CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library arV16176 A school German graUJ.'JIgL 3 1924 031 292 638 olin,anx The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031292638 A SCHOOL GERMAN GRAMMAR. A SCHOOL GERMAN GEAMMAR. BY Hr%f^VE, M.A., Sead, Master of Vniversity College School, Zondon; Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. jantform fattf) Vtjt azarfltnaton Callegf iitencf( ©rammar. LONDON: DAVID NUTT, 270, STEAND. 1880. lonsoh: -webteeiueb, lea am) 00., pbintebs, cibccs place, lohcoh wall. PKEFACE. The present work originated with, a German Syntax written by the author twelve or thirteen jears ago, which was far from complete, and not always accurate. It is hoped that the book in its present form may be less liable to criti- cism on these grounds. Tlie Syntax has been practically re-written, and an Accidence, which has been privately printed, and for a short time, in use, is incorporated with it. The materials have been drawn freely from standard grammars and books, of reference, especially from Weigand's and Grimm's German dictionaries, from Dr. Sanders' "Deutsche Spraoh- briefe" and " Hauptschwierigkeiten der deutsehen Sprache," and from Becker. But Becker's arrangement and terminology, however excellent for their purpose, seemed hardly suited for English schoolboys, and have been entirely deserted. Unfor- tunately I have not been able to meet with any book by a non- German which does for German what Holder,P16tz, Bernhard Schmitz, &c., do for French. The nearest approach is Sicherer's Grammar in Dutch, a book I have consulted with much advantage. My best thanks are due to my colleagues, Mr. Levander, Mr. Goldschild, Dr. Dann, and Mr. de Baudigs, for help in the revision of the proof-sheets, and for many valuable suggestions. VI PEEPACE. I have said nothing of the older German dialects, except in a few incidental references. The systematic study of Gothic and Old and Middle High German forms and in- flexions seems out of place in English schools, but I much wish my knowledge were sufficient to enrich the study of modern German with some of those illustrations from the earlier forms of the language which readily fix themselves in a boy's memory. A good deal of attention has been paid to the prefixes of verbs, which form such an interesting chapter in German. I found many valuable hints on this subject in the " Essays" of the late Professor Key, to which I have given references. In the declensions I have kept to the rational division of strong and weak, with further subdivisions for the sake of convenience. To the rhymed lists some teachers will no doubt take exception, but it is very difficult to find any other plan of getting a boy to remember with certainty what the plural of a given noun is. My own method of teaching declensions is as follows : — First, a few paradigms are learnt, and boys are expected to decline a noun if told it is like SDorf or @o^n. Next, the large print is studied, all the paradigms learnt, and practice given in classifying simple nouns and referring them to their models. At this stage a boy may fairly be asked to classify and decline nouns like (Sintyitt, SBirtl^fi^aft, CPaf^e, the English being given. The third stage is to learn the lists of exceptions, &c., as vocabularies, and when this is done, a boy ought to be able, with the help of Ms booh, to make out the genitive singular and PEEFACB. Vll nominative plural of any noun. Practice in doing so is in many ways a useful exercise. Last of all, the lists are learnt by heart. Of qourse, this is a long process ; but to get inflexions into one's head by observation and reading is a still longer one, and possible only to those who have already been trained to habits of extreme accuracy. I should like to add one or two remarks on the subject of German etymology. First, a teacher cannot begin too soon to point out the changes of letters in passing from English to German, and vice versd ; in fact, to keep Grimm's law, and other simple rules, always before his pupils. Many valuable suggestions on this subject may be got from Mr. Sonnen- schein's " German for the English," a book which no teacher can read without pleasure and profit. Next, I would urge that advanced pupils should be made to write down etymologies in a full and systematic way. It is very common for a boy, when asked for the derivation of a word, to give merely the components, without showing how the meaning of the compound is deduced from that of its constituent parts, a process which requires far more thought. I would suggest something of the following form : — " aSermcffen^eit, presumption, from (1) [tc^ sjermeffen, to measure " oneself amiss, and hence to presume beyond one's powers or " rights; (2) l^eit, a termination equivalent to head or hood, " forming an abstract noun. " fBenn^n^m, to infiuence, tiom (1) ©influf (cin, in; fflu^, " one form root of fttefen, to How), ajlowing-in. The notion is viii PEE^ACB. " that the heavenly bodies, the eyes of certain persons, &c., " sent forth subtle emanations which literally flowed into those " affected by them, whence influence in its mpdern sense. " (2) SBc, a prefix, which forms verbs from nouns, meaning " to aupphj with. Thus BfdnPujfen is to supply with influence, to " influence." " Urtaereinfiflr, incompatible, from (1) un, un, not ; (2) Ser= " einen, from tier, and ein, one, to make one, to unite ; (3) tar, a " suffix, Used to form verbal adjectives with a passive sense. " Hence thatwhich cannot hemade onewith a thing, incompatible." A great deal of instruction may thus be got out of etymologies apparently obvious. For less obvious etymologies "Whitney's Dictionary is very handy. I have to apologise for an omission. The sections oa the suffixes and the article in the Addenda should, of course, have been in the body of the work ; but were accidentally misplaced. i H. "W. EVE. CeOwthoene, August 23rd, 1880. CONTENTS. AOOIDENQE. Tags. ChAJPTER I. — lNIEdDrCTOB.Y. 1. Alphabet 1 2. Modified vowels 2 3. Other combiaations of vowels 2 4. Combinations of con- sonants S 5. Notes on the characters ,. 2 6. Capitals 3 7. Accent 3 Ghapteb II. — Articles. 8. Answer to English articles 3 9. Declension 4 Chapter III. — Declension iND GrEirnER op Nouns. 10. General remarks 4 11. Strong and weak declen- sions 4 12. General rules S 13- Weak declension— mascu- line 5 14. Weak declension — femi- nine i . . . , 6 15. Strong declension — plural in re 7 16. Strong declension — ^plural in e 8 17. Strong declension — plural unchanged 11 18. Mixed declension 13 Page. 19. Declension of some Latin words 14 20. English and French words 14 21. Proper names 14- 22. Nouns with two plurals. . 15 23. No plural of measures . . 16 24. Borrowed plurals 16- 25. Compounds of 3J!nnn 1& 26. Gender and sex ., 17 27. Names of animals 17 28. Trees, plants, &o 17 29. Collective nouns 18 30. Infinitives, &o 18 31. Geographical names .... 18 32. Hoots of verbs 18 33. Eoots of verbs with t added 19 34. Masculine endings 19' 35. Feminine endings 19^ 36. Neuter endings 19 37. Nouns ending in c aO 38. Terminations el, en, et. . . . 20 40. Nouns with double gender 22 41 . Compound nouns 23 CflAPTER IV. — Adjectives. 42. Various forms of declen- sion 24 43. Strong declension 24 44. Weak declension 25- 45. Mixed declension 26 46. Notes on some adjectives 27 47. Adjectives used as nouns 27 COlifTENTS. 48. Comparison — ordinary for- mation 28 49. Modifioationa 28 50. Irregular comparisons . . 28 61. Declension of compara- tives and superlatives . . 29 Chapter V. — Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives. 52. Personal pronouns 29 53. Pronouns of address .... 30 54. Reflexive pronouns 30 55. Use of feltfl 30 56. Possessive adjectives .... 31 57. Beclension of possessive adjectives 31 58. Correspondence of pro- nouns 31 59. Possessive pronouns .... 32 60. Demonstrative pronouns. . 33 61. Stefer and iencc 33 62. Neuters btcfcS and taS . . . . 34 63. Other demonstratives ... . 34 64. Relative pronouns 35 65. Whoever, whatever 36 66. Interrogative pronouns , . 35 67. Interrogative adjectives. . 36 68. Indefinite pronouns and adjectives 36 69. Sin and leiu 36 70. SKon, one, people 36 71. SttoaS, mijti, something, nothing 37 72. Semanti, nieiitanb, some one, no one 37 73. Some, any 37 74. Distributive pronouns and adjectives 37 Chapter VI. — Numerals. 75. List of numerals 38 76. Declension of cardinal numerals 39 77. Forms in ec 39 78: Use of Bcike 40 79; Fractions 40 80. Time of day, days of month 40 81. Miscellaneous numeral forms 41 Page. Chapter YII.— Verbs, Intro- ductory AND Auxiliaries. 82. Moods 41 83. Tenses 41 84. Conditional mood 42 85. Use of auxiliaries 42 86. Strong and weak conjuga- tions 43 87. Conjugation of ^t&txi .... 43 88. Conjugation of feiit 44 89. Conjugation of wetben. ... 45 Chapter VIII. — Verbs Con- tinued — Specimens op Conjugation. 90. Conjugation of a weak verb (with ^aSen) 46 91. Conjugation of a strong verb 47 92. Conj u gation of a verb with fcin 48 93. Conjugation of passive voice 50 94. Notes on the Passive .... 51 96. Reflexive verbs 61 96. Compound verbs 52 97. Impersonal verbs 52 98. Persons with impersonals 63 Chapter IX.— Verbs Continued. FoRJiATioN OP Tenses, Prefixes, &o. 99. General Principles 54 100. Present of strong verbs . . 65 101. Participles 56 102. Subjunctive 57 103. Imperative 57 104. ClaSsifi'e&tion of strong verbs 67 105. First group — Srccfjen .... 57 106. Second— meffen 58 107. Third— f<^cTOcn 58 108. Fourth— fticgen 58 109. Fifth— fiijilngen 69 110. Sixth-ftn^en ...... 69 111. Seventh^reduplicating.. 59 112. Peculiarities of weak con- jugation 59 113; Irregular verbs 60 114: Verbs of mood 60 CONTENTS. Page. 116. InseparaUe prefixes .... 62 116. Doubtful prefixes 62 117. aSipandson 62 118. Separable prefixes 62 119. Miscellaneous components 62 120. Factitive verbs 63 ChAPTEK X. — iHBEGULAa VeBBS. 121. List of irregular verbs .. 65 122. Strong participles from weak verbs 71 Chapter XI. — Advebss, Pkeposi- TIONS, AND CONJTJNCTIONS. 123. Adjectives as adverbs. ... 72 124. Adverbs formed by ter- minations 72 125. Compound adverbs 72 126. Otber adverbs 73 127. Comparison of adverbs . . 73 128. Form of superlative adverb 73 129. Stjl 74 130. ©^on 74 131. Now 74 132. ®o(i!i, elliptical 74 133. Concessive adverbs 74 134. Therefore 74 135. %aet) 75 136. 3lo^ and t)0(^ 75 137. Then 75 138. When 75 139. So...., 75 140. Prepositions witli accusa- tive 76 141. Prepositions with dative. . 76 142. Prepositions with dative and accusative 77 143. So-called prepositiona with genitive 77 144. Place of prepositions .... 78 145. Classification of conjunc- tions 78 146. And, or, nor 78 147. But 79 148. Equivalents of aSer, fonbcra 80 149. The— the 80 150. Aa 81 Page. 151. Before and after 81 152. Since 81 Chapteb XII. — Pbefixes to Verbs. 153. General 82 A. — Inseparable Frefiices. 154. aSc 82 155. em 84 156. (Sr 85 157. ®e 86 158. §intct 87 169. aScc , 87 160. aBtkcc 89 161. 3er 89 B. — Separable Prefixes. 162. m 90 163. 5ln 91 164. aiuf 92 166. au8 93 166. Set 93 167. !Bot 93 168. Sin 94 169. ©mpor 94 170. Sort 94 171. •6ec and ^iti 94 172. So8 95 173. 3KU 95 174. iricti^ 95 175. Srtirtct 96 176. 06 96 177. aJoc 96 178. 3u 96 179. Compound prefixes 97 C. — Doubtful Trefixes. 180. General principles 97 181. Transitive compounds of intransitivea 97 182. Change of accusative .... 98 183. Other compounds of tran- sitive verbs 98 184. mmS) 98 185. Uekr 99 186. Urn 100 187. Unter 101 COlfTEKTS. STNT.AX. Past I. SYNTAX OF THK SIMPLE SENTENCES. Page. Chapter I. — Peeliminabt Ee- HABKS. 1. Simple sentence 102 2. Subject and attribute. . . . 102 3. Finite verb 102 4. Copulative verbs 103 5. Extension of predicate, &c. 103 6. Imperative and interroga- tive sentences 104 7. Complex sentences 104 Chapter II. — Concord op Verb AND StIBJEOT. 8. First concord 104 9. Two or more nouns .... 104 10. Different persons 105 1 1 . Collective nouns and nouns of multitude _. . . 106 12. Agreement with logical subject 107 13. ©tin agreeing with comple- ment 1<)7 14. Impersonal use of verbs. . 107 15. Titles with plural verbs,. 107 Chapter III. — Apposition— The Appobitive Complement. 15a. Apposition — Agreement incase 108 16. Agreement of gender ... . 108 17. Names of towns, &o 109 18. Noun in apposition to sen- tence 109 19. Complement after copula- tive verbs 109 20. Other constructions after copulative verbs 110 21. Verbs of naming, making 110 22. Construction after such verbs , Ill 23. Sits inserted Ill Page. Chapter IV. — Adjectives and Participles. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 36. 36. 37. 38. 40, 41, Second concord 112 Adjectives with dependent words 112 Adjectives not epithets . « 112 Secondary predicates ,. i . IIS Adjectives never used as -epithets 113 Epithets only 114 The superlative 116 Comparative 115 Neuter adjective as noun 116 Strong and weak form . . 116 Inflexion after einige, &c. 116 Wmi^ 116 m 116 aSictiDcnig 117 ®o[(^ 118 Adjective after personal pronouns 118 Indeclinables in er 118 Inflection dropt in poetry, &o 119 Chapter V. — Accusative Case. Meaning of accusative ,. 119 Space and time 119 Time when 120 Extent, weight, measure, &e 120 Nearer object 121 German and English tran- sitives 121 Compouods of ie 121 49. Cognate accusative 122 60. Accusative analogous to cognate 122 Double accusative 122 Reflexive verba 123 Impersonal verbs ...... 123 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 61, 62 63 COlfTKMTS. Page. 54. gsgieW 124 55. Construction of taffen, &o. 124 66. Adjectives -with accnsative 124 67. Accusative absolute .... 125 Chapter V. — Dative Case. 58. Classified uses of dative . . 125 59. Eest after prepositions . . 125 €0. Nearness, comparison ... . 125 61. Eemoter otjeot 126 62. To belong, to be due .... 127 fi 3 . Eelation.^-Verbs of pleas- ing, &c 127 €4. Solsen, iesesncn 128 65. Dative of relation . . i . . . 128 66. Dative of personal pro- nouns 129 €7. Ethicdative 129 68. Sein, &c., impersonal.. . . 130 69. Otber impersonals 130 70. Compound verbs 130 71. Adjectives 131 72. Compounds denoting ae- T>aration > 181 73. Taking away 131 74. Passive of verbs with da- tive 132 76. Verbs of motion 132 76. Compounds with ie • 133 Chapter VI. — Genitive Case. 77. Meaning of the genitive . . 133 78. Subjective and objective. 134 79. Subjective and possessive genitive 134 80. Objective genitive 135 81. Genitive or son 135 82. Partitive genitive .,,... 136 83. After nouns 136 84. After cardinals 137 85. After ordinals, &c 137 86. After pronouns 137 87. After adverbs of quantity 138 88. Elliptical after verb .... 138 89. Genitive of material or quality 138 90. Genitive with verbs and adjectives 139 91. Participation 139 92. Fulness, emptiness 140 Page. 93. Bemoval, separation .... 140 94. Verbs, &c., of feeling. . . . 141 95. Eemembering, desiring . . 142 96. Accusing, reminding .... 143 97. Adjectives with genitive. 143 98. Adverbial expressions . , 143 99. Hours as prepositions .. 144 100. aB%mti, &c 144 Chapter VII. — The Cases with Prepositions. 101. Original meaning 145 102. Metaphorical 146 103. Place of preposition and case in sentence 146 Chapter VIII. — Prepositions with Dative or Accusative. 104. General 146 106. 21n 147 106. aiuf 148 107. ■Sinter 161- 108. 3n : 151 109. Siibttt 153 110. UcBer 153 111. Unter 156 112. aSor 167 113. Sreifii^eii 159 Chapter IX. — Prepositions with Dative only. 114. Slu« 159 115. Mufer 160 116. SBci 160 117. aStnnm 163 118. entgcgen 163 119. ®egtm"i6er 163 120. @tmaf 163 121. SKit 163 122. 5rtn($ 164 123. Stti% fammt 165 124. ®«tt 166 126. aSon 166 126. 3u 167 Chapter IX. — Prepositions with Accusative only. 126a. iDutCji ; 169 127. Siic 170 128. (Segen and ittber 171 129. O^ne, foiitet 171 130. Urn 172 XIV CONTENTS. Page. Chapter X. — Pronouns and Phonominal Adjectives. 131. Pronouns of address .... 173 132. ©8 representing a noun, &c 174 133. (Be introductory 175 134. ®it^ reciprocal 175 135. Sis 175 136. Siefer, iener 175 137. Eelative and antecedent.. 176 138. Antecedent a personal pro- noun 176 139. 3)cr in genitive 177 140. Set and lnjeti^er 177 141. Antecedent omitted. S}n, iter 178 142. Adjective in relative clause 179 143. Such as 179 144. aaSct interrogative 179 Chapter XI.— The Tenses. 145. Classification of tenses . . 180 146. Present " 180 147. Historical present 180 148. Present for future 181 149. Present indicative for im- perative 181 150. Present imperfect for pre- sent perfect 182 151. Past imperfect for past perfect 182 152. Imperfect and perfect . . 182 153. Future 184 164. Double perfect and pluper- fect 184 155. Imperative 184 Chapter XII. — Inpinitive^^and Participles. 156. Infinitive a verbal noun,. 185 157. Infinitive converted into a noun 185 158. Infinitivewithju, orsupine 186 169. Infinitive and supine as subject 186 160. Supine in apposition .... 186 161. Infinitive or supine as ap- positive complement ... 186 162. Infinitive as object 187 163. Supine as object 188 164. Supinedependingonnouns 188 Page. 165. Supine denoting purpose.. 188 166. Supine depending on ad- jectives 189 167. Supine -with prepositions 189 168. English gerund after pre- positions 190 169. Supine as complement in passive sense 190 170.- Corresponding participial form 191 171. Ellipsis 191 172. Participles as adjectives. . 191 173. Past participle of neuter verbs 191 174. Past participle with verbs of motion 192 Chapter XIII. — Auxiliaries — Passive Voice. 175l Intransitives with frin. . . 192 176. Variable auxiliary 192 177. Ellipsis of auxiliaries .... 193 178. Auxiliaries of passive ... . 193 179. Passive of intransitives . . 194 180. Middle voice ' 195 181. Imperative passive 196 Chapter XIV.— The Auxiliary Verbs op Mood. 182. Omission of ju 196 183. Compound tenses 196 184. Could have, should have . . 196 185. Perfect infinitive with verbs of mood 197 186. Verbs treated like auxilia- ries 197 187. SKflffen 198 188. ©onen 198 189. Jtonncn 199 190. Surfen 199 191. aSpgen 200 192. SojTen 201 193. aSBoHcti 202 Chapter XV.— Order op 'Woeds. 194. Parts of a simple sentence 202 195. Declaratory sentence .... 203 196. Verb always second .... 204 197. Interrogative, &o., senten- ces 204 198. Place of complement .... 205 CONTENTS. Page. 199. Objects and adverbial ad- ditions 206 200. Participles and infinitives 206 201. Coordinate sentences .... 206 202. Subordinate sentences .. 