 
 and the 
 fore for many persons indigestible, the rationale 
 
 shallow form of the pan being unsuited Process, 
 for the process of cooking at a high temperature in 
 oil, that is, at a heat of about 350° to 390° Fahr., 
 that of boiling water being 212°. This high tempe- 
 rature produces results, which are equivalent indeed 
 to quick roasting, when the article to be cooked is 
 immersed in the nearly boiling fat Frying, as gene- 
 rally conducted, is rather a combination of broiling 
 and toasting or scorching; and the use of the deep 
 pan or bath of heated oil or dripping, which is 
 
126 Food and Feeding. 
 
 essential to the right performance of the process, 
 and especially in order to prevent greasiness, is the 
 exception, and not the rule in ordinary kitchens. A 
 Practical ^^'^ words of explanation are necessary 
 
 directions. jjj relation to the temperature of the fat 
 which forms the frying bath, a matter of importance 
 to ensure satisfactory results. When a bath of melt- 
 ing fat is placed on the fire and the temperature has 
 risen to 212°, some bubbles come to the surface with 
 a hissing sound ; these are due to a small portion of 
 water, inherent in the solid dripping, especially if it 
 has been clarified previously with hot water, so fre- 
 quently necessary, which, being converted into steam, 
 rise until all is got rid of This is not the boiling 
 of the fat, which is now tranquil, and when the 
 temperature has advanced much higher, to something 
 like 340°, a slight vapour is given oflf. If the fat is 
 permitted to become much hotter, smoke appears, 
 indicating a degree of heat to be avoided, and that 
 the fat has reached what is called the boiling point, 
 when it decomposes and spoils. Before this is reached, 
 the heat should be tested by putting in a slip of 
 bread, which if browned in a few seconds, a sufficient 
 temperature has been attained, and the bath is ready 
 for use. The above remarks apply equally to the 
 temperature of any oil used for the same 
 of high purpose. The principle on which suc- 
 
 cess depends is, that at the moment of 
 contact with the almost boiling fat or oil, a thin film 
 of every part of the surface of the fish or other object 
 
Process of Frying. 127 
 
 to be fried is coagulated, so that the juices with their 
 flavours, etc., are at once locked up within, and nothing 
 can escape. The bath should therefore contain 
 quantity sufficient to permit the complete immersion 
 of the portion to be fried, and also be hot enough 
 to effect this result in an instant, after which, and 
 during the short time requisite to cook the interior, 
 the heat is often slightly lowered with advantage. 
 The fish or other material employed emerges when 
 done, with a surface to which a little oil adheres, 
 but this will drain off owing to its extreme fluidity 
 when hot, if left on a napkin slanting a minute or 
 two before the fire — better still, on white blotting- 
 paper ; and thus it may be served absolutely free 
 from grease. The film of egg often applied to the 
 surface of an object to be fried, is in the same manner 
 instantly coagulated and forms an impermeable case ; 
 while the fine bread crumbs adhering to it take a bright 
 yellow colour, being slightly charred or toasted by 
 the high temperature they are exposed to. In order 
 to be free from grease when served the Avoid 
 bread or biscuit crumbs should be very gi^ease; 
 fine, adhering by means of a very thin layer of &gg 
 previously applied by the brush. If the crumbs are 
 coarse anji the egg is used too abundantly, grease 
 will adhere to the surface or be absorbed by it ; 
 thus a thick indigestible case covers the fish, a con- 
 dition in which, unhappily, it commonly appears 
 at table, even in the better class of hotels in this 
 country. 
 
128 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Excellent and fresh olive oil, which need not be so 
 
 the value of perfect in tint and flavour as the choicest 
 
 olive oil ; kinds reserved for the salad-bowl, is the 
 
 best available form of fat for frying, and is sold at 
 
 a moderate price by the gallon for this purpose at 
 
 the best Italian warehouses. Nothing, perhaps, is 
 
 , ,, , better than well-clarified beef dripping, 
 and of beef ^^ ^' 
 
 fat or such as is produced, often abundantly, 
 
 ripping. .^ most English kitchens ; but the time- 
 honoured traditions of our perquisite system some- 
 times enable an English cook to sell this for herself, 
 at small price, to a little trader round the corner, 
 while she buys, at her employer's cost, a quantity of 
 pork lard for frying material, at double the price 
 obtained for the dripping. Unfortunately, however, 
 lard is the worst menstruum for the purpose, the 
 most difficult to work in so as to free the matters 
 fried in it from grease ; and we might be glad to 
 buy back our own dripping from the aforesaid little 
 trader, at a profit to him of cent, per cent., if only 
 the purchase could be diplomatically negotiated. 
 But so sweet is acquisition by way of perquisite, 
 that few of the present race of cooks appeared willing 
 to part with this particular one for any consideration 
 which can be off"ered. I am glad to learn, since the 
 foregoing was written in an early edition, that a 
 more honest system is coming into vogue. Well 
 clarified dripping, consisting of the fat or suet about 
 the kidney especially, with a small proportion of fat 
 from cooked pork (not the lard of the shop), is said 
 
The Omelette. 129 
 
 by some of the first practitioners of the art to be the 
 best menstruum to employ. 
 
 There is one dish which may be mentioned here 
 appropriately, of which English cooks 1^,5 
 have not much practical knowledge; omelette; 
 very few can make a tolerable omelette: and thus 
 one of the most delicious and nutritious products of 
 culinary art, with the further merit that it can be 
 more rapidly prepared than any other dish of equal 
 value, especially to the traveller, must really at present 
 be almost regarded as an exotic. The method of 
 proceeding is one which it is almost impossible to 
 describe in writing, and no cookery book instructions 
 which I have ever seen convey a notion of the neces- 
 sary manipulation in which the whole art consists — 
 to the uninitiated. Competent instruction at first 
 and some practice are undoubtedly required, in order 
 to attain a mastery in producing an omelette ; but 
 these given, there ought to be no difficulty in turning 
 out an excellent specimen. The ability to do this 
 may be so useful in the varied circumstances of 
 travel, etc., that no young man destined for foreign 
 service, or even who lives in chambers, the making 
 should fail to acquire so desirable an practic^y 
 accomplishment It can only be done learned, 
 by learning it practically from an efficient teacher. 
 
 I have an observation to make relative to the 
 general treatment of flesh in cookery (butcher's meat, 
 poultry, and game), which finds its place appro- 
 priately here. It relates to one of the fundamental 
 
 I 
 
130 Food and Feeding. 
 
 principles of the culinary art, and should be con- 
 sidered by all who are interested in the subject 
 before regarding questions of detail. I ask attention 
 to it because I do not know that any writer has 
 explained the origin of widely differing methods in 
 the practice of culinary art, adopted in France and 
 England respectively. These two distinct systems 
 
 have been produced as the result of 
 character- circumstances, the force of which may 
 English ^^ easily recognized, dominating the 
 
 and French treatment of flesh provisions particularly, 
 
 on principles directly opposed to each 
 other. One of these characterizes the best English 
 cookery, while the other has been, and still is, to a 
 large extent, the ruling principle of French cookery. 
 Both are rational — each system, perhaps, the better 
 of the two in its own place ; and only illogical 
 products and examples of defective taste can arise 
 in practical cookery by confounding the two, an 
 error, however, which is far from uncommon. In 
 spite of the admiration which it is impossible to 
 withhold for the talent of the French cook, it is 
 nevertheless in France that the confusion I speak of 
 is chiefly to be met with. And it is only in our own 
 country, I venture to affirm, that the principle or 
 system in question is carried out to perfection. The 
 The English English principle is, that our own meat 
 '^^* > and game shall be presented at table in 
 
 the highest state of perfection attainable, so far as 
 breeding, feeding, and keeping can accomplish it, 
 
French and English Cookery. 131 
 
 each animal, when served, to be characterized by 
 its own proper flavour, which is on no account to 
 be masked or disguised by others, which are adven- 
 titious. Delicate additions tending to , , 
 
 ^ perfect 
 
 heighten the natural flavour, or agree- within its 
 ably subordinated to it, shall alone be 
 admitted. It is a principle which can be successfully 
 followed only where these meats exist in high per- 
 fection : where meat is inferior or insipid, an opposite 
 treatment is the better one. And I do not hesitate 
 to claim for the intelligent English consumer, that 
 it has long been essentially his aim to cultivate the 
 best meat and game in the world, and to enjoy its 
 intrinsic qualities for their own sake, unalloyed by 
 any of those additions in the form of finely flavoured 
 sauce, which are so valuable for improving materials 
 which do not possess their own distinctive fine 
 qualities and flavours ; while his proximity to the 
 seashore and numerous streams enables him to enjoy 
 fish of all kinds absolutely fresh and in the finest 
 condition. 
 
 The opposite principle is that which has been 
 developed in association with the pro- xhe French 
 duction of meats and poultry which are '*^^ ! 
 naturally somewhat insipid. Since it has not been 
 the custom to rear in France fine mature beef or 
 mutton, as we understand those meats here, but 
 rather to consume almost exclusively an immature 
 product, veal, as well as poultry, much of which 
 although the best of its kind, is naturally wanting 
 
132 Food and Feeding. 
 
 in sapid characters, these have become, and rightly 
 so, the vehicles of various delicious adventitious 
 flavours, for the purpose of displaying which the 
 its value white meats are valued, rather than for 
 
 and utility. ^q;^^ inherent qualities. This character 
 of veal is illustrated in a passage occurring in the 
 first number of the famous Almanack des Gourmands, 
 which appeared in Paris at the commencement of the 
 present century : — " Veal lends itself to so many 
 metamorphoses that we may fairly term it 'the 
 chameleon of cookery.' " * Precisely the same view 
 is held by Brillat-Savarin, but in relation to poultry, 
 when he says, " Poultry is for cookery what canvas is 
 to the painter." t In such conditions, therefore, it is 
 natural that the French cuisine should be essentially 
 distinguished for its sauces, by which it adorns and 
 transforms material in itself somewhat uninteresting 
 or uninviting. 
 
 The Englishman loves the flavour of three or four 
 
 „ . years' old mutton (unhappily almost a 
 
 Con^arison •' \ rr .» 
 
 of the two tradition now), mature beef, the wildest 
 game, both winged and ground ; and he 
 cares not how little of " sauce " is supplied — he 
 demands only " gravy " — so that these are in fine 
 condition, sufficiently, not over-kept, and simply 
 cooked, for the most part carefully roasted. To 
 lard fine full-flavoured tender mutton or venison is, 
 for him, to desecrate them ; to lard or farce a grouse 
 
 * Almanack des Gourmands, p. 17. Paris : 1803. 
 t " Physiologic du Goftt," p. 30. Paris : 1843. 
 
Comparison of Methods. 133 
 
 or partridge is the reverse of a compliment equally 
 to the game, if mature, and to the guest, if a con- 
 noisseur. A young and tender English partridge is 
 not improved, I venture to submit, even by larding, 
 although the reverse is true of quail. 
 
 The French chef treats the white meat, veal and 
 domestic poultry, with so many ingeniously contrived 
 sauces, as to render those two meats as good as six. 
 So successful is the achievement, that he is too often 
 tempted to extend his art to dark-fleshed game, and 
 seeking to adorn it with new flavours, destroys the 
 original savour and aroma, in which consists for us 
 the value of the dish. 
 
 During the last few years, however, I have been 
 happy to observe signs of a change in French 
 the practice of the best French cooks appreciation, 
 in this respect, as well as sometimes to find meats 
 of better and more mature kind in Paris than 
 formerly. One of the best illustrations of the value 
 of the principle I have above referred to as that of 
 old English cookery, I met with a few years ago, 
 served to myself and a friend, in an excellent and 
 well-known restaurant very near the Place de I'Op^ra. 
 It was brought to me as a novelty, and a happy 
 the method of realizing the idea I con- illustration, 
 cede to be so, and in its way perfect in execution. 
 It consisted of a very fine wild duck, simply but 
 lightly and delicately roasted, and served without 
 an atom of sauce. The maitre d' hotel having placed 
 the bird before us on a dish heated by a spirit lamp 
 
134 Food and Feeding. 
 
 below, cut three long handsome slices on each side 
 of the breast-bone, beautifully red although perfectly- 
 cooked, and full of natural juice, removing thus, in 
 fact, all that is prime and really worth eating. Leaving 
 these in the hot dish and replacing the cover, he 
 placed on the table before us a powerful nickel- 
 silvered press, the size of a tea-urn or samovar, put 
 the whole of the remains of the bird into it, and with 
 a few turns of the lever, applied the screw so as to 
 express when the tap was turned a sufficient quantity 
 of hot, rich, red juice to serve as our only, and indeed 
 
 most exquisite sauce. The only admis- 
 additions sible additions would be the scent of 
 
 a fresh lemon and a few drops of its 
 juice with a grain or two of Nepaul pepper; or a 
 little well-made Bigarade sauce (see my receipt at 
 p. IS4)- 
 
 The pinions, legs and back, indeed all but the 
 sliced breast, had been thus compelled to yield all 
 their fluids, in the form of about a coffee cupful of 
 what might be called the very essence of the bird. 
 Such treatment precisely accords with our own view 
 of what is the best, and was most admirably realized. 
 Let us continue to cultivate the finest meats and 
 game, presenting them when in the most perfect 
 condition for the table, and serve simply, or with 
 only such subordinate adjuncts as tend to heighten, 
 not to obscure, the natural character of the original. 
 We shall then have no cause to be ashamed of the 
 course in which they appear at an English table. 
 
IVild Duck in Perfection. 135 
 
 But I freely concede that in making the best of 
 second-rate and insipid morsels, we have still a good 
 deal to learn, on the score of sauces, garnish, and 
 serving, from the great school of culinary art in 
 France. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Soups — Not sufficiently esteemed — Better understood in France 
 — Pot-au-feu — The " stock-pot " — Bouillon — ConsomrrU— 
 Endless varieties produced from these — Three distinct 
 classes of soup — i. The clear : of meat, fowl, and game ; 
 and vegetables or maigre — 2. The thick or purdes : of the 
 same — Various illustrations of these — 3. More substantial 
 soups : turtle, ox-tail, and other examples — Bouillabaisse — 
 Soups, gras and maigre — Receipts for vegetable soup — 
 Practical hints in making the above. 
 
 I THINK it may be said that soups, whether clear 
 
 (that is, prepared from the juices of 
 
 neglected meat and vegetables only) or thick (that 
 
 ^ *" is, purees of animal or vegetable matters), 
 
 are far too lightly esteemed by most classes in 
 
 England, while they are almost unknown to the 
 
 working man. For the latter they might furnish an 
 
 important cheap and savoury dish ; by the former 
 
 they are too often regarded as the mere prelude to 
 
 a meal, to be swallowed hastily, or disregarded 
 
 an important altogether as mostly unworthy of atten- 
 
 formofdiet tion. The great variety of vesretable 
 for all. , ... , ., 
 
 purees, which can be easily made and 
 
 blended with light animal broths, admits of daily 
 
Soup Making. 137 
 
 change in the matter of soup to a remarkable extent, 
 and affords scope for taste in the selection and com- 
 bination of flavours. The use of fresh vegetables in 
 abundance — such as carrots, turnips, parsnips, arti- 
 chokes, celery, cabbage, sorrel, leeks, and onions — 
 renders such soups wholesome and appetizing. The 
 supply of garden produce ought in this utilizing 
 country to be singularly plentiful ; and, adf^'''^ 
 owing to the unrivalled means of trans- tageously. 
 port, all common vegetables ought to be obtained 
 fresh in every part of London. The These should 
 contrary, however, is unhappily the fact. ^^ fresh. 
 It is a matter of extreme regret that vegetables, 
 dried and compressed after a modern method, should 
 be so much used as they are for soup by , hotel- 
 keepers- and other caterers for the public. Un- 
 questionably useful as these dried products are on 
 board ship, and to travellers camping out, to employ 
 them at home, when fresh can be had, is the result 
 of sheer indolence or of gross ignorance. All the 
 finest qualities of scent and flavour, with some of the 
 fresh juices, are lost in the drying process ; and 
 the infusions of preserved vegetables no more re- 
 semble a freshly made odoriferous soup, than a cup 
 of that thick brown, odourless, insipid mixture, con- 
 sisting' of some bottled "essence" dissolved in hot 
 water, and now supplied as coffee at most railway 
 stations and hotels in this country, resembles the 
 recently made infusion of the freshly roasted berry. 
 It says little for the taste of our countrymen that 
 
138 Food and Feeding. 
 
 such imperfect imitations are so generally tolerated 
 
 without complaint. 
 
 How different is the result of intelligent cookery, 
 
 „ , as we find it exemplified in the simple 
 
 Example: ^ 
 
 the national national soup of France. Here the 
 
 appetizing odours of fresh meat and 
 
 vegetables are discerned with pleasure, the moment 
 
 a pot-au-feu enters the room. Relative to this dish 
 
 so much has of late appeared in public prints, failing 
 
 to explain what is understood in France by it, that 
 
 I think an accurate description of what it really is 
 
 may prove acceptable here. 
 
 "Y^iG. pot-au-feu is a composite dish which produces, 
 "Pot-au- ^'^^'^> ^ simple, but not strong, beef broth 
 ^^' {bouillon), well flavoured by fresh vege- 
 
 tables ; secondly, a somewhat over-cooked and ex- 
 hausted piece of beef {bouilli), which is served after 
 the soup ; and, lastly, the vegetables themselves. 
 
 This is a different thing from the common " stock- 
 differs from P°* " °^ *^^ French peasant, so frequently 
 the " stock- termed a pot-au-feu, and confounded 
 ^° ' with it. The primary object of a " stock- 
 
 pot" is to make a decoction or basis for soup — of 
 animal food, if possible — and every morsel of flesh, 
 poultry, trimmings from joints, bones well bruised, 
 etc., which are available for the purpose, are reserved 
 for it. To the pot of the peasant, who wastes 
 nothing whatever, all things are welcome ; and every 
 atom of nutritive material — solid or liquid — goes into 
 it, to which are always added herbs and vegetables, 
 
The Pot-au-Feu. 139 
 
 together with the liquor in which any of the latter 
 may chance to have been boiled. But sometimes 
 it is a pot maigre, no meat of any kind "gras," or 
 having been procurable ; and very good "maigre." 
 vegetable soups, moreover, are educible therefrom, 
 of which more hereafter. Then again, besides, or 
 instead of the slices of bread which are usually put 
 into the broth when served, the good wife now and 
 then cleans a fresh cabbage, boils it in water, as 
 much as possible of which she removes by pressure 
 in a cloth, then puts the cabbage for a few minutes 
 into her pot, and finally serves it as a welcome 
 addition to the dish. But in none of these forms can 
 the true pot-ati-feu be recognized ; and no Frenchman 
 who has the least acquaintance with the national 
 cookery will allow it to rank as one. 
 
 The pot-au-feu has for its object, as already stated, 
 not only the making of a well-flavoured p j i. f 
 fe^ broth, but the cooking of a portion the"pot- 
 of the beef to be eaten separately after, 
 either cold or hot, according to taste, together with the 
 vegetables necessarily associated with it. Formerly, 
 this bouilli always appeared at an ordinary French 
 table immediately after the bouillon; but although 
 still retaining some nutritious elements, it is not 
 much esteemed, certainly by those who can aiiFord 
 better food, and it has gradually disappeared during 
 the last few years. So the pot-au-feu has come to 
 signify at ordinary tables only a soup, and it may 
 appear at the best tables in that capacity; still, 
 
140 Food and Feeding. 
 
 strictly as a beef broth, but of the most perfect 
 kind, well seasoned and flavoured by herbs and 
 vegetables. The well-known soups so admirably 
 served at a good Paris restaurant as paysanne and 
 croute-att-pot respectively, are but slight modifications 
 of the original pot-au-feu. 
 
 To return to the family stock-pot. This has, on 
 -j-jjg the Continent, especially in families of 
 
 stock-pot ^.jjg middle class, another use beside that 
 of preparing a basis for soup. Thus when a boiled 
 fowl is required, it is a common practice to conduct 
 the process in the liquor of the stock-pot. Any 
 nutritive matter, however small, which might have 
 been lost in the water used in ordinary boiling, is 
 saved for the soup, while a fowl boiled in stock is 
 certainly preferable when it comes to table, to one 
 which has been boiled in water. And so with many 
 other articles ; for example, a small and well cleaned 
 ham may be cooked — and this is an affair of several 
 hours — in a capacious stock-pot, with advantage 
 equally to the soup and the ham, provided, of course, 
 that the latter has previously been soaked some 
 hours to remove superfluous salt ; nor should any 
 salt be put into the stock-pot itself when required 
 for this operation. 
 
 But besides the bouillon of ^'^ pot-au-feu there is 
 "Grand the grand bouillon also, a distinct and 
 
 bouillon." elementary product of French cookery. 
 
 This is a decoction, stronger than the preceding, of 
 the flesh of beef and veal, together with a portion 
 
Bouillon and Consommd. 141 
 
 of supplementary bone and sinew, all fresh and 
 uncooked, in order to add gelatine ; and this is 
 combined also with vegetables. Lastly, » q_q^. 
 there is the consommd, which is a decoc- somme." 
 tion of beef, veal, and fowl, the two latter partially 
 roasted for the purpose of heightening flavour ; and 
 it is made, not with water, but with bouillon — GoufiK 
 orders the grand bouillon just described — and with a 
 few more vegetables. This is, therefore, the highest 
 form of soup from beef, veal, poultry, and vegetables 
 which can be produced (see Appendix, "Consomme "). 
 
 Now, as the mode of making pot-au-feu is an 
 important initial step in the art of soup-making, I 
 shall place in an appendix at the end of this volume, 
 a carefully made epitome of the very complete in- 
 structions given by Gouff^. The right management 
 is with him a matter of the highest importance ; and, 
 simple as the dish is, he devotes several pages to 
 the task of illustrating the elementary principles of 
 cookery which are involved in the process. 
 
 It is not at all surprising that many persons should 
 be somewhat bewildered by the almost soup nomen- 
 endless variety of appellation under clature; 
 which the single article of soup is presented at table. 
 It has been estimated that the titles varieties 
 which denote these numerous varieties endless, 
 number altogether not less perhaps than five hundred. 
 And proceeding on the principle on which these are 
 produced, there appears to be no reason why even 
 the present list should not be doubled in length. In 
 
142 Food and Feeding. 
 
 reality, the number of species is very limited; but 
 species very the slightest addition to a soup having 
 limited, been held sufficient to confer upon it 
 
 a distinctive name, the idea of complexity and 
 number has been unnecessarily fostered. Regarded 
 analytically, all soups may be considered as belonging 
 to three chief classes — the clear ; the thick, or puries ; 
 and a more substantial form, in which the soup 
 approximates somewhat to that of a stew, containing 
 solid matter in considerable quantity. In each of 
 these classes there are four or five species, from 
 which all varieties are produced by slight additions 
 and combinations of flavour. 
 
 First class, the clear soups, viz. — 
 
 1. A clear decoction (weak, or "broth ;" strong, or 
 
 consommi') of meat : of beef, veal, some- 
 to wit ; . , . , . , ^ 
 
 times mutton ; and of pork in the form 
 
 of ham or bacon. 
 
 2. A clear decoction of fowl. 
 
 3. A clear decoction of game. 
 
 4. A clear soup made from various kinds of turtle, 
 
 but always garnished with portions of turtle 
 itself. 
 
 5. A clear decoction of vegetables only, as the 
 
 basis of a soupe maigre. 
 
 Any of these may be used as made at first hand ; 
 
 but great variety may be obtained by 
 
 varieties making some slight addition, such as 
 
 with the well-known dried Italian pastes 
 
 in numerous forms, also specially made paste {nouillei 
 
Clear Soups and PurSes. 143 
 
 and quenelles) ; or with freshly made custard, cut 
 into diamonds, circles, etc., in various 
 colours ; cut fresh vegetables, in rounds, 
 in squares, in long strips, fresh, or lightly fried before 
 adding them ; with crusts of bread, with an tgg, etc. ; 
 each single addition denoted by a distinctive appella- 
 tion, which will suggest itself in each example named 
 above, to any one who has the least acquaintance 
 with cookery. 
 
 Second class, the thick soups, or purees. — The 
 consommi of beef, or of veal, beef, and Second 
 fowl mixed, or of game, may be thickened << Pur'ees." 
 by addition of a flesh, fowl, and game Animal. 
 purie respectively ; white soups, commencing with a 
 consommi Qi veal and poultry, thickened with 2. puree 
 of the white meat of fowl, with a portion of cream 
 or milk added ; and brown puries following, from 
 consommi of beef and veal, and of game. 
 
 The same consommi, or the weaker broth, furnish 
 bases for vegetable puries in like manner, Vegetable 
 either white or coloured. Many of these, P^i^ees. 
 like the others, have their distinctive names ; e.g. 
 purie of carrot as Crecy, of potatoes as Parmentier, 
 of fresh green peas as St. Germain, of red haricots 
 as Conde, of lentils as Conti, or adding vegetables 
 prepared as for a julienne, it becomes Faubonne ; 
 while a purie of Jerusalem artichokes, curiously 
 enough, and by virtue of a bad pun, is called 
 Palestine. The last named should, of course, have a 
 basis of fowl or veal broth, and added milk or cream. 
 
144 Food and Feeding. 
 
 And the same stock, blended with a well-prepared 
 purh of pearl barley, will furnish a very agreeable 
 crime d'orge. Many soups in ordinary use assume 
 a pleasant change, if a small quantity of tapioca is 
 incorporated by long and gentle simmering, until 
 almost dissolved, from the fulness and softness thus 
 communicated to the original. 
 
 Thirdly, a class of more substantial soups, con- 
 taining a considerable amount of solid matter ; 
 examples of these may be named as follows : — 
 
 Mock- turtle soup ; containing, large portions of the 
 calf's head, garnished with balls of seasoning, the 
 liquid portion being thick, not clear. 
 
 Ox-tail ; containing a considerable amount of 
 meat in a more or less clear broth or consommi. 
 
 The well-known '" giblet soup " and the " cock-a- 
 leekie" of North Britain are examples of poultry 
 thus treated ; the latter, doubtless designed originally 
 to present the patriarch of the poultry yard in an 
 eatable form. Another Scotch soup, " hotch-potch," 
 like an Italian '' minestre," or " minestrone," may con- 
 tain almost a meal of fragrant combinations of flesh, 
 vegetables, and herbs in variety. Another to be 
 named here is a thick mulligatawny soup, which is, 
 in fact, a diluted curry, of which, by the way, there 
 is now a clear variety. 
 
 An important group of the thick soups have their 
 
 origin in a pur^e and decoction of fish, 
 
 Fish purees. ^ . , . , ,, , „ ' 
 
 of various kmds, as well as of so-called 
 
 shell-fish, which of course are not fish at all, but 
 
Fish Soup and Turtle. 145 
 
 animals of other and totally distinct species. The 
 
 former have a basis of liquor obtained by stewing 
 
 the heads, bones, fins, and other cuttings from inferior 
 
 parts of the fish, garnished with fillets from the 
 
 choicest parts, and also with oysters, mussels, etc. 
 
 The latter kind, from "shell-fish," are oyster soups, 
 
 besides purees of prawns, crayfish, etc.. 
 
 Bisques, 
 and known as bisques ; often very 
 
 finished products of the culinary art. 
 
 The thick turtle soup is also more or less 2,piirie, 
 
 to begin with, to a certain extent, but „ . . 
 
 ^ ' , . , V Thick turtle, 
 
 its distinctive character is derived from 
 
 its garnish, consisting as it does of the choicest parts 
 
 of the animal. 
 
 The edible turtles belong to the class of reptiles, 
 and there are varieties, large and small, all highly 
 esteemed as food in various parts of the world. 
 
 Real turtle, clear, is made either in part or wholly 
 from the live animal ; a large proportion is prepared 
 from the imported dried flesh ; in either case the 
 stock is almost invariably made from veal and 
 beef.* 
 
 * A rather keen but amusing controversy took place in conse- 
 quence of my having stated in a paper read at the Fisheries 
 Exhibition in 1 883 that turtle soup when "a? its best" was 
 composed of a stock made from the conger eel, the turtle 
 furnishing the garnish and the name. The turtle-soup makers 
 rushed into print, especially some well-known artists at the East 
 End of London, who used language which was more remarkable 
 for force than for elegance. Never was there a more striking 
 illustration of the proverb, '' qui ^excuse s'accuse." No accusa- 
 tion had been brought against any turtle-soup maker : I had 
 
 K 
 
146 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Finally, I must not omit some mention of that 
 " Bouilla- delicious dish, bouillabaisse, eaten in per- 
 baisse." fection at Marseilles, as among the most 
 
 agreeable products of French cuisine in this direction. 
 Thackeray's well-known rhymes do not exaggerate 
 Thackeray's '^^^ good qualities, and enumerate its 
 description. component elements almost with suffi- 
 cient accuracy to direct the cook.* See chapter ix. 
 on the subject of fish as food, for remarks on its 
 selection and preparation for' receipts or fish soups 
 and stew, including directions for preparing a Mar- 
 sellaise bouillabaisse. 
 
 Then there is an important distinction, referred 
 
 „. . . to above, recognized chiefly on the 
 
 Distinctions ' ^ ^ 
 
 in soups for Continent, and related to the demands 
 ''fasting " 
 
 of religious observance, between soups 
 
 which have meat for their basis {potage gras), and 
 
 those which have fish, or exclusively vegetable basis 
 
 {potage maigre) ; into the latter class also, eggs are 
 
 admitted. All these take rank of course among the 
 
 merely expressed the opinion given above ; one which I still 
 think is correct. Much less had I anywhere affirmed that the 
 artists above alluded to had ever made turtle soup " at its best ! " 
 
 ' " This Bouillabaisse a noble dish is — 
 A sort of soup, or broth, or brew, 
 Or hotch-potch of all sorts of fishes 
 
 That Greenwich never could outdo : 
 Green herbs, red peppers, mussels, saffern, 
 
 Soles, onions, garlic, roach and dace ; 
 All these you eat at Jerrd's tavern 
 In that one dish of Bouillabaisse." 
 
 The Ballads. 
 
Vegetable Soups. 147 
 
 classes named ; but they are referred to separately 
 here in order to draw attention to a fact not generally 
 recognized in this country, that tolerably good soups 
 may be made without employing meat. 
 
 Vegetable soups, both clear and thickened, may be 
 made extremely palatable ; the former Vegetable 
 being agreeable and wholesome, espe- soups, 
 cially in the warm season when fresh vegetable 
 growth is abundant, and full of juice and fragrance. 
 And the latter, or thick soup, may be made nutritious 
 also, as already shown, since they contain a consider- 
 able quantity of barley, peas, beans, haricots, Indian 
 corn, rice, etc. 
 
 The following is a good receipt for a clear, purely 
 vegetable stock : — 
 
 Slice two carrots, two turnips, a head of celery, 
 two onions ; put into a frying-pan with clear vege- 
 a {^"^ sweet herbs and half a pound of *-*^'^ ®°"P- 
 butter. Fry until well browned, then put them with 
 three or four cloves, some salt and black pepper, 
 into six pints of cold water in a saucepan ; bring to 
 the boil and gently simmer for two or three hours, 
 reducing to four pints, not less ; strain off into a 
 vessel, letting it stand for use. When required, pour 
 off the clear liquor, leaving the deposit, and you will 
 have a fair vegetable stock. If it is to be used 
 as a clear vegetable soup, heat, adding at the close 
 two tablespoonfuls of "cornflour" previously mixed 
 smooth in some of the liquor, and letting the whole 
 boil ; if any scum arises remove it. The cornflour 
 
148 Food and Feeding. 
 
 gives to the decoction an agreeable body. Or, five 
 or six ounces of tapioca may be added at the outset, 
 which will thicken without interfering with the trans- 
 parency of the decoction. The soup may be garnished 
 with vegetables freshly cooked for the purpose, in 
 slices or other forms (see Goufif^'s receipt in the 
 Appendix). 
 
 To convert this into a meat consommi add after 
 boiling, and just before serving, two full 
 make a teaspoonfuls of the Liebig Company's 
 
 meat soup. Extract of Meat. 
 
 Another mode of giving body when a soup maigre 
 A gelatine ^^ "°* required, is to make a decoction of 
 l^°<*y- beef-bones without meat, which have 
 
 been thoroughly broken and allowed to simmer 
 gently at least six hours ; then cooled, and skimmed 
 from fat. The result, which is a strong jelly, can 
 be warmed, strained clear through flannel, and used 
 instead of water with which to make the vegetable 
 soup as above directed ; it adds substance and quality, 
 but of animal matter in place of the cornflour employed 
 for the preceding. 
 
 Thickened vegetable soups may be made with 
 Vegetable these stocks, or with a weak meat stock, 
 puree. by rubbing in smooth, well-made purees 
 
 of almost any vegetable matter. Those most com- 
 monly used are from green peas, potato, spinach, 
 carrot, turnip, artichoke, tomato, salsify, etc., or from 
 dried vegetable products, as split peas, lentils, hari- 
 cots, rice, arrowroot, semolina, etc. A potato piiit'e, 
 
Importance of Consommd. 149 
 
 garnished with well-boiled leeks cut in sections, is 
 a very palatable dish, and worthy of the esteem it 
 has long enjoyed among our Dutch and Flemish 
 neighbours. 
 
 I may conclude this brief sketch of soups by 
 observing that the ability to make a The title of 
 
 good, fragrant, and clear consomm^, yet "cook" does 
 
 ^ . ° ^ not belong 
 
 fine in colour with a certain softness and to one who 
 
 . , r i_ 1 1 ii • - cannot make 
 
 smoothness of body — and nothmg is a good 
 
 easier, granted a moderate intelligence '^onso™™^. 
 and the power of executing simple details with care 
 — affords the key to almost all. The preparation of 
 vegetables and the making of purhs are merely 
 mechanical processes, easily attained. The judg- 
 ment necessary to add and combine spices, essences, 
 and other sources of flavour, for soups, sauces, and 
 sweet entremets, is the one element which when 
 possessed, in addition to the character of an attentive, 
 dexterous, and painstaking workman, essential to 
 success in every profession, constitutes a finished 
 cook, and denotes his or her rank. And thus it is 
 that the department of sauces especially gives oppor- 
 tunity to develop and illustrate these qualities ; and 
 here it is that the artist's skill is most clearly 
 manifested. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Sauces — The two chief foundation sauces, the brown or 
 Espagnole, the white or VelouU — Their derivatives — 
 English melted butter — Maitre d'Hotel — Ravigotte, etc. — 
 Author's receipt for Bigarade sauce — Garnishes — Their 
 variety and use in supplementing dishes — Cookery of vege- 
 tables a- rAnglaise and d la Fraiiqaise — The tomato- 
 Macaroni — Best modes for preparing for the table — Rice : 
 various ways of preparing — The value of mincing in pre- 
 paring flesh for food — Cold meats, the service of — ^Aspic 
 jelly — Salads, in variety. 
 
 I SHALL commence with a brief sketch of the system 
 
 on which the numerous list of sauces, 
 Sauces. 
 
 which are offered for our service in 
 
 cookery, is constructed. This will at all events give 
 the tyro an idea of order and arrangement which 
 presides over the practical management of the 
 various sauces used in hot dishes of meat, game, 
 and poultry. But the reader who desires to become 
 thoroughly acquainted with the principles and 
 practice of sauce-making, a subject too recondite 
 to be dealt with at length here, should consult a first- 
 rate French authority, as unquestionably the highest 
 on this subject.* 
 * I can scargelv recommend a better than the classical work 
 
Two Foundation Sauces. 151 
 
 Sauces are numerous, although less so than are 
 
 soups, for each must have a real and distinct quality, 
 
 to which it owes its existence, and is required to 
 
 impart to some article of food for which additional 
 
 flavour is desired. It may be said that there are but 
 
 two chief foundation sauces, or " mother- Only two 
 
 sauces," as the French term them, a tion sauces: 
 
 brown sauce termed Espagnole, and a ^'ofgS^j 
 
 white one named Velout^, ox AUemande. "Veloute," 
 
 or "AUe- 
 Bechamel is reckoned as a " sauce mhre " mande." 
 
 also by some, but it is merely a variety of Velouti 
 
 with an addition of cream, making the sauce richer ; 
 
 while Allemande differs chiefly by the addition of 
 
 of Gouffi^ before referred to. But it may,'perhaps, be a little out 
 of date in some details, although the leading principles must 
 remain unchanged, and it is still an admirable guide to practice. 
 For the purposes of the best English kitchens, " La Cuisine 
 d'Aujourd'hui," by Urbain Dubois, E. Dentu, Paris, 1889, 
 pp. 760, is a storehouse of trustworthy information, and it is 
 well illustrated. Price 12 francs. But for a modern encyclo- 
 paedic work on the subject, including la haute cuisine, the 
 following, by Dubois and Bernard conjointly, is beyond question 
 the most complete : — 
 
 • ' Cuisine classique : Etudes raisonndes et demonstratives de 
 I'Ecole Frangaise ; " deux grands volumes, ']^ planches gravees ; 
 Dubois et Bernard. 14 Edition. E. Dentu, Paris. Prix 
 40 francs. 
 
