mnmmmmmm iucatii thfi •*Munson at ^M FI^ sttmmmmsmtmm Hate (Stollt^t of Agriculture At (flocnell Uninecaitg 3tt)aca. S. 1. Cornell University Library QH 51.M92 Education througii nature study, founda« 3 1924 000 018 634 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000018634 EDUCATION THROUGH NATURE STUDY FOUNDATIONS AND METHOD BY JOHN P. MUNSON, Ph.D. University of Chicago; B.S.^ M.S. University of Wisconsin; Ph,B, Va/f; Department of Biology^ Washington State Normal School NEW YORK AND CHICAGO E. L. KELLOGG & CO. Copyright, 1903, b^ E. L. KELLOGG & CO. New York, (^ ZO 16- 1 (ffii^ttbetl) SlBcrgsbttl illnneon PREFACE This work is the result of a course of lectures deliv- ered by the author on Methods of Science-teaching. It owes its form and content, first, to impressions con- cerning the scope and character of current nature- study literature; and second, to impressions regarding the general scientific preparation of teachers who have been under his instruction and supervision in institute, normal school, and normal training-school work. Current nature-study literature, dealing chiefly with the facts of nature study, fails to aid the teacher in two important difficulties where help seems to be most needed, namely: (i) many teachers fail to grasp the real significance and importance of the subject; (2) they do not know how to handle the subject, — how to begin, how to continue, and how to end the study of an object. This book is an attempt to remove those difficulties. The facts of natural science are so numerous that they cannot be condensed into a small volume. Be- sides, even a complete catalogue of all the facts of nature cannot be substituted for a proper study of nature itself. Nature study in book form is a contradiction in terms. The "book of nature" has its own message to give to the inquiring mind; and this message can be communicated only by nature itself. Interpreters have thus far been rather unsuccessfully employed, because we have not been able to become as little 6 Preface children, asking their own mother their own questions in their own language. The problem of education is, at bottom, the biologi- cal problem of growth and development. There is no one law which better expresses the fundamental factors in development than that of "action and reaction." This excludes the notion of isolation; and emphasizes the fact of mutual interdependence; the conception of matter and motion; the kinetic and the static elements in nature, and the organic imity of the world. With our advances in sciences, especially the biologi- cal sciences, we are able now, better than ever before, to appreciate the supreme importance of the physical basis of our intellectual Ufe. Strange to say, it is only recently that the human mind has begim to reahze that things grow; and that education is growth, modi- fied and sustained by external influences. With the marked shifting of psychology, both in matter and method, which biological research has made necessary; with the accumulating results of comparative philology and anthropology, showing the origin and development of language, both in the indi- vidual and in the race, to be dependent on physical and biological factors; with the ever- increasing com- plexity of social conditions accompanying social and industrial evolution, making the environment of children more and more artificial and abnormal, it may be safe to predict that nature study, as a branch of school work, will receive even greater attention than it now does. It is now fifteen years since I first pubhshed an outhne for teaching nature study in the grades. The method here presented is the result of a natural selec- tion resulting from my experience in all grades of school work and with all kinds of pupils. I have been convinced by this experience that a good method of Preface 7 teaching nature study must be based on the more fundamental laws of life and development, rather than on the individual tastes of him who applies it. These individual Hkes and dishkes are transient phases, fluctuating and varying, and apt to lead to those extremes which usually end in a reaction. Such extremes are, therefore, to be avoided. We are to base our method of teaching nature study neither upon the economic value of the subject nor upon the purely emotional or sentimental aspect of it. We are not to make it so practical as to render it impracticable; nor so sentimental as to make it silly. That would be an unfortunate tendency in our schools, if children should be taught to know the busy bee, only to deter- mine how many pounds of honey it can produce, and how much hard cash, reckoned in dollars and cents, it is worth to us. Groveling utilitarianism, like absurd sentimentaHsm, are passing phases of extremes in edu- cation that cannot endure. We need knowledge, united with common sense, to control these two ex- tremes of civilized life. Knowledge wedded to common sense, yielding that intellectual honesty which contact with nature promotes, must find the golden mean between erratic extremes. Considering that the majority of public-school children do not pnter the high school, there is Uttle danger, perhaps, of making the work too scientific. AU the science they are able to master will not hurt them any, as some teachers seem to fear. Much is being said now about child study and child interest. May not some attention to the proper method of studying objects enable us better to understand the child? From what we already know of these obscure subjects, it seems reasonable to assume that methods n teaching should be such that the fullest exercise of all the pupil's powers is secured, and the natural results of those activities realized. 8 Preface It is believed that when the foundations of nature study are understood, and when the aims to be at- tained have become clearly defined in the teacher's mind, a method will be developed by the thinking teacher. Such a method must be the true method so far as that particular teacher is concerned. In submitting this rather formal special method of treating nature study in the grades, it is not intended to instruct those who have a satisfactory method of their own; but, rather, to assist those who feel that they have not yet been able to see their way clear amid such an array of objects and phenomena as those with which nature study deals. A sense of fatigu- ing bewilderment is often felt by the inexperienced teacher. This doubtless must always be the case so long as both the method and the matter of nature study are chaotic. Uniformity and law must be discovered here as elsewhere. J. P. MUNSON. Washington State Normal School. TABLE OF COMTENTS PAGE Preface 5 PART I FOUNDATIONS AND METHOD OF NATURE STUDY CHAPTER I Section I. 1. Introduction (historical) 19 2. Meaning of the Back-to-Nature Movement 22 3. Science and Culture 24 Section II. Stages in Human Culture 26 li. Economic Stages 26 1. The Hunting Stage 26 2. The Fishing Stage 27 3. The Pastoral Stage 27 4. The Agricultural Stage 27 5. The Industrial Stage 28 b. Probable Causes of the Back-to-nature Movement in Education 29 CHAPTER II Section III. General Aims of Nature Study 33 J. . Ideals and Cultvire in Nature Study 35 2. The Senses in Nature Study 37 Section TV, Training of the Judgment and Imagination.. 40 1. The Judgment in Nature Study 40 2. The Imagination in Nature Study 42 Section V. The Esthetic and Ethical Function of Nature Study 45 1. The Beautiful in Nature Study 45 2. The Ethical Function of Nature Study 48 9 10 Table of Contents PAGE Section VI. Knowledge and Character-building 50 I. Nature Study and Character-building 50 ■J.. Knowledge Gained in Nature Study 52 Section VII. Expression and Generalization 54 1. Expression in Nature Study 54 2. Oral Expression 57 3. Generalization in Nature Study 58 CHAPTER III general methods Section VIII. Methods or Reasoning 66 1. The Deductive Method 66 2. The Inductive Method 67 3. The Inductive-Deductive Method 70 Section IX. General Methods of Teaching 72 1. The Discovery Method 72 2. The Investigation Method 73 3. The Thumb-and-rule Method 75 4. The Text-book and Recitation Method 77 5. The Laboratory Method 78 6. The Socratic Method. , 80 7. The Catechetical or Developmental Method 81 8. The Lecture or Telling Method 82 9. The Confirmation Method 83 Section X. Special Method of Teaching Naturl. Study. . . 84 Introduction 84 1. The Object 85 2. The Pupil 8s 3. The Method 86 TENTATIVE GENERALIZATIONS AND GUIDING PROPOSITIONS Section XI. Guide 93 1. Step I-X 92 2. Program for Step I. — Seeing 93 3. Program for Step II. — Discussion 93 4. Program for Step III. — Comparing 93 5. Program for Step IV. — Field Lesson 94 6. Program for Step V. — Experimentation 94 7. Program for Step VI. — Recitation 94 8. Program for Step VII. — Supplementary Injorma- lion 95 9. Program for Step VIII. — Representation 95 10. Program for Step IX. — Written Expression 95 11. Program for Step X. — Reading 95 Table of Contents li CHAPTER IV SUGGESTIONS AMD COUKSE OH STUDY PAGE Section Xn. Suggestions to the Teacher no 1. On the Teacher's Preparation no 2. On Using tiie Guide no 3. The Distinctive Features of the Method in 4. Some Advantages of the Method in 5- On the Order of Presentation in 6. The Steps Outlined in the Guide 112 7. Rules that may be Useful 112 8. The Pupil's Interest 113 9. Planning the Work 113 10. The Course of Study 114 n. How Much Work 114 12. No Written Examination 114 13. Course of Study forPritnary Grades 115 14. First Primary Method 114 15. Course of Study for Grammar Grades 117 Section XIII. Suggestions on the Steps 118 I. — Seeing 118 u. The First Step 118 1. The Gathering of Material 118 ^. The Teacher's Duty of Collecting 118 3. The First Thing to do 118 4. Observing an Object 119 5. Too Much Should not be Expected.' 1 19 n. — Discussion 119 6. The Second Step 119 ±. Nature is Suggestive 120 2. Suggestive Questions 120 m. — Comparison 121 c. Step Three 121 1. Facts Properly Assimilated 122 2. The Means to Mental Assimilation 122 3. The Teacher 122 Compaeative Tables 124-131 IV. — Field Lesson 123 d. Step Fottr 123 1. The Field Work of Step Four 123 2. Nature Study Calendars 132 Some Problems for Outdoor Study 133 J.. Relation of the Object to Man 133 2. Relation of the Object to Animals 133 3. Relation of the Object to Plants 134 4. Relation of the Object to Soil 134 5. Relation of the Object to Moisture 134 6. Relation of the Object to Light 135 7. Relation of the Object to Heat 135 8. Relation of the Object to Elevation 135 12 Table of Contents PAGE V. — Experiments 136 e. The fifth Step 136 Some Simple Experiments 136 I. On Solutions 136 II. On the Reaction of Starch 136 III. On Diffusion 136 IV. On Evaporation 137 V. On the Effects of Heat 137 VI. On Absorption 138 VII. On the Effects of Surface Exposure 138 VIII. On the Rise of Liquids 139 IX. On Transpiration 140 X. On How Transpiration is Regulated 140 XI. On the Parts of Stems that Convey Sap 141 XII. On Respiration 141 XIII. On Germination 142 XIV. On Tropisms, Direction of Growth 142 XV. On the Influence of Environment 143 /. VI. — Recitation 143 g. VII. — Lecture 143 h. VIII. — Drawing 145 i. IX. — Writing 148 j. X. — Reading 149 CHAPTER V EXAMPLES OF PtTPILS' WORK IN NATtTKE STUDY. Section XIV. The Apple-tree 150 Section XV. The Grasshopper 156 Section XVI. The Sage-brush Galls and their Inhabi- tants 168 SectionXVII. Biology of the Paramecium..... 175 PART II LIFE: ITS FORMS AND ITS MANIFESTA- TIONS CHAPTER I LIFE OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS Section I. Introductory 187 Section II. Microscopic Organisms 187 I- Algi 187 2. Fungi 188 3. Lichens 189 4. Bacteria ipo Table of Contents 13 PAGE 5. Distinction between Plants and Animals 192 6. The CeU 193 7. Structure of the Cell 196 a. Life Phenomena of the CeU 196 6. The Germ-cell or Ovum 199 c. Heredity and Variation 201 d. Life of the Complex Organism 202 e. Disease 203 /. The Primitive Mind 203 Section III. The Principal Facts in the History of a Flowering Plant 204 1. Physiology of Absorption and Circulation 205 2. Transpiration, 206 3. Respiration 206 4. Assimilation 207 5. Growth :.: 208 6. Reproduction 209 7. Heredity 209 8. Natural Selection 209 Section IV. Some Important Facts in the Life of Animals. . 210 I. Fertilization 211 ■^. Segmentation 211 3. Formation of the Embryo 211 4. Different Kinds of Eggs 212 5. Tissues 213 6. Organs, Systems, and Functions 213 7. Nutrition 213 8. Food 214 9. Digestion 215 10. Absorption and Circulation 216 11. The Blood 216 12. The Circulatory System 216 13. The Object of the Circulation 217 14. Assimilation 217 15. Secretion 218 16. Excretion 218 17. Respiration 219 18. Sensation 220 19. Sense-organs 221 ao. Development 222 21. Reflex Action and Instinct 222 CHAPTER II THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Section V. Organic Development 223 1. The Evolution Theory 223 2. The Interaction Theory 226 3. The Social Theory 227 14 Table of Contents PAGE 4. The Humanistic Standpoint 228 3. The Recapitulation Theory 231 Section VI. iNiELLEcitrAL Development 233 1 . Stages in the Development of Thought 233 2. The Old Psychology 236 3. The New Psychology 238 4. Original and Borrowed Ideas 242 5. Origin of Language 243 6. The Use of Language 248 CHAPTER III SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OP PLANT AND ANIMAL FORMS Section VII. Introductory 250 I. Naming of Plants and Animals 250 Section VIII. Classification of Structures, Functions, and Adaptations of Plants 252 1. General Analysis of Flowers 252 2. Adaptations of Flowers 255 3. Fertilization of Flowers 255 4. Fruit 256 5. Leaves 258 6. Roots 262 7. Stems 263 8. Cells of Plant Tissues 266 9. Seeds 267 10. Soils and Germination of Seeds 270 11. Buds 270 a. Classification of Plants (Flowering) 272 b. Classification of Cryptogams (Flowerless) 273 Section IX. Classification of Animals 275 1. Metazoa , 275 2. Subkingdoms and Classes 275 3. Orders and Genera of Mammals 276 4. Orders and Genera of Birds 278 5. Orders and Genera of Reptiles 280 6. Orders and Genera of Amphibia 280 7. Orders and Genera of Fishes 281 8. Orders and Genera of Arachnida 282 9. Orders and Genera of Insects 282 10. Orders and Genera of Crustacea 283 11. Orders and Genera of MoUusks 284 12. Classes and Orders of Worms 281; 13. Classes and Orders of Ecbinoderms 286 14. Classes, Orders, and Genera of Coelenterates . 288 15. Orders and Genera of Sponges 287 16. Protozoa — Classes, Orders, and Genera 288 Table of Contents 15 CHAPTER IV MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT PAGE Section X. Collecting and Preserving Material ^ 289 I. For Collecting Plants 289 ■i. For Preserving Plants 289 3. For Mounting Specimens 290 Animals 290 4. For Collecting Animals 290 5. On Raising Flies, Butterflies, and Moths 291 6. On Killing Insects 292 7. A Collecting-net 293 8. Tools 293 Section XI. Reference Books for the Teacher's Library 294 I. Prose 294 3. Child Literature 297 part II jFoun&atlons anb /iDetbob of iRature Stubs EDUCATION THROUGH NATURE CHAPTER I Introduction I. Historical. That period in the history of western civilization commonly called the dark ages was pecuHar for the absence of those startling events or revolutions of society with which primitive history deHghts to deal. It was the age of faith, when the human mind, tak- ing things for granted as tradition explained them, felt nothing of that agitation and unrest which is so essential to the discovery of new truths. It was not, however, a barren period. Rather the adolescent period of the race, when, regardless of conventional- ism and art, men concerned themselves, not with the greater universal problems, but rather with the Uttle every-day problems which their close contact with nature was sure to occasion. In that close contact with nature there doubtless was promise of better things. That rugged physical strength, that knowledge of things, and that power of bravely coping with natural forces, of which north- em mythology so eloquently speaks, were probably the essential conditions for that richer unfolding of latent powers, that fruitage, which first began to appear at the time of the renaissance. Western civilization 19 20 Education through Nature has often been traced back to the renaissance, as if all the preceding ages had been a mere blank in the intellectual life of the peoples of 'western Europe. It is only recently that it is being realized that those obscure centuries were really the maturing age in which western Europe became capable of that remark- able awakening. The fact that the splendid Greek and Roman culture was so eagerly seized upon at this time by the people of western Europe testifies to a maturity which no other people seems to have possessed. The importance of it all, in this connection, lies in the fact that this Greek and Roman culture, when once discovered, was taken to be the climax of human achievement; and in the mistaken notion that such culture could be transferred from one race to another, directly, without the preliminary process of growth. It was thought that culture must necessarily be trans- mitted with the language of those civilized peoples. Hence all mental effort was turned away from former subjects relating to nature, and directed towards the acquisition of an artiiicial culture, supposed to reside, like a hidden virtue, in forms and symbols of thought. The novelty of it so dazzled the mind that it was not perceived that the races in which this culture had developed had succumbed to the very effects of its artificial and enervating influence. The study of symbols and the contemplation of forms devoid of actual Uving content, so sedulously practiced through- out the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was itself an artificial system, which, doubtless, would have ultimately had a similar effect, even if real classic culture could have been acquired and transmitted in the way supposed. The Greeks and Romans, them- selves, had lived the life and breathed the very air of that culture which their imitators were trying to resurrect in themselves by means of soulless symbols. To this should be added the prevailing conception Introduction 21 that man is the center of the universe. Self-contem- plation and self-0.bsorption thus became inevitable; "the testimony of the senses was regarded as vulgar, except in so far as it seemed to point to man's super-, natural origin, and to him as the end and aim of all created things. There is food for reflection in the fact, as seen in the history of science, that civilized man has wilHngly lent implicit confidence to the testimony of the senses so long as this testimony seemed to flatter his self-esteem, as in the case of the sun revolving about him, but has obstinately refused to credit such testimony when less favor- able to his dignity. Introspective methods of observation, together with the study of meaningless and empty symbols, not only developed visionary systems of philosophy, but es- tranged man more and more from the natural order of things. Developing the highly artificial concep- tion of society that it is all a matter of purely human invention, having no foundation in nature, where no true ethical standards can be found, the most clever of these humanists could easily justify any order of existing conditions, by inventing systems of psychol- ogy, ethics, and philosophy, yes, even science, suited to their own particular proclivities and wants. Social distinctions, amounting to feudalism on the one hand and human slavery on the other, arose and were sanctioned by those merely clever ones who thus unjustly had gained an artificial supremacy. Not all, however, were thus to be deceived. Shift- ing standpoints made themselves felt when Coperni- cus, Kepler, Tycho Brahe, Newton, and Galileo turned their attention to the motions of the heavenly bodies and the laws of gravitation and force. The changes in men's fundamental conceptions of the universe, thus early initiated, and carried forward by Bruno, Laplace, Descartes, Spinoza, and others, were finally 22 Education through Nature completed by Darwin, in 1859, by his epoch-making work, the " Origin of Species." In pohtics and education, too, a few brave souls, more devoted to truth and justice than to artificial distinctions, began the difficult task of reforming society, and making social, political, and educational activities conform more to the laws of nature. Bacon, in his " Novum Organum ' ' and "Advancement of Learn- ing," had pointed out the errors to which the human mind is Hable when wholly divorced from nature; and had suggested the proper inductive method of studying nature. Rousseau had given the cry "back to nature " in such a way that it could hardly be ignored. Locke had laid the foundations for the new psychology, and Pestalozzi had attempted a practical realization of a natural method in teaching. There is, of course, room for difference of opinion as to how far reformers are the product of the spirit of the age, or how far that spirit is due to reformers. But, in any case, the benefits of the movement, thus initiated, in turning men's attention back to nature were reahzed in the progress of literature, arts, and science of the nineteenth century. Meaning of the " Back-to-Nature " Movement. It is important to note, in the movement sketched above, the following stages of development : (i) Europe, during the first centuries, was still in a state of semi- barbarism. So closely were these nations united to nature that their mythology is but a personification of it. Gods and giants, such as Thor, Balder, Freya, and Hoder, personifying the forces of nature, were the imaginary beings residing in Thunder, Spring, and Winter and determining men's fortunes and fates. (2) Then came the age of faith. The acceptance of Christianity, which had been developed in a sunnier clime, among a people who were less profoundly Introduction 23 impressed by the forces of nature, and given to a less eventful life and consequently more contemplative habits, can be explained only on the supposition of a gradual emancipation of the western mind, and an increased capacity for abstract generalization. The acceptance of monotheism involves such capacity. (3) The renaissance shows a greater emancipation, and a higher capacity of the mind to deal in abstrac- tions; otherwise Greek and Roman culture could have appealed to the European mind no more strongly than to the minds of other peoples similarly exposed. (4) Finally, the return to nature was not a sudden revolution, though it culminated in the French Revo- lution, but a growth of years and decades. These steps may, doubtless, be natural steps in mental evolution. It is only after these phases had been passed through, when the peoples of western Europe had become aware of the knowledge and arts of the human race as a whole, that development of science in the modem sense was possible. This may also be true, to a certain extent, of the individual. It is doubtless true that to pass from childhood into the purely scientific stage would be to abridge the natural course of development. Had Europe re- mained in the earhest phase of development, we could have had no greater control over nature to-day than have the savages of central Africa or the American Indian. Had Europe remained in the humanistic stage of the seventeenth century, modem science would have been as little developed among us as it is among the Hindoos. Hindooism is a clear case of arrested development; and there are many among Europeans even now who are at the point of that stagnation when the mind seeks its activities in sense- less occultism. The caste system of India shows what the human mind is capable of when divorced ffom nature. It is the desire and aim of the Hindoo 24 Education through Nature Brahmin so far to emancipate himself from nature as even to torture his own body, in order that he may be released from it, and be merged into an eternal unconsciousness, called Nirvana. Modern science has no attractions for him. The Hindoo is a fair sample of what a failure to return to nature means. Nirvana is a state outside the realm of natural law. The western mind, notwithstanding the renaissance, did not become so thoroughly artificial. The great variety of natural features, such as climate, relief, coast line, and water communication, which con- tributed so considerably to the development of Greek and Roman civiHzation by their interactions, was felt throughout all Europe, and gave rise to that com- merce and intercommunication between different races which has always tended to develop the prac- tical side of man's powers. The return to nature was, therefore, not a return to barbarism, but rather the application of the mind to nature, after that mind had won its freedom and mastered the arts of culture. It meant an appeal to nature for standards wherewith to guide the liberated mind; for the mind, being not wholly a law unto itself, but necessarily related to things outside itself, must conform to that which it would understand and master. Men thus learned to know nature in the light of free- dom. Democracy became possible when this freedom of the mind enabled it to grasp the ethical idea which nature teaches in its interdependence, and which is, at bottom, in accord with the ethics of Christianity. In such society of freemen, made stable by the recog- nition of ethical laws, the development of modern science became possible. Science and Culture. ■ Science is often spoken of as a social product. In the first place, no single individual is able to master Introduction 25 all modem science. In the second place, modem science is to a certain extent the result of cooperative effort. Science, therefore, presupposes organized so- ciety, and that implies more or less of human culture. Specialization, which must necessarily exist in any highly organized society, impHes a diversity of human activities, and such diversity requires more or less of science. We can hardly, therefore, separate science from culture or culture from science, as is so fre- quently attempted, by those who look upon science as something inferior if not positively degrading. Weak and silly minds often betray this prejudice against science. If we define science as knowledge reduced to a sys- tem, it is evident that, taking the world as a whole, no single individual is equal to the task, and that such classification is possible only in a comparatively stable society. We may conclude, therefore, that science is the ripest fruit of man's intellectual development. The history of human civilization makes that evident. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that science has had nothing to do with the creation of those conditions which made the higher development of science possible. Knowledge of nature and her laws must always have been the basis on which human culture has advanced. Temporary or prolonged dis- regard of nature, and an absorption in an artificial atmosphere of art, as in the case of Greece and Rome, has always ended in degeneration and decay. The reason for this is, perhaps, that art can have no stand- ard as a guide if nature is ignored. Man can improve on nature only by taking nature as a model. By knowing nature we can lead her where we will, but she will not be coerced. AppUed science, such as the locomotive and the telegraph, consists chiefly in putting one natural force against another in such a way as to enable the stronger force to overcome the 26 Education through Nature weaker. Pure science enables us to put things to- gether in such a way as to make natural forces minis- ter to our wants. It is largely by thus ministering to human wants that nature, in the harness of science, has enabled us to rise from one level to another in the scale of culture. Having mastered the little problems, we have been made free to occupy ourselves with larger ones. If this is true of society as a whole, it may be equally true of the individual, namely, that science and art must be acquired together, in order to enable the indi- vidual to appreciate the highest culture, and finally be capable of the pursuit of science for its own sake. II. Stages in Human Culture. Economic Stages. Human society, culture and science, are the results of slow growth. Changes are sometimes brought about by revolutions that are the results of great discoveries. Such events, however, as, for instance, the discovery of America, are them- selves the result of slow changes and accretions to human knowledge which are often overlooked in the contemplation of the magnitude of the event. Nevertheless, in a general view of human develop- ment, there can be distinguished certain stages that are characterized by some feature not so marked in other stages. Thus from the point of view of economics the following stages are noticeable: I. The Hunting Stage. Men with scarcely any social relations wander about over large areas of the earth's surface in search of what food nature produces spontaneously. There is no permanent abode, and hence no stores laid by for a "rainy day." Each day brings its own joy or care, it may be plenty, it may be want. Tools, of the crudest material and construc- tion, Hke the bow and flint arrow, were the only prop- erty possessed by these savages. Introduction 27 2. The Fishing Stage. Men were now capable of slightly more settled conditions; a rude hut served for shelter; and a few families were aggregated into the nucleus of a primitive community. A constant supply of food and the conditions for procuring it developed some idea of laying by stores and of possessing crude property. 