207 Page. 203. Verbs of mood 207 204. Apparent exception after ali 208 205. Adverbial sentences .... 208 206. Irregularities 208 Part II. SYNTAX OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. Chaptee XVI. — Introeuctoky. 207. Substantival sentence . . 209 208. Enunciation 209 209. Interrogation 210 210. Petition 210 211. Adjective sentences .... 210 212. Adjectival sentences witb antecedent omitted 213. Classification of adverbial sentences 211 Chapter XVII. — Substamtital Sentences. 214. Declaratory sentences ... . 212 215. Declaratory sentences as subject, object, &c 212 216. In apposition to compounds ofta 213 217. Supine in apposition 214 218. Supine as object 214 219. Subject of supine 214 220. Interrogative sentences . . 215 Chapter XVIII. — OEiiauE Oration. 221. Meaning of oblique oration 215 222. Mood and tense 216 223. Form and order 216 224. Apposition 217 225. Imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive 217 226. Untrue statements 218 227. True statements 218 228. No sequence of tenses. . . . 218 229. Imperative .' .219 230. Oblique petition 219 231. Infinitive in oblique peti- tion 220 232. Hoping and fearing .... 220 233. Oblique interrogation . . 221 234. Bepeated questions 221 235. Subordinate sentences in oblique oration 222 236. Implied oblique oration. . 222 Chapter XIX. — Consecutive Sentences. 237. Dependent on fo, ttrort,&o. 222 238. Ellipsis of fo 223 239. Subjunctive in consecutive sentences 223 240. Adjectival sentences .... 224 241. atsba^ 224 242. O^ne bof 225 243. Supine 225 Chapter XX. — Pinal Sentences. 244. Adverbial witb bamit, baS 226 245. Indicative in adverbial - final sentences 226 246. Supine 227 247. Auxiliaries of mood .... 227 248. Adjectival final sentences 227 Chapter XXI. — Sentences op Time and Place. 249. aBenn distinguished from other words 228 250. ai8, ba 228 251. 2Bie 228 252. 2B%cnb, inbem 229 253. Tenses with ftit,.feitbcin . . 229 254. Subjunctive with 6i8, c^e 229 255. Bardh/.-iohen; no sooner ..than 230 256. Onhjwhen 230 257. Adjectival — when, with antecedent 230 258. Wherever, whenever .... 231 259. When rendered by wmauf 231 XVI ooSTBvns. Page. Chapter XXII.— Causai. Sentences. •260. Indicative used 231 Chapter XXIII. — Cohdiiioral Sentences. ^61. Protasis and apodosis .... 232 ^62. Threeforms 232 263. Condition and concluBion real , 233 Condition' and conclusion unreal . . . .■ , 233 Possible but not probable 234 Otber conjunctions mean- ing i/ 234 267. Ellipsis of »/ 234 268. Conditional in anotber form , 235 269. Modest statement 235 264. 265. 266. Page 270. Apodosis in another form 236 271. Inconsistency of tenses ., 236 272. Conditional sentence ad- jectival 237 273. Concessive sentences . . . • 237 274. Compounds of o6 287 275. Omission of ob and itenit. . 238 276. Adjectival form .... 239 277. Whether., or 240 Chapter XXIV. — Comparativb Sentences. 278. a(8,h)ie 240 279. fentenees beginning with fo 241 280. Tlie . . the, before compa- ratives 241 281. As if 241 APPENDIX I. GOVEENMENT OP SOME VERBS. (Bee Page 243.) APPENDIX II. GOVERNMENT OF SOME ADJECTIVES. (See Fagt 250.) ADDENDA. -SUFFIXES OF NOtTN.S AND ADJECTIVES. (See Page 252.) 1. Noim-endings 262 3. « 252 3. in 252 4. img 262 5. c^cn and letn 253 6. ^eit.tett 253 7. fcjioft 263 8. t^um 253 9. nip 264 10. fot, fet 264 11. tifte) 264 12. Adjectival endings en, «n., 264 IS. ig, ic^t 254 14. if(^ 254 15. bat 256 16. fam , 258 17. Ii vay W w m 5 iks X X ^ 9 ypsilon T y 3 3 tset z z 2 IHTKODTJOTORT. 2. MODiriED TOWELS.— The vowels a, o, u are some- times combined with c to form fresh vowel-sounds, written 0, 6, ii. The two dots represent the e, which used to be written above the other letter. "With capital letters, e is still written, but after % D, U; as, 5te^3fcl (but fi^nli^), Del (but obe), UeBel (but uBel). The German name for the modified vowel sound is Umlaut.* 5te, a, Ae, a ... as German e, long or short, but more open. De, 6, Oe, o . . . as French eu (often rhymes with e short). He, u, Tie, ii ... as French u (often rhymes with i long). 3. OTHEE COMBINATIONS OF VOWELS :— 5li, ai Ai, ai ... as at in aisle (in a few words ai), ay is 3tu, au Au, au ... as ow in cow. [found). 9leu, au Aeu, au \ . . . ., ®u, eu Eu, eu j asojm^ei. ©, ei Ei, ei ... as long f in English sicZe. 3e, ie le, ie ... as long e in English cede. lit, ui Ui, ui ... as English we, French out. 5ta, aa Aa, aa ... long a (when modified becomes d). Do, 00 Oo, 00... long (when modified becomes 6). 4. COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS:— Q,^, dj Ch, ch ... must be learned by practice — a sound between h and k is the nearest English description ; f but (^S in the root of a word = ks or x. i — (f — ck . . . as M. — ng — ng ... aa ng in. singer (not a.a in finger). @^,[(^ Sch, soh... as «^. @5, — Sz — ... at the beginning of a few foreign words — ^ — ss ... as ss. [as sts. ^, t^ Th, th ... as t. Xl, ^ Tz, tz ... as is (or German j). 5. NOTES ON THE OHAHACTEES.— The long s (f) is used in the middle or at the beginning of a word ; the short s (g) — (1) at the end of a word, (2) at the end of the * It will be observed that modi6oatloii8 take place when a termination containing the letter i or c is added. The tendency was to make the root-vowels more like that of the termination ; hence the vowels fl, 6, u, all more like c than a, e, u. t The Scotch ch in loch, or the Irish ffh in lough, is a good equivalent. 1 In words derived from foreign languages, ch is generally pronounced lile /i', as S^or, 6t;vijt ; in £ome French words, as Charlotte, like sh. CAPITALS — ACCEIfT. first component of a compound word, and (3) at the end of a syllable, not immediately followed by a vowel, e.g., fprengen, ©emiife, eg, Io8gc:^en, 5riebri(^8|)aa, njeigltd^, ciflg, lefen, ©onnerStag. There is some difficulty about the sibilant ff or f ; it is denoted by jf only when it comes between two vowels, of which the first is short ; in all other cases by ^ — e.g., ttiei^, mu§, mugtc, ^af ri(^, ^affen, glu^, gluffeg, Stiiffe, ®^of, ©c^ogeg, ®*6ge, fc^iefen, grii^en, gnctg, geiciffer, mipimgeti, cffen, ijfefi, i^t, Suf , guf eg, giif e, a,xo% grower, am gro^ten, 6effer. In compounds like tteigfagen the two letters are independent.* 6. CAPITALS. — All nouns are written and printed in German with capital letters, as they are, for example, in old editions of " The Spectator," &c. The same rule applies to adjectives and other parts of speech used as nouns. The only other difference from English is that adjectives derived &om proper names, as franjo^f^, French ; englifd^, English, are printed with small initial letters. 7. ACCENT. — The general rule in German is to place the accent on the root-syllable of a word ; thus, 23ege6en|)eit, not Segetenpett; ber fjJigenbe, not ber folgenbe. Compare ge6et, give ; ®tbtt, prayer. In compound words both con- stituents retain their own accents; as, SHobe^fembfcpaft/ |pinter= Itjiig. Hence separable prefixes, which are really distinct words (adverbs), are accented ; as, ei'ngejpeit, dnfomtnetl. The inseparable prefixes, which are, so to speak, merged in the compound, remain unaccented ; as, 6ege6en, entfotttinen. Nouns taken from Latin or G-reek, ending in fO)3|», nom, firat, &c, are accented on the last syllable; as, ©eitiofrdt, ^i^tlOfiJpp (but notice SWottttt, a strictly German word), and the numerous verbs in t'reil, terett, mostly from the French, are accented on the ix or in : regterett, marfc^trt. Chapter II.— Tlie Articles. 8. ANSWER TO ENGLISH ARTICLES.— There are in German as in English two articles, the definite article and the indefinite article. They differ from the articles of modern English, inasmuch as they take inflexions of gender, number and case. * Wlieii c is omitted between f and t, an apostrophe is sometimes inserter', as licf't, itxni't, let SBinb tvniif't. DECLENSION OF AKTICLES. DECLENSION— DEFINITE Singular. Mas. Fern. N. ber G. be§ D. bem A. ben INDEFINITE ARTICLE :— Flural. N. G. D. A. Mas. etn eineS einem einen bie bet ber bie ARTICLE; Singular. Fern, einc einer etner etne Neut. bag beg bem bag Neut. etn eineg einem ein All genders. bie ber ben bie No plural. The following -will show how articles are joined to nouns : — N. G. D. A. N. G. ber Singular, ®o^n, beg ©ol^neg, bem ©o^ne, ben ®o|n eine Srau, einer Srau, the son {of the son, the son's to the son the son a woman I of a woman \ a woman's etc., bie ber etc. Plural. @6^ne, the sons ( of the sons (the sons' to the sons the sons. the women of the women, the women's. bie ber ©6{)ne, ben ©ol^nen, bie ®61^ne, Srauen, grauen, | Chapter III.— Declension of Nouns. [Note. — In learning the declensions for the first time, it will be well to postpone committing to memory some, if not all, of the lists of nouns. ^ 10. GENEEAL EEMAEKS.— Nouns in German have four cases : — nominative, genitive, dative and accusative. Except in one group of nouns, the nominative and accusative singular are alike. The nominative, genitive, and accusative plural of all nouns are alike. 11. STEONG AND WEAK DECLENSIONS.*— There are two forms of declension, — the strong declension, charac- terised hy the addition of the case-inflexions e§, C, Ct, and in many instances by the modification of the root-vowel ; and * The names strong and weak are not (says Schleiclier) as appropriate in speaking of nouns as of verts. Strong verbs are simple, weak verbs derived verbs; but the so-called strong nouns represent the vowel-declen- sions, the weak nouns the consonant-declensions of the older language, neither of which has any claim to the precedence implied by strong and weak. DECLENSION OF NOXnSTS^GENEKAL. 5 the weak declension, marked by the use of the inflexion n or Cn, and never admitting modification. The weak declension includes most feminine nouns, and one or two classes of masculines, but no neuters ; the strong declension the bulk of masculine nouns, nearly all neuters, and a few feminines. A few nouns belong to one declension in the singular, to the other in the plural (§ 18). Adjectives used as nouns are declined as adjectives (§ 47). 12. GENERAL EULES:— (1.) The strong declension forms the plural by adding c or er, and by modifying, in most instances, the root-vowel a, 0, «. It adds e§ or § in the genitive singular, and C in the dative singular, except in the case of feminine nouns. (2.) The weak declension adds ctt or tt in aU cases of the plural, and never modifies in the plural. Masculine nouns of this declension add n or CIt in the genitive, dative, and accusative singular; feminine nouns remain unchanged in the singular. (3.) Eeminine nouns, whether strong or weak, remain un- changed in the singular number.* (4.^ The dative plural of all nouns ends in tt. (5.) "When the plural of a polysyllable is formed by adding a syllable and modifying, it is only the last syllable of the root that can be affected. Thus 5Pataji makes 5PaId]ic, not 5PaIa^c, 5t6cnb makes 5t6enbe (e being incapable of modification), not 5lel3eniie. When no syllable is added, the modification, if any, affects the last syllable but one ; thus SSater makes SSater, but SBonberer makes SCBanbcrer, not ®duberer. 13. WEAK DECLENSION.— MASCULINE:— Sing. Sing. Sing. N. ber .ffnoBe, boy, ber 2)Jenf^, man,f ber ©olbat, soldier, G. beS ■SnoSen, beg STOenfc^cn, be§ ©olbaten, D. bem .RnaBen, bent 5Kenfc|en, bem ®oIbaten, A. belt Jtnaben, ben 3Ken[4en, ben (Solbaten. Flur. Flur. Flm. N. bie ^naBen, bie STOenfi^en, bie ©olbdten, G. ber .SnalJen, ber SWenfdben, ber ie SSlume. bie -ganblung. Flur. Flur. Flur. N. bie Srauen, bie SBIumen, bie ^anblungen, G. ber graiien, ber ^hxxxxtx^, ber -ganblungen, D. ben ffrauen, ben SBlumen, ben ^on'jlungen, A. bie grauen. bie aslumen. bie ^onblungen. * J^crr makes ^eirn in singular, Screen in plural. + Si'ivfl— (I) applied to a reigning sovereign ; (2) a title of nobility. Thus, Sutii is equally applicable to the Emperor of Germany and to Prince Bismarck. SSrinj, a sovereign's son. J Add a few foreign names of animals — ©letj^aiit, 8co))arb, etc., and a very few foreign words denoting things — Spionet, Soniet, Sonfcnnnt, etc. STEONG DECLENSION PLTJRAI, IN CC. 7 To this declension belong: — (1.) All feminine nouns of more than one syllable, except abutter, 3!oc^ter, and those ending in nif and fol. The chief feminine suffixes are— in, ei, ^elt, fcit, fd^aft, ung.* Abstract nouns and nouns denoting inanimate objects are feminine if they end in e (with some exceptions, for which see § 37), (2.) About thirty monosyllables: — 5lrt, SBii^n, ^Ixix, manner, road, field, aSud^t, aSiirg, ®}3ur, bight, castle, trace, ?Jorm, Srou, VA/x, mould, woman, watch, Sagb, Sap, gtutl^, chase, load, flood, q}ftic^t, %o% ©lut:^, duty (plight), post, glow, ©c^aar, ©cijrift, ©c^tad^t, host, writing, battle, Sd^ulfe/ 5:£)at, Sradjt, debt {or guilt), deed, dress, $BcIt, 3eit, Duol, world, time (tidef), torture, 3!^ijr, 9Ba^t, Qaijl, door, choice, number (tale). Obs. 1 . It should be noticed that n only (not en) is added to the terminations e, el, er, as bie Satel, bic ffafiein, not bic jJaBeleit. Obs. 2. No neuter nouns belong to the weak declension. 16. STEONG DECLENSION.— PLUEAL IN er. Sing. Sing. Sing. N. bet SKann, man, baS 3)orf, village, bag Siirfientl^um, principality G. beS 3)Jann(e)3, be§ 5)orf(e)g, bc8 ffurjien4um(e)g, D. bcm 3Kann(e), bent ©orf(e), bent 5urflent|um(e), A. belt SKann. bag 5)orf. bag 5iirpent|imt. PZmj-. Pfor. Flur. N. bie Scanner, bie 5)orfer, bie Siirjientpmer, G. ber 2Ranncr, ber Sijrfer, ber gurfient|umcr, D. ben STOannern, ben Sorfern, ten ffurjient^iimern, A. bie STOanner, bie !D6rfer, bie Sfiirjienf^unter. To this declension belong: — (1.) Twelve masculine nouns, i.e. : — Sei6, ®eiji, Tlann, body, spirit, man, SBaib, SCBurm, ©ott, wood (wold), worm, God, aSorntiinb, Sdeic^t^^um, guardian, wealth, Sftanb, Drt, Srrt^uin, edge (rim), place, error, SBofetoicf^t, villain (bad wight). * See § ^5- t As in 'WhitBuntide. DECLENSION OP NOTTWS. (2.) Neuters in t^um; as, i>a§ J^erjogf^um, bag ©igentl^um; and a, few compounds in mat; as, @ra6moI, Setitmal. (3.) About sixty neuter monosyllables, and a few neuter polysyllables, of which, the chief are: — ©, 0lcft, ^u^n, aSoIf, mni, ^inb, ^avdfit, SKauI, -gorn, Samni, Malb, 3linb, ®orf, Out, 8anb, ©^lof, .gauS, 5)a(^, Sud^, .ffteib, (Seroanb, aSrett, gag, gfac^, fBu&i, SBort, Sieb, SSIatt, Jlraut, ®ro§, aSilb, ©eftc^t, ©lieb, ^olj, Sic^t, ©log, ©tift, @ema4, •goftsitol, ffelb, ^orn, S^ol, ©raB, ©cf^jcnli, 5lag,t 5tmt, (S^llb, 3flab, ©d^reert, Slegimcnt, So^ ©emut^, aSab, ©efd&tei^t, 5ParIameiit, egg, nest, fowl (hen*), people (folt), woman, child, head, mouth, horn, lamb, calf, ox, village (thorp), estate, land, castle (or loot), house, roof, cloth, gown, robe, board, cask, shelf, book, word, song, leaf (blade), herb, grass, picture, face, limb, wood (holt), light, glass, foundation, room, hospital, field, grain, dale, grave, ghost, carrion, o£B.ce, sign-board, wheel, sword, regiment, hole, mind, bath, race (or sex), parliament. Obs. 1. — ^All nouns forming, the plural in er modify the root-vowel in the plural, if that vowel be a, o, u, or au. These become d, 6, u, au. Obs. 2. — No feminines form the plural by adding er. 16. STEONG DECLENSION.— PLURAL IN" c. Masculine. Sinff. Sing. Sififf. N. ber ©o^^it, son. ber 3ug, train. ber Siingling, youth, G. beg ©o^neg, beg 3u9(e)§, beg 3iingting(e)g, D. bem ©o^ne, bem 1 3ug(e), bem 3ungling(e), A. ben @o||n, ben Bug- ben Sungling. I'lur. Pita-. Flur. N. bie ©o^ne, bie Sfige, bie Siingringe, G. ber ©ofine, ber Sfige, ber Siinglinge, D. ben ©o^nen, ben Sugen, ben Sitnglingen, A. bie ©o^ne. bie 3uge- bie Siinglinge. * In: moor-hen, etc. t Plural aefet. STRONG DECLENSION — PLURAL IN C. Sing, bag ©enjtd^t, -weiglit, beg ®eroi^t(e)8, beitt ®ett)id^t(e), bag Oerei^t. JPlur. bie ©ewic^te, bcr ©ewi^te/ ben Oeictd^ten, bie ©enjic^te. Feminine. Neuter. Sing. Sing. N. bie .) A number of monosyllables denoting things; as, ber SBaunt, tree; ber SPfab, path; ber Sif(^, table; in fact, all masciiline monosyllables that do not find their place in some other list. (4.) Derivatives with the suffixes ling, rtc^, ant ; as, ber Sung* ling, youth; ber SSuliling, libertine; ber SBrautigam, bridegroom; ber SfButl^eri^, furious tyrant; also, ber 2)Jonot* (pi. SKonatc); ber ^onig, iing; ber jpalafi, palace fpl. 5PaIdjie), and a few others. (5.) Nouns of foreign origin ending in al, an, ax, ier, and a few in on; as, ber Oenerol (pi. Oenerole, or ©enerale), ber ®re= nabier, ber SBaron. Also, most in ti»j as, SDJotio, aKotiue.f (/3) Feminines. (1.) About thirty- six monosyllables, and their compounds: — 5lngft, 5lrt, aSanf, Sauji, anguish, axe, bench, fist, (Sang, ^raft, -^anb, goose, strength, hand, ^od), ^liiji yiu% ®ait, need, cow, nut, sow,J ©(i^unr, ©d^TOuIji, SBanb, string, swelling, wall, SBiaut, Snji, <§aut, SBrnji, bride, pleasure, siin, breast, SSrunji, ^unfi, SKac^t, burning, art, might, Sta^t, £ai:§, ©tabt, SKaug, seam, louse, town, mouse, STOagb, SBur|i, SRo(^t, maid, sausage, night, Suft, Sruc^t, Q\i(i)t, air, fruit, training, and in compounds — ^luc^t, flight, ®ruft, ^tuft, Siinft, grave, cleft, guild, and in compounds — ^uuft,§ coming. All these without exception modify in the plural. (2.) Most of the nouns ending in nig, and bie SKiil^fal, bie 3:riiBfat, bie Srangfat (pi. SKu'^fale, &c.). (y) Neuters. (1.) All neuters beginning with the prefix gc, and not end- ing in e, except: — • @emut^, ©cioanb, ®ejt(^t, mind, robe, face, ®emo(^, ©efisenp, ®ef(^Iec^t, room, ghost, race. * 3Ii6n(it is a genuine German word, accented on the first syllable, ©olb^t belongs to the weak declension ; SKagifhSt, 3Raiot&t, Dtn&t, ©en&t, to the strong declension. t But ®u6jlonti»cn, Slbiectisett. X Also makes @auen, see p. 15. S 3lus|Iu(^t, excuse ; 3ufammeniunft, meeting, etc. ; abo SeitUuftc, periods ; Stntunftc, revenues, used in plural only. STROifa DECiiasrsioN — ^plural ■dhchahged. 11 (2.) Eight monosyllables ending in r: — •§aar,.5I}aar, JRolir, SKeer, hair, pair, reed, sea, 3a^r, Zi)DX, Z^in, <§eer, year, gate, beast, army. (3.) The following monosyllables : — aSeil, aScin, SBrob, gell, ©ift, 56DDt, ^efl, 0le§, Soog, jPferb, $funb,t Siof, .Rnie, Sdec^t, Sfleid^, >§irn, ©at5, ©(^roein, SKer!, Qiel, ©c^af, ®(^if, @eil, ©))iel. axe, leg, bread, hide, poisoQ, boat, handle (haft),* net, lot, horse, pound, steed, knee, right, empire, brain, salt, pig, work, goal, sheep, ship, rope, game. None of these modify in the plural. 