 Since the last edition of this work appeared, a useful epitome 
 of the subject has been made in a small and handy volume 
 which should be in the hands of any mistress who desires to 
 understand it, and is an excellent guide for the cook who has 
 not been practically or systematically taught. It is entitled, " A 
 Book of Sauces," by Mrs. Beaty PownaU. Chapman & Hall: 
 1896. 
 
152 Food and Feeding. 
 
 yplks of eggs and a little butter. These have 
 been well called the Adam and Eve of cookery, 
 whence most others have sprung.* For each of these 
 there is a leason {liason), or thickening, in order to 
 bind the elements together and give body to the 
 sauce, known now more commonly as brown and 
 White and white roux respectively. And here again 
 brown roux. ojje marks the presence of that potent 
 quality before referred to, as the taste of the fire. 
 For Espagnole demands not only a beef-stock but a 
 proportion of smoked ham to insure the flavour in 
 question ; and its brown thickening is made by slowly 
 heating flour until it is partially carbonized, and 
 therefore browned by the fire being slowly heated, 
 together with fine clarified butter, which becomes 
 Flavour of nut-brown in the process, and both im- 
 the fire. ^2xt a fine roasting flavour to the same. 
 
 But the slightest burning of the butter is fatal, 
 and is avoided only by making the process of heat- 
 ing a slow one, and carefully stirring the mixture 
 in an enamelled saucepan constantly over a small 
 gas ring — at any rate, not over a hot cinder 
 fire. 
 
 * It appears to me quite unnecessary to recognize more than 
 one brown "foundation sauce," viz. the Espagnole, in which 
 the flavour of smoked ham is a necessary ingredient. A so- 
 called " brown sauce " without it is only an ordinary glaze, a 
 reduced consomm^ thickened with brown roux, and ranks only 
 as'a secondary variety of the above. The adoption of but one 
 brown and one white leading foundation sauce will be appre- 
 ciated by all practical cooks. 
 
White and Brown Roux. 153 
 
 A white roux is made in the same manner, but 
 
 with the finest flour unbaked, only well 
 
 W^hite roux. 
 dried, and fresh butter merely clarified, 
 
 mixed by stirring slowly over a still less degree of 
 
 heat, and never permitting either the flour or butter 
 
 to take colour. The brown and white roux will keep 
 
 a few days in a cool place for daily use as required. 
 
 This is all the space I can afford to this subject. 
 It is an important elementary process, as the pot-au- 
 feu is to soup making, and forms a key to the com- 
 position of many sauces. 
 
 English melted butter is regarded as the one sauce 
 
 of our country, and if well and carefully „ ,. . 
 
 ' English 
 made, is a very acceptable and whole- melted 
 
 some vehicle for various additions, both 
 savoury and sweet as required ; while the ingredients 
 are always at hand, and it can be quickly pro- 
 duced when required. 
 
 Other sauces, which are distinct varieties of the 
 Velouti, are, for example, Mattre d'Hdtel, ,, njaltre 
 with the addition of a little finely d'Hdtel," etc. 
 chopped parsley and a little lemon juice ; Ravigotte 
 the same, with a little chervil and tarragon besides, 
 etc. For Mayonnaise, Remoulade, and other forms of 
 olive oil and &'g^ mixture as sauce, see pp. 174, 175. 
 
 There is one sauce especially appropriate for wild 
 duck, and scarcely less so to well-cured Bigarade 
 ham, either hot or cold, for which I have sauce, 
 never yet met with what appears to me to be an 
 adequate receipt. I refer to that known as Bigarade ; 
 
154 Food and Feeding. 
 
 I will, therefore, give my own here. The following 
 Author's "^^y ^^ regarded as sufficient for ten or 
 
 receipt. twelve persons to accompany three or 
 
 four lightly roasted wild ducks, of which, of course, 
 the breast slices are the only portions served. Put 
 about one-third of a pint of well-reduced good brown 
 sauce, which will form indeed a glaze, into a small 
 saucepan for melting near the corner of the fire. 
 Have prepared three Seville oranges, thus — remove 
 the zest of two by scraping or with a bread-grater ; 
 add it, together with their pulp and juice passed 
 through a sieve so that no pith or pips are present, 
 to the glaze, and slowly bring to the boiling point, 
 stirring well, and set aside, keeping it hot. Add a 
 pinch of Nepaul pepper, with a small teaspoonful of 
 castor sugar. Then pare very thinly the peel of the 
 third orange, so as to remove with it no pith, in 
 separate portions, which are to be cut into fine long 
 strips like those used for julienne soup, but very 
 much smaller. Put them into cold water in a very 
 small saucepan and let them boil, removing it to 
 stand aside, keeping hot for a few minutes. When 
 ready to serve, pour off the liquid from the strips and 
 add them to the sauce in the first saucepan, stirring 
 well at the corner of the fire, adding a small wine- 
 glass of dry Curagoa at the very last, and send up, 
 as well as the birds, very hot. If necessary, it may 
 be passed through a tammy, but if properly made, 
 it will not be so. It should be added that the 
 Seville orange cannot be obtained in this country 
 
Bigarade Sauce. Garnitures. 155 
 
 before the first week of February, and as wild duck 
 is often quite in season six or eight weeks before 
 that time, the best flavoured oranges obtainable must 
 be substituted for the former, but for a true bigarade 
 the Seville is essential. 
 
 After sauces come garnitures. Respecting these 
 a few hints may be given, for agreeable Garnitures 
 and even important additions may be '"^^.riety. 
 made to most small dishes of animal food under this 
 title of "garnish." Whether it be a small filet, 
 braised or roasted, or a portion thereof broiled ; a 
 fricandeau, or the choice end of a neck of mutton 
 made square and compact by shortening the bones ; 
 or a small loin, or a dish of trimmed neck cutlets, or 
 a choice portion of broiled rump-steak; a tender ox 
 tongue, a couple of sweetbreads, poultry, pigeon, or 
 what not — the garnish should be a matter of 
 consideration. Whether the dish be carved on 
 the family table, as it often may be when its head 
 is interested in the cuisine, or whether it is handed 
 in the presence of guests, the quality and the 
 appearance of the dish greatly depend on the 
 garnish. According to the meat may be added, with 
 a view both to taste and appearance, some of the 
 {oW.a^vi\g—purhs of sorrel, spinach, chicory, and 
 other greens, of turnips, and of potatoes plain, in 
 shapes or in croquettes ; cut carrots, peas, beans, 
 endive, sprouts, and other green vegetables ; onions 
 (see p. 122), small or Spanish, stewed; cucumbers, 
 tomatoes, macaroni in all forms ; sometimes a few 
 
156 Food and Feeding. 
 
 sultanas boiled, mushrooms, olives, truffles. In the 
 
 same way chestnuts are admirable, whole, boiled, or 
 
 roasted, and as a purie freely served, especially in 
 
 winter, when vegetables are scarce ; serving also as 
 
 farce for fowls and turkeys. While such vegetables 
 
 as green peas, French and young broad 
 Vegetables ° , j 1 • 
 
 served as beans, celery and celeriac, asparagus, 
 
 'entreme . geakale, cauliflower, spinach, artichokes, 
 
 salsify, vegetable marrows, etc., are worth procuring 
 
 in their best and freshest condition, to prepare with 
 
 especial care as separate dishes.* 
 
 And here, again, the distinctive principles, already 
 
 French and referred to, of French and English cuisine, 
 
 ^eatraent of ^''^ illustrated in relation to the cooking 
 
 vegetables ; of vegetables ; and again, let me add, 
 
 not always to the disadvantage of our own system. 
 
 * A hint about boiling asparagus is worthy of mention, since 
 the proper method is rarely followed by English cooks. 
 
 Asparagus of the stouter sort, always when of the "giant" 
 variety, should be cut of exactly equal lengths, and boiled 
 standing ends upward in a deep saucepan. Nearly two inches 
 of the heads should be out of the water — the steam sufficing to 
 cook them, as they form the tenderest part of the plant ; while 
 the hard stalky part is rendered soft and succulent by the longer 
 boiling which this plan permits. Instead of the orthodox 
 twenty minutes allotted to average asparagus lying horizontally, 
 in the English manner, which half cooks the stalk, and over- 
 cooks the head, diminishing its flavour and consistence, a period 
 of thirty to fifty minutes, on the plan recommended, will render 
 fully a third more of the stalk delicious, while the head will be 
 properly cooked by the steam alone. One reason why it is not 
 uncommon to hear the best produce of the fields of Argenteuil 
 insufficiently appreciated here, and our own asparagus preferred 
 is, that the former is rarely sufficiently cooked at English tables. 
 
Cooking of Vegetables. 157 
 
 I find it the more necessary to call attention to this 
 subject, as much has of late been said, which may 
 lead many to believe that French usage is invariably 
 right, and English usage invariably wrong. Very 
 far from the truth, I humbly submit, is such an 
 allegation as this, even in regard of our treatment 
 of vegetables. No doubt we are too often guilty of 
 carelessness and inattention to the condition in which 
 vegetables are presented, in the service of our tables, 
 but our principle is in the main correct, and only 
 wants to be pursued with intelligence. When vege- 
 tables are really good, well grown, and fresh, no 
 good judge desires that their natural qualities of 
 flavour, odour, and consistence, or even colour, should 
 be destroyed by the addition of other materials, and 
 of foreign flavours. Let us take two, in illustration 
 of these remarks, green peas and the tomato. 
 
 Garden peas, petitspois, when young, quickly grown 
 and, above all things, freshly gathered, 
 have a delicious characteristic flavour of peas, for 
 their own, are rather sweet, and almost 
 crisp when eaten ; and they maintain these attributes 
 unimpaired, if simply boiled in salt and water. Such 
 should be eaten i I'Anglaise, the use of the term 
 itself being a tacit admission on the part of the French 
 chef, that the simple cooking advocated here, and 
 practised in this country is, in this instance, justifiable. 
 All that is produced under this name is a dish of 
 peas, cooked as described, served with a pat of fresh 
 butter, and some salt, accompanied by the capital 
 
158 Food and Feeding. 
 
 little pepper-mill, which is natural to a French table, 
 and almost unknown here.* A morsel of the butter 
 is stirred into the hot peas, a little black pepper, 
 full of fragrance, freshly ground over them, and a 
 pinch of salt, according to taste, and the whole 
 , stirred. The same process is equally 
 
 verts," and applicable to French beans, and also to 
 that excellent mixture of French beans 
 and flageolets, so well-known as haricots panacMs, 
 so rarely served in this country. All these vegetables, 
 when in excellent condition, are doubtless served at 
 their best d. I'Anglaise, not only in relation to the 
 palate, but also in view of the average digestion. 
 
 To return to our petits pais as the type. When 
 To treat peas green peas are a little hard, old, and 
 vounff^nd t°"gh, or a little coarse in flavour, and 
 tender. without sweetness, then it is that the 
 
 French cook treats them with advantage. For such 
 peas as these, when no others are to be had — and it 
 must be confessed that inferior peas are far too com- 
 monly met with — by all means let them be served 
 d, la Frangaise. This is stewing gently in a little 
 water, a good proportion of butter, with sliced onion 
 and salt, stirring in a little flour, and a small quantity 
 of sugar. Some, exceptionally, add a little cream, 
 and yolk of egg. Another excellent French method, 
 
 * It was so when I first wrote, but has now for some time 
 been growing in favour here, and may be seen at many tables 
 and for sale in many shops. At the time referred to I could 
 not have found a table pepper-mill in London, and obtained my 
 own in Paris. 
 
Cooking of Vegetables. 159 
 
 i la Paysanne, is to add first butter as before, salt 
 and onion ; and then stew slowly in a fair quantity 
 of stock, with lettuces, finely sliced, some sugar, and 
 a shred or two of parsley, if desired. Almost any 
 peas may be rendered tender and appetizing if thus 
 treated. 
 
 Again, haricots verts sautis au beurre, is a favourite 
 mode of cooking them ; but no super- prenchbeans 
 fluous butter should appear when they "sautes." 
 are served ; the quantity allowed in which to toss 
 them for a few minutes on a brisk fire, after boiling, 
 should amount to no more, according to the rule, 
 than a tenth part by weight of that of the vegetables 
 themselves when dry.* 
 
 But who does not know that it is common enough, 
 both in town and province throughout France, to be 
 supplied not only with French beans, but other vege- 
 tables, saturated with butter, rendering them for most 
 English stomachs, at all events, hazardous, and to 
 some tastes repulsive. 
 
 The natural inference from all this is, that cer- 
 tain French methods are desirable, and their success 
 is remarkable, when — as we have already seen in 
 
 * Some persons who have not studied practical cookery may 
 not quite understand the French term sauter, or the correspond- 
 ing English term, " toss.'' It means, to fry Ughtly or partially 
 in butter, using a shallow pan, and, moving the material to be 
 fried, or, rather, " tossed," so as to avoid the production of a 
 temperature high enough to brown the surface — a condition 
 which is intended to be produced by frying proper, as before ex- 
 plained (p. 125) to take place, by immersing the material in 
 heated oil. 
 
i6o Food and Feeding. 
 
 relation to both meats and vegetables — the materials 
 
 are inferior ; but the English method is the simplest 
 
 and best, when the materials are — as they always 
 
 should, when practicable, be — the best of their kind. 
 
 And now, briefly, for the tomato. In almost any 
 
 condition, simple cookery alone is ad- 
 The tomato. 
 
 missible for it. Doubtless, if ripe and 
 
 fresh, it is excellent when eaten raw ; but to have it 
 at its very best, the tomato should be dipped, for 
 thirty seconds at most, into boiling water. On re- 
 moving it, the skin, which could previously be de- 
 tached only with difficulty, peels off with the greatest 
 ease. The juicy, fruity qualities are revealed by this 
 process ; and it may be eaten alone or with any 
 meat; and for a salad it should invariably be thus 
 prepared. If served hot, only plain boiling, baking, 
 or broiling will cook this delicious half-fruit, half- 
 vegetable, so as least to alter or diminish its natural 
 flavour ; although its deterioration has already com- 
 Avoid over- menced, since each of these processes 
 cooking. develops a degree of acidity which before 
 
 cooking did not exist, and is neither agreeable nor 
 quite wholesome. It is excellent if served cold by 
 itself, when simply peeled as above described, with a 
 little salt and pepper, and perhaps a few drops of oil, 
 with cold meat, or with savoury rice, or indeed in 
 many ways. But to serve a hot tomato, by stuffing 
 it with onion, parsley, and shalot, with some odds 
 and ends of meat or poultry minced {tomates farcies), 
 is mischievous meddling carried to its highest pitch ! 
 
Macaroni as a Food. i6i 
 
 Yet this is the form in which tomato is most frequently 
 served at foreign tables. Certainly, Talleyrand's well- 
 known caution, " Point de zHe," applies no less forcibly 
 sometimes to professional cooks, than as a maxim for 
 diplomatists. 
 
 It is to be lamented that so little use is made in 
 our country of the Italian pastes, especially of maca- 
 roni in all its forms ; and that rice, largely used as 
 it is, is not so well cooked, and therefore not so highly 
 appreciated among the upper and middle classes as 
 it deserves to be. 
 
 The mention of macaroni conveys to nineteen out 
 
 of twenty Englishmen, as it does also to 
 
 , . , , ... ., , Macaroni, 
 
 our cooks, the idea of an mdigestible 
 
 mess, containing much toasted cheese and butter, 
 well peppered and over-baked, which is sometimes 
 • served at the end of dinner as a " savoury " to com- 
 plete the repast. In this form it ought rarely if ever 
 to appear. Macaroni is, in fact, an aliment containing 
 much nutritious matter when made from selected 
 growths of hard wheat containing more gluten than 
 the average grain used for bread. Such Valuable 
 was the original practice when it was ^°'''" °^ ^°°^' 
 first produced, and doubtless still continues to be 
 so for pastes of the best quality. The cheapest are 
 probably made with ordinary wheat, and form there- 
 fore a good staple diet, especially if treated according 
 to the methods given below. Most people, especially 
 in summer, will find it a good substitute for the 
 tough fibres of meat, particularly at lunch or midday 
 
 L 
 
1 62 Food and Feeding. 
 
 meals, when their employments demand continuous 
 attention during the whole of a loner 
 lunch for afternoon. To dine or to eat a heavy 
 
 "^^' meal in the middle of the day is, for 
 
 busy men, a great mistake : one nevertheless which 
 is extremely common, and often productive of dis- 
 comfort, to say the least. Macaroni might, with 
 advantage to the public, and especially to those who 
 are closely occupied between breakfast and dinner, 
 be prepared at the restaurants as a staple dish, in 
 two or three forms, since, if properly cooked, it 
 sustains the power without taxing too much the 
 digestion, or rendering the individual heavy, sleepy, 
 and incompetent afterwards. Two or three of the 
 best and simplest forms of serving it are embodied 
 in the following receipts, which are the result of 
 several experiments by different methods : — 
 
 Put four ounces of good macaroni (Genoa or 
 Author's Naples), as little broken as possible, into 
 
 receipt for a saucepan with three or four pints of 
 macaroni . . '^ ^ ^ w. 
 
 cooked in boiling water. Boil five minutes, not 
 "macaroni longer. Then pour off all the water, 
 aujus." ajj^ place the macaroni in a stewpan 
 
 with a pint of good stock made from beef or veal, 
 or both (or from a well-furnished stock-pot), adding 
 a saltspoon of salt and half that quantity of pepper, 
 and let it simmer at the corner of the fire until the 
 macaroni is tender, not soft and flabby. The time 
 necessarily varies, according to the kind and size of 
 ;he macaroni, e.^. fifty or sixty minutes for the best 
 
Au jus and a I'ltalienne. 163 
 
 Genoese, from thirty-five to forty-five minutes for 
 Neapolitan. Its condition, however, should be tested 
 by trying a small piece. Most of the stock is 
 absorbed by the macaroni by this time ; but that 
 which remains, probably a fourth part of the original 
 quantity, may be strengthened, if necessary, by half 
 a teaspoonful of the genuine Liebig's Extract of 
 Meat, and should be thickened by adding a little 
 baked flour or brown roux (see p. 152). 
 
 The contents of the saucepan should be served on 
 a hot dish, or a shallow vegetable dish, or in a white 
 metal bowl, in any case with a cover. It may be 
 also appropriately and agreeably garnished sometimes 
 with tomato sauce. The foregoing constitutes maca- 
 roni aujus in the simplest form. 
 
 For those who can easily digest cheese and butter, 
 
 an ounce of grated Parmesan, and per- 
 
 ° ^ Another for 
 
 haps half an ounce of good English "macaroni a 
 
 cheese, may be added, gradually stirring 
 well during the latter half of the process, towards the 
 end of which a little pat of butter may be added, with 
 a sprinkle of Parmesan over the dish when filled, 
 before serving. The macaroni ought now to " spin " 
 well, that is, delicate threads should extend from one 
 portion to another when moved. Lastly, hot tomato 
 sauce may be poured over it, or be supplied sepa- 
 rately, since some prefer the macaroni without this 
 addition. Serve on a hot dish provided with a cover. 
 It is now a dish of macaroni a I'ltalienne. 
 If there is only a weak stock, chiefly made from 
 
164 Food and Feeding. 
 
 bones, etc., in the stock-pot, use it, but add a rather 
 
 larger portion of the Liebig's Extract. In such case, 
 
 a little flour of lentils, well boiled to thicken the 
 
 stock with, would be a suitable addition. The 
 
 Liebig's Extract should never be added until the 
 
 end of the process, and merely be well stirred in 
 
 immediately after removing from the fire to serve. 
 
 If, instead of stock, milk is used, an agreeable 
 
 change may be made ; and this form 
 The same 
 with milk constitutes macaroni au matgre, the fore- 
 
 au maigre. going receipts being au gras. To prepare 
 
 this, boil four ounces as before five minutes ; drain 
 
 and place in a stewpan with a pint of milk, simmering 
 
 as above directed until sufficiently tender. Serve 
 
 hot. Any milk remaining unabsorbed by the 
 
 macaroni may be thickened with baked flour (white) 
 
 or with a white roux. Flavour with a little cinnamon 
 
 or vanilla, or otherwise to taste, and sweeten with 
 
 sugar or saccharin, if desired. For those who prefer 
 
 a savoury dish, and can take cheese and butter, a 
 
 tablespoonful of grated Parmesan, and a small pat 
 
 of the latter, should be gradually added, stirring it 
 
 in during the latter part of the simmering process, 
 
 according to the directions just given for macaroni 
 
 d ritalienne. 
 
 Of rice, the modes of cooking are endless, and yet 
 
 Cooking f'^w dishes are adopted here besides the 
 
 of nee. well-known pudding with milk and sugar, 
 
 with or without eggs ; the moulds of boiled rice, 
 
 variously treated, to be eaten with fruit; and rice 
 
Cooking Rice. The Risotto. 165 
 
 rarely well prepared, for service with a curry. There 
 is also no doubt that the boiled fowl and vice, pouletau 
 riz, usually regarded as a convalescent's dish, might 
 be easily rendered sufficiently attractive to merit 
 the attention of others. As examples of nutritious, 
 and at the same time very palatable savoury dishes, 
 I will offer two examples, which might well be 
 familiar dishes, at all events, on our breakfast and 
 luncheon tables, viz. the risotto d la Milanaise and 
 the pilau of the East. Varieties of the latter are 
 common among all the populations dwelling adjacent 
 to the Mediterranean, from Spain to the Levant. 
 A dish of boiled rice being in some sort the culinary 
 analogue in the vegetable kingdom, of veal and 
 poultry in the animal, furnishing an insipid but 
 wholesome basis, is well fitted to be the vehicle for 
 producing innumerable flavours and odours, and even 
 colours at the table, saffron, for example, and fruit 
 juices ; and is thus capable of furnishing various 
 dishes, according to the treatment, and to the materials 
 for addition, obtainable in different districts. As an 
 example of this, I shall first describe the process 
 of preparing that agreeable form, " red Receipt for 
 rice," to serve as a vegetable with boiled "^^^ rice." 
 fowl, veal, or a mince, etc. Having washed about 
 four ounces of Patna rice, put it into a saucepan 
 containing a quart of boiling water with a little salt ; 
 stir with a wooden spoon, and in about ten to fifteen 
 minutes ascertain if the rice has lost all hardness 
 without being soft and the grains adhering. If so, 
 
1 66 Food and Feeding. 
 
 empty the contents over a colander, and let all the 
 water drain off; then return the rice to the hot 
 saucepan, add a small pat of butter, about two or 
 three tablespoonfuls of stock, and two of good 
 Italian tomato sauce.* The saucepan is now to be 
 put on a part of the hot plate, but not over the fire, 
 and the contents should be merely kept stirring or 
 " lifted " with the prongs of a silver fork for five 
 minutes, so as to mix vvell and keep the rice grains 
 separate, and prevent any portion being caught. 
 Serve in a hot vegetable dish. Not only an excellent 
 and appetizing garnish, it is also a delight to the eye. 
 To make risotto a la Milanaise for two persons. — 
 Risotto a la -^"^ *^^° ounces of fresh butter, with an 
 Milanaise. onion chopped very fine, into a stewpan, 
 and fry until the onion has a pale gold colour. Then 
 add six ounces of well-washed Patna rice, with a 
 very little powdered saffron, stirring it constantly for 
 about two minutes with a wooden spoon, so that it 
 does not stick to the stewpan ; after this two minutes' 
 cooking, add about a pint of good stock very gradu- 
 ally ; let it simmer gently, stirring very frequently, 
 till the rice is just soft ; before it is quite finished, 
 add an atom or two of grated nutmeg and an ounce 
 or more, according to taste, of grated Parmesan 
 cheese ; after this, cook, stirring well for two or three 
 minutes ; then remove from the fire, set the stewpan 
 on the hot plate, add a little more butter, cover for 
 
 * Perelli Rocco, Greek Street, Soho, furnishes an excellent 
 sauce in small tins. 
 
The Pilau-Rice for Curry. 167 
 
 a few minutes, and serve. The quantity of stock or 
 
 beef-tea can be varied according as the i-isotto is 
 
 preferred thick or otherwise. 
 
 For a Turkish pilau, well wash six ounces of East 
 
 India rice, and boil in a pint of water a Turkish 
 
 for five minutes at the most ; then throw P^'^"- 
 
 it into a colander that it may thoroughly drain. 
 
 Next place it in a stewpan with an ounce of butter, 
 
 salt and pepper to taste, stirring well, and adding by 
 
 degrees about half a pint of good fowl broth. After 
 
 about fifteen or twenty minutes it should be properly 
 
 done, turning out with the grains separate. It is to 
 
 be served perfectly hot. The foregoing is a true 
 
 pilau, but additions may be made of portions of the 
 
 meat of the fowl, of thin slices of bacon, or grated 
 
 beef or ham ; of a little curry powder ; of chutney ; 
 
 of fried onions, mushrooms, etc. It can also be 
 
 made with beef and veal broth and treated as 
 
 above, but in none of these forms could be regarded 
 
 as the true Oriental dish. 
 
 After many trials, for the purpose of producing rice 
 
 in its most perfect condition to accom- _, . ,. 
 ^ Receipt for 
 
 pany a curry, that is, with every grain boiling rice 
 separate, sufficiently cooked but not soft, 
 and white as snow, I can recommend the following : 
 Take six ounces of good Patna rice, sift, wash, and 
 pick out all foreign seeds, etc. Throw it into a sauce- 
 pan containing two quarts of boiling water with a 
 small teaspoonful of salt and the juice of half a lemon, 
 which makes it white. Stir with a wooden spoon, 
 
1 68 Food and Feeding, 
 
 and in about ten or twelve minutes the rice should 
 be sufficiently cooked. This may be ascertained by 
 pressing a few grains, which should be still firm, but 
 softened throughout, without a hard portion in the 
 centre. If so, add a pint of cold water to check the 
 boiling at once, and then drain all the water from 
 the saucepan, leaving the rice therein only. Set it on 
 the hot plate, covered, not by the lid, but by a napkin, 
 so that the rice may dry, giving it a shake or a stir 
 occasionally, when every grain will be separate. 
 Serve on a hot dish with cover until it reaches the 
 table.* 
 
 Mincing. — There is an important mode of pre- 
 paring flesh for food, especially for the purpose of 
 
 * The above receipt is based on the instructions given in one 
 of the best practical cook's guides I know, a work written by an 
 accomplished officer of her Majesty's service in India, " Culinary 
 Jottings : a Treatise in Thirty Chapters," etc., by Wyvem. 
 Fifth Edition. Madras: Hi^inbotham & Co. 1885. A most 
 interesting and suggestive work to the European, although 
 designed for Anglo-Indians. In my opinion no culinary library, 
 even of modest pretensions, is complete without it. 
 
 The foregoing note, which has appeared in two or three 
 previous editions, I purposely retain in this also, for Colonel 
 Kenney-Herbert, the author, known at that date as " Wyvern," 
 has returned to this country ; and still devoting his leisure to 
 the improvement of culinary art, has written various interesting 
 and useful small works, e.g. " Fifty Breakfasts," " Fifty 
 Lunches," " Fifty Diimers," and " Fifty Suppers." But his chief 
 and most complete volume, entitled " Common Sense Cookery 
 for English Households," pp. 504, 1894 : E. Arnold, London, is 
 admirably adapted for heads of families, as well as to cooks of 
 the present day who take interest in their duties and desire to 
 improve, 
 
Mincing, a Valuable Process. 169 
 
 rendering it more easily digested, which may be 
 
 briefly described here. I refer to the use 
 
 of a good mincing machine for the 
 
 purpose of producing very fine divisions of the 
 
 muscular fibres. I do not so much refer to its 
 
 employment for serving afresh the 
 
 remains of food which have been already ordinary 
 
 cooked, as for its preparation of fresh ' 
 
 meat with a special object in view. For the former, 
 
 in order to produce mince-meat, or , , 
 
 also for a 
 material for rissoles, etc., the process is, special 
 
 of course, extremely useful. I refer ' 
 
 rather to the value of this treatment of fresh meat, 
 where sufficient mastication is difficult, owing to 
 imperfect teeth or tender gums, or where for fresh 
 habitual mastication is neglected, or ^1^^^^" 
 when time cannot really be bestowed imperfect, 
 on it. The human stomach being adapted almost 
 solely for the digestion of flesh, and not at all for 
 that of vegetable and farinaceous matters, which are 
 chiefly digested in the first intestine beyond the 
 stomach, it is of the highest importance that animal 
 fibre, whether of butcher's meat, game, or poultry, 
 should be minutely divided by a prolonged me- 
 chanical action of the teeth before it is subjected to 
 the chemical process, that is, digestion by the gastric 
 juice which takes place in the stomach. Accordingly, 
 if we are able to introduce into that organ, say, the 
 flesh of rump-steak or mutton chop (which especially 
 when fresh, as in hot weather, is by no means tender), 
 
lyo Food and Feeding. 
 
 in a state of minute division, tlie process of digestion 
 
 To facilitate i^ rendered far easier and the nutritious 
 
 digestion. elements are assimilated much sooner 
 
 than if they are imperfectly masticated. Thus also 
 
 a considerable expenditure of nervous energy on 
 
 the digestive process is saved for other purposes, and 
 
 after the meal heaviness or undue fulness is rarely 
 
 experienced. 
 
 A pound of rump-steak, free from all fat and skin, 
 
 ^. . or an equal quantity of the best mutton 
 
 Directions 
 
 for using the steak, should suffice for a lunch for three 
 
 persons. Treat it as follows : First, broil 
 it over a clear fire, only about half as much as you 
 would do for serving it as a broiled steak, not more, 
 so that it will be quite red throughout, although not 
 raw when cut. Slice the meat into small strips, 
 removing as you do so any portion of fat or skin-like 
 matter met with, which is not to be used. The 
 mincer having been carefully rinsed with hot water, 
 pass the strips through it three times consecutively, 
 which ought to yield a soft, thoroughly divided mass. 
 Put this into a Bain-marie, with about half or three- 
 quarters of a pint of cold stock, free from fat, with 
 a little salt and pepper, and mix thoroughly with a 
 wooden spoon. Place the vessel on the corner of the 
 fire, gradually bringing the water below to a boil, 
 stirring all the time until the red tint has almost dis- 
 appeared, which will probably be in about seven or. 
 ten minutes. It should now be a perfectly smooth 
 purh, and should be served quite hot. An excellent 
 
Directions for Mincing Meat, 1 7 1 
 
 accompaniment is a little macaroni aujus (see p. 162), 
 with some bread thoroughly toasted through, so as to 
 be brittle, as all toast ought to be. Some cold toast 
 spread with butter may follow, in order to furnish the 
 fatty element and render the light meal complete. 
 
 I can conceive no better means of supporting at 
 midday, after a long morning's work, invaluable 
 an exhausted system, when it is really meaTf'^'^b^ '- 
 impossible to devote an hour to rest and "^ss men. 
 the ordinary lunch. Midday rest, however, should 
 be the invariable rule both before and after that 
 meal, and then it would still be hard to find a better 
 form of repast than this now indicated.* 
 
 Passing rapidly on without naming the ordinary 
 
 and well-known service of cold meats, 
 
 r , , , , , Variations. 
 
 fresh and preserved, poultry and game, 
 
 open or under paste, in some form, to be found in 
 
 profusion on table or sideboard, and in which this 
 
 country is unrivalled, a hint or two relating to some 
 
 lighter cold entries may be suggested. It is scarcely 
 
 possible to treat these apart from the salad which, 
 
 admirable by itself, also forms the Garnish for 
 
 natural garnish for cold dishes. A simple '^°''^ dishes. 
 
 aspic jelly, little more than the consommd of yesterday, 
 
 first diluted, then flavoured with a little lemon peel 
 
 and tarragon vinegar, furnishes another form of 
 
 * The best form of mincer I have seen claims, I believe, to 
 be an American .design, and is known as the " Enterprise." 
 The agency is 86, Dale Street, Liverpool. It is inexpensive, 
 and is sent post free anywhere. 
 
172 Food and Feeding. 
 
 garnish, or a basis in which to present choice morsels 
 in tempting forms, such as poultry livers, ox-palates, 
 quenelles, fillets of game, chicken, wild fowl or fish, 
 prawns, plover's eggs, etc., associated with a well- 
 made salad. On this system an enterprising cook 
 can furnish many changes of light but excellent 
 nutritious dishes, for summer breakfasts and lunches, 
 as well as for dinner. 
 
 Aspic jelly, however, is now so popular, and 
 deservedly so, that a special receipt, to 
 which personal trials and consideration 
 have been given under my own eye, as in all such 
 offered in the text, is here presented as a ready way 
 Author's of preparing it. For this purpose a 
 
 receipt good beef extract is particularly useful 
 
 and efficient. Hence it is quite unnecessary to make 
 now, as formerly, a clear meat stock with much 
 labour for this purpose ; especially when, as in hot 
 weather, it will not keep well, and prolonged stove 
 heat should not be employed unnecessarily. At very 
 short notice a capital aspic can be prepared as 
 follows : Slice a large carrot or turnip, a small head 
 of celery, adding two cloves, pepper and salt, a bay 
 leaf, a small bunch of sweet herbs ; all to be put 
 into a saucepan with three pints of water, and 
 allowed to simmer for two hours until reduced to 
 two pints. Pour off through a strainer and let 
 stand until cold. When required, add two ounces 
 of gelatine in hot summer weather (one and a 
 half ounce suffices when it is cool) to a pint of the 
 
Aspic Jelly. Salads. 173 
 
 cold liquor, and let it stand two hours. Then heat 
 
 the remaining pint to boiling point, and add to the 
 
 pint which contains the gelatine, together with a thin 
 
 paring of lemon peel, two teaspoonfuls of lemon juice, 
 
 the same of mild vinegar, and one or two teaspoonfuls 
 
 of tarragon vinegar. Then pour in two or three 
 
 whites of eggs, lightly beaten, and stir well to fine 
 
 the liquor. Bring the whole just up to the boiling 
 
 point ; then at once remove and keep on the hot 
 
 plate close by, but not boiling, for three minutes only. 
 
 Take it off and set it aside for three minutes longer, 
 
 and then strain through flannel. It is now quite hot 
 
 and clear ; stir in at once a large teaspoonful of the 
 
 meat extract, and set aside to cool until wanted. 
 
 ■ On salad so much has been written, that one might 
 
 suppose, as of many other culinary pro- 
 
 ductions, that to make a good one was 
 
 the result of some difficult and complicated process, 
 
 instead of being simple and easy to a degree. The 
 
 materials must be secured fresh, are not , ^ ,. 
 
 Instructions 
 
 to be too numerous and diverse, must for salad- 
 be well washed with very little handling, 
 and all water removed as far as possible. It may 
 be made by the hostess, or by some member 
 of the family, sufficiently interested to regard the 
 process as an exercise of fine art, immediately before 
 the meal, and be kept cool until wanted. Not many 
 servants can be trusted to execute the How to dress 
 simple details involved in cross-cutting * salad. 
 the lettuce, endive, or what not, but two or three 
 
174 Food and Feeding. 
 
 times in a roomy salad bowl ; mixing one salt- 
 spoonful of salt and half that quantity of pepper in 
 a tablespoon, which is to be filled three times con- 
 secutively with the best fresh olive oil, stirring each 
 briskly until the condiments have been thoroughly 
 mixed, and at the same time distributed over the 
 salad. This is next to be tossed thoroughly but 
 lightly, until every portion glistens, scattering mean- 
 time a little finely chopped fresh tarragon and chervil, 
 with a few atoms of chives over the whole, so that 
 sparkling green particles spot, as with a pattern, 
 every portion of the leafy surface. Lastly, but only 
 immediately before serving, one small tablespoonful 
 of mild French or, better still, Italian red wine- 
 vinegar is to be sprinkled over all, followed by another 
 tossing of the salad.* The uncooked 
 tomato, itself the prince of salads, may 
 be sliced and similarly treated for separate service, 
 or added to the former, equally for taste and appear- 
 ance. A tomato, however, should never be cut — 
 it may have been previously trimmed a little — until 
 the moment it is wanted for eating, as the juice and 
 pulp of a ripe fruit drain away, and leave only its 
 cellular framework, if it has been divided an hour 
 beforehand. The skin should be removed in the 
 manner described at p. i6o. Cold boiled asparagus 
 (^ojj served with a mayonnaise forms a dish 
 
 asparagus. of its kind not to be surpassed. At 
 present ranking, when the quality is fine, as an 
 * A salad for five or six persons is supposed. 
 