3. The Pastoral Stage. Animals were domesti- cated and taken care of, thus affording abundance of food, and an incentive to increase flocks and herds. Men were aggregated into tribes, having patriarchs or chiefs, and the first beginnings of a patriarchal gov- erimient. Hands are now busy building temporary tents, making matting and basket-work, tanning skins, making yarn, and weaving various fabrics for domestic use. Stranger is synonymous with enemy ; and bloody conflicts with encroaching intruders are frequent. A dreamy Hfe, too, this is, when the first beginnings of science, art, and philosophy make their appearance. 4. The Agricultural Stage. Permanent relation with the soil is now secured. The cultivation of the soil is really a process of domesticating plants. In that way they can be made to increase more rapidly than in a state of nature, and thus furnish more abundant pasture for the flocks of the preceding stage, more abundance of food for man, and more raw material with which to develop the various domestic arts, such as cooking, spinning, weaving, carpentering, etc. Dependence upon nature is still very marked Rain and sunshine are necessary to a good crop, no matter how well the soil is plowed and cultivated. Yet increased rewards for dihgence are more certain here than in former stages; and the incentive to bodily exertion is considerable. Inventions are now often found to be useful; and man's ingenuity is taxed to increase the area of cultivated land without increasing the amount of necessary labor. 28 Education through Nature The care of animals, and the cultivation of plants, lead to an intimate knowledge of biological laws, such as can be gained through experience alone. This empirical knowledge never becomes scientific, how- ever, as it is acquired unconsciously and incidentally rather than intentionally. Yet it is doubtless to such empirical knowledge of plants and animals, of the de- pendence of the seasons upon the movements of the heavenly bodies, of qualities of soil as being deter- mined by its chemical and organic ingredients, etc., that modern science owes its beginning. 5. The Industrial and Commercial Stage. This stage is characterized by a high speciahzation of economic activities. Much of the domestic manufac- ture of the agricultural stage is now given over to special manufacturing agencies. Country hfe is re- stricted to few kinds of work. By the invention of machinery, farm life is reduced to a mere routine of sowing and harvesting. Work, other than this of sowing and reaping and feeding of stock, is trans- ferred to factories, around which spring up great centers of population. These are often entirely cut off from the rural districts, save by a highly artificial system of transportation and exchange. Within these centers of population all is art in the sense that very few of the original physical conditions, such as soil, water, pure air, and sunshine, remain. Labor is specialized. The individual is narrowed to the mechanical performance of a single kind of work, exercising perhaps only a Hmited number of faculties. It is in these centers of population, amid the nervous stress of a highly developed commercial life and of a highly complex social life, that the need for a return to nature is most strongly felt. None, however, reahze fully the effects of these enervating influences who have never known what country life and real personal contact with nature is. Introduction 29 Probable Causes of the Back-to-Nature Movement in Education. Schools are comparatively modern inventions. The necessity for education has no doubt been discovered by the race in its struggle for existence. Economic conditions are extremely important factors in human Ufe, causing changes in social conditions by which a multitude of new wants arise, and many new and unexpected requisites for the satisfaction of those wants become necessary. Then, too, varying needs give rise to new ideals in the pursuit of which indi- vidual habits and social customs are formed. Fashion can be explained very satisfactorily from an economic standpoint; and educational theories and practice are not wholly free from a taint of utiHtarianism in some strata of human society. The struggle .for existence assumed a new phase when the race advanced to the higher social stages. In the savage stage it was necessary in the struggle for existence to possess physical strength, courage, endurance, and skill in handling rude weapons of defense and offense in battle. Hence the youth was trained with these ends in view chiefly by the parent. In the barbarous stages the struggle for existence demanded some power of associated action in war, and a knowledge of the earth's surface where pasture and water for the flocks could be found; as well as some knowledge of astronomy by which the seasons of the year could be foretold. Hence such education as the Arabs, for instance, have to-day. The agricultural stage requires a knowledge of the soil, of stock, of machinery, of the vernacular language of the community, besides reading, writing, spelHng, and ciphering. In the agricultural stage this is the limit of education absolutely required, and hence often the extent of schooling which even the farmer boy of tp-day receives, 30 Education through Nature The struggle for existence in the commercial stage of social development required this and much more. Physical prowess was not now so essential as intellectual acumen. The highest intellectual training was, there- fore, sought as the one essential qualification for success. With the increased specialization of society and the accumulation of wealth and luxury, the fine arts also developed. Even amid such surroundings a human struggle for existence, of a subtle kind, exists; but the struggle is now transferred from the physical to the intellectual. Men no longer use their fists as weapons, but wound the sensibilities of their adver- saries by secret thrusts and subtle sarcasm and win their victories by shrewd diplomacy, clever calcula- tion, and insidious connivances. Hence all those intel- lectual accompUshments of. oratory, dialectics, and foreign languages which enable the possessor to influence and control other men's minds became' the ideal of education. This was finally carried so far that a conventional system of professions, beliefs, and practices having no foundation in nature and often in direct violation of fundamental natural laws, pervaded the school and society ahke. Labor and practical affairs were looked upon as vulgar, and the secluded scholar delving in old manuscripts within a monastery or writing Latin sermons in prose or poetry for the edification of the ignorant multitudes became the worshiped idol of the hour. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that in England, for instance, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, next to the court fool, the subtle masters of dialectics and the most consummate diplomatists, if not liars, were socially the elite of the realm. Hu- manism had thus reached its climax. A few strong natures, either suffering the inevitable consequences of this artificial and really unpractical training in their struggle for existence, or else true to Introduction 31 their better moral natures, became painfully conscious of this depraved state of affairs, and began to utter vigorous protests against the whole social system. Back to nature became the watchword. Besides these reformers, there were less obvious though more potent forces turning men's minds to the reaUty of things. The development of wants accompanying social integration and social differen- tiation led the strongest minds to employ themselves with the solution of those problems which would tend to satisfy those larger wants of society as opposed to individual wants. Hmnanistic acumen turned its attention to nature, testing the metaphysical system of human behefs and the artificial practices of their age by skillful observation and experiment. The remarkable results of this method in diecovering means whereby to control the physical forces of nature gave a renewed impetus to the growth of science. In the presence of modem science, the struggle for exist- ence has again been shifted, and other qualifications are now essential in that struggle; hence shifting standpoints and new ideals. The idol now is no longer the secluded scholar, but rather a "rough rider" or the president of a steel trust. If we consider the remarkable complexity of social structure at the present time, where each individual must have a special fitness for special work, or be an outcast of society, we can readily understand that, while the forces of social evolution have from time to time caused shifting standpoints, and the changing needs in the struggle for existence have caused changing ideals, these latter, in turn, tend to produce varying needs. The needs arising from the struggle for existence are now chiefly physical and intellectual. To be able successfully to satisfy such wants, physical and intellectual training are of course essential. AppUed science thus becomes a prominent factor in education. 32 Education through Nature . But ideals will not be materialized, and they conse- quently create wants that do not refer so much to the grosser struggle for existence as to the enjoyment of the higher pleasures of the spiritual life. The enjoyment of the good, the beautiful, and the true are needs which every normal human being must feel as soon as released from the relentless grasp of nature by a successful struggle for material existence. Moral education becomes, therefore, an essential element of the ideal education. Our relation to the whole as parts of the infinite must ultimately be the problem of evety sane mind which has seriously strug- gled for intellectual emancipation. Montesquieu, in his " Spirit of Laws," treats law not as regards its content, but rather as regards its rela- tion to various grades of human society. Is it true that the relation of one thing to another which is too subtle to be stated in physical terms, too obscure to be but vaguely or not at all comprehended by us, is what we mean by the spiritual? The development of the biological and social sciences, and especially the theory of evolution, enables us better to appreci- ate the importance of the relationships of things, especially the interdependence of human beings and their vital relation to lower creatures. The social side of education is being emphasized as never before. One excuse for the introduction of nature study is that it promotes this social adjustment by developing a keen interest in Uving things, and a sympathy with things that are not immediately objects of personal selfishness. Finally, the breaking up of feudahsm, the aboKtion of human slavery, and the spread of democracy are only so many evidences of a powerful tendency of even the human mind to conform to the laws which nature in its universal interdependence teaches. The works of man crumble and decay, and only that is enduring which embodies the eternal laws of nature. CHAPTER II General Aims of Nature Study m. Introductory. The most general aim of nature study in schools is to promote normal development. More particularly, it aims to place the pupil amid such influences as the laws of human society, on the one hand, and the laws of nature, on the other, prescribe for the final reaUzation, in the pupil, of the higher ideals. Nature study is not intended to supplant the ideals of culture. It is intended to lay such a foundation in body and in mind as shall render the realization of social ideals possible. The achievements of the human race during past ages are not to be ignored. Traces of these achieve- ments are to be found in written records, sculpture, painting, music, and in social and poHtical institu- tions. Nature study aims to lay that foundation in the plastic mind and body that wiU enable the pupil to appropriate these treasures of the past, and to add, perhaps, something out of his own hfe to the sum of human happiness, the sum of hmnan knowledge, and the simi of human achievement. Thus nature study is not for dispensing with the art of reading, but rather to make intelligent reading possible; not to dispense with wTiting or arithmetic, but rather to make these something more than mere imitation of muscular movements and manipulation of symbols with no content. In short, nature study is intended 34 Education through Nature to lay the foundations of all arts and sciences, by afford- ing that experience with nature on which all art and science depend. Emerson could not be accused of materialism, nor of a bias towards realism, nor of dogmatic adherence to a philosophical system. He says: "Words are signs of natural facts. The use of the outer creation is to give us language for the beings and changes of the inward creation. Every word which is used to express a moral or intellectual fact, if traced to its root, is found to be borrowed from some material appearance. Right means straight; wrong means twisted. Spirit, primarily, means wind ; transgression, the crossing of a hne; supercilious, the raising of the eyebrow. We say the heart to express emotion; the head to denote thought; and thought and emotion are words borrowed from sensible things, and now appropriated to spiritual nature. Most of the process by which this transformation is made is hidden from us, in the remote time when language was framed; but the same tendency may be daily observed in children. . . . When simphcity of character and the sovereignty of ideas is broken up by the preva- lence of secondary desires — the desire of riches, of pleasure, of power, and of praise — and duplicity and falsehood take the place of simplicity and truth, the power over nature, as an interpreter of the will, is in a degree lost; new imagery ceases to be created, and old words are perverted to stand for things which are not; a paper currency is employed when there is no bullion in the vaults. Hundreds of writers may be found in every long-civilized nation who for a short time believe, and make others believe, that they see and utter truths who do not themselves clothe one thought in its natural garment, but who feed uncon- sciously on the language created by the primary writers 6f the country— those, namely, who hold primarily on General Aims of Nature Study 35 nature. But wise men pierce this rotten diction and fasten words again to visible things." Nature study aims to prevent that rotten diction of which Emerson speaks, and to guard also against that intellectual bankruptcy which compels the use of a paper currency because there is no bullion in the vaults. Ideals and Culture in Nature Study. The reaction theory recognizes the relation exist- ing between all things, the relation of man to man and to the physical universe. This relation is sup- posed to be one of action and reaction. It, therefore, avoids the extremes of the preformed- evolution theory, the complete isolation of the mind as in the humanistic standpoint, or the extreme, practical view of motor activity of the social theory. (See Part II, Sec. III.) Interaction is supposed to result in gradual change whereby complete adaptation to environment is se- cured. Adaptation to human environment means culture. The reaction whereby this harmony be- tween man and man is established is a nervous reac- tion, and involves the development of acute sensibihty to all those influences which human society exerts. Acuteness and delicacy in sense-organs and quick cerebral response to every peripheral stimulation are essential to this social adjustment. Physical defects in these respects, such as general sluggishness of the nervous system, may possibly be the reason why some human beings seem incapable of that social adjust- ment which we call culture. Dehcate nervous organization is apt to result in nervous tension due to overreaction in nervous re- sponse. Hence the too-frequent enervating influence of higher forms of culture. A constant necessity for reaction leads to striving after relief — a longing for something better than now 36 Education through Nature exists in which the weary soul may rest. Herein is the foundation of the reHgious sentiment. Then, too, the reahzation of better conditions, such as partial or total relief from the strain and stress of the struggle for existence, which man, in virtue of social effort, is able to bring about, leads to the hope for still better things in the future. It is doubtless from this sense of fatigue and from the sense of rehef being brought about by well-directed effort that the hope of a future life of happiness and our ethical and social ideals arise. Whatever tends to ameliorate our condition in this strenuous life, whether the result of modified external conditions or the result of our augmented strength to meet obUgations or to overcome difficulties, tends to elevate our ideals and spurs us on in pursuit of better things. These better things are our ideals. It must be self-evident, therefore, that whatever tends to weaken or degrade us whether mentally or physically tends also to lower our ideals and vice versa. Indi- vidual and social decay have their concomitant low ideals. Therefore, whatever promotes the normal devel- opment of the individual, body, mind, and soul, in such a way as to enable him to meet successfully that strain and stress which his relation to his fellow beings and to the physical universe brings, tends also to elevate his ideals. Ideals arc not things floating in the air Hke butterflies to be caught and identified by a name or a symbol, but the promise within us of better things because of our growth towards that which is ideally good. Humanism in its strength had high ideals, but those ideals vanished with the decline and fall. High ideals can be used, therefore, as a standard by which to measure the quality and character of development; and it is self-evident that educational influences, whatever they may be, which have the effect of lowering our ideals must be guarded against. General Aims of Nature Study 37 Exclusive development of the body has such an effect, because it lowers the individual's power to meet the demands of culture, in which the mind is so largely concerned. Similarly with the exclusive develop- ment of the mind, for it lessens the individual's capacity to bear the strain and stress of the highest culture and the struggle involved in the attainment of aims. The Senses in Nature Study. AU the special senses, hearing, seeing, taste, smell, touch, including the muscular sense, may be used in the study of nature. These senses are evidently de- veloped for that very purpose, or (if we choose to avoid the teleological conception) are developed through those agencies of which they take cognizance. It is difficult to conceive of any mind whatsoever in the absence of these senses. We may well doubt whether one devoid of all of them could really be con- scious of his own existence. Imagine all the avenues to the external world closed in a child at birth! Could even innate ideas, so called, manifest themselves ? Our knowledge of the early stages of development does not tend to strengthen our beHef in the existence of innate ideas. The existence of such ideas has been affirmed on metaphysical grounds, by those usually who are devoid of scientific training. Transcendental- ism of that kind may be left to find its own way in the senseless Hmbo of metaphysical abstractions. It has little or no use for nature study except as it may minister to physical wants; but it may be doubted whether even transcendentahsm could maintain itself without those sense-organs which it professes to de- preciate. The possibiHty of ideas certainly exists in the normal nervous system developed through physiological pro- cesses; but it is hardly probable that this possibiHty can be realized except through external stimuli. It 38 Education through Nature is through these that the nervous system is made func- tional. As motion is the function of muscle, so mind and consciousness appear to be the function of the brain. In the latter as in the former the function ceases to manifest itself when the organ is injured or destroyed. Anatomically the sense-organs are the peripheral portions of the central nervous system. They are the avenues through which the brain is influenced by the external world. Subjective, physical states of internal organs, no doubt, may influence the brain and thus modify, in various ways, the mental activity. But with the senses closed, as the eye in sleep, the mental hfe becomes essentially a dream-Ufe. Intuitive ideas are sometimes called regulative ideas. Con- sidering the important difference between sleeping and waking, the sense-organs might properly be called regulative organs. For it is by means of them that we are able to distinguish between hallucinations and dreams, on the one hand, and the saner ideas arising through our real experience with the external world on the other. It is a significant fact that practically all the advance in humaii knowledge, to which the past century has so largely contributed, has been gained through a more diligent use of the senses than was common among people of earlier ages. Their systematic use, aided by that concomitant power of correct inference, has not only influenced educational theories, but has changed the philosophy and way of thinking of all western peoples. Compare these with the dreamy oriental peoples and the contrast is striking. Inventions, Hke the telescope, the microscope, and the spectroscope, have revealed new worlds because of the aid which they give to our senses. It is indeed probable that most of our advance in the future will depend on the success with which we are able to General Aims of Nature Study 39 increase our power of sense perception. Invention, which itself is dependent on a knowledge of the laws of nature, may greatly increase our range of vision; but there is also the possibihty of a more delicate and complex organic development of the sense-organs themselves. The conditions under which this organic develop- ment of the sense-organs takes place, seem to be suitable activity or proper use. A muscle is strengthened by suitable exercise, and so is a sense-organ. Disuse in the one case as in the other leads to atrophy and degeneration, as can be seen in the bhnd fishes of caves. There seems to be no sense-organ that cannot be trained in this way by proper use. Notice in the bhnd how the sense of touch becomes developed. Certain it is that many persons who have eyes see not, and that many who have ears hear not. Equally certain it is that this defect is a serious one; for it deprives the individual not only of a great source of enjoy- ment, but of much valuable information which daily observation might give. The acuteness of the senses, resulting from proper use, is not to be sought primarily for its own sake, but rather for the wholesome effect which their best functional activity exerts on the mental and moral Hfe as a whole. As a rule, children observe well; but a false method of teaching, especially that which reduces all school work to a study of books, often destroys this natural tendency. When we reflect what an important factor in mental growth the habit of close and accurate obser- vation is, we can but deplore that so much of our school work tends to diminish rather than increase this power. Nature study if so taught as to awaken interest, rather than fatigue the pupil, can be made an important aid in the development of this power. When properly developed and trained, observation becomes a habit which cannot fail to be a Ufelong 40 Education through Nature aid to intellectual power and growth. By it atten- tion becomes active and concentrated, and the mind's activity is properly maintained. Observation is bring- ing the mind into contact with the facts of the outer world, thereby increasing the number and intensity of the many forces which contribute to mental evolu- tion. IV. Training of the Judgment and Imagination. The Judgment in Nature Study. Mental states affected by repeated sensation seem to be accom- panied by changes in the nervous gray matter of the brain, rendering more Hkely a recurrence of similar states. Phenomena occurring together in this process may, when thus impressed on the mind, recall one another. On seeing a face which is familiar to us, we often recall another face associated with it in our experience; a friend's home may recall the friend who used to reside there ; a melody may recall the scenes of our childhood ; and an old oaken bucket, many inci- dents in our early life. Recollections like these often seem instantaneous; no process of reflection or rea- soning seems necessary to recall them. This association of ideas is important in the training of the judgment. Practical minds seem to be those in whom this quick perception of fundamental relations is especially marked. When we make a statement about an object a judgment is involved. The practical judgment is, therefore, trained in connection with things. Nature study is especially well suited to the training of the judgment, not only because there is an association of ideas, but because of the necessity of forming independent judgments that can be tested as to their correctness. It is in this department of intellectual training, more than in any other, perhaps, that the usual book work in our school education fails. The helplessness, General Aims of Nature Study 41 in practical affairs of life, of those whose scholastic erudition is above the average can be largely attributed to the want of opportunity to develop the power of forming correct, independent judgments. To read other men's thoughts from the printed page, and to passively accept the judgments there expressed, may destroy the power of independent judgment. It is probable that back of all bad habits, back of all crime, back of most if not all of our social evils, there is a warped and undeveloped judgment. Our schools have been engaged in training youth in com- mitting to memory other people's judgments about things. But as usual, memory often fails when most needed. Besides, some judgment must be exercised as to who shall be our guide, if we are unable to rely on ourselves. The authorities chosen, under such circumstances, are not always the best to say the least ; and the incUnation to accept the advice of even the best authorities is often wanting. The abihty to form correct judgments about things will assist in forming those correct judgments about our fellow men which is so essential to good citizen- ship; so essential, also, to a realization of our social ideals. The child is apt to be careless and unreHable. So much the more does he need to be trained to care- fulness and deUberation in the judgment of things. The habit of weighing evidence, of investigating facts, before a judgment is pronounced, is not only essential to success in a material sense, but will overcome that servile condition of the ignorant mind, too often the result of book work, which accepts as true the most absurd occultism, with little or no effort to test its intrinsic probability, or the reliabihty of the witness thereto. Republican institutions and democracy rest upon the independence and self-control to which a. sane and sound judgment is so essential. Modem altruism 42 Education througli Nature has obliterated physical human slavery; but there is an intellectual slavery to the critic in that mental attitude of dependence on authority which is hardly less demoralizing. Beggars we will probably always have with us; but the wise philanthropy seems