17. STEONG DECLENSION.— PLUEAL UNCHANGED. Sing. N. ber SSruber, brother G. beg Sruberg, D. bemaSruber, A. ben SBruber. Masculine. Sing. , ber .ffieffel, kettle, beg ^eflelg, bem ^effel, ben J?effeL Sing. ber ©arten, garden, beg ©arteng, bem ©arten, ben ©arten. JPlur. I-lur. P&r. N. bie aSriiber, G. ber SSriiber, D. ben aSriibern, A. bie fflriiber. bie ^effel, ber ^effel, ben .Seffeln, bie Jteftel. bie ©arten, ber ©drten, ben ©drten, bie ©drten. Feminine. ^eufei: Sing. N. bie STOutter, mother, G. ber STOutter, D. ber SKutter, A. bie abutter. Sing. Sing. , bog SBunber, miracle, bag 3ei(!^en, token, beg ffiunbcrg, beg QnH^mS, bem aUunbcr, bem 3ei^cn, bag SButtber. bag 3eid§en. JPlur. Flur. Flur. N. bie sKiitter, G. ber SKiltter, D. ben iKiittern, A. bie SOiiittcr. bie SBunber, ber SBunber, ben SBunbern, bie SCBunber. bie Qtiititn, ber 3«i4^"/ ben 3"^5n, bie 3^i^fn' * Also a copy-book, several sheets of paper sewn together, t See however S 23. 12 DECLENSION OF NOTJNS. Neuter. Sing. Sing. N. ba§ Jtinblein, little child, ba3 ©emalbc, picture, G-. beg ^inbleing, bc§ ©emcilbcS, D. bent ^inbtein, bem ©emalbe, A. ba§ Jllnbtein. bag ©emalbe. Flw. Fl«r. N. bie ^inblein, bie ©etnfilbe, Gr. ber ^inblein, ber ©emcilbc, D. ben JEtnbtein, ben ©emdiben, A. bie .Kinblein. bie Oemalbe. This declension includes : — (1.) The two feminine nouns SMutter and 3jjc^ter, both of which modify in the plural, (2.) Masculine and neuter nouns in el, en, er.* Eemember that feminines in et, er, are of the weak declension. No feminine noun ends in en. (3.) Diminutives ending in (^en and lein, which are all neuter. (4.) Neuters ending in e ; as, bag ©emdibe. But bag 5tuge, eye, bag ®nbe, end, belong to the mixed declension. (5.) One masculine in e : ber ^afe, the cheese (beS .Sdfeg, bie ^ofe). Obs. — The following masculines : — ©ebante, <@aufe, ?Junte, ®Iau'6e, §er5, heart, Gr. beg 0lattieng, beg Selfeng, beg ^erjeng, D. bem0lanien, bemSelfen, bemigerjen, A. ben SRamen. ben gelfen. bag -gers. i V«r. Fher. Flur. N. bie 0ianien, bie gfelfen, bie •Serjen, G. ber 0lamen, ber ffelfen, ber •^erjen, D. ben 0iamen, ben Selfen, ben ' -gersen, A. bie 0lamen. bie Welfen. bie •§erjen. @(^abe is declined like 0ianie, but makes (s(^aben in the plural; none of the others of this group modify in the plural. 18. MIXED DECLENSION.— Certain nouns foUow the strong declension in the singular, and the weak declension in the plural. Sing. N. ber (Strait, ray, G. beg @tro^I(e)8, D. bem @tral^I(e), A. ben (Stroll. Sing. bag 5tuge, eye, beg Qtugeg, bent 5tuge, bag 5tuge. Plur. Fliir. N. bie @tra|)ten, Gr. ber ©tra'^Ien, D. ben ©tral^Ien, A. bie @tra:^Ien. bie 5tugen, ber Stugen, ben 5tugen, bie 3tugen. They are : — (a) Masculine. (1.) Sing, ©eijatter, Sorfi, andOaii, Saner, Slac^Bar, Sorfieer, SPfau, jpontoffel, tt(|ite its SScJ, ajof'8 (Seki(!j)te, bie (Sebic^te »oit SScg (the first two teing somewhat antiiiTiated) ; bie Sfficrte Si^iUnS unb ®ct^c'8, ®d)i(Ier8 utib @6t^e'8 aBerte, bie aUerte son ©chiller unb son (Sot^e ; aRori^eitS unb emmo'8 SJtcrn, bie ©Kent bcS JDJoriJ unb ber ®mrao, bie Sttern Don SKoci^ unb son Smmo, but not bie ®cbi(^te aSoS'8, bie ejtern 3J}ijriJ'8, nor bie ®ebi^te be8 ® (flitter or be8 ®et^e." The genitive and dative of 3cfu8 is generally 3efu ; E^cijluS is declined as in Latin, S^rijli, E^rijio, &c.* ; as, Straus's SeScn Sefu ; na(^ E^vifii ®eiurt. (e.) When several names of the same person are mentioned, the last only — as in English — takes the Genitive inflexion : bie SBctfc So^cintt Setcijiian S8n(^8, or beS 3. @. Snt^i, or So^ann ©eSnftian fflo^s SBerfe. Notice bie X^atm Jtonig Svtebri§8 bc8 Sweiten, JJartS (or Sml) be8 ®roJen ©tcinbWtb. If the name be preceded by an adjective it takes the inflexion only when standing ie/ore the noun on which it depends — bie aUerle beS ietu^mten Jgerfcer, bc8 6crii^mten •6etber8 SBerie. (?.) Names of towns and countries add 8 to form the genitive, unless they end in a sibilant. In that case insert ©tcibt, &c., as bet ©tabt aJJainj, or use »on. 22. NOUNS WITH TWO PLUEALS.— A number of nouns have two forms of the plural with different meanings. The following are the chief:— ba§ 3Sanb, Sanbe, fetters, iBanber, bands, ribbons, bie SBant, SBcinfe, benches, 3Bon?en, banks (for money), ber 5uf, Sii^e, feet of a person, table, &c. 5uf e, measures.f ber Sorn, Some, several thorns 23crnen (collective). (taken one by one), bag @efl(!^t, ®eft(^te, sights, apparitions, (Sejlc^ter, faces, bag >§orn, <§brnc, sorts of horn, •§orner, horns, ber fioben, Sabeit, shutters, Scibcn, shops, bag Sanb, Sanbe, territories of one Sdnber, countries (the most state (as SUlieberlanbe), common), ber SiJfann, SWanncr, men, SKannen, vassals (obs.). ber SKonb, 3Konbe, moons, ajjg^ijf,,^ months (poet.), ber Drt, Derter, towns, villages, Drte, places (to be in two &c. places at once), bie ®au, ©auc (ordinary), '"^ •Sengfl, stallion, tie Stutf, mare. ta^minb, beast. ■ ^ec 1^"' ox,"'! tie Jfu5, cow. taS ©^injcin, pig, bet fifcer, boar, He ©au, sow. toS ^u^n, fowl, tec ^a^n, cock, tie ^eniie, hen. t«. e^af, sheep, ter SIBibber, ram, Jf/Sffi j «^«- Obs. 2. — The diminutives, ffrouttin, young lady ; 3!lli.ii^m, girl, are neuter ; so also is 2Bci6, wife, woman. 27. NAMES OF ANIMALS.— In the case of most animals there exists only a generic name, without distinction of sex. Speaking generally, the names of the larger quadrupeds and of birds of prey are masculine ; those of singing birds, insects, and a few small quadrupeds are feminine; as, tet Suc^S, lynx ; ber ^aiict/t, hawk ; tcr ©trouf, ostrich ; tie SBefpe, wasp ; bie SlodjtigoU, nightingale ; kie Sflae, mouse. When both a masculine and a feminine form exist, the masculine is usually the primitive, and is used as the generic form ; as, ter Soroe (fem. Soioin), bet S3«< (fem. Satin); In a few cases — as, bie (Sans, goose (masc. bet ®flnferi(^) ; bie Snte, duck (masc. bcr Sntetic^) ; tie Sia^e, cat (masc. bet JJater) — the feminine is the simpler and therefore the generic form. Obs, 1. — A few borrowed names, as, JCnmeel, ®romebiit, Jlrofobit, SeSia, Stima, JJiinguru^, are neuter. Obs. 2. — Names of the young of animals are neuter; iai Xati, calf; tas iamm, lamb ; tti8 giiUen, foal ; ba8 Jtinb, child. 28. TEEES, PLANTS, &c.— Most names of trees, except those com- pounded with JSaum and SJorn, are feminine ; as, bie (jii^e, oak ; iBie ^afiftl, poplar ; bit Sinbe, lime ; so are a great many names of plants. Notice, how- ever, bee Sl^orn, maple ; bcrSotScet, laurel; bet Sp^eu, ivy; also, bet ffiSaijen, wheat; bet SRcggen, rye ; bet •&nfer, oats ; bet SKaiS, maize; bet OieiS, rice. C 18 OEND£B. 29. COLLECTIVE NOUNS.— Collective nouns beginning with ge are neuter ; as, bag ©etirge, chain of mountains ; baS ©clatter, laughter ; baS ©ercbe, gossip. Obs. — ^Practically all nouns beginning with ge as a prefix iare neuter, except ten masculines : — bcr (Stixaud), use, bet ®eruc^, smell, ber ©ebonfe, thought, ber ©efang, song, ber ©e^alt, contents,* ber ©ef^macE, taste, bcr ©e^orfam, obedience, ber ©ejioni, stink, ber ©cnu^, enjoyment, ber ©ercinn, gain. and seven feminines : — bie ©etu^r, due, bie ©emeinbe, community, bie ©efiurt, birth, bie ©efd^it^te, history, bie ©ebiilb, patience, bie ©eiod^r, guarantee, bie ©efo^r, danger, 30. INFINITIVES, &c.— To the neuter gender belong (1) all infinitives used as nouns ; as, ba§ SeBen, U£e ; ba§ SBijfen, knowledge; — (2) undeclined adjectives used as nouns; as,baS SSerltner SInu, Prussian blue ; — (3) names of letters, musical notes, &c. ; as, ba§ 91. Lastly, any word may be neuter when we wish to speak of it as a word only ; as, ba§ 3a, the word yes ; ein grof e8 9l6er a great hut; ba§ Sertraulic^e 2)u, the confidential thou. But notice ber 3^, the ego, as a philosophical term. 31. GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES.— Names of countries, provincea, and towas are neuter, with a few exoeptiona ; viz. : (1) those ending in jou, masculine ; as, ttx Stl^eingau ; (2) those ending in a, et, au (not gou], feminine ; aa, tie •gerjegohjinn ; tie SDoirubf^o ; tie 3lutf et, Turkey ; He aJJoIbau, Moldavia ; (3) iic ®c(iti)eig, Switzerland ; tic Saufife, Lusatia ; tie Sum, the Crimea ; tie $fiilj, the Palatinate ; in j(!eIo))i!iine3, Peloponnesus. 32. EOOTS OF VEEBS.— The roots of verbs, especially strong verbs, form nouns which are, with a very few excep- tions, masculine and of the strong declension ; as, ber Souf, course (laufen) ; bcr "©of , hatred (^aflen) ; ber Srug, deceit (tr&gen). The same rule applies, of course, to their com- pounds; as, bcr aStvr^ang, curtain; ber 33 erf u^, attempt; ber (gntj'd^Iu^, resolution. * But tas ®cl^att, salary. MASCULINE, FEMININE, AND NEUTER ENDINGS. 19 Obs. — The most obYious exoeptiors are : — tas SoB, praise ; baS Seib, suffer- ing ; tai ®)5iet, play ; iai S^tof, look, castle (but in S^tuf , conclusion) ; He SBe^t, defence ; He SSiUt&x, caprice ; tie S^eii, terror (but kcr aSfeijieu, horror). 33. ROOTS OF VERBS "WITH t ADDED.— A consider- able number of abstract nouns are formed by adding t* to the roots of verbs, cbanging at the same time 6, g into f, ^ j r, t, b into g, and inserting § after a liquid. Such nouns are femi- nine ; as, bie iP. Srtfffct, Dattel, Siftct, affiurjet, SSa^ttX. ©rofiet, Wiftd, SJSaWd, eii*et, SJcJTcl, Sciliel, SlaHl, JIuget, 3!cgcl, ®af ct, Bdia^tel, gietel, Snftt, Stoffct, adjifct, gaSct, Jltingcl, ©Dintet, Safcl.t * i.e., a collection of details painted, a composition. t The following is a tolerably complete list : — Sld^fel, shoulder, Sattel, date, Sicict, primer. Slmtel, lamp, Seic^fcl, carriage-pole. Su^tet, broad-sword, Jmfct, ousel, Siflct, thistle, ®aJcI, fork, JInget, fish -hoot, Sirojfet, thrush, (Scigcl, scourge, >afel, woodlouse, GidjeJ, acorn, Ourgct, throat, Sibct, Bible, gaiel, fable, §(ifct, hazel, SBrejcI, cake in figure of 8, Sodet, torch, ^ed^el, heckle, [handcuff, gcp, fetter, pummel, humble-bee, e^mtet, cymbal, gietel. fiddle, 3nfel, island. TERMINATIOirS EL, EN, EK. 21 Obs. — The gender of several of these nouns is obvious from their Latin origin, viz. . gobet itov^fabula, SnfeC from insula, SRejet from regula, Safet from tabula, ^Xffii from populus. SBibct and Dtjcl are from the neuter plurals biilia, organa. ©emmel comes from aimila, @toj)))et from stipula (in late Latin stupula), ©iilfirt from seoula. (2) Neuters in ct. — The chief are: — SDJittcl, means; ©eget, sail; Siegcl, seal.* (3) Feminines in er. The chief are : — Slter, aujlcr, SButtec, Stattet, grter, 3it^er, Scier, SJlatter, Softer, JJnmmer, Sliimmer, Siiuer, Strutter, SBimper, Safer, Saucr, Seller (ladder), gljlev, aiiaiitt, JtcUer, Jtiefcr, Seicr, Srnuer, and, of course, SBJutter, Softer, ©djjroejler.t Jfa^el, earthen-pot, JJnrtoffct, potato, SiiniA, bell, .Sugel, ball, J?up<)el, cupola, i7ucbe(, crank, SRantel, almond, Sliangel, mangle, aKifpet, medlar, W.VJUI, mistletoe, SKufclicI, cockle, muss Statel, needle, pin. Step, nettle, StuteJ, vermicelli, $a))Jiet, poplar, SianunCel, ranunculus, SRafpet, rasp. Standi rattle, (Sdjadj^tel, box, ®ij!m\A, shovel, ©(S^aiilet, swing, ©4'*''/ shingle, S^iiip, dish, ©emmei, roll. Sidjet, sickle, ©pintcl, spindle, Stoffcl, rung (of ladder), ©topiict, stubble, Safel, table, board, Srommel, drum, SSoEabel, word, vocable, aCac^tel, quail, SBaffel, wafer-bread, Sffiinbet, swathing-clolh, aSurjel, root, 3tviele[, onion. ■ Also annntet, 15; 3l6pet, pint; SRutct herd; ZaXd, tackle. •f The following is a pretty complete list : — 3lter, vein, ammer, yellow-hammer, au|ler, oyster, asiotter, blister, Sutter, butter, Saucr, duration, etjicr, magpie. Safer, fibre, geber, pen,'^ Slitter, tinsel, Softer, rack, torture, geier, festival. Snifter, halter, Jtammet, chamber, .Setter, wine-press, JJtefer, pine, -.Slammer, clamp, Jitaftjer, rattle, Souct, ambush, Seiet, liver, Seier, lyre. Setter, ladder, 3)iafer, (in pi.) measles, SBiutter, mother. Scatter, adder, Slummer, number. Otter, adder, SWjler, elm, ®(f euer, barn, ^i^Xaiotx, sUng, @4"'t''/ shoulder, ©teuer, tax, ^ ©(^lueficr, sister, !£od)ter, daughter, 'SBimtjer, eye-lash. Sitter, guitar. 22 GENDERi (4) Neuters in er. The chief are : — mta, Safltr, gutter, iafUt, aBunter.-Simmet, girter, !PfIaftcr, Stuffn, ©ilbet, 3JJe)ier, Jttojler, -SBctter, lifer, Sfuber, aKufler, Settr, spotfier, aSenteuer, !Piitoer,-Scn(lcr, ^nffevgeuer* For neuters ending in ier, see S 36. (5) Neuters ending in en : — aimcfeit, alms ; SeScn, basin ; (Sifcn, iron ; Sullen, foal; Jtiffen, cushion ; Soteu, sheet (also masc.) ; Se^en, fief ; SBapjjen, coat of arms; 3eit^en, token. 40. NOUNS WITH DOUBLE GENDEE. bev aSaiib (pi. SBonbe), volume, bcr SBauer (pL SBauern), peas- ant, boor, bev SButfel (pi. SSudpI), hump, ber @r6e (pi. (SrBen), heir, ber @ei§el (pi. Oei^el), hostage, bcr ©e^alt (pi. ®e|alte), salary, ber .§aft (pi. -gciftc), clasp, hold- fast, ber -©flrg, Harz mountain, ber >§eibe (pi. -^eiben), heathen, ber <§ut (pi. "Sute), hat, ber,Siefer (pi. .ffiefer), jaw-bone. bn6 aSitnb (pi. SBdnber), ribbon ; (pi. SBanbe), fetters. ba§ SBauer (pi. SBauer), cage. bie SSudel (pi. SBucEeIn), buckle. ba§ ®r6e (no pi.), inheritance, bie ®ei^il (pi. ® eif ein), scourge. ba§ ©e|alt, contents, bie <§aft (no pi.), custody, bag >gaft (j)!. -Safte), ephemera. ba6 >§arg, resin, turpentine, bie -^eibe (pi. •§eibcn), heath.' bie "S^t, guard, watchfulness.f bie liefer (pi. .f iefern), pine. The following is a more complete list :- Sl6entcucr, adventure, 3Utcr, age, SBfluct, cage, Citer, pus, matter, Suter, udder, genfler, -vpindow, geuer, fire, gicier, fever, guter, load, barrel of wine, gutter, fodder, lining, ®itter, lattice, railings. Jttaftcr, fathom, JtloPer, convent, .Smjfer, copper. Soger, couch, camp, Snflcr, vice, sin, Seber, leather, Suber, carrion, SRalter, (measure), Steffec, knife, 5DJieter, boddice, 3)!ufiec, pattern, sample. 5}f(afler, plaster, pavement, SJSotfier, bolster, iPulttev, powder, SRuter, oar, ©itber, silver, Ufet, shore, SBajfer, water, SBetter, weather, SBunber, miracle, Simmer, room. ■ Only in the expression auf ter ■6ut fcin, to be on one's guard. NOtTNS WITH DOUBLE GENDER. 23 ber JloHer, choler, bcr Jtunbe (pi. ^unben), customer, ber Seitet (pi. Sfeitft), leader, ber SDJongel (pi. SWangel), want, bie a»otf (pi. SWorfen), march, frontier-land, beraBafi (pi. SKafien), ship's mast, ber 3)Jeffer (pi. SKeffer), measurer, ber aWenfc^ (pi. SKenfc^en), human being, man {homo), ber D|)m (pi. Dtlnie), uncle, ber SReiS (no pi.), rice, ber ©c^enf (pi. ©^^"'f^n)/ ^^tl^r, ber x (pi. 3;|ore)» gate. ,bag SSeibienji, merit. bie aSoraanb (pi. swanbe), fore, wall, screen. bie SBet^e, consecration. 41. COMPOUND NOUNS.— The general rule in all languages is that compound nouns take the gender of the last part of the compound. There are, however, in German one or two exceptions to this rule, (1) SWitgift, dowry, is feminine, while @ift, which is only used in the mea,ning of poison, is neuter ; ^Itf^eu, horror, is masculine, while ©^eu, terror, is feminine ; 5tntnjort, answer, is feminine, while SSort, word, is neuter. (2) Some of the compounds of Wluii) are feminine, viz., 5tninut^, grace ; Semut^, humility ; @rof mut^, magnanimity ; Sangtnut^, long-suffering ; ©anftmutf), meekness ; ©^wermut^, melancholy; ffie|mut|), distress. Other compounds of mut^, as, UeBermutl^, .god^mut^, pride ; ^teinmut^, pusillanimity, are masculine. 24 ADJECTIVES. Chapter IV.— Adjectives. 42. VARIOUS FOEMS. — Adjectives used as epithets, and immediately preceding the nouns to which they belong, are declined to agree with those nouns in gender, number and case. But adjectives separated from nouns are not declined. Thus German stands midway between modern English on the one hand and the classical languages and French on the other. Note the following examples: — ®iefe§ .Sinb if! avm, this child is poor. @tn acmeS ^iitb, a poor child. 2)oS mac^t tie 2)hittcr fiolj, that makes the mother proud. 5)te gnten 9)2dnner, the good men. 2)ie ^unjc^e gutec SKdnner, the wishes of good men. Further, adjectives may be declined in three ways, according as they stand (1) without article or pronoun; (2) after the indefinite article or a pronominal adjective declined like it; (3) after the definite article or a pronominal adjective de- clined like it. Their inflections are the relics of longer forms. In modern German the general principle is that there should be enough inflection to show the case, and no more. . 43. STEONG DECLENSION.— Adjectives without ar- ticle or pronominal adjective preceding are declined as follows: — Singular. Flural. Masc. Fern. Neut. All genders. N. gutcr, gute, giiteS, gutc, G. gitten, guter, gnten, gutcr, D. gutein, guter, gutcm, gutcn, A. guten, gute, gute#, gute. The genitive masculine and neuter used to be gute§/ which is retained in some phrases. ®uten is now the usual form. Examples with nouns : — I'lwal. Masc. Masc. N. guter SBein, good wine, je^tt Heine 9tegcr, ten little G. gutett aSeineS, je^n flwncr 0leger, [negroes, D. gutem aBeine, je^n Keinen 0legern, A. guten SBeiu, ge^n flcine 0legcr. FOSMS OF DECLENSIOlr. 25 Singular. Masc. N. reenicj gutec aCeiii, G-. tcetiig gutcn SffieineS, I D. TOenig gutem Sfficine, A. reenig guten aBeiii, St3 ^allertet gute SBeine, ^ g"atferlei guter SBeine, ^ ^■^ atlerlei guten SCBeinen, i ^ aHertei giitc SBeine. j '^ h O i» o o aj cj o Fem. N. ctrona fiige aKild), some sweet G. ctmS jiifci: 3RiI^, [mUk, , D. eticaS fiigei: SKilc^, A. etreagfii^c SKirc^. Singular, Neut. grune§ @ra3, green gritneit ®rafc8, grunem (Srafe, griineS ®rag. This declension can obviously be used after numerals * and tbe indeclinable -words etoaS, »ielerlci, otterlei. Also after Stct, iccnig, when undeclined, and after mandj, fol^, «elc^, wben, as often happens, they are also undeclined. 44. WEAK DECLENSION.— After the definite article, and after the pronominal adjectives biefev/ jeneir, jeber, t>er» felbe, reelc^er: — /Singular. Plural. Masc. Fem. Keut. All genders. N. bet ficinc, bie fleinc, baS fteinc, bie fleinen, G. be§ fleinen, bcr fleinen, bcS fleinen, ber fleinen, D. bcm ffeinen, ber fleinen, bem fleinen, ben f (einen, A. ben fleinen, bie fleine, baS tteine, bie fleinen, or with nouns: — Masc. N. ber bide .ffna'6e, the fat G. beg bicfen .ftnafien, [boy, D. bem bicfen ^naicn, A. ben bicfen ^na6en, Singular. Neut. new biefeg neuc SSuc^, this biefeg neucn SBu^eg, [book, biefem neuen SBu^e, biefeg neue SBud^. " Except the inflected parts of jiset, brei ; we say, for example, ttcier Minleit aBfiiife. 