Various Salads. Remoulade. 175 
 
 expensive luxury, there is no reason why, with 
 the improved methods of cultivating this delicious 
 and wholesome vegetable, it should not be produced 
 in great abundance, and for less than half its present 
 price.* As to the manifold green stuffs which, 
 changing with the season, may be presented as salad, 
 their name is legion ; and their choice must be left 
 to the eater's judgment, fancy, and digestion, all of 
 which of course vary greatly. 
 
 A favourite combination is that of uncooked celery 
 cut in rings, with small slices or strips celery and 
 of cooked beet. This should be always ''^^'■ 
 served on small plates, one sufficing for each person's 
 consumption. Kidney potatoes and p . . 
 beet sliced, well sprinkled with parsley celeriac with 
 and chervil, and a few atoms of tarragon, ' 
 
 finely cut, is another ; slices of celeriac (boiled) may 
 be added. An agreeable salad, striking to the eye, 
 when cost is a matter of indifference, may be made 
 with slices of kidney potato and fine black truffles 
 of equal size; or of slices of celeriac and truffles 
 mixed, immediately before serving, with a well- 
 made remoulade sauce. Remoulade is a " Salad- 
 mayonnaise, into which one or two hard- q^^^^^J 
 boiled yolks of eggs and a little mustard moulade," 
 have been smoothly incorporated by rubbing in the 
 powdered yolk little by little during the making of 
 
 ' On asparagus, and also on salad culture, see " The Parks 
 and Gardens of Paris," by W. Robinson, F.L.S., pp. 468 et seq. 
 Second Edition. Macmillan. 
 
176 Food and Feeding. 
 
 the sauce in the usual way. A Japanese vegetable, 
 
 Stachys tuberosa, each small tuber cut 
 "Stachys . ■' u -i j r c • . 
 
 tuberosa," in two, raw or boiled for nve minutes, 
 
 ^ '^ mixed with small discs of boiled beet 
 
 and slices of raw celery, is a novelty.* 
 
 But there is another form of salad which is always 
 
 available, and welcome, too, in any season of the 
 
 year, viz. the salad of cold boiled table vegetables. 
 
 Various -^^ excellent basis may be made .of 
 
 other salads, cooked French beans, dressed as directed 
 
 in the previous paragraph ; for this purpose those 
 
 preserved in tins may be used. Greatly inferior as 
 
 these are when served hot to the fresh haricot verts, 
 
 they are very acceptable as salad in winter and early 
 
 spring. The preserved green haricots {flageolets), 
 
 similarly treated and added in equal proportion, with 
 
 a garnish of sliced carrot, beet-root, or tomato, may 
 
 be arranged not only as a most savoury 
 Additions. , , , i , 
 
 and wholesome, but even as an elegant 
 
 dish. Cold boiled potatoes,^ carrots, turnips, broad 
 
 * The author is credited with having introduced the above- 
 named vegetable into this country from Japan (Gardener's 
 Chronicle, Jan. 7, 1888), and believes he was the first to grow it 
 here, from some tubers which were sent him. It is very easy to 
 cultivate, very hardy, is not injured by frost, and, once planted, 
 maintains its place like a Jerusalem artichoke. As a vegetable 
 for the table, it should be boiled from fifteen to twenty minutes 
 in salt and water, and eaten with a simple white sauce, a la 
 poulette, for example. Now, 1898, seen in the shops as 
 " Japanese Artichokes.'' 
 
 t The best variety of potato for the purpose is that known as 
 Vitelottej but in any case a kidney potato should be employed, 
 if the variety named is not obtainable. 
 
Varieties of Salad. 177 
 
 beans, peas, cauliflower, and other greens, may all 
 be employed thus : combined and garnished accord- 
 ing to the maker's taste, which there is abundant 
 opportunity for displaying. Salads also may be 
 varied and made more substantial by the addition 
 of small fillets of sole or trout, or the flavour may 
 be heightened, if desired, by morsels of haddock, 
 sardine, etc. Well known and appreciated as the 
 Salade de Ugumes * always is at a Paris restaurant, 
 most persons here would prefer the vegetables simply 
 sliced, so as to preserve some of their natural form 
 and texture, rather than cut into innumerable small 
 cubes, as usually presented. In all cases, such salad 
 should be kept very cool, and be dressed immediately 
 before serving in warm weather. 
 
 * Salad of Cooked Vegetables. 
 
 The French salad of cold cooked vegetables, Salade de 
 Ugumes, is made as follows : — 
 
 Take 4 ozs. of carrots cut in squares of about a quarter of an 
 inch ; 3 ozs. of turnips cut in the same way ; 4 ozs. of small 
 green asparagus cut in pieces ; 4 ozs. of peas ; 4 ozs. of French 
 beans cut in squares like the turnips and carrots. Boil each of 
 these vegetables separately in about a quart of water, with a 
 teaspoonful of salt ; when cooked strain them on a cloth ; let 
 them cool, and then place the French beans at the bottom of a 
 salad bowl. Arrange the other vegetables in little heaps around, 
 first the carrots, then the peas, then the turnips, then the 
 asparagus, so as to alternate the colours, and so on again. The 
 rest of the peas and asparagus may be placed in the centre, and 
 sprinkled with a spoonful of chopped ravigote (fresh tarragon, 
 chervil, parsley, and chives). Serve with oil and vinegar apart. 
 
 M 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Fish, and its value as food — The various constituents of flesh, 
 of wheaten bread, and of fish compared — Analytic table, 
 showing the same — Fish is desirable food for many persons 
 — Ought to be less costly than it is — Varieties of fish, and 
 their distinctive characters as food — Some contain large 
 proportion of fat — The conger and the sturgeon — Prepara- 
 tion of fish for the table — Value of head, bones, and fins 
 for sauce making — Fish sauces — Salmon in perfection — 
 Crimping of ditto — Mode of cooking it — Baking of fish — 
 Roasting and broiling — Boiling and steaming — Fish soups 
 and stews, excellent — Receipts — Bouillabaisse — A working 
 man's stew. 
 
 Before dealing practically with the cookery of fish, 
 it is desirable to compare its value as a nutritive 
 material with that which is supplied by other im- 
 portant types of food. 
 
 First, let us take as a starting-point a fact relating 
 Amount of to the Structure of the human body, 
 soHdsi^n *^^ adequate nourishment of which is 
 
 human body, the chief aim to be accomplished by the 
 digestion of the varied matters which we eat and 
 drink. Many persons are surprised to learn that 
 from two-thirds to three-quarters of the body, judging 
 by weight, consist of water ; and this proportion is 
 
Food Value of Fish. 179 
 
 the same, or nearly so, in all the land animals which 
 are consumed by man for his own support. 
 
 Thus, in every hundred pounds' weight of healthy 
 flesh, not artificially fattened, whether and in 
 beef, mutton, or poultry, and from ^"^t''a|j'| 
 which the bone has been removed, about poultry, 
 seventy-five to seventy-eight pounds of water are 
 present, and are separated as such from the solid 
 matter of the meat in the process of cooking and 
 digestion. Twenty-five pounds, or a little less, that 
 ■ is to say, not quite a fourth of the whole, alone are 
 solid, and alone contain nutritive material. Speaking 
 roughly, these twenty-five pounds are constituted as 
 follows : — 
 
 About sixteen or seventeen pounds consist of the 
 
 essential elements of the flesh or muscle, _ ..^ 
 
 Solids 
 
 and of the solid part of the blood, which composed of 
 
 «•,.,. i ,. •«. albuminoids, 
 
 afford the important nitrogenous con- 
 stituents of food, the "proteids," or "flesh-formers," 
 but not including another nitrogenous compound 
 known as " gelatine," which forms the principle of a 
 less important group (see p. 22), 
 
 Of this gelatine, with some allied compounds, 
 
 about one to two pounds are present ; . . 
 
 , , , . 1 gelatine, 
 
 but although nitrogenous compounds, 
 
 they are distinct from the preceding class of flesh- 
 formers, and possess less nutritive value as food. 
 
 Of fatty matters, about two to four 
 
 fat. 
 pounds may be reckoned. 
 
 The remainder consists of what are known as 
 
i8o Food and Feeding. 
 
 " extractives," and of various saline and even metallic 
 
 Extractives matters, all of which are essential parts 
 
 and salts. of the animal body. 
 
 It is necessary to observe that when meat is 
 
 ■i.t. unduly fattened, as very often happens, 
 Meats with 
 superfluous the above proportions are greatly altered. 
 
 When the meat is fat pork, for example, 
 reared for bacon making, etc., or beef which is fed 
 in order to secure a prize for size and weight, the 
 products are very different, containing largely fat, 
 with less albumen and fibrin, and much less water ; 
 and the pig owes his existence in great measure to 
 the facility with which he produces fat meat for 
 human food, such fat being of special value to use in 
 combination with other foods, the potato, for example, 
 which contain almost none of it 
 
 We will next examine another great food staple, a 
 
 typical example from the vegetable 
 solids in kingdom, because familiar to all and 
 
 extensively used, viz. fresh wheaten 
 bread. In one hundred parts of this, about thirty- 
 five to forty are water, fifty are starch, about eight 
 consist of the nitrogenous principle corresponding to 
 the proteids or flesh-forming elements in flesh, and 
 there is but a fraction of fatty matter, the remainder 
 being salts, etc. See p. 44 for the exact analysis. 
 
 Now let us compare with these the constituent 
 elements of fish. There is a closer resemblance, at 
 first sight, perhaps, than many would expect to find. 
 Notwithstanding that the fish is an inhabitant of 
 
Food Elements in Fish. i8i 
 
 water, and cannot live out of it, the proportion of that 
 element in the animal's structure exceeds only by 
 a small amount the proportion which is present in 
 land animals. In other words, the solid constituents 
 of fish as a class, and there are important exceptions 
 here and there, are but little leiss in weight than those 
 of land animals already described. 
 
 In one hundred pounds of fish without bone, 
 from seventy-five to eighty-five are 
 water, or rather more than three- solids in 
 quarters of the whole ; leaving, say, 
 about twenty pounds of solids as a mean estimate. 
 Of these, about twelve to eighteen pounds are nitro- 
 genous compounds. The most important, or flesh- 
 forming principle, is less in quantity than in meat, and 
 there is a rather larger proportion of gelatine. The 
 proportion of fat varies greatly. The saline matters 
 are pretty constant, and moderate in quantity. 
 
 The comparison can be more easily made by means 
 of the following table : — 
 
 Analysis in General Terms of the Composition of 
 THE Flesh of a Healthy Land Animal not Arti- 
 ficially Fattened, and Omitting the Bones. 
 In 100 parts. .^.^^^ ^^ 
 
 About . . 75 to 78 are water. compositions 
 
 Leaving . . 22 „ 25 of solids. already 
 
 ^.. ... described. 
 
 Of these solids — 
 
 rare proteids or. 
 
 About . . i6ori7< flesh - forming I Nitrogenous 
 ' material . . l compounds. 
 „ . . I to 2 „ gelatine . ■ ' 
 
 „ . . 2 „ 4 „ fat- 
 Remainder — " Extractives " and salts. 
 
1 82 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Analysis of Wheaten Bread. 
 
 In loo parts. 
 
 About . . 35 to 40 are water. 
 
 „ . . 50 „ carbo-hydrates, starch. 
 
 „ . . 8 „ proteids. 
 
 Remainder — A trace of fat with salts. 
 
 Analysis of White Fish without Bone (Soles, Whiting, 
 turbot, etc.)- 
 
 About . . 75 to 85 are water. 
 „ . . 20 „ solids. 
 
 Of these solids — 
 
 iare partly proteids, \ 
 with a rather! Nitrogenous 
 large proportion I compounds, 
 of gelatine. .' 
 Remainder — A little fat with salts. 
 
 In some fish, where the fat is large in quantity (herring, 
 mackerel, salmon, etc.), the water is correspondingly diminished. 
 
 It should be stated that this estimate has been 
 based solely on the leading and most important facts 
 afforded by a chemical analysis, without reference to 
 other considerations of minor importance referred to 
 below.* 
 
 * It is well known that there are some restorative qualities 
 contained in animal flesh, which, although not at present fiilly 
 appreciated by chemical analysis, have a value of no mean 
 order, demonstrated chiefly by empirical observation. The 
 invigorating effect of a small quantity of beef-tea, in a person 
 suffering from inanition, may be cited in illustration ; the solid 
 matter resulting from its evaporation being insignificant in 
 quantity when compared with the support afforded. Now, the 
 product obtained by dealing with fish, in the same maimer 
 as we treat beef in order to obtain " beef-tea," is greatly inferior 
 
Fish Compared with Flesh. 183 
 
 We may now arrive at an approximative estimate 
 of the place which fish occupies as Value of fish 
 nutrient material among the other pro- ^jth'uM.r^'* 
 ducts which the animal kingdom offer of meat, 
 to men. Fish is inferior to flesh, not in the quality, 
 but in the quantity of certain constituents, viz. the 
 proteids, or flesh-formers, of which it contains fully 
 a third less than ordinary meat. It contains more 
 gelatine, which, although a nitrogenous product, is 
 much inferior to " albumen," and can only partially 
 
 in this restorative quality, although the solids present are laiger 
 in quantity in "fish-tea" than in that of meat, being chiefly 
 gelatine. 
 
 I have had the following experiments performed in the most 
 accurate manner, which will show in part the nature of the 
 chemical difference : — 
 
 One pound of rump-steak, one pound of turbot, each without 
 skin and bone, the former freed from fat, were thus separately 
 treated. The flesh was passed twice through a mincing-machine, 
 and sufficient cold water to cover (one pint) was added. After 
 standing one hour, the mass was heated to boiling point, and 
 allowed to simmer ten minutes, then strained through calico, 
 and the contents of the strainer washed with water : a little 
 floating fat was removed (in the case of the beef). Each of 
 the liquids was evaporated on a water bath, to the consistence 
 of a soft extract. 
 
 Beef-product. 
 
 Weight of extract, 276 grains or 3-94 per cent. 
 Of this product, 5 per cent, was gelatine. 
 
 Fish-product. 
 
 Weight of extract, 396 grains or 5-6 per cent. 
 Of this product the gelatine amounted to 2r8 per cent. 
 
184 Food and Feeding. 
 
 replace a portion of this latter in the animal economy, 
 
 while the " extractives " are less valuable than the 
 
 extractives of meat. As a rule, fat is almost absent ; 
 
 in certain varieties it is abundant. Fish is an 
 
 aliment well adapted for persons whose 
 Excellent , . , , , . . , , , , 
 
 food for physical labour is not considerable ; but 
 
 many. ^j^^ deficient elements can be easily sup- 
 
 plied from other sources, as we shall see hereafter. 
 The popular estimate of the value of fish as an 
 article of nutritious diet rates it, I think, below its 
 value ; and it deserves to be more largely consumed 
 than it is. At the same time it must be admitted 
 that the high price which the finest sorts obtain 
 make them costly forms of food, so that they must, 
 by a large proportion of the community, be regarded 
 as articles of luxury for occasional and not for fre- 
 quent use. 
 
 I may further remark that the list of fish in 
 general demand by the public is a re- 
 varieties stricted one. The force of habit, together 
 ' with the entire absence of interest or 
 curiosity on the part of our countrymen in relation 
 to diet, has led to a conventional usage, limiting 
 greatly and disadvantageously the variety of fish 
 which would otherwise arrive at the market. Sole, 
 whiting, haddock, herring, mackerel, cod, salmon, 
 turbot, brill, trout, smelt, and red mullet, form a 
 group to which a large proportion of British house- 
 holds in purchasing fresh fish as a rule strictly limit 
 their orders. Again, at almost every hotel, coffee- 
 
Qualities of Bish Compared. 185 
 
 room, or public restaurant here, and whatever the 
 
 hour of day, it is rare indeed if the waiter summoned 
 
 to an applicant demanding fish does not 
 
 ,..,,,.,, due to habit, 
 first suggest the mevitable fried sole, 
 
 whatever else he may have to offer ; and it is generally 
 accepted as probably the safest order to give, and the 
 most likely to be promptly executed No desire for 
 variety in material or in cookery is manifested, for if 
 the host suggested something lesg familiarly known, a 
 troublesome doubt as to his motive would probably 
 be aroused in the mind of the guest. 
 
 Relative to the list of fish just given, it may be 
 remarked that the whiting, the smelt, The easiest 
 and the sole are the most delicate in ^^ molt°" 
 flavour, and the easiest of digestion ; deHcate ; 
 fitting them admirably to the invalid commencing 
 after illness to make a trial of solid food ; the two 
 former being little less nutritious than the sole, which 
 is, moreover, susceptible of very varied treatment in 
 high-class cooking for the production of elegant 
 entries. The turbot, rightly esteemed, the most 
 is stronger food, and agrees well with substantial, 
 most persons. The cod, for some, is not quite so readily 
 taken ; and is not only more palatable, but is some- 
 times more easily assimilated when " crimped." The 
 same may be said of the salmon, a leading character- 
 istic of which is the presence of fat. This element 
 in fish is more apt to disagree with the stomach than 
 fat from some other sources ; and on this account it 
 is that many either avoid, or eat sparingly of salmon. 
 
1 86 Food and Feeding. 
 
 As the fat is chiefly found in the underside of the 
 fish, a slice from the back only should 
 be taken by such persons ; but it may be 
 taken as generally true that in the freshly killed fish 
 the fat is more wholesome than on the second or 
 third day after leaving the water, when it becomes 
 oily and acquires a slight characteristic taste and 
 odour. 
 
 The mackerel is another oily fish, and it disagrees 
 with some persons accordingly ; so is the red mullet, 
 but the oil is chiefly in the liver, and gives the fish 
 its peculiar flavour and value. The herring tribe 
 abound in oil, as we shall see hereafter. 
 
 Another list of fish which well deserves attention 
 is headed by the dory, a fish of the second rank, with 
 a peculiar firm, short, flakey, and very white flesh. 
 Fish less and not perhaps sufficiently appreciated. 
 
 excelUnt'**"* "^^^ P^^''^^' ^^ ^^^*^ (usually crimped), 
 food. lemon-sole, grey mullet, haddock, fresh 
 
 herring, and the flounder follow, all excellent food, 
 and wanting only proper treatment in the kitchen to 
 make them very palatable ; while in nutritive qualities 
 some of them rank as high as the sole and whiting. 
 Then the herring-tribe, viz. the pilchard, and smaller 
 varieties of the family, by reason of their abundance, 
 the facility with which they are preserved, and 
 of the large proportion of fat which they contain, 
 furnish a supply of useful food for the working 
 man. 
 But besides all these there are fish, which may be 
 
Fish rarely seen, but Good. 187 
 
 placed if not in the first, yet certainly in the second 
 rank, many of which are practically pishofthe 
 unknown to ninety-nirie out of every second class, 
 hundred London housekeepers. First may be named 
 the wolf-fish, or cat-fish, which, although unlike in 
 appearance to the usual occupants of a fishmonger's 
 shop, is a white fish of excellent quality, jjut excellent 
 It lives almost entirely on Crustacea, a in quality, 
 circumstance, as Yarrell long ago pointed out, always 
 associated with excellence in the fish so fed. The 
 superiority of the cod caught at the Dogger Bank is 
 said to be partly due to the same cause, as their food 
 at this spot is largely crustacean. The halibut, from 
 the North Sea, closely related to the turbot, is good 
 and substantial food, and when large, as it often is, 
 is also very cheap. The sea-bream, not 
 unlike a large fresh-water perch, and the sufficiently 
 basse, which has been sometimes styled 
 a white salmon, are both useful varieties which have 
 never received the attention they deserve, and which 
 may be presented simply yet effectively at table. 
 The gurnard is much better known, and an excellent 
 dish may be made with it. Among cheap fish, which 
 might be obtained in any quantity and at a small 
 price, are the ling and hake, related closely to 
 the cod, but chiefly used at present as salted fish 
 and exported ; the thornback, of the same family as 
 the skate, and equal in quality ; the pollack, a sub- 
 stantial whiting, and the coal-fish, of the same family, 
 but second in order of quality, are both good when 
 
1 88 Food and Feeding. 
 
 in season ; a proviso which, it is to be remembered, 
 
 applies equally to every variety. 
 
 I shall but enumerate the conger — excellent for 
 
 ^ , soup and stew making ; the whole tribe 
 
 Congers and '^ ° 
 
 the eel of eels with their abounding fatty con- 
 
 ^' stituents, larger even than those of the 
 
 herring family ; and the sturgeon with a fibre ap- 
 proaching in quality nearer to that of meat than any 
 Fresh-water Other fish ; besides all the fresh-water 
 ''^*'- fish, such as pike, tench, perch, etc., of 
 
 which the supply is, by comparison with sea fish, 
 limited ; following on which there is still a large 
 number of minor fish which it would be tedious to 
 particularize. 
 
 The fish for the day's consumption having been 
 
 „ ^. selected, a remark or two may be made 
 
 Preparation ' 
 
 of fish for on its preparation for the table. This 
 
 commences in the hands of the fish- 
 monger, as soon as it has become the property of 
 the purchaser. Before entering into his possession, 
 <■ ri • " *^^ ^^^ ^^^ *° undergo the process tech- 
 by the fish- nically known as " cleaning." This 
 monger. differs considerably according to the fish 
 
 to be dealt with, but in all cases it involves the 
 loss of what is often a valuable portion of nutritive 
 matter. The gills, liver, intestines, etc., are first 
 removed, often some skin, then portions of the fins, 
 sometimes the head also. The best of these are 
 known as "cuttings," and are sold at a low price 
 to the poor, at the close of the day, many of 
 
Every Part of Fish Useful. 189 
 
 whom thoroughly appreciate their value and profit 
 
 thereby. 
 
 To illustrate the result of this process for the 
 
 purchaser, let us see what happens in 
 
 one instance, as an example, perhaps a tion of what 
 
 somewhat extreme one, but nevertheless 
 
 occurring many times daily in every fishmonger's 
 
 shop. A pair of soles is bought and ordered to be 
 
 sent home in fillets ; eight fillets accordingly arrive. 
 
 The soles were first skinned, the internal parts taken 
 
 out, after which a long fillet, consisting of all the 
 
 flesh on either side of the central bone, both front 
 
 and back, was removed, making four from each fish. 
 
 The whole skeleton, with the head, fins, 
 
 ' ' A sole 
 
 and tail, forming a single entire piece, " cleaned " is 
 
 ,, ... ,. ■ it. 1 -NT ^'^^ wasted, 
 
 remams as " cuttmgs m the shop. Now 
 
 this piece will be found just equal to the fillets in 
 
 weight, constituting in fact one-half of the fish ; and 
 
 it will make excellent stock for fish-soup, a form of 
 
 food greatly neglected in this country. For in 
 
 utilizing fish, as far as possible, and in circumstances 
 
 where a strict economy must be regarded, the soft 
 
 parts of almost any fish may be cooked apart, so that 
 
 the skeleton, head, and fins may be utilized for a 
 
 fish-stock, or to make the foundation of the sauce 
 
 intended to accompany the fish when served. It 
 
 may be unnecessary to say that these parts are 
 
 useless for that purpose when already cooked, as by 
 
 boiling, frying, etc. 
 
 As a general observation, it may be said that in 
 
rgo Food and Feeding. 
 
 preparing fish for the table by the cook, sufficient 
 The cook's trouble is rarely taken to remove some 
 duty- portion of the bones ; this can be advan- 
 
 tageously done by a clever hand, without disfiguring 
 or injuring the fish. Sauces should be 
 ' appropriately served ; for example, the 
 
 fat sauces, as hollandaise, and other forms of melted 
 butter, are an appropriate complement of hot boiled 
 fish, while mayonnaise is similarly related to cold. 
 These and their variations, which are numerous, may 
 , , . . also accompany both broiled and fried 
 
 and broiled fish ; but the latter are often more whole- 
 some and agreeable when served with 
 only a squeeze of lemon juice, and a few grains of 
 the zest, if approved, when a fresh green lemon is 
 not to be had — and it rarely can be here. But the 
 juice of the mushroom is preferred, in the form of 
 catchup, and no doubt justly, by some, for the grill. 
 Endless variations and additions may be made ac- 
 cording to taste on these principles. But there is 
 another no less important principle, already referred 
 Fish should to, viz. that the fish itself often furnishes 
 fts'own"'"^^ a sauce from its own juices, better and 
 sauce. more appropriate than some of the com- 
 
 plicated and not very digestible mixtures prepared 
 by the cook. Thus "melted butter" — which is re- 
 garded as essentially an English sauce — when in- 
 tended to accompany fish, should not be, as it almost 
 invariably is, a carelessly made compound of butter, 
 flour, and water ; but in place of the last-named 
 
Fish Sauces and Garnish. 191 
 
 ingredient there should be a concentrated liquor 
 made from the trimmings of the fish shell-fish as 
 itself, with the addition of a few drops garnish, 
 of lemon juice, and strengthened, if necessary, from 
 other sources, as from shell-fish of some kind. Thus 
 an everyday sauce of wholesome and 
 agreeable quality is easily made ; and 
 this principle finds its highest illustration in that 
 admirable dish, the sole, with sauce au vin blanc of 
 the French, or, as associated with shell-fish, in the 
 sole d la normande* This is well served in Paris, of 
 course, but it can be found in perfection on the 
 coast of France, especially in the south, due in part 
 probably to the abundant garnish of shell-fish, which 
 are found in finer condition and fresher there, while 
 
 * A leading review, in a friendly notice of the above when 
 it first appeared, spoke of a "mistake" made by me in 
 " imagining a sole en matelote normande to be a simpler dish 
 than it really is.'' I certainly intended the sentence in which it 
 is named, and which is reprinted above without change, to 
 signify my high respect for this finished dish, and if I have not 
 made this clear, I hereby desire to do so. It was named to show 
 that the principle of employing the juices of fish, and especially 
 of sheU-fish, as a sauce, finds its highest expression in the sole 
 d. la normande. Turning to my copy of Jules GoufK's classical 
 work, pp. 621-22 of the original edition, Paris, 1867, 1 see that he 
 remarks specially thereupon, " La recette que j'indique n'a pour 
 base comme on a pu constater, que I'essence de poisson," pre- 
 cisely warranting what I had stated. It is understood, of 
 course, that these juices are combined with a good veloutd to 
 make the sauce, and that it may be garnished further to any 
 extent, according to the luxury demanded by the guest, or for 
 the entertainment. 
 
192 Food and Feeding. 
 
 the sole bears transit and keeps well, for it does not 
 inhabit the southern waters. 
 
 Some fish furnish their own sauce in a still simpler 
 manner, of which an illustration no less striking is 
 at hand in the easiest, but perhaps best mode of 
 cooking a red mullet, viz. baking it, and securing the 
 gravy of delicious flavour, which issues abundantly 
 from the fish, chiefly from the liver, as its only sauce. 
 
 Paris suffers in the matter of fish by distance from 
 
 „ . , the seaboard. London has a far fresher 
 
 Pans far 
 
 from sea- supply. No Frenchman knows what 
 
 salmon is until he tastes, sometimes 
 
 with much astonishment, a Severn or Christchurch 
 
 fish, taken from the water in the morning, crimped 
 
 on arrival in London in the afternoon, such as our 
 
 leading fishmongers can supply during all the spring 
 
 and summer in time for dinner. It is one of the 
 
 few things which we are able to offer our neighbours 
 
 T, „ r .. without fear of rivalry. A Parisian 
 Really fresh _ ^ 
 
 salmon not cannot obtain a salmon until the very 
 
 Uiere, delicate oil of the fish, by reason of 
 
 for reasons the lapse of time, say sixteen to twenty- 
 crivcn 
 
 four hours after having been killed, 
 
 has acquired a certain flavour, which is in fact the 
 
 result of commencing decomposition. That flavour 
 
 is for him, and for all those who cannot obtain a 
 
 salmon freshly killed, the natural and inherent flavour 
 
 of the fish. Such persons are surprised to find that 
 
 this distinctive characteristic is wholly absent in the 
 
 fresh fish. The fine nutty flavour of the latter, and 
 
Cooking of Crimped Salmon. 193 
 
 the crisp brittle quality of the flakes which the flesh 
 offers after crimping, are wholly unknown wherever 
 the salmon has to be carried by a transit exceeding 
 in length a duration of twenty-four hours. 
 
 Perhaps I ought to add, lest a doubt should exist 
 in the mind of any one, that crimping Crimping of 
 thus done, that is, eight hours after re- fifa™^"no 
 moval from the water, inflicts no pain P^'"- 
 whatever on the fish ; were it otherwise I would not 
 sanction it for any consideration whatever. To cook 
 crimped salmon in perfection, a slice should be 
 plunged into an ample saucepan of boiling salted 
 water, and allowed to boil six or seven minutes only. 
 The quantity of water in the fish-kettle should of 
 course be sufficient in relation to the salmon put 
 therein, not to cease boiling in consequence ; and on 
 removing the slices when the time is up, they should 
 not be exposed more than is necessary even to the 
 action of the steam arising from the kettle. This 
 may appear almost an unnecessary refinement : I can 
 vouch for the fact that exposure to the current of 
 steam for a few seconds lessens materially the crisp- 
 ness of the crimped fish. 
 
 Closely related to the baking of fish is another 
 mode of cooking it, which is applicable Roasting 
 to nearly every variety, and which has '^^^^'^ 
 the advantage of retaining all the nutritive material, 
 while the juices and the characteristic flavour are 
 preserved in a manner not attained by any other 
 process. It is rarely practised, because any other 
 
194 Food and Feeding. 
 
 than those conventional methods which have been 
 universally employed in cookery are slowly adopted 
 by the public, until attention has been thoroughly 
 before the aroused on the subject. Nevertheless, 
 '"'■^i the method I am about to advocate is 
 
 widely applicable, and well deserves at least to rank 
 among the other and better known modes of pre- 
 paring fish. It consists in placing the fish, after the 
 usual cleaning, entire, if of moderate size, say from 
 a sole to a small turbot or dory, in a block tin, 
 aluminium, or pure nickel dish, adapted to the 
 form and size of the fish, but a little deeper than the 
 juices not to thickness of it, so as to retain all the 
 evaporate, juices, which by exposure to the heaf 
 will flow out. First, however, the surface of the fish 
 is to be lightly spread with butter, and a morsel 
 or two added round it ; the whole is then to be 
 
 placed in a Dutch or American oven, 
 serving for 
 
 basting and m front of a clear fire.* The advan- 
 for sauce. ^^^^^ ^^ ^.j^j^ j^ethod are, that the fish 
 
 is cooked entirely in its own juices, which are 
 Nutriment abundant, and form the best sauce, 
 not wasted; ^^^ ^.jj^j- these juices which contain part 
 of the nutriment and much of the characteristic 
 
 * Mr. W. Burton, some time ago of Oxford Street, made for 
 me an oven and dishes expressly for the purpose of cooking fish 
 before the fire. The oven is a modification of that known as the 
 " American," being rather deeper, from before backwards, and 
 much shallower, from above downwards, on account of the flat 
 form of fish not occupying the space which is required by joints 
 of meat. 
 
Pish Baked and Roasted. 195 
 
 flavour are saved and utilized ; lastly, the direct 
 action of the fire browning the surface of the fish, 
 gives that appetizing flavour which is flavour 
 the especial charm of the "roast" and retained, 
 the "grill," and which has been frequently referred 
 to in this volume as "tasting of the fire." In fact, 
 the proper term for denoting the method described 
 is that of " roasting," for the fish is literally roasted 
 before the fire, and basted in its own gravy; and 
 with the same advantage in result as that which 
 roasted meat possesses by universal consent over 
 that which is baked in an oven. It is Applicability 
 necessary to guard against over-roasting "^ manv^^ 
 so as to dry the fish and evaporate the kinds, 
 gravy ; and if through carelessness this condition has 
 been reached, the fish should be moistened by the 
 addition of a little light stock before serving ; and 
 this is always done on the dish in which the cook- 
 ing has taken place. The method is susceptible of 
 innumerable variations to accommodate diflferent 
 tastes. Portions of fish prepared as fillets may be 
 treated as well as entire fish ; garnishes of all kinds, 
 as shell-fish, etc., may be added, flavouring also with 
 fine herbs and condiments, according to taste. I 
 may add that the process may be con- 
 ducted in a properly ventilated oven care, gives 
 where a clear fire is really not to be had, 
 producing a result nearly, although not quite, equal 
 to true roasting; or the dish may be first placed 
 in the oven, and be finished before the fire, which is 
 
196 Food and Feeding. 
 
 better. Cooked, however, as first described, such a 
 dish may be welcome at any table ; in preparing 
 red mullet, for example, as just referred to, it is in- 
 imitable ; while a fresh haddock or a dory, stuffed or 
 not, take higher rank by being thus treated. But the 
 working man also can thus advantageously cook 
 before his kitchen fire, in a common Dutch oven, 
 some fillets of plaice or skate with a slice or two 
 of bacon ; the dish to be filled or garnished with 
 some previously boiled haricots ; and by this means 
 he may secure an economical and most savoury meal, 
 which is at the same time nutritious. This is but 
 a single illustration among many which might be 
 adduced, of what may be done by this simple method 
 for those whose resources are of the slenderest kind. 
 Having regard to this question of economy and 
 preserving the juices of the fish, it should 
 a wasteful never be forgotten that by boiling it in 
 process. ^^^ manner considerable waste of nutri- 
 
 tive material occurs. Relative to this subject, I have 
 made numerous experiments, and find that the loss 
 in weight by boiling varies with different fish, and 
 also with the mode of operating. It is rarely as low 
 as five per cent, it is generally much more, and I 
 have known it to reach thirty per cent., the water 
 in which the fish has been boiled containing of course 
 a certain amount of lost solid animal matter. In 
 order to avoid waste as much as possible, the fish 
 should be placed in absolutely boiling water, which 
 should contain a good proportion of salt. The liquor 
 
Boiling causes much Loss. 197 
 
 in which the fish has thus been cooked, I have 
 evaporated, and have obtained from it, in solid 
 deposit, no less than four per cent, of the original 
 weight of the fish ; a considerable quantity, consti- 
 tuting it, in fact, a fish broth. There steaming 
 is no doubt, then, that steaming is a far P^ferable. 
 more economical process than boiling, and ought 
 to be substituted for the latter when fish is to be 
 cooked by heated water only. See description of 
 that method at pp. 105, 106. 
 
 To return to the utilization of the commoner kinds 
 of fish, and of fish trimmings or cuttings, pish soups, 
 in the composition of stock. From such ^*'^" 
 materials may be made a soup, or better still, a stew 
 of fish, in very savoury and nutritious form, for the 
 economical purchaser ; or a delicate and attractive 
 dish may be presented for an experienced palate. 
 I may offer as an example of the former a French 
 a receipt from Gouffd, for making a good receipt. 
 consommi of fish only, without any meat, and there- 
 fore a soup maigre. 
 
 Put into a large frying-pan, with about three- 
 quarters of a pound of butter, five large carrots, four 
 onions, three heads of celery, four shalots ; all the fore- 
 going to be cut in slices. One head of garlic (better 
 omitted here), three cloves, two bay leaves, one sprig 
 of thyme, twelve sprigs of parsley. Lightly fry them 
 till they acquire a reddish colour. Add a bottle of 
 dry Sauterne, and eight pints of water ; boil, skim, 
 and then add one ounce and a half of salt, and two 
 
198 Food and Feeding. 
 
 pinches of mignonette pepper. Put in a stewpan six 
 or seven pounds of gurnets cut into pieces ; next add 
 the bones of six whiting, keeping the fillets for clari- 
 fying. Let it simmer for two hours on the side of 
 the fire. When it is finished, strain through a cloth. 
 Pound the fillets of whiting with two whites of eggs ; 
 clarify the consommi of fish with the whites of egg 
 and fillets of whiting. The vegetables must be suffi- 
 ciently fried to give the consommi a light tint {Op. 
 cit., p. 348). 
 