to be to so arrange matters that self-help may be obtained, while independence and self-respect is cultivated. The Imagination iu Nature Study. From visible and finite things, imagination carries us to the invisible and the infinite. Most if not all works of art are the results of conscious or unconscious experience with nature. From a number of parts we infer the whole; from a number of effects we infer the cause ; and passing from the particular to the gen- eral and from the general back to the particular, we are aided by imagination not only to solve many difficult problems, but we are able by it to rise, intel- lectually, far above objects of sense, with which we are immediately concerned. From the varied objects of sense we abstract those essentials which conform to our ethical and esthetic sense, Uke fragrance dis- tilled from roses, and recombine the various elements thus abstracted into new ideal forms — composite pictures of many visible, real elements. The product of the imagination is, therefore, a good index to the purity of the human soul. The imagination is not only often responsible for that peculiarity in children which we designate by the terms dull and bright, but is often the secret of the superior mental achievements of one person over those of another. When the training of the imagination is spoken of, many assume, with the old psychologists, that it is a power or faculty of the mind. We know that it is concerned with ideas, and that these ideas may be derived consciously or unconsciously from experience. In training the imagination, therefore, we shall have General Aims of Nature Study 43 to look to the ideas that become prominent in con- sciousness. With the ethical and aesthetic elements in the child's mind developed, the imagination will doubtless take care of itself. Yet it is true that the teacher has to deal with certain phases of imagination with a view to overcoming them. Much of what is taken to be imagination in the child is mere fancy or fantasy; for it lacks that element of analysis and ab- straction, and final integration under the guidance of judgment and of the assthetic and ethical sense to which reference has been made. To call a broom a horse ; to put the head of a man on the body of an ox, or the head of a woman on the body of a fish, as was common among the earliest peoples, and is so fre- quently seen in children's games, requires no true imagination, but merely an arbitrary manipulation of objects of sense. No natural law sustains such a combination, and no analysis and abstraction neces- sarily precedes it. This vulgar representation of incongruous com- binations of sense elements may be the natural prelim- inary steps in the growth of the true imagination. It is, therefore, not to be wholly repressed ; but it should be recognized by the teacher as something which the child should outgrow. The pupil should be taught to distinguish between the purely imaginary and the real. Failure in this respect is often responsible for many children's dishonesty in words and deeds. The imagination is not now considered to be an isolated department of the mind, but rather a mode of activity of the whole mind, in which all powers are involved. Consequently normal development of the whole mind is necessary to a cultivated and refined imagination. Such a cultivated and refined imagina- tion does not make itself vulgar by display, but is guided and controlled by a sane judgment, which must ever be the guiding element in any cultivated 44 Education through Nature taste. Back of all this lies a delicate nervous organ- ization; on which, too, depends intellectual power; both being the result of slow growth amid external forces and influences. Back of much of the so-called corrupt imagination of school children lies ignorance. To the pure all natural things are pure. Many adults betray their fearful ignorance by what they regard as shocking to the refined imagination and demorahzing to the moral sense. A thorough course in nature study should be a sure cure, on the one hand, for that squeam- ishness and sickly sentimentaUsm which pretends to see in the most natural objects and acts a reason for disgust; and on the other, for that sickly and perverted imagination which likes to dwell on vulgar and obscene things. There is nothing that can overcome this so effectively as enlightenment — a knowledge of the pure and simple facts. Ghosts lurk in darkness, and hob- goblins are the creatures of ignorance. The pure light of knowledge will disinfect many a filthy nook in the child's mind. It is the mystery hovering around cer- tain natural facts and events which often make them the chief attraction to a child's morbid imagination. Remove the mystery, and the nightmare disappears. Considered scientifically, and children can be made to so consider it, there is nothing more beautiful and interesting than the subject of fertiUzation in flowering plants, and that of cross- fertihzation through the medium of insects. A careful presentation of this subject will form a safe bridge on which to lead the pupil to the less flowery fields of fertihzation of the animal ovum, and the development of the egg into a chick or a tadpole. A scientific knowledge of these things will dispel the foulness existing in the pupil's mind, rj^ther than in nature, and will make a cleaner person of him. Nature study is well suited, also, to elevate the child's General Aims of Nature Study 45 imagination to that higher plane on which it becomes useful in the acquisition of real knowledge, and in the appreciation of the best works of art. For in its final analysis real knowledge must underUe genuine appreciation, whether in nature or in art. That lawless cerebration, often mistaken for imag- ination, which results in a crude juxtaposition of incongruous facts and ideas, or a blending of fact and fiction, and which is so prevalent among children and untrained minds generally, needs to be restrained by the teacher of nature study. The child should be put on his guard against confusing fact and fiction, against using his imagination instead of his senses. Even the higher imagination must be subject to the control of the more sober reason. It is precisely here, in the development of a sound discrimination, between fact and fiction, that the supreme value of scientific training lies. Development, in the individual as in the race, must include a transition from that lawless cerebral activity called fantasy, revery, hallucination, on the threshold of insanity, into that state of well- regulated mental activity which gives reality to Hfe, and value to the products of the mind. The pupil should be taught to correct the errors which his fickle fancy suggests, by careful application of the safest and surest test at his command, the testi- mony of his senses. What do I really see? should be a question arising spontaneously in the mind when starthng and dubious results are gained. V. The .ffisthetic and Ethical Function of Nature Study. The Beautiful in Nature Study. Nature teems with beautiful things. Art is nature ideaHzed. It derives its inspiration from nature, and seeks to imi- tate it in its idealized form. Normal development would require that each human being should be able 46 Education through Nature to perceive the ideal in the real. But the old pedagogy virtually had the effect of making the pupil dependent upon the artist's brush or the sculptor's chisel. How many bewildered mortals there are who worry over the degrading influence of the real in Hterature and art, simply because they have been made dependent upon the artist; their own creative powers having been reduced to mere perception of paint! How abnormal to be unable to interpret the beauty of a real evening sunset, and yet pretend to admire an imperfect copy of it on canvas ! The idea of beauty is by some philosophers classed as an intuitive idea. But the study of children shows that the aesthetic instinct is a growth which progresses pari passu with our experience with beautiful things. What in childhood we consider beautiful we do not necessarily consider so in maturer years. A chromo, with a motley array of brilliant colors, may appeal to the child with greater force than the finest steel en- graving; much as a brightly colored scarf is more attractive to the Indian than a tailor-made suit of broadcloth. As development advances, the beautiful in nature and in art is beautiful in proportion as it is full of meaning and suggestive of law. Our aesthetic appre- ciation develops, consequently, as we become able to eliminate the non-essential and recognize the essential. Knowledge of the essence of things, so far as that is possible, enhances, therefore, our conception of their beauty. An irregular face may be ugly to the ignorant, but truly beautiful to those who are able to appreciate the essential element of a beautiful and true soul within. The ungainly form and features of a friend vanish, in our estimation of him, in proportion as we learn to know the intrinsic excellence of his character. Thus, by intimate association with things, and the knowledge gained through experience, we eliminate, little by little, General Aims of Nature Study 47 those characteristics which betray a violation of law, order, harmony, and symmetry, and obtain, by a pro- cess of assimilation and integration, a cultivated taste for what is truly beautiful in itself. Association with beautiful objects helps to accelerate this aesthetic devel- opment. Like the bee sipping the fragrant nectar from the flower, we, also, extract, through our senses, the more ethereal essence of harmony, symmetry, law, and beauty. Doubtless this is largely an unconscious process. But the aesthetic judgment may be cultivated by sup- plying the proper material for observation and directing this observation wisely. We are often led to admire things which at first did not appeal to us, by seeing others, in whom we have confidence, admire them. Children can often be made to appreciate a poem by observing the teacher's appreciation of it, as expressed or implied in her voice and gestures. So, too, a bird, or a blade of grass, or a flower can be given a new meaning, aesthetically, by the teacher's attitude towards it. In the case of the bird, she may point out its uses, the melody of its cheering song, its parental instincts, its adaptations in form, color, covering, etc., to its environment; and, lastly, the inexpressible sadness or the frohcking mischief in its eyes and countenance. By thus combining the various elements, intricately mingled in every natural thing, even an earthworm may become attractive, rather than repulsive, in the eyes of the pupil. This appreciation of the essence of things, so far as that is possible, by a careful study of them as regards symmetry, harmony, order, law, and use, cannot fail to be a most potent factor in developing a genuine aesthetic taste. Precluding the false, the lawless, the disorderly, and the incongruous, such a taste is evidence of law, harmony, and beauty of soul, which must mani- fest itself in the daily conduct of the pupil. The teacher 48 Education through Nature who succeeds well in developing such original appre- ciation of the beautiful in nature may find further assurance of her worth in the following words of Thomas Carlyle: " He who shows us more clearly than we knew before that a hly of the field is beautiful, has sung for us, made us sing with him, a little verse of a sacred psalm." Ethical Function of Nature Study. The study of science is the surest means to the development of scientific culture. This culture is essentially ethical, and, foT that reason, must be the safest foundation of social culture. It is true that it is not favorable to the development of useless senti- mentalism; but, by the strengthening of the judgment, the development of sane ideas, and the training of the scientific imagination, it must tend to enforce the golden rule and the dictates of a clear and discerning conscience. What is right and what is duty will be revealed, as it has been revealed, by practical experi- ence, if a sound judgment interprets that experience. The child's practical experiences with human beings and with the animate and inanimate things about him are his first and most enduring lessons in right conduct. The motive to successful scientific endeavor is a natural or acquired thirst for truth, to be satisfied only by the exercise of the will under the guidance of a clear perception and a sound judgment: A wise discrimination between the false and the true is not only essential to any permanent social structure, but is the basic element in the sanity of the human mind. Nature study cannot be made a science, nor should it be; for science is the ripest fruit of development. Its methods, however, when gradually introduced into school work, must have a wholesome effect, inas- mush as it places the pupil's mind and activities into proper relation to reality and truth. The indifference General Aims of Nature Study 49 of most children in regard to this matter, and the posi- tive untruthfulness of others, comes from inexperience, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, from a train- ing in which individual responsibiUty is ehminated by a constant reliance on authority. The pupil should be made to test the truth or falsity of his conduct, no less than the truth or falsity of his statements. The love of truth for its own sake, and aside from any utihtarian considerations, should be so thoroughly ingrained in the nervous organization of the pupil as to assume the character of an instinct. This accompUshed, he can hardly be cruel to any sen- sitive thing or false to any man. Nature study, more than any other study of the school, affords educational opportunities in this direc- tion. Here lapses of memory, which are often respon- sible for false statements, and, in the case of moral maxims, a plea for insincere and immoral conduct, may be corrected by careful examination of the object about which memory has failed. Here, as in no other study of the school, the pupil can be made to feel his moral responsibiUty both with regard to his work and his utterances. He can be made to feel that truth and nothing but the truth is wanted, and that all carelessness in observation and statement, all slovenHness in his work, is a violation of the moral law, and is detrimental to his reputation and standing in the school. He can be made to feel, also, that strict adherence to duty and to truth requires constant vigilance on his part; that truth can be attained and adhered to only by systematic effort; that mistakes and error creep in whenever he fails to properly attend to the minor details of his work, and when he shirks his duty in doing the work as the teacher has suggested. At every point he can be made to see that a falsehood or an incorrect statement vitiates his whole work. 50 Education through Nature In like measure, he can be made to feel that vigi- lance and circumspection, unyielding adherence to duty and to truth, are the foundation of his success, the measure of the value of his work, and the criterion by which he is personally estimated. When nature study is properly correlated with other branches of the school there will be no lack of opportunity to develop that quick-wittedness and intellectual versatility which is so desirable in youth, and which is doubtless a desirable phase of mental evolution. ^ VI. Knowledge and Character Building. Nature Study and Character Building. Besides a sound judgment, the chief elemerrts which combine to form character are will power and self-reliance. Without these an individual fails to execute what his judgment and ethical sense dictate. A strong character is one in whom these characteristics predom- inate. Nature study is well suited to develop will power and self-reliance. The pupil must accomplish his task independently. He is not to rely on the judg- ment of others, nor is he to get his incentives to effort wholly through foreign aid. His work is, in fact, original work, and should contribute towards making him an original observer and an original thinker. He must get as much of his information as possible at first hand. Nature study should not be taught pri- marily from books. This does not imply that books and secondary sources of information should be excluded from his work. He should be made familiar with library sources of information; but they should be the last to be con- sulted after he has exhausted his own resources. The pupil should not be trained to despise authority, as there are many instances where good authorities General Aims of Nature Study 51 are our best and only guide. A sound judgment, when properly trained, will lead the pupil to subordinate his own personality where it is inadequate to the task, and will warn him not to attempt what is impossible. Yet nature study deals with the original sources of knowledge, and as such will call, in the majority of cases, for that exercise of the will in repeated attempts to overcome difl&culties which tends to strengthen it. The success which often follows from such exercise of the will naturally tends to strengthen self-reliance. With this end in view, the work can be so arranged by the teacher that a proper amount of success in the work will be attained whenever a due amount of energy is put into it. Poor results with work thus arranged should not be accepted, and a due recognition should be given when the work is well done. Such consciousness of success strengthens the self-rehance of the pupil, and stimulates him to further exercise of his will. Opportunity for this exercise of the will is necessary to the formation of character. Without will power, knowledge, no matter how extensive, produces no results. The theory that all school work should be made as agreeable as possible does not mean that it should be reduced to mere Ustless and idle play. The aim should be to eliminate the notion of play as the pupil advances, and to lead him to apply himself, voluntarily and systematically, to his work. The great variety of the pupil's powers, both physical and mental, brought into exercise, when nature study is properly pursued, renders it pleasurable, and makes it less fatiguing than are many other branches of the school. Character is not developed by avoiding contact with the reahties of life — contact with things. On the contrary, it is by entering into this real life, by acting and reacting on the physical environment, 52 Education through Nature properly regulated, that the pupil learns to estimate his powers correctly, to realize his weaknesses, and to gain that self-control, amid all vicissitudes, which constitutes the practical demonstration of character. The physiological explanation of this is, perhaps, to be found in the fact that the laws of nature are uniform. Consequently physiological reactions to similar forces and influences must also be uniform. Hence the nervous system acquires a specific quality of organization which underlies stability of character. Human society, cut loose from nature and guided by fluctuating feelings and motives, does not offer that constancy to nervous reactions. Hence stability of character should hardly be expected as a result of social intercourse alone. The latter tends, rather, to develop that nervous state from which nothing can be safely predicted. The pupil's physical health has much to do with the development of will and self-reliance, and hence, also, with the development of character. A stunted and diseased body is often the cause of moral depravity. Not by physical torture is the mind and soul purified, any more than the choicest apples are to be gathered from a rotten tree. Let the pupil's health, therefore, be attended to. Remember that states of the body react upon the mind. Proper light, proper positions when at work, and proper activity in the field should be insisted upon. Nature study out of doors is the best of tonics. Knowledge Gained in Nature Study. Scientific results cannot be expected in nature study. The acquisition of knowledge should not be made its chief or only aim. In the teacher's mind the pupil should take precedence of the facts to be imparted. Natural growth, in physical and intellectual power, should be considered paramount. This attained, General Aims of Nature Study ^S knowledge will be sure to follow; while, if not attained, a few facts more or less will be of little consequence. It is, however, by exploring the original sources of knowledge, and by acquiring as much of that knowledge as present powers permit, that natural growth of the nervous system, and consequently mental power, is promoted. We gain our knowledge through experience, either personal or ancestral, and we are what we are by virtue of that experience. It is probable that every reaction to a sense impression implies a more or less permanent change in the nervous system, and that a pupil is not the same after having learned a fact by observation that he was previous to the acquisition of that knowledge. However worth- less some facts may seem in themselves, therefore, they may be important factors in the shaping of the plastic mind. Furthermore, no fact is really worth- less in science. Youth seems to be a period very favorable to the learning of some facts which in later years are acquired less easily. This is especially true of terms, such as names, etc., which are held more or less mechanically in the mind, with no necessary logical connection with other mental products. The acquisition of this technical language in early Ufe, with the simple idea back of I the word, is valuable to every one in this age of science, I even though the person fails to enter upon the study of pure science. Nature study is the natural means of acquiring that language which enables us to appropriate the human treasures of the past as contained in books. With an appropriate method of teaching and study, both the i facts and the language will be acquired naturally, 1 without much effort on the part of the pupil. Much of this will be acquired by unconscious induction, while the pupil is engaged in the healthy exercise of his powers. 54 Education through Nature Knowledge is valuable, intrinsically, in proportion as it is scientific. But nature study should not be made too matter-of-fact, because it is primarily in- tended to develop those powers which will make scientific work possible. A fact, however, should be a real fact, not an imaginary one; and a clear distinc- tion should be developed in the mind between fact and fiction. There is little occasion for sympathy with that ignorant sentimentalism which insists that interest and appreciation can be divorced from knowl- edge of facts. The youthful mind and the untrained adult mind are too prone to dwell on the unreal and the absurdly untrue, in fairy tales and fiction, to need any encouragement in this department of school work. From the character of the pupil as he enters the school, and from the natural course which his development must take, it seems reasonable to say that the nature- study work should be made more and more scientific from the lower grades up. In the upper grades it can hardly be made too scientific. Considering the scientific preparation of teachers even in many high- schools, the danger is that it must either become mere recitation from a text-book or else only a crude imita- tion of scientific work. Again, it may be said that the Httle science pupils in the grades are able to master, even when conditions are most favorable, will not hurt them, as some theorists seem to believe. VII. Expression and Generalization. Expression in Nature Study. An important principle in pedagogy is this, "the idea before the word." The development of language, both in the race and in the individual, teaches us that language is the result of ideas, not necessarily the cause of them. When the child has gained, through experience with its environ- ment, certain ideas, it feels the need of expressing them. As a social being, on entering school, its mode General Aims of Nature Study 55 of expressing ideas is by means of oral language. Later it adopts other means, such as drawing, making, and writing. Each of these modes of expression has its own ad- vantages and disadvantages. Many ideas can be expressed orally which cannot be expressed by draw- ing or by making; and, on the other hand, many ideas, such as color and form, can be better expressed by means of the pencil and brush. It is self-evident, of course, that ideas must exist in the mind before they can be expressed. The expression of ideas, however, involves neural pro- cesses and muscular activity which react on the mind, and thus become intimately concerned in that final product, mental power, which is the great aim of our work. Then, too, by expressing an idea we are better able to criticise it. We often discover the inadequacy of our knowledge by trying to express it, and- are led to re-examine facts and phenom'ena from different points of view. Mental assimilation is thxis promoted, and ideas assume their due prominence in relation to one another. It is by the pupil's expression of his ideas that the inner cerebral mechanism is revealed to the teacher, who is thus enabled to correct erroneous impressions, or to guide the pupil to proper self-activity. It was a fundamental principle in the philosophy of the founder of the kindergarten that development is an unfolding of intrinsic powers, and that expression is evidence of that unfolding. Such expression, how- ever, is mere play, for it is not guided by external reaUty, nor adapted to it. The selection, in the strug- gle for existence, which contact with nature involves, does not operate amid such conditions, and the expres- sion, . therefore, is but the outward manifestation of. lawless cerebrations within. That is not nature study. Nature study is deriving ideas, through the senses, 56 Education through Nature from the external world. These ideas are not spon- taneous growths in the mind, nor are they intuitive. They are the results of experience, and should derive their meaning from that experience. Expression in nature study should be conditioned by outward phe- nomena. Not mere talk, but talk which means some- thing; not merely ideas, but ideas corresponding to realities, rather than subjective states, should be sought in nature study. If this correspondence of the idea with outward phenomena is lacking, its expression had better be reserved for the playground. There is an educational value, also, in the power of inhibition, the suppression of irrational and erroneous ideas. In fact, the more critical we become, the more do we hesitate to express an idea the absolute truth of which is doubted. Culture is characterized, often, by scrupulous care in expression, whether it be ex- pression by oral or written language, or that expression which reveals itself as conduct and personal appear- ance. Mental power may often reveal itself in silence; and education and culture reduces meaningless ex- pression to a minimum. Used as an educational means, rather than as a means for pastime, nature study should promote that scrupulous care in the choice of words which exactly express the idea. Furthermore, it should tend to that accurate and systematic thinking which forbids expression when there is nothing to express. The ability to discriminate between those ideas which con- form and those which do not conform to the exter- nal reality is not so common, even among adults, as might be supposed, considering that this power is the basis of common sense. This does not imply that the emotional nature of the pupil should be suppressed, nor that the play of the imagination, so natural to childhood, should be entirely discouraged. It means, simply, that the pupil should General Aims o£ Nature Study 57 be trained to discriminate between fact and fiction; between the real in nature and that which is the result of his own emotional states. No rule can be laid down. The teacher will find ample opportunity here to exercise a wise judgment in striking a happy mean. The safest way is, doubtless, to confine the pupil to the facts during the first lessons on any one topic, and finally, after the subject is well understood as to the facts, to express whatever of sentiment and poetry it may suggest to him. We have a right to express our appreciation of a thing only after we know that thing. Let appreciation be based, not on our own selfish, indolent states, but on the merit which deeper insight reveals. Oral expression, speech, is most convenient in the preliminary