26 ADJECTIVES. Singular, Fem. N. btefe Blinbc 5Kau§, this blind G. btffer fclinbcn SKauS, [mouse, D. biefer Winben SKaug, A. btcfe fclinbc fSlauS, Flural. Fem. jene Hinben 3Kauff, jener Winbcn 2Uaufe, jcnm fclinbcn aJJdufcn, jene Hinben 3Kaufe. 45. MIXED DECLENSION.— After the indefinite article, the word £ein, and possessive adjectives, the adjective follows the strong declension in the nominative singular (and aec. sing, neuter), hut the weak declension in all other cases: — Masc. N. nicin guter, G. meineS gutetl, D. mcinem guten, A. mcinen guten, Singular. Fern. nteinc gutc, meiner guten, nteincr guten, metne gutc. Neut. mein gutcS, mcineS guten, mcinem guten, mein gutcS, Flural. All genders. nteine guten, meiner guten, meinen guten^ meine guten. Examples with nouns : — Singular. Masc. Fem. N. ein fc^oner 3;ag,afineday, i||re 'ijiibfitjt 3:Dc^ter, her pretty G. eineS f^onctt ^^ageS, t:^rer |ii6fci|en XoCtfUv, [daughter D. cincm [(^onen Sage, ti)X(t ^fitfcljen S:od^ter, A. einen fc^oncn Sag. i^xt i)ub\(i)e. Sod^ter. Singular. Neuter. N. unfer ■ altc§ 5Pferb, our old G. unfereS alten JPferbeS, [horse, D. unferem attcn 5Pferbe, A. unfer olteS $Pferb. Flural. unfere alten 5Pfcrbe, our old unferer alten ^Pferbe, [horses, unferen alten 5Pferben, unfere alten ^Sferbe. Lastly, after cinige, etlic^c, tetne, anbere, biele, roenigc, me'^rcre, einjflne, mont^e, folt^e, wel^e, the Nom. and Ace. Plural have the strong form ; as, einige gutc SKdnner, einiger guten SKanuer. Further details, especially about mand^, fo^, &c., are given in the syntax of adjectives. ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS. 27 46. NOTES ON SOME ADjiECTIVES.— (1.) When an inflexion is added to adjectives ending in cl, en, er, like efeel, ftnjicr, berfiorgen, golben, we have two e's on each side of a liquid. One of them is generally dropped for the sake of euphony. Thus — tM gives ebte, eblen or ebetn, eblcr, eblcg, ebleni ; l^eitcr „ leitre, 1)dtnn or !^eltren, ^elter, |)eitrc§, ^eitrcm or :§eitetm. golbeti „ golbne, golbncn, golbner, gotbncS, golbnem. (2.) Adjectives ending in e, like tfcige, are declined as if the e did not exist : trager, trcige, tragcS, &c. (3.) ■Qod) drops the c when declined ; making f}o'i)(X, ^O^e, l^o^eg, t)c:^en, '&c. 47. ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS. — Any adjective may be used as a noun, by prefixing an article or pronominal adjective, writing it with a capital letter, and declining as if the noun SDJann, &c., were still present. The commonest are such adjectives as gele'^rt, fremb, bcutfc:^, tebient, with 2)Jaim understood. Occasionally feminine adjectives aire so used, and very often neuters like baS ®c^6ne, the beautiful, beauty in the abstract. All such nouns retain their declension as adjectives. Thus — Sing Masc. N. ein SBebientcr, a servant, ber SBebiente, the servant, G. eineS SSebientcn, beg SBebientcn, D. einem Sebienten, bem aSebienten, A. cinen SBebienten. ben SBebienten. Tltiral. N. unfcvc SBebienten, bie Sebtenten, &c. &o. Sinffular. Fern. J^euter. N. eine Srembe, a foreign ba§ ©c^iine, the beautiful, G. einer Sremben, [woman, beg . meincni, nteincr, meinem, meincn, A. meincn. meine. ineine§. meine, exactly like the definite article. Thus, his book and mine is in German : — ®ein SSuc^ unb bag meinige, ©ein Sud^ unb bag meine, ©ein S6u4 unb mein(c)8. There are similar forms for all the other persons, as : — ber iinf(e)rige, ber unfere, unferer, ber unfere, ber eurige, ber eure, &c. &e. curer, 06s. 1. — When mine, thine, &c., in English follow the verh to he or a similar verb, they are rendered in German hy the indeclinable mein, bein, &e. ; as, ber >§ut ifi mein, betn ift bie (g^re. It is very important to ascertain whether mine in English implies a substantive, or simply means belonging to me. Thus, in answering the question, " Whose servant broke the window?" ber meinige must be used, as equivalent to "my servant." But in answer to "whose hat is that?" ■ either er x'^ mein or eg iji ber meinige is correct. DEMONSTRATIVES. 33 Obs. 2. — The pronouns Vet mtintgt, &o., are •written with a small initial letter, when they refer to a preceding noun ; with a capital letter when used as independent substantives, i.e., when kit SDItinigen means my friends ; taS ©cine, Ms due, what belongs to him, referring to no ^regoing substantive. Thus we write mein Srutcr uiii) bet ttintge, but ®ie6 Setem ta« ®eine {mum euique). Of course, lee 3^re, ter S^vige, 3^rct (meaning yours) take a capital for another reason. Obs. 3. — Note the abbreviations ®». for (Jure ; Se., ®c. for ®eine, ©einet, especially before titles like anajeilat, (Sxtefien;. 36ro is sometimes used with SKqejlat, instead of 3^re, whether meaning her, their, or your. So iBero {see 60, Obs. 4). Both 3^10 and Deco are almost obsolete. 60. DEMONSTEATIVE PEONOUN bec— The simple demonstrative Pronoun is tlius declined : — Singular. Plural. Masc. Fem. Neut. All genders. N. btr, bie, bnS, bie, G. beffen, bcren, beffen, berer, D. beni, ber, bem, benen, A. ben. bie. ba§. bie, differing from the definite article in the Genitive Singular and Genitive and Dative Plural. Obs. 1. — As in other languages, this demonstrative and the so-called definite article are originally the same word. The transition is made more obvious in German by the emphatic use of the definite article, rendered in English by that rather than the. Obs. 2. — The genitive neutei- bes, written more frequently, but (in Becker's opinion) lees correctly, bef, is used in poetry ; as, bet (be8) tu^me ier Mut'sc Jljtcinn fid) mitjt, let not the bloody tyrant boast of this. In compounds the form be« is preferred ; as, beSWegen (less commonly befrotgeit), te8^a!6 (less com- monly bcjiljatt), &o. Obs. 3. — Xotice the forms urn berent^cilficn, bejycntnjegm. Obs. i. — In older German iTeto (gen. pi.) is often used in addressing dis- tinguished persons, instead of the possessive 3^r, which properly means their. 61. Stcfet AND ^ener. — These words, corresponding to the English this and that, are declined like the definite article. They are used both as pronouns and as adjectives : — Plural. Neuter. All genders. biefeS, biefe, biefeS, biefer, biefem, biefen, biefen. biefe. Singular. Masc. Fem. N. biefer, biefe, G. biefeS, biefer. D. biefem, biefer, A. biefen. biefe. 34 PEONOtrKS AM) PKONOMISAl, ADJECTIVES. 05s. — The neuter biefeS is often, ■vrhen used as a pronoun, contracted into bicS. 62. NEUTERS btcfcS AND bo8.— The neuters bicfeS (or bteS) and baS are frequently used in the nominative and accusative singular, much as we use this and that. They are often employed with the plural of the verb to be ; as, ba§ ftnb beine ©otter, Sfwel, these be thy gods, Israel. 3ene8 is less frequently so used. Instead of using the cases of ba§ or btcfeS with prepositions the adverbs ba, ^tcr are used; as, barauS, out of it, out of that, therefrom ; ^tcrauS, out of this ; baju, to it, to that, thereto ; ^iertn, in it, in this, herein, &c. Before a vowel, ba becomes bar, for the sake of euphony; as, baraitf, barin.; it also some- times does so before n, barnac^, barne6en being equally correct with banad^, bane6en. Obs. — The genitive of biefer and jener is not generally used without a noun ; the dative is constantly so used. 63. OTHEE DEMONSTEATIVES. — S)ecfeI6e, the same ; becjenigc, that one, are declined as adjectives with the definitive article. Singular. Plural. Maao. Fem. Neut. All genders. N. berjentge, biejenige, baSjenige, biejenigcn. G. beSjenigen, bcrjenigen, beSjcnigcn. berjcnigen. D. beinjenigen, bcrienigen, bemienigen. bcnjenigen. A. benientgen. biejenige. bagjcttige. biejenigen. Scrfette is used indifferently as adjective or pronoun ; ber= jenige almost exclusively as a pronoun, and nearly always as the antecedent to a relative, as berienige, reel^er, he who. Obs. — 2)erfeI6e is frequently employed as a substitute for the personal pronoun of the third person. ®oM), such, is generally classed as a demonstrative. It is used in three ways : — (1) undeclined followed by ein; as, fold^' ein Tlann. (2) declined, preceded by ein ; as, ein foI(ier ^iann. (3) declined without article ; as, foIt^eS SBaffer. In the plural, only the third form is possible ; as, folc^e SKanner. Singular, Flural. Fern. Neut. bte, ba§> bie, bcren, beffen, beren, ber, bent, benen, bte. baS. bie, EELATIVES — INTERROGATIVES. 35 64. EELATIVE PEONOUNS.— There are two relative pronouns in German, just as in English, we have that and who or which. The first is ber, which serves also as demonstrative and as the definite article. Masc. N. ber, G. beffen, D. bem, A. ben. di£fering from the demonstrative pronoun in the genitive plural. The other is welc^er, declined exactly like biefer and.jener. Singular, Flural. N. rcelc^cr, xot^t, reelc^eS, nielc^c, G. (njeld^cJJ,) (reeld^et,) (reelt^eS,) (rreld^cr,) D. njeld^cm, roelc^cc, wctc^ein, wel^en, A. reel^Ctt, reetd^c, Juelc^eS, welcSe. Ohs. I. — The pronoun icer, xoa& is used as a relative, (1) as equivalent to he who, that which, exactly like what (and oc- casionally who) in English; (2) after an antecedent like 5lKe§. Ohs. 2. — The English whose (relative) is rendered by beffeij, beren, bejfen, plural beren, the genitive of ttsetd^er not being used except with a noun immediately following. Otherwise the two pronouns ber, wetd^er are employed almost indijGferently. See Syntax. 65. WHOEVEE, WHATEVER— are rendered by iBet auc^, rcag aud^. It is usual to separate the two words, generally by a personal pronoun ; as, 2Ber er aud^ fei? whoever he may be. Whoever in English is sometimes simply equivalent to he who, and is then rendered by von alone. Obs, Sometimes immtr is added to sixS) : ton aut^ immer. 66. INTEREOGATIVE PEONOUN.— SBer is follows: — Masc. and Fern. Neut. N. wer, wag, G. weffcn. D. wem, A. wen. wag. It has no plural, but we may say: — 2Ber feib 3l;r, &c. 36 PKONOUNS AND PRONOMIIfAL ADJECTIVES. Ohs. 1 . — The genitive tucs (mc^) is found in older writers, and in expres- sions like niep @eifte8 J!inb iji tx ? and in the compounds xotlialb, ueSmtitn. Ohs. 2. — Instead of using tlie cases of rcaS with, a prepo- sition governing the dative or accusative, the compounds »ro»on, rcoran, &c., are employed, r being inserted before a vowel, as in § 62. 67. INTEEEOQATIVE ADJECTIVES.— ffielc^, declined like iiefer, jeiier, &c., is used as an interrogative adjective : rreld^er aUann? trelc^e Rrau? &c.; and also occasionally as a pronoun : ireld^er Bon bif fen ? &c. S[Ba§ fiir cin, means what sort of. It is important to remember that the noun it precedes is not governed by fur. Thus we say : KaS fiir ein 5Kann ? what sort of a man ? waS fiir STOanncr ? what sort of men ? naS fiir ©iiicr ? what sort of one ? 68. INDEFINITE PEONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.— It is convenient to group together under this heading the words meaning some, any, &c. They do not, however, form as marked a class as personal or relative pronouns. 69. ®itt AND ^ein. — @in, one, and tein, not any, not one, none, are used both as pronouns and as adjectives. As pro- nouns they are declined like the definite article, as adjectives like the indefinite. When they stand without a noun de- pending on them they are written with a capital letter. PRONOUN. Singular. Mural. Maso. f em. Neut. All genders. N. .Reiner, .Reine, ^eincg, .Seine, G-. .ffeineS, .Reiner, .ffeineS, .Steiner, D. .Reinem, .Seiner, .SCeinem, .ffeinen, A. .Seinen. .Seine. Jleineg. Jleine. The adjective is exactly similar, except that it is fein in the nominative masculine and neuter, and the accusative neuter ; for example, lein greunb, not a friend, no friend ; but feiner Bon meinen greunben, etneS Bon biefen aSiicfiern. 70. man, ONE, PEOPLE. This pronoun corresponds to the French on. It is used in the nominative singular only ; as, mon fagt, one says, they say, people say. In other INDEFINHE ^DISTEIBUTIVK. 37 cases, and occasionally even in the nominative, Siner is used in exactly the same sense. 71. ettwaS, mimh something, nothing.— These two indeclinable words are written with capitals -when they stand alone. But when they precede an "adjective — as, cttcoi ®ute3, something good, bag fiil^rt gu ni(^t8 Outetn, that leads to nothing good, etrcaS, nid^tS, are written with small letters, and the adjectives following them with capitals. (StTOaS (with small initial letter) is often used with nouns ; as, ettua§ SSein, some wine. SBo§ is frequently used colloquially for etronS. 72. Scmanb, giicmanb, SOME ONE, NO ONE, tate eS in the Genitive, en in the Dative and Accusative ; they often, however, remain uninflected in the last two cases. It should be noticed that the final b has no meaning, but is simply phonetic* The words are really je=man, ever a man ; nie=man, never a man. S(Ber, is occasionally used as equivalent to Semanb. 73. SOME, ANT. — Besides Semanb, Bome one, etwaS, some- thing, there are in German several adjectives meaning some, viz., einige, meaning some but not many, a few; ctli(^e, some out of a large number ; njetd^e, some. SBel^e, in this meaning, is only used without a noun ; etrecl^e is obsolete. aSe^rere means several. Any in a negative sentence is combined with the negative ; as, teine, not any ; SRtemanb, not any one ;, SRi^tg, not anything. When any means any you please (Latin quilibet), 3eber, Seber- mann, &c., are used. See also § 74. Srgenb Siner, irgenb Semanb means some one or other. 74. DISTEIBUTIVE PEONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 3eber, every, any, each, is declined like biefer, and used either with or without a noun, but naturally in the singular only. Sometimes we find cin jeber. Seglic^er, jebreeber have the same meaning as jeber. Sebermann, everyone, anyone takes § in the Genitive ; everything, anything is generally translated by QtflcS, which, of course, cannot be classed as a distributive. * Just as rim. Stmt, are really the same word. 38 NUMERALS. Chapter VI.— Numerals. 75. LIST OF NUMEEALS.— The numerals are :— Cardinal. 1 cin (etn§) 2 greet 3 brei 4 sier 5 fiinf 6 fei^S , 7 fietcit 8 ac^t 9 neuti 10 je^n 11 elf (eilf) 12 jWolf 13 brcije^n 14 ijierje^n 15 funfje^n 16 fec^jel^tt 17 flc6en5c:^n 18 ad^tge|n 19 neunje^n 20 jreanjig 21 ein uni) jtcanjig 22 jreei unb jwonjig 23 brei unb jreanjig 24 uier unb jwanjig 25 funf unb jnianjtg 30 brei^ig 40 tjiejrjig 50 funfjig 60 fed^jig 70 flefienjtg (flefijig) 80 odjtjig 90 neunjig 100 ^unbert (ein^unbert) 101 ^unbcrt urib einS 200 jreeil^unbert 1000 taufenb (^eintaufenb) 2000 jweitoiifenb. Ordinal. "stx, bie, ba0 erfie ber jttjcite ber britte ber Uierte ber funftc ber fed^jic ber ftefientc ber ac^te ber neunte ber jel^nte ber elftc (eilfte) ber jwijlfte ber breijelntc ber ijierjelntc ber funfje^nte ber fei^je'^ntc ber fleknje'^nte ber o(^tjc^hte ber neunge^nte ber jreanjigfJc ber ein unb jnjanjigftel ber gwel unb jwanjig^e ber brei unb jwonjigjie ber aier unb jnjonjigjie ber fiinf unb jwanjigjie ber breif igjie ber tiierjigjie ber fiinfjigfle ber fcc^jigjie ter ftefienjigfle (fleijigpe) ber ad^tjigfie ber neunjigjic ber l^unbertfie ber ^unbert unb crjie ber jttjei^unbertfie ber toufenbfle ber greeitdufenbjif. DECLEKSIOX OF KTJMEKALS. 39 Long numbers are arranged as in English, except that the units are put before thp tens wherever they occur; as, 1878, eintaufenb at^tl^unbert (or more usually aii^tjelnl&unbert) adjt unb fteknsig; 275,343, jroei^unbert fiinf uiibftefcenjig taufenb, breil^unbert brel iinb uierjig. 76. DECLENSION OF CAKDINAL NUMEKALS.— The general rule is that cardinal numerals are indeclinable ; but— (1.) ii :^a6e(i, thou have EH @r ^ot, he has (Sr l^rtfcc, he hq,ve 03 aBir l^oten, we have [SBir l^aBett, we have] 2 3^r J^att, ye have %x ^atet, ye have ®ie ^o6en, they have. [(Sic l^afeen, they have.] 3^ :^otte, I had ■ 3c^ ^atte, I had p Su ijatUft 3)u l^atteji & (St Ijatte »efen fein, to have been. 89. CONJUGATION OF tticcbcn. SSecben — to become. Indicative. "Sij irerbe, I become @r nix's 9Bir njerben 3^r rocrbet Ctc^! speak! ©^sted^e er! let him speak! t, geSen, gie6jl, gieSt. The explanation of this phenomenon carries us a step farther than the last section. If we compare the person-inflections of a German verb with those of a Greek, a Latin, a Sanscrit, or a Gothic verb, we cannot help seeing that a person-ending was once a much more formidable thing than it is now. It was, in fact, a personal proaoun, and by diligent compari- son it has been possible to form a very fair idea of the primitive form of the personal pronouns. Thus the Present of nam, take, is supposed to have been originally conjugated: — nam-a-mi , . . . take — I (me). nam-a-si .. .. take — thou (Greek av). nam-a-ti . . . . take— he (t being root of demonstrative). nam-^masi . . . . take — I — ^thou. nam-a-tasi . . . . take — he — thou. nam-a-nti . . . • take — they (he and he). Passing on to old High German,* we find forms looking extremely hks * Old High German is the language of the tribes inhabiting South Ger- many, as contained in literary remains from the 8th to the llth century. 56 VERBS. Latin ; the root has suffered a change, and the terminations are a good deal cut down. The conjugation mns thus : — nim-u, nem-amSj nim-is, nem-at. nim-it, nem-ant. Or to take another inatance from the root vail : — vall-u, vall-ames. vell-is, vall-at. vell-it, vall-ant. Now, leaying out of consideration the first person singular, we notice that the endings of the second and third singular begin with t, those of the other persons, &o., with a. Here, then, we must look for the solution of the difficulty. A very common tendency of language is to assimilate, more or leas completely, the vowels of adjacent syllables. In German this ten- dency works backwards, and produces the two effects known as Umlaut and SBvei^ung. If a syllable with i be followed by a syllable with a, the « is changed by SBteci^ung into an e-sound (denoted by e) ; if i follows a syl- lable containing a, o, «, the root-vowel of that syllable is by Umlaut brought nearer to the sound of the i. Thus, on the one hand, iptti^, nimm exhibit the proper form of the Present, while ^pte(fyer\, ft)re(5et, nel^men, &c., show the Present stem modified by iiBce^ung ; on the other hand, f(^{ai;;tn, fdj)Jaget, &c., contain] the true stem, fc^Iiigil, fc^lfigt, the stem modified by Umlaut. As to the first person singular, it seems to have been arbitrarily altered to the form of the plural and the infinitive. 