 The next, a simpler receipt, can be recommended. 
 An English ^f*^"" numerous trials, as an excellent 
 receipt. family fish soup. 
 
 Put three ounces of butter into a stewpan ; add two 
 
 carrots sliced ; one onion and a shalot, in thin slices ; 
 
 then cloves, a little thyme, and some parsley. Fry 
 
 them gently until of a reddish tint ; then add three 
 
 or four pints of cold water. Let it boil, skimming 
 
 occasionally. Then add a small fresh haddock, bones 
 
 and all, cut up into pieces, and the head and bones of 
 
 three whitings, setting aside the fillets. A cod's head, 
 
 or that of a turbot, or the fresh bones, head, and fins 
 
 of two large soles, the fillets of which are required 
 
 for another dish, may take the place of 
 Fish soup. 
 
 the foregomg, or be cut in pieces and 
 
 added thereto, according to the quantity required. 
 
 Add some salt and a little pepper. Let all simmer 
 
 together for two hours gently, at the corner of the 
 
 fire ; take out the bones and pass all the rest through 
 
 a coarse strainer. Divide the fillets of whiting into 
 
Fish Soups Excellent. 199 
 
 two or three small portions each, boil for a few 
 minutes in some of the stock, add a little fresh green 
 chervil and parsley chopped, not too finely, and serve 
 all together in a tureen. 
 
 If the soup is preferred somewhat thicker in body 
 than this receipt produces, let it be made xo thicken 
 so by adding some farinaceous matter in '*• 
 small quantity, as crime dti riz, or, if preferred, a table- 
 spoonful of white roux (that is, a little flour well 
 mixed with butter in a stewpan over the fire, cooked, 
 but not allowed to brown) ; either addition is un- 
 doubtedly an improvement. 
 
 It is, in my opinion, undesirable to clarify fish 
 soups ; if other garnish is desired, quenelles to garnish 
 of whiting may be substituted for the **• 
 fillets ; and some of them may have a little coral 
 (spawn of the lobster) added to furnish flavour and 
 colour. A further change may be made by adding 
 fillets of other fish, or a few shell-fish, and a few small 
 balls of seasoning, similar to that used for veal and 
 poultry. 
 
 To make a bouillabaisse in the Marseillaise fashion,* 
 
 take three or four pounds of fish, „ 
 
 ^ Marseilles 
 
 whiting, sole, small haddock, red mullet, receipt for 
 
 , c ■^^ • J.I. • i t- • bouillabaisse, 
 
 and, following the instructions given 
 
 strictly throughout, a very small conger eel or a 
 
 portion of one. All these are to be cleaned, cut in 
 
 slices, and their bones removed ; two dozen of mussels 
 
 to be added. The receipt in question is as follows : — 
 
 * Referred to at p. 146. 
 
200 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Put into a stewpan two onions sliced, two tomatoes 
 peeled, a carrot sliced ; then, in a coarse net bag, the 
 following : two bay leaves, two slices of lemon, half 
 the zest of a Seville orange, two cloves, a little thyme, 
 several sprigs of parsley, a clove of garlic, two red 
 capsicums cut, and a little saffron ; add salt and 
 pepper, and a little pimento. Place the pieces of fish 
 over these, pour in six tablespoonfuls of olive oil ; 
 add three pints of water, with two or three glasses 
 of white French wine ; cover, and let all boil well 
 together for half an hour. The whiting, however, 
 should be put in only a quarter of an hour before 
 finishing. Serve the whole in a soup tureen with 
 slices of toasted bread apart ; or place them in the 
 tureen before filling. 
 
 The following receipt is offered for an economical 
 dish, or fish stew, suitable for a working man's 
 family : — 
 
 Take three or four pounds of hake, ling, skate, or 
 
 ,„ . . haddock, and a pound of " cuttings or 
 
 Working . 
 
 man's fish trimmings," which are the best part of 
 
 St6V7> 
 
 the fish for stock making. Remove all 
 the fish from the bones, break up or pound the latter, 
 and set aside with any portion of head there may 
 be, and the cuttings. Put into a saucepan, over the 
 fire, two ounces of lard and two or three onions 
 sliced, and let them fry until brown ; then add two 
 quarts of water and all the pounded bones and trim- 
 mings, some parsley or other green herbs, pepper 
 and salt. Let the whole simmer for three hours. 
 
stews of Fish. 201 
 
 adding the amount of water lost by evaporation. 
 Strain out the bones, bits of skin, etc., add the fish 
 in pieces, and boil gently ten or fifteen minutes. 
 Thicken with sufficient flour mixed smoothly with a 
 small portion of stock, and added before finishing. 
 In order to make the dish complete and substantial, 
 a few small suet dumplings should be well boiled 
 and put into the tureen. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 Milk, an example of a natural " complete " food — That of the 
 cow is its type — Its use as food almost universal — Essen- 
 tially an animal food — Most important that it should be 
 pure and uncontaminated — Being very susceptible of injury, 
 in distribution and otherwise, and thus becomes a fertile 
 source of disease — Many epidemics of fever, etc., caused by 
 the milk trade— Tuberculous milk — Analysis, and nutritive 
 value — Milk essentially food for the young growing animal 
 — Whey — Koumiss — Strict sanitary measures employed to 
 ensure the purity and wholesomeness of milk — Prudence 
 requires it to be generally regarded as a raw product, to be 
 taken only after boihng, especially by travellers abroad. 
 
 The term "complete," as we have seen in the 
 fourth chapter, is employed to denote that the food 
 so designated contains all the elements necessary to 
 the support of the body, and to the activity of its 
 functions. Most commonly, such nourishment is a 
 compound of two or more animal or vegetable sub- 
 stances, combined in order to afford the various 
 elements necessary to meet all the demands of 
 Milk is the animal life. But there is a notable 
 
 type of a example of a single animal product, 
 
 "complete" *■ , . , 
 
 foodprovided perhaps the best which can be offered 
 
 ^ °* " ■ as a complete food ; one prepared by 
 
 nature, furnished in great abundance, and which we 
 
Importance of Pure Supply. 203 
 
 are all well acquainted with, namely, milk. It is a 
 product which slightly varies in different species of 
 the mammalian family. That form which we are 
 most familiar with is the milk of the cow, and it 
 may be taken as the type. It constitutes so large 
 and so valuable a part of the food of man in temperate 
 climates, that some account of it is desirable here, 
 particularly as the subject is rapidly growing in 
 interest and importance, and as the popular know- 
 ledge respecting it is very imperfect. 
 
 I have said that the subject of milk is growing in 
 importance ; this is true on the following Exceedingly 
 grounds. First, because it is essential ™P°fh"**° 
 to the well-being of young children to P"re supply, 
 have milk which is produced of excellent quality 
 at its source ; and secondly, it is equally necessary 
 that it should not be adulterated, or otherwise injured 
 in the processes of transit and distribution. Mean- 
 time, as our population grows more dense, sources 
 of contamination increase, and the task of obtaining 
 an absolutely pure supply is more difficult. Very 
 much more is contained in these simple statements 
 than is at first discerned by the popular eye. 
 
 Before making further comments thereupon, let us 
 recall the fact that, excepting only the article of 
 wheaten bread, milk is perhaps the most universally 
 employed food in this country. And I because 
 am not quite sure that the exception fg^l'^da^'y 
 made above is correctly stated to be so. consumer. 
 Every man, woman, and child in the kingdom, 
 
204 Food and Feeding. 
 
 with few exceptions, consumes milk in some form 
 
 at least once or twice daily ; while for the youngest 
 
 part of the community, during the most critical stage 
 
 of early growth, milk forms the chief and the best 
 
 source of nourishment. Now it is to be remembered 
 
 in connection with these striking facts, that milk is 
 
 a complex animal food, and one which so rapidly 
 
 decomposes, that in hot weather a few 
 It decom- '^ . 
 
 poses hours suffice to injure it materially. 
 
 rapi y, Moreover, it is extremely liable to con- 
 
 tamination if exposed to impure atmospheric in- 
 fluences, etc. But the most serious danger connected 
 and is very with milk as food is associated with the 
 become ^^* daily process of distribution neces- 
 
 tainted ; gary in order to convey the product from 
 
 the cow to the consumer. No doubt that water is 
 wilfully added in some small quantity to a large 
 proportion of the supply in order to cheapen it ; but 
 where this is not done, all the vessels employed in 
 dairy operations are more or less carefully and com- 
 pletely washed twice a day. It is this 
 to transmit 
 the germs contact with water, employed by no 
 
 ' means always, as it ought to be, at the 
 boiling point, which constitutes the milk trade a 
 ready and unceasing agency for the spread of three 
 or four forms of disease among the population. It 
 is only within the last few years that we have become 
 aware that one of the principal channels by which 
 typhoid fever, scarlet fever, and diphtheria are pro- 
 pagated, is the agency which conveys the daily milk 
 
Milk often transmits Disease. 205 
 
 from the cow to every house in the kingdom. Water 
 
 which contains some admixture of sewage ^ . . , 
 
 by admixture 
 matter is liable to become contaminated with sewage 
 
 by the excreta of persons suffering from 
 infectious disease ; and thus, in its very employment 
 for cleansing milk vessels, the seeds of disease may be 
 deposited in a single milk can, from which twenty 
 families, say, are supplied. It is foolish, or worse, 
 to ignore the presence of this and similar sources of 
 danger to the community, resulting from the rapid 
 increase of population, or to affect that it is unwise 
 to be sensitive concerning the presence of dangers to 
 health in the daily routine of the household, seeing 
 that their discovery and removal may render life 
 there more enjoyable and secure. 
 
 Had such counsel been listened to by our fore- 
 fathers, the mortality from fever might Milk has 
 still be in this country what it was forty disflminated 
 years ago ; moreover, we know that the typhoid, 
 cause now in question, like every other cause of fever, 
 is a removable one, if reasonable precautions are 
 taken. It was greatly due to the late Dr. Murchison, 
 and to the late Mr. Ernest Hart, who more than any 
 one studied this subject exhaustively, , . 
 
 that the great epidemic of typhoid fever known 
 
 ., . , ^ .. , , . o illustration, 
 
 m the parish of Marylebone, in 1873, 
 
 was traced to a single case at a country farm which 
 supplied milk to a dairy in that parish ; directly oc- 
 casioning no less than two hundred and eighteen 
 cases of fever among the customers of that dairy, of 
 
2o6 Food and Feeding. 
 
 whom twenty-six died. From these a vast number 
 of other cases arose, how many could never by any 
 inquiry be correctly estimated. 
 
 During the succeeding ten years no less than 
 eighty-one (separate) epidemics were similarly traced 
 in various parts of this country to milk distribution.* 
 
 There is another source of disease associated with 
 Tuberculous ^'^ "^^ °^ milk, besides the contamina- 
 Milk. \.\on described, arising from a constitu- 
 
 tional malady to which the cow is subject, namely, 
 tuberculosis. When this is present, the disease is liable 
 to be communicated from a characteristic ulceration 
 affecting the udder to the milk itself, rendering it 
 highly dangerous to the consumer. So important is 
 this fact, that I shall but quote the words of a high 
 authority regarding the sole precaution which can 
 render the consumer safe from infection, namely, 
 " As regards milk, tuberculous infection is so readily 
 destroyed by boiling that this ought to be done as a 
 precautionary measure by every householder." t Let 
 me add that for many years, in travelling, whether in 
 
 * See an admirable and very concise account of the subject 
 in a paper read at a meeting of the Social Science Congress, at 
 Huddersfield, October, 1883, by Mr. Ernest Hart, and entitled, 
 " Is it desirable to take any, and what, further measures to pre- 
 vent the spread of Zymotic Diseases through the Milk Supply of 
 our Towns ? " London : Smith, Elder & Co. 
 
 t ''A System of Medicine," edited by J. Clifford Allbutt, 
 M.A., M.D., etc. (Macmillan, 1897), vol. ii., article "Tuber- 
 culosis," by Sidney Maitin, M.D., F.R.S., etc.. Professor of 
 Pathology in University College, London, etc. 
 
Constituents of Milk. 207 
 
 this country or abroad, I never take raw milk, but 
 invariably pursue the course recommended at p. 212. 
 
 The foregoing brief statements suiifice to show the 
 importance of the dairy and its products in con- 
 nection with the subject of food, even when considered 
 apart from the question of their dietetic Composition 
 value. I shall next proceed to describe °^ ™''^- 
 the composition and characteristics of good milk, 
 adding some remarks on its use as diet, and then 
 indicate the practical mode in which those who are 
 interested in obtaining it unadulterated and uncon- 
 taminated may obtain their object. 
 
 Of good cow's milk, nearly one seventh part by 
 
 weight is solid matter, the remainder is 
 
 The solids, 
 water. 
 
 Of this seventh part, rather more than a third is 
 " lactose," or milk-sugar ; rather less than a third is 
 " casein," the basis of cheese ; rather more than a 
 fourth is " milk-fat," or cream ; the small remainder 
 being salts or mineral matter. The foregoing propor- 
 tions are sufficiently correct for ordinary purposes, 
 and are easily remembered. A more exact analysis 
 is given here of the proportions in 100 parts of milk 
 by weight 
 
 Water .... 
 
 Solids — Milk-fat, or cream 
 
 Casein, or albuminoid 
 Milk-sugar, or lactose 
 Salts . 
 
 3-9 
 
 4'3 
 
 4-6 
 0-8 
 
 86-s 
 
 13-5 
 
2o8 Food and Feeding. 
 
 The specific gravity is generally about 1030 to 
 
 Specific 1033. ^t 60° Fahr. ; but specific gravity 
 
 gravity. alone cannot be regarded as an exact 
 
 test of quality, since the quantity of cream varies 
 
 „ . , with different specimens ; and as cream 
 
 Considera- 
 tion in is of lighter specific gravity than milk, 
 
 a specimen of the latter, which is ex- 
 tremely rich in cream, other ingredients being the 
 same, will weigh lighter than one which is deficient 
 Amount of in cream. But that a sample of milk 
 meiure*of* exceptionally rich in cream should be 
 value. offered for sale, although hypothetically 
 
 possible, must be regarded as practically impossible 
 in the last degree. The nutritive value of milk 
 corresponds, of course, with the aggregate amount 
 of all the solids contained, and for all purposes 
 of the consumer, the specific gravity corresponds 
 with that amount, the figure rising as the solids are 
 augmented. 
 
 The specific gravity of unadulterated milk furnished 
 by different healthy cows may be regarded as ranging 
 between 1027 and 1035. But the mixed product of 
 several such cows equals at least 1030 or 103 1. If 
 the milk furnished by any dealer is persistently below 
 1030, there is ground for complaint on the p»rt of the 
 customer ; and I think it may be said that any metro- 
 politan dairy of repute will furnish a uniform supply 
 of milk decidedly above 1030. Nevertheless, there is 
 a large quantity sold by the small dealers to the poor, 
 of which the specific gravity is no more than 1025 or 
 
Anaiysis of Milk. 209 
 
 1026. Nothing, however, is easier than to ascertain the 
 
 real value of any sample which the purchaser desires 
 
 to test. A lactometer may be bought use of the 
 
 for 2s. 6d. : it is only necessary to float lactometer. 
 
 it in a jug of milk, and the figure on its scale, which 
 
 is level with the surface of the milk, is the specific 
 
 gravity ; the temperature should be about 60° Fahr. 
 
 Where an exact analysis is required, as, for example, 
 
 to determine the question of fining a 
 
 Amount of 
 fraudulent dealer, the value of the solids must 
 
 sample has to be found, by ascertaining the q^stion 
 
 the amount of solids present, apart from °^ adultera- 
 
 "■ "^ honbywater. 
 
 the cream, and estimating the latter 
 
 separately. 
 
 The Society of Public Analysts requires a minimum 
 
 of " nine per cent, of solids, not fat : " 
 
 ^ ' Amount 
 
 and any sample which does not reach of solids 
 
 that amount has almost invariably been ^^ 
 
 adulterated with water, and the seller of it is liable 
 
 to a fine. But "nine per cent." is a low standard 
 
 determined on to avoid the infliction of hardship 
 
 on any small dealer who may have been supplied 
 
 from the country with a genuine, though exceptionally 
 
 poor milk, of which the solids did not exceed nine 
 
 per cent. ; and it may probably yet be altered. Hence, 
 
 vast quantities of milk which are sold every day at 
 
 that standard, contain a good deal of added water. 
 
 The standard of the best metropolitan dairies, whose 
 
 interest it is to supply unadulterated milk, is always 
 
 higher. 
 
2IO Food and Feeding. 
 
 Milk is essentially the food of the growing animal. 
 Milk is the Supplied by nature for the rapid de- 
 
 e-rowing velopment of the young calf, it is, with 
 
 food of 
 
 growin_ 
 
 animals. a little modification, admirably adapted 
 
 for our young children. It is excellent food, too, 
 
 for some adults; by no means for all. Those who 
 
 take much exercise, or follow laborious occupations, 
 
 may make it a useful portion of their dietary. It is 
 
 rarely suitable for sedentary persons, or for those who 
 
 Not neces- have reached the latter stage of life when 
 
 luita^riT^^^ the powers diminish, and the habits be- 
 
 the adult. come less active than heretofore. As a 
 
 drink at meal time, it is for the most part undesirable ; 
 
 for liquids taken with solid food need not be nutritious, 
 
 indeed, are better not to be so : they are rather required 
 
 to dilute and dissolve the latter, nutritive material 
 
 being for the most part abundantly supplied by the 
 
 solid constituents of a meal. 
 
 Milk forms a more suitable form of drink when the 
 
 fat has been removed, when, in short, it 
 Whey. 
 
 has been skimmed. If the casein is also 
 
 taken out, as in cheese-making, the whey, which now 
 
 contains little besides the sugar and the salts, is a 
 
 very "wholesome beverage, when fresh. Milk may 
 
 be fermented also, and an agreeable light effervescing 
 
 drink results, known as Koumiss, and 
 Koumiss. , , , . -r. . ,„ 
 
 largely used m Russian Tartary, where 
 
 it is made chiefly from the milk of the mare, which 
 
 slightly differs from that of the cow. The latter, 
 
 however, is now treated here in the same way, and 
 
Milk as Diet, Precautions. 211 
 
 is in no respect inferior ; it is widely recognized as 
 
 useful in some chronic complaints, and has been 
 
 more or less successful. 
 
 In order to ensure unadulterated and uncontami- 
 
 nated milk, it is necessary to adopt _ 
 
 . ^ Precautions 
 
 habitually certain precautions, or the to ensure 
 
 probability of obtaining that which is 
 impure at some time or another, during the long 
 array of chances which life affords, is not inconsider- 
 able. This fact makes it desirable that the milk trade 
 should be subjected to official sanitary supervision. 
 For the present the following hints for guidance may 
 be useful : — 
 
 First, In country districts, where the consumer is 
 
 commonly supplied direct from the farm, „ . 
 
 ^ '^'^ Drainage at 
 
 it should be ascertained that the dairy the dairy 
 
 is completely detached from all the 
 
 drains of the house and yards, and that the well 
 
 used for dairy washing should be uncontaminated 
 
 by sewage. It should be an absolute ^ . 
 
 Dairyvessels 
 rule that all vessels are scalded once a and boiling 
 
 day at least with boiling water. 
 
 Secondly. When in such districts infectious disease 
 
 occurs at the dairy farm, whether in the 
 
 dwelling house or in the cowsheds, no be used when 
 
 milk should be distributed on any pre- disease"^ 
 
 text, until the sources of infection have occurs at the 
 
 dairy farm, 
 disappeared. 
 
 Thirdly. When doubt exists as to the source of 
 
 milk, as during a fever epidemic, and no milk 
 
212 Food and Feeding. 
 
 absolutely beyond suspicion is to be had, it should 
 be well boiled before it is used as food, by which 
 process it is rendered safe. Some of those who 
 have most studied the subject, are so impressed 
 with its importance, and especially in relation to the 
 „.,. . interests of the family, as to advise that 
 
 tained from all milk should be thoroughly boiled 
 sources to before it is consumed. They believe 
 be boiled. ^^^ j^ jg ^jgg ^^ regard milk as a raw 
 
 food, and undesirable, on grounds above stated, for 
 human consumption, until it has been cooked. Con- 
 tinental travellers will do well to take it in this form, 
 and as it is always thus served for cafi-au-lait abroad, 
 there is no difficulty in obtaining it at any time. 
 
 Fourthly. In all large towns and in the metropolis. 
 Obtain milk milk should be obtained solely from 
 tributorsof some extensive organization of high re- 
 high repute, pute, well known to have made it an 
 absolute principle of its business to distribute milk 
 solely from sources which are held under vigilant 
 supervision by a competent person. Moreover, every 
 can of milk received from the country for distribution 
 should be examined for quality, before being delivered 
 to the public. This is a mode of proceeding which is 
 now thoroughly understood and practised, at least in 
 London ; and there is no real difficulty in adopting 
 such precautions, as well as others not less important, 
 as has been practically proved for several years, at 
 least by one great institution, on a large scale, in this 
 metropolis. For the present, it is incumbent on every 
 
Described in Dealing with it. 213 
 
 housekeeper who regards the health of his family, to 
 exercise caution after the manner here indicated. At 
 no distant period, all country dairies from whence 
 milk is sent away for sale, as well as the public milk- 
 shops held by dealers in towns, will, without doubt, 
 be subject to official inspection, and be regulated by 
 sanitary enactments. In the accomplishment of this 
 ceaseless task of milk distribution, almost nothing 
 can be done by any single individual to avert the 
 dangers to which carelessness and misfortune expose 
 him ; while well-devised arrangements of the nature 
 suggested may render him almost secure. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 The combination of dishes to form a meal — Three typical 
 systems of arranging daily meals — The French or Conti- 
 nental — The provincial (Great Britain) — That of town life 
 (London) — Characteristics of each meal — Breakfast — Lunch 
 — Dinner, of two kinds : the family meals, the dinner of 
 invitation — The rationale of the initial soup — Plan of dishes 
 to follow discussed — Hors-d'ceuvres — More in vogue on the 
 Continent than in this country — Most of all in Russia — As 
 a dietetic habit, it is undesirable for reasons given. 
 
 The art of combining dishes to form a meal now 
 demands our consideration. The occupations of man 
 in a civilized state, no less than the natural suggestions 
 D '1 m al °^ ^^^ appetite, require stated and regular 
 should be times for feeding. But the number of 
 
 ■ these set apart in the twenty-four hours 
 
 differs considerably among different races, and also 
 among different classes of society. It must suffice 
 for us to consider the subject only so far as the limits 
 of Europe are concerned. Taking a general view of 
 this subject, it may be said that there are three 
 principal systems to which all varieties of habit may 
 be reduced. From an English point of view these 
 may be regarded as — 
 
Daily System regarding Meals. 215 
 
 1. The French system of two chief meals a day ; 
 adopted by other Continental nations. Number 
 
 2. The system of provincial life (Great ^fffere^ 
 Britain) of four meals, with which races. 
 
 the habits of Holland and Northern Sree chirf ° 
 
 Germany are more or less analogous. systems. 
 
 3. The system of town life, of which London is 
 the type, or three meals a day. 
 
 1. In the French system, the slight refreshment 
 served in the early morning, in the form 
 
 of coffee or chocolate, with a rusk or a French 
 roll of bread, does not amount to a meal. ®^^ ^'°" 
 It is only a dish, and that a light one, and not a 
 combination of dishes, which is then taken. At or 
 about noon a substantial meal, the dejeHner, is served ; 
 and at six or seven o'clock, an ample dinner. Such 
 IS the two-meal system, and it appears to answer well 
 throughout the West and South of Europe. 
 
 2. What I have termed the provincial system con- 
 sists of a substantial breakfast at eight _ ... 
 
 ° 2, English 
 
 or nine, a dinner at one or two, a light provincial 
 
 tea about five, and a supper at nine or 
 
 ten. It is this which is popular throughout our own 
 
 provincial districts, and also among middle-class 
 
 society of our northern districts throughout both town 
 
 and country. As already indicated, the usages of the 
 
 Dutch and of their immediate neighbours 
 
 resembles 
 on the sea-coast, as well as of the great that of 
 
 German nation, correspond more to this ^^' 
 
 than to the first-named system. The number of 
 
2i6 Food and Feeding. 
 
 meals may be regarded as the same, although not 
 taken at the hours named above ; coffee, and not tea, 
 being taken morning and afternoon. 
 
 3. The prevailing system of London, and of the 
 numerous English families throughout 
 London the country, whose habits are formed 
 
 from partial residence in town, or by 
 more or less intimate acquaintance with town life, is 
 that of three meals daily. In general terms the 
 breakfast takes place between eight and ten, the 
 lunch about two, the dinner from seven to half-past 
 eight, or even later. 
 
 In all cases each meal has its own specific character. 
 B akf t Thus, in this country, breakfast is the 
 
 and its cha- most irregular in its service, and least of 
 r&c tcris tics . 
 
 all demands general and intimate co- 
 herence of the party assembled. Individual interests 
 concerned in the arrival of the letter-bag, in the 
 morning news, in plans for the day, in cares of coming 
 business, etc., are respected. Provision for acknow- 
 ledged dietetic peculiarities on the part of individuals 
 is not forgotten, punctual attendance at the hour 
 named is not required, and every one comes or goes 
 as he pleases. 
 
 At lunch the assembly is still somewhat uncertain. 
 
 Thus some members of the family are 
 Lunch. 
 
 absent without remark ; intimate friends 
 
 may appear without special invitation ; while those 
 
 less intimate can be asked with small ceremony. 
 
 Occupations of pleasure or of business still press for 
 
Breakfast^ Lunch, Dinner. 217 
 
 pursuit during the afternoon, and the meal for such 
 may not be too substantial. It should suffice a,mply 
 to support activity ; it should never be so consider- 
 able as to impair it. Here may be just named an 
 invention of comparatively recent date, Afternoon 
 afternoon tea, which, however, cannot *®*" 
 be reckoned as a meal. In reality, a pleasant excuse 
 to mark the hour for friendly gossip with a hostess 
 " at home," it may be the occasion of undesirable 
 habits, if enough solid food is eaten to impair digestion 
 and "spoil" the coming dinner. Nothing can be 
 more undesirable at this hour than sweet and rich 
 cake, hot buttered toast or muffins ; nevertheless 
 they are frequently offered. But d. propos of tea, many 
 of us might with advantage avoid the sugar and the 
 cream, which at this hour interfere with the stomach 
 far more than does the infusion itself, and add in their 
 place a delicate slice of lemon neither thicker nor 
 larger than a half-crown, the flavour of which — 
 fragrant peel and a hint of acid — combines with the 
 aroma of good tea, without in the least disguising or 
 flattening it as the conventional additions do. It 
 would be almost as rational to add cream and sugar 
 to wine, as to fine and delicately flavoured tea. 
 Occasionally tea is served with lemon in this country, 
 but it is mostly added in excess. A very slight 
 shaving, which contains both peel and pulp, is ample 
 for an ordinary cup. 
 
 The last meal of the three, dinner, has characters 
 wholly different from the preceding. The prime 
 
2i8 Food and Feeding. 
 
 occupations of the day are over ; the guests are 
 
 known and numbered ; the sentiment is 
 Dinner; . . r ■, -,• • r i 
 
 one of reunion after the dispersion of the 
 
 day — of relaxation after its labours, sports, or other 
 
 active pleasures. Whatever economy of time may 
 
 have been necessary in relation to the foregoing 
 
 meals, all trace of hurry should disappear at dinner. 
 
 A like feeling makes the supper of the " provincial " 
 
 system a similarly easy and enjoyable meal. And all 
 
 this is iqually true of dinner, whether it unites the 
 
 family only, or brings an addition of guests. General 
 
 conversation : the events and personal incidents of the 
 
 day, the current topics of the hour, are discussed in a 
 
 light spirit, such as is compatible with proper attention 
 
 to the dishes provided. All that follows late dinner 
 
 should for the most part be amusement — it may be 
 
 at the theatre, an evening party, or a quiet evening at 
 
 the most home. There should be ample time, 
 
 important, however, for every coming engagement, 
 
 and security for some intervening rest for digestion. 
 
 Dinner, then, is the only meal which — as the greater 
 
 ^ . .. includes the less — need be discussed in 
 
 to be dis- 
 cussed at the third part of our subject, which 
 Icnorth* 
 
 claims to treat of custom and art in 
 
 combining dishes to form a repast. With the re- 
 quirements and under the circumstances just speci- 
 fied, it should not be a heavy meal, but it should be 
 sufficing. No one after dinner should feel complete 
 satiety or repletion, with a sense of repugnance at the 
 idea of eating more ; but all should still enjoy the 
 
Dinners: Family and Invitation. 219 
 
 conviction that a good meal furnishes delightful and 
 refreshing occupation. 
 
 Dinners are of two kinds — the ordinary meal of the 
 family, and the dinner to which guests Dinners of 
 are invited. There is a third dinner in *''° '^'^s. 
 this country, of common — too common — occurrence, 
 viz. the public dinner, which is essentially a British 
 institution, and cannot be passed by in silence. 
 
 The late dinner should never include children. It 
 is a meal which is in every way unsuited The family 
 to them ; and they are quite unfitted to <l'°ner- 
 take part in its functions ; besides, the four-meal 
 system is better adapted to their requirements of 
 growth and digestion in early life. A family dinner 
 may usually consist of a soup, fish, a substantial and 
 a light entree, a roast and a sweet ; the light entrh 
 may even be omitted. If, however, the meal is 
 required to be more substantial, a joint may be 
 served in addition after the fish ; but this should be 
 very rarely necessary. A special dish of vegetables 
 may be advantageously placed before or after the 
 roast, according to circumstances ; and supplementary 
 vegetables should be always at hand. Cheese or a 
 light savoury trifle may complete the menu. 
 
 The rationale of the initial soup has often been 
 discussed : some regard it as calculated why soup is 
 to diminish digestive power, on the the first dish, 
 theory that so much fluid taken at first dilutes the 
 gastric juices. But there appears to be no foun- 
 dation for this belief: a clear soup, or the fluid 
 
220 Food and Feeding. 
 
 constituents of a pur^e, disappear almost immediately 
 after entering the stomach, being absorbed by the 
 proper vessels, and in no way interfere with the 
 gastric juice which is stored in its appropriate cells 
 ready for action. The habit of commencing dinner 
 with soup has without doubt its origin in the fact 
 that aliment in this fluid form — in fact, ready digested 
 — soon enters the blood and rapidly refreshes the 
 hungry man, who, after a considerable fast and much 
 activity, often sits down with a sense of exhaustion 
 to commence his principal meal. In two or three 
 minutes after taking a plate of good warm consomm^, 
 the feeling of exhaustion disappears, and irritability 
 gives way to the gradually rising sense of good- 
 fellowship with the circle. Some persons are accus- 
 tomed to allay exhaustion by taking a glass of sherry 
 before food — a gastronomic no less than a physio- 
 logical blunder, since it overstimulates and tends to 
 injure an empty stomach, while it depraves the 
 palate. On the other hand, the soup introduces at 
 once into the system a small instalment of ready- 
 digested food, and saves the period of time which, in 
 the absence of soup, must be spent by the stomach 
 in deriving some portion of nutriment from solid 
 aliment ; and thus the organ of digestion itself is 
 rapidly strengthened for its forthcoming duties. 
 
 Few persons will be found to dispute the second 
 
 place in order to fish, although this 
 Next, fish. ^ . 
 
 arrangement is in some quarters an 
 
 open question : its discussion, however, can scarcely 
 
Order of Dishes served. 221 
 
 be regarded as within the limit of our space. The 
 third dish should consist of the chief 
 meat, the joint, if desired ; and this is substantial 
 undoubtedly the place for it, if a sub- **'®''' 
 stantial meal is required. The chief nutritious supply 
 being thus afforded to the system, more delicate 
 dishes, eaten in smaller quantity, and esteemed for 
 their special qualities of flavour, aroma, or texture, 
 should follow in an order which makes one comple- 
 mentary of or introductory to the next. Such, for 
 example, as an entree of cutlets, poultry, 
 or sweetbread, etc., well garnished, are ' 
 
 appropriate, and by many will be found preferable. 
 Next, the well-roasted bird — of game or 
 poultry — accompanied or followed by ®'^°*s , 
 salad ; and after this, or, if preferred, before the roast, 
 a dish of choice vegetables, worthy to j.j,g <iig_ 
 be served alone ; e.g. asparagus, seakale, ^""^ : " 
 early peas, globe artichokes, etc. Then one light 
 simple sweet, for those who take it, and a slight 
 savoury biscuit, a grilled mushroom or sweet and 
 a morsel of cheese completes the repast, savoury. 
 Such a meal contains within its limits all that can 
 be desired for daily enjoyment and use. If well 
 and liberally served, it is complete in every sense 
 of the word. Dessert and its extent is a matter 
 of individual taste ; of wines, coffee, and liqueurs 
 I shall speak hereafter. 
 
 A word about hors-d^ceuvres. It is well known 
 that the custom exists to a very wide extent among 
 
222 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Continental nations of commencing either midday 
 
 " Hors- d^jeilner or dinner by eating small 
 
 d'oeuvres;" portions of cold pickled fish, of raw 
 
 vegetables, of highly flavoured sausage thinly sliced, 
 
 etc., to serve, it is said, as a whet to appetite. This 
 
 custom reaches its highest development in the za- 
 
 ,, „ kuska of the Russian, which, consisting 
 
 the "za- ' ' ° 
 
 kuska " of of numerous delicacies of the kind 
 
 the Russians. ^. , . . ^ -l r t 
 
 mentioned, is sometimes to be found 
 
 occupying a table in an ante-room to be passed 
 between the drawing-room and dining-room ; or, and 
 more commonly, spread on the sideboard of the 
 latter. The Russian eats a little from three or four 
 dishes at least, and " qualifies " with a glass of strong 
 grain spirit {vodka) or of some liqueur, before taking 
 his place at the table. Among these savoury pre- 
 liminaries may often be found caviare 
 Caviare. 
 
 in its fresh state, grey, pearly, succulent, 
 
 and delicate, of which most of the caviare found 
 
 in this country is but as the shadow to the substance. 
 
 I have no hesitation in saying, after much con- 
 
 „ , sideration of the practice of thus com- 
 
 Remarks 
 
 on "hors- mencing a meal, that there is no good 
 
 ' warrant for it on the part of individuals 
 endowed with fairly good appetite and digestion. 
 For them, both pickled food and spirit are un- 
 desirable, at any rate, on an empty stomach. And 
 if appetite and digestion are wanting, the stimulant 
 of the hors-d'oeuvres is not only unnatural but 
 decidedly prejudicial. Rational means to regain 
 
Hors-d' ceuvres , "Zakuska;" Oysters. 223 
 
 appetite are indicated in such circumstances. And 
 the hors-d'osuvres, although frequent attempts, from 
 sheer force of imitation, to transplant them here 
 are made, happily do not, as far as I have observed, 
 thriye on our soil. They have been introduced here 
 chiefly, I think, because their presence being de- 
 manded by foreign gastronomic taste, is supposed 
 to be therefore necessarily correct. But the active 
 exercise and athletic habits of the Englishman, his 
 activity of body and mind in commercial pursuits, 
 all tend to bring him to the dinner-table wanting 
 food rather than appetite, and in no mind to ask 
 for " whets " to increase it. Among idle their value 
 men, whose heavy lunch, liberally accom- of(.g„*^^^^'*^ 
 panied with wine and not followed by questionable, 
 .exercise, has barely disappeared from the stomach 
 at the hour of dinner, a piquant prelude as stimulus 
 of appetite is resorted to. Hence the original 
 invention of hors-d'ceuvres ; and their appearance 
 in a very much slighter and more delicate form than 
 that which has been described, still to be observed 
 in connection with the chief repasts of the . Latin 
 races. The one plate which heralds dinner, and is 
 indigenous to pur country, is also one of its own 
 
 best products — the oyster. But this is 
 
 Oysters, 
 scarcely a hors-d' osuvre. In itself a 
 
 single service of exquisite quality, served with 
 
 attendant graces of mild and delicate vinegar or lemon 
 
 juice, brown bread and butter, and a glass of light 
 
 chablis for those who take it, the half-dozen natives 
 
224 Food and Feeding. 
 
 occupying the hollow shells hold rank of a very 
 different kind to that of the miscellaneous assort- 
 ment of tit-bits alluded to. Oysters are, in fact, the 
 first dish of dinner and not its precursor ; the preface, 
 and not the needless and obtrusive advertisement. 
 And this brings us to the dinner of invitation. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Dinners of invitation — Two kinds : small and select ; large but 
 complete — The old pretentious style described — Scheme of 
 a rational dinner-party — Priority in the service of various 
 courses or dishes discussed — Dessert — The quart cfheure 
 after dinner — Turtle and fish dinners — Curry — Sketch for a 
 small dinner. 
 