development of a subject. It saves time when the object is to correct errors or to suggest ways of avoiding them. Drawing and the final written work are better deferred till the subject is well under- stood. The study of unfamiliar things involves the discovery of new facts and new relations of facts. New ideas of facts and their relations require new terms to express them. A need for such new terms will be felt by the pupil when he begins to relate his observations. The need being felt, there is evidence that the pupil has the idea, the name or symbol for which should then be supplied by the teacher. This is the natural way of acquiring a vocabulary. When the word is supplied in this way when needed, it means something, and will be properly used later in written work. Hence nature study is the only sensible means of teaching language in its rudiments. Pupils as a rule find no great difficulty with scientific terms if suppHcd when needed. They often, in fact, enjoy a difficult scientific term, and seem to master it as easily as a simpler one. 5^ Education through Nature It is a common experience to find that children and unscientific people inquire about the name of an object, but often manifest no desire to know more about it. If the teacher knows the name of the object, it may be well to give it at the proper time, but better still to teach the pupil how to find the name by refer- ence to authorities. One important feature of the unabridged dictionaries is often overlooked — that, namely, which gives the figures and the names of most common objects. But the pupil should be trained to realize that the important characters of an object are of greater value than its name. To study nature by merely learning the names of things would be about as sensible as to study economics or sociology by learning the names of the inhabitants of the com- munity. John Smith the man should be of greater importance than John Smith the name. There are many names, Uke many laws, that are common to many or all Hving things. Such names should be insisted upon in this work. They are the labels by which we identify bundles of facts, con- veniences of which the teacher, at least, cannot afford to be ignorant. Generalization in Nature Study. Extremely important as observation is, it is not to be cultivated for its own sake. To be constantly attending to every trifle, without assimilating what is observed, is a useless waste of time. Indeed, there is danger in nature-study work of overdoing observation to such an extent as to preclude the possibility of reflection. A dilettanteism may be developed in which the mind passes lightly from one fact to an- other without, perceiving the import of the fact or its relation to other facts. That is not peculiar to nature study. Superficial reading produces the same mental habit. General Aims of Nature Study 59 In one sense it is fortunate that we are able to forget unimportant details. For it is by a process akin to forgetting that we are able to generalize. The object of observation is generalization and ab- straction. Many facts with which nature study deals are in themselves worthless. They are valuable, however, in proportion as they furnish data for correct generalization. One generalization is worth a hun- dred facts. The power of generalization, therefore, should be developed; and observation pure and simple should not be allowed to monopolize all the time and energy of the pupil. The power to generalize differs in different indi- viduals. It is impossible to say whether this differ- ence is due to heredity or to difference in early train- ing. There is, doubtless, a hereditary element . in nervous organization as well as an acquired one. This is, however, not synonymous with saying that general ideas are inherited. Generalization means deriving general ideas and concepts from many par- ticulars. This is induction. It is now thought probable that all our general ideas and notions arise in the mind in that way. It seems to be by a process of assimilation, analysis and integration, of the essen- tial aspects of many particulars, and the elimination, forgetting, of the non-essentials, that general concepts arise. Thus, for instance, the general notion of a genus arises from the actual observation of several species. It is true that some of the older psycholo- gists say that the idea of a genus exists before the idea of species; that, for instance, the concept horse must exist in the mind before a particular horse, as "Prince," can be recognized. This, however, is a mere con- tention, maintained chiefly for the sake of a philosophi- cal system. We probably get the notion dog by re- peatedly seeing various dogs, as Rover, Fido, Jack; and, from them, the general concept dog. It is said 6o Education through Nature that Newton, on seeing an apple fall to the ground, was led to the discovery of the general law of gravita- tion. He had, doubtless, seen many things fall before he undertook to formulate the general law of falHng bodies. Others had seen the same thing; yet, unUke Newton, they dwelt on the particular facts without deducing the general law. Newton generaUzed. Ob- servation should lead to generahzation and abstraction. Physiologically, this may possibly mean that a nervous connection should be developed between the various elements of the cerebral cortex, so as to faciHtate a regular and well-defined interaction between those elements. Mere observation may involve the activity of isolated centers only, giving no coherence to the elements of knowledge. Abstraction resembles generahzation in this, that, from a number of particulars, we eliminate the non- essentials and obtain an idea of some quahty common to many objects, but apart from any one of them. Thus, from the sweet fragrance of many clovers, sweet peas, etc., we may derive the abstract concep- tion of sweetness in general. These general and abstract ideas, arising thus through our experience with particulars, are of inesti- mable value in the following stages of mental develop- ment. They become controlling influences in the voluntary life of the individual; regulative ideas, as they are sometimes called. They are indications of a formed and stable nervous system. Indeed the one supreme aim of nature study might be said to be to promote this nervous organization, the formation of these general concepts; for it is only after these have been formed that considerable advance in real science is possible. From this point of view, also, nature study is the foundation of all other studies of the school; for it is evident that even reading is impossi- ble without these general ideas. General Aims of Nature Study 6i The proper development of this power of abstrac- tion and generalization is, indeed, the most difl&cult of all our educational aims. There is danger on both sides — that of overdoing observation, on the one hand, and that of overdoing generaUzation, on the other. Correct generahzation requires a sufficient number of accurate data of particular facts. If generalization is overdone, there is danger of ignoring facts and jumping at conclusions. The confidence we place in the opinions of men depends largely on the dehb- eration with which they sift their evidence before forming a conclusion. The habit of scrupulously attending to the particulars before a general notion is formed is characteristic of the judicial mind; and it is the same habit which gives weight to the opinions of the man of science. When we, notice how prevalent the opposite tendency is — that of jumping at conclu- sions, with no sufficient evidence, — and when we notice, too, that this is characteristic of youth and the ignorant and untrained, we have reason to believe that there is a physical cause, namely, absence of stable organization of the nervous system. The habit of generalizing on insufficient data sometimes assumes a morbid form, that of abnormal introspection. In this form it interferes with obser- vation, often making the subject see particulars in a false, subjective hght. Prejudices thus arise which render a normal evolution of the mind impossible. Pupils of this type often seem prematurely old. On the whole, generalization is not normal to the young plastic mind. GeneraUzation should become prominent at that period in life when the nervous organization approaches completion. Juvenile phi- losophers are abnormal, because they betray an un- natural precocity of nervous organization, which renders them unable to receive those numerous new impres- sions which would prolong their period of mental 62 Education through Nature evolution if their nervous plasticity could be retained. A wisely planned course in nature study and science, by offering great variety of impressions, may maintain the nervous plasticity, and thus prolong the period of mental evolution of those who by nature are pre- cocious; or, on the other hand, by supplying material duly arranged for generalization, it may hasten the intellectual development of those who are slow in maturing. The teacher can hardly find any field in all his work in which such excellent opportunities offer themselves, not only for the exercise of the best possible judgment, but also for obtaining remarkable results. While it may be considered undesirable, therefore, to hasten the process of generahzation in young chil- dren unduly, because it interferes with that plasticity which is desirable in the child, and indeed necessary to the highest intellectual attainments, it is very cer- tain that the opposite course, that of overdoing obser- vation to such an extent as to preclude generalization, is equally undesirable and pernicious. The mere "observer" is a character which is sometimes met with even among naturalists so called. They are the opposite extreme of the morbid introspective dreamer. While the latter's eyes seem to be of no use to him, so far as influencing his mental evolution is concerned the former seems to be all eyes, with no brains back of them to elaborate and assimilate the crude chaff upon which his eyes constantly feast. The one is as abnormal as the other, and it is difficult to say which of the two excites our pity most. The teacher of nature study must seek to find the golden mean between these two extremes. Remem- ber that not all facts are worth remembering, and that nature did well in enabling us to forget. Mere observation of isolated facts may so load a mechanical memory with rubbish as to interfere with the proper General Aims of Nature Study 63 evolution of the mind, which in its normal activity passes from the particular to the general, from the concrete to the abstract, by a process of elimination and forgetting. The possibilities of such an overloaded mind are not great. Dwelling continually on a mass of details, it develops no regulating principles, no rational basis for conduct. For these must be general principles. The achievements of a mind dwelling constantly on isolated facts must ever be a matter of chance. No voluntary rational direction can be given to its mental energies; and science in its true sense, as systematized knowledge gathered in the hght of guiding principles and stimulated by a gen- eral idea, must ever be foreign to it. " Mere observers " are sometimes called scientists, but erroneously. The ordinary teacher of nature study is doubtless aware that books on nature study are usually made up of a disconnected mass of curious observations, often in- teresting, but extremely fatiguing to the mind, when attempt is made to get any lasting information from them. Often the sense of equilibrium is restored only after most of the details are forgotten. It is difl&cult to understand what use such mere observa- tion can be except as it affords a pastime to those who have nothing else to do. A false method may lead to such mere observation of disconnected facts, and develop a dilettanteism which, in the eyes of those unfamiliar with natural science, has all the appearances of a fad. Such may err in assuming that observed facts that are apparently worthless must necessarily be so intrinsically. It may be doubted if any fact, how- ever insignificant, when impressed upon the mind, does not in some way affect it; that the brain after a stimulation becomes absolutely the same as it was before that stimulation. Sense stimulation gives rise to unconscious indue- 64 Education through Nature tion. Much of the nature-study work in the lower grades must be of this nature. Observation must here predominate. Indeed it is doubtful if any con- siderable effort should here be made by the teacher to lead the pupil to generalize. The history of the human race, so far as we have any record of that his- tor}', suggests that a period of imconscious induction preceded the age of generalization — the philosophical and theological age — and that the latter ages pre- ceded, in the history of western peoples at least, the period of conscious systematic study of nature — our present scientiiic age. The same stages properly belong to the individual; (j) the period of uncon- scious induction by a varied experience with natural things; (2) the period of generalization and specula- tion; f^) the scientific period, in which the individual, doubtful of his previous generalizations, yet impressed by their imporiance, proceeds voluntarily and sys- tematically to test, by accurate observation and ex- periment, the truth or absurdity of those previously formed general notions. This latter, alone, can be called science. For various reasons, among which may be included not only want of school training, but also unnatural school training, many persons never arrive at this third stage; or do so at such an advanced age that but very little of real scientific work can be done. Nature study, properly graded, can so condense the first two periods as to make of the graduates of our schools, if not scientists, then men and women with that broad-minded conservatism which is so highly to be prized. Finally, the teacher of nature study should be, not only a good observer, but also a sane thinker. Nature study deals with the finite; yet there is much in. it to suggest the infinite. All generalizations are neces- sarily partial that do not proceed from a central con- General Aims of Nature Study 65 ception of the whole. But that does not detract from their value, since, to the finite mind, the infinite is incomprehensible. The race has developed certain conceptions of the infinite, which to many are sacred legacies of the past. These legacies, having survived the storm and stress of conflicting opinion since man began to think, must possess some fitness to supply a natural need of man. Educational theories, too, are subject to the same law of selection. Progress results, not by destroying the old, but by the new additions that issue from it. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, As the swift seasons roll! Leave thy low- vaulted past ! Let each new temple, nobler than the last, Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, Till thou at length art free. Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea! CHAPTER III General Methods VIII. Methods of Reasoning. Logic has been defined as the art of directing the reason aright in acquiring the knowledge of things, for the instruction both of ourselves and others. In this is involved (a) objects, (b) thought, (c) language. In the presence of an object we may {a) simply app v hend it, (b) then form a judgment about it, and (c) reason about it and talk about it. To apprehend is simply to be aware; to form a judgment is to compare with other things, and to reason or converse about it is to express the activity of the mind in symbols or terms combined into sentences or propositions. The terms may be : (a) particular terms, (b) general terms. The first denotes only a single object, the latter is applicable to any one or all of any indefinite number of objects. This is what is meant by the expressions general and particular. I. The Deductive Method is the method of reasoning from the general to the particular, thus: All frogs croak; this animal is a frog; therefore this animal croaks. Or, all fungi are plants; this is a fungus; therefore this is a plant. The general is supposed to contain all the particu- lars; and, consequently, it is assumed that, knowing the general, the particular can be inferred. Hence, also, the expression, from the abstract to the concrete. The disadvantage of this deductive method lies in the fact that, in many cases, we may be led by our 66 General Methods 67 enthusiasm, indifference, prejudice, or carelessness, to assume the general to be true when it is not. Thus: A hat is passed around in church for contributions to the mission fund. It is assumed that this contribu- tion is* to be money. After the collection an account of the money contributed is to be rendered to the assembly. You take out one contribution after the other, and finding one nickel after another, you jump at the conclusion, not only that (i) everything in the hat is money, but that (2) it is all nickels. It turns out, however, that this is an error; for one rascal, hav- ing no sympathy with missionary activity, has con- tributed a button instead of a nickel. Hence the dis- crepancy in results. Conclusion (i) is a result of error in deduction, and (2) error in induction. Then, too, we may select unconsciously such a major premise as will sustain the conclusion sought. General terms are often misleading, therefore, because (i) they may have more than one meaning, (2) they may be supposed to include what they do not include. This method may interfere with observation, the mind being satisfied with the inference drawn from the general idea, which is too often merely a vague one. Its advantages lie in the fact that, if the major premise, the general, is true, the conclusion must be true also. It is equivalent to a mathematical demonstration; and it is often said that nothing short of such a demon- stration can be considered positively true. Manifestly, unless we assume that the general is innate, the mind has first to acquire the general notion or arrive at the general concept; and, consequently, this method should be avoided until such a time when the general idea is really present in the mind. Hence its advan- tages become most apparent when used in connection with the inductive method. 2. The Inductive Method is passing from the particular to the general. Thus by observing a number 68 Education through Nature of horses we finally get the general idea that all horses neigh, perhaps; or that all horses have a mane. Or more definitely : Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thurs- day, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday contain less than twenty-five hours. These are all the days of thfe week; therefore all the days of the week, contain less than twenty-five hours. Induction is the mode by which all the materials of knowledge enter the mind, and are analyzed. It is sometimes defined as inference from the known to the unknown; or, as passing from the concrete to the abstract. The disadvantages of this method are: (i) It re- quires sound sense-organs; (2) physical strength besides mental activity; (3) states of consciousness may affect the peripheral sense-organs; (4) it is a slow and laborious method. It requires less effort to assume the truth of a general proposition, and then to proceed to draw conclusions about everything included in that general, than to carefully examine each particular thing individually, and, from many such examinations, to draw general conclusions. The inductive method suggests the laboratory, with all its arduous work; while the deductive method sug- gests the drawing-room and the easy-chair, possibly the b'brary. (5) Unless all particulars are thus exam- ined, general conclusions may not be absolutely true. Consequently there are: {a) perfect induction (all particulars examined); (&) imperfect induction (only a large number of particulars examined). Perfect in- duction is sometimes said to be no induction at all, because, if all particulars are examined, there is no gain from an inference, all being gained through experience. The object of an inference is to pass beyond what can be immediately perceived. The advantages of induction are gained from the imperfect induction referred to above. A perma- General Methods 69 nency or constancy of natural law is assumed. Con- sequently, from an examination of a large number (not all) of particulars, the truth of the general is assumed; as, what is true of many of a kind is prob- ably true of all. Thus, if after examining a large number of horses we find they have incisors in both jaws, we infer that all horses have incisors in both jaws. The truth of this inference depends on the constancy of the natural law. Should that constancy fail, our inference would be erroneous. There is, too, what may be called (a) conscious, (b) unconscious induction. It is very probable that many of our general ideas appear in consciousness as a result of sense experience and subconscious cerebrations, with no conscious effort, on our part, to form such ideas. This is doubtless true in the earhest years of child-life. Manifestly such uncon- scious induction is subject to such errors as result from unguided activity. Thus, subjective states often influence the physiological activities of the senses, as in hallucinations ; and, as when a child sees ghosts. People are sometimes said to see v/hat they want to see, i. e., the sense-organs may be affected by the states of consciousness, making the testimony of the senses unreliable; hence, carelessness, prejudice, pre- conceived notions, over-enthusiasm, indifference, and, above all, slovenliness, are liable to vitiate results. Conscious induction may, perhaps, be best described as inference from material of knowledge, gained through the senses, under the control of the will. Manifestly such conscious induction must follow the unconscious induction, and is, perhaps, only possible after general ideas have arisen by the unconscious processes. Con- scious induction may, therefore, be partly a voluntary application of the senses for the purpose of proving or disproving the correctness of our general conceptions gained through unconscious induction. JO Education through Nature 3. The Inductive-deductive Method is, as the name implies, a combination of the two methods already described. This is probably the method used by all those who achieve success in science. Indeed it is difficult to conceive of true scientific work with either of those methods used alone. This method consists in first gathering the material of knowledge by observation. From this a general idea is formed and assumed tentatively to be true. Deductions are then made from this general hypothesis, and induction again employed to verify the truth of those deductive inferences. Thus, careful observation shows that plants grown in sunlight are usually green; the infer- ence is that all plants influenced by sunlight develop chlorophyll. This assumption is held tentatively till further induction, as to the effect of sunlight in producing various pigments, as tanning the skin, is secured. It being found that sunlight has this effect, further observations are made, which reveal the fact that plants grown in darkness do not develop chloro- phyll, etc., from which the soundness of the original inference, having been tested, is pronounced true. The advantage of this combined method is that the benefits of each of the other methods are secured, but the disadvantages eliminated. Far more, too, can be accomplished by this combination. The inductive method is used for the accumulation of material for the general idea; and, this knowledge being gained, is again employed in the discovery of new truths. General Considerations. Observation and experi- ment, the method of science, naturally results from this inductive-deductive method of reasoning. The successful man of science is (a) a good observer, (S) a good thinker, (c) a good worker. Many students observe well and reason well; but, as they put no energy into their work, accomplish but little. Others work, but do not observe well; and still others work General Methods 71 and observe well, but lack that power of reasoning wliich is necessary to make diligent obseiTation and experiment effective. The inductive method, alone, makes the mere ob- server; the deductive method is chiefly the method of the philosopher and the dreamer. Students often become mere observers, because they lack the general notions which give meaning to the observations which they make. The true incentive to effort is thus want- ing. This can often be remedied by calling attention to the larger problems underlying the subject of study. Thus a general idea of the theory of evolution by natural selection, is the chief cause of that remarkable activity in biological research which has been so marked since the appearance of Darwin's "Origin of Species." There is hardly any phase of biological investigation to-day that does not owe its fascination to the stimulus which that theory gives, and to the light which new observation adds to the factors of organic evolution. No adequate idea of the full import of this great generalization can be conveyed, directly, by means of language, as is frequently supposed. But some phases of it, such as the struggle for existence, can be comprehended from observations on plant and animal societies. Whether it is wise to develop this conception in the pupil's mind is a question which the teacher must decide according to circumstances. It certainly gives new meaning to many facts in plant and animal Ufe which otherwise are meaningless. Darwin's great work was the result of the inductive- deductive method. The writer knows, from his own experience as a student, that many teachers of ad- vanced science are failures, as teachers, because they do not arouse in the student's mind those great con- ceptions which give meaning to things observed by the student, and add that intellectual interest which 72 Education through Nature makes arduous labor a pleasure. Sentimental appre- ciation is a poor substitute for that intellectual pleasure which arises from the discovery of truths, revealing themselves as connecting-Hnks between the known and the great unknown. IX. General Methods of Teaching. I. The Discovery Method might also be called the seeing method. It is the method which the savage uses in obtaining his empirical knowledge of his sur- roundings. It may be characterized as negative rather than positive, inasmuch as a controlling gen- eral idea or hypothesis is wanting, and no conscious attempt at system is made. This is also the natural method of the child. It is natural for the child to move around freely among objects, without any reason known to it, save that of a natural restlessness accompanying a superabundance of energy, or that of a vague curiosity. In this way the child makes many discoveries. The liberty en- joyed is wholesome, and therefore such activity is interesting. The observations and discoveries thus made give the keenest pleasures, because they are the results of its own spontaneous activity. Mere seeing, if carried no further, however, would be of little value; but, as an introductory step, it is of the utmost importance. The method and some of its results are beautifully expressed by Whittier as follows: O ! for boyhood's painless play, Sleep that wakes in laughing day, Health that mocks the doctor's rules, Knowledge never learned of schools: Of the wild bee's morning chase. Of the wild flower's time and place, Flight of fowl, and habitude Of the tenants of the wood ; How the tortoise bears his shell. How the woodchuck digs his cell, And the ground-mole sinks his well; General Methods 73 How the robin feeds her young, How the oriole's nest is hung; Where the whitest lilies blow, Where the freshest berries grow, Where the ground-nut trails its vine. Where the wood-grape's clusters shine; Of the black wasp's cunning way, Mason of his walls of clay. And the architectural plans Of gray hornet artisans ! For, eschewing books and tasks, Nature answers all he asks; Hand in hand with her he walks, Part and parcel of her joy. Blessings on the barefoot boy. 2. The Investigation Method differs from the preceding in that something definite is looked for or sought. It requires the exercise of the will and there- fore is work. There is in the mind a hypothesis, or a question, that needs solution or confirmation; just as in algebra the problem often is to find the value of x. A general