102. PARTICIPLES.— The Present Participle is formed, both in strong and in weak verbs, by adding enb to the root of the Infinitive, or more simply b to the Infinitive. Its older form, is anb, retained in the word >§eiIonb, Saviour, fjrcunb, friend, gcinb, enemy, are really contracted Present Parti- ciples. ' The Past Participle is formed in strong verbs by adding the suflSx en to the root, and prefixing ge; ge is a particle used as an independent prefix to denote the completion of an action, as in gefi^weigcn compared with fd^roeigcn, gebenfen com- pared with benfen, and is therefore very appropriate to the Past Participle. It corresponds to the prefix y in old Eng- lish, common enough in Chaucer, now retained only in the word yclept. As to root-vowel, the Past Participle very often, but not always, retains that of the verb. In the weak conjugation the Past Participle is formed by adding t, and prefixing ge. Derivative verbs ending in ieren or iren, mostly formed from foreign languages, like regieren, flubircn, take no prefix ge in the past participle ; as, regicrt, fhtbitt, &c. VEEBS. 57 102. SUBJUNCTIVE.— The Present Subjunctive botli of strong and weak verbs has the root- vowel of the Infinitive, and never drops e in conjugation. The Past Subjunctive of strong verbs is formed by modifying the root-vowel of the Past Indicative ; occasionally it is formed from an obsolete Past Indicative, modifying where possible, and adding e. fa weak verbs it is identical with the Past Indicative. The teiminations of the Subjunctive in the older German contain the letter i or i, representing ya ovja of the primitive Aryan tongue. The following effects of this should be noticed : — (1) In strong verbs the a, o or a of the Past Indicative is subjected to the Umlaut to form the Past Subjunctive. (2) e is retained in the Subjunctive second singular and plural, as the sole representative of the syllable that once differentiated it from the Indicative. 103. IMPERATIVE.— The second singular of the Im- perative of strong verbs, having i or ie in the 2nd or 3rd sin- gular Present Indicative, is the root of those persons ; as, ^pxiSj, Iie3. Other strong verbs and aU weak verbs form the 2nd singular Imperative by adding e to the root. In some cases, as l^alt! fomnt! the t is conveniently dropped. The 2nd plural Imperative is identical in form with the 2nd plural Indicative. The other persons of the Imperative are either borrowed from the Subjunctive, or formed with auxiliaries : ia^ (or lo^t) utig gel^tn ! Let us go ! @r fott tleiteu ! Let him stay ! 104. CLASSIFICATION OF STRONG VERBS.— It is usual to divide the verbs of the strong conjugation into six classes of afctnutenbe 3Ser6en, and one class of rebu^itijircnbe 33erBen. The arrangement here adopted is to give (1) a typi- i cal verb, specifying the Infinitive, the Present 3rd singular, the Past Indicative and Subjunctive, and the Perfect Parti- ciple ; (2) a list of the verbs that conform exactly, as far as their vowels are concerned, to the typical form ; (3) a list of those verbs that, being placed in the class, deviate slightly from the type. Afterwards a tabular list of all strong verbs and all verbs that deviate at all from the weak conjugation is given. 105. FIRST GROUP.— e or a— I (lengthened jc)— a— o. Type: — tjred^en — M(t)t — hxaCi) — trdc^e — geBroc^en. 68 VERBS. NoKMAi Vekbs :— kc(^)cn, etfc^reien* (crfd^wf), geSawn (jcSiert or gcfiSrt), nc^men (nimmt, gtnommcn), ftrc^en, Itci^eii, fiedenf (jlat), (Itjten (jlitp), injftn (ttaf). . Yaeiations :— Scttiegcnt (f'cWcgt, Sclnog), erli)«gMi (ttwSgt, erluog), Scvflcn (fotjl orSurfl, 6at|}corSra|le), ktef(!)eti(trof^), fei^itcn (fidfi'l*- Pt^t MO- Mtm (ffidjtji. fim ffodjt), gfil^ten (g%t, go^t), tommen (fommt or fommt, Iam),§ U\iljtn (lof^), Ijflegen ())ftegt, (jflog, or wesJc conjugation), fcjiereit (f^icrtor f(^«t, [(l^or), f^luoren (f^mort, fc^iBDv), wetcn (mcM, wo6). 106. SECOND GROUP.— C—i (or ic)— 0— C. Type:— mejfen — mtft — ma^ — ma^e — gemeflen. NoKMAL Verbs : — eficn (gegeffeii), ftcffen, gclicn (gieSt), gcfi^e^tn (gefajte^t), Icfeu (tUf't),l| meffen, fc^tn (fi'^t), »tvgeffen, tretcn (tritt). Vakiations: — Bitten (tittct, 6at), genefeit (g£nef't),|| Itegen (liegt), and pljcn (fitt), the tenses of which are formed as if from fcfeit. SScfen (for which fein is used) belongs to this group, and changes 8 into x in the past. 107.— THIRD GROUP.— ei—ei (as weak verbs)— ic or i — te or t. Type r^c^einen — fi^eint — fi^ien — fc^iene— r-geft^ienen ; reitcn — reitet — ritt — rltte — geritten ; the consonant being doubled to show the short vowel! Normal Verbs : Like fdjcincn: — bleittn, gebeil^en, leil^cn, mcibeti, )ftc\\ai, fi^cibcn, fci^cincn, fi^ceiScn, fdj^rcten, fcfjweigen, f)jimmt, peigcn, tticifen, jeil^en.H Like rdteti: — Scijien, Sejlei^en, crWei^en, gtcii^en, glcitcn, gtcifen, !eifen, tncifex, Ictfccn (litt), jjfeifen, teipcn, tciten, fdjjUi^icn, fc^ileifm, fc^teipcn, fdjimcifcn, f^ncikcn (f^nttt), fdjireittn, f^Jeifcn, flrtiten, ftrci^m, tuficjim. 108. FOURTH GROUP.— ie—le (as weak verbs)— 0—0. Type: — fltegen — fitcgt — jlqg — jloge — gcflogen. / Normal Verbs : — Stcgen, Sietcn, pefjen, fitcgen, frteren, gcniffcn, gUpen, lieftn (tor, gcloren), tric^en, tiei^eii, fc^ieljeii, fc^icpen, fe^tiepcn, fieteK (fott, gcfotten),|>ticpeii, (lifSm, tttcfen, uerfciiefen, uetttmn, totegeti, jitl^en (jog, gcjogcn). Variations : — The verbs whose infinitives are ictcugeii, lugen, faugen, f(ijirau6en, faufen (foff, gefoffen), belong to this group; Jugen and triigen, and several of the verbs in it, often form, in poetry, the second and third singular Fresent Indicative in cu ; as, leugt, fccucfit, ^eugt. * To be frightened ; crfd^redtn, to frighten, is a weak verb. , t Intransitive ; fiticn, transitive, is a weak verb. X To induce ; icmegen, set in motion, is a weak verb. S The e may be traced in iequtm. ' || ft, not jl. IT Accuse ; take care to distinguish from jit^en, draw. VERBS 59 109. FIFTH GROUP.— oc— ft— u—fl. Type:— fd^tagcn— fci^tagt— fd^tug— fc^Iuge— gefc^fagen. SToRMAi, Verbs :—fa]^ren, gv^Stn, toiitn,* fdjilagen, f^offen (f(?iu.f), ttagen Bjai^fen, and sometimes baim. Variations i—^tbtn, ^tit, ^iiS or ^oi, ger^oSeit ;t ftfiwoten, fdjjHJorf, fc^njiir or fd^woc, geft^itDORii ; ftc^en (which has taken the place of atandan), jlc^t, jinnb, or tiunb, gcfiantcii. no. SIXTH GROUP.— t (changed into z before r and I) — i — a — tt or 0. Type : — ftngeit — ftngt — fang— fange — gefungen ; - fergeit — 6irgt — ^6arg— ficirge— gefiorgen. _ Normal Verbs : Like rmgen— : iinkcn, kringen, ftnben, gelingcn, Hingeu ringcn, f^Ungcn, fmgcn, ftnien, ftJtingen, pinJen, tuinfcn, luinten, jiuingcn. Like tergm:— tcfc^ten (Bcfie^ft, Imp. Subj. lefo^lt), ^ctfen (Imp. Subj. t;atfe or l^ulfe), gelteit (gSlte or golte), fcjieltcn {\^ilit). fc^melsm (f(?)mplje), flerten (jiurte), uciletfcen (sevburSe), wecben (luucSe), mcrtcn (wutke), wctfcn (wdcfe or tuurfe). Variations :— gtimmen, Himmcn, make gtomra, Homm ; ft^iatlen, fd^attt, f^oU ; f^iiBtfltn, f^njott; qucllcn, guotr, the Imp. Subj. taking 6; kingcn makes bang or tung; beginncn, linnen, fmnen, fpinnen take i in the Imp. Subj., with o ia the Imp. Indie. 1 1 1 . SEVENTH GROUP.-EEDUPLICATING VERBS.— Infinitive varies — Present as in weak verbs, except that a becomes a— -Past tense ic (or t) — Past Participle as Infinitive. Type:— faaen— fdm— ftel— fiele— gefattcn. Normal Verbs: — Wofen, treten, fallen, faitgen (fing), l^attcn, l^aiigen (5iiig)» ^ei^en, taffen, Jaufen, ratten, rufen, flopen. Variations : — ^ouen makes 'i)tma, tfui ; gcl^cn has superseded a form gangan (Scotch, gang), and makes gc^t, ging, gegnngcn. 112. PECULIARITIES OF THE WEAK CONJU- GATION. — As in the case of adjectives, a contraction takes place when a liquid comes between two e's. In the first person singular present imperfect indicative the C of the root, in other parts the c of the inflexion is dropped ; as, ic^ l^onblc bu l^onbeljl, a ^anbelt, wir l^anbeln ; i^ nionbrc, Du wanberii, Sea'. * These are really two verbs — taben, load, a strong verb ; and token, invite, a weak verb. In the Present Tense Jabet and ISbt are used in- diiferentlyin both meanings ; in the Past Tense, lobete is occasionally used. t The Participle preserved in txfjtAm, sublime. 60 TEBBS. In forming the Past Indicative and Subjunctive, e is retained after b, t, t^ (as, rebcte, i3emut^cte),but dropped- in aU otber cases, as latfjU. The verbs 6rennen, rcnnen, f ennen, nennen, fenben, wenben have a in the Past tense and Perfect Participle ; a is the original vowel of the root.* 113. IRREGULAR VERBS.— SBrtngen, benlett, bunfcn form their Past Tense and Participle as if from ixaSjm, batmen, bauc^en ; gonnen makes gonnen, gegonnt, as weU as gonnte, gcgpnnt. 3:^un makes i^ t^uc, bu t:^up, er t^ut, »ir t^un, i^r t^ut, pe t^un — f^at— t^ate— get|an. . SBiffen makes i^ roei^, bu toeifit, n «eif , wir roiffen, t?r wiJTet, fie reijfen— wuf te— wflf te — gewuf t. 114. VERBS OF MOOD.— The verbs of mood biirfcn, lonnen, ntijgcn, muflen, fottcn, xooUm have several peculiarities of conjugation. In all of them, (1) the singular Present Indicative has in all three persons a different vowel from the Infinitive (except in foUen); (2) the Past Tense and Past Participle are formed according to the weak conjugation; (3) there is another form of the Perfect Participle, identical with the Infinitive, which is used whenever a compound tense of the auxiliary is joined to another Infinitive. Saflen, which has the 3rd property, is in other respects a strong verb of the seventh group. ' Their conjugation is as follows ; — • The Gothic form is hrannjan, etc., which accoimts for the change of a into e by Umtout. VERBS OF MOOD. 61 Present. Past. (d'S Indicative. Subjunctive. Indicative. Subjunctive. l-l i(^ borf i(^ bfirfe id^ burfte i(^ biirfte .?'s. Du barffi bu burfejt buburftefi bu biirftefl I.S er barf er burfe «&c. &c. &" wir burfen, &c. &c. ^ ic^ fann i^ fonne i(^ fonnte tc^ ffinnte s: bu fannji bu lonneji bu lonntejl bu fonntcji e'^ er fann er tonne er fonnte er fonnte i n3irf6nncn,&o. &c. &c. &c. t(^ mag ic^ nioge ic^ mo(^te i^ nioc^te l'^- bu magfl bu mogeji bu me^tefl bu m6ct)tejl S -i: er mag er moge er moc^te er mo^te .1 S njtr mogen, &o. &c. &c. &c. ■jfp id) mug ic^ muffe ic^ mufite id^ mfigte 60 bu mup bu muffejt bu mugtefi bu miigtefl er mug er muffe er mug te cr muf te S TOir muflen,&c. &c. &c. &c. t- ^foU t^ fotre ic^ follte id^ fotrte O 01 bu foKft bu foHeft bu fottte^ bu foatejl s" S erfoU er fotte er fottte er foate t"^ reir fottcn, &c. &c. &c. &c. „. td^ wiff xitl woffe ic^ wottte t(^ wottte ^i^ bu wittjl bu reotteji bu woUtefl bu tDoHteji f:s ft will er nioOc &c. &c. r »ir njotten, &c. &e. Perfect Participles: — burfen or geburft, tonnen or gefonnt, m6gen or gemod^t, niuffen or gemiigt, fotten or gefoHt, tvotten or geiroKt. 62 VEEB8. 115. INSEPARABLE PEEFIXES.— There are six in- separable prefixes, yiz. : — cnt or em)), and er, Be, gc, Scr, and jer. Yerbs compounded with these are conjugated like entjifl^cn (§ 96). There is then no accent on the prefix. 116. DOUBTFUL PEEFIXES. — Verbs compounded •with tmd), Winter, um, iibn, unter, loiber (wifbcr) are sometimes conjugated like entjic^en, and sometimes like Sorjie^en, according to meaning. If they are conjugated like Sorjie^en, the prefix retains its accent ; if like entjie'^en, it does not. For details, see Syntax, 117. 9Ki^ AND tloH. — 3Jiif is not unfrequeuily a separable prefix, but its use is aToided in cases where it would have to follow the verb. Thus, cr f)at mtf gctc(ijinet, ct ^cit mii^ mtfucrllantcn, cr fdjieint rmfinxc(t)i\eit, hut not et xti^net mi^. But it is more usual to treat it as an inseparable prefix ; or, when it is compounded with a weak verb, to consider it so entirely a part of the verb as to prefix gc to the whole. Thus, mifStttigen makes tniSbidigt or gcmifbilligt, mtPi:aui|im makes mt^6tau(^t or geratfirauc^t. SSoU is inseparable in the verbs »oll6ringen, BoUcntcn, uoltfu^cen, BoKjul^cn. In a compound lilie BoKgiepcn, to fill by pouring, it is really a separate word, and therefore separable. 118. SEPARABLE PREFIXES.— The following prefixes are separable : — ab, an, ouf, aug, 6ei, bar, ein, fort, log, mit, na(i), ob, tior, treg, ju, :^in and :^er, (and their compounds, like f)txab, um^in) ein^)0):,nieber, juriid, 5ufammen,entgegcn. Verbs compounded with these prefixes are conjugated like Sorjie^cn. Compound prefixes made up- of two separable prefixes are separable ; as, ijoriei, BoruBcr, fjnan. There are a number of verbs, in which a separable prefix precedes a verb like Be'^alten, formed with an inseparable pre- fix ; such are, sorBcllolten, nncrfcnncn, auferficl^en. Some of them admit of the separation of the separable prefix, ici) 6c^aIte...i5or, UorjiiBe^alteit, but it is generally better to avoid using the verbs in cases where such separation might be necessary. Of course, in no case can such verbs take ge. 119. MISCELLANEOUS COMPOUNDS.— Verbs, which have an adjective or adverb (not included in the list of ordi- nary prefixes) prefixed, are separable ; as, gro^t^un, brag ; VEEBS. 63 wol^treottett, wish well to; fe^lfc^Iagen, miscarry; gittfeifen, approve ; gleid^f ommen, be a matcli for ; f^odfadjUn, esteem highly. Thus, ex t^at 9rof,_e8 iii fc^Igefd^Iogcn. Some comhinations of a noun and verb, such as (PreiS (pxtiS) ge6en, to give up; ©tatt pnben, to take place; .gauS fatten, to keep house; Sanf fagen, to thank, — are treated as two separate words. There are a number of verbs that look like compound verbs, but are really derivatives from compound nouns. Such are, rat^fc^Iagen, to take counsel ; l^anbf a6en, to handle ; weiffagen', to divine, prophesy (not really a compound of weife, fagen) ; mut^ma^en, to suspect. They are treated as ordinary verbs ic^ ^anV^ait, xS) ^ah geraf^fc^tngt. It should be further noticed that we have gerat:^fc^Iagt, and not gerat^f(6I(igen, the verb being a derivative of Sftat|t^Ing, not a, compound of fd^Iagen. A few verbs of this kind, with an inseparable prefix, also call for remark. Such are, fieota^ten, observe (Ofcad^t) ; Beauftrngcn, commission(9luftrag); ttera6[^iebcn, dismiss (2t6f^ieb); ijeranlaffen, cause (Qlnlaf ). They are treated as ordinary in- separable verbs — i(ij |)aBe Oeranlaf t; er ficauftragte mid^. Notice as before — »cranlaf te, not tieronlief ; Beauftragte, not iBeaitftrug. 120. FACTITIVE VERBS. — There are, in German, a number of pairs of verbs like outfall andi fell— i.e., fall, and cause to faU. Factitive verbs (cause to fall) are formed from certain intransitive verbs by modifying the root-vowel, or sometimes by another change. Thus we have: — borrcn, to dry up (intrans.), bijrren, dry up, cause to wither. wither, bringen, press on, make one's brdngen, press, crowd (trans.). way, crJoItcn, grow cold, ertatten*, make cold, fatten, faU, fatten, fell, flie^en, flow, ftof enf, cause to flow, float (tr.) fa^renj, ride in a carriage, &c., fu!^ren, lead, take in a carriage. * Especially fi^ cridtten, catch cold. f Notice ®tnem Etiuas einpfen, to mate sometliing flow into a person, inspire him with it. J Old English verb to fare. 64 VERBS. ^angen, bang, be banging, l^afteit, stick, be fixed, liegen, lie, fnufeiJ, drink, faugcn, suck, ((fatten, sound (intr.) fd^wimmen, swim, fc^inmien, vanisb, ftnfeii, sink (intr.) fl|cn, sit, fUringen, jump, trinfen, drink, »>ege«, weigb (intr.) faugcn, bang (trans.). l^icftcn, fasten, fix. legen, lay, erfdufen, drown (make to drink water to excess.) fiiugcn,' suckle, fc^eflcn, ring (a bell), f^reemmcn, deluge (make to swim.) ijerfi^njcnbcn, squander, fenfen, sink (trans.), fe^en, set. (prengen, make to jump, blowup witb gunpowder, trcinfcn, make to drink, watei- (a borse, &e.) wagen, weigh (trans.). rRBEG'niiAB YEEBS. 65 a o '■^ 60 pi o H O CD ^ = j3 j» » es csjs oacieacaoajcaiaiataaim S^'g-g^cS.S iSS=iSsS-S=g S=S=f =5=2 1 t s§ a a w u. u^tt es 6> o o e e;=;r: H ^ ^ »« e e i^ j3 *» s=s ns ^=> s=» s» >» « «^»s=>>asa^»^»,»s=»j3jo^ 1 flflt.fttel«tlifilil| 1 1 Asa A A &» ^uw www oww&>uuuuc»a>ue>Wb>ufi>^ c* »:«= :s 5 t4 w . J3J3,A «> u C* * M a.>-ie.ie-iS.t£.icag.iC.i&.g.CgtBe5e5caiaeae)eagigiSS .ff -a w U UB. g JO S'S'S^ ^«3 a " ■*• Ol CD •> (S Q OS sags a ^■e'^ " .E4 4 is a ». ■«^ :?b « ni c3 © a ffl o .a ■c .§ a E ^ •§■ § is-g-l g f" B ?^3 .".s •£=.» g-S » 5 ^^5 « s g eb •s-s IREEGTJLAH TERES. 67 KioujM r-r- lot^m ■* !o to «> rt ■* US J^«-mm «oq rt *iOKi(N -"S s^ S " M ^ •* ^" ^ ^ 1*^ -^1 *■* ^ ^**— *? f^ u S *^ ^ l*^ ^^ jo ^ ■M^ 0'S! yiSi«*rP &> S'tii. en e C ■«-» -g .id MS P^ I" I'll o, la- S-^- JOS g 03 a» voo n_fl;a b-S'oiB _ .^^ i>~s 11^ (^ tn 68 lEREGriAE, TEBBS. C5 »H COi-l«Ot*CCCOOD ■^(OOt^'Ti*V t^ t Xip-!.^.^-. ! ^ .^t^.^ . , > , IP , . ,. , ,. a s ^■1 a s s. " 2 ." "fees ■» s^Si "^^■g-S^ e -E -a -e K f I B S : £ 5 g S^S 5 s e J4 I illtl 11 II i til It If tilllttltllil4 ^ 6; g; a@-€tcf« €> e e s &^ s &s es {9 ® <§> (§) ® .® {&i9-> IRHEGtJIiAB VERBS. 69 S'^'Srfsii^^o w-S *♦ «» » S S *♦ — *? *s — ^ 2i Si-** ^ss G « ss s SSSe«5-s-s*3aBS s sasS^'S^ gjigg 2H«-- sS-g'S s s SS'SsgSrS'S^SSSS i£ SSS~iS-i=.>&i=-i§.S;aS£:£ri£l.e!"iE'^iS- 5 2 S § ■■= i -? "a -s a S S -i ■§ .S ,| igie. e£ ^--ei ,^- s S •5^, g'.'acai ^-S«- » =3 I S3© 9 "S fH s >» S! « -, b- S 5 2 K ® "rf d fl'S +3*s 2 £i fe -S .S 5 (u o ""^ I J.|,| || S e g S I S llll ,^ „ SSSS^B ecs H'-s>3 g.-S 3 S' .S .-S ■= -a 'S .5 .S S .S »- e S ** g .. = «■■»■'§ 5 5 - 5 g s 70 lETtEGXTLAB VEEBS. CS ■^ot-coco lOi-tccc^-^-^eo-^N-^y^^ococo ft> Tm'-S-S-CS^S-m £.» U &4 H ^ ' I « ■ 'I »p I I -♦*■**-**■**-♦* -4-» » A A S S3BBSSSSB5S *» «» a "«;a FM B B B S «n U ^5 rt rt aj ^ S £i EI ** '^ *^^'o ^^t^vt^ i ■ ^ ^tr- OS'S i2i-j^ *» 6* ♦- lEREGTJIiAR VERBS. 71 122. — The following strong -participles from verbs wliich have passed into the weak conjugation, should be added : — Class 1... unijerl^D^ten, from l^e'^ten, conceal, gero^en, ,, rod^en, avenge. Class 6... gemolfen, „ luelJen, milt. BeHomnten, „ Beflcmnten, press tight, ijernjomn, „ serwirren, confuse. Class 7... gcfaltcn, „ fatten, fold, gef)3atten, ,, j]palten, to cleave, gefc^rotcn, „ f^roten, cut up (shred), gefaljen, ,, faljen, salt. 72 ADYEEBS, PEEPOSITIONS AST) COSTJinfOTIONS. Chapter XI.