 And of this entertainment, the dinner of invitation, 
 
 there are two very distinct kinds. First, _ ^. ,. ^ 
 ■' _ Two distmct 
 
 there is the little dinner of six or eight types of 
 guests, carefully selected for their own 
 specific qualities, and combined with judgment to 
 obtain a harmonious and successful result. The 
 ingredients of a small party, like the The small 
 ingredients of a dish, must be well and select, 
 chosen to make it "complete." Such are the first 
 conditions to be attained in order to achieve the 
 highest perfection in dining. Secondly, and the 
 there is the dinner of society, which is gociSy" 
 necessarily large ; the number of guests Jarge. 
 varying from twelve to twenty-four. 
 
 The characteristics of the first dinner are — comfort, 
 excellence, simplicity, and good taste. Those of the 
 second are — the conventional standard of quality, 
 
 P 
 
226 Food and Feeding. 
 
 some profusion of supply, suitable display in orna- 
 ment and service. 
 
 It must be admitted that, with the large circle of 
 acquaintances so commonly regarded as essential to 
 existence in modern life, large dinners only enable 
 us to repay our dining debts, and exercise the hospi- 
 g tality which position demands. With 
 
 drawbacks a strong preference, then, for the little 
 attaching^ to . , . , 
 
 the large dinners, it must be admitted that the 
 
 dinner ; larger banquet is a necessary institution ; 
 
 and, therefore, we have only to consider now how 
 
 to make the best of it. 
 
 No doubt the large dinner has greatly improved of 
 
 late ; but it has by no means universally 
 improred of arrived at perfection. Only a few years 
 
 ago excellence in quality and good taste 
 in cuisine were often sacrificed in the endeavour to 
 make a profuse display. Hence, abundance without 
 reason, and combinations without judgment, were 
 found co-existing with complete indiflference to com- 
 fort in the matters of draughts, ventilation, tempe- 
 
 „,.. ^ .. J rature, and consumption of time. Who 
 
 what it used ^ 
 
 to be not among the diners-out who have passed 
 
 ongago. middle age has not encountered in his 
 early days an entertainment with some such pro- 
 gramme as the following, one of an order which, it is 
 to be hoped, is now quite extinct ? 
 
 Eighteen or twenty guests enter a room adapted 
 at most to a dinner of twelve. It is lighted with 
 gas, the chief available space being occupied by 
 
Mid-century Dinners. 227 
 
 the table, surrounding which is a narrow lane, barely 
 
 sufficing for the circulation of the ser- crowded; 
 
 vants. Directly — perhaps after oysters — ^^^ service ; 
 
 appear turtle soups, thick and clear. A consommi 
 
 is to be had on demand, but so unexpected a choice 
 
 astonishes the servitor, who brings it after some 
 
 delay, and cold : with it punch. Following, arrive 
 
 the fish — salmon and turbot, one or both, smothered 
 
 in thick lobster sauce : sherry. Four yuigar 
 
 entries promenade the circuit in single Profusion; 
 
 file, whereof the first was always oyster patties ; after 
 
 which came mutton or lamb cutlets, a vol-au-vent, 
 
 etc. : hock and champagne. Three-quarters of an 
 
 hour at least, perhaps an hour, having now elapsed, 
 
 the saddle or haunch of mutton arrives, of which 
 
 gentlemen who have patiently waited adjuncts 
 
 get satisfactory slices, and currant jelly, *^°^'' > 
 
 with cold vegetables or a heavy flabby salad. Then 
 
 come boiled fowls and tongue, or a turkey with solid 
 
 forcemeat ; a slice of ham and so on, ^0 gub- 
 
 up to game, followed by hot substantial stantial ; 
 
 pudding, three or four other sweets, including an iced 
 
 pudding ; wines in variety, more or less 
 
 ^ "^ -^ indigestible ; 
 
 appropriate ; to be followed by a pdte de 
 
 foie gras, more salad, biscuits and cheese. Again, 
 
 two ices, and liqueurs. Then an array . , ... 
 ^ ^ interminable 
 
 of decanters, and the first appearance of dessert and 
 red wine ; a prodigious dessert of all ' 
 
 things in and out of season, and particularly those 
 which are out of season, as being the more costly. 
 
228 Food and Feeding. 
 
 General circulation of waiters, handing each dish in 
 
 turn to e\erybody, under a running fire of negatives, 
 
 a ceremonial of ten or fifteen minutes' duration, to 
 
 , .. . say the least. Circulation of decanters, 
 
 ladies leave, "^ 
 
 and more general rustle of silks, disappearance of 
 
 the ladies ; and first change of seat, pre- 
 cisely two hours and a half after originally taking it. 
 It may be hoped that a charming companion on 
 either side has beguiled and shortened a term which 
 otherwise must have been tedious. Now general 
 closing up of men to host, and reassembling of 
 decanters ; age, quality, and vintage of wine dis- 
 cussed during consumption thereof. At last coffee, 
 which is neither black nor hot. Joining the ladies ; 
 music by the daughters of the house ; service of gun- 
 powder tea, fatal to the coming night's rest if taken in 
 a moment of forgetfulness ; and carriages announced. 
 
 This brief sketch, which accurately portrays the 
 dining procedure which prevailed during the forties 
 and fifties of the present century, is retained here, 
 as not without historical interest to the present 
 generation. 
 
 Admitted that such an exhibition is impossible 
 Enormous now in any reasonable English circle, it 
 ilTtwraty*"* nevertheless corresponded too closely in 
 years. style with that of the public dinner up 
 
 to a later period — a state of things without excuse. 
 A lighter And the large private dinner is often 
 
 repast g^.jjj ^.qq long, the menu too pretentious. 
 
 Let me, however, be permitted to record, equally in 
 
Schemes for Select Dinners, iic) 
 
 proof of growing taste and as grateful personal duty, 
 
 the vast improvement which has taken Suggestions 
 
 place. The dinner of society has, since ^qJ^^ 
 
 the earlier editions of this work appeared, dinner. 
 
 been greatly abridged in length and improved by the 
 
 substitution of lighter and more delicate dishes for 
 
 the solid meats of the last generation. At the same 
 
 time, a menu, suitable for a large party, must be 
 
 framed so as to offer various dishes for choice to 
 
 meet the differing tastes of numerous guests, and it 
 
 must therefore be more comprehensive than that 
 
 supplied to a small one, say of eight or nine guests. 
 
 Let us see how this is to be met. First, 
 
 . . , „ The soups, 
 
 the soups : it is the custom to offer a 
 
 consommi, which ought to be perfect in clearness, 
 
 colour, and savour, always to be served perfectly 
 
 hot ; containing a few vegetables, etc., variously 
 
 treated — doubtless the best commencement, as it is 
 
 the key-note of the dinner ; revealing also, as it does, 
 
 nine times out of ten, the calibre of the cook to whose 
 
 talent the guest is entrusted. But there is mostly 
 
 an alternative of " white soup," and this Remarks on 
 
 is almost always a mistake, Many per- '^'^'^^ soups. 
 
 sons refuse it, and they are right, containing, as it 
 
 generally does, a considerable proportion of cream — 
 
 an injudicious beginning, when there is much variety 
 
 to follow ; excellent sometimes as one of three or 
 
 four dishes, but dangerous otherwise to the guest 
 
 who has not an exceptionally powerful digestion. 
 
 But suppose that oysters, vinegar, and chablis have 
 
230 Food and Feeding. 
 
 just been swallowed ! A brown pur^e, as of game, 
 or one of green vegetable, less frequently met with, 
 a " Saint Germain," for example, in early summer 
 
 would be safer and more acceptable. 
 
 Two fish, of course, should always be 
 served ; as, for instance, a slice of Severn or Christ- 
 church salmon, just arrived from the water, for its 
 own sake, and a fillet of white fish, for the sake of 
 its sauce and garnish, which should be therefore 
 perfect. The next dish is, in London, a question 
 " Piece de under discussion, viz. the question of 
 resistance, precedence of an entrie, or of the pUce 
 at all ? de resistance. The custom was to post- 
 
 pone the appearance of the latter until lighter dishes 
 have been despatched or declined. If, however, the 
 English joint is required at a meal already com- 
 prehensive in the matter of dishes, and taken at a 
 late hour, it seems more reasonable to serve it next 
 to the fish, when those who demand a slice of meat 
 may be expected to have an appropriate appetite, 
 which will certainly be impaired, equally by accept- 
 ing the entries, or fasting partially without them. 
 But nothing so substantial as a joint is now required 
 at a dinner of this kind ; an entrie of meat, at all 
 events, replaces it if wanted ; at most, a little tour- 
 nedos of the fillet of beef, or a noisette of mutton, 
 . daintily served. Then one or two light 
 
 entrees entries follow, and these must necessarily 
 
 be either in themselves peculiarly tempt- 
 ing morsels, or products of culinary skill, offering 
 
Adapted to any Number. 231 
 
 inducement to the palate rather than to an appetite 
 
 which is no longer keen : for example, a delicate 
 
 souffli of pheasant, leveret, or fowl garnished with 
 
 truffles : while in summer these will 
 
 11 < 11 . The roast; 
 
 naturally be more agreeably served as 
 
 chaudfroids. Then the best roast possible in season 
 
 or choice of two, and a salad ; a first-rate vegetable, 
 
 a slice of really fine ham, to some a most fitting 
 
 accompaniment ; two choice sweets, one of which 
 
 may be iced ; a parmesan souffli, a sweets 
 
 herting-roe on toast, or a morsel of savoury. 
 
 fine barely salted caviare, pale and pearly grey, 
 
 which may be procured in two or three places at 
 
 most in town, will complete the dinner. For dessert, 
 
 which may be ushered in with a couple 
 
 . . ^ , ,. Dessert, 
 
 of companion ices of dehcate texture, 
 
 the finest fruits in season to gratify both eye and 
 
 palate and for light amusement after ; or simply 
 
 nuts in variety, and dry biscuits ; nothing between 
 
 the two is tolerable, and little more than the latter 
 
 is really wanted ; and for decorative purposes the 
 
 resources of flowers are now unbounded, to say nothing 
 
 of autumnal tints for rich variety in season. But it 
 
 may be admitted that the diminished number of sweet 
 
 entremets strengthens the plea for a supply of delicious 
 
 fruits, rendering the dessert useful and agreeable as 
 
 well as ornamental. 
 
 And now that dessert is over, let me say that I do 
 
 not admit the charge sometimes intimated, although 
 
 delicately, by foreigners, of a too obvious proclivity 
 
232 Food and Feeding. 
 
 to self-indulgence on the part of Englishmen, in per- 
 
 „ , mitting the ladies to leave the table 
 
 Custom of 
 
 ladies without escort to the drawing-room, 
 
 retinng. ^j^^ ^j^ custom of staying half an 
 
 hour, or even an hour afterwards, to drink wine, 
 which is doubtless a remnant of barbarism, has long 
 been considered indefensible. The best wines the 
 Wine at \iOs\. can supply should appear in appro- 
 
 dessert, priate places in the course of dinner, and 
 
 not be reserved, as formerly, until dessert appears. 
 And after-dinner drinking should be simply a de- 
 mand for a glass or so more of the '70 Port, or of 
 the excellent " Mouton," or " Lafite ; " or of that 
 perfect "Pommery and Greno," " Moet," "St. Mar- 
 ceau," or " Perrier Jouet," * which have been known 
 to repose this dozen years or more in some snug and 
 quiet cellar of the back basement, where goodly stores 
 still exist of the vintage of " '84." For the separation 
 A short stay of the party into two portions for fifteen 
 have" left '^ or twenty minutes is useful to both, and 
 desirable. leads perhaps more completely to a 
 
 general mixture of elements on reunion after than 
 is attained by the return of the original pairs together. 
 Whether this be so or not, the ladies have a short 
 interval for the interchange of hearsays and ideas 
 relative to matters chiefly concerning their special 
 
 * Let it be perfectly understood that these brands, undoubtedly 
 choice as they are, are named without the slightest intention of 
 selecting them for commendation beyond others, and merely as 
 illustrating the arrangements suggested in the text. 
 
Dessert, etc. Special Dinners. 233 
 
 interests ; while the men enjoy that indispensable 
 
 finish to a good dinner, an irreproachable cup of 
 
 coffee and a cigarette ; and the sooner these 
 
 arrive the better, only let all the fine Bordeaux 
 
 be finished before the perfume of Dubec or of 
 
 Havana scents the air. With the small dinners of 
 
 men it can scarcely too quickly follow the last 
 
 service. 
 
 But marked by a special character are some dinners, 
 
 which may be either small or large in special 
 
 relation to the number of guests, but dinners. 
 
 which are necessarily limited as regards the variety 
 
 of aliments served. I refer to dinners ^ „ . 
 
 Turtle in 
 at which either turtle or fish predomi- various 
 
 nates. In accordance with a principle ' 
 
 already enunciated, a bowl of substantial stock, con- 
 taining four or five broad flakes of the gelatinous 
 product, often miscalled "fat," which is the chief 
 representative of the turtle in the compound, is not 
 a judicious prelude to a dinner arranged according 
 to the orthodox programme, and offering the usual 
 variety. A lover of turtle indulges freely in the soup, 
 both thick and clear, making it, in fact, an important 
 instalment of his repast ; and he desires, with or 
 without some slight interlude, to meet the favourite 
 food again in the form of an entrie. After so sub- 
 stantial a commencement, the dinner . ^ ^ 
 
 and what 
 should be completed chiefly by poultry, should 
 
 and game if in season, and for the 
 
 most part by dishes which are grilled or roasted 
 
234 Food and Feeding. 
 
 in contrast to the succulent morsels which have 
 preceded. 
 
 The " fish dinner," as a speciality, also an occasional 
 The fish departure from daily routine, is accept- 
 
 dinner. able, and gratifies the taste for that 
 
 delicate and pleasant food in considerable variety. 
 But if so indulged, very few dishes ought to appear 
 subsequently. It is a curious fact that the traditional 
 Of the Green- balcon and beans, which appear towards 
 wichtype. ^^ close of a Greenwich whitebait 
 dinner, should afford another illustration of unde- 
 signed compliance with the natural law referred to 
 at the outset, the bacon furnishing complementary 
 fat to supply its notable absence in fish. 
 
 The enjoyment of a curry — and when skilfully 
 
 made it is almost universally admitted 
 The curry. , . , , 
 
 to be one of the most attractive com- 
 binations which can be offered to the senses of taste 
 and smell — is only possible at a limited repast. 
 When freely eaten, very little is acceptable to the 
 palate afterwards, exhausted as it is by the pervading 
 fragrance of the spice and other adjuncts. Hence 
 a curry should form the climax of a short series of 
 dishes leading up to it, as an important element in 
 a small dinner ; or it may even be presented, in a 
 miniature form, a kari mignon, as an elegant and 
 acceptable final savoury morsel at the end of a dinner 
 of pretension. But when presented, as it sometimes 
 is, among the entries of a first course it is wholly out 
 of place. 
 
Small, Quiet Dinners. 235 
 
 Here we may appropriately take a rapid glance 
 
 at the characteristics of the feast where „ 
 
 Suggestions 
 the guests are few in number. as to a small 
 
 The small dinner party should be 
 seated at a round or oval table, large enough for per- 
 sonal comfort, small enough to admit of conversation 
 in any direction without effort. The table should of 
 course be furnished with taste, but is not to be en- 
 cumbered with ornaments, floral or other, capable of 
 obstructing sight and sound. A perfect consomm^, 
 a choice of two fish, a tournedos from Eight 
 the filet, noisette or fricandeau, followed ^'shes ; 
 by a chaudfroid, a crime de volaille garnie, a roast 
 bird (game, wild duck, quail, plover, or snipe) and 
 salad, a choice vegetable, and an iced souffle or 
 charlotte ; and in summer a macMoine of fresh fruits 
 in an old china family bowl, if there is one; and 
 lastly, a savoury croute, accompanying vegetables, 
 with crisp thin toast, and appropriate wines ; — may 
 be regarded as furnishing a scheme for such a party 
 — or a theme of which the variations are endless.* 
 
 From seven or eight to nine or ten, but 
 
 .... . eight guests, 
 
 not more than nme or ten guests, can 
 
 thus be brought into close contact ; with a larger 
 
 number the party is apt to form two coteries, one 
 
 on each side of the host. The number is a good one 
 
 also in relation to the commissariat department — 
 
 eight persons being well supplied by an entree in 
 
 * For an illustration of this, see a series of menus at the end 
 of Chapter XIV. 
 
236 Food and Feeding. 
 
 one dish ; while two dishes are necessary for ten or 
 
 twelve persons. Moreover, one bottle 
 One bottle 
 supplies of wine divides well in eight ; if, there- 
 
 ^'^ ■ fore, the host desire to give with the 
 
 roast one glass of particularly fine ripe Gorton or 
 Pomard, a single bottle is equal to the supply ; and 
 so with any other choice specimen of which a single 
 circulation is required ; and of course the rule holds 
 equally if the circuit is to be repeated. Dinners of 
 all sizes, up to the largest public dinners, are best 
 provided for thus, in multiples of eight ; calculations 
 for food, wine, and service, are thus easily and 
 accurately made and carried out in practice. 
 
 And this leads us to the question — and an im- 
 portant one it is — of the wine ; to be discussed in 
 the next chapter. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The question of wine with dinner — Remarks on the habitual use 
 of alcohohc drinks of any kind — Wine should be taken 
 chiefly during dinner, never before, not much, if any, after 
 — Should be sound and pure, and without pretence — How 
 to attain this — Relation of various wines with certain dishes 
 — Cigarettes after dinner — Tobacco suggests coffee, and is 
 incompatible with fine wine — ^The supply of water at dinner 
 — Aerated waters — Foreign mineral waters — Their use at 
 home and abroad — Sweet drinks at dinner objectionable. 
 
 I HAVE already said that, among all civilized nations, 
 wine in some form has for centuries wine taken 
 been highly appreciated as a gastro- ^omtime 
 nomic accompaniment to food. I do immemorial, 
 not, for an instant, attempt to deny it this position. 
 Whether such employment of it is advantageous 
 from a dietetic or physiological point of view as a 
 rule of life, is at this moment altogether another 
 question. I may not hesitate to say that, after a 
 long and wide experience, I am still firmly con- 
 vinced that the habitual use of wine, beer, or spirits 
 is a physiological error, say, for nine- j^^ habitual 
 
 teen persons out of twenty. In other usenotdis- 
 
 cussed here* 
 words, the great majority of the human 
 
 race, at any age or of either sex, will enjoy better 
 
238 Food and Feeding. 
 
 health, both of body and mind, and will live longer, 
 without any alcoholic drinks whatever, than with 
 habitual indulgence in their use, even although such 
 use be what is popularly understood as quite mode- 
 Occasional ""^te. But I do not aver that any par- 
 indulgence, ticular harm results from the habit of 
 now and then enjoying a glass of really fine pure 
 wine — and, rare as this is, I do not think any other 
 is worth consuming — ^just as one may occasionally 
 enjoy a particularly choice dish ; neither the one nor 
 the other, perhaps, being sufficiently innocuous or 
 digestible for frequent, much less for habitual use. 
 Then I am dispo^d to admit that there are some 
 Some take persons — in the aggregate not a few — 
 kislnTu* who may take small quantities of 
 than others. genuine light wine or beer with very 
 little appreciable injury. For these persons such 
 drinks may be put in the category of luxuries per- 
 missible within certain limits or conditions, and of 
 such luxuries let tobacco-smoking be regarded as 
 another example. No one probably is any better 
 The effects for tobacco, although if indulged in 
 vlry''a^s"he ^''^'^^ moderation, it has, for many, a 
 individual. delightfully soothing and tranquillizing 
 effect after the endless harassing and worrying 
 incidents of a stirring life. Some indulge too freely, 
 diminishing both their mental and digestive powers ; 
 while others find it absolutely poisonous, and cannot 
 inhale even a small quantity of the smoke without 
 instantly feeling sick or ill. And some few indulge 
 
Wine and Smoke. Cautions. 22f) 
 
 the moderate use of tobacco all their lives without 
 any evil effects, at all events, that are perceptible to 
 themselves or to others. 
 
 Relative to these matters, every man ought to deal 
 carefully and faithfully with himself, Each man 
 watching rigorously the effects of the t^^l^'S^f^ 
 smallest license on his mental and bodily himself, 
 states, and boldly denying himself the use of a luxu- 
 rious habit if he finds undoubted sign of harm arising 
 therefrom. And he must perform the difficult task 
 with a profound conviction that his judgment is very 
 prone to bias on the side of indulgence, since the 
 luxurious habit is so agreeable, aqd to refrain there- 
 from, in relation to himself and to the present opinion 
 of society, so difficult. Be it remarked, however, that 
 the opinion of society is notably and rapidly changing 
 relative to the point in question. 
 
 Having premised thus much as to what is abso- 
 liitely best, I will now deal, in the spirit 
 
 ^ XN ever taKc 
 
 of compromise, with things as they are ; wine or spirit 
 and let it be understood that it is in this 
 sense that I deal with the subject. I have only now 
 to say, first, that wine, in relation to dinner, should 
 be served during the repast ; it should never be 
 taken, in any form or under any circumstances, 
 before, that is, on an empty stomach, and also is not 
 desirable after the meal is finished. Regarded from 
 a gastronomic point of view alone, nothing should 
 appear afterwards except a small glass of cognac 
 and coffee. The post-prandial habit of drinking 
 
240 Food and Feeding. 
 
 glass after glass even of the finest growths of the 
 
 Gironde, or of the most mature or mellow shipments 
 
 from Oporto, is doubtless a pleasant, but, in the end, 
 
 for many persons a costly indulgence. 
 
 Secondly, whatever wine is given should be the 
 
 „,. . ,. most sound and unsophisticated of its 
 Wme should ^ 
 
 be the kind which can be procured. The host 
 
 produce of had far better produce only a bottle or 
 the grape, j.^^ ^j- gQ^^d bourgeois wine from Bor- 
 deaux — and most excellent wine maybe found under 
 such a denomination — with no pretence of a mere- 
 tricious title, or other worthless finery about it, from 
 a list of fictitious blends with pretentious labels 
 
 supplied by an advertising cheap wine 
 a.nd be 
 honestly cha- house. I could only speak in terms of 
 
 racterized. contempt and disgust, did I not feel 
 pity for the deluded victims, of the unscrupulous 
 use of the time-honoured and historical titles which 
 advertisers shamelessly flaunt on bottles of worthless 
 compounds by means of showy labels, in lists and 
 pamphlets of portentous length, and by placards 
 sown broadcast through the country. So that one 
 may buy " Lafite " or " Margaux " — " Chambertin " or 
 " Nuits " — or even " '70 Port " — at a village store ! No 
 terms can be too strong to characterize such trade. 
 If fine wines of unquestionable character and 
 
 vintage are to be produced, there are 
 possess only two ways of possessing them : one, 
 
 by finding some wine-merchant of long 
 standing and reputation, who will do an applicant 
 
Wine Questions discussed. i\i 
 
 the favour to furnish them, and the price must be 
 large for quality and age. We may be certain that 
 such a one will never advertise ; no man who really 
 has the grands vins of esteemed vintages in his cellar 
 need spend a shilling in advertisements, for he 
 confers a favour on his customer by parting with 
 such stock. But better and more satisfactory is it 
 to obtain from time to time a piece or two of wine, 
 of high character and reputed vintage, when they are 
 to be had, just fit to bottle, and lay them down for 
 years until ripe for use. Commencing thus in early 
 life, a man's cellar becomes in twenty or thirty years 
 a possession of interest and value, and he can always 
 produce, at his little dinners, for those who can 
 appreciate it, something curiously fine, and free, at 
 all events, from the deleterious qualities of new and 
 fictitious wines. 
 
 Briefly, the rule, by general gastronomic consent, 
 for those who indulge in the luxury of ,, . . 
 wine, is to offer a glass of light pale of wines at 
 sherry or dry Sauterne after soup; a 
 delicate Rhine wine or Moselle after fish ; a glass 
 of good Bordeaux with the joint of mutton ; the 
 same, or champagne — dry, but with some true vinous 
 character in it, and not the tasteless spirit and water 
 which not long since enjoyed an evanescent popu- 
 larity as absolute brut — during the entries ; the 
 best red wine in the cellar, Bordeaux or Burgundy, 
 with the grouse or other roast game ; and — but this 
 ought to suffice, even for that exceptional individual 
 
242 Food and Feeding. 
 
 who is supposed to be little, if at all, injured by 
 " moderate " potations. With the ice or dessert, a 
 glass of full-flavoured but matured champagne, or a 
 liqueur, may be served ; but at this point dietetic ad- 
 monitions are out of place, and we have already sacri- 
 
 „ . ficed to luxury. But it is not to be for- 
 
 One wine 
 
 during a gotten that both temperance and digestion 
 
 are favoured by the habit of avoiding 
 much mixing of red and white, or indeed of any 
 wines at our meals. Men have discovered for them- 
 selves that choice dry champagne, although of high 
 character, developed by seven to ten years, or some- 
 times longer residence in bottle, and the finest growth 
 of Bordeaux matured to perfection, however delightful 
 each may prove itself in passing over the palate, 
 often quarrel sadly when they arrive in the stomach 
 below. Hence the somewhat modem, and certainly 
 prudent course, which many now follow, viz. to drink 
 either the one or the other wine throughout the 
 dinner, and to limit one's self to that only. And this 
 makes it necessary to supply, as before intimated, 
 the best produce of the cellar during the whole 
 course of the dinner, instead of reserving it, as in 
 days of yore, for consumption afterwards. 
 
 The value of a cigarette at the moment a meal has 
 Tobacco been completed, consists in the fact that 
 
 after eating : ^fter the first whiff or two of its fragrance 
 the palate soon ceases to demand either food or 
 wine. After smoke the power to appreciate good 
 wine is lost, and no judicious host cares to open a 
 
Coffee and Tobacco. 243 
 
 fresh bottle from his best bin for the smoker, nor 
 will the former be blamed by any man for a dis- 
 inclination to do so. Moreover, tobacco ^n ally of 
 is unquestionably an ally of temperance ; temperance : 
 certainly it is so in the estimation of the gourmet. 
 A relationship for him of the most perfect order is 
 that which subsists between coffee and j^s relation 
 fragrant smoke. While wine and tobacco *° coffee, 
 are antipathetic, the one affecting injuriously all that 
 
 is grateful in the other, the aroma of , , . 
 ° natural, and 
 
 coffee " marries " perfectly with the per- widely 
 fume of the finest leaf. Among the ^^ ^" 
 Mussulmans this relationship is recognized to the 
 fullest extent ; and also throughout the Continent 
 the use of coffee, which is almost symbolical of 
 temperate habits, is intimately associated with the 
 cigarette or cigar. Only by the uncultured classes 
 of Great Britain and of other northern nations, who 
 appear to possess the most insensitive palates in 
 Europe, have smoke and alcoholic drinks been closely 
 associated. By such, tobacco and spirit have been 
 sought chiefly as drugs, and are taken mainly for 
 their effects on the nervous system — the easy but 
 disastrous means of becoming stupid, besotted, or 
 drunk. People of cultivated tastes, on the other 
 hand, select their tobacco or their wines, not for 
 their qualities as drugs, but for those subtler 
 attributes of flavour and perfume, which exist often 
 in inverse proportion to the injurious narcotic in- 
 gredients ; which latter are as much as possible 
 
244 Food and Feeding. 
 
 avoided, or are accepted chiefly for the sake of the 
 former. 
 
 Before quitting the subject of dining it must be 
 Water at said that, after all, those who drink 
 
 meals. water with that meal probably enjoy the 
 
 pleasure of eating more than those who drink wine. 
 They have generally better appetite and digestion, 
 and they certainly preserve an appreciative palate 
 longer than the wine-drinker. Water is so important 
 an element to them, that they are not indifferent to 
 its quality and source. As for the large class which 
 cannot help itself in this matter, the importance of an 
 ample supply of uncontaminated water cannot be 
 overrated. The quality of that furnished to the 
 The London population of London is happily now 
 supply. good, but the only mode of storing it 
 
 possible to many often renders it dangerous to 
 health. Disease and intemperance are largely pro- 
 duced by neglect in relation to these two matters. 
 It would be invidious, perhaps, to say what particular 
 question of home or foreign politics could be spared, 
 that Parliament might discuss a matter of such 
 pressing urgency as a pure water supply; or to 
 specify what particular part of our enormous expendi- 
 ture, compulsory and voluntary, might be better 
 Purest employed than at present, by placing a 
 
 natural constant and ample supply of it within 
 
 waters, «. r ^ 
 
 plain and easy reach of the poorest consumer in 
 
 town and country. But for those who can 
 
 afford to buy bottled waters, no purer exists in any 
 
Pure Natural Water Best. 245 
 
 natural sources than that of our own Malvern springs, 
 and these are aerated and provided in the form of 
 soda and potash waters of unexceptionable quality. 
 
 Pure distilled water, however, re-supplied with 
 atmospheric air by a special process, and Aerated dis- 
 then well charged with carbonic acid *'"^^ water, 
 gas, is now furnished at so reasonable a cost in 
 London as to be within the reach of persons of 
 moderate means. It is almost needless to say that 
 so prepared, water is absolutely pure, and nothing 
 more safe or wholesome can be employed for drink- 
 ing purposes. Certainly it is wholly unnecessary to 
 import waters for the use of the table from foreign 
 sources, unless medical qualities are particularly 
 desired by the consumer. No foreign waters of any 
 kind whatever, from any source, are so pure or half 
 so cheap, or so easy to obtain as the distilled waters 
 now referred to, which are prepared here at home at 
 our very doors ; and none are so safe and so useful 
 for the consumer in relation to health, whatever 
 the advertiser may affirm respecting their value in 
 gout, etc. 
 
 Then the great makers of soda and potash waters 
 in this country supply a thoroughly 
 trustworthy article. Each bottle con- potash 
 tains a known quantity, from five to 
 fifteen grains of the salt, the water being obtained 
 from their own artesian wells, or other equally pure 
 sources, so that English aerated waters are unrivalled 
 in excellence. On the other hand, the foreign siphon. 
 
246 Food and Feeding. 
 
 made, as it often is, at any chemist's shop, and from 
 the water of the nearest source, is a very uncertain pro- 
 Travellers duction. Probably our travelling fellow- 
 bv^SinSne countrymen owe their attacks of fever 
 bad water. more to drinking water contaminated 
 by sewage matter than to the malarious influences 
 which pervade certain districts of southern Europe. 
 The only water safe for the continental traveller to 
 drink is a natural mineral table water, and such is 
 now always procurable throughout Europe, except in 
 very remote or unfrequented places.* In the latter 
 
 .... circumstances no admixture of wine or 
 
 Adding wine 
 
 makes it no spirit counteracts the poison in tainted 
 water, and makes it safe to drink, as 
 
 people often delight to believe ; but the simple pro- 
 cess of boiling it renders it perfectly 
 
 Boil it , , ° . , 
 
 harmless ; and this result is readily 
 
 attained in any locality by making weak tea to be 
 taken hot or cold ; in the latter case, it is more palat- 
 able, with a little lemon infused, than alone ; or in 
 making toast-water, barley-water, lemonade, etc. 
 The table waters now so largely imported into this 
 country from Germany and France, contain a con- 
 siderable proportion of mineral matter in solution, 
 
 • Throughout France, St. Galmier j in Germany, Seltzers or 
 Appollinaris ; in Austria and Bohemia, Gieshiibel, are always 
 obtainable, being the table waters of most repute, in each case 
 respectively, of the country itself. In all chief places in Italy, 
 Appollinaris, Seltzers, or St. Galmier, are supplied by the hotels. 
 In Spain these are rarely at present to be had, but the alterna- 
 tives recommended are easily obtained. 
 
Mineral Waters Safest abroad. 247 
 
 and while they are wholesome as regards freedom 
 from organic impurities, are, of course, less perfect for 
 daily use than absolutely pure waters, such as those 
 above referred to. Useful as they are or drink 
 for the English when travelling abroad, JJ^i^eral 
 because the ordinary water supplied in water, 
 foreign cities is so frequently contaminated, they are 
 all far inferior to our home-prepared aerated, distilled 
 waters for all purposes of consumption. Vaunted 
 frequently as possessing certain medicinal proper- 
 ties, this very fact ought to prohibit their constant 
 use as dietetic agents, inasmuch as we do not require 
 drugs as diet, but only as occasional correctives, 
 which can be added to pure water (for example, 
 fifteen or twenty grains of bicarbonate of soda or 
 potash) when required. Among them the principal 
 are natural Seltzers, Appollinaris, and St. Galmier — 
 of this latter some sources are inferior to others, the 
 best appearing now to be chiefly retained for Paris — 
 being perhaps among the most satisfactory within 
 our reach. A dash of lemon juice, and waters with 
 a thin cutting of the peel, form some- lemon juice, 
 times an agreeable addition, especially to our well- 
 made soda, seltzer, or potash waters ; and nothing 
 keeps the palate cleaner or in better order for appre- 
 ciating food. I am compelled to say . . .^. 
 ° ^ . but none with 
 
 that the sweet compounds and fruity sugar fit for 
 . . ... , , dinner drink, 
 
 juices which not very long ago were 
 
 produced, and inordinately puffed, as dinner drinks, 
 
 and apparently in competition with wine, are rarely 
 
248 Food and Feeding. 
 
 wholesome adjuncts to a dinner. Such liquids rapidly 
 develop indigestible acid products in the stomachs 
 of many persons ; while for all, the sipping of sweet 
 fluids, effervescing or otherwise, during a meal tends 
 to diminish appetite, as well as the faculty of 
 appreciating good cookery. If wine is refused, let 
 the drink which accompanies dinner be of pure 
 water — with a sparkle of gas in it, and a slight dash 
 of vegetable acid in it if you will — but in obedience 
 both to gastronomic and dietetic laws, let it be free 
 from sugar. No doubt there are exceptional circum- 
 stances in which fruity juices, if not very sweet, can 
 The water- be taken freely. Thus I have rarely 
 me^s^hot quaffed more delicious liquor at dinner 
 countries. jn the warm autumn of southern Europe, 
 
 notably in Spain, than that afforded by ample slices 
 of a water-melon, which fill the mouth with cool 
 fragrant liquid ; so slight is the amount of solid 
 matter, that it only just serves to contain the 
 abundant delicate juices of the fruit grown in those 
 climates. Here some saccharine matter is present, 
 but it exists in very small proportion, and in its most 
 digestible form. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 In order to arrange a dinner some practical acquaintance with 
 food is necessary — Also of the season at which various 
 kinds are in perfection — The art of menu writing — The 
 scheme or elementary outline of a dinner — Menus should 
 be written in French — Examples of simple menus for each 
 month in the year — Some in English, chiefly in French, for 
 comparison — Menus of higher character — Further remarks 
 on the order in which dishes should be presented — And on 
 other matters arising out of the subject. 
 
 The remark is frequently heard from the domestic 
 head of an English family, the lady of Alleged 
 the house-who, although in easy ^j^Sf„Ja 
 circumstances and much occupied in menu, 
 good society, does not care to delegate her authority 
 to a skilled professional housekeeper — that nothing 
 puzzles her more than the composition of menus for 
 the inevitable dinner parties. She feels almost as 
 ready, or rather as unready, as she would be if called 
 upon to compose a sonnet or a symphony. Her 
 husband, whose counsels are so valuable, or at all 
 events are so promptly furnished on almost all other 
 topics, utterly fails in his attempt to offer a suggestion 
 now. Hence she meets her cook on terms which 
 
250 Food and Feeding. 
 
 preclude exercise of choice or criticism ; and the 
 latter becomes mainly the author of the programme. 
 But a leading confectioner or dinner purveyor may 
 also be consulted, who supplies the suggestion desired, 
 sending in a dish or two in consequence ; and a suit- 
 able congruity is devoutly hoped for as the result. 
 At all events, one may be assured that the menu will 
 be sufficiently comprehensive; and there is even a 
 probability that it will contain the latest novelty — 
 well, let us say — in gastronomic nomenclature ; since 
 that of the imported dish itself may, perhaps, not be 
 so easily or truthfully affirmed. 
 