idea, a general question is, therefore, the underlying motive; and this guides and directs activi- ties, making them systematic, for the accomplishment of an end in view. The race may be said to have entered on the scientific stage of its development when it began to use this method of studying nature. So the individual may be said to pass from the primitive condition of the child, the amateur, and the dilettante, to the working scientist when he adopts this method. It differs from the preceding discovery method in substituting the law of necessity for the law of liberty; reason for caprice; the hypothesis for curiosity; in- tellectual pleasure for sentimentality; and the will for listlessness. It means a body directed by the mind, and work performed under the influence of the will. It differs from the preceding method, therefore, in (a) the motive to exertion, (&) in its orderly pro- 74 Education througli Nature ceeding, (c) in its final results. Thus it is often said of Columbus that he was an adventurer, who merely from idle curiosity, from a natural shiftless disposition, for mere excitement, crossed the unknown waters of the Atlantic, and thus, by accident, discovered a new world — such would be the discovery method. On the other hand, it is also claimed that Columbus was a student of geography, astronomy, and naviga- tion; that he had thus been made to believe the world to be a sphere, and, consequently, formed the hypothe- sis that, by sailing west, the eastern coast of Asia could be reached. He directed his ships in the light of that hypothesis, and found the new world. In the latter case he employed the investigation method. It makes us think of Columbus as a scientific investi- gator rather than as an adventurer. Investigation means the search for new truth by the light of what is already known. Research, as applied to advanced scientific work, means the investi- gation of phenomena hitherto unknown to humanity; or the attempt to solve those problems that have thus far eluded solution. To do such work the student must first appropriate the sum of human knowledge in that particular department of knowledge; for it is only • on arriving at the borderland separating the known from the unknown that valuable original re- search can be done. Not the least of the task such a student has before him is the understanding of the problem, after the problem has been found; for it is only, by mere chance that the solution to a problem can be found without knowing what that problem is. Work like this is, of course, the work for specialists, and may, therefore, seem to have no bearing on methods of nature study. But it may be that the conditions for the gaining of new knowledge are the same for all of us, and that methods, in nature study, cannot en- tirely ignore the suggestions which advanced work General Methods 75 may yield. In mathematics, for instance, we do not set the pupil to work merely to manipulate figures, according to directions for each step. We usually state the problem, and seek to develop the self-activity and ingenuity of the pupil in manipulating figures according as the conditions of the problem may re- quire. It is difficult to see how an experiment in nature study can be performed without some similar method. Indeed one of the essential conditions to the performance of an experiment is to state the frob- lem. The problem may be stated by the teacher; but, better still, the pupil may be led to state his own problem, after having discovered that a problem exists. The disadvantages of the investigation method in nature study arise from the fact that the pupil has neither the knowledge nor the training to enable him to derive the most benefits from its use. In many cases the necessary skill in manipulation has not been acquired; knowledge of the simplest elements of the subject may be wanting. He may not even have enough of a general idea of the subject to know what the work means, and is, consequently, very much like a child lost in the woods. Some of the advantages of the investigation method are, that it develops independence and self-reliance; it develops originality in solving difl&culties and gives freedom to the creative instinct. It is well suited to those rare pupils who succeed best when let alone; and, consequently, give greatest promise of future success. 3. The Thumb and Rxjle Method is a method sometimes employed even by teachers of advanced science. It consists in laying down rules for each step to be taken without stating the object in view, and then insisting that the student do the work, accord- ing to expUcit directions, sometimes given orally, some- times even printed. Laboratory outlines are occa- 'j^ Education through Nature sionally used, in which the pupil is told how and when to pick up a dissecting-needle, and just where to insert it. This is sometimes taken to be the investi- gation method, but erroneously so. The most suc- cessful teachers of advanced science never use it. The disadvantages of such a method are many. It suggests the reform school; it is mechanical and often develops in the pupil a feeling of helplessness, and is, consequently, discouraging rather than encouraging; it is contrary to the nature of the normal pupil, and consequently destroys rather than increases interest. In withholding from the pupil the object of the work and the end to be attained, it is contrary to common sense; which even a child reaUzes, when it insists that nothing is worth doing for the mere sake of doing it. It is especially distasteful to those pupils who feel that they have some ability of their own. It also has its advantages. It is especially useful to those who lack all experience, and who are defi- cient in self-confidence; it may develop in the pupil proper habits of work, such as neatness, carefulness, and attention to details; it may encourage those who naturally need encouragement, and who are unable to exercise any amount of originality; it may restrain the reckless and compel those who are inclined to shirk their work to do their proper share of it and do it in the right way; it may help to develop systematic habits. It is very useful as an introduction to a subject, provided it be abandoned as soon as proper habits have been formed. A period or two at the beginning is often sufficient, as it enables the pupil to know what is expected of him. It is doubtless true here, as else- where in life, that freedom should be granted as soon as it has been earned. Nothing could be more absurd than to continue using this method when it is not needed, especially in a subject where original investi- gation is the aim. General Methods "j^ 4. The Text-book and Recitation Method is too familiar to need any extended notice. It consists in assigning lessons in a book, and in due course of time calling on the pupils to repeat what they have learned. This is virtually reading about nature, and then often merely repeating what the author has said on the subject. On the part of the teacher the reci- tation consists in asking questions on the various chap- ters assigned; or else in merely asking the pupil to discuss such and such a topic labeled in the book with its appropriate title. In this form it is the crudest way of teaching nature study. When we consider that a text-book is at best only a collection of the thoughts about natural objects of some one individual, we must feel that this is not nature study at all. It is book study. The word comes before the idea, and the pupil is either merely interpreting symbols, reading his own confused thoughts into the author's language, or else merely repeating words which mean nothing to him. Nature study is reacting to the real object, coming face to face with the thing, and getting ideas, or the elements of ideas, through actual sensation. Before this has been done the text-book is merely a riddle, taxing the pupil's ingenuity to guess what it all means. It is very much like asking a child to tell all about a thing, but insisting before dcing so that he must not see, hear, touch, taste, smell, or handle it. The best that can be said of this method is that it is better than nothing at all, especially if the text is illustrated and the meaning of the illustration explained by the teacher. Pupils often consider figures in text- books as mere ornaments, not realizing that the figures are intended to explain the text. Manifestly nature study, in this form, cannot be introduced before the pupil has learned to read. This again is reversing the order of nature. For one important object of 78 Education through Nature nature study is to make reading possible to the pupil. The order of development as it is now understood is this: (i) object, (2) sensation, (3) idea, (4) word, (5) language, (6) book. The text-book method reverses this order. Considering the place which the text- book has held throughout the ages, in all school work, it is difficult to suppress the thought that education in the past has been reaHzed, in the primary schools, in spite of their methods rather than by their aid. Yet this method is not without its advantages. It enables a teacher, whose little learning is a dangerous thing, to hear lessons in nature .study. She may buy a book on natural history and learn something about what others know about the subject. There is a second way of using the text-book which is not so objectionable. This consists in 'using the text-book as supplementary to the objects themselves; or else in assigning lessons in the book, but supple- menting the latter by object study, so as to render the meaning of the book intelligible. This, of course, is possible only in the upper grades. Indeed some eminent teachers and investigators insist on the use of a text-book in lower classes. When accompanied with object study the book adds definiteness to the work and variety to the method. It also serves as a program and as a course of study, enabling the teacher to determine by tests just what the pupil has accom- pHshed, and consequently what more can be done for him. A judicious combination of the text-book and laboratory method seems very desirable in the upper grammar grades. 5. The Laboratory Method is a general term frequently used in contrast to the text-book method; i. e., the study of the object itself. It refers to the fact that the work is often done in a laboratory — a place often, but not necessarily, distinct from the recitation- room, and supplied with material and apparatus for General Methods 79 carrying on the work necessary to a thorough study of the object. Thus there are chemical laboratories- physical laboratories, biological laboratories, and psy, chological and physiological laboratories. Physiology, studied by the laboratory method, means the study of the actual organs of plants and animals by means of apparatus, determining the rate of the heart-beat, of the pulse, the contraction of mus- cles, and the effect of various stimuli on nervous action, and the action of the various digestive fluids on various kinds of food, etc. The concrete study of human beings in society, such as cities, penal institutions, schools, railroads and fac- tories, etc., is sometimes called sociology or economics by the laboratory method. A well-equipped laboratory for nature-study work is, of course, desirable, but not absolutely essential. The ordinary school-desks can be made to suffice for all the nature-study work of the grades. Simple dis- secting-needles, with hand-lenses and a compound microscope if possible, will suffice as apparatus. It is needless to say that a better equipment would be advantageous and very often possible. The recitation is used, also, in connection with the laboratory method. The aims of these recita- tions may be arranged in two groups, according as the object is mainly (a) to instruct or (h) to test. These two aims cannot be absolutely separated in practice; yet it is clear, that, in work of this kind, where so much depends on methods of manipulation, skill in seeing, etc., the instruction should come much earlier than the final test of knowledge. The methods used in recitation may be the So- cratic, Catechetical, and Developmental. These terms Are frequently used synonymously; but it is desirable to distinguish between the first, or Socraiic method, and the Catechetical or Developmental methods. 8o Education through Nature 6. The Socratic Method was first used by Soc- rates as the term suggests. He was a philosopher whose chief aim, as a teacher, was instruction. The method consists in dialogue between the teacher and the pupil. The questions, on the part of the teacher, are so put as to lead the pupil to see things from different points of view; to develop in the pupil's mind certain lines of inquiry, which involve definite problems, and hence lead the pupil, not only to ask pertinent questions, but also to discover how those very questions can be answered by his own skill and effort. This may not seem very much like instruc- tion; yet it is the kind of instruction which is ulti- mately of most value; because it does not supply immediate needs, as when you give the indigent bread; but rather creates that unsatisfied feeUng which spurs on to renewed effort; as when you enable the indigent to take pride in earning his own livelihood. The advantage of this method lies in the freedom of discussion. The pupil is not made to feel, at the outset, that his inner consciousness is being pried into; or that he is exposing his own fearful ignorance. He is rather made to feel that he is adding his mite to that of the teacher's, in devising means and finding solutions to problems. It is, therefore, a valuable means of correcting errors in methods of observation, by indirectly leading the pupils to see things in a new light; and, consequently, to realize their own errors and shortcomings, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, a valuable introduction to the ex- perimental part of the work. An experiment might be defined as one's attempt to solve one's own prob- lems by manipulation of nature. Of course, before such experiment is possible, there must be a question or a problem in the mind. The definite statement of the problem should be one of the results of the discussion. The chiej difficulty to be guarded against in this General Methods 8i method is the proneness to answer the questions that arise, instead of so arranging matters that the pupil can succeed in finding the answers by his own ingenuity and efforts, after the questions have been clearly comprehended by him. Thus: Is there any difference between the upper and lower surface of a leaf? Has this difference anything to do with the relation of the two surfaces to sunlight? These questions can be answered by referring the pupil to the leaf, and leading him to see the position of the leaf on the plant, with reference to the source of light; and then, comparing that leaf with a different leaf having both surfaces equally exposed. The answer in this case is not so important, educationally, as is the power developed in finding the solution. 7. The Catechetical or Developmental Method consists in asking questions, to be answered by the pupil, orally; the aim being, (i) to test the pupil's success in learning his lesson, (2) to develop the subject in the pupil's mind, so as to make the relation of one fact to another clear to him. It is self-evident that an opportunity for acquiring the material for knowledge must be provided, before such a test can be required. Furthermore, the facts and the images of objects must be present in the mind before that material can be developed into a consis- tent whole. The disadvantage of this method is that it is the easiest method for the teacher to adopt, requiring least effort, least skill, and least preparation. Except in metaphysics and higher mathematics, it is a vicious method if allowed to usurp the place of all other methods. Many teachers abuse it, by assuming that what has never entered the child's mind through the senses, or has no foundation in his experience, can, nevertheless, be coaxed out of his inner consciousness much as a system of logic is elaborated. 82 Education through Nature The method is useful in nature study for at least two purposes, provided it is adopted at the proper time, in the investigation of a given subject. First, it is valuable in testing the pupil's knowledge of the subject, after he has completed his observation. This testing is of very great importance; for many pupils, hke most mortals, need the touch of the stem hand of necessity to spur them on to meet an emergency and do their best work. Second, it is useful in pro- moting a proper assimilation of materials of knowledge, gained through experience. By it facts are recalled, the subject reviewed, and the meaning of the whole often made clearer, by the order in which the questions arise in the course of the natural development of the subject. 8. The Lecture or Telling Method is the method of communicating ideas by means of oral language. The teacher speaks to the class about the subject, answering those questions which he imagines to arise, naturally, in the pupil's mind; and giving such information, in a connected way, as he beUeves the pupil ought to know. This method is Uable to abuse, because the word is apt to come before the idea; the symbol for the thing signified. Thus the lecture very often becomes a meaningless harangue, by which no real com- munication of ideas actually takes place. This is especially true when the lecture deals with things lying outside of the actual experience of the pupil, and when conveyed in language or in terms that are unfamihar to him. It has the advantage of affording the teacher an opportunity to impress upon the pupil his own per- sonahty, by voice and gesture, and to arouse feelings and enthusiasm for the work. It also is an admirable means for summarizing a subject, the details of which are already familiar; for putting things into their General Methods 83 logical connections, and thus assisting the pupil in bringing order out of chaos. The contention that this telling method should never be used, in nature study, is fooUsh. There are many facts that the pupil' cannot discover for himself, which can be suppUed in this way, and which are often necessary to render the student's own observations clear. Care must, of course, be taken not to use terms or language with which the pupil has not become famihar. For, strictly speaking, men can communicate with each other only in a common language, and with ideas that are already familiar to both. The idea must come before the word; but new combinations of ideas can be produced by a carefully prepared lecture. It is safe to say, also, that, in arranging such a lecture or sum- mary, the teacher derives fully as much benefit as does, the pupil; and a growing teacher is always an inspiration, even to a child. 9. The Confirmation Method is the method of seeing what has first been told the pupil. Thus a subject might be introduced by a lecture, in which it is pointed out what is to be found in the object and where it is to be found. Laboratory guides are fre- quently used for such a purpose. This method has the disadvantage of robbing the pupil of the pleasure of discovery and invention; and of making him a mere machine for seeing what is already known. It is certainly not well suited to develop the investigator; although, for mature stu- dents, as well as for the teacher, it may not be as harmful as in the lower grades. Where lack of time exists, as is so often the case with the teacher, it may be of advantage to him to use this method in preparing for his work. Knowing enough about the subject to understand the lecture or the book, time can be saved by confirming, by observation and experiment, what the author or 84 Education through Nature authority has said on the subject. It may occa- sionally be used, also, but with caution, in the lower grades. Demonstrations by the teacher in connec- tion with the telling method partake of the character of this confirmation method. X. Special Method of Teaching Nature Study. Introduction. — It seems self-evident that all of the methods considered in the previous section are good when properly used; and, of course, bad when improperly used. In most cases, the latter is true, when any one of those methods is used exclusively. Teachers are so apt to get a tardy idea now and then, which seema like a revelation to them. In nine cases out of ten it is only a belated view of the other side of the mountain. In forming a method of our own that shall possess a maximum of the valuable and a minimum of the worthless in existing methods, we have to consider, from all sides, three important factors: (a) the pupil, (6) the object to be studied, and (c) the method. If our aim in nature study were merely to give the pupil a knowledge of the object studied, we might say that our task in forming a method is to so bring the pupil and the object together as to develop in the former an understanding of the latter. This might, perhaps, answer in the case of advanced sci- ence teaching, where it is virtually assumed to be the sole aim; but it is a conception too narrow for nature study. A subject in nature study has many sides, many divisions, offering each its own problems, which require their own specific method of treatment. Inas- much as the pupil, too, has his many-sidedness, which we have to keep in view, we shall do best if we succeed in making such a combination of methods as the laws of psychology would dictate on the one hand, General Methods 85 and the nature of the subject require on the other hand. The Object. — ^What are the natural divisions of an object of study, and which of our general methods is suited to each of these divisions, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, suited to the variously devel- oped powers of the pupil? 1. Each living thing can be studied (a) as con- sisting of parts, or (&) as a whole, and (c) as having relation to other things, environment. 2. Both as a whole and as parts, the object may be studied, (a) as regards its morphology (origin, his- tory, form, or structure), (6) as regards its physiology (use, function, or work). 3. The study of an object in each and all of the divisions above may consist (a) in ascertaining the isolated facts. But this gathered material (6) must be combined with what is already in the mind, must be assimilated, and generalized or apperceived. 4. When facts have been thus built up into a sys- tem of knowledge, there still remains the step of expressing the ideas gained {a) orally (recitation), (b) by the hand (drawing), (c) by the pen (writing). 11. The Pupil. — Normal development is a general concept, which implies: {a) physical development, (6) intellectual development, (c) moral development. I. We have a right to assume that the pupil has (a) some power, (b) some knowledge. He needs more of both. Are we to assume that all knowledge and all power which the pupil is capable of can be developed by merely "drawing it out "^merely spinning it out of his own inner consciousness ? Then we have no need of nature study. 86 Education through Nature That which the pupil has not, because he has been unable to get it, must be imparted. 2. We have a right to assume that the pupil has some power of (a) sense perception, (&) thinking, (c) judgment, (d) imagination, (e) expression. But these powers are inaccurate. Such inaccurate use oj powers must be remedied by training. 3. We have a right to assume, also, that the pupil has at least the germs of the principal moral elements, (a) ethical, (6) aesthetic, (c) ideals, {d) character. But these, very probably, are rudimentary. Such rudimentary elements must be developed. 4. To briefly summarize, then, our task seems to be: (a) to impart (knowledge, power); (b) to train (sense-perception, thinking, judgment, imagination, expression); (c) to develop (the sense of right and truth, the sense of the beautiful, higher ideals, char- acter). Let us keep these things in mind in develop- ing our method! III. The Method. — ^A method is not for its own sake. It is for the purpose of accomplishing an end in view. Teaching should have an aim. Too often that aim is the ease of the teacher. The pupil is a living, growing thing. The true aim of education and a rational method for realizing that aim cannot be comprehended until the laws of life and growth are understood. Teachers, because they have not under- stood life and growth, have all along been playing with ideas, much as "children play marbles for keeps." Ask them what these ideas are, or how they come to be at all, of course, they do not know. That ideas do appear, with or without a teacher, with or without a book, is certain. Life and growth implies change. A method to (jenerai Methods 87 [ti be adapted to such conditions, must also be capable of change. Such an ideal method can exist only in the sane mind of the earnest teacher. The only true method is the method arising spontaneously in the mind, that comprehends fundamental principles, and is able to adapt means to ends. The proper use of a method requires (a) intelligence, (b) earnestness, and (c) energy. A formal method, such as the one here proposed, may serve other purposes than that for which it is ostensibly intended — practical use. Indeed, many apologies would have to be made for presenting such a general formal scheme as this one, if it were not confidently beUeved that it may lead the teacher (a) to think, (6) to plan, (c) to execute according to his better judgment and the circumstances amid which he is placed. Thus, if we realize the fact that the simplest natural object is very imperfectly understood by the wisest among us, and that the way to get a knowledge of it, combined with the power which the getting of that knowledge imphes, is to study that object properly, we shall not waste much time in deciding what to -study. If our course of study is neither convenient nor practicable for our locality, we need but take that natural object which at the time is convenient and adapted to our grade of work. A more difficult question is that as to how to study it — (a) how to begin, (b) how to continue, and (c) how to end. The following generalizations may aid us in forming a guide in this the most difficult part of our work. Tentative Generalizations and Guiding Propositions. 1. The most general aim of nature study is to pro- mote normal development. 2. It is not a mere pastime to be resorted to iir 8S Education through Nature school, on those rare occasions when there is nothing else to do. 3, Nature study is first on the program of Ufe; it should be first on the program of the school. 4. Nature study is the study of original sources; and implies knowledge of things, and the power to manipulate them. S- With the knowledge of things and with the ability to manipulate them, come the arts and sciences, the three r's, and geography. 6. Development must begin at the bottom of the scale — not at the top. 7. In nature study we rise ; we do not sink- 8. Physical development may be promoted by proper manipulation of the object studied. 9. Mental development may be promoted by proper observation and interpretation of things. 10. Moral development may be promoted by the proper estimation and appreciation of things. 11. Knowledge and power are mutually dependent; we cannot get out of a thing what has never been put into it. 12. Sense perception, thinking, judgment, imagina- tion, and expression are forms of activity. These activities 'are being trained when properly exercised in connection with things. 13. The ethical sense is developed by constant discrimination between truth and fiction. 14. The child, like its mother, nature, is artless. This artlessness is the badge of truth. 15. Nature cannot be deceived; it is the deceiver who is deceived. General Methods 89 16. The love of truth increases with the pursuit of it. 17. A false art is that art which violates the natural ethical and moral law. 18. The aesthetic sense is developed by the repeated discovery of the fitness of things. 19. Nature study is not the end of arts and science; it is the beginning of them. 20. Higher ideals are developed by the discovery of the laws underlying the fitness of things. 21. Expression of appreciation of things unknown to us is much ado about nothing. 22. The things we appreciate are a measure of our standards of judgment. 23. Ideals do not float around in the air on winged words; they are a promise within us of better things, because of our growth towards what is ideally good. 24. Encouragement, not discouragement, accom- panies healthy growth. 