— Adverbs, Prepositions and Conjunctions. 123. ADJECTIVES AS ADVEEBS.— Nearly aU adjectives can be used in German as adverbs in their nninfleoted form, as fc^Dtt getteibet, beautifully dressed; fd^wer telaben, heavily laden, &c. Obs. In older Gennan, a great number of adverts were f onned'from adjectives by a vowel-ending, originally o and then c, wMeli has now disappeared. A similar change has taten place in English, but we have, except in a limited number of phrases, such as to talTe loud, to drinli hard, made an effort to compensate the loss by employing a different form. Chaucer has, for example, brighU, deepi, in the sense of brightly, deeply. 124. ADVEEBS EOEMED BY TEEMINATIONS.— These are (1) the genitive termination 8; (2) Itc^; (3) lingg, acirtg. (1.) g is added both to nouns, as 5l6enb§, in the evening; *Jtn= fangg, at the beginning; and even SRa^tS, at night (though 0la(^t is feminine) ; and to adjectives, as re^tS, to the right; eilenbS, hastily. Notice especially the adverbs in enS from superlatives and numerals, as wenigjienS, at least ; jtuetteng, in the second place. (2.) Itd^, as ly in English, forms adverbs as well as adjectives. The wor4s formed by adding Itc^ to adjectives are naturally adverbs only, as neulii^, recently ; ganjlid^, entirely. Words like tciglii^, fd^riftltc^, formed from nouns, are generally capable of being used either as adjectives or adverbs. Notice the modi- fication when Ii(^ is added to a monosyllable, as togltc^, gatijli^. (3.) tings, wartg, as Btinblingg, blindly ; riitfiriartg, backwards. 125. COMPOUND ADVEEBS.— The German language forms compound adverbs with great facility. Two classes especially call for notice. (1.) Those made up of an adjective and a noun in the genitive case, or of two nouns, one acting as an adjective to the other. Among these are to be noted specially compounds of aBeife, as gludtid^erweife, luckily; Dorjuggnjeife, especw%; jiufeti' wcifc, step ly step. Sott, as jebenfallg, in any case. ©eitc, as ntetncrfeitgj/o/- my part. X^etl, as grofcnt|ett8,/o7' the most part. Sing, as afferbingg, in any case, certainly; fc^Iec^terbingg, w«enn is often used, especially ia questions,' like the Frencli done, to mean then, accordingly, 138. WHEN. — When, asking a question, direct or indirect (" "When are you coming ? " "I want to know when you are coming ") is an interrogative adverb, and is translated by icann. In other circumstances it is a conjunction, and is rendered by irenn, oIS, or ba {see Syntax of temporal sen- tences). Notice Bis trann ? till when ? how long ? feit raann, since when ? how long ? (with a past tense). Obs. When when ? , means under what circumstances ? it is translated by ttenn ? as, SBcnn t|l citt iBreied einem antetn gteii^ ? when is one triangle equal to another ? In German of the last century the distinction between wann and Menn is not always accurately observed. 139. ®o is used (1) like the English so, to qualify adjec- tives and other adverbs, or before that ; (2) in cases where it seems in English to be superfluous, to answer to words like though, if, as, when, expressed or understood {apodosis) : — 7f> ^DVEEBS, PBBPOSITIONS AlTD CONJUNCTIONS. aScnn bie Sflof^ am ^eSj^tn, fo i|i ©otteS Jgfilfe am noc^fien, man's extremity is God's opportunity ; SBenn euer ©ewiffen rein tji, fo feib % frei, */ your conscience is clear, you are free; (see Syntax). (3) (OO often introduces a subordinate sentence, and is then closely joined to an adjective or adverb. The nearest English equivalent is either however (especially when aud) foUows) before the adjective, &c., or as put after it, but there is room for a good deal of variety in translating it. @o, gro^e ^rnjottungcn aud) ganj Suro^ja je|t l^egte, fo ging iio&j alleS gonj anber§. Great as were the expectations all Mirope now cherished, every- thing turned out differently (where we might also say despite the expectations). Notice especially in this connection fo lang, as long as, fo '6alb, as soon as, fo »ett, as far as. (4) In old German, and consequently in modern ballad poetry, fo is often best rendered by if* ©0 bu fdm^jfe^ rittcrlic^, ©0 freut bein alter SSater fl(^. If you fight like a knight, then your old father will he glad at heart. 140. PEEPOSITIONS WITH ACCUSATIVE.— The fol- lowing prepositions always take an accusative : — burc^, fur, .gegen, o'^ne, urn, tciber. They may be remembered by the doggrel — Gum buvd^, flic, gegen, ttiibet, um et o!^nc Accusativum semper pone. S6i§ also, when used, as it i^ oefcasionally, as a preposition, takes the accusative. So also does fonber. 141. PEEPOSITIONS WITH DATIVE. ®c^rei6 ntit, na^, nad^ft, Q,tm.a% ne6ft, fantmt, ^et, fett, Hon, $u, jufuiDer, @ntgegen, gesenitBei;, an'^tv, an§, ©tetg mit bem Dotio nieber. / Some of these, as gema^, ndi^ji, &e., are not properly pre- positions, but may conveniently be classed with them. * Cf. Coriolanua III., i. that he ■would pawn his fortunes To hopeless restitution, so he might Be cail'd your yonquisher. sq-CALLED PKEPOSITIONS WITH GENITIVE. 77 142. PEEPOSITIONS WITH DATIVE AND ACCU- SATIVE. — The following govern the accusative when they denote motion to a place, the dative' when they denote rest at a place, or motion in or at a place : — an, auf, nebeit, in and :^tnter, ui>n, jfuifi^^en, tioc and untec. It is important to bear in mind exactly nnder what cir- cumstances the accusative is required after these prepositions when motion is spoken of. For example, suppose a sovereign to be with his army ; mark out a space in front of him, and call it tjor bent .Sonig. Then of a person standing in that place we say, of course, er jic^t Sor Slew .Sijuig. We also say er xtiUt oor bent .Sijntg, in speakiag of an officer riding in front to clear the way, etc. But if a person at the side of the king, or behind him, comes into the space in front, we must say er tritt loor icn .Rotiig. 143. SO-CALLED PEEPOSITIONS WITH GENITIVE. — A number of words (nouns, participles, &Ci), have come to be used very much like prepositions, and generally govern a genitive. They may conveniently be divided into groups : — (1.) Participles, viz., nja^renb, during; ungeaci^tet, unerac^tet, notwithstanding. The real construction here is a genitive abso- lute ; JBci^tenb beg ^^rojejfeg is, like during the suit, the equivalent of durante lite ; ungeaii^tet feineS Slec^tS of jure non obstante, his right notwithstanding. Similar, but less common, are unBef^abet (unBcfc^abet fetneS 9le(^tg, without prejudice to his right), uttonge= fc^en, without reference to. (2.) Nouns with preposition expressed or omitted. Such are : anjlatt or jiatt, instead of ((Statt = stead, place) ; Jraft, in viriue of (in .Sraft) ; laut, according to (na^ 8aut, after the sound of) ; jufolge, agreeably to {in the train of) ; njegen, on account of (the original form is shown in the phrase son 9tnttg ttiegen, by authority) ; urn . . . wiKen, for the sake of; tto^, in spite of (Sirol means defiance) ; inniitten, in the n}idst of. To the same class belong falBen (^atbn), and its compounds unter|iat6, on the under side of), &o. ; and the compounds of ©eite, jenfeit(g), bie§« feit(8). (3.) Sroittel|i, ijfrmittcljl, by means of; IdngS, along; unweit, unfern, not far from ; 6innen, within, are less easily accounted for. 78 ADTEBSa, PEEPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. Ohs. Of these prepositions several are found with a dative as well as with a genitive. Thus temungead^tet is found as well as kcffmungeo^tet, and tcsi%, jufotge, tflng«, iiimcn, and tiie compounds of ^att often take a dative. (Sntlong, along, is generally an adverb following an accusative, sometimes a preposi- tion preceding and governing a genitive or an accusative. 144. PLACE OF PEEPOSITIONS.— Ordinary mono- syllabic prepositions stand before the nouns they govern. The only exception is na^, which occasionally follows its case. Of the others |aI6en, l^alfecr, 5U»iber always, suna^ji, entgegcn, gegeniifier generally, follow their cases. SBegen, ungea^tet, gemcif, sometimes precede, and sometimes follow ; jufotge takes a genitive when it prpcedes, a dative when it follows its case. The meaning of the prepositions will be discussed below. 145. OLASSIPICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS.— The chief difference between conjunctions depends on the answer to the question — are the sentences they connect coordinate, or is one subordinate to the other ? — in other words, are they two independent sentences, or is one incapable of expressing complete sense without being attached to another sentence ? The words, when I come, do not make complete sense by them- selves, but have a meaning only when appended to some principal sentence, e.g., When I come, T will settle the affair. Hence we divide conjunctions into (1) coordinative conjunctions, as and, hut, or, connecting one principal sentence, or one sub- ordinate sentence, with another of the same kind ; and (2) sub- ordinative conjunctions, as if, when, as. The latter class, in German, always throw the verb of the clause they introduce to the end ; coordinative conjunctions have no such power. It should be added that many adverbs play the part of conjunctions, and join sentences. Much that belongs to the meaning, &c., of sitbordinative conjunctions will be better dis- cussed in the Syntax, apropos of subordinate sentences. 146. AND, OR, NOR. — ^Unb, and, ober, or, are used exactly as in English. There is no exact equivalent of both ... and; foreol^l ... oI§ is the nearest. 5l6er fowo^I bic £age, al§ bit aSefejligung bcr ©tabt [c^icnen jebem Slngrif %xo% ju Bieten (Sch.). But both the situation of the town, and the way in which it vias fortified, seemed to defy any attempt to take it. CLASSIFICATION OP CONJUNCTIONS. 79 As in Englisli not only... but also, so in German nic§t nur (6Iof, nttein)...fonbern auc^, serve to couple both sentences and words ; of course, with a certain stress on the latter of the two words or sentences. Adverbs, too, like and), also ; augerbem, besides ; gleic^fattS, likewise, serve to connect sentences. (Sntrretjer. . .ober answer exactly to either. . .or, and weber. , .noc^ to neither. ..nor. It should be noticed (1) that when entrceber or tueber begins a sentence, it causes, like other adverbs, the nominative to follow the verb ; ob«v does nothing of the kind ; (2) that njeber. . .no^ are treated as copulative conjunctions, so that two singular nouns connected by them require a plural verb (Syntax). Obs. 1. SBetet is a contracted form meaning exactly the same as the Latin neutrum, neither of the two things; nod), nor, is the same word as the Latin nee, and quite distinct from noi/, yet. Sntwctiec means one of the two things, Latin alterutrum; sin contains the same root as Warns, and so really means somehow, possibly. Thus entmebct A okcr B strictly means — one of two things, A, possibly B. It should he added that the use of cntmebcr or ttetev is not limited to oases where there are But two alternatives. 147. BUT. — The two chief words by which we may render but are fonbern and oter. ©onbern is used only after a negative sentence or expression, ater may be used after either a negative or an affirmative phrase, ©onbem contradicts flatly, dbtx only qualifies the preceding statement. Thus 3c^ leugne eg nid^t, fonbern i^ jreeifle baran, disclaims the idea of denying much more strongly than 3d^ leugne eg nid^t, after i^ jreeifle baran. The former might be paraphrased — " Denying it is not the question ; my attitude is simply that of doubt ;" the latter " I will not quite say that 1 deny it, but I do doubt it." Neither after nor fonbern affect the order of the sentence, but after is sometimes put later in its clause, and then serves to emphasize some word or words in it. Thus — 3Kan fagt, Kir fcien franf ; wir |tnb after in guter ©efunbf eit. 3:^r feib franf ; roir ofter fmb in guter ©efunb^eit. Sffiir fronfelten; frant after burften wir ni^t ^eifen. In the first sentence, the second clause is opposed bodily to the first ; in the other two the opposition is between single words in each clause. Obs. 1. But, in English, is often very like a preposition, meaning except. It is then rendered either by the prepo- 80 ADTEBBS, PEEPOSmON AND CONXDHCTIONS. sition auf cr, by the participle (luSgenommen, or by the con- junction al8. . Stiemonb auf er i^tn war ba, no one but he (or him) was there. 5lffe aSriiber, ouSgenommen ber altej}e, all the brothers, but the eldest. jjep wax feine SBo^nung, alS baS ®xab, no dwelling hut the grave was safe. Ohs. 2. The etymology of fontecit and aire throws light on their use. ©onbern in the same word as our sunder, and therefore naturally makes a distinct opposition. %ia is properly again, and thus suggests only a se- cond thought. It retains this meaning in aitxmaXs, again, taufenbe unti t&a taufenbe, thoitsands and thousands. Notice that oict is often used as we use now, at the beginning of a new sentence. 148. EQUIVALENTS OF StSer, fonbertt.— There are many adrerbs which may he employed as the equivalents of fontecn and aSer, with different shades of meaning. Of these stetntei^r, nay rather, but on the contrary, is nearly equivalent to fonbEot, hut accentuates the opposition rather more strongly. SlUein is used much aa we use only, with a sort of affected mo- desty (meiosis) . "I should say, there is only one thing makes me hesitate " — that one thing being reaUy most important. iDudj) and icbi!(^, which is not quite so strong, and expresses a limitation rather than an antithesis or opposition, answer to the English y$t or though (used as an adverb). SodJ, if it stands first, generally, but not necessarily throws the nominative after the verb. iDennodJi is used to contradict rather an inference that might have been drawn, than an actual statement. 0liemanb fotCte fel^ten, unb bciinsicS fe^ttc bev cine, Meinede 5u(^8, bet ©djielm, where to complete the sense, one ought to supply some such words as " and all presented themselves " after 3ltemanb foUte fe^ten. Again, we might say'^— ©r iji nt(^t etngetaben reorben, unb bennoc^ iji cr gefommen, but not er iji gefommm unb bennoc^ ifi er ni(^t cingelabcn ttiorbcn. 149. THE— THE.— The word the with the comparative in phrases like the more. ..the better is not of course the article, but equivalent in the one case to a relative adverb, in the other to a demonstrative adverb. The former the is rendered in German by jc, the latter generally by befio, sometimes by urn fp, or by a second Je. Se'me^r bcr aSorratl^ f^mofj, bejio fi^recRid^er reuc^g ber -hunger (Seh.), the more the stores melted away, the more terribly did the famine increase, or more idiomatically, the famine became more and more terrible, as the stores gradually melted away. AS — BETOEE — AFTER. 8 1 Obs. In English the... .the are really the ahlative case of a pronoun ■which may be either demonstrative or relative ; in German telle is the same, ic an old case of a noun meaning time ; so that je mc^c, btpo Sejfet, really means what time there are more, thereby is it better. 150. AS is used in several ways ia English : — (1) It is a conjunction, introducing a comparison, and is then rendered by njte :^ — 3c^ ftnge, aie ber aSogel ftngt, I sing as the bird sings. In such cases the verb of the second clause is often omitted both in English and in German. (2) It means as for example, — lute. (3) It means in the capacity of, — ate. 3d^ lomme ate ©efanbter be8 ©eric^tS, / come as ambassador of the court. (4) It is the second as in- as great as, as soon as. It is then rendered by ote, though in several expressions as fofialb, as soon as ; fo Weit, as far as, it is entirely dropped. (5) It is the first as in as great as, &c. It is then rendered by fo in a negative sentence, by fo or e'Benfo in an affirmative one. (6) It is a conjunction of time or cause — generally bo. Eor the way of translating as i/, and for other details, the reader is referred to the Syntax. 151. BEFORE— AFTER As these words are in English sometimes adverbs, sometimes prepositions, and sometimes conjunctions, it is necessary to be careful in translating them into German, in fact, into most languages. The following are their eq[uivalents : — before, adverb, f^0ii,.fi:ii!6er, ijor^cr. preposition, loor (dat. or ace.) conjunction, e^c, Sctior. after, adverb (rarely so in English), nac^^cr, f^fiter. preposition, na(Sj (dat.) conjunction, ' na&fixm. 152. SINCE may be a preposition, and is then translated by felt, or a conjunction, either (1) of time, feitbem, or (2) of cause ba or wdl. 82 Chapter XII.— Prefixes to Verbs. 153. German is remarkable for its large number of compound verbs, and the power it still retains of forming such verbs. The prefixes are for the most part prepositions or adverbs in common use, a few are no longer used except as prefixes. The classification of prefixes wUl be found in §§ 115 — 118. The present chapter on the meaning of these little words is uecessajily somewhat long, inasmuch as in German, as in other tongues, meaning after meaning has been developed as the language grew, and the existing vocabulary contains not merely words representing the signification of a prefix now most in vogue, but survivals of most of its different stages. For example, when we read in a German guide-book that a sequestered valley in the Tyrol is nod) nic^t Sewngldnbert, we gather at once that the new-coined word means spoilt by the pre- sence of Englishmen, but we should be quite wrong in inter- preting older words like tiergrii^ern, tiergottern, on the same principle. A.— INSEPABABLE PREFIXES. 154. Sc is originally a preposition meaning over, about, and is identical with bei, the sense of which is more restricted. It forms verbs from other verbs, from nouns, and from adjec- tives. (1.) From other verbs. The following cases may be dis- tiuguished : — "* (a) The simple verb is intransitive (iacluding verbs with a dative : see Syntax) ; the compound applies its action to an object, and is transitive. Thus : — f^sred^cn, speak, fieftirec^en (etmaS), discuss, talk of. tt'einen, weep, fieweinen (einen ^reunb), weep for, bewail. fieigcti (auf), climb (intr.) , Bejieigen (einen SSerg), climb, scale. fdm^jfcn {m\t), fight (iitr.) BefanHsfen (ben iJeinb), combat. fc^iefen, shoot, tefc^icfen (eine Stobt), cannonade. broken (with dat.), threaten, tebro^en (with ace), threaten. Compare in English wail and bewail, speak and bespeak. (/3) The simple verb is transitive ; the compound alters, so to speak, the direction of its action, and the accusative of A. — ^rNSEPABABLE. 