 I venture, then, to offer a few hints relative to that 
 Practical particular form of literary composition 
 
 ?.'°*? °?*t, which is involved in the so-called art of 
 art 01 menu 
 
 writing." menu writing. Were it not that the art is 
 
 really a very simple one, I should not risk the responsi- 
 bility of offering advice. But it is necessary at the 
 outset to state, that in order to insure success in this 
 particular department of letters, some little know- 
 ledge of the subject, namely, food, its nature and 
 principal forms, is really necessary. 
 
 First, then, the author of a menu must have a 
 
 ,, ^, moderate acquaintance with the varied 
 
 Must know ^ 
 
 the foods materials which form the natural pro- 
 
 Itl SCcLSOtl 
 
 duce of any given season throughout 
 the year. Otherwise, we may meet with a proposal 
 to serve Scotch salmon at Christmas, wild duck at 
 Easter, oysters and grouse at Midsummer, asparagus 
 at Michaelmas, and tender peas in November. I 
 
How to arrange a Menu. 251 
 
 don't say that it is absolutely impossible to procure 
 some of these things, more especially as the electric 
 light may ultimately render us, for gardening pur- 
 poses — and who knows for what else ! — independent 
 of sun and season ; but at present most of those 
 delicacies, like others which might be mentioned, 
 are, at the periods named, practically unattainable. 
 To be serious, it is necessary that a throughout 
 housekeeper should know what are the the year, 
 best products of the season, both of the animal and 
 the vegetable world, in every month of the year. 
 A pleasant stroll through Covent Garden once a 
 week, and an occasional call on the fishmonger 
 and poultryman, with frequent reference to some 
 good manual of cookery, containing a kind of 
 Almanack des Gourmands, will furnish a fair ac- 
 quaintance with what is really an interesting branch 
 of knowledge. See table of fish in season, Appendix, 
 p. 293. 
 
 Next, it is necessary to have a simple but clear 
 notion of the foundation or outline, the g^g^y dinner 
 
 pattern or " archetype " — if I may use should be 
 '^ arranged on 
 
 a scientific term of rather lofty signifi- a certain 
 
 cance — on which every dinner, however '' *°' 
 
 great or however small, must be planned, as the 
 
 groundwork of its construction. Certain primary 
 
 elements are essential to the structure of a dinner ; 
 
 shorn of these there may without doubt be a meal, 
 
 and indeed not a bad one of some kind ; but there 
 
 can be no dinner. Thus, a man may satisfy his 
 
252 Food and Feeding. 
 
 hunger with a large plate of meat, piled with sup- 
 plementary vegetables, and flanked by the attendant 
 bread, and greatly enjoy his meal, but this is not 
 
 A » ■.- »r dinner in any technical sense of the 
 A series 01 ^ 
 
 dishes, each word, and cannot be so regarded : it is 
 having some . 
 
 relation to Simply a plate of meat and vegetables, 
 e nex , jj. Q^gj.g j^^ change in form, or kind, or 
 
 flavour, and no slight interval of rest for the palate ; 
 it is a single movement, not a complete symphony — 
 an " andante " in common time, but wanting the 
 preliminary introduction, and without the bright and 
 sparkling " minuet " to follow, which in its turn 
 leads to the " grand finale ; " while this in its course 
 may present a plaintive minor passage, giving force 
 and splendour to the resumption of the major key 
 
 before the close. Thus it is that certain 
 so as to make 
 
 an agreeable constituent parts are necessary, one lend- 
 ing force to another by help of relief or 
 contrast ; the attainment of perfection through variety 
 being as essential to the idea of a dinner as to that 
 of a complete musical composition. Bearing this 
 law in view, and maintaining the characters de- 
 manded, we may produce a dinner of Spartan 
 simplicity, or may swell it to proportions which 
 should satisfy a Lucullus ; but the design or arche- 
 type is still to be discernible throughout. 
 
 A dinner to be complete within moderate limits 
 should contain, in ideal terms — 
 
 A complete !• An introductory or preliminary dish or 
 
 dinner scheme two, as soup, or fish, or both. 
 
System to be followed. 253 
 
 2. A substantial dish of meat, or filce de \ Exchangeable for 
 
 ..j,_.._^ ^ ^...r.. _ , ^;^_ \ the following if 
 
 I desired : 
 
 rdsistance, to satisfy a keen appetite. 
 
 3. A choice dish or two of delicate flavour 
 
 for those who have little appetite for the 
 preceding (or No. 2), as well as for those 
 who have, but are able also to reserve 
 a place for the gratification of taste. 
 
 4. A dish of marked flavour and character 
 
 easily digestible, inviting to the palate ; 
 either a roast or grill. 
 
 5. A dish of choice vegetables by itself, with 
 
 or without an attractive specimen of | 
 smoked or cured flesh in some form. 
 
 6. A sweet. 
 
 7. A savoury dish. 
 
 Not absolutely 
 essential ; or 
 may take the 
 place of the sub- 
 stantial dish. 
 
 Not all abso- 
 lutely essential. 
 
 which may 
 be varied 
 in detail 
 according 
 to circum- 
 stances, 
 
 Let the foregoing ideas be represented in a concrete 
 form, either as simple, and applicable to 
 one or two persons ; or with additions 
 of a luxurious kind, for the purpose of 
 providing the variety necessary when 
 there are several guests. It may be laid 
 down as a self-evident axiom, that while two persons 
 agreeing in their tastes may dine well on three, four 
 or at most five dishes, a larger number or choice of 
 dishes must be provided to meet the differing tastes 
 of ten or twelve persons, not one of whom individually 
 may require more than the former. Thus — 
 
 ;. Introductory or 
 
 Soup 
 
 Soup 
 
 Soups 
 
 Preliminary 
 
 or 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 Dishes. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Choice of fish, 
 
254 
 
 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Substantial Dish 
 — releviox remove. 
 
 3. Choice Dishes ; 
 entries. 
 
 Joint or other portion of meat ; tender 
 and juicy ; not necessarily roast : 
 to be well garnished, and attended 
 with simply cooked vegetables. 
 
 An entrie of some 
 kind ; one of fish 
 may come here 
 if soup only were 
 taken before the 
 meat. 
 
 Two entries — 
 rarely more — 
 simple or luxu- 
 rious, according 
 to the entertain- 
 ment desired. 
 
 4. Savoury Entremets, 
 
 Here should be 
 offered the dish of 
 highest flavourwhich 
 reaches the table ; 
 as a well-cured ham, 
 or a highly-smoked 
 ox-tongue, or rarely 
 a mild curry. 
 
 A choice vegetable 
 (which may some- 
 times precede, but 
 will mostly follow, 
 the roast). 
 
 5. The Roast. 
 
 The best in season carefully cooked, 
 and served by itself. 
 
 6. Sweet Entremets. 
 
 7. Savoury "Bout." 
 
 Dessert. 
 
 Mostly a bird, as a fine capon ; game 
 when in season ; attended or followed 
 by a salad. Sometimes, rarely 
 venison. 
 
 One, or several, according to the guests. 
 
 Ranges from a morsel of cheese to a 
 perfectly made souffli, or beignet of 
 Parmesan ; or may consist of caviare, 
 dried fish, fish-roes, devilled biscuit, 
 grilled mushroom, etc. 
 
Illustrations to follow. 255 
 
 The essentials, then.of a dinner reduced te?m'°^^^' 
 
 to its lowest term are — essential 
 
 for dinner. 
 
 I. Preliminary . . Soup only: or fish only, if soup dis- 
 agrees, or is objected to. Both, if 
 desired. 
 
 3 and 3. The Meat Meat alone ; or fish in its place, if soup 
 AND entrie. only has been taken; or the entrde 
 
 alone if lighter food than meat is 
 preferred. 
 
 4. A Roast .... A roast bird of some kind. 
 
 5, 6, anci 7. Entremets. A vegetable ; sweet, or savoury — one 
 of each only, or two only, as preferred. 
 
 In order to illustrate the foregoing remarks, I shall 
 
 now furnish a few examples of small 
 
 , , ,. ... ., Examples 
 
 but complete dmners ; which are easily of moderate 
 
 reducible, however, to the " lowest term," fofiolj^ f", 
 
 by the omission of a dish or two on the f^^j" """>* 
 •^ , in the year. 
 
 principle laid down. In each menu a 
 choice of soups, fish, entries, roast and sweet entremets, 
 are given ; constituting, in fact, the menus of two 
 dinners. Such a double menu is sketched from the 
 materials most in season for each month Menu for 
 in the year, making twenty-four dinners ^^^ month, 
 in all. I have ventured to do so because the sugges- 
 tion has been so frequently made that practical 
 illustration of the principles advocated should be 
 appended, and also because it appears possible that 
 a few examples may, perhaps, be of some slight 
 
256 Food and Feeding. 
 
 service to young or inexperienced persons, if any 
 such there be. I wholly disclaim any idea of furnish- 
 ing programmes here for elaborate dinners, or " state " 
 occasions ; and only intend to suggest simple products 
 which any good or "thorough good" cook may 
 furnish properly, at all events with a little preliminary 
 practice in some instances. Perhaps the truth is 
 scarcely yet sufficiently recognized that the quality 
 
 ^ .. , , or character of a dinner does not depend 
 
 Quality to be 
 
 sought, not on the numbesr, the complexity, the cost, 
 
 P T- Qj. even on the rarity of the component 
 
 dishes. Let these be few in number, and be simple in 
 
 composition ; but if the material itself is the best of 
 
 its kind, well cooked and tastefully presented, the 
 
 dinner may rank with the best, and is certain to 
 
 please. 
 
 I have long been forced to the conclusion that 
 
 Menus menus, as a rule, should be written 
 
 wlttVk. altogether in the French language. So 
 
 French. many French culinary terms have been 
 
 naturalized, so many more are almost if not quite 
 
 untranslatable, that the endeavour to write menus in 
 
 English invariably results in an objectionable mixture 
 
 of the two languages, resembling a mongrel patois. 
 
 As examples, those of the first three months and 
 
 those of the last month shall be written as far as 
 
 possible in English, and the remainder will be given 
 
 in French. In some of them the special dish of 
 
 vegetable is served before the roast, in which case 
 
 it will be marked by itself as a " Legume," and the 
 
Menus in English. 
 
 257 
 
 sweets will be described as "Entremets sitcre's." 
 When the vegetable is placed after the roast, both 
 it and the succeeding sweets will be ranked together 
 simply as "Entremets." 
 
 Some find it difficult to select for each species 
 of English fish its appropriate name in French to 
 adopt in a menu. A full list is given, each word with 
 its gender (see Appendix, p. 292). 
 
 The menus for January, February, and March are 
 written in English as far as possible. 
 
 JANUARY. 
 
 Soup Brunoise. Consomm^, with Ital- 
 
 ian pastes. 
 
 Fish Fillets of Sole k la Crimped Cod and 
 
 Cardinal. Oyster Sauce. 
 
 RelevS or^ Roast Leg of Mutton, with pur^e of Onions and 
 Remove / Haricots (k la Bretonne). 
 
 Entree ... Sweetbreads k la Braised Ox-tongue and 
 
 Financifere. Spinach. 
 
 Roast Pheasant. Capon stuffed with 
 
 fresh truffles.* 
 Vegetable Seakale and Butter Sauce. 
 
 Entremets Iced Coffee, or Vanille 
 Souffle. 
 
 SoufHd 
 
 of Bloater 
 Toast. 
 
 Meringues aux Confi- 
 tures. 
 
 Curry of Shrimps on 
 Fried Croutes. 
 
 * Fresh French truffles are in perfection in December and 
 January, to which last-named month, fruitful in all good things, 
 this dish might well be relegated ; but are still in season 
 through February. Fair English truffles, notably inferior, how- 
 ever, to the French black truffle, may be found in Covent 
 Garden a month or two later. See also remarks respecting 
 them, pp. 270, 271. 
 
 R 
 
258 
 
 Food and Feeding. 
 
 Soup 
 Fish , 
 
 Relev^ or"! 
 
 Remove J 
 
 Entree ... 
 
 Vegetable 
 Roast 
 
 Sweet En-I 
 
 TREMETSi 
 
 Soup . 
 
 PEBKUABY. 
 
 Paysanne. 
 
 Fillets of Turbot k la 
 
 ravigote. 
 Braised neck cutlets of 
 Haricot of 
 Croquettes of Oysters, 
 or Scalloped Oysters.* 
 Stewed Celery in gravy. 
 Wild Duck, Sauce Bi- 
 
 garade.t 
 
 Apricots, Peaches, or 
 
 Pears with Rice. 
 
 Caviare on toast. 
 
 Purde of White Hari- 
 cots, or Lentils. 
 Broiled Herring and 
 Mustard Sauce. 
 Veal, and Macedoine or 
 Vegetables. 
 Mutton Cutlets k la 
 Soubise. 
 Chicory in gravy. 
 Hare or Snipe. 
 
 Baba with Rum. 
 
 Slices of Cod roe on 
 toast, devilled. 
 
 MAECH. 
 Croute au pot. 
 
 Fish Boiled Salmon, Sauce 
 
 Hollandaisewith capers. 
 
 ReLEv£ or\ 
 Remove / 
 
 Entree ... 
 
 Vegetable 
 
 Broiled Steak from the 
 
 fillet, Maltre d'Hotel 
 
 Sauce. 
 
 Quenelles of Rabbit, 
 
 purde of Celery. 
 
 Stewed Mushrooms. 
 
 Purde of Turnips, or 
 
 of Artichokes. 
 Red Mullets, baked.J 
 
 Pork Chop, Sauce 
 Robert. 
 
 Timbale of Macaroni 
 
 k la JNIilanaise. 
 
 Early French Beans, 
 
 tossed in Butter. 
 
 * Another mollusc, the true '' scallop " [Pecten jiuiximus), may 
 be substituted for oysters as an entrie for occasional change in 
 the spring season. It was formerly largely consumed, being 
 originally cooked in the manner which is now commonly adopted 
 for the oyster, when presented as above described. Long after 
 the scallops, oysters came to be esteemed, and, being cooked 
 in the same way, were therefore said to be " scalloped." The 
 original " scallops " may still be had at our fishmongers', and 
 when thinly sliced and so dressed, are by no means to be 
 altogether neglected. 
 
 t See p. 154. X Seep. 192. 
 
Menus in French. 
 
 259 
 
 MAKCH — continued. 
 
 Roast Guinea Fowl, with Cress 
 
 or young Salad. 
 Sweet En-'* Spring Tart (Rhubarb). 
 
 TREMETSj 
 
 Herring, or Herring 
 Roe on Toast. 
 
 Early young Chickens 
 
 farced. 
 Charlotte Russe, with 
 
 pistachios. 
 Patties of dressed Lob- 
 ster au gratin. 
 
 From this 
 
 place the menus are written in French, 
 
 
 APEIL. 
 
 • 
 
 POTAGE 
 
 Printanier. 
 
 Consomm^ au Riz, k 
 I'ltalienne. 
 
 POISSON ... 
 
 Truite grillde k la Hol- 
 landaise. 
 
 Eperlans frits. 
 
 Releve 
 
 Aloyau braisd k la Ni- 
 veraise. 
 
 Noisettes de Mouton k 
 la Parisienne. 
 
 Entree ... 
 
 Souffldes de Jambon. 
 
 Petits Souffldes de Vo- 
 laille au fond d'arti- 
 chauts. 
 
 Legumes ... 
 R6t 
 
 Asperges d' 
 Poulet et Salade. 
 
 Argenteuil. 
 
 Canetons. 
 
 Entremets\ 
 
 SUCR^S j' 
 
 Bavaroise au Choco- 
 lat. 
 
 Creme au Caramel. 
 
 
 Petits Souffles au Par- 
 
 Anges k cheval. 
 
 
 mesan. 
 
 
 MAY. 
 
 Pot AGE Bonne femme. 
 
 POISSON ... Filets de Maquereau 
 grinds, Maitred'Hotel. 
 
 RELEvi; Selle d'Agneau braisde, 
 
 Entree ... Crfenie de Volaille aux 
 
 truffes. 
 Legumes ... Carottes k I'Allemande. 
 
 Rot Cailles, bardds. 
 
 Entremets) Crime frite aux amandes 
 SUCR^S ■ / am^res. 
 
 CEufs de Pluvier. 
 
 Crdgy. 
 Sole k la Colbert. 
 
 Macddoine de Ldgumes. 
 Tfite de Veau en 
 
 Tortue. 
 
 Petits pois k la Fla- 
 
 mande. 
 
 Levraut. 
 
 Parfait au chocolat. 
 
 Canapds de Crevettes. 
 
26o 
 
 Food and Feeding. 
 
 JUNE. 
 
 POTAGE Pot-au-feu. 
 
 PoiSSON ... Saumon de Severn tail- 
 lad^, sauce au fe- 
 nouil ; ou sauce verte 
 froide. 
 
 Releve Fricandeau de 
 
 Entree ... Chaudfroid de Cailles. 
 
 Rot Canards auxpetitspois. 
 
 Legumes ... Asperges froides en 
 salade. 
 
 Bisque d'Ecrevisses.* 
 
 Raie au Beurre Noir, 
 ou sauce au c3.pres. 
 
 Entremets 
 
 Purde de groseilles 
 glacde. 
 
 Kari d'homarden aspic. 
 
 Veau k I'Oseille. 
 
 Quenelles d'homard en 
 belle vue. 
 
 Oison, Salade. 
 
 Petits pois k la Fran- 
 5aise. 
 
 Nougat k la Crfeme. 
 Croutes k I'Indienne. 
 
 JULY. 
 
 POTAGE Pur^e de Pois (St. Ger- 
 main). 
 
 PoiSSON ... Carrelets frites. 
 
 RELEvi Epaule d'Agneau k 
 
 Entree ... Bouchdes k la Reine en 
 belle vue. 
 
 Rot Chevreuil. 
 
 Legumes ... Salade aux Tomates. 
 
 EntremetsI 
 sucr6s ] 
 
 Gel^e au Kirsch, gamie 
 de Cerises. 
 
 Canapds d'Anchois. 
 
 Purde de Pommes de 
 terre aux poireaux. 
 
 Aigrefin farcie au four. 
 
 la purde d'Artichauts. 
 
 Poulet k I'Estragon. 
 
 Pluviers. 
 
 Haricots verts.ou pana- 
 ches, sautds au beurre. 
 
 Bavaroise aux fraises. 
 
 Petits Filets de Sau- 
 mon au diable. 
 
 * A bisque is understood to be a well-flavoured and garnished 
 purie of crayfish, as above ; but the same treatment of prawns, 
 of lobster, and also of crab, produces excellent bisques. Some 
 apply the teim to certain /ar/^j of game, at the risk, perhaps, of 
 rendering the meaning of the word uncertain. 
 
Menus in French. 
 
 261 
 
 AUO-UST. 
 
 PoTAGE Purde de Chicor^e, ou 
 
 d'Epinards. 
 
 POISSON ... Sole Frite, citron; ou 
 
 Sauce verte. 
 
 Relev£ Poitrine de Mouton k la Chicorde.* 
 
 Entree ... Filets de Caneton gar- 
 
 nis en aspic. 
 Rot Dindonneau. 
 
 Legumes ... F^ves de Marais k la 
 Poulette. 
 
 ^ sSS^I Macddoine des Fruits. 
 " Dressed Crab." 
 
 Consommd au Maca- 
 roni, ou au Vermi- 
 ceMe. 
 
 Barbue, Sauce aux 
 Crevettes. 
 
 Soufiflds de Veau aux 
 
 petits pois, en aspic. 
 
 Coq de Bruy^re 
 
 (" grouse "). 
 
 Salade de Ldgumes. 
 
 Crfeme aux framboises. 
 Coquilles k la Jure. 
 
 
 SEPTEMBER. 
 
 
 POTAGE 
 
 Crfemed'OrgeklaHol- 
 landaise.f 
 
 Julienne. 
 
 POISSON ... 
 
 Aigrefin grille k la 
 ravigote.J 
 
 Sole k la Normande. 
 
 Relev£ 
 
 Haricot de Chevreuil. 
 
 "Beefsteak Pudding 
 k I'Anglaise. 
 
 Entree ... 
 
 Filets de Poulet aux 
 
 Blanquette de Ris 
 
 
 Truffes, Sauce Supreme. 
 
 d'AgneauklaToulouse. 
 
 Rot 
 
 Perdreaux. 
 
 Poularde au cresson. 
 
 Entremets 
 
 Chou-fleur 
 
 au gratin. 
 
 
 Charlotte aux pommes. 
 
 Omelette soufflde. 
 
 
 Croustades de la mer- 
 
 Champignons grillds. 
 
 
 luche fumde. 
 
 
 * An excellent dish, first braised, then cooled ; finished with 
 bread crumbs in the oven, or on the gridiron, and garnished 
 with a purde of endive, or of spinach, or with tomatoes. The 
 trimmed neck similarly treated makes a more substantial remove. 
 
 t The distinctive and agreeable addition, besides the little 
 quenelles of fowl, in this soup, is the handful of sorrel leaves, 
 which are still in season during this month. 
 
 X Merluche is generally used in this country to denote 
 " haddock," but the French word merely designates any dried 
 fish. Aigrefin, or aiglefin, is the true equivalent for haddock. 
 
262 
 
 Food and Feeding. 
 
 OCTOBEE. 
 
 Purfe de Tomates. 
 
 PoTAGE Pur^e de Volaille (k la 
 
 Reine). 
 
 PoissoN ... Filets de Barbue Frits. Dorde, Sauce aux 
 
 huitres. 
 
 Relev£ Filet de Boeuf k la Milanaise. 
 
 Entree ... Civet de Lifevre. | Fricassde de Poulet. 
 
 Legume ... Artichauts au Beurre. 
 
 Rot Faisan. 
 
 Entremets'! Omelette au confiture. 
 SUCRES / 
 
 Canapes de Jambon. 
 
 " Black Game." 
 
 Beignets de pommes, 
 etc. 
 
 Rissolettes k la Caire. 
 
 NOVEMBER. 
 
 PoTAGE Pur^e de Gibier. 
 
 PoiSSON ... Sole au vin blanc, gar- 
 nie aux huitres. 
 
 RELEvi Selle de Mouton 
 
 Entr]£e ... Faisan bouillijk la purde 
 de C^leri. 
 
 Rot BdcassesouB^cassines. 
 
 Entremets Foie Gras en Aspic, 
 Salade Macddoine. 
 
 Savarin. 
 Croutes au chasseur. 
 
 Soupe aux Choux. 
 
 Merlan griUd, Sauce au 
 Capres. 
 
 Rotie, "Laver."* 
 
 Salmi de Perdreaux. 
 
 Oie. 
 
 Pommes de Terre Sau- 
 tdes au Beurre. 
 
 Meringues k la Crfeme. 
 
 Petites Coquilles de 
 Macaroni au.Gratin. 
 
 * Laver is in season from October to March, and consists of 
 two native marine plants, Porphyra vulgaris and Ulva latissima. 
 It is unknown in France, and recognized in few of our own 
 cookery books. A most excellent adjunct to roast mutton. 
 Let it soak in two fresh waters, about an hour in each, to get 
 rid of the salt ; then put it in a saucepan with some hot water, 
 and simmer until quite soft and mucilaginous ; dress it as 
 spinach, with butter, or with a little stock, and a dash of lemon 
 juice ; serve hot. 
 
Christinas Menu, English. id^i 
 
 The last menu is given in English. 
 
 
 DECEMBEE. 
 
 
 
 {Christmas Dinners.) 
 
 Soup 
 
 Consomme, with Italian 
 pastes. 
 
 Oyster. 
 
 Fish 
 
 Turbot, HoUandaise 
 sauce with capers. 
 
 Brill and Tartare 
 Sauce. 
 
 Relev£ orl 
 Remove / 
 
 Turkey stuffed with Chestnuts, or fresh Truffles. 
 Fillet of Beef, Horse-radish Sauce. 
 
 Entree ... 
 
 Souffld of Fowl, Sauce 
 with fresh Truffles. 
 
 Westphalian Goose 
 Breast with Winter 
 Spinach. 
 
 Roast 
 
 Game in Season. 
 
 Entremets 
 
 Spinach in gravy. 
 
 Stewed Celery. 
 
 
 Plum Pudding, Brandy 
 Sauce. 
 
 Mince Pies. 
 Chartreuse of Oranges. 
 
 
 Welsh Rarebit. 
 
 Devilled Biscuit. 
 
 Eight more menus follow here, in French, requiring 
 
 for 'their proper execution a first-class „ 
 
 '^ * Menus m 
 
 cook. Two are for winter, two for spring, French of 
 
 and four for the autumn, as illustrations ^ 
 of more finished dishes than those previously given ; 
 all of which, although excellent and typical com- 
 binations, meriting the highest care and talent 
 when available, are also within the reach of most 
 middle-class households where an interest in cookery 
 exists. 
 
264 
 
 Food and Feeding. 
 
 DECEMBEK AITO JANXrAEY. 
 
 Huttres. 
 
 POTAGE 
 
 Consommfe k la Royale. 
 
 Mulligatawny claire. 
 
 POISSON ... 
 
 Filets de Sole h. la 
 chevreuse.* 
 
 Filets de Sole k la 
 Villeroy.t 
 
 RELEVi; 
 
 Selle de Venaison du 
 Forgt noir, " Rey 
 Riicken," rotie k la 
 Vieiine. { 
 
 Filets-mignons debcEuf 
 h. la Pompadour. 
 
 Entree ... 
 
 Petits souffles de Vola- 
 ille, Supreme k la 
 Perigueux. 
 
 CrSme de Faisan aux 
 truffes. 
 
 
 Jambon brais^e en 
 Bourgogne.§ 
 
 Langue de Boeuf 
 brais^e. § 
 
 Legume ... 
 
 Asperges d' 
 
 Argenteuil. 
 
 R6t 
 
 Cailles Bardies. 
 
 Becasse sur croute. 
 
 Entremets 
 
 Truffes fralches k la 
 Serviette. II 
 
 Petits Aspics au foie 
 gras. 
 
 
 Pouding k la Nessel- 
 rode glac^. 
 
 Pouding k la Diplo- 
 mate. 
 
 
 Petits bouts du Kari complet.T 
 
 * Dubois, p. 520. 
 
 t Dubois, p. 522. 
 
 X May be obtained from one or two German houses during 
 the winter months direct from Black Forest in excellent 
 condition. 
 
 § See p. 1 10, et seg. 
 
 II Clean well ; simmer in water with little sherry added, half 
 an hour. Serve hot, covered in the folds of a napkin. 
 
 1 A miniature curry. Each cooked in a small porcelain shell ; 
 eight or ten may be made from a plover or from a brace of 
 snipe, each gai-nished with little bits of chopped gherkins and 
 sweet chutnee, surrounded with a border of rice properly boiled, 
 served hot ; the contents of each only amounting to two or three 
 mouthfuls. Little shells, made to stand the fire, may be found 
 in varied forms at Goode's in South Audley Street. 
 
French Menus. 
 
 265 
 
 MAY. 
 
 POTAGE Consomm^ k la Jacque- 
 line.* 
 
 PoiSSON ... Truite au court bouillon. 
 
 Relev£ ... Filet de boeuf k la 
 Chantilly. 
 
 ENTRilE ... Ris de Veau k la Mar- 
 silly. 
 
 R6t Ortolans auxcroutes,ou 
 
 Canetons. 
 
 Entremets 
 
 Purde d'Asperges. 
 
 Filets de Sole k la 
 Chevreuse. 
 
 Gigot de Mouton braisd 
 k la Bercy. 
 
 Boudins de Volaille k 
 I'^carlate. 
 
 Cailles ou Canetons. 
 
 Haricots, verts ^tuvds. 
 
 Riz kla cr^me framboise. 
 Souffld au Gruyfere. 
 
 Giteau de Plombi^res, 
 Brochettes de Homard. 
 
 
 SEPTEMBER. 
 
 
 POTAGE 
 
 Purde de Levraut. 
 
 Consomm^ de Volaille 
 k I'Estragon. 
 
 POISSON ... 
 
 Sole k la Trouville. 
 
 Quenelles de Merlan k 
 la Montglas. 
 
 Relev]^ ... 
 
 Cotelettes de Veau, pi- 
 qudes k la Soubise. 
 
 Pointe de boeuf k la 
 Flamande. 
 
 Entree ... 
 
 Mousseline de Volaille 
 chaude. 
 
 Filets mignons de pou- 
 larde k la Montpensier. 
 
 Rot 
 
 " Grouse.'' 
 
 Perdreaux. 
 
 Entremets 
 
 Fonds d'Articha 
 
 uts k la moelle. 
 
 
 Plombifere aux cdrises. 
 
 G4teau bordelais. 
 
 
 Croutes au foie-gras. 
 
 Sardines au gratin. 
 
 * Consommd of fowl, thickened with a liason of yolk of egg 
 with cream, adding spring vegetables cut in dice. 
 
266 
 
 Food and Feeding. 
 
 
 OCTOBER. 
 
 
 POTAGE 
 
 Velours.* 
 
 Consommd k la Nill- 
 son.t 
 
 POISSON ... 
 
 Darnes de Saumon k la 
 Matelote. 
 
 Crfeme de Homard. 
 
 Relev£ ... 
 
 Noisettes de Veau aux 
 champignons. 
 
 Chateaubriand 1. la 
 moelle. 
 
 Entree ... 
 
 Petites timbales de 
 Volaille aux truffes. 
 
 Filets de Caneton k la 
 Pdrigueux. 
 
 Rot 
 
 Rible de Lifevre k la 
 crfeme. 
 
 Dindonneau farci. ' 
 
 Entremets 
 
 Stachys tuberata k la 
 poulette.j 
 
 Creme de topinam- 
 bours. 
 
 
 Giteau Fleury. 
 
 Parfait au Nougat. 
 
 
 Canapds de Provence. 
 
 Petits Souffldesde mer- 
 luchefumdesurcroutes. 
 
 On looking through the foregoing menus, it may 
 be observed that the most substantial dish has been 
 placed next after the fish, and that it is followed by 
 the entree, after which comes the "roast,"' which in 
 its turn is followed by the choice vegetable served 
 apart. Those who prefer the entrh before the sub- 
 stantial dish, can so arrange it; but whenever the 
 latter happens to be roasted, as may sometimes be 
 the case, it interferes most undesirably, by juxta- 
 position with the "roast" proper. This error may 
 then be to some extent corrected by placing the 
 choice vegetable between the two, i.e. before the 
 " roast " proper instead of after it ; and this course 
 
 * A smooth purie of the red part of the carrot ; the basis 
 being a clear bouillon, thickened with tapioca. — Dubois. 
 \ A consommi of fowl, elegantly garnished. — Dubois, p. 443. 
 X See p. 176. 
 
Art in arranging Dishes. 267 
 
 should be taken whenever the first-named change 
 is made. 
 
 In all cases, too, there should be a marked differ- 
 ence in the material and culinary treat- Effects of 
 ment of any two consecutive dishes ; contrast, 
 thus it is obviously undesirable that one white (or 
 brown) preparation should follow another ; a quenelle 
 of veal, for example, after a boiled sole ; or that a 
 salmi of game should precede a roast pullet. It may 
 be observed that white and brown meats and sauces 
 mostly alternate, that grills and braises contrast ; 
 that a delicate white entree successfully introduces 
 the roast, that when the latter is substantial, as a 
 haunch of venison, or a saddle of mutton, the pre- 
 ceding entrie may be less important ; and so on. 
 As a rule, to which there are a few exceptions, the 
 procession of dishes after the fish is from the sub- 
 stantial to the more delicate ; after which the appetite 
 is stimulated by contrasts. Thus, the p^oj-ggj i,y 
 piquant flavour of the roast, with its steps from 
 "taste of the fire," is welcome, being flavours to 
 sometimes followed by the soft and sue- ^ P'quan . 
 culent vegetable, the young peas or stewed celery, or 
 the globe artichoke, preparing the palate for a slice 
 of highly-cured ham, tongue, or Westphalian goose- 
 breast, with a delicate scent of pure wood smoke. 
 On the whole, perhaps, this latter is practically most 
 welcome after the entrees, and before the choice 
 vegetable preceding " the roast," the place of which 
 is then last before the sweet. The final impression 
 
268 Food and Feeding. 
 
 must, of course, be a savoury one, which the palate 
 
 receives, being thus rendered "clean," prepared to 
 
 rest — or perchance to relish the last glass of wine 
 
 by the delicate savoury morsel which terminates 
 
 the menu. 
 
 I desire to ask special attention to the fact that 
 
 Haveomitted numerous popular dishes have been 
 
 familiar omitted — and purposely so — from these 
 
 dishes, such menus, simply for the reason that they 
 
 "turtle," are well known, and can therefore be 
 
 soups," and adopted at pleasure by way of addition 
 
 etc' to save ^'^ exchange. Thus, none of the joints, 
 
 needless sada. as sirloins, rounds, haunches, 
 
 menu 
 
 writing ; saddles, loins, shoulders, etc., have been 
 
 named, with perhaps a single exception only. Every- 
 body is familiar with English joints, which have been 
 on this account excluded from a list necessarily so 
 restricted as the limits of only thirty-two menrcs 
 demand. For the same reason, I have not included 
 in them turtle in any form, nor curries ; nor such 
 special soups as mock-turtle, mulligatawny, hodge- 
 podge, split-pea,* giblet, water-souchets, and fish 
 soups ; nor whitebait, nor the fresh-water fish, carp, 
 tench, dace, pike, etc. ; nor among sweets, tarts, ices, 
 sorbets, and the farinaceous puddings, custards, etc. ; 
 nor have I named the preliminary oysters, which 
 
 * Our common split-pea soup, wholesome and agreeable in 
 winter, with dried mint and tiny croAtons, is wholly unknown in 
 France ; the dried green peas, termed pais cassis, only are used 
 for similar purposes there. 
 
Dishes omitted ; Reason given. 269 
 
 may well be added during the season, September to 
 
 April inclusive, as an additional luxury. My object 
 
 has been to suggest a few of the leading smaller 
 
 dishes of a comparatively simple and not expensive 
 
 kind, and to place them in proper juxtaposition 
 
 in relation to each other, so far as this has been 
 
 possible, with the view of suggesting some little 
 
 diversity in the dietary of our better middle-class 
 
 tables. Almost every one also is more or less typical 
 
 in its character, so that given the knowledge of 
 
 preparing it, several minor varieties can be produced. 
 
 At the same time, such dishes are un- jntroducinff 
 
 pretentious, and do not demand the skill simple dishes 
 
 less used 
 of a rare expert ; yet, when really well than they 
 
 executed, they offer results not to be 
 
 surpassed by any, either in relation to refined tastes, 
 
 or in wholesome and nourishing qualities, in relation 
 
 to the powers of the stomach and the wants of the 
 
 system. To the remark regarding an estimate of 
 
 the expense just made, I admit two or, at most, 
 
 three exceptions, of which the chapon _ , 
 
 ^ -^ Remarks on 
 
 truif^ is the most obvious example, "chapon 
 
 A , ■ . .J A. 4. truffe," 
 
 And It IS not suggested, moreover, that 
 
 this should be prepared at home, but obtained only 
 
 during the season of fresh truffles from France ; 
 
 stuffed on its native soil with native produce, it forms 
 
 a very important addition to a dinner, and stamps 
 
 it with a rare distinction. There is no difficulty in 
 
 procuring truffled poultry of any size by rail direct 
 
 from Paris, when the indulgence of a little extravagance 
 
270 Food and Feeding. 
 
 is to be permitted ; but even this trouble is not 
 necessary, since a few first-rate London poulterers 
 import fresh truffles, and will furnish a fine Dorking 
 fowl properly stuffed, the quantity used determining 
 in any case the cost of the dish.* 
 
 I have somewhere before said that the fresh truffle 
 and upon i^ SO immeasurably superior to those 
 
 truffles. preserved in bottles, that the latter 
 
 appears to me scarcely worth eating, except for 
 their agreeable nutty texture ; and, mainly by virtue 
 of the law which operates through the associa- 
 tion of ideas, for the memory of delicious flavour 
 and subtle aroma, existing only when the truffle 
 is fresh, as during its term of harvest, about ten or 
 twelve weeks after the end of November. I refer, 
 of course, only to the French growth, superior as 
 it is by many degrees to our own, and to that 
 of North Italy also.f For those who have not 
 
 * No better names could be mentioned than those of Chevet, 
 of the Palais Royal, and Bailey, of Mount Street, Grosvenor 
 Square. 
 