25. Character is developed through contact with natural forces, and by the exercise of the will in doing that which ought to be done, and doing it in the right way. 26. We all sooner or later have to become conscious of three laws: (a) the law of love, (b) the law of lib- erty, and (c) the law of necessity. 27. Liberty is an achievement; and belongs to those who have earned it, by showing their fitness for self-rule. 28. To realize the existence of the law of necessity, is the most important step towards that moral freedom of personality which we call character. 29. Neatness and accuracy in our work, like per- 9© Education through Nature soiiai cleanliness, often indicate a clean and well- regulated mind. 30. We fail in our work if our pupils are not inter- ested. 31. Mystery is an element in child interest; hence, living things are more interesting than dead ones. 32. Consciousness of success in overcoming diffi- culties increases interest. ^^. We prize results that have cost us some effort. 34. Few pleasures equal that of an original dis- covery. 35. The power to achieve, resulting from well- directed effort, is of greater value than a single achieve- ment. 36. Knowing and doing — mind and body — cannot be separated without fatal consequences to both. 37. We learn to do by doing, to spell by spelling, to draw by drawing, to write by writing, provided that in each case we first know what we want to do, what we want to spell, what we want to draw, and what we want to say. 38. The child should have something to say before it is called on to say something. 39. Sense-organs, like brains, were made for use. 40. The idea should come through experience, before the word is given. 41. Education implies change; and change in the living world is brought about by action and reaction. 42. We have ideas because we have brains, and lan- guage because we have ideas to express. General Methods 91 43. Language is the result of ideas, not the cause of them. 44. We are able to get out of a book just as much as we are able to put into it. 45. Study the word " abomalihari " as long as you please; it means nothing to you. 46. Time spent in silent contemplation of an object is well spent. 47. He who hesitates to express himself about facts, when in doubt, usually hesitates to tell a lie. 48. Fools jump at conclusions; the prudent arrive at them. 49. It is often more important to be able to begin work than it is to finish it; for it cannot very well be finished before the beginning has been made. 50. First steps are important ones; they often deter- mine the final result. 51. The teacher should be sure she has something worth saying before saying it. 52. One generalization is worth a hundred facts; but the hundred facts must be had before the gener- alization can safely be attempted. 53. From fact to theory is normal to the child mind; from fact to theory and from theory back to act is normal to the scientific mind. 54. There is one instance in nature study when it is a disgrace to the teacher to admit he does not know — when he is too lazy to find out. 55. An unanswered question is often more useful to the pupil than an answered one, provided means be devisedi fou its solutions. 92 Education through Nature 56. There is little danger of knowing loo much about nature; the danger is all on the other side. 57. He is a poor teacher who does not prepare his work. 58. There is a limit to the pupil's power of attention. 59. Interest in school work can be measured by its manifestation outside the school. 60. Observation and experiment is the method of science. 61. In the pursuit of knowledge it is absurd not to use all proper means at our command. 62. Every object is a part of a larger whole — its environment — and is itself composed of parts. The same method of study can, therefore, be used both for the whole and for its parts, thus: ' root (step I, 11, III, IV, v, vi. vn, vin, IX, X); stem (step i, n, in, iv, v, vi. VII, Apple-tree. vin, IX, x); Step I, n, in, iv, leaf (step i, 11, in, rv, v, vi, vn, V, VI, VII, VIU," VIII, IX, x); IX, X. flower (step i, n, in, rv, v, vi, VIII, IX, x); VII, fruit (step i, n, in, rv, v, vi. VII, vni, rx, x). 63. Proceed from the more extensive to the more intensive study of things. 64. The basis of interest in lower grades must be variety; this should gradually give place in upper grades to a desire for thoroughness. 65. The teacher who is neither thorough nor en- General Methods 93 thusiastic in this work can hardly expect his pupils to be so. 66. The teacher should gradually become unneces- sary to the pupil; just as this guide should gradually become unnecessary to the teacher. XI. Teacher's Guide for Handy Reference.* I. color 2. form ■ 1. As a whole • 3. size 4. lines - S- angles step I.— SEEING 6. surfaces. (Discovery) , 1. color 2. form , 2. As parts 3. size 4. lines J. angles . 6. surfaces. ' I. Color 2. form 'i. As a whole 3. size origin Meaning of \ 4. lines and S- angles history. 6. surfaces Step n.— DISCUSSION , (.7. properties (Socratic) ■ I. color 2. form 2. As parts 3. size causes Variations of 4. lines ■effects 5. angles uses. 6. surfaces . 7. properties , 1. color 2. form Step m.— COMPARING ( With related 3. size uses and (Thumb and Rule) ■j objects as • ( regards 4. texture 5. covering 6. movements ' classifi- cation. 7. properties * See Part I Chapter IV, Sec tion XII. 94 Education through Nature step IV.— FIELD LESSON {Confirmation) Relation of the objeot to 1. plants ) 2. animals ) 3. elevation 4. temperature 5. movements of air 6. light 7. moisture 8. soil .9. man 1. food 2. homes 3. neighbors 4. societies K. instincts 1. economic uses 2. aesthetic, educa- tion al, and moral uses 3. characters essen- tial to its uses 4. characters essen- tial in struggle for existence 5. how influenced by man 6. what general in- fluence on man, etc. Step v.— EXPERIMENTA- TION ^Investigation) •J <3 step VI.— RECI- TATION. 8 .a i I. Morphology I. soil u. light 3. heat effects I 4. moisture of IS. gravity 6. air 7. electricity 8. chemicals 1. history 2. form 3. structiure . 4. origin functions tropisms - of organs and organisms How related to work of 2. Physiology 1. nutrition 2. circulation I. function^ 3- respiration 4. secretion 5. excretion 6. motion . 2. uses of 1. food 2. light 3. heat 4. soil 5. water 6. chemicals How related to ( j.. struggle for eldstence 3. Ecological < factors ( 2. adaptations General Methods 95 step VII.— SUPPLEMENT- ARY INFORMATION {Lecture, Telling) ■ I. facts reviewed in natural order z. meaning of observed facts 3. new facts and new relation of facts 4. some truths emphasized 5. subject vitalized by the teacher 6. the whole summarized 7. reference to literature Step Vin.— REP- RESENTATION (ZProww^) I. As a whole 2. as parts y; color or shade form or outline size 1. color or shade 2. form or outline 3. size 4. structure 5. appendages ( artistic j (distant) real (near) Stages of f I. growth \ z. Step IX.— EXPRES- SION Q^^ritmg) I. prose 2. poetry whole parts ' I. spelling 2. penmanship 3. composition 4. punctuation 5. capitalization !;: sentence paragraph "I. composition Step X.— READING- nature poetry understanding appreciation 1. form 2. language 3. facts 4. terms 5. spelUng 6. penmanship 1^7- expression r. criticism ■z. grading ^. supplementary sources ) tonir .3. nature poetry and stories ) " Program for Step I {Seeing). Motto: "Because our understanding cannot in this body found itself but on sensible things, nor arrive so clearly to the knowledge of God and things invisible, as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior creature, the same method is necessary to be followed in all discreet teciching." — Miltoji. 96 Education through Nature Analysis — seeing I . as a whole as parts 1. color 2. form 3. size 4. lines 5. angles 6. surfaces I. color .!. form 3. size 4. lines 5. angles 6. surfaces 1. Preparation: (a) Provide plenty of fresh spec- imens, showing all essential features; (6) provide each pupil with paper and pencil. 2. Time: From one to several periods, depending on attention and interest. (See Primary Method, Chapter IV, Section XII.) 3. Method: Discovery (i). (See Part I, Chapter II, Sect'on IX.) 4. Aim: (a) To encourage self-activity; (b) to stimulate interest; (c) to enable the pupil to esti- mate his own powers. (See Primary Method, Chap- ter IV, Section XII.) 15. Point: Superficial characters are the first to attract attention. 6. Presentation: (a) Let the pupil observe si- lently; (b) let him note down each observation in a separate, well-formed sentence, numbering each; (c) teach the use of capitals and period; (d) give directions for the next lesson. (See Chapter IV, Section XIII.) 7. Preparation tor Next Step: Ask each pupil to bring fresh specimens of the same kind. 8. Note: When pressed jor time one grade may he doing this work as seat work or occupation, while the teacher is occupied with other grades. Program for Step II {Discussion). Motto : "Nature wills that children should be children before they are men. . . . Childhood has ways of General Methods 97 Analysis — discuss . . origin and his- tory uses, causes and effects seeing, thinking, feeling peculiar to itself; nothing is more absurd than to wish to substitute ours in their place." — Rousseau. 1. color 2. form fi. as a whole 3. size meaning of" 4. lines 5. angles 6. surfaces . 7. properties 1. color 2. form as parts 3. size variations of \ 4. lines S- angles 6. surfaces 7. properties 1. Preparation: (a) Decide from the work of the first step what assistance the class as a whole needs; (&) decide what individual instruction and criticism should be given; (c) in matters that are too obscure for the pupil unaided arrange questions in such a way that the pupil can see it by re-examining the specimen. 2. Time: One period. (See Primary Method, Part I, Chapter IV, Section XII.) 3. Method: Socratic (6) (See Part I, Chapter II, Section IX). 4. Aim: (a) To arouse curiosity; (6) to sharpen discrimination; (c) to cause questions to arise in the pupil's mind; {d) to lead him to suggest means of testing those questions; (e) to cause him to look for particulars that might aid in the solution of more general problems; (/) to suggest better methods of seeing and taking notes; {g) to show him the impor- tance of carefulness and neatness; (Ji) to encourage hina. (See Chapter II.) 5. Point : {a) A qyestioji in the mind often enables us to see tilings that otherwise escape us; (h) the 98 Education through Nature relation of one thing or fact to another is as important as the thing or fact itself. 6. Presentation: (a) Lead the pupil to ask such questions as, how did this and that arise; (b) of whpt use are the different parts; (c) how did different parts come to differ; (d) what is the cause and what the effect of the difference; (e) what would be the effect if things were not what they are? (See Chap- ter IV, Section XIII.) 7. Preparation for Next Step: Ask pupils to bring different specimens showing one or more resem- blance to the one studied. 8. Note : Do not answer the pupil's questions at this time, but suggest ways in which the answer could be found by comparison and experiment. Program for Step III {Comparing). Motto: "The education of a naturalist now consists chiefly of learning how to compare." — ^Agassiz. Analysis — compare with related objects as regards I. color ■£. form 3. size 4. texture 5. covering 6. movements _7. properties uses and classifica- tion 1. Piceparation : {a) Study related forms noting specific and generic differences; (6) provide plenty of fresh specimens of those different forms. 2. Time: As many periods as there are specimens compared. 3. Method: Thumb and Rule. (3.) (See Part I, Chapter II, Section IX.) 4. Aim: (a) More care in seeing; (i) sharpen dis-. crimination and train judgment . (see Chapter 11) ; (c). form. the habit of discovjering similarities and dif- ferences;' (rf) develop the habit of using, what is already known, in discrinfiihation of lessobvidus dis'tihction's, General Methods 99 and in the discovery of new facts; (e) develop the idea of class, order, genus, species, with their characters. 5. Point : Things differ because of difference (a) in heredity, or difference in seeds; (b) because of differ- ences in their surroundings; (c) these differences are usually adaptations to conditions; (d) in case of dead things, of course, other reasons apply. 6. Presentation: (a) Have pupils arrange their results in the form of a comparative table like those shown in Chapter IV, Section XII; (b) from the table let the pupil write definitions of the forms compared, stating the class characters, etc., as shown by the table; (c) teach pupil how to use the dictionary in identify- ing forms. (See Chapter IV, Section XIII.) 7. -Preparation for Next Step: Ask pupils to discover whether similar objects are associated in groups or whether scattered. 8. Note: (a) What is the effect when a living thing is not adapted to the conditions amid which it is placed? (b) Can a living thing in nature be out of harmony with its environment? (c) What about man? Program for Step IV {Field Lesson). Motto: "Work should never be treated as if it were play, nor play as if it were work." — ^Rosenkranz. ' I. food ^. homes 3. neighbors 4. societies .5. instincts 1. economic uses 2. aesthetic, educational, and moral uses 3. characters essential to its uses 4. characters essentialm the struggle for existence 5. how influenced by man 6. what general influence on man, etc. Analysis — relation oj object to 1. plants ) 2. animals ) 3. elevation 4. temperature 5 . movement of air 6. light 7. moisture 8. soil 9; man loo Education through Nature 1. Preparation: (a) Determine beforehand where the object studied can be found; (b) let pupils know before taken out what the purpose of the exercise is. 2. Time: From one to several periods or whole days. 3. Method: (a) Discovery; (b) investigation; (c) confirmation, (i), (2), (9) Chapter II, Sec- tion IX. 4. Aim: (a) To discover new facts; (6) to find answers to some problems that have arisen in pre- ceding steps; (c) to confirm conclusions already reached; (d) to cultivate interest and appreciation; (e) to train in close observation; (/) form some habits of the naturahst; (g) to develop a consciousness of relationship and harmony in nature; (h) enjoyment; (i) make collections of specimens. (See Part II, Chapter IV, Section XI.) 5. Point: (a) Species and varieties have similar- ities and differences correlated with difference in habits, and with differences in their relation to en- vironment; (b) Hving things often form societies or colonies, the conditions of which are interesting sub- jects for study. 6. Presentation: (a) Dictate a few leading ques- tions to which answers are to be found; (b) let pupils understand that they will be called on next day for their answers; (c) accompany pupils to the locality selected. (See Chapter IV, Section XIII.) 7. Preparation for Next Step : Encourage pupils to bring such things from home as may be of use in their experiments. 8. Note : (o) What connection is there between plant and animal societies and human society? (b) En- courage pupils to preserve specimens bearing on the questions discussed. General Methods lOI Progkam for Step V (Experimentation). Motto : " The teacher is needed for those steps which the children cannot take alone." — De Garmo. r I. soU •> 2. light 3. heat AhA\ysi&-=^xpiriments on 4. moisture ^ects of 5. gravity 6. air 7. electricity S. cheflaicals j functions and tropisms of organs and organisms 1. PsepaRation: (a) Use material brought by the pupil if fresh; if not, supply plenty of fresh material to Wofk with; (b) provide such simple apparatus as jtiky be needed, or supply material from which ap- paratus can be constructed. 2. Time: From one to several periods. 3. Method: Investigation. (2.) (See Part I, Chap- ter II, Section IX.) 4. Aim: (a) To develop the inquiring mind; (b) to develop the habit of answering one's questions and settling one's doubts by experimental tests; (c) to develop the habit of inquiring into the questions of use and functions of the forms seen; (d) to train in the use of the hypothesis; (e) to develop a judicial mind; (/) to develop skill in construction and ma- nipulation of apparatus; (g) to promote a scientific understanding of the subject. 5. PoiisfT: (a) Facts are correlated; (b) solutions of special problems aid in understanding more general ones; (c) the more simple and primitive the apparatus the better. 6. Presentation: (a) Distribute pencil and paper for notes; (b) place oh the board or dictate a few general questions that are suited to guide observa- tion; (c) lead pupils to talk about general problems, sU'gIi as how do Uvitig things differ from dead ones; what are the evidences of Ufe; how is it maintained, I02 Education through Nature modified, and brought to a close; what relation does form, color, she, structure, properties, instincts, movements bear to the maintenance of life? (d) hov^r do the various organs contribute to the maintenance'' of life? how are these organs affected by physical influences? arid how does each Organism minister to the life of the social community ? etc. ; (e) lead pupils, to suggest experiments to test the questions asked, assist when necessary in performing the experiment. (See Chapter IV, Section XIII.) 7. Preparation for Next Step: Refer pupils to literature, etc. 8. Note: The value of an experiment in this work lies as much (or more) in the habits formed as in the results obtained. Program for Step VI {Recitation). Motto: "The mind must ever rise from clear in-- dividual to distinct general notions." — Pestalozzi, I. history -j ' ■a Morphology I. ongm development 2. form 3. structure 14. origin »•{:. whole parts or organs How related to work of :i. Physiology I. function uses of fi. nutrition "I 2. circulation 3. respiration 4. secretion 5. excretion 6. motion H organs and syste;ms 1. food 2. light 3. heat 4. soil 5. water 6. chemicals I organisms ■toK and How related to 3. Ecological factors^ i: struggle for existence adaptations Hi organs organs and organisms General Methods 163 ' , a 1. Preparation: {a) Fix in the mind the cardinal points around which all other facts cluster; (6) ex- amine pupil's notes, noting excellences and defects. 2. Time: One period. (See Primary Method, Part I, Chapter IV, Section XII.) 3. Method: (a) Catechetical; (6) developmental. (7) See Part I, Chapter II, Section IX. 4. Aim: {a) To test knowledge and skill; (6) to promote generalization; (c) awaken interest; {d) call attention to new facts and their relationship; (e) cor- rect errors of all kinds; (/) show the larger bearings of the subject. 5. Point: {a) Everything is related to all other things; (6) adaptations to work, and to other things exist which have a natural explanation. (See Part II, Chapter II.) 6. Presentation: (o) Call for statement of facts; {b) when a word is needed supply it; (c) begin with a central fact and call for statements of other facts related to it; {d) criticise the pupil's results as shown by his written notes. (See Chapter IV, Section XIII.) 7. Preparation for Next Step: {a) Refer pupils in higher grades to scientific Hterature, on some phase of the subject; (6) refer pupils in lower grades to nature poetry, and stories about the subject studied; (c) teach older pupils how to use the dictionary. 8. Note. — For one period it is best to take some phase, as morphology, then in the next period, physi- ology, and in the next ecology, etc. Program for Step VII (Supplementary Information). Motto: "The main difficulty in the way of the ap- plication of the science of teaching is the ignorance on the part of teachers, of the subjects they pretend to teach." — Parker. I04 Education through Nature Analysis ■ 1. facts reviewed in natural order 2. meaning of observed facts 3. new facts and new relations of facts 4. some truths emphasized 5. subject vitalized by the teacher 6. The whole summarized 7. Reference to literature and biography 1. Preparation: (a) Read and confirm what the best authors have to say on the subject; (b) arrange what you wish to say with the needs of your pupils in view; (c) develop in yourself some enthusiasm for the work. 2. Time: One period. 3. Method: Lecture (telling). (8) See Part I, Chapter II, Section IX. 4. Aim: (a) To review important facts; (b) to ar- range facts; (c) to create enthusiasm; (d) to prepare the pupil by actual example for the logical arrange- ment and the clear expression of what he knows, about the subject; (e) to impart such knowledge as has escaped the pupil or may be too difficult to discover; (/) to remind the pupil how much more there is to accomplish. 5. Point: (a) The dry est facts may be so com- bined and arranged as to make a clear picture, about which an enthusiastic teacher can relate the important incidents of an interesting story. (See Part II, Chap- ter I.) 6. Presentation: (a) Have something to say before you say it; (b) use good language, but avoid technical or unfamiliar terms; (c) illustrate on the board, with colored crayon, as you speak, thus holding the attention by appealing to both eye and ear; (J) use the animated conversational style, and let yoiy en- thusiasm express itself in your features, and in the modulations of the voice; (e) do not talk around the point, to the point; (/) stop talking when, you have nothing to say worth mentioning; (g) a question General Methods 105 now and then when the interest flags will restore at- tention. (See Chapter IV, Section XIII.) 7. Preparation for Next Step: (a) Refer pupils to library sources of information, pointing out pas- sages of special importance and interest; (b) point out any literary selections that may be of interest in the light of what has been found out. 8. Note. — (a) In the lower grades the teacher may read simple, interesting selections to the class, and have them reproduce in writing the substance of the selection. This will add needed variety to the exercise. (b) It may often be desirable to give library references earlier in the work, as at the close of Step II. Program for Step VIII (Representation). Motto: "Now there is nothing in the understanding which was not before in the sense. And, therefore, to exercise the senses well about the right perceiving the difference of things will be to lay the grounds for all •wisdom and! all wise discourse and all discreet actions in one's course of life." — Comenius. i 11^ 4 I. As awhole 2. As parts I. color or shade 2.. form or outline 3. size (proportion) color or shade form or outline size (proportion) structure appendages / artistic \ (distant) real jf^Sfoi 1. Preparation: (a) Supply fresh material; (b) provide paper and pencil or water colors, etc. 2. Time: One to two periods. 3.' Method : Drawing. (See Chapter IV, Sec- tion XIII.) 4. Aims: (a) To cultivate accurate observation; (6) to train the eye and the hand ; (c) tp represent what cannot otherwise be well expressed; (d) to cultivate tiie to6 Education through Nature habit of distinguishing between the real and the imaginary; (e) to hold attention in training judgment. 5. Point: (a) Objects are vaguely generalized when at a distance; details become evident as we approach the object. 6. Presentation: (a) Let the pupil know what he is to draw; (b) show the pupil the effect of holding an object at a distance; (c) after having drawn the whole object as seen from a distance, have each part drawn with important details as they appear when closely examined. (See Chapter IV, Section XIII.) 7. Preparation for Next Step: (a) Ask pupils to bring each a fresh specimen. 8. Note. — (a) This work can be done as seat work or occupation after the directions are given; (b) the pencil often needs close attention. Program for Step IX (Written Expression). Motto: "The exceptional fact of the period is the genius of Wordsworth. He had no master but nature and solitude." — Emerson. tw .a en Si I. spelling I. prose -j 2. penmanship f i. sentence 1 i. punctuation 3. composition -j j- and (.2. paragraph J 2. capitalization I . nature poetry < (.2. poetry -j 2. understanding (3. appreciation 1. Preparation: (a) Pupil's notes should be cor- rected; (b) supply pen and ink, paper and pencil. (See Primary Method, Part I, Chapter IV, Section XII.) 2. Time: One to two periods or, as busy work, as much time as is faithfully spent. 3. Method: Writing. (See Part I, Chapter V.) 4. Aims: (a) To summarize and fix facts; (b) to develop systematic habits; (c) to cultivate habits of accuracy and neatness; (d) to serve as a test of the General Methods 107 pupil's success in his work; (e) to correlate with other subjects, Such as spelling, penmanship, composition, a,nd literature; (/) to develop that clearness and ac- curacy of thinking which conies from clear and ac- curate expression of thought; (g) to serve as a natural foundation for the cultivation _of the art of reading, and the use and interpretation of language. 5.^ PoiNt: (a) Neatness in writing and accuracy in thinking are essential to a clear legible composition; (b) each sentence should express only one leading thought. i 6. Presentation: (a) Provide fresh specimens for re-examination when in doubt; (6) let: pupils refer to their notes; (c) place upon the board or dictate as many general questions (or a suggestive outhne) as will cover the work done, and have pupils answer by description or otherwise each . question in a separate paragraph; (see Part I, Chapter V, Section XIV and XV); (d) ask pupil to copy, at the end of his com- position, that stanza, or two, from a selected poem or other subject, giving him expressly the liberty to choose that stanza which most appeals to him; (e) preserve the best of these compositions after they have been read as a mark of distinction; (/) number your leading questions, and have the corre- sponding paragraph provided with a similar number (see Part I, Chapter V, Section 14, 15); point out to the pupil how the. natural parts of an object might each be described in a paragraph. (See Chapter IV, Section 13.) .7. Peeparation for Next Step: Assign literature bearing on the subject to be read. , 8. Note. — (a) This work can be done as seat work or occupation when the teacher is crowded with other work. But it is not to be slighted as it is a very im- portant step; (b) the descriptive part should be strictly scientific. io8 Education through Nature Program for Step X (Reading). Motto: "A man cannot have the power 0} language without things to apply it to; but his fulness of ex- pression may be out of proportion to his knowledge of the things expressed."'— B&in. ' i. compOsiHon Analysis^-reading ■ ' I. form 2. language I. criticism 3. facts 4. terms 5. spelling 6. penmanship 2. grading 7. expression 13- supplementary sources ) tnrnc- nature poetry and stories ) " 1. Preparation: {a) Provide supplementary read- ing — ^poetry, prose — bearing on the subject, to relieve the monotony of the reading exercise. 2. Time: One to several periods. 3. Method: Reading. 4. Aims : (a) To allow pupils to compare their own work with that of others; (6) to relieve the teacher of of the task of so much reading; (c) drill in pronouncia- tion of scientific terms; {d) to correlate with reading; (e) to provide for a beneficial emulation in the class; (/) to give the teacher an opportunity to estimate the quality and quantity of the work done, and to give due credit for merit arising from carefulness, diUgence, neatness, etc. 5. Point: In reading their own composition, pupils should be able to read with an intelligent expression. 