83 the simple verb becomes a dative of the iastrument with niit. Thus : I f^Jtcngen (ffiaffer auf ben SBoben), ( Befrrengen (ben Soben mit SEBaffer) ; ( ^angen (.ffrdnje auf einen Orabfieln), ( te^dngen (einen ©ratfietn mit Jlransen). In English sprinkle and besprinhle are a good instance ; fre- quently, however, our language uses the same verb in both ways. (y) The simple verb is transitive, and the compound governs the same accusative, differing but little in sense from it. There is generally, however, some idea of completion, all over, &.O., to be detected. Thus: — beien, fiebecEen, cover. fijrbern, teforbern, further, promote. (S) In a few intransitive compounds the force of 6e is simply intensive, as in Bel^agen, suit; Bejle^en, standfast, consist ; fiefommen/ silit*; ieginncn (from root of gd|)nen, yawn, open) begin ; BleiBen (from fie and letBen, akin to leave) remain. (e) In one or two existing words Be has the sense gene- rally belonging to Bet in composition, aside. Such are BegraBen, Beflatten, bury. Hence a privative use (nearly extinct), as in Bcs ne^menf (@inem ©taag), take away; fld^ BegeBen (with gen.), betake oneself from, resign, and the English behead. (2.) Prom adjectives it forms verbs meaning to make (good, beautiful, &c.) Thus from: — feud^t, damp, Befeuc^ten, moisten. rul^ig, quiet, Berul^igen, calm. also from the comparative : — reic^er, richer, Bereic^ern, enrich. (3.) From nouns it forms verbs meaning to furnish loith, as from : — ©renje, boundary, Begrenjen, supply with a boundary, limit. 59lantel, cloak, Bemantetn, supply with a cloak, cloak. 3euge, witness, Bcjeugen, furnish with a witness, attest. * Note also Scfommen (trans.), come hy, get. t Side by side witli Senel^men, talie away, exists |i(!S) Sene^nitlij hehwos, aud will, the English behead, the German ie^aufJteti, maintain, affirm. -84 PBEFIZES TO YEBBB. also from the pluial: — fSelUv, nations, it'oblUxn, people. 155. Sttt (in emi)finbert, em^ifangen, written em))*) is probably identic^ with the Greek ava, the Latin an (in anhelu; and in many words under the form ad-, in-), and similar prefixes in other languages, and originally meant up. Most of the compound verbs it forms are from other verbs, some from noims and adjectives. Thus we have — (1) From simple verbs : — (o) In the original meaning up, as from : — ftsroigen, spring, entf^jringen, spring up, start up. pc'^cn, stand, entjic^en, rise up. tauc^ett, dive, enttau^en, dive vp, emerge. werfen, throw, entreerfen, throw up (Anglicfe off) apian. Notice especially words connected with flame, entjunben, light up ; entStennen, Haze up, &c., which may, however, be equally well put under the next head. ((3) With up is closely connected the idea of beginning, as in our phrase " to strike up a tune." Thus we have from : — Bia^en, bloom, enttlu'^cn, come into flower. f^Iafen, sleep, cntfd^Iafcn,/aZZ asleep (generally of death). ^n'otn, fl/id, feel, em^jfinben, begin to feel. jucEen, twitch, make entjiitfen, begin to twitch, and applied to to palpitate, the senses ravish, put into raptures. (y) With upward motion is often associated the notion of reversal (the most important meaning of the prefix), as from : — betfcn, cover, entbcden, uncover, discover. laben, load, entlabtn, unload. flegein, seal, entjtcgein, unseal. The corresponding English prefix is un, in unbend, unload, &c., a prefix to be distinguished from the un of adjectives, un- wise, unsound, &c. (S) Hence also the notion of separation, removal, as in ent« fu^ren, lead away, kidnap ; entloufen, run away ; entfagen, remove by * (Sm^ft^tenis probably a corruption of aniefcpen. See the late Prof. Key's Philological Essays, p. 30, a hook to which I am indebted for a great deal of the contents of this chapter. A. — INSBPAEABLB. 85 saying, renounce. In entfjJire^en, answer (much used of one thing answering or corresponding io another), entgelten, requite, per- haps the idea is that oi taking up (the conversation or injury). (2) The sense of ent noticed under the head (y) is not only the commonest in compounds formed from verbs, but ia also very freely used in making dierivatives from nouns and adjec- tives, as from : — ^eilig, holy, cnt!§eittgen, desecrate. aSolfer, peoples, entSoIfern, depopulate. 5lrt, Icini, genus, entartjn, degenerate. Sar»e, mash, entlarsjen, unmask. @nt is in such words the opposite of 6e. It is worthy of notice that in forming new words, it is this sense of ent that naturally suggests itself. 156. @r, like ent, seems originally to have meant up. But, while there are suf&cient examples in modern German to parallel the various uses of ent, the most familiar meaning of er, when it forms compound verbs from simple verbs is that of reacldng up to, attaining, and as a prefix forming verbs from adjectives, that of making. (1.) Erom simple verbs we have — (a) in the meaning up and derived meanings as for entj from: — l^alten, hold, er^olten, hold up, maintain, receive. imtniluild, er6auen, iuild up, edify. beginning : — traufcn, roar, ertraufen, legin roaring. jlaunen,' he astonished, erfiaunen, become astonished. reversal : — fd^Iiefen, shut, etffilie^en, unshut, open, (/3) In the sense again, back, connected with reversal from — laffen, let go, eriaffen, let go again, let off (eine ©tjjafe). fe^en, place, erfe^en, replace (by a substitute), iennen, know, erfcnnen, know again, recognise, faufen, buy, erfaufen, buy again, redeem. [tnnern], put in, erinnetn, put in again, make intimate again with, remind. 86 PEEFIXES TO VERBS. (y) Perhaps the most characteristic meaning of cr is that of reaching up to, and so attaining, by the action of the simple verb. Thus we have from-r- "eilcn, hasten, evcilen, reach by hastening, overtake. leBcn, live, erlefien, live to see, experience. benfen, thinh, erbcnfen, get by thinking, excogitate. flel^en, entreat, crflcl^en,^ei by entreaty, imtm, lie in wait, erlaiicrn, get by lying in wait, surprise. Sometimes the idea of attainment is absent — fe^nen, l(mg, erfe^ncn, long after. It is in this group that new compounds with er are still formed. (S) When er, like cnt, denotes removal, there is associated with it the idea of disappearance or death, as from — lofd^cn, quench, be quenched, crlof^en, quench or be quenched jierBen, die, cr|icrien, die out. [completely. trdnfen, make to drink, ertrfinfen, drown. (e) With adjectives er forms verbs meaning to make or become, a sense easily derived from 1 (a), as from — fc^njcr, difficult, erfc^nieren, make diffieidt. iteucr (comp.), newer, erneuern, renew. gruti, green, ergrunen, grow green. rot!^, red, errot^en, blush. BIa|, pale, etHaffen, turn pale, die. 157. ®C appears to be identical in meaning, if not in origin, with the Latin cum, con. As a prefix it does little more than strengthen the meaning of the simple verb, i.e., it sAdiS a, noivaa-oi completeness, permanence, &c. Hence (1) it is often di£B.oult to see much difiference of meaning between the simple and compound verbs, where both exist ; and (2) compounds of ge with obsolete verbs have often survived, while the simple forms have disappeared, as geSaren, genefen, gclingen. One or two words call for notice, as gefoUen, ^feBs«, properly §in frequently means on, away, and so is used both of con- tinuance, and of bringing to an end, as from : — geficti, give, l^ingefien, give up, resign. * reic^en, reach, l^inrcic^en, reach on to the end, suffice, ^ahm, hold, |)in^alten, A««p in suspense. traunteit, dream, ^intrdumen, dream a«;a!2/(one'slife, &c.). triiten, brood, l^inBriiteti, go on brooding. 172. SoS is properly an adjective, meaning loose, separated, and is accordingly used both as a prefix to denote separation, and as a sufiSx equivalent to the English less. Thus from : — • laffett, let, leave, loSlaffeh, sei/ree. 6renncn, burn, loSBrenncn, let off (a gun), gel^cn, go, Io8ge:^cn, (l) go off (as a gun) ; a\xf {2) fly at a person.^; 173. Wlit, with, at the same time, as from: — tie^men, take, luittie^mcn, take with me. fprec^en, speak, mitfprec^cn, join in a conversation. avfieiten, work, mitaxbdim, cooperate. , 174. 9laiff, after, has all the meanings of the English word. Thus are formed from : — madden, make, nad^moc^en, imitate. Beten, pray, nac^fieten, repeat a prayer after. - — i Also tia^i .geten (fcaS Hebta fiic'S !B.itert(inb.) t c.f. in Bret Hart, " He went for that heathen Chinee." 96 PRBPIXBB TO Vi:»BS, eilen, hurry, nac^eilen, liurry after, try and catch. eifern, strive, nac^eifcrn, strive after. ^t\jtn, stand, nac^jie^^en, he inferior to. \t\m,looTc, . nac^fe^en, (1) holt after, examine; (2) overlook, forgive. 175. ^Xt^tV, down, English nether. Notice from : — laffen, let, flc^ nicberlaffen, settle (in a country), fommen, come, niefiertcmmen, be brought to bed, confined. 176. 06, eq^uivalent to uBer, over or on, as from: — njaltcn, rule, otoalten, rule over. liegen, lie, otiiegen, (1) devote oneself to; (2) be incumbent on.* 177. aSor, before, forward, as from : — lejen, read, Sorlefen, read before people, lecture. ftngen, sing, Sjorflngen, (!) act as precentor; (2) teach to sing. fec^ten, fight, Sjorfec^ten, ( 1 ) fight as a champion ; (2) show how to fight (as a fencing-master). geBen, put, UorgeBeit, put forward (as an excuse). jie|en, draw, march, sorjie^en, (1) prefer; (2) advance. Beugett, bend, Sorteugen, bend before, prevent. 178. 3'*« — The meanings of ju in composition come either (a) from its ordinary form as a preposition ; or (/3) from its use as an adverb, in phrases like bie ^\ix iji ju, the door is shut (English to). (a) to — towards, addition, as from : — ^it^tn, flow, ^u^v^m, flow towards. t^un, do, put, jut^un, add. f^auen, look, jupouen, look at, contemplate. flJted^en, speak, j«f^rc(^en (i) adjudge ; (2) Ttvit^, give by speaking. fagen, say, sufagen, promise. jjimmen, vote, jujiimmen, agree to, add one's vote. • OMiegen was formerly used aa the converse of untetlitsfn, meaning to get the upper hand. C— DOUBTFTJL PEEHXES. 97 (/3) dosing : — tauen, build, juBaucn, build up, close by building. moc^en, make, jumad^en, close. Notice jureiten (ein SPferb), to train, breah. 179. COMPOUND PEEFIXES.— The meaning of the compound separable prefixes like l^trijcr, SorBei, entgcgen, and of simple adverbs like wcg, priicE, &c., is easily found in dictionariep, and requires no discussion. C— D OUBTFUL PREFIXES. 180. GENEEAL PEINCIPLES.— The prefixes burd^, Mer, unter, urn, are separable in some verbs, inseparable in others. The general principle which regulates their use is that when the preposition and the verb coalesce into one meaning, when they constitute, so to speak, a chemical compound, the prefix is inseparable. If on the other hand, each retains its full meaning, if, to continue the metaphor, they form only a mechanical mixture, the prefix is in reality an adverb and therefore separable. In this case the prefik is accented, in the former unaccented. The following rules are useful : — 181. TEAN8ITIVE COMPOUNDS OF INTEANSITIVE8. — The transitive compounds of an intransitive verb with the above prefixes are inseparable ; its intransitive compounds separable. Thus burd^gc^en (insep.) means {V) to traverse ; (2) to pene- trate, with accusative ; (3) to examine, peruse ; burc^gefen (sep.) means (1) to come through (intrans.) of smoke, wind, &c.; (2) to run away; (3) to pass, i.e., to become law, of measures, bills ; also, to pass current, of coin. Again, ft'fccrge^en (sep.) means (1) to run over (of liquids, &c.); (2) to desert from one side to the other/ (3) to cross (intrans.), from one point to another; (4) to pass over (of a storm, &c.). But uberge^en (insep.) means (1) to go about (e.g. a field) ; (2) to examine ; (3) to cross (trans., e.g. a boundary), or to transgress (trans.) ; (4) to omit. UeterGieten, meaning to bid highest, is separable; meaning to outbid a,uj one, inseparable. H 98 PBEFIXES TO TEEBS. This principle is especially applicable to verbs like fe^fn, greifeti/Bred^en; wbicb are sometimes used transitively, sometimes intransitively. The transitive compounds formed from their intransitive meanings are inseparable, the intransitive com- pounds separable. 182. CHANGE OF ACOtTSATIYE.— It often happens that a transitive verb compounded with one of the prepositions named above governs a different accusative to that which it governs alone {see compounds of Be, § .154). Thus, to take an example which has a close parallel inLatin, umgeBen, to surround^ is used with an accusative of the thing enclosed: er umgafe bie ©tabt iitit eineni OroBen, while the simple verb get^rt, give aiput, would, if used in the same connection, take the ditch, not the town as its accusative ; therefore umgeBen, to surround, is in- separable. Again compare :— 3(^ ^a6e meinen SRomen untergefd^rieBcn, I wrote my name at the bottom (of a letter, &c.). 3(^ 'ijabt ben SBrief unterf^rieBen, I signed the letter (with my name). The thing written is the name ; with the separable verb the name is still the accusative ; with the inseparable verb a different object, the document on which the name is written, becomes the accusative. 183. OTHER COMPOUNDS OF TEANSITIVE VEEBS. — ^The above rules apply to all compounds of intransitive verbs with burc^, &c., and to a certain number of compounds of transitive verbs. Many other compounds of transitive verbs' may be discriminated -by remembering that burc^, &o., when strictly and obviously used as adverbs, are separable, as in Sur^f eitfc^en, flog soundly, xtmwerfen, turn upside dotvn; unter= I'lingen, h-ing under shelter. There are, however, a certain number of cases, in which usage alone can decide. OJs.— These prefixes, when separated from the verh, are frequently pre- ceded by ^in, ^n, sometimes by kat; as, er jcg in We Jt6mg8fh:(i{e JinubEt, he moved into King Street; Wjir gingcn rings um bit ©tntt ^ccum, we Kent rouni the town. 184. Surt^, through. It is separable in the meanings — (1) thoroughly, to the end; (2) wildly, beyond control; (3) through in the sense of slipping through, failure. The following examples will illustrate both the meaning of Siirc^, and the priccipLes given above : — -DOUBTFtlL PREFIXKS. 99 SEFAKABIiB. go through (a set of prayers), mahe a way for oneself (iatr. on'g Stc^t, &c.), (1) get through (trans.), (2) spend, waste(tim.e, &o.) (V) get through (intr.), (2) (mit @toaS) succeed, gain one's end, (1) drive through (intr.), (2) tahe the bit between one's teeth. (1) drop through (intr.), (2) fail (in an election, examination, &c.). burc^fragen, baS ganje ,S:a))itel, bur{^gel^en, 0)go through, get throtigh (2) run away, [(intr.), (3) pass, become current, (4) 'i\t INSHFABABLE. spend m^royer (bieStad^t). penetrate (eine SWauer, bie Oletl^en beriJeinbe). (1) penetrate. (2) fill (with pity, &e.). fill with fragrance, traverse (in a carriage, boat, &c.). bie gaitje .flojfe. (1) penetrate. (2) peruse, examine. illuminate. 185. Uebev answers to the English over in all its senses. It is separable when it means (1) to the other side (of a river, &c., understood); (2) over, of overflowing ; (3) over, with the notion oi upsetting, overturning. It is inseparable whea it means (4) covering, overlaying ; (5) excess. There are many more in- separable compounds of liter than separable ones. Exaniples are : — SEFABABLE. INSEPARABLE. iiberBinben, tie on (a ribbon, band- bandage (a wound), age, &c.), uOcrBietcn, bid highest, outbid. £i6erlJtec^'eii, cover with tin; "tinplate." 100 PBEFIXE8 TO VEEBS. SEPjk.ILA.BLE. itertringen, uSerelteit, uierfol^ten, uBetful^wii, ittcrge^en, uieriegen, «6erfe|en, (1) tai« to the other side, (2) get on (a lid pn a box, &c.). (1) cross by a/erry (intr.), (2) put across by a ferry, take across (e.g. u6cr bie ©renje), (1) overflow (intr.), (2) omit, pass over (intr.), desert (to the enemy), lay on the top, (1) set on the top, (2) take across (a river), (3) leap to the other side (iifcer einen ®Tcabm). move (from one house to another). INSEFABAliLE. deliver (a message,letter). (1) hurry on too fast (tr.). (2) overtake. (1) cross by a ferry (tr.). (2) strew, cover. (3) drive over, run over (tr.) convict (prop, bring over to confession). (1) traverse. (2) cross (tr.). (3) overlook. (1) overload. (2) ponder, consider. (1) overcharge. (2) translate. cover (with paper, cloth, &c.). 186, ttnt is a preposition meaning round. In composition with verbs it is used (1) of surrounding, encircling, and in this sense forms inseparable transitive verbs; (2) of going by a roundabout way; (3) of change, renewal; -(4) in the verbs iim6ringen=um'8 Se6en Bringcn, to kill, umfommen (um'§8e6en,&c.), to lose. In all these cases, except (1), it is separable. SEFABABLE. HfSEPAEABLE. umbinben, (1) put on (a ribbon round the neck), (2) rebind (a book). kill. bindup(a, cutfinger,&c.). umBringm, umbonnttn, itntgeben, {I) put on (einem einen Wtanttl), (2) make a fresh deal (of cards). thunder round, encircle, surround. -DOUBTFUL PEEFIXES. 101 SEPAKABLE. INSEPARABLE. umgel^en, {l)go about, have'dealings (1) go round, traverse.' (inberu obcr cr e8 get^an l^ot. I know not if you or he heat done it. It would be better to write — si tu ti gct^an |ojl oter cc. Similarly it is better to render you or / by a periphrasis : — ©tmr Don utiS icitcn SHuf tie 3eHc metten. One of us two (you or I) must quit the cell. 11. COLLECTIVE NOUNS AND NOUNS OP MUL- TITUDE. — A collective noun speaks of many individuals acting as a single unit; it is, in many cases, one of the simplest forms of personification. Collective nouns require the verb in the singular : — Unb unterroegS Bcgegiiet i^iii ein ©(^tcarni aSon .gorniffen. (Sch.) And on the way a swarm of hornets meets him. A noun of multitude speaks of many individuals, without thus collecting them into a single unit. Nouns of multitude may take a plural verb. The usage is limited to nouns like SKenge, 2)u|enb, 5l5aar, followed by a plural noun to which they stand almost in the relation of numeral adjectives : — ®tn $JJaar .gaufcr jtnb atgefcrannt. (Goe.) A. few ho^lses are burnt down. <5a 6efouben ftc6 bort einc SWenge fronsoftft^er UeBerlaufer. (Arch.) There were a number of French deserters there. But— Sine 5tnja:^I ©olbaten mu^te ftc^ im ©t^mimmen u'Ben. (Arch.) A number of French soldiers had to practise swimming. CONCOBB OP TEEB AND SUBJECT. 