 The French truffle — truffe noir, is a subterraneous fungus, of 
 the species " Tuber." T. melanosporuin is found in the woods, 
 chiefly beneath the shade of the oak, in the neighbourhood of 
 Perigueux and of Angouleme. The British truffle, T. astivum, 
 found mostly in beech woods, is in season in the course of the 
 summer, when it may be found in Covent Garden ; but even 
 when fresh is greatly inferior to the French variety in scent and 
 flavour. 
 
 t The above, written some eight or ten years ago, accurate 
 as it then was, represents a condition now considerably im- 
 proved, and I leave the text, adding this note for the purpose of 
 
Notes about Truffles; Caviare. 271 
 
 eaten and appreciated the fresh truffle, it appears 
 
 to me that eating them when preserved is more the 
 
 result of fashion, than of much gratification derived 
 
 from the act. Something of the same 
 
 Caviare, 
 kind may be said of caviare. Once 
 
 eaten in its freshest and finest condition, say in 
 Moscow, and the black herring-flavoured, small- 
 seeded caviare, commonly found here, becomes 
 uneatable. But the pale grey and fresher kind does, 
 to a satisfactory extent, recall the delicious qualities 
 of the best Russian product when fresh. And this 
 latter may sometimes be found at Berlin, a distance 
 it can reach by rail without injury.* 
 
 emphasizing the change. The mode of preserving the truffle 
 recently adopted, in air-tight tins instead of the well-known 
 thick bottles — so contrived as to look large, and to hold but a few 
 ounces — is far more successful than these in preserving the fine 
 scent and nut-like texture of the tuber. Cobbett, of Pall Mall, 
 and Morel, of Piccadilly, have effected this improvement. But 
 during the short winter season of the fresh truffle, each receives 
 a direct supply by rail from the Perigord district at least three 
 or four times a week. 
 
 ' It may be added also, that a fairly good, not highly salted, 
 caviare is now less difficult to procure than it formerly was, 
 thanks to increased facilities for rapid transit. It should be 
 obtained as soon after arrival here as possible, in time for 
 immediate use. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 The public dinner — Its undue length — Toasts too numerous — 
 Suggestions for shortening the proceedings — Good cookery 
 independent of pedantic and complicated receipts — Schools 
 of cookery — Elementary scientific teaching wanted to make 
 cookery interesting and a progressive art — Better food, in 
 better condition, and in more abundant supply, a pressing 
 want for London — Conclusion. 
 
 Before concluding, a remark or two may be per- 
 
 ^, , .. mitted in reference to that great British 
 
 The public . . ^ 
 
 dinner and institution, the public dinner. Its utility 
 
 ' must, I suppose, be conceded, since for 
 
 a vast number of charitable and other useful institu- 
 tions, the opportunity of commanding once a year 
 the ear of a generous British public for an exposition 
 of their claims, seems in no other way at present 
 attainable. A royal or noble chairman, a portentous 
 menu, an unstinted supply of wine, such as it is, and 
 after-dinner speeches in variety, form an ensemble 
 which appears to be attractive to the great body of 
 •' supporters." On the other hand, those whose 
 presence is enforced by the claim of duty find these 
 the hardship banquets too numerous and too long. 
 it entails. ^he noise and bustle, the badly served 
 
 although pretentious dinner, the glare of gas and 
 
Shorten Public Dinners. 273 
 
 the polluted air, the long, desultory, and unmeaning 
 speeches, interspersed with musical performances — 
 which, however admirable in themselves, extend 
 unduly a programme already too comprehensive — 
 unfit many a man, seriously occupied, for the engage- 
 ments of the morrow. Might it not be „. , . 
 
 ^ Hints for its 
 
 worth while to try the experiment of improve- 
 
 offering fewer dishes, better service, and ^. '. 
 
 abolishing half the toasts ? Might it number of 
 
 the to3iSts 
 not be possible to limit the necessary 
 
 and essential toasts of a public dinner to the number 
 
 of three or four — these to be followed at most by one 
 
 or two special toasts associated with the object of 
 
 the dinner? With the utmost deference to long 
 
 received usage, and after some little consideration, 
 
 I venture to suggest that the following programme 
 
 would at all events be an improvement on the present 
 
 system, if such it can be called. 
 
 The first toast, or toasts, by which we declare our 
 
 fidelity to the Crown, and our loyalty 
 
 X OclStS 
 
 to the person of the Sovereign, as well which sre 
 as to the Royal family, to remain, by 
 universal consent, as before. The next, or patriotic 
 toasts, unlike the preceding, are regarded as demand- 
 ing response, often from several persons, and here 
 it is that time is generally wasted. Suggestions 
 These might therefore be advantage- y^and'"^" 
 ously compressed into one, or perhaps compression, 
 two, which need not be limited to the military and 
 naval services, although it would, of course, include 
 
274 Food and Feeding. 
 
 them. The object might be attained by constituting 
 one or two comprehensive patriotic toasts, as " The 
 United Services," to embrace the army, navy, and 
 volunteers, and to be responded to either by a naval 
 or a military officer as arranged, but by one only. 
 Then might naturally follow " The National Institu- 
 tions," consisting of, say (i) Parliament : its leaders. 
 (2) Justice : the judges. (3) Religion : its ministers. 
 (4) Science and Art : heads of societies, academies, 
 colleges. (5) Literature and the Press : distinguished 
 writers. One of these, as a rule, only to be given, 
 and in nine cases out of ten, probably number 
 one would be the most appropriate and the most 
 popular. 
 
 The next to be " the toast of the evening : " in 
 other words, the particular subject of the dinner. 
 After this might follow a fourth, embracing the 
 healths of officers connected with the subject, visitors, 
 etc., if necessary. 
 
 I confess I see no reason why the military and 
 Combination naval forces, however profound our 
 presskm' respect and our gratitude for their great 
 
 continued. services to the nation must be — and in 
 this matter I yield to no man — should invariably 
 be responded to by at least two, mostly now by three 
 officers, while the other great, and scarcely less 
 important interests, should be left out of consideration 
 altogether, or be only occasionally introduced. The 
 toast of " National Institutions " would mostly ensure 
 to the chairman ^nd managers of the dinner an 
 
Much Improved of Late. 275 
 
 opportunity of obtaining one or two good speeches, 
 
 say, one for Parliament, or for Justice, or Religion, 
 
 or for Science, or Literature. The choice to be 
 
 determined upon by the presence of some individual 
 
 belonging to any one of these interests, and who is 
 
 known to be a capable and agreeable after-dinner 
 
 speaker. Thus all the varied elements of our 
 
 national life would receive in their turn a due share 
 
 of attention from the great mass of public diners, 
 
 and better speeches would probably be secured than 
 
 by the present mode. 
 
 I confess this is rather an episode ; but the subject 
 
 of " toasts " is so interwoven with the management 
 
 of the public dinner that I have ventured to introduce 
 
 it. I even dare to think that the proposition may 
 
 be not unlikely to receive the support of " the chair," 
 
 the duties of which, with a long array of toasts, are 
 
 sometimes excessively onerous ; only more so, be it 
 
 recollected, in degree than those, of a humbler kind, 
 
 which are entailed on many of the guests who are 
 
 compelled to assist. Considerable im- _ 
 
 ^ _ Recent im- 
 provement has taken place during the provement 
 
 P and its cause, 
 last few years m the management of 
 
 public dinners. This is largely due to the influence 
 
 of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, who, when called on 
 
 to preside at the annual festival of some important 
 
 charity, which has been so fortunate as to obtain His 
 
 Royal Highness as their advocate, requires a menu 
 
 reasonably limited, and the elimination of unnecessary 
 
 toasts and speeches. 
 
276 Food and Feeding. 
 
 In concluding this imperfect sketch of the very 
 Have large subject indicated by the title em- 
 
 l°g"htty many ployed, I desire to express my strong 
 topics, sense of its manifold shortcomings, 
 
 especially by way of omission. Desiring to call atten- 
 tion, in the smallest possible compass, to a great 
 number of what appear to me to be important con- 
 siderations in connection with the arts 
 which, were 
 not the limits of selecting, preparing, and serving food, 
 
 ' I have doubtless often failed to be ex- 
 
 plicit in the effort to be brief. It would have been 
 an easier task were time at my disposal to illustrate 
 these considerations at greater length, and to have 
 
 • ui. .. exceeded the limits of this small volume ; 
 
 might have ' 
 
 been advan- I might thus perhaps also have avoided, 
 treated at in dealing with some topics, a tone in 
 length. statement more positive than circum- 
 
 stances may have warranted. Gastronomic tastes 
 necessarily differ, as races, habits, digestive force 
 and supplies of food also differ ; and it becomes no 
 man to be too dogmatic in treating of these matters. 
 De gustibus non est disputandum is in no instance more 
 true than in relation to the tastes of the palate. Still, 
 if any rational canons are to be laid down in connection 
 with food and feeding, it is absolutely necessary that 
 something more than the chemical and physiological 
 bearings of the subject should be taken into con- 
 sideration. With these it is unquestionably essential 
 for any one who treats of my subject to be familiar ; 
 but no less necessary is it to possess some natural 
 
Taste and Simplicity. 277 
 
 taste and experience in the cultivation of the gusta- 
 tory sense, just as a cultivation of the Culinary 
 
 perception of colour and a sensibility taste, and 
 r r J physiological 
 
 to the charm of harmoniously combined knowledge 
 
 ,,. wanted for 
 
 tmts, are necessary to an mteihgent en- the progress 
 
 joyment of the visual sense, and to the cookery, 
 understanding of its powers. Hence the treatment 
 of the whole subject must inevitably be pervaded to 
 some extent by the personal idiosyncrasy and pre- 
 dilections of the individual. It is this fact, no doubt, 
 which, operating in relation to the numerous writers 
 on cookery, has tended to produce some of the 
 complication and confusion which often appears in 
 culinary directions and receipts. But the gastronomic 
 art is a simpler one than the effusions of some of 
 its professors might lead the wholly uneducated to 
 believe ; and the complicated productions originated 
 by some of its past and greatest practitioners are as 
 unnecessary as are the long and complicated prescrip- 
 tions formerly in vogue with the leading physicians 
 of past time. Both were the natural outgrowths of 
 an age when every branch of technical education 
 was a " mystery ; " and when those who had 
 attained the meaning thereof magnified their craft 
 in the eyes of the vulgar by obscuring what is 
 simple in a cloud of pedantic terms and processes. 
 But that age and its delusions are passing away, 
 and it is high time for simplicity in the prac- 
 tice of cookery and the service of the table to 
 take the place of some useless and extravagant 
 
278 Food and Feeding. 
 
 combinations and treatment which tradition has 
 handed down. 
 
 The formation of elementary schools of cookery, 
 Schools of and the encouragement they have re- 
 ^°!^^'7and ^.gjygj fj.Qjn the public, augur well for 
 
 importance. improvement. That they should teach 
 the principles of cookery, that is, of applying heat 
 to food, as well as the practical work of the kitchen, 
 is a matter of the first importance. No doubt the 
 standard of attainment is low in both subjects, and 
 a certain commonplace uniformity in product will 
 pervade the country as the result. Once make 
 cookery a distinct business to which the young may 
 be trained, which it never yet has been, and the 
 chance of now and then producing a first-rate cook, 
 who may advance the art, is within reach. Formerly 
 the practice of cookery was far too often merely a 
 resource for wage-getting among ignorant women, 
 w^ho took to it at hazard, and acquired such traditions 
 as pertained to the kitchen they happened to enter. 
 Thanks to some systematic teaching, which of late 
 has widely extended, there are occasionally some 
 fairly good practical cooks to be met with, but they 
 are very rare, and very few indeed understand the 
 principles on which the art of cookery is based. 
 Until it is taught as a science as well as an art, and 
 there should be no difficulty in doing so, since a very 
 little knowledge of certain chemical and physical 
 laws is requisite to furnish the rationale of the changes 
 in food through the application of heat, the cook will 
 
Skilled Teaching Needful, 279 
 
 be ignorant of all except that which she has been 
 taught by rule to do, and incapable of improving 
 her practice by applying heat in new ways or ac- 
 quiring new results by intelligent experiments. 
 Further, until the subject of cooking, with its practice, 
 is recognized in this country as a profession which 
 a man with some education and natural taste can 
 exercise, we must be content to rank below other 
 countries in rearing artists of the first order. 
 
 At the present day it appears desirable, before all 
 things, to secure the highest quality in „ ... 
 all produce of the land whether animal class 
 or vegetable, the standard of attainment ' 
 
 leaving much to be desired in regard to the products 
 of the latter kingdom. Great Britain has long held 
 the first place as to quality for her beef and mutton ; 
 in no other country in Europe is it possible to obtain 
 these meats so tender, juicy, and well-developed. 
 The saddle, the haunch, the sirloin, and the round, 
 so admirable on occasions, are only in danger of 
 suffering here, like intimate friends, from a too great 
 familiarity with their charms. But even jjy careful 
 our standard of quality in meat has been I'reeduig. 
 gradually lowered, from the closer struggle, year by 
 year, to produce a fat animal in a shorter space of 
 time than formerly ; a result which is accomplished 
 by commencing to feed almost exclusively on oil- 
 cake at a very early period of life. The result of 
 this process is, that size and weight are attained by 
 a deposit of fat, rather than by the construction of 
 
28o Food and Feeding. 
 
 muscular fibre, which alone forms the staple of 
 matured and wholesome flesh. Not only are there 
 in these animals large and unnecessary deposits of 
 fat in the cavities, chest, and abdomen of the body, 
 but there is also a proportion of fat seen to be inter- 
 mixed with the muscular fibres when the meat is 
 cut, making what ought to be lean meat a compound 
 of fat and lean which are inseparable. This is the 
 result of artificial or over-fattening, which does not 
 occur in the flesh of an animal which has passed an 
 active and healthy life in the forest or on the downs. 
 The necessary consequence, of course, is that the 
 characteristic flavour and qualities of fully developed 
 beef and mutton are greatly wanting in modern 
 meat. 
 
 Far from satisfactory also is the supply of vege- 
 Vegetable table and dairy produce to our great 
 produce. (.jj-y^ particularly of the former. It must 
 
 be confessed that our market at Covent Garden, in 
 relation to capabilities for effective distribution of 
 fresh vegetables, etc., would disgrace a town one- 
 fifth of the size of London. Few of its inhabitants 
 can obtain really fresh green food, and those who 
 succeed pay a heavy price. But their success is only 
 partial, as those few who have a country garden of 
 their own, and are supplied by it, well know. And, 
 comparatively speaking, none but those who are so 
 happily circumstanced, realize the exceeding luxury 
 of possessing well-grown vegetables brought directly 
 from the garden to the table. Again, I think I am 
 
Better Supply of Foods 281 
 
 right in saying that a new-laid egg is a luxury 
 
 which it is not easy in London to ensure by purchase. 
 
 Whoever would absolutely secure the luxury must 
 
 keep fowls, and with due care may obtain it, not 
 
 otherwise. 
 
 The great staple of our bread, commonly called 
 
 "baker's bread," is unpalatable and in- 
 
 j . ., , Bread. 
 
 digestible ; and I suppose no thoughtful 
 
 or prudent consumer would, unless compelled, eat 
 it habitually — used as it nevertheless is by the great 
 majority of the inhabitants of this great city — any 
 more than he would select a steak from the coarse 
 beef whose proper destination is the stock-pot. Let 
 any one compare the facilities which exist in most 
 foreign towns for obtaining the various important 
 articles of diet just named, with the modes of supply 
 afforded in London, and the inferiority of the latter 
 will be so manifest as to become matter of humilia- 
 tion to an Englishman. I do not raise . 
 any question of comparison between our distribution 
 own markets and the Halles Centrales 
 of Paris, covering as they do nearly five acres of 
 closely utilized space, with enormous vaults beneath, 
 in direct communication by tram-road with the rail- 
 ways ; nor of the well-stocked March6 St. Honor^, 
 and others of less note. An early morning survey 
 of the fish, flesh, dairy produce, vegetables, fruit, and 
 flowers, which the Halles Centrales display, together 
 with the scarcely less remarkable exhibition of 
 Parisian and provincial life brought together there. 
 
282 Food and Feeding. 
 
 presents one of the most interesting and truly foreign 
 spectacles which the city affords. 
 
 To the long list of needed reforms I have ventured 
 much wanted t° advocate in connection with this sub- 
 in London. ]&ct, I must add the want of ample and 
 accessible markets in various parts of London, for 
 what is known as country produce. I do this not 
 only in the interest of the millions who, like myself, 
 are compelled to seek their food within the limits of 
 Cockayne, but also in the interest of our country 
 gardeners and housewives, who ought to be able to 
 supply us with poultry, vegetables, and eggs, better 
 than the gardeners and housewives of France, on 
 whom at present we so largely depend. We may 
 well be grateful to these small cultivators, who by 
 their industry and energy supply our deficiencies ; 
 but the fact that they do so does not redound to the 
 credit of our countrymen, and, I am bound to add, 
 countrywomen, for the bountiful supply of eggs and 
 poultry which reach us from France is chiefly due to 
 the untiring industry, care, and good management of 
 the poultry-yard which the wives of the small agri- 
 culturists there bestow upon it.* Since the foregoing 
 paragraphs were written for the first edition of this 
 work, I am glad to note the improved facilities for 
 obtaining country supplies which now exist, as com- 
 pared with their absence at that period. Still, so 
 rapidly do the area and population of our city in- 
 crease, that the claim for more and better fresh food 
 
 * See p. 66 for amount imported. 
 
To be Encouraged. 283 
 
 still increases almost in the same ratio as the im- 
 proved supply. 
 
 Have I claimed for the consideration of my subject 
 too great a share in the thoughts and 
 multifarious labours of busy men ? I 
 think not. For myself, being not without serious 
 occupations, an attentive study of it has agreeably 
 occupied many leisure hours at home and abroad ; 
 but it has furthermore performed good service in the 
 interest of health. And if I have been rightly un- 
 derstood, this imperfect attempt to popularize a few 
 undoubted truths in relation to the selection, the 
 cookery, and the service of food, will be regarded as 
 a manifesto, which assuredly it is intended to be, on 
 behalf of true temperance. 
 
 In one word let me conclude — if in professional 
 life, for some of us, the chief power lies in a skilled 
 right hand, and in the temperament which pertains 
 thereto, it is no less true that a practical acquaintance 
 with the laws of diet and digestion becomes also a 
 power in the combat with disease, not far inferior to 
 the other in importance. 
 
 My last word, then, no less than my first, shall 
 testify to the value for all men of some knowledge 
 in relation to their Food and Feeding. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 ON THE POT-AU-FEU, SOUPS, ETC. 
 
 Pot-au-feu : Jules Gouffe's instructions for making it— Gouffe's in- 
 structions for hiaising — jBceuf d la mode— VegetaHe Soup — 
 Author's directions for beef-tea— Table of French equivalents 
 for the English words denoting fish, as a guide in writing mentis 
 — Table showing when fish is in season — Children's dinner tables 
 — Author's receipt for cheap, nutritious soup — The dinner of the 
 working man, and Mr. Atkinson's suggestions respecting it. 
 
 The Pot-au-feu. 
 
 The fot-aii-feu, or pure beef stock, flavoured with vege- 
 tables, has long been regarded as the type of a foundation 
 stock for soup-making by all the great leaders of French 
 cookery, for a century or more. The broth obtained by the 
 process is known as bouillon ; and the portion of meat being 
 maintained intact, not torn or cut in pieces, was in former 
 days invariably served after it as a hot dish to be eaten, 
 bouilli, containing as it did a good deal of nutritious matter 
 not to be extracted by hot water, but obtained by the 
 consumer through the action of digestion in the stomach. 
 Such is still the habit of the French peasant and artisan, 
 and is unquestionably the most complete and economical 
 mode of extracting all the nourishing qualities of the meat. 
 
 But the pot-au-feu, for modern purposes, now appears in 
 any society, however cultivated, as a valuable and agreeable 
 
286 Food and Feeding. 
 
 clear soup, and the process of making it will be given with 
 all necessary details. These are shorter and more simple 
 than the extremely full directions given by Gouflfd, in his 
 classical work " Le Livre de la Cuisine," which in previous 
 editions of the present volume were translated at consider- 
 able length.* 
 
 Take an ordinary gallon stock-pot of copper tinned, with 
 a cover for occasional use only. Ingredients : 2 lbs. of 
 good fresh lean beef from the leg, with f lb. of bone ; 
 six ounces each of carrots, turnips, leeks, and onions, one 
 of celery and two of parsnips; a clove stuck in an onion, 
 and a small bunch of kitchen herbs, parsley, thyme, and 
 chervil ; a rather small teaspoonful of salt ; four and a half 
 pints of water. 
 
 Crush the bones well with a mallet, putting them into the 
 pot first. Cut the meat into small morsels, an inch or a 
 little more each way, removing all the fat, and lajdng them 
 on the bones. Next, pour in all the water cold; and place 
 the pot without its cover on the corner of a steady gentle 
 fire or gas ring. Add the salt, and bring gently to the boil. 
 As soon as the scum rises, remove it with a perforated 
 spoon, and when the liquor boils, pour in a small cupful of 
 cold water to check it and make the scum rise. Bring it 
 slowly again to boiling at least twice, scumming and check- 
 ing with cold water as before each time, which should 
 suffice. Meanwhile, having shced the vegetables named, 
 now add them to the pot, which again checks the boiUng 
 for a time. When it begins again, draw the pot aside so 
 that it now only simmers, which it should continue to do 
 
 * J. GouflK, " Le Livre de la Cuisine," pp. 39-47. Paris : 1867. 
 Thus he writes : "The production of a %ooi pot-au-feu seems to me 
 to be one of those operations, at the same time elementary and 
 fundamental, with which it is of the highest importance to render 
 every one familiar, as soon as domestic cooking is treated of." 
 
Gouffd's Directions, Rhumd. 287 
 
 for three or four hours. But the vegetables and herbs 
 should be removed and set aside when the former are well 
 cooked, after which they must not remain in the pot, the 
 meat only remaining until the end of the process. 
 
 The liquor is now to be poured off into a perfectly clean 
 vessel until cold, and any fat thereon removed. It ought 
 to be clear, with an agreeable odour and colour. The 
 quantity of soup resulting should be diminished about 
 one-third by the process, and should suffice for six or eight 
 persons. 
 
 It is generally served at table now with a few full-sized 
 thin slices of freshly cooked carrot, turnip, and leek, in which 
 case it would be more properly termed i lapaysanne. The 
 addition of a rather thin slice of the crust of a loaf, one to 
 each plate, constitutes it a crcr&te au pot. 
 
 The bouillon, or good clear beef-broth, produced by the 
 pot-au-feu, is the basis of all brown soups. And a decoction 
 of veal and veal bones, with fowl and vegetables as before, 
 similarly treated in all respects, is, or should be, employed 
 as the basis of all white soups, clear or purees. 
 
 A consommk is a stronger decoction of meat than the 
 bouillon, with a fuller body and flavour. Compared with 
 the receipt for the pot-au-feu, and using the same quantity 
 of water, beef bones, and vegetables there required, add 
 half the weight of veal (meat and bone) as that of the 
 beef, and proceed in all particulars of boiling, skimming, 
 simmering, etc., as for the pot-au-feu. It is to be presented 
 perfectly clear when finished, and, if necessary, must be 
 clarified in the usual manner (for which, see a good cookery 
 manual). 
 
 Or a consomme may be made by using the beef bouillon 
 in place of water, adding the additional veal recommended 
 above, and repeating the process of the pot-au-feu just 
 referred to. For a consomm'e of game, adopt the pot-au~feu 
 
288 Food and Feeding. 
 
 process, together with grouse, partridge, or hare, as preferred 
 in weight, at least equal to half the weight of stock meat 
 used. For a consomme of fowl, adopt the same process as 
 above advised, but with a proportionately increased weight 
 of veal and fowl, to the water used for the white bouillon 
 above, together with vegetables deemed appropriate. 
 
 Ordinary Braising. 
 
 Jules Gouffi^'s instructions for Boeuf A la mode, referred 
 to at p. 107 — 
 
 " Take about 4 lbs. of thick beef-steak cut square. Lard 
 the meat and place it in a stewpan with rather less than a 
 pint of white wine, a pint of stock, a pint of cold water, 
 two calves' feet already boned and blanched, and two or 
 three slices of bacon. Put it on the fire, adding about half 
 an ounce of salt. Make it boil, and skim it as for a pot- 
 au-feu; next, having skimmed it, add fully i lb. of carrots, 
 one onion, three cloves, one faggot of herbs, and two pinches 
 of pepper. Place the stewpan on the corner of the stove, 
 cover it, and allow it to simmer very gently for four or 
 five hours at least. Try the meat with a skewer to ascer- 
 tain when it is sufficiently cooked; then put it on a dish 
 with the carrots and the calves' feet, and keep them 
 covered up hot until serving. Next, strain the gravy 
 through a fine tammy ; remove carefully every atom of 
 grease, and reduce it over the fire about a quarter. 
 Lastly, place the beef on the dish for serving; add the 
 calves' feet, each having been cut in eight pieces, the 
 carrots cut into pieces the size of a cork, and ten glazed 
 onions. Arrange the calves' feet, carrots, and onions 
 round the beef, pour the sauce over the meat, keeping 
 the surplus for the next day. Taste it, in order to ascer- 
 tain if sufficiently seasoned." 
 
For Soups and Braising. 289 
 
 Gouffe continues: "The important question, after the 
 choice of the meat, is the cooking, which must be done 
 entirely by slow simmering; and this is one of the most 
 essential points for success. For when exposed to a hot 
 fire the result is a white, watery, insipid gravy, such as is 
 too often found in kitchens where cooking is carelessly 
 done. The gravy ought to be red in colour, rather gelatinous 
 in consistence, and full of the agreeable flavour and nutri- 
 tive matter of both meat and vegetables, which is the dis- 
 tinctive mark of the dish. To obtain this excellent quality, 
 the vegetables should be put into the braising-pot at the 
 proper time, so that all are cooked together." * 
 
 I cannot resist adding that Gouffd's directions amount 
 almost to an early step in the direction of the slow process 
 in cookery, which I have advocated so much during the 
 last few years. This braise would probably be still more 
 excellent if, after the initial boiling and skimming, it were 
 submitted only to a temperature not exceeding 175° Fahr. 
 during seven or eight hours. 
 
 Consomm'e of Fresh Vegetable Roots from Gouffi. 
 
 Cut in slices 2i lbs. of carrots and the same weight of 
 onions ; put them in a stewpan with some parsley, thyme, 
 shalot, and celery, and also i lb. 2 ozs. of butter. 
 
 Fry gently to a red colour, add 8f pints of water, let it 
 boil, and skim it. 
 
 Next put into it i| pint of peas and a couple of 
 lettuces. 
 
 Then add ij oz. of salt, \ oz. of whole pepper, i pinch 
 of nutmeg, 3 cloves, if pint of dried peas, if pint of white 
 haricots. 
 
 Let it simmer for three hours at the side of the fire, skim 
 
 * J. Gouffe, " Le Livre de Cuisine," pp. 126-128. Paris : 1867. 
 
 T 
 
290 Food and Feeding. 
 
 off the grease and strain through a cloth ; then put aside 
 for use {Op. cit., pp. 348, 349). 
 
 This comommi may form the basis of spring sow^, julienne, 
 brunoise, aux ceufs pocMs, crify, etc., fresh vegetables and 
 other materials being added, after the analogy in each case 
 of the potages gras. 
 
 The Author's Directions for Making Good 
 Beef-tea. 
 
 Chop fine or mince with a machine, a pound and a half 
 of gravy beef from which the fat has been removed. 
 
 Place it in an earthen jar with a lid, add a pint of cold 
 water, and let it remain an hour, occasionally stirring and 
 pressing the meat firroly with an iron spoon. Then place 
 the jar, with the lid on, in a saucepan large enough to cover 
 it, with water sufficient to reach nearly to the lid, but not 
 near enough when gently boiling to rise above it and enter 
 the jar. 
 
 The water in the saucepan is to be kept at about boiling 
 point or a little under, at the comer of the fire, for three 
 hours, adding a little water occasionally, to replace that 
 which evaporates. 
 
 When the time has expired the jar may be removed, the 
 beef-tea drained from the meat, which is then to be pressed 
 as closely as possible through a coarse straining cloth so as 
 to extract all the hquid. 
 
 After standing a short time the beef-tea will become 
 clear, much light brown flaky matter falling to the bottom. 
 By no means remove this, as it is nutritious material, 
 unless any special orders have been given to the contrary. 
 
Receipt for Beef -tea. 291 
 
 When cold, the fluid will be slightly gelatinous, varying 
 somewhat as the meat used may vary in the amount of skin, 
 tendon, or other fibrous tissue contained therein. 
 
 If, however, " shin of beef," which, of course, includes 
 bone, is used as well as gravy beef, say a pound of each, 
 add the meat detached from the bone to the pound of 
 gravy beef and treat them together as already described ; 
 but utilize the bone by breaking it with a chopper or 
 hammer, after which the pieces are to be placed in a small 
 saucepan apart, with a pint of cold water, for an hour. 
 Then the whole is to be slowly brought to boiling point, 
 and to be maintained at the same until the liquid is 
 reduced to the third of a pint, which is to be strained off 
 and mixed with the beef-tea already made ; a firm jelly will 
 result when cold. A strong solution of gelatine has thus 
 been added to the meat extractives and albumen obtained 
 by the first process, materially improving the value of the 
 compound. 
 
 When cold, remove the small quantity of fat which is 
 always to be found on the surface, and heat what is 
 required, as wanted. If the beef-tea is to be served as 
 soon as made without cooling, remove as much of the fat 
 as possible with a teaspoon, and the small remainder by 
 means of white blotting-paper. 
 
 No better vessel exists for the treatment of the meat 
 (not for the bones) than a small Warren pot (see p. 99). 
 
 Then it should be remembered that the beef-tea can be 
 rendered far more nutritious, when the invalid is able to take 
 any solid addition, by adding thereto a small quantity of 
 well-minced rump-steak. For this purpose the meat should 
 be brought to the condition of pulp by passing it three or 
 four times through the best mincing machine which can be 
 obtained, after having broiled the meat lightly only (see 
 Mincing at pp. 168, 169). 
 
292 
 
 Food and Feeding. 
 
 ON MENU WRITING. 
 Question sometimes arises in writing menus as to the 
 correct word in French for each species of fish with which 
 we are familiar in England. Referred to at p. 256. A list 
 is here supplied — 
 
 Salmon . 
 
 saumon, masc. 
 
 Trout 
 
 truite,yiff«. 
 
 Turbot . 
 
 turbot, m. 
 
 Brill 
 
 barbue, f. 
 
 John Dory 
 
 St. Pierre, m. 
 
 Cod 
 
 cabillaud, m. 
 
 Salt cod . 
 
 morue,y". 
 
 Haddock . 
 
 aigrefin, m. ; merluche,/. 
 
 Whiting . 
 
 merlan, m. 
 
 Sole 
 
 sole,/. 
 
 Red mullet 
 
 rouget, m. 
 
 Smelt 
 
 eperlan, m. 
 
 Whitebait 
 
 blanchaille,/ 
 
 Plaice 
 
 plie,/ 
 
 Flounder . 
 
 carrelet, m. 
 
 Gray mullet 
 
 mnlet, m. 
 
 Skate 
 
 raie,/ 
 
 Sturgeon . 
 
 esturgeon, m. 
 
 Ling 
 
 lingue,/ 
 
 Bream 
 
 htime,/. 
 
 Mackerel . 
 
 maquereau, m. 
 
 Herring . 
 
 hareng, m. 
 
 Sardine . 
 
 sardine,/ 
 
 Gurnard . 
 
 gurnard, grondin, m. 
 
 Pike 
 
 brochet, m. 
 
 Carp 
 
 carpe,/ 
 
 Perch 
 
 perche, f. 
 
 Grayling . 
 
 ombre, / 
 
 Eel 
 
 anguille, /. 
 
 Crayfish . 
 
 ecrevisse,/ 
 
 Shrimp 
 
 crevette, f. 
 
 Prawn 
 
 chevrette,/. 
 
 Crab 
 
 crabe, ecrevisse de mer, m 
 
 Lobster . 
 
 homard, m. 
 
 Oysters . 
 
 huitres. 
 
 Mussels . 
 
 moules. 
 
Fish in Season. 
 
 293 
 
 MONTHS OF THE YEAR WHEN FISH IS IN 
 FINE CONDITION. 
 
 The spaces are in that case left blank ; when not fine a 
 X is placed under the month. It may often be fairly good 
 when the month is crossed, but it is not fine. Referred to 
 at p. 251. 
 
 FLsh 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 .g 
 
 < 
 
 X 
 
 i 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 ■c 
 1-1 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Brill . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cod . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Crab. 
 
 . X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Dory. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eel . 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flounder 
 
 . X 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Grayling 
 
 . X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gurnard 
 
 . X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Haddock 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hake. 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Halibut 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Herring 
 
 . X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ling . 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Lobster 
 
 . X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Mackerel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Mullet (red 
 
 ) ■ X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 .. (gre) 
 
 ■) X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Mussel 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oyster 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Pike . 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Plaice 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prawn 
 
 . X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Salmon 
 
 . X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Sea trout . 
 
 . X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Skate. 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Smelt 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sole . 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sturgeon . 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trout 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Turbot 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Whitebait . 
 
 . X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Whiting . 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
294 Food and Feeding. 
 
 The Children's Dinner Table. 
 
 This has become so well known and so popular an in- 
 stitution that I can scarcely leave it unnoticed. The more 
 so as its origin is, I may be permitted to say, not without 
 interest personal to myself. 
 
 Victor Hugo, when an exile in Guernsey, established a 
 substantial meat dinner for very poor children, in the belief 
 that even this amount of good nourishment, supplied once 
 or twice a week, would afford them valuable aid during the 
 period of rapid growth, by developing the constitution ot 
 these young people, and thus improve the stamina of the 
 rising generation. And he advocated the general adoption 
 of the system from this point of view, in some letters on 
 the subject in the local press in the year 1865. By some 
 means these fell into the hands of Lady (at that time Mrs.) 
 Thompson, who forthwith resolved to try the experiment in 
 Marylebone. Having consulted the clergyman of the 
 parish, who approved the plan, she at once issued the 
 following prospectus : — 
 
 " It is proposed to supply hot dinners of wholesome food for poor 
 children, especially those who are, or have been in bad health, and 
 who need more nutritious diet than their homes afibrd. 
 
 " On and after the beginning of October it is intended to engage 
 a room where twice a week such children may come for a meal of 
 meat, vegetables, and bread, all of the best quality ; and where, with 
 only just enough discipline to insure good order and behaviour, their 
 hunger shall be satisfied, the means of restored health provided, and 
 habits of neatness taught. 
 
 " The room will be in the immediate neighbourhood of High Street 
 Marylebone. 
 
 " The arrangements are in active progress, but the cost of furniture 
 and kitchen utensils involves some outlay, hence immediate donations 
 are earnestly solicited for this purpose. 
 
 " Further, any person may become a subscriber by paying the sum 
 of 3J. 6rf., which will entitle him or her to ten tickets, and to the 
 privilege of sending children to that number of dinners— each child 
 
Children's Dinner Table. 295 
 
 paying one penny for every dinner afforded. The ticket must be left 
 at the room before 9 o'clock on the morning of the day on which 
 its recipient will dine, so that the number may be provided for. The 
 dinners will commence in October and continue till July. 
 
 "Tickets will be sure of beneficial distribution if forwarded to any 
 of the neighbouring hospitals or local dispensaries, to the clergy, or the 
 district visitors. 
 
 " A list of these, and full information on all points connected with 
 the establishment of this ' Children's Dinner Table,' may be obtained 
 by those willing to co-operate, on application to Mrs. Eyre, 20, Upper 
 Wimpole Street ; or Mrs. Henry Thompson, Treasurer, 35, Wimpole 
 Street ; or Mrs. H. G. Wright, Secretary, 23, Somerset Street, 
 Portman Square. Subscriptions may be paid to the Bankers, Sir 
 S. Scott & Co., I, Cavendish Square. Tickets may be had at 
 Thomas & Co.'s Stationery Warehouse, 21, Great Marylebone Street. 
 
 •'August, 1866." 
 
 The scheme was well supported by friends and neigh- 
 bours, and came into operation early in October. Her 
 first report thereon (also now before me), dated November 
 of that year, and therefore when the plan had been tried 
 only six weeks, shows that the dinners had been provided 
 " every Wednesday and Saturday at 12 o'clock. The room 
 accommodates 60 children: at present (November, 1886) 
 the largest attendance has been 44." And it goes on to 
 say that " a dinner can be sent to a child too ill to attend, 
 if the messenger applies at the room before nine in the 
 morning/' etc. — a further development of the original plan. 
 