6. Presentation: (a) Ask pupil to read his paper; (6) note arrangement of subject-matter, use of terms, expression, etc.; (c) ask other members of the class to criticise the facts; {d) give criticisms and sugges- tions; (e) to break the monotony of the exercise, let a member read the library selection quoted, or any General Methods 109 other supplementary reading bearing on the subject. (See Chapter IV, Section XIII.) 7. Note. — (a) Grade the work by these papers, and from your impressions 0} the pupil's diligence and general success; (b) this step may be omitted wholly or in part whenever, the exercise becomes too monotonous; (c) parents 0} children will often be pleased to see these papers on visiting the school. CHAPTER IV. Suggestions and Course of Study. XII. Suggestions to the Teacher. On the Teacher's Preparation. The teacher's prep- aration for this work may be extensive or very Umited. Too much can hardly be known about nature; but one need not be discouraged a.bout knowing so little, since no one can exhaust the subject. One's attitude towards the subject is often of more consequence than the extent of knowledge. If the teacher is as interested in a new page of nature's book as some are in the latest novel from the press, she will learn while she labors on, inspiring her pupils with the warmth of her enthusiasm. Nature study is not entirely for the sake of nature study, but for the sake of the pupil. The method and some of the spirit of the investigator will soon overcome many of the difficulties that are sure to be met in beginning this work. On Using the Guide. In using the guide, observe the following points: (i) Make yourself famiUar with its plan before attempting to apply the method. (2) Study the aims to be attained. (3) Endeavor to com- prehend from a psychological and scientific point of view, (a) the different steps outlined, (h) the order in which these steps should be taken. Careful study of the foundations may help you in this. (4) Some points there made are fundamental; yet they are in- tended as suggestions. Do what you can by your own Suggestions and Course of Study iii reading and reflection to assimilate and integrate them into a consistent theory of education. The distinctive features of this method of teaching nature study are : (a) it does not recognize the teaching of nature study as wholly synonomous with the teach- ing of pure science, but primarily as a means to natural mental growth; (b) it, therefore, places the individual to be taught uppermost in the teacher's mind, giving the subject-matter a subordinate though important place; (c) it recognizes, on the one hand, the laws of mental growth; and, on the other hand, places the subject-matter on a scientific rather than a pseudo- scientific basis. Some advantages of this method are: (a) it gives that variety which is so essential in maintaining interest; (b) it is systematic; (c) it relieves the teacher of much useless waste of time in planning the general steps to be taken; and enables him or her the better to arrange the minuter details of the work; (d) it gives the teacher every opportunity for originality; (e) while it is a method it is not one that is Hable to result in machine teaching; (/) being natural, it becomes a pleasure to observe it when properly understood. On the Order of Presentation. There is a natural, as well as an unnatural, order of presenting the various aspects of a subject. The best order is, of course, the natural one. For instance, it would be unnatural to take step seven before taking step one, because it is contrary to the law of development, both in the in- dividual and in the race. The nature of the pupil and the aims we have in view determine what the natural order is. The character of the particular subject studied may determine the order to be pur- sued during a given period; but even in these minuter divisions a natural order can be -detected. Within a single lesson we have (i) preparation — arousing the pupil*s interest- and reballing to his mind related 112 Education through Nature topics with which he is familiar; (2) the presentation of the matter so as to guide the pupil's mind by sensa- tion to sense-perception or to percepts; from percepts or individual notions to recepts or unconscious generali- zation; from recepts, or unconscious generalization to concepts or general notions — conscious generaliza- tion; (3) and finally leading the mind from generali- zations to their further application, i.e., their use in interpreting new percepts. The steps outlined in the guide may be taken in all the grades except, perhaps, the lowest. Occasionally some of the steps, as the tenth, may be omitted in the upper grades. Each step may require several recita- tion periods. Each lesson should be planned before beginning it. A mere haphazard arrangement, on the spur of the moment, cannot yield satisfactory results. In planning the work, the teacher should keep in mind not only the matter to be presented, but, also, the special training which each aspect of the subject is especially suited to give; also the general aim, as well as the special aim, to be attained. The following rules may be useful: Proceed (i) from the simple to the complex; (2) from the more appar- ent to the less apparent, or from the known to the un- known; (3) from the extensive to the intensive; (4) from the concrete to the abstract; (5) from the particular to the general; (6) from form to structure; (7) from structure to function; (8) from facts to the relation of facts; (9) from individuals to the communitj' of organ- isms. Give the pupil a general survey of the whole, if possible, before introducing the study of parts. There must be a correspondence, also, to the order of development of the child's powers; and to the order in which these are employed in the pursuit of knowlr edge, both by the individual and by the race. Thijs we first observe, second infer, third compare, fourtli Suggestions and Course of Study 113 assimilate, fifth generalize, sixth appreciate, seventh express our knowledge and appreciation and, eight, apply our knowledge in the regulation of our lives and in the pursuit of new truths. These processes in- volve (i) the reception of external impressions through the senses, (2) the elaboration of those impressions into knowledge, (3) the training of the body to the efficient execution of the decrees of our better judgment. The pupil's interest in this work has much to do with its success. This is especially true in the lower grades. The choice of suitable subjects is an im- portant matter in the lower grades. Familiar Hving things seem often to be most interesting. Variety, too, is demanded by children. As the pupil advances in the grades, mere curiosity, the chief stimulus in young pupils, should gradually yield to love of knowledge for its own sake. A more intensive study of things in the upper grades is thus made possible and less variety is required. Planning the work, so as to economize time, is the teacher's chief work. Such planning need not reduce the work to routine. It can be so done as to escape the attention of the pupil; he feeling the wholesome stimulus of spontaneity and freedom, while uncon- sciously pursuing the course outlined. Unsystematic work with no aim or purpose on the part of the teacher, is not worthy to be called school work; since it par- takes of that chance value which belongs to the un- directed activities of the playground. The higher the grade the more systematic the work should be made. Nature study becomes scientific in proportion as it is made systematic. It is doubtless true that system- atic work gradually secured through the pupil's spon- taneous activity is a result greatly to be desired. Law- lessness may be a necessity with the very young pupil, but it is inconsistent with anything that can be called a study of the laws of nature. 114 Education through Nature The course of study should be followed when a practicable one has been provided. But it must be surbordinate to the interests of the pupils. Even a desert affords considerable material for nature study. It is very true that "all is in all." Where no course of study is provided for the school, one can easily be made by taking the one presented here as a model, merely inserting the appropriate object, at the time when convenient in that particular locality, and indicating the amount of work given to it in each grade. How much work to be given to a subject in a par- ticular grade, i.e., the thoroughness to be demanded, must depend on the pupil's ability. The method presented here requires no limit to be fixed by the teacher, as the pupil's powers are allowed freedom of action, and consequently determine the degree of thoroughness that can be attained. With the work well planned and the interest sustained such a method must bring the work up to the highest capacity of the pupil. No written examination or uniform test for pro- motion is contemplated according to this method. The pupil's written work, in step nine, is a fairly good test of his abihty and success, and, together with his diligence and success in manipulation, may afford a basis for grading. First Primary Method. When the pupil first enters school the teacher's problem usually is (i) to keep him busy, (2) to teach him to read and to express himself in as many ways as possible. At this stage in his school work, he cannot, of course, pursue nature study as systematically as this method prescribes. The principles underlying the method, however, are the same here as in the more advanced grades; namely, getting ideas through sensation and actual experience, and then connecting these ideas with symbols that may be expressed by (i) orally, (2) Suggestions and Course of Study 115 n n n bo ■S Si's H a BO a, a— iil o hJ CO a CO S m H o a bn a a fi oi m oi •d ^ o p Q rt mm" .« fe d o « o ^ a p: eg ^ a K 8 i u c5 fe S u I I U K ^ W a; fj (-< £!•§ B-B CO S Pt p^ u (A ^ C& < 1^ I ■go p4 li ■u.S o-d (0 O »0 O 0) o MO guv -a •gS CO ii6 Education through Nature drawing, (3) making, (4) writing. Writing must be learned chiefly by imitation. Hence the teacher is more necessary here than in the upper grades. The work here must be combined with reading and writing, and used as a basis for teaching these arts. Indeed we may say that nature study in this primary class is to be used chiefly with a view to teaching reading, writing, and numbers. This use of nature study was formerly called object-lessons. The method here is as follows: (i) Lead each child to make a statement about the object. If possible ' try to have him use both a subject and a predicate, as "The rose is red " — not a phrase, as a red rose, or merely a word rose — whence a complete sentence. It is well not to be too particular about this at the begin- ning, for it is natural for children, like many savage tribes, to talk in phrases instead of complete sentences; as, when the child says "water," meaning: I want water; or give me water. (2) Write the statement on the board (neatly of course); (3) then let the pupil read the sentence from the board; (4) when a number of sentences have thus been placed on the board, let the class copy the sentences with a pencil on paper; (5) at the beginning of the next lesson have the pupils read what they have copied and then proceed as before. Number work should be introduced here (i) by count- ing objects, and the teacher placing the corresponding figure on the board as, I have three (3) flowers; (2) counting the parts of objects as the petals of flowers or the lobes of leaves. Then, too, number the sen- tences on the board and let the pupil copy as before. This copying what has been placed on the board in this way may be done as busy seat-work or occupa- tion, without the attention of the teacher. The lesson itself, therefore, need occupy only from ten to fifteen minutes, but should be repeated at least four times a day. Suggestions and Course of Study 117 CO P. % Pi O I o >-> 1 1 "S ■f - ■s >. ^ e| 1 ^. 1^ 1—1 H H H ■0 V s. •■f M > c5 ^ v (0 Tj Q •3 t^ ^ 1 1 K a •$ g a 1 2 g (0 C M H M 0] 4) ta S ■|j ■ 1 1 5§ •a § 1 [fl ■S & t» ft. 5 '& ^ H H 1 ■i f 1 5 . -a '& M ■ a ii8 Education through Nature XIII. Suggestions on the Steps. I. Seeing. The First Step, being taken by the pupil unaided, requires an abundance of fresh material, A large supply of material is always better than a limited one. To see a young teacher trying to make a single ilower serve for a large class, when the lawn just outside is covered with them, does not tend to develop a favor- able opinion of that teacher. The gathering of the required material should be made part of the work in nature study. But it should not be made compulsory, as it may often be impossible for the pupil to find the desired specimen. As a rule pupils are eager to bring specimens. It has an educa- tional value. It cultivates the habit of observation and attention in the ordinary affairs of Ufe, and will lead to increased appreciation of interesting natural objects. The teacher should not rely exclusively on the material brought by the .pupils. They often fail to respond when material is most needed. The teacher herself will derive much benefit from collecting material. The first thing to do is of course to set the pupil at work. Let him know what is expected of him. So long as the pupil remains busy, he may be left to his own resources. Attention is evidence of interest, and time gjent in this uninterrupted self-activity is well spent. He is probably not only seeing, but may also be thinking. The secret of success in all teaching seems to be the gaining of this self- activity, which reveals itself in attention to the subject in hand. It is said that the distinguished Louis Agassiz, than whom none have obtained better results, placed a specimen before his pupil, told him to go to work on it; and then disappeared for weeks, returning only to inquire of the student how lie was gating along. His Suggestions and Course of Study 119 were mature students, however; yet the principle of self-activity as the source of power is doubtless as true of the child as of the mature man. Observing an object means that the pupil be allowed to use all his senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell, etc.), on it. Plenty of time should be allowed, for the pupil is getting sense-impressions, the primary elements of knowledge. Too much should not be expected in this first lesson; for what the pupil is able to discover is largely a matter of chance, since he lacks, it may be, that con- trolling idea which guides research and makes work systematic. Nevertheless this first step is very im- portant, because it may contribute in various ways to the enjoyment of the work. Thus (a) he enjoys freedom, the free exercise of his power; (b) he enjoys that success which need not be wanting when his powers are freely exercised; (c) he is stimulated by discovery. Nature study owes much of its fascina- tion to the great variety of facts that can be found by careful observation, even in the most familiar object 2. Discussion. The Second Step in the study of an object must be. directed largely by the teacher. The pupil has now a few isolated facts. They mean little or nothing to him. He may feel that he has exhausted the subject. The few facts he has discovered probably have Uttle or •no relation to one another so far as he is aware. Yet every fact is related to every other fact; and it is the consciousness of that which leads to systematic ob- servation. Much more can be seen when once this connecting thread has been discovered. In the first step, no premeditated plan of work precedes the dis- coveries made. All is chance. When such a plan is ^rst consciously or -unponsciQuslj Inade, the result is investigation. Sudh pHteriing is 'ttie resiftt of genera^li- 120 Education through Nature zation, by which questions are developed to be solved by careful experimentation and clever manipulation. Back of all investigation is a suggestion which acts as a stimulus to further inquiry. If systematic activity is to result from the work of this step, it must be stimulat- ing rather than satisfying. A desire for more inform- ation must be aroused, and, when aroused it should not now be satisfied by the teacher's answers. Nature is truly suggestive. But the teacher can assist in making the pupil's mind susceptible" to its suggestions. Questions are useful for this purpose. (a) A really suggestive question does not relate ex- clusively to particulars that' can be seen at a glance. (b) They must be general questions requiring not only observation but also a complex process of inference and reasoning, (c) They should be connected, at least remotely, with what the pupil already knows. (d) They may be accompanied occasionally with suggestive information, tending to arouse thought and create interest, (e) But they should be of such a nature that the pupil cannot answer them offhand. (/) It is perfectly proper, therefore, with this purpose in view, to ask questions that are as yet unanswerable. Thus, to take a concrete example, the dandelion, the following questions would be suggestive: (i) Is the dandehon ahve? (2) If dead, what is the cause? (3) How then does it differ from the living ? (4) What is life? (5) How do we distinguish between a dead and a hving thing? (6) Did the dandelion spring from dead matter? (7) Where did it come from? (8) What finally becomes of it? (9) How does it differ from an animal? (10) Why do we call it a plant? (11) Why has it not the same form and color as the apple blossom? (12) Why does it grow in some places rather than in others? (13) Why does it change its appearance? (14) Why has it different colors at different times? (15) Why does it not grow Suggestions and Course of Study I2i larger? (i6) Why does it disappear in winter? (17) Why and whence does it return in spring? (18) Why does it wither when plucked? (19) Why do children like the dandelion? (20) Why do bees Hke it? (21) Does the dandelion Hke water? (22) Where do the little bright drops of water come from? (23) How is the milky substance inside produced and of what use is it? (24) Why does it close up in the evening? (25) Why do people try to exterminate it? Such questions should lead the pupil to turn the specimen over, so to speak, and view it in a new hght and from a different point of view. No answer need be given to these questions. The pupil may be made to understand that it is often prudent to say we do not know, but that it is equally commendable to say I'U try to find out. In the meantime, the teacher should use the sources of information at her command, and should acquire a knowledge of the generally accepted views on such questions. Without this knowledge, the teacher lacks perspective, and will be tied down to mere particulars ihat in themselves are often worthless. It is such great fundamental problems which stimulate research, and which if properly understood may redeem nature study from that routine of mere counting isolated and meaningless details which doubtless provokes in many well-disposed individuals the feehng that it is all a fad. 3. Comparison. Step Three introduces the pupil to a new phase of his work, that of comparing one object with another, one fact with another fact. Isolated facts that do not enter into a generalization are very much hke undigested food. They are a dead weight on the memory So long as th^ do not enter into vital relartion with other fects. • Mental power can be measured by Hi Education through Nature the ability to assimilate facts and to build out of them a complex structure, a general idea. Facts properly assimilated reveal a relationship to one another, the one appearing to grow out of the other as cause and effect, or as links in a long chain of development. The discovery of these relations and the understanding of their importance is mental assimilation, because facts become thus interwoven in our mental fabric, and hence vital elements in our mental life^ We are not merely to haul stone, lumber, and mortar for a building leaving it piled up in ugly, disorderly heaps; we are not merely to gather the unwashed fleece or the crude fibers of the cotton plant, but we are to build from these materials a beautiful structure, and a fabric both dehcate, refined, and enduring. The means by which the facts of experience are built into a connected system is comparison and discussion. The discovery of similarities and dif- ferences develops the idea of interdependence and relationship and the tracing of these relationships is provocative of that self-activity commonly called thought. The teacher can do much to stimulate thought, provided she is able to rise above the isolated fact and to interpret it in the light of a more general idea. The teacher should cultivate in herself that versatility which makes it possible to view facts from the stand- point of the child without becoming childish; and, also, from a philosophic standpoint without becoming abstruse. Nothing can help her so much in this as a thorough scientific mastery of the subject. Such a scientific training ought to give her a knowledge of the underlying laws and principles. Knowing these she will have that freedom in handling facts which conduces so much to clearness and interest; Shp will telrdly, theii, -commit the migfecke xH inaflang Suggestions and Course of Study 123 the work a mere quiz on the facts committed by the pupil, but will so arrange the material as to enable the jpupil to discover relationship for himself. The writer has found tables Uke the following very con- venient in this step. They are inserted here to sug- gest the form, which can be multiphed and varied accordiiig to the nature of the subject. Pupils should be first instructed how to make the tables by the teacher giving the dimensions in inches and fraction of inches. A proper notebook for each pupil in which to record his notes and keep such tables is convenient. IV. Field Lesson. The fidd work of Step Four may be done partly during (a) the extended Saturday excursion of the class, or it may be done (b) during a regular school period. The excursion must be regulated by the teacher according' to the season and the nature of the weather. 'Perfect freedom khould be given the class in these excursions, since i recjreation and enjoyment is one impoEt-ant object of them. Yet, having something definite in view need not interfere with this primary object. A problem may be given the class, and the pupils should be encouraged in making collections. They should be properly instructed as to what equip- ment is necessary for the excursion. (See Part II, Chapter IV.) In the latter or outdoor recitation period both the teacher and the pupil should have something definite in view. The period is not to be wasted by merely strolhng about idly. It is part iof the regular work, and should not be omitted, except for unavoidable reasons, such as unfavorable weather. Besides this r^ular £eld-work, in which the teacher takes part, the whSole -school may be made to take inter- 124 Education through Nature 1° I" e e ID a> > S •3 .She i2.5o-9 o E ■^• ■a I gj3 3s .3-° -I ■dtS d a •S.S ^"1 -I j;t3 c ^ c- P a .S o Suggestions and Course of Study 125 to H CO V 1 9 J 1 1 «M > 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 1 C < M 9 I 1^ S 1 at 1 a 3 E a Q 1 . . 11 ?l 1 II ■32 "1 21 jli •d ^ S>. -S 0. 1 "■ - ~ - " ■• - II - g 'S V ■c •s i i2 0) 4J J s si 1 ? J 1 > > ' 1 i E i is § 3 ■s 1 ij ff ff (S »; P a p i5 126 Education through Nature u sapadg • ^ STluaQ « japjQ H ssBio K jopo ^ o SupsAog 1 o 133^ < o CO sqmti *^ sam^i o o mnojn m saAg I 't uamopqy > < fO XBJOUX " p^aH 8 " Jipog ' si a O 1 i 1 i 1 p4 1^ o 1 i s 0] ■s i 1 1 •g .S Suggestions and Course of Study 127 tr, 1 a s M l-l 1 1 *a CO S m ^ t* 1 3 •o 1 3 (^ m •a to pa ■* 1^ to *(8 n m " 1 i 1 i i > 6 43 1^ a I J J 128 Education through Nature o> PI 00 42 *^ Time necessary for Germina- tion •o M2M CO Q W W m li. O s « 1 »o 4 01 3^ -* 1 o •g C/3 to 1 1 " M S i i > T n c 1 C a > i E C 0" ' a, PC b c 1 IS ) 1 1 < c It Suggestions and Course of Study 129 H H Hi a is i 00 t£ (^ !■= « 1 CO 1 S 10 ^ ^ ■* 1 s g CO p. " |l - 1 8 P. 0) bil § 1 0) CJ 1 d 1 Pi i s 1 en g 1 0^ if i 130 Education through Nature *>■ 1. ^0 Is »o i u to ■* 1 e2 PQ r*i < 3 a b 6 i IS 1 si 1 I 1 Suggestions and Course of Study 131 ■cE uS ■n o ™ a o CII 132 Education through Nature est in independent field-work by providing Bird Calen- dars and Flower Calendars such as the following, for recording observations on birds and flowers during the year. The form of the calendar may be varied, and places for many more items, such as food and habits of birds, inserted in the calendar. It is best made in the form of a chart to be hung on the wall and variously decorated. A Tree Album may be made in a similar way and used for recording the names of trees and other ob- servations regarding time of flowering, shedding of leaves, locahty, condition of soil, how to plant them and care for them, etc. BIRD CALENDAR. Room School ., Year Bird. When First Seen. Where First Seen. By Whom First Seen. Color. Size. Name. FLOWER CALENDAR. Room School. . . , ... Year Flower When First Seen. Where First Seen. By Whom First Seen. Color. Size. Name. , Suggestions and Course of Study 133 TREE ALBUM. Room School Year Where Time of Time of Tree. Growing. Blossoming. Shedding Leaves. Soil. Some Problems for Outdoor Study. I. Relation of the Object to Man: (i) Whether useful and for what purpose; (2) whether cultivated or not, and how and why; (3) how and in what state or con- ditions used by man; (4) how far and why man is benefited or injured by it; (5) how its relation to man tends to its preservation or destruction; (6) what characters are most essential to its usefulness, or detri- mental as the case may be; (7) how those characters are preserved by man's selection; (8) what variations are observable between different forms of the same object and what the probable cause may be; (9) what means it has for self-preservation; (10) how man's influence affects it. II. Relation of the Object to Animals: (i) What relation it bears to animals in general or in particular; (2) what those animals are; (3) how they mutually minister to each others needs; (4) how they tend to destroy each other if that be true; (5) what characters make them useful to some, or injurious to others; (6) what mutual service is performed; (7) what adaptations to that service exists; (8) what characters are essential to the continuance of this relation; (9) 134 Education through Nature what elements of plan, purpose or beauty can be discovered in this relation; (lo) how this relation affects man if such be the case. III. Relation of the Object to Plants: (i) What relation it bears to plants in general or in particular; (2) what characters are the basis of this relation; (3) how the relation can be mutually advantageous; (4) how one party to the relation may get most benefit ; (5) what that benefit may be; (6) how the relation can be dispensed with; (7) how the destruction of one would affect the other; (8) how other factors modify this relation; (9) what evidence of plan or purpose exists; (10) what elements of beauty can be discovered and what ethical principle does the relation reveal. IV. Relation of the Object to the Soil: (1) With what kind of soil it is associated; (2) what are its rela- tion to other soils; (3) what quality of the soil is most essential to this relation; (4) how it behaves when severed from this relation; (5) by what causes this might be brought about; (6) what adaptations exist with regard to that particular relation; (7) what influence these adaptations might have; (8) what effects would possibly follow if these adaptations did not exist; (9) how these adaptations are dependent upon other causes; (10) how other adaptations would influence this relation. V. Relation of the Olject to Moisture: (i) How this relation affects the object; (2) what characters are chiefly advantageous in this relation; (3) how it tends to perpetuate itself; (4) under what circumstances, if any, the relation does not exist; (5) how moisture affects it; (6) what amount of moisture is most favor- able; (7) what changes occur as a result of changes in the amount of moisture; (8) how important char- acters in the object vary with the amount of moisture; (9) what adaptations serve to modify the influence Suggestions and Course o£ Study 135 of moisture; (10) how the amount of moisture affects the struggle for existence. VI. Relation of the Object to Light: (i) What effects are due to the hght; (2) what the results are when light is withdrawn; (3) whether the object seeks the hght or avoids it, turns towards or away from the light; (4) what adaptations exist to secure the Hght; (5) what adaptations to avoid the Ught; (6) how the partic- ular locality may increase or diminish the light; (7) adaptations to secure uniform Hght or to avoid too strong Hght; (8) how parts differ according to the amount of Hght received; (9) how different parts differ as their relation to Hght differ; (10) how the relation to Hght differs at different periods. VII. Relation of the Object to Heat: (i) How varia- tions in temperature affect it; (2) how the locality favors uniform temperature; (3) what is the effect of low temperature; (4) what provision is made to avoid too low or too high temperature; (5) other adapta- tions to this relation; (6) behavior due to temperature; (7) how temperature produces the effect; (8) how different seasons affect it; (9) how it changes with variation in temperature as in summer and in winter; (10) how other objects affect its temperature; (11) how locality is affected by winds and hence by difference in temperature. VIII. Relation of the Object to Elevation: (i ) Whether elevation has any influence directly; (2) changes corre- sponding to elevation; (3) effect of elevation modified by changes in temperature; (4) effects of elevation modified by changes in moisture; (5) effects of eleva- tion modified by changes in Hght; (6) adaptations to secure elevation; (7) adaptation for anchoring or cHnging to the ground; (8) modifications favorable to high or low ground; (9) secondary influences affecting elevation as soil, moisture, temperature; (10) laws showing purpose or design. 