107 12. AGREEMENT WITH LOGICAL SUBJECT. — It is very usual in German, especially in German poetry, to begin a sentence with eS, whicli is almost pleonastic- The real subject is then put after the verb ■which agrees with it : — @§ jiiirjten bic ^crrtic^en ©aulen. (Sch.) The glorious columns fell. H^- 112 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. the noun it qualifies, agrees ■with, it in gender, numher, and ease : — Sa gieft unenblid^er 3legen f^ttab. (Sch.) Then endless rain poured down. 3^r foKt ein wai)xtS ^imfijiud ^bxm. (Goe.) You shall hear a real masterpiece. 25. ADJECTIVE WITH DEPENDENT "WORDS.— An adjective or participle with other words depending upon it may, in German, be used as an epithet, and is, in that case, still subject to the same rule. ©(^leflen, ein f(^6nc§, mit arBeitfamen ©inreol^nem BeijoUertcS Sanb. (Archenholz.) Silesia, a beautiful country, inhabited by an industrious popu- lation. Senlmale einer e^emoIS fo :t3ra(^ttgen 6tabt. (Goe.) Memorials of a town once so magnificent. Ohs. 1. Suoh phrases must generally te rendered in English by adjec- tival sentences. Some attempts have been made to introduce the German idiom. They are ridiculed in " Eejected Addresses." The following are specimens : — " The not-a-bit-the-less-on-that-account-to-be-umverBally- execrated monster, Buonaparte;" "the in-general-strewn-with-cabbage- stalks-but-on-Saturday-nlght-lighted-up-with-lamps market of Covent Garden." Obs. 2. Care must be taken not to employ this characteristic German idiom to the detriment of clearness or elegance. 26. ADJECTIVES NOT EPITHETS.— An adjective used otherwise than as an epithet is undeclined. The commonest case is when the adjective occupies the place of the appositive complement after verbs of naming, making, &c., and copulative verbs. Qttte ^erjcn flnb teglucft. (Sch.) All hearts are filled with joy. ©dig i)«if' tdO 513oIS5ienen. (Sch.) Happy do I deem Polyxena. !Di(^ fonn niein SOJunb nic^t gliicEIid^ fpred^en. (Sch.) As for thee, my lips cannot pronounce thee happy. . Sid^ ititt^t bie 3"* "W gercijfer. (Goe.) Time only makes you more certain. SECOlTDAEy PREDIOATE. 113 Obs. If, however, the adjective, when used aa appositive complement, is accompanied by the article, it is decUned, and may he supposed to agree with the subject (or object, as the case may he) repeated. 3|l ein utter Sinttucf tin sertorner. (Less.) Is an old impression a lost one, i.e., ein setlotnet (Sinbrud understood). 27. SECONDAEY PEEDIOATES.— Participles, and oc- casionally adjectives, generally with words depending upon them, often stand as secondary predicates — that is, they make an additional statement about the subject of the sentence, which might be embodied in another clause, either sub- ordinate to the principal sentence, or co-ordinate with it. In such cases the adjective or participle is undeclined.* 3Ktt fremben @^d|en reic^ Belabert Ri^xt ju ben ^cimifd^en ©ejioben 3)er ©c^iffc ntopcnreic^et SBalb. (Sch.) Richly laden with the treasures of foreign lands, thejleet, like a forest of masts, is returning to its native shores. The clause mit...'6elaben might be made a co-ordiaate sen- tence, and is richly laden... ©ntttorfen Bto^ ifi'S ein gemeincr ffre&el, aSottful^rt iji'S ein unfler6lic& Unterne^raen.f (Sch.) Conceive it only, 'tis a vulgar crime ; Achieved, an enterprise of deathless fame. i.e., if it is conceived — if it is achieved. ®ort wo^nte ein gefttteteg .ganbelgaolf, fc^reetgenb ijon ben Srijc^ten feineS jJIeifeS, nja^fam auf (Sefe^c, bie feine Sffio'^It^ater waren. (Sch.) JTiere dwelt a refined commercial people, revelling in the fruits of their industry, watchful guardians of laws, which were their benefactors. 28. ADJECTIVES NEVEE USED AS EPITHETS.— Certain adjectives, such as f(^utb, funb, anfld^tig, are never used as epithets, but only as appositive complements after copula- tive verbs, or verbs of making, calling, &o. The adjectives aware, rid, mindful, poorly, &c., are subject to the same limita- tion in English. One cannot say, for example, an aware • See Abbott's " How to Parse," t For unjlertlii^ see % 41. 114 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. policeman, but only the policeman was aware of the presence of the thief, &c.* Sucli words hover in their usage between the character of an adjective and that of an adverb. 29. EPITHETS ONLY. — Certain other adjectives can be used as epithets only. Such are : — I. Adjectives in n, en, em, describing the material of which anything is made, as golben, lebern. Consequently we must say : ber Sfting iji son ®oIb, or ein golbcner, to translate the ring is golden. II. Most adjectives in ifd& derived from names of persons or countries, as bieBifcfe, thievish ; fpanifd^, Spanish.-\ III. Many adjectives in lic^, not denoting qualities, but rather attendant circumstances, as anfcinglic^, initial ; jiiinblid^, hourly. On the other hand, 'ijtxxVi.^, splendid; reblit^, honest, &c., denoting qualities, may be used as epithets or complements indifferently. IV. The so-called jjontireorter^ like bortig (bte S)orttgen, the people there), ^ieflg, ^euttg, &c. The adverbs from which they are formed can generally be used as complements : er ifl bort, wir jlnb l^ier, &c. 05s. Any of these adjectives, if the article is placed before them, become practically nouns, and can then be used as complements. * The following is the list : — ai^olb, ill-afieotfed. geSe (g46c), current (gSngc aBf^jenjiig, recalcitrant, aiueniig, estranged, angji, uneasy, an^eifi^ig, bound over to. anfi^itlg, iu sight of. ausfinktg, discovered, in-eit, ready, ita^i, fallow, tingetient, mindful, teinb, hostile. gSnge, current, gar, cooked. t Note that while adjectives of, this kind from names of countries are written with a small initial letter, those from names of persons hare a capital, as ict Stutnst'fcjl' 33erlag. % Corresponding to the Greek o vvv, ol inti, Tpiraiog, etc. Hence ^neas SI matutimis agebat, TfrapraioQ a^iKEro have no parallel in German. unb gete). getenf, mindful, gctrojl, of good cheer, gewa^t, aware, gctoattig, on the look-out for. gram, averse. Jeit, sound, tree, mistaken, funb, aware, ^ai^aft, in possession of. l^anbgemciit, engaged (in battle), teib, annoying, not^, necessary, nii^, useful, quitt, rid, quits, fc^ote, pity (regrettable), f^ulb, guilty of. !S"[lig,}P*'^''«'^- HtHia^, poorly. Bctlupig, a loser, ttiat^i, awake. COMPAEATITB SUPERLATIVE. 115 30. THE SUPEELATIVE. — As the superlative has generally no uninfleoted form, we must use, when it occurs as the appositive complement, either the inflected form with the definite article, or an adverbial form : am fcbonfiett, am eifrigften. The former is employed when the subject (or object) is compared with another individual of the same kind, the latter when it is compared with itself under different circumstances. Thus — ®er gcjiitge ©turm reaf ber ^eftigfie beS gnnsen Sol^^unbertg. Yesterday's storm was the fiercest of the century. But Um jrcci U^x a'ar ber ©turm om ]^eftig|ien. At two o'cloch the storm was fiercest. that is, more violent than the same storm at 10 o'clock, 3 o'clock, &c. 5)ann ifl biefer Sag ber fc^bnfle meineS SeienS. (Soh.) Then will this day be the brightest of my life. !Der ©tarfe ijl am madEjttgfien allein. (Sch.) The strong man is strongest alone. Obs. If e§, not representing any word from a previous sen- tence, be the subject, the form with am is used. 5lm icfien ifi'S and) l^ier, irenn i^r nur ©inen 'i^oxt. (Goe.) In this case too it will be best to hear only one. 31. COMPAEATIVE.— ifo)-« is used in English not only to compare one person or thing with another, but also to compare the degrees in which a person or thing possesses different qualities ; to contrast, in fact, adjectives, and not nouns. In this case mc^r is generally used in German, not the comparative degree. ®r i|i me^^r f(ug al8 rcc^tfc^afen. He is more clever than honest. Obs. Good writers occasionally use the comparative in this sense — 3)iefe 5fugrufungen ftnb r|etori[(^er, al§ griinblid^. (Lessing.) These exclamations are rather rhetorical than essential. 116 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 32. NEUTER ADJECTIVE AS NOUN.— The neuter of an adjective with the definite article is used much more freely in German than in English, and often requires to be rendered by several words. 3)a8 gurc^tcrlid^e, waS er erfa|rcn, ^atte auc^ neue .Kraft in i^m nad) gerufen. (Freytag.) The terrible experiences he had gone through had at the same time aroused in him new energy. 33. STRONG AND WEAK FORM.— The general rule is that an adjective preceded by an article or pronominal adjective takes the strong form if the article or pronominal adjective has no inflexion, but the weak form if the article or pronominal adjective is inflected. It is, in fact, the principle of economy ; the least possible amount of inflexion is used. Thus mein guter Sreunb, itnfer neue§ SBuc^, jener fc^Ied^te 5Kann. 34. INFLEXION AFTEE cittige, &c.— After einigf, etli($c, ankcrc, BteTe, ttcnige, mt^nxt, einjetne, manijt, foti^e, luetc^e, an adjective iu the nominative or occMsaftse plural retains the strong form. In the genitive plural the weak form is pref en;ed in modern German. Sie fcjioufcrifc^c Jtraft t|l in Bietc einjeinc Jtceife get^eitt. (Freytag). Creative energy is distributed over many different circles. !Det Sifct mmSjtx toarmen Steunbe teS ©djicnen. (Lessing.) The leal of many enthiisiasts for the Beautiful. The f oUowing is less common : - 88 tBor baS SScrtienfl cinigcr ^Sjimtt Sroucn in bee ©tatt. (Grimm.) It was the merit of some fair ladies in the town. 35. iDian^. — SJJonc^ before another adjective is usually declined, and the adjective takes in that case the weak form. In the nominative singular of all genders, and in the accusative singular feminine and neuter, the inflexion of mant^ may be omitted, and the strong form of the adjective used, as man(^ tonte SBIumen ; bte Saufia'^n tnanc^eS iugenblic^en SnIenteS. 36. Sfftt. — The word all involves some difB^culty both as to its own declen- sion and that of the adjectives that foUow it. I. The inflected form is used immediately before a noun,' or a noun understood, and means in the singular all, all the, every; in the plural, all, all the. This is the most usual way of rendering all the in the plural: Sldcr 3u|lanb i|l gut, bet natuttid^ iji une nernunfttg. (Goe.) Every condition is good which is natural or reasonable. S>tz SInttag tfl aUcr Ueicttegung lutit^. (Goe.) The offer is worthy of all consideration. Steib^art son Sieiient^al, bet geiffcoUlle unb ttoutigPe aUre ritterli^en ©Sngec itn breijt^nten Sa^rjuntcrt. (Freytag). Neidhart of Seuenthal, the most brilliant and original of all the knightly minstrels of the ISth century. ADJECTITES — SWf. 117 Notice especially SlfleS, meaning eoery one. aUo at(e« licW, fann Jtatl aDein m§t ^ajfen. (Soh.) Where all love, Charles alone eannot hate. II. The inflected form is often followed by a possessive or demonstrative adjective, sometimes by the definite article. S)o5I6, too »icte8 Stfen Itcgt aSon alter ©tege86cute aufgci^Suft. (Sch.) A vault where lie heaped up many implements of iron {not a mass of iron). SSiel, toenig, •when preceded by an article or adjective pronoun, are always declined— kaS bicte ®eft, fein toenigeS (Sett, &c. 38. Soldj- — There are three different ways of using foliiji : — I. It may precede the indefinite article, and is then undeclined. II. It may foUow the indefinite article, and is then declined. III. It may stand alone, without article, mostly, but not always, in the plural. ©oIc|i ein SBettcr tjl fettcn jU fotd^er ■5igc gtfommEn. (Goe.) Such heat has rarely been followed by such a storm. Sin fotd^cr Sluftrag fi^xtSt m\i^ niet/t, mit fo((i^en 'Se^a^m lanrt H^ ticncn. (Goe.) ' Such a commission does not frighten me; I can let you have such treasures. Ois. 1. If foldj precede another adjective, two forms are admissible. Sotc^ cHer SKonn, or f(il(|ier cble SKann. 04«. 2. Such a good man generally means so good a man, and is rendered ein foguter SKann. Obs. 3. Such a is often fo ein. 39. ADJECTIVE AFTER PEESONAL PRONOUNS. — After the plural, and the oblique cases of the singular of personal pronouns, the weak form of the adjective is used ; after the nominative singular, the strong form. ©0 itfj'i in kcutr^er JBfir. (Less.) Go then, you German tear. Stvijtt fanft, ifir ®clie6tcn, Sest peacefully, ye beloved. UKir armen 3Kannc. To unhappy me, 40. INDECLINABLES IN er.— The indeclinable words ending in %x formed from the names of towns and districts are really genitives plural. They are written with capital letters, which would not be the case if they were adjectives. 2)te Srcgbener ©aHecie, The Dresden Gallery (lit. the gallery of the Dresdeners). Ser SKainjer J&of, The Sotel de Mayence (lit. the hotel of the Mayencers). So also bcj; ©d^weijer <§of. AOCfUSATIVE CASE. 119 41. INELECTION DROPT IN POETRY, &o.— In poetry, and in fumiliar conversation, adjectives are used without inflection before the nominative and accusative singular neuter. Seise l^erte Slot^ tft SKeinen ©(ijdug an mcin cmtifinbent •Scrj. (Sch.) j&«ry inter sorrow of my people smote my heart, and, it felt the blow. So fc^on SBetter, *oor ®etb, ouf gut ®lui, &a. Adjectives are also ,undeclined when they follow their Buhstantives, as is often the case in ballad poetry. 5lls JJoifcc mtpaxt Mcfom Sum ^cU'gcn Sanb gejogen tarn, Da mu^t' er mit tern frommen J§{« JDuiii!) ciit ®e6itgc, toijl unb leer, (tlhland.) WTien Emperor Barbarossa the Good came marching to the Boly Land, needs must he pass with the pious army through a mountain region waste and bare. Obs. Xhis does not apply to adjectives accompanied by the article. ^ui) kie Slrmut^ mae^t flctj, tie umjccbicnte. (Goe.) JPoverty, too, undeserved poverty, makes us proud. Such an adjective is more like a substantive in apposition to that which precedes it. ACCTTSA^TIVE CASE. 42. MEANING OE ACCUSATIVE.— Tlie primary use of the Accusative is to answer the question whither. This comes out most clearly in G-erman in its use after the preposition an, aiif, and denoting motion or intended motion to a place. From this meaning it naturally passes to denote extension in space or time, and the analogous ideas of weight, measure, &c. And, above all, it is used to denote the direct object of a verb, or that to which its action is primarily directed. 43. SPACE AND TIME.— The accusative is used to form adverbial expressions answering to the questions how long ? how far ? over how much space ? Ungefdl^i: einc ©tunbe »on ber Stabt liegt Sffial^I^eim. (Goe.) About a league from the town lies Wahlheim. 120 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. ©0 fa^ er Dicle Siage, ©flf »iel Sa^re lang. (Soh.) So sat he many a day and many a year. Notice especially its use with compounds of ^cwuf, ^era6, &c., ©er 3K6nc^gtcufeI ^jolterte bie Xxt^iipt f^nauf. (Klinger.) 2he convent demon blundered upstairs. 44. 'I'l MT! "WHEN. — The answer to the question when, when made definite by some word like this, each, or an ordinal numeral, is put in the accusative. tn IJIitfen, Sreube airmen. These ac- cusatives denote that which is produced or exhibited by weeping, looking, &c., not the act itself, as in the case of Ramifil fdm^pfen, ©t^Iummer f^tunimern. Sa§ 3Ku:^Itab pu6t ©iamanten. (Heine). The mill wheel. scatters diamond spray {foams diamonds). eg regnete SStut. It rained Mood. 51. DOUBLE ACCUSATIVE.— With a verb of teaching the person taught is the direct object, the thing taught a cognate accusative. Hence lel^ren governs two accusatives. aBer ^at bic^ folc^e ©ttetc^e gele'^rt ? (Uhland.) Who taught yon such tricks f * ®r lief c8 iiicijt Set Hofen SBortcn tcttcnbcn. Se would not rest satisfied with mere words. ACOXJBATrvE 0A8E. 123 Oil. 1. 58 elel^rcti takes an aoousative of the-persou and a genitive of the thing, especially in the phrase : Semanbcn cines ffleffeten Wcl^wn. ■ ®Inut|l bu nidjit, ajaf Stfiumc bnnn unb teann bcr Sutunft un8 itttflvm. (Wieland.) Dost thou not believe that now and then dreams teach us things to come ? Ois. 2. The rule of the double accusative applies to a certain extent to fiogen, ask, when the accusative of the thing is a neuter pronoun. 3c^ toill t'v^ etYocLS fcagcn, I will ask you, something, 52. EEFLEXIYE VEEB8.— With most reflexive verba the reflexive pronoun is the nearer object, and in the ac- cusative case ; in some instances, however, it is the .dative, and then the verb, if naturally transitive, takes an accusative. Thus from fic^ einljilben. aSilbct eud^ ntfincn ©^recEcn ein ! (Lessing.) Picture to yourselves my terror! 53. IMPEESONAL VERBS.— Certain sensations, such as hunger, thirst, sleepiness, are expressed in German by im- personals with the accusative. Thus e3 ^ungctt luic^ or mid^ ^ungeit, / am hungry ; eg friert mi^, / am cold ; eg fcEilafert tni(|, I feel sleepy ; eg bur|iet mic^, / am thirsty ; eg Ijrennt mi^ auf ber 3unge, my tongue is parched; eg geliijiet mic^ nnc^ ettuag, / long for something. ^ungert beinen geinb, fo f^jeife t|n ; biirftet i^n, fo trante i^n. (Luth. Bible.) If thy enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drinh. @g jucEt unb IJrennt mtc^ nac^ bem 9^nmcn. (Schiller.) / am all impatience to discover the name (literally, I itch and burn). Obs. 1. Compare in old English, him hungrede, and in Scott — And ■when in Salamanca's cave Sim listed his magic wand to wave, The bells would ring in Notre Dame. Obs. 2. "We say eS friert mvi) cm ben •giinben, not bic ^Snbe frieim mic. See S 67 for the use of the dative in somewhat analogous cases. Obs. 3. Ordinary transitive verbs used as impersonals keep their accu- sative, as, a firgett mii^, lam vexed; c6 fteut mi4 I ««» pleased; cS buntt, methinks, takes sometimes an accusative, sometimes a dative. @S giit takes an accusative of the thing. 124 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. Slutt gttt e8 f^neKen SRatl^. (SoHller.) Now speedy counsel is all-important, (Ss gilt feinen gutm Stamen, Sis good name is at stake. 54. THE IMPEESONAL @g gicBt,— ©S gte6t, meaning there is or there are, takes an accusative. The real meaning of the phrase is "some power or other produces for us," but this meaning has become quite obscured. ©a giefit'§ einen grofen