 This was the first public children's free dinner-table 
 provided in this country. Victor Hugo was delighted with 
 this endeavour to realize his idea in London, and wrote to 
 the pioneer of his views here earnestly and encouragingly 
 to persevere in her work. 
 
 From that time to the present day, this institution has 
 continued under the same management, and has been very 
 popular and well supported, so that its funds and operations 
 have been largely increased. A kitchen open daily for good 
 and cheap soup has been associated with it. For many 
 
296 Food and Feeding. 
 
 years the plan has been greatly extended so as to supply 
 also adults, both healthy and invalid, of the poorer classes, 
 every day in the week except Sunday, not only with 
 dinners and soup, but also with beef-tea and rice milk, and 
 continues to do so. Larger premises are soon to be 
 erected (1898). 
 
 Author's Receipt for Cheap, Nutritious Soup. 
 
 The following is recommended to make a cheap but 
 really good and nourishing soup. Take six pounds of shin 
 of beef; the bone to be broken into small fragments and 
 set, together with the meat cut up fine or minced, to stand 
 two hours in a gallon of water, at about 90° to 100°, 
 occasionally stirring. Then drain off all the liquor; sepa- 
 rate all the meat and set this aside. The bones are now 
 to be placed in a saucepan with another gallon of water 
 over the fire and well boiled for six hours, supplying loss 
 from evaporation afterwards by adding sufficient water to 
 make up the gallon. The two liquors may then be mixed 
 and used as a stock to be incorporated with a puree of - 
 haricots or split peas, etc., and thickened by six pounds 
 of fine or medium Scotch oatmeal. Meantime fry in a 
 pound of lard, onions, celery, and carrots sufficient, sliced, 
 all of which, together with the meat, are to be set aside, 
 well rubbed down, and stirred into the soup at the end of 
 the process. 
 
 The purk is to be made of twenty pounds of split peas 
 or the same of haricots or lentils, alone or mixed, which 
 have been soaked twenty-four hours in cold water, and 
 slowly simmered until tender, requiring therefore about four 
 hours more. Lastly, the oatmeal is to be mixed smooth in 
 a little cold water, and added by degrees to two gallons of 
 hot water. Bring to the boil and simmer for an hour. Add 
 slowly, thoroughly incorporating all the preceding ingredients 
 
Cheap and Good Soup. 297 
 
 with eight gallons of hot water ; add salt and pepper, heat 
 to the boiling point, to be ready for use. The result will 
 be twelve gallons, or ninety-six pints. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 6 lbs. shin of beef 
 20 lbs. split peas 
 
 7 lbs. of oatmeal 
 Vegetables, say 
 
 I lb. of lard . 
 Pepper and salt 
 
 Cooking 
 
 7 6 
 o 6 
 
 8 o 
 
 Or one penny a pint. 
 
 The quality of the above is exceedingly good, and has 
 been maintained, as the result of the same receipt, from 
 that time to the present (i8g8) during each season. If the 
 same ingredients were treated with sixteen gallons of water, 
 making 128 pints and producing \os. Zd., 2s. 2,d. balance 
 might be laid out in bread, and a substantial slice given to 
 accompany each pint of soup, for the same cost of one 
 penny. But even then the soup is stronger than that 
 usually furnished at the cheap dinner table for children. 
 
 The receipts furnished by the Rev. Canon Moore Ede 
 in his little work, referred to at p. 117, are excellent, and 
 suitable for supplying some variety of cheap nutritious foods 
 for such dinners. 
 
 The Dinner of the Working Man. 
 
 Mr. Edward Atkinson, whose Aladdin oven has been 
 referred to at p. 117 et seq., has recently constructed, on the 
 same principle, " a workman's pail," measuring ten inches 
 in height by six in diameter, including a sufficient coating 
 
298 Food and Feeding. 
 
 of non-conducting material, and containing a lamp, two 
 cylindrical boxes containing oatmeal or maize meal and 
 water, some meat to stew, etc., besides a cofFee-pot, which 
 will provide him with at least two good hot meals, 
 without requiring any supervision, of excellent food at a 
 very cheap rate. From his description of the apparatus, 
 his own confidence in " his assured success," grounded on 
 experiments made, the details of which enable me to form 
 an opinion, I do not doubt that it may prove a valuable 
 boon to an intelligent workman, who is not a slave to custom 
 and prejudice. I may say that I have had opportunities 
 of observing the dining habits of workmen, notably during 
 the winter months, of those engaged in the streets in my own 
 neighbourhood. Supplied with braziers containing heated 
 coke for the purpose of their work, these are often utilized 
 at the midday meal. An iron plate being placed thereon, 
 a piece of meat is ruthlessly scorched, hardened until tough 
 and juiceless, unflavoured by herb or onion, unaccompanied 
 by vegetables — to be eaten by hand with more or less of 
 dry bread, in alternate bites. A more wasteful cookery, if 
 the term be applicable, and a less satisfactory result for both 
 palate and stomach, it would be difficult to conceive. I 
 have longed to show to them a more excellent way, but 
 have feared that any offer to suggest one would be regarded 
 as impertinence, or as meddlesome interference on my part. 
 A dinner for two persons could be easily cooked in a pail 
 of small size, say six inches by eight, as follows : — 
 
 Six sausages ....... 7rf. 
 
 Oat or wheat meal to make thick porridge 
 
 (better than mashed potatoes) . . . \d. 
 
 Bread ijrf. 
 
 Coffee with milk ij^. 
 
 \\d. 
 
 This is based on a receipt of Mr. Atkinson, altered a 
 
Working Matins Dinner. 299 
 
 little to meet English taste. The American workman uses 
 " Indian meal," that is, maize or Indian corn ground, which 
 is not so easily procurable here. Very little attention is 
 required, when the method of using the apparatus has been 
 learned, and a far more nutritious and agreeable meal is 
 provided than the workman usually gets. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acorns contribute to support 
 life in some parts, 47 
 
 Aerated waters, 245-247 
 
 Aladdin oven (an American cook- 
 ing apparatus), 117 
 
 , its construction, 119 
 
 Albumen, 22 
 
 exists largely in all living 
 
 things, 22 
 
 Analyses, of cereals and roots, 
 
 etc., 43-45 
 
 of flesh and fish, etc., 181, 182 
 
 of milk, 209 
 
 Animal kingdom, a rapid survey 
 
 of, 49 
 
 compared with vegetable 
 
 kingdom, 24 
 
 Apes, anthropoid, 33 
 
 Arctic regions, food required in, 
 
 S8 
 Arrowroot, 46 
 Artichokes, 47 
 Asparagus, 47 
 
 as an entremet, 156 
 
 , cold boiled, as a salad, 174 
 
 , how to boil, 156 note 
 
 Aspic jelly as a garnish, 171 
 , author's receipt for making, 
 
 172 
 
 Atkinson, Mr. E., cooking appa- 
 ratus designed by, 117. See 
 note, p. 120 
 
 his workman's pail for cook- 
 ing a small dinner, 297-299 
 
 B 
 
 Bacon, an adjunct to starchy 
 
 foods, 58 
 Bain-marie described, 99 
 Baking, cooking meat by, 123 
 
 of fish, 195 
 
 Baking-powder, formula for, 80- 
 
 81 note 
 Banana, an important food in 
 
 tropical climates, 47 
 Basse, a little-known fish, 187 
 Beans, a valuable food, 46, 74 
 Becker's cooking apparatus, n6 
 Beef, excellence of English, 279 
 Beef-broth (" bouillon "), 139, 285, 
 
 287 
 Beef-fat or dripping, value for 
 
 frying, 128 
 Beef-tea, 95, 182-183 note 
 ■ , author's directions for 
 
 making, 290, 291 
 Beer, 18 
 I Beet, constituents of, 46 
 
302 
 
 Index. 
 
 Beet, cooked in salad, 175 
 Bigarade sauce, 153 
 
 , author's receipt, 154 
 
 Bilious attacks, causes of, 17, 82 
 Bisques, 145, 260 
 Boeuf-i-Ia-mode, 107 
 
 , GoufK's receipt for, 288 
 
 Boiling, cooking meat by, 93, 
 
 95 
 
 of fish, 196 
 
 of vegetables, 104 
 
 Bouillabaisse, Marseillaise, 146 
 
 , receipt for making, 199, 200 
 
 , Thackeray's lines on, 146 
 
 note 
 Bouilli, 138, 139 
 Bouillon, 139, 285, 287 
 
 , constituents of grand, 140 
 
 Brain-workers, food for, 69-72 
 
 Braising, 108 
 
 , illustrations of process, 109- 
 
 112 
 , ordinary, Gouffe receipt, 
 
 288, 289 
 
 , principles of, 109 
 
 Bread, "Baker's bread" made 
 
 in London is often unpalatable 
 
 and indigestible, 281 
 , black, inferior to wheaten, 
 
 57 
 , butter or cheese required 
 
 by, 87 
 , constituents of wheaten, 44, 
 
 180 
 , rarely seen in Norway and 
 
 Sweden, 57 
 
 , whole wheat-meal, 73, 78 
 
 , , best form for baking, 
 
 79. 80 
 Bread-fruit, a valuable food, 47 
 Breakfast, characteristics of, 216 
 Breeding, 279, 280 
 Broiling, cooking meat by, 124 
 
 Bumey-Yeo, I., M.D., on "Food 
 
 in Health and Disease," 26 note 
 Burton, Mr. W., fish-oven made 
 
 by, ig^note 
 Butcher's meat, 68 
 , constituents of, 179, 180, 
 
 181 
 , wasteful use of, by English 
 
 artisans, 64, 68 
 Butter, English melted, 153 
 
 Cabbages as food, 47 
 
 Cakes, whole-meal, receipt for, 
 80, 81 
 
 Carbo-hydrates, 22, 43-46 
 
 Carnivorous animals, digestive 
 organs of, 32 
 
 Carrots, constituents of, 46 
 
 Casein, 22, 207 
 
 Cat-fish or wolf-fish, 187 
 
 Cauliflower as an entremet, 156 
 
 Caviare, 222 
 
 should be fresh, 271 
 
 Celeriac, 175 
 
 Celery, 47 
 
 , uncooked, for salad, 175 
 
 Cereals, composition of, 43, 44 
 
 — — contain all elements neces- 
 sary to life, 42 
 
 Chapon trufFe, 269 
 
 Character and food, relation be- 
 tween, 14 
 
 Cheese, a valuable diet for the 
 labourer, 83 
 
 improved by cooking, 83 
 
 largely used by Swiss moun- 
 taineers, 83 
 
 "Cheese fondu," Swiss, formula 
 for, 84 
 
 Chestnuts, 47, SS 
 
Index. 
 
 303 
 
 at 
 
 of 
 
 Chestnuts as garnish, 156 
 Chick-pea, 56 
 Children, often ill-fed, 16 
 Children's free dinner table 
 
 Marylebone, history of, 294 
 Chocolate, 48 
 Climate, decides proportion 
 
 animal food necessary, 29 
 
 , in relation to food, 54-58 
 
 Coal-fish, good cheap fish, 187 
 
 Cocoa, 48 
 
 Cocoa-nut, a valuable food in 
 
 tropical countries, 47 
 Cod, superiority of fish caught at 
 
 the Dogger Bank, 187 
 
 , value as food, 185 
 
 Coffee, 48 
 
 , insipid mixture sold in hotels 
 
 and railway stations, 137 
 
 , relation of tobacco to, 243 
 
 Complete food, a, 82 
 
 Condiments, 47 
 
 Conger, excellent for soup and 
 
 stews, 188 
 Consomme, constituents of, 141- 
 
 144, 287 
 
 , fish, receipt for, 197 
 
 , fresh vegetable roots, 
 
 Gouffe's receipt, 289 
 Constipation, causes of, 79 
 Cookery, dry, processes described, 
 
 100, 115-120 
 , French and English com- 
 pared, 130-135 
 , ignorance of the principles 
 
 of, 92 
 , importance of schools of, 
 
 92, 278 
 , indifference to, among 
 
 middle classes, 90 
 
 of fish, 190-201 
 
 , temperature a matter of im- 
 portance in, ignored, 92, 93 
 
 Cookery, works on, 117 note, 120 
 note, 124 note, 151, 168, 264, 
 286 
 
 Cooking at low temperature, 97- 
 104, 107, 109-112 
 
 meat, two modes of, 94 
 
 , thermometers for, in, 
 
 frontispiece 
 
 Cooking-pot, Captain Warren's, 
 99-104 
 
 Covent Garden Market, inade- 
 quate for the supply of London, 
 280 
 
 Crayfish, purees of, 145 
 
 Crodte-au-pot, 75, 140 
 
 Cucumbers as garnish, 155 
 
 Curry, 85 
 
 , how to boil rice for, 167, 
 
 i68 
 
 , when out of place, 234 
 
 D 
 
 Dairy produce, deficient supply 
 
 of, in London, 282 
 Dates, largely eaten as food in the 
 
 East, 55 
 Dessert, 231 
 
 , wines at, 232 
 
 Diet, circumstances modifying, 68 
 , danger of sudden changes 
 
 of, 38, 71 
 , soups an important item of, 
 
 135 
 Dietary, typical daily, a table, 60 
 
 for the working man, 72 
 
 Digestion, necessary elements only 
 
 obtained through, 21 
 
 , receives little attention, 14 
 
 Dinner, a complete dinner scheme, 
 
 251 
 
 , characteristics of, 2i8 
 
 , contrast of dishes at, 267 
 
304 
 
 Index. 
 
 Dinner, custom of ladies retiring, 
 
 228, 232 
 
 , family, 219 
 
 for poor children, 294-296 
 
 for the working man, 299 
 
 , improvement in modern, 
 
 226 
 , menus for each month in 
 
 the year, 255-263 
 
 , menus in French, 256-266 
 
 , mid-century, 227 
 
 , public, with hints for their 
 
 improvement, 272-276 
 
 , small and select, 225 
 
 , society, 225 
 
 , suggestions as to modern, 
 
 229 
 
 , as to small, 235 
 
 , wine with, 232, 237 
 
 Dory, an excellent fish, 186, 196 
 Drinking, early habits of, 18 
 Dripping, beef, for frying, 128 
 Dry cooking, 100-104, 1 15-120 
 
 East, the, food in, 55 
 
 Economy of slow cooking, 118 
 
 Ede, Rev. W. Moore, lecture by, 
 on cheap food and cooking, 117, 
 297 
 
 , his cooking apparatus, 117 
 
 Eels, 188 
 
 Eggs, 22, 27, 29 
 
 , new-laid, a luxury in Lon- 
 don, 281 
 
 Endive, 47 
 
 as a garnish, 125 
 
 Entries, 230 
 
 Entremets, 156 
 
 Erbswurst of the German army, 
 ingredients of, 73 
 
 Espagnole, or brown sauce, 152 
 
 Fats necessary as food, 22, 27, 
 
 43-46, S8, 234 
 Fatty matter produced from seeds, 
 
 nuts, etc., 46 
 Fire, taste of the, 121, 122 
 Fish, a nutritious food, 52, 68, 
 
 70-72 
 , a new method, namely 
 
 roasting, 193 
 , baking, gives good results, 
 
 '95 
 
 , boiling, a wasteful process, 
 
 196 
 
 "cleaning," by fishmonger, 
 
 a wasteful process, 188 
 
 , constituents of, 1S1-184 
 
 , deficient supply in Great 
 
 Britain, 67 
 
 dinners, 234 
 
 , few varieties used as food, 
 
 184 
 
 , its value as food, 1 79-184 
 
 , months when in fine con- 
 dition, 293 
 
 much neglected in this 
 
 country, 189 
 
 should partly furnish its own 
 
 sauce, 190 
 
 soups, 144, 197-199 
 
 stew, an economical, 200 
 
 " tea," 183 7ioU 
 
 . varieties less esteemed, but 
 
 excellent, 186 
 Flageolets, 74 noti, 158 
 
 in salads, 176 
 
 Flesh, use of, liable to abuse, 35 
 Flour, composition of, 43 
 Flounders, 1S6 
 Food, average requirement for the 
 
 adult male, 59, 60 
 depends on climate, 54 
 
Index. 
 
 305 
 
 Food, desirable to use all sources 
 
 of. 39 
 determined by temperature, 
 
 30 
 
 different in Northern Europe, 
 
 S6 
 
 , effect on man morally and 
 
 physically, 14 
 
 , elements necessary to form 
 
 a "complete," 82 
 
 , few men have any know- 
 ledge of, 53 
 
 , ill selected and wastefuUy 
 
 prepared, 62 
 
 , importance of its proper 
 
 selection and preparation, 13 
 
 , influence of it and training, 
 
 IS 
 
 in France, 56 
 
 in Germany, 57 
 
 in Italy, 55 
 
 in Norway and Sweden, 58 
 
 in Russia, 58 
 
 in season, 250 
 
 in Southern Europe, 55 
 
 in Spain, 56 
 
 in the Arctic Circle, 58 
 
 in the East, 55 
 
 in the tropics, 54 
 
 , more facilities needed for 
 
 its distribution, 281 
 
 , necessary constituents, 21 
 
 obtainable from animal and 
 
 vegetable kingdoms, 24 
 
 , resources of man in relation 
 
 to, 42 
 , simplest complete forms, 
 
 75-88 
 , " taste " in, to be cultivated, 
 
 20 
 
 , uses of it to the body, 20 
 
 , value of inert matters, 79 
 
 France, staple diet, 56 
 
 French beans, 74, 158, 176 
 
 saut&, 159 
 
 Freshwater fish as food, 188 
 
 Frog, edible, 53 
 
 Fruits, chemical constituents of, 
 
 48 
 Frying, 125 
 
 , practical directions, 126 
 
 , value of olive oil and beef 
 
 dripping for, 128 
 
 Game, 132 
 
 , its nutritive value, 51 
 
 Garlic as a condiment, 56 
 Garnishes, 1 71-173 
 Garnitures for soups, I48 
 
 for cold dishes, 171 
 
 in variety, 155 
 
 German Empire, foods consumed 
 
 in. 57 
 Gieshiibel aerated water, 246 note 
 Gigot k la Bretonne, 76 
 Gluten, 22 
 , most valuable proteid of 
 
 vegetable kingdom, 25 
 Gouffi^'s instructions for the pot- 
 
 au-feu, 285-287 
 
 fish-soup, 197 
 
 Gourds, 47 
 
 Grapes abundant in Spain, 56 
 
 Gurnard makes a good dish, 187 
 
 H 
 
 Haddocks, and other fish named, 
 excellent food, 186, 196 
 
 as an addition to salads, 177 
 
 Hake, a cheap but good fish, 187 
 
 Halibut, 187 
 
 Halles Centrales, Paris, remarks 
 on, 2S1 
 
 U 
 
3o6 
 
 Index. 
 
 Ham, receipt for cooking, I lo 
 
 Haricots furnish an admirable 
 salad when stewed, 76, 77 
 
 , constituents, value of, 45 
 
 , various methods of cooking, 
 
 74-76, 158, 159 
 
 Hart, Mr. Ernest, on the spread 
 of zymotic disease, 205 
 
 Hartmann, Prof., on the anthro- 
 poid apes, 33 note 
 
 Headaches, sick, causes of, 17 
 
 Herbs, sweet and savoury, 56 
 
 Herrings, 52 
 
 , a cheap and excellent food 
 
 for the working classes, i85 
 
 Hoffmann, Fr., on the digestion 
 of vegetable proteids, 25 note 
 
 Honey, 48 
 
 Hors d'oeuvres, 221, 222 
 
 Hotch-potch (a Scotch soup), 144 
 
 Hugo, Victor, meat dinner for 
 poor children at Guernsey estab- 
 lished by, 294 
 
 Human body, a complex machine, 
 self-supplying and repairing, 23 
 
 Hydro-carbons necessary for nu- 
 trition, 22 
 
 Imported foods, consumption of, 
 
 per head in United Kingdom, 
 
 66 
 Indian corn meal, composition of, 
 
 44 
 Indigestion, various causes of, 19 
 Infants, errors in feeding, 16 
 Inorganic elements in all living 
 
 bodies, 23 
 Irish stew, receipt for, 100 
 Italian pastes, 46 
 Italy, foods consumed in, 55 
 
 Julienne and other vegetable 
 soups, 143 
 
 K 
 
 Kenny-Herbert, Col., "Wy- 
 vem," on "Common-Sense 
 Cookery," 168 note 
 Kitcheners, baking in, 123 
 Koumiss, or fermented milk, 210 
 
 Labouring classes in England, 
 dietary of, 61, 72-75, 83, 89 
 
 Lactometer, use of, 209 
 
 Lard a bad menstruum for frying, 
 128 
 
 Laver, as food, 46 
 
 — — an adjunct to roast mutton, 
 262 note 
 
 " Leason," a, 152 
 
 Legumes, constituents of, 45 
 
 , food in Italy, 55 
 
 , value as food, 73 
 
 Legumin, 25 
 
 compared to casein, 26 
 
 Lentils, constituents of, 46 
 
 nutritive value of, 45 
 
 Lettuces, 47 
 
 as a garnish, 125 
 
 Ling, a cheap fish, 186 
 
 List of fish in season, 293 
 
 Lunch, characteristics of, 216 
 
 M 
 
 Macaroni, « valuable food, 46, 
 
 86, 161 
 , an excellent lunch for the 
 
 busy, 162 
 
Index. 
 
 307 
 
 Macaroni, author's receipts for 
 
 macaroni au jus, 162 
 
 , i I'ltalienne, 163 
 
 , for other forms, 163, 
 
 164 
 
 , whence derived, 46 
 
 Mackerel, an oily fish, 186 
 
 MaMre d'Hotel, 153 
 
 Maize or Indian corn, SJ, $6 
 
 , constituents of, 86 
 
 , largely consumed in Italy 
 
 under the name of polenta, 86 
 largely consumed in United 
 
 States of America with beans, 
 
 under the name of " succotash," 
 
 86 
 Malt saccharine, 46 
 Man, accustomed to a mixed diet, 
 
 29 
 
 , born an animal feeder, 28 
 
 , his early experience in se- 
 lecting material for food, 53 
 
 , his early progenitors, 35 
 
 naturally omnivorous, 30 
 
 , resources in relation to food, 
 
 42 
 Marrows, 47 
 
 as an entremet, 156 
 
 Martin, Sidney, Dr., tuberculosis 
 
 and milk, 206 note 
 Mastication, influence of, 49 
 , necessary preliminary to 
 
 digestion, 50 
 Meals, characteristics of, 216 
 
 , daily, should be regular, 214 
 
 , midday, for business men, 
 
 171 
 
 , stimulants at, 237-242 
 
 , three systems of arranging, 
 
 215 
 
 , water at, 244 
 
 Meat, increased importations of, 
 
 66 
 
 Meat, too much eaten, 68 
 
 , various methods of cooking : 
 
 baking, 123 
 
 1 boiling, 93-95 
 
 , braising, 108, 109 
 
 , broiling, 124 
 
 , frying, 125, 126 
 
 , roasting, 120 
 
 , stewing, 106, 107 
 
 Melons, 56, 248 
 
 Menus, art of constructing, 250 
 
 , examples in English, 257 
 
 263 
 , examples of French, 258- 
 
 266 
 
 , for dinner-parties, 249 
 
 , for each month in the year, 
 
 255-263 
 
 , French names for fish, 292 
 
 should be written in French, 
 
 256 
 Milk, a "complete" food, 202, 
 
 203 
 
 , composition of, 207 
 
 , importance of obtaining a 
 
 pure supply, 203, 204 
 , not suitable for sedentary 
 
 persons, 210 
 , nutritive value of, 27, 28, 
 
 51,62 
 , precautions to ensure purity, 
 
 211 
 
 should be boiled, 206, 212 
 
 , tuberculosis disseminated by, 
 
 206 and note 
 , typhoid disseminated by, 
 
 205 
 Millet, SS 
 
 Mills for grinding wheat, 82 
 Mincing, important mode of pre- 
 paring food, 168, 169 
 , directions for use of ma- 
 chine, 170 
 
3o8 
 
 Index. 
 
 Mineral waters, use of, 247 
 Molluscs or shell-fish, 53 
 Monkey tribes, at the Zoological 
 
 Gardens, 34 
 
 , mixed feeders, 33 
 
 Mullets, as food, 186, 192 
 Mulligatawny soup, 144 
 Muscular exercise, effect of, 69 
 Mushroom ketchup, 125, 190 
 Mushrooms, grilled, 221 
 
 , nutritive value of, 47 
 
 Mutton, excellence of English, 279 
 , to cook by dry process, 
 
 100-104 
 
 N 
 
 National resources in relation 
 
 to diet, 65 
 Northern Europe, food necessary 
 
 in, 56 
 Norway, food consumed in, jS 
 Norwegian cooking apparatus, 
 
 102-104 
 " Nutritious " food, 77, 79 
 Nuts as food, 47 
 
 O 
 
 Oatmeal, constituents of, 37, 44 
 
 Oil, in fish, 186 
 
 largely consumed in Italy, 55 
 
 , sources of, 46 
 
 Olive oil, 46 
 
 the best available form of 
 
 fat for frvine- i»8 
 
 used in Spain as a substitute 
 
 for butter, 56 
 
 Olla, Spanish, ingredients of, 56 
 
 Omelette making must be practi- 
 cally learnt, 129 
 
 Onions, 47, 75 
 
 Over-feeding, evils of, 64 
 
 Oyster soups, 145 
 
 Oysters, 53 
 
 , service of, before dinner, 223 
 
 Parsnip, constituents of, 46 
 
 Pastes, Italian, 46 
 
 Pavy's, Dr., "Treatise on Food 
 
 and Dietetics," 45 note, 59 
 Paysanne soup, 140 
 Peas, a valuable food, 46 
 
 , constituents of, 73 
 
 , green, 77, 156 
 
 , , how to cook, IDS, 157 
 
 , , served a la Frangaise, 
 
 158 
 Physiological necessities foi food, 
 
 21 
 Pilau, Turkish, 85, 167 
 
 , , how to make, 167 
 
 Pilchards, a useful food, 186 
 Plaice, nutritive qualities of, 186 
 Polenta, Italian, 55 
 
 , , how made, 86 
 
 Pollack, good cheap fish, 187 
 Polio con arroz, a Spanish national 
 
 dish, 86 
 Pork, largely consumed in Ger- 
 many in the form of sausage, 
 
 57 
 Porridge, oat and rye-meal, eaten 
 
 in the north of Europe, 58 
 Potatoes, food constituents of, 37, 
 
 4S. 46 
 
 , in saluds, 175, 176 
 
 , require the addition of fatty 
 
 matter, 87 
 , should be steamed "in their 
 
 jackets," 105, 106 
 Potage \ la Cond^, 76 
 Potage gras, 146 
 Poti^e maigre, 77 
 
Index. 
 
 309 
 
 Potage maigre, furtlier remarks 
 respecting, 146 
 
 Potash-water, English, a trust- 
 worthy article, 245 
 
 Pot-au-feu, Gouffe's instructions 
 for its management, 141 , 285-288 
 
 , ingredients of, 56, 88, 138, 
 
 139, 286 
 
 " Pot gras," or " maigre," 139 
 
 Poultry, 52 
 
 , cooked at a low temperature, 
 
 101-104 
 
 , in France, 56 
 
 , roasting, 1 21 
 
 Produce, desirability of securing 
 best quality, 279 
 
 Proteids, constituents of, 21 
 
 , presence of in cereals, le- 
 gumes, roots, etc., 43-4S 
 
 , superiority of the animal, 
 
 26 
 
 , whence obtainable, 22 
 
 Pulse, parched, 56 
 
 Pumpkins, 47 
 
 Purees, various, 76, 136, 143, 148. 
 See Soups. 
 
 R 
 
 Race, influence on man's mental 
 character and physical tenden- 
 cies, 15 
 Ravigotte sauce, 153 
 Remoulade or salad-dressing, 175 
 Reptiles, food supplied by, 52 
 Rice, constituents of, 44, 45, 83 
 — '■ — , modes of cooking red, etc., 
 164-168 
 
 , needful additions when eaten 
 
 in Italy, SS (•ff« 1^5) 
 
 , receipt for boiling, for curry, 
 
 167 
 
 Rice the principal food in the 
 
 tropics, 55 
 Risotto, needful additions in, 85 
 
 a la Milanaise, how to make, 
 
 166 
 "Roast and boiled" — the staple 
 food of the middle-class English- 
 man, 90 
 Roasting, cooking meat by, 120 
 
 , necessity for basting, 121 
 
 , of fish, 193-195 
 
 , principles of, 120 
 
 , taste of the fire, 121 
 
 , temperature of the interior, 
 
 97 
 Robinson, W., on " Parks and 
 
 Gardens of Paris,'' 175 note 
 Roots, constituents of, 45 
 Roux, white and brown, 152, 153 
 Rubner, experiments by, 26 note 
 Ruminating animals, digestive 
 
 organs of, 32 
 Russia, Northern, staple food con- 
 sumed in, 58 
 Rye, consumption in Italy, 55 
 , in Norway and Sweden, 58 
 
 Sago, 46 
 
 St. Galmier aerated water, 247 
 
 Salad-dressing, 175 
 
 Salads — in Southern Europe and 
 
 France, 55, 57 
 , instructions for making and 
 
 dressing, 173, 174 
 , made of cold boiled table 
 
 vegetables, 176 
 ,the French salade de legumes, 
 
 177 note 
 Salmon, crimping, 193 
 , how to cook, 193 
 
3IO 
 
 Index. 
 
 Salmon, not obtainable In Paris 
 
 in a fresh state, 192 
 
 , value as food, 185 
 
 Salsify, 156 
 
 Salt, common, a necessary addition 
 
 to food, 48 
 Salts, inorganic, constituents of 
 
 human body, 23 
 Sauces, 151, 155 
 , how to serve with fish, 
 
 190 
 
 , principles of, 150, 151 note 
 
 , two foundation, 151 
 
 Sauer-kraut, 57 
 
 Sausage, meat eaten in form of, in 
 
 Spain and Germany, 56, 57 
 "Sauter" — the French cookery 
 
 term explained, 159 note 
 Scallops as a substitute for oysters, 
 
 258 note 
 Schools, improper food at, 17 
 Sea-bream, useful as food, 187 
 Seakale, 47, 156 
 Season of the year when fish is 
 
 best at table, 293 
 Seaweeds, nutritive value of, 262 
 
 note 
 Sedentary classes, food suitable to, 
 
 64, 69, 70, 89 
 Seltzer water, 247 
 Shell-fish, S3 
 
 , as a garnish, 138, igi 
 
 Skate, nutritive qualities of, 186 
 Slow cookery, system of, 98 
 , modes of accomplishing, 
 
 100-104 
 
 , renders flesh digestible, 98 
 
 , special illustration of, 109- 
 
 112 
 , special thermometers for, 
 
 III. ?>zz frontispiece. 
 , value of, in stewing, 107 
 Smelt, easy of digestion, 185 
 
 Smith, Mr. L. O., of Stockholm, 
 plan of cooking adopted by, 
 116 
 
 Soda, use of, in cooking vegetables, 
 
 105 
 Soda-water, English, trustworthy, 
 
 245 
 Sole, easy of digestion, 185 
 , wasteful process of cleaning, 
 
 189 
 Soup : fish, 144, 198, 199 
 , clear vegetable, receipt for, 
 
 147 
 , Gouffi's directions for mak- 
 ing, 289 
 
 , haricot, 76 
 
 , purees, 136, 143, 148 
 
 , turtle, 145 
 
 , white, 229 
 
 Soups, almost unknown to the 
 
 working man, 136 
 , an initial course at dinners, 
 
 219, 229 
 , author's receipt for cheap 
 
 nutritious, 296, 297 
 
 , excellence of French, 138 
 
 , garnitures for, 148 
 
 , how varieties are made, 142 
 
 , judgment required in 
 
 flavouring, 149 
 
 , nomenclature, 141 
 
 , use of fresh vegetables 
 
 advocated, 137 
 Southern Europe, foods consumed 
 
 in.SS 
 
 Spain, food consumed by inhabi- 
 tants of, 56 
 
 Spinach, 47 
 
 Stachys tuberifera, a Japanese 
 vegetable recently introduced 
 into England, 176 note 
 
 Starchy matters present in food, 
 23. 24. 45> 46, il 
 
Index. 
 
 3" 
 
 Steaming often preferable to boil- 
 ing, lOS 
 
 Stewing, effective, io6, 107 
 
 Stimulants, 18, 64 
 
 at meals, 237-242 
 
 Stock-pot, the, 138-140 
 
 Sturgeon, value as food, 188 
 
 Sugar, 48 
 
 Succotash (see Maize), 86 
 
 Sweden, food consumed, 58 
 
 Sweets, at the modern dinner, 231, 
 23s 
 
 Tapioca, 46 
 
 Tea, 48 
 
 , afternoon, characteristics of, 
 
 217 
 
 Temperatures in cookery, experi- 
 ments on, 97 
 
 Thackeray's lines on bouillabaisse, 
 146 note 
 
 Thornback, a cheap fish, 187 
 
 Toasts at public dinners, sugges- 
 tions concerning, 273-276 
 
 Tobacco, effects of, 238 
 
 , coffee, a natural ally, 243 
 
 Tomato, 47 
 
 , simple cookery alone ad- 
 missible, 160 
 
 , uncooked and in salads, 
 
 174 
 
 Tropics, food in the, 29, 54 
 
 Trufiles, 47 
 
 , French and English de- 
 scribed, 270 note 
 
 , in salad, 175 
 
 , remarks on, 270 
 
 , when in season, 257 note 
 
 Tubers and roots, constituents of, 
 
 45 
 
 , foods derived from, 46 
 
 Turbot, a substantial food, 185 
 
 Turnip, constituents of the, 46 
 
 Turtle soup, 145 
 
 , controversy respecting, 145 
 
 note 
 Typhoid fever epidemics caused 
 
 by tainted milk, 205 
 
 U 
 
 United Kingdom, consumption 
 of imported foods per head of 
 population, 66 
 
 Vegetable feeders, 26 
 Vegetable food, its components, 
 
 25 
 
 , not always digested by the 
 
 stomach, 50 
 Vegetable cookery, French and 
 
 English, 156-159 
 Vegetable-eating animals, anato 
 
 mical peculiarities of, 31 
 Vegetable soups, 147 
 Vegetables, boiling of, 104 
 , dried and compressed, 
 
 flavour destroyed in the pro- 
 cess, 137 
 , fresh, scarcity in London, 
 
 2S0 
 , garden, largely used in 
 
 France, 56 
 
 , green, 47, S7, 58, 156 
 
 Vegetarian, a misleading term, 27 
 , consumers of animal foods, 
 
 27 
 Vegetarianism successful under 
 
 certain conditions, 36 
 Veloute or white sauce, 151 
 Vermicelli, a valuable food, 46 
 Vinegar, largely made from grain, 
 
 46 
 
312 
 
 Index. 
 
 w 
 
 Warren cooking-pot, 99-104 
 
 Water, aerated, 244 
 
 as a constituent of all living 
 
 bodies, 23, 179-182 
 . dangers from drinking 
 
 impure, 246 
 
 in cereals, etc., 43-4S 
 
 , London supply, 244 
 
 , mineral, 247 
 
 should be boiled, 246 
 
 Watercress as a garnish, 125 
 Water-melon at dinner, 248 
 Wheat, composition of, 43 
 
 , value as food, 73, 78 
 
 Whey, a wholesome beverage, 
 
 210 
 Whitebait dinners, Greenwich, 
 
 234 
 Whiting, easy of digestion, 1S5 
 Whole wheat-meal bread, 73, 78 
 
 , best form of baking, 79, 80 
 
 Whole-meal cakes, receipt for, 79 
 
 Williams, Mr. M., on the Chemis- 
 try of Food, 83, 84, 123 
 
 Wines, 48, 220, 232 
 
 , use and abuse of at meals, 
 
 237-240, 242 
 
 , how to secure fine quality, 
 
 240 
 
 Wolf-fish or cat-fish, value as food, 
 187 
 
 Working-man, dietary of the, 72- 
 
 75. 85 
 
 , hints for improving, 297 
 
 Wyvem's " Culinary Jottings," 
 
 168 note 
 
 Yam, constituents of, 46 
 
 Zakuska (the Russian hors- 
 d'oeuvre), service of, 222 
 
 FKINTSa BY WILLIAM CLUWBS AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.