136 Education through Nature V. Experiments. The Fifth Step may often be omitted when the subject under consideration does not especially favor a physiological or physical treatment. Yet it is an important step and should not be neglected when the problems of the subject require it. The first thing to be done in performing an experi- ment is to state the problem. This may be done by the teacher; but better still, the pupil may be led to state it after he has been made to reaUze that a problem actually exists. The second important ele- ment to consider is what factors must be present and what ones excluded from the experiment. The simpler the experiment and the less elaborate the apparatus the more effective usually is the result. Some Simple Experiments. I. On Solutions, (a) Compare salt or sugar with starch. What difference in appearance? (b) Fill two tumblers half full of water; put into one a tea- spoonful of salt or sugar; stir. The salt or sugar dis- appears. What has happened? (c) Put a spoonful of starch into the second tumbler. It does not dis- appear. Why not ? What would happen if the starch could be changed into sugar? II. On the Reaction of Starch, (a) Put some flour into a small quantity of boiling water; treat the paste with a few drops of iodine solution (iodine dissolved in 30% alcohol); it turns blue, (b) Treat a small piece of boiled potato in the same way. Any evidence of starch ? (c) Put a green leaf into boihng water and treat it with iodine. Any evidence of starch in the leaf? III. On Diffusion, (a) Put some sugar into a tum- bler, and pour into it enough water to fill the tumbler. Allow it to stand. Does the sugar disappear? (J) Suggestions and Course of Study 137 Take a spoonful of water from the surface and taste. Is it sweet ? The sugar, in dissolving, has been broken up into minute particles that become suspended between the molecules of water. The sugar particles do not remain at the bottom, but spread throughout all the water till all parts are equally sweetened. Would this be possible if the sugar did not dissolve ? IV. On Evaporation, (a) Put a strip of filter paper into water; leave it exposed to the air. It dries. What has happened? (&) Hold a spoon containing water over an alcohol flame. The water boils and disappears; what has happened? (c) Hold a mois- tened strip of filter-paper near the flame and another farther from the flame. The former dries more quickly. What difference in the condition of the two strips may account for the difference in effect ? Would the sun shining on one of the strips and not on the other have a similar effect? (d) Dissolve some salt in a tumbler one- fourth full of water; allow the water to evaporate. Has the salt evaporated? Examine the crystals remaining. V. On the Effects of Heat, (a) Fill a tin cup with snow; determine the temperature of the snow by means of a thermometer. Take a spoonful of this snow and hold it over the alcohol lamp. Why does this snow melt while that remaining in the cup does not? (b) Stir a considerable quantity of salt into the snow remaining in the cup. Does the temperature remain the same? (c) Place the tin cup over the alcohol flame till the snow melts. What is the tem- perature of the water resulting from the melting snow ? Continue to heat the water. Does the temperature rise at once ? (d) Determine the temperature of boil- ing water, (e) Why do bubbles gather at the bottom of the cup and finally begin to ascend? As the bubbles burst at the surface they give rise to steam. (/) Fill a little vial with water and cork tightly. 13^ Education through Nature . Ill I I 1 1 I II 1 1 I 1 1 11 1—^1 Expose it to the salt and snow mixture. The water turns to ice. Possibly the vial is cracked. What has happened? (g) Take two fresh leaves; suspend one close to the flame. What difference can soon be dis- covered between the two leaves? (h) Take two fresh leaves. Place one in a tumbler of water. After a while, a day or so, what difference can be observed in the two leaves? What has happened to the one exposed to the air ? Account for it. VI. On Absorption, (a) Take a strip of blotting paper and a piece of common writing paper; put upon each a drop of ink. What is the difference in effect? Allow both to dry; compare the size of the two blots. Account for the difference, (b) Take a tumbler filled within half an inch with water; put into the tumbler a small dry sponge and allow to soak. Remove the sponge. What changes have been produced in the sponge? in the amount of water in the tumbler? Account for the increased size of the sponge and for the diminution in the water in the glass, (c) Take the withered leaf; place it into the tumbler of water. After a while, what changes have been produced in the leaf? What connection between this and the sponge? (d) Put beans into a tumbler of water. What are the results? VII. On the Effects of Surface Exposure, {a) Soak two handkerchiefs in water; leave one folded together, but spread the other out. After an hour or so, notice which is dryest. Account for it. (&) Soak the sponge and the handkerchief. Expose both to the air for some time, leaving the handkerchief rolled up in a tight ball. After an hour or so, which can be seen to have dried more quickly? Which took up water most readily, and which gave it off most readily? Account for the difference. What would be the advantage to a plant of small compact leaves? of large porous leaves? Under Suggestions and Course of Study 139 what climatic conditions would each of these leaves naturally prevail? What advantages result from having lungs inside the body and gills outside? VIII. On the Rise of Liquids, (a) Take a strip of blotting paper or filter-paper, and a strip (same size) of ordinary writing paper; put one end of each into water; notice the difference. How far above the surface of the water is the strip of filter-paper wet? Explain the difference, (b) Take two wide-mouthed bottles of equal size and fill both with water. Place the strip of filter-paper into one so as to project two or three inches; cork both bottles gently. After a day or two which bottle contains most water? Ex- plain the difference, (c) Repeat the experiment after filling both bottles as laefore; but this time place the wet sponge on the cork next to the strip of filter-paper. After the same lapse of time how do the results agree with the previous ones ? Account for it. How would a moist and a dry atmosphere respectively affect the disappearance of Water in the two bottles? (d) Fill the two bottles again; place a strip of filter- paper as before in each bottle, and cork both lightly. Put one of the bottles into a tumbler containing half an inch of water. Invert another tumbler over the top. Leave the other exposed to the dry air of the room. Which loses most water? Explain the difference. How would a moist climate affect the amount of water transpired from the leaves of plants? (e) Fill a tumbler with water; take a card board and make a round opening in the center large enough to allow the small end of a hen's egg to reach the water but not pass clear through the opening. Re- move the shell very carefully from the small end of the egg, care being taken not to tear the thin egg- membrane underneath; an area a quarter inch square will suffice. In the opposite end of the egg, make a 140 Education through Nature small opening into which insert a small glass tube and fix with sealing wax; allow to stand for twenty-four to forty-eight hours. The contents of the egg has risen to the top of the tube and flows out. Osmosis through animal membrane. Explain the result. In a similar way roots and root hairs take in water and dissolved substances from the soil and cause it to rise in the stem of the plant. The last experiment is a clear case of pressure caused by osmosis. The experiment with the filter paper is an illustration of the effects of capillary attrac- tion. Both of these forces are active in plants, causing the flow of sap. Evaporation from the leaves of the plant increases the rapidity of the upward current; just as the exposure of the strip of filter-paper to dry air increases the loss of water from the bottle. IX. On Transpiration, (a) Invert a dry tumbler over a bunch of fresh white clover; observe the cloudy appearance on the glass, due to transpiration, (b) Wind a piece of sheet rubber tightly around one finger. Note the moist skin on removing the rubber — perspira- tion, (c) Take two bottles ; fill one with water. Place into the bottle a few short branches or stems of white clover bearing leaves. Some also into the empty bottle. After a day or two note the difference. Why does the water in one bottle prevent the wilting of the plant ? X. How Excessive Transpiration is Regulated. Take two potatoes of unequal size; peel off the out- side of the larger one till its weight is equal to that of the smaller one. Expose both to the air for a week or so. Which is now the heavier ? How was evapora- tion and drying prevented in the unpeeled potato ? Why are plants and animals covered with an outer cuticle? Corks are made from bark; put one into water; does it become soaked? Of what use is bark on stems when absent from leaves? Suggestions and Course of Study 141 XI. On the Parts 0} Stems that Convey the Sap. (a) Take a young plant, root and all (bean or shep- herd's purse), put it into a bottle containing a weak solution of eosin (red ink will do). Allow to stand for three or four days. Observe: the root turns red, the stem does not. Why? Are the veins of the leaves colored ? (b) Make transverse and longitudinal sections of the root and stem. Observe: what areas are affected by the stain? the fibrovascular bundles? It is through these, then, that the upward flow of sap takes place. Would the sap be so apt to reach the leaves if evaporation were not prevented by the cuticle and bark on the stem? XII. On Respiration, (a) Immerse some water- plants (chara, spirogyra) in a beaker or tumbler full of water; place in sunlight. Observe: bubbles rising. (6) Place a funnel over the plants under water, and over the funnel invert a test-tube filled with water. Observe the bubbles rising into the test-tube and dis- placing the water. After some days, when the test- tube is half emptied of water, the upper part of the tube being occupied by the bubbles, light a long splinter and after it has burned for some time blow it out and insert the glowing point of the stick into the test-tube. It bursts into a flame. This is evidence of oxygen. The plant has been exhaling oxygen, (c) Breathe through a glass tube or straw immersed in a tumbler of water. Observe: bubbles rise as in the case of the plant. Put into the tumbler clear lime- water instead of fresh well-water. On breathing into this, for some time it turns cloudy. Evidence of carbon dioxide COj. (d) Take two tumblers or beakers filled with water; put into each the same kind and quantity of water-plants. Place one in bright sunUght, the other in shady place. In which are .the most bubbles pro- duced? What conclusion is to be drawn? Remarks: Plants, like animals, exhale carbon diox- 142 Education through Nature ide, because they waste; but, in sunlight, the oxygen given off because of the breaking up of carbon dioxide and water to form starch, is much in excess of the carbon dioxide. Exhalation of oxygen in plants is due to photosynthesis, the formation of starch from HjO and CO2. XIII. On Germination, (a) Make a moist-chamber from a common plate and a bell jar (a saucer with a tumbler inverted over it will do). Place in the bottom of the chamber a circular piece of filter-paper not so large as the cover. Moisten well, and place upon the moistened paper the seeds that are to be studied. Place a second moist paper over the seeds till they are well sprouted. Keep the papers moist, (b) In a tin basin filled with black soil or sawdust, place the seeds to be sprouted. Moisten the contents and keep moist, (c) If convenient let each member of the class stir up a little patch of ground in the school-yard and plant seeds of various kinds, such as peas, beans, flax, wheat, corn, and flowers. XIV. On Tropisms, Direction of Growth, (a) In a tin basin or wooden box filled with black soil or sand, plant some beans. Keep moist. As the plants come up, notice the curvature of the stem, and how it gradu- ally straightens out. Leave the dish in the same posi- tion for a week or two. Observe how the plants bend towards the window, the source of light (heliotropism). (b) Take a coarse sponge; soak it and squeeze it dry; fasten a pin, bent into a hook, to a strong cord; hook the pin securely into the sponge; fill the pores of the sponge with kernels of wheat; invert over the sponge a funnel, passing the cord through it; suspend by the cord and keep the sponge moist by pouring water through the funnel tube; the funnel prevents the sponge from drying too rapidly. Observe the seeds sprout and produce plants • growing upside down. What can be inferred? Does gravity or moisture Suggestions and Course of Study 143 determine the direction of growth of the roots? In this case the effect of gravity is neutralized. XV. On the Influence of Environment. Take two bottles; fill one with water; into each bottle put a few fresh steins or branches of white clover bearing leaves ; allow to remain for some weeks. Observe: one wilts, the other does not. Examine the stem in the water and notice the new adventitious roots. On what part of the stem are these produced ? How has water pro- duced this effect? Compare with the plant in the empty bottle, (b) Now pour water into the empty bottle; allow to remain. Are new roots produced on the withered stem? Remarks: Not water alone, nor the plant alone, can account for the production of new adventitious roots (as the experiment shows), but the living plant reacts to the moist environment, and this reaction results in the growth of new roots; hence the impor- tance of action and reaction in producing changes in living things. VII. Lecture. Step Seven should rarely be omitted. Life is too short to attempt to gather all facts at first hand. We are fortunately able to profit by the labors, thought, and experience of others, provided we have already gained enough by our own self-activity to be able to interpret language through which the knowledge of the race is communicated The empirical work already done on the subject in hand should have contributed to the power of interpreting language. It is because nature study does this that it is justly regarded as the foundation of all other work of the school. How absurd it would be not to use this slowly acquired power of interpreting language! In the preceding steps, ideas needing names have been felt by the pupil and noticed by the teacher. 144 Education through Nature By this time each important idea should be associated with a symbol, a word or name, which when heard will recall the appropriate image. The object has suggested the idea, the teacher has supplied the word. Consequently the word should mean something now to the pupil. In gaining additional information through the medium of language, the pupil has to reverse the natural processes. He must now gain an idea from its symbol; translate, so to speak, language into ideas. Such supplementary information can be gained by the pupil in two ways; first, by oral communication by the teacher; second, by reading books on the sub- ject. Hence the lecture and the library. The amount of library work to be done in connection with any subject must depend on the facilities obtain- able. The teacher, at least, should have a nature- study Hbrary. Scientific works on natural history are not expensive (see list in Part II, Chap. IV). Aside from the additional information gained from books on any one subject, there is the more general benefit derived from the habit of using works of reference, not to mention the power of gathering knowledge from the printed page. The book of reference may be used in two ways: (i) the pupil may consult the book; (2) the teacher may read to the class important passages bearing on the subject studied. Such readings may sometimes be substituted for the lecture, especially in the lower grades. Many teachers feel that the lecture is out of place in nature study, and would perhaps maintain that the work should be all observation work and develop- mental work. That would be very true if the first steps had not already been taken. It is not true when the first part of the work has been properly done. In the first place, the teacher should be able to get Suggestions and Course of Study 145 more than the pupil can out of even an unfamiliar subject. In the second place, she is assumed to have a more general store of knowledge than the pupil, and the ability to see the relation of things in a truer hght. Hence she is supposed to be able to arrange the material gathered in the preceding work into a logical and consistent whole. Most pupils enjoy a lecture by the teacher when adapted to their needs and properly presented. In the primary grades the lecture should resemble a story; in the grammar grades statements should be more concise. If facts are properly arranged they are usually interesting in themselves. The baby-talk of the kindergarten and the primary grade is not necessary and should never be tolerated in the upper grades. The teacher in these grades should find the source of interest in the facts themselves, not in imagi- nary and fictitious resemblances, and should endeavor to awaken in her pupils a delight in truth for truth's sake. This often requires effort and careful prepa- ration. The amount of matter to be presented orally in this way must depend on the grade, or rather the general maturity of the pupil. After an intensive study of the Bean Plant for several weeks, including the first seven steps, as prescribed in the course of study for the eighth grade, the teacher might give the following summary of The Principal Facts in the History of a Plant (See Plants, Part II, Chap. I). VIII. Drawing. In Step Eight the pupil makes his first attempt to express in part, either by pencil, crayon or colors, the ideas he has gained in the preceding work. He is at once confronted with the question whether to make a pretty picture as it seems to him it ought to be, or whether 'to represent the real thing regardless of its 146 Education through Nature general efifect. If this question does not at once occur to him, effort should be made to lead him to understand that objects may be drawn as they really are, or they may be idealized, just as an object may be considered scientifically as to fact, or emotionally as to real or imagined meaning and beauty. Which of these criteria should prevail is often a serious question for the teacher to decide. Pupils who have been trained in the ordinary free- hand drawing often experience most difl&culty in representing minute details in form and structure. They are apt to make a few bold strokes which may look well enough at a distance, but which convey no true picture of the reaUty. Shall this mode of draw- ing be allowed or must it be prohibited ? To answer this, we may ask, what is the object of drawing? In the first place, ideas of form, color, shade, and structure can be better expressed in this way than by means of language. If it is a part of nature study, those ideas should correspond to the reality and should be so expressed as to accurately represent the reality. But this expression is not the final object of the work. It is supposed to have an educational value, as it involves various judgments and many neural and muscular activities. Now, the object is the ability to form true judgments, and the ability to so control the hand as to exactly represent or execute what the judgment has found to be true. The benefit of this part of the work lies in the fact that it puts the body into proper relation to the activities of the higher centers and the mind, making the hand execute what the mind dictates. The more 'completely this is realized, the more effective is the training. But the dictates of the mind must receive their sanction from the testimony of the senses; otherwise the drawing would represent mere imaginary creations instead of a real thing. In imaginary representation there is no Suggestions and Course of Study 147 true judgment involved; and no exercise of the will in controlling the hand in the execution of a definite task. The moral effect of the training in that case is lost. By carefuUy comparing his drawing with the object, the pupU is enabled to detect shades of difference in structure, form, and color which would otherwise escape him, and enables him the better to measure his success. This in itself adds interest to the exer- cise and gives a training in accurate seeing which is indispensable. In the lower grades, all kinds of allowances have to be made; yet the principle is the same here as in all other steps, namely, progress should be made from the original lawlessness towards more and more fidelity to truth. Neatness and accuracy must be the criterion for criticism. As a rule, it seems desirable to allow the pupil to use his creative and artistic instinct in an elaborate representation of the whole as a general frontispiece to his composition, but to insist on extreme accuracy in representing the finer details of structure. (See Pupil's Compositions, Part I, Chapter V). It is often desirable to have the drawings made or copied on separate slips to be inserted in the composition in its appro- priate paragraph. Even when no attempt at systematic drawing is made, as in many rural districts, good work can be obtained by means of pencils. Pencils should be well sharpened but not to a fine point. The point may be rounded off by rubbing it on paper. Stubs may be made by the pupil by rolling up into a solid pencil, strips of ordinary writing paper wound with a string. Forcing the center of this roll down produces a point which can be used to transfer the lead from the paper used in trimming the pencil to the drawing to be shaded. 148 Education through Nature IX. Writing. Step Nine cannot be taken by pupils who have not learned to write. At the very beginning of the pupil's school work, nature study should be used chiefly with a view to teaching reading and writing. {See Primary Method, Section 12). Writing in connection with this work is important. It not only affords means of expressing ideas that cannot well be expressed in drawing, but it is the most natural way of learning spelling, penmanship, and composition. Written work possesses the char- acter of permanence more strongly than oral language, and hence is more favorable to accuracy and delibera- tion in the statements. Errors can be marked and the object re-examined without the risk of losing sight of the problems. The written work should also command more forethought in arranging the matter to be communicated, and thus contribute to a better assimilation of the knowledge gained. The question as to the place of the imagination in. this part of the work is the same as in oral speech. The two aspects of the subject should be separated as sharply as possible. We naturally make allowances in extemporaneous speech, but instinctively demand greater accuracy and deliberation in written work. There is no reason why the pupil should not conform to this law of our nature. Again, allowances must be made as in the case of drawing. In deahng with the facts let the pupil confine himself to them, but give him the opportunity to express his appreciation at the end in whatever manner his fancy may dictate. We are entitled to Hberty when we have earned it, and may properly use exclamations after we have shown that there is something to admire. The educational value of that deliberation and carefulness in statements of facts and that accurate Suggestions and Course of Study 149 discrimination between the finer shades of meanings of terms used can hardly be overestimated. It is the final product of a well-ordered mind, and has not only a scientific but also an ethical value. It is well for the teacher in the grades to realize that his pupils are to become men and women, and that even in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades they are by no means mere babies. X. Reading. Step Ten may be omitted occasionally when cla,sses are so large as to render repetition monotonous. It should not be omitted in the lower grades where intelli- gent reading is one of the principal aims of the work. If the writing is worth while, the reading should be. The intellectual and physical processes involved in writing and in reading are opposites and supplement each other. Thus in writing, the pupil puts his own ideas into symbols, while in reading he converts those same symbols into ideas resembHng his original ones. In the lutter process he naturally acquires the power of gaining ideas from the printed page. Having previously expressed the same ideas, he should be able to read intelligently from the beginning. Supplementary reading in natural history is very interesting to pupils of most grades, and may often be introduced as reading exercises instead of the pupil's own compositions. Then, too, the best com- positions may be preserved, and variety secured, by having them read at the end of a certain division of the subject. In the primary grades number work may be intro- duced in connection with the object studied, thus making the object the central thing in all the pupil's school-work. CHAPTER V Examples of Pupils' Work in Nature Study XIV. The Apple-tree. By J. S. M. {Guiding Outline. Supplied by the teacher.) 1. Introduction: (a) distribution; (6) economic uses; (c) uses of the plant. 2. Roots: (a) uses; (b) kinds; (c) effects of moisture. 3. Stem: (a) form; (b) size; (c) kind; (d) composition; (e) grafting; (/) pruning; (g) function; (h) struggle for existence among branches. 4. Leaves: (a) arrangement; (b) color; (c) form; (rf) margin; (e) venation. 5. Flower: (a) arrangement; (6) numerical plan; (c) form; {d) adnation; (e) position; (/) use. 6. Fruit: (a) kind; (6) appearance; (t) relation to flower. 7. Relation to environment: (a) effects of neglect; (b) re- lation to soil; (c) relation to air; {d) relation to light. 8. Relation to animals. 9. Relation to other plants. 10. Poetry. I. Apple-trees are found nearly everywhere in the tem- perate zones. They grow also as far north as the Arctic circle and as far south as Northern Africa. Their chief economic use is as a food, the fruit being juicy and delicious to the palate. They are also used for medicinal purposes. The primary use of the fruit, however, is not for man's benefit, but for the distribution of the seeds, which are the ISO Examples of Pupils' Work 15* plant's final product, and the variety of which determine the kind of tree to be developed. 2. The roots of the apple-tree are arboreous, spreading over the surface or growing down deep, according to its environment. They are perennial, and, like all such roots, serve to absorb and store up moisture and food from the earth. 3. The stem is upright, ranging from three and a half to four or five feet in length. It is stout and woody, having all the parts found in exogenous plants, namely, pith, medullary sheath, wood, bast fibers, green bark or cam- bium, and outside bark or epidermis. 0^ Section of Wood. It is in the cambium or green-bark layer that growth takes place. Grafters have made use of this by uniting the cambium layer of one tree with a branch of some other tree. There are numerous ways of grafting, but the suc- cess of any depends upon the union of the cambium layers. By means of this process a frail but excellent variety of fruit may be made to grow strong and hardy. The apple- tree is delinquescent and its shape is determined by the branching. Naturally, it is inclined to branch out from the center, but cultivation has increased this inclination, 152 Education through Nature and thus made the top rounder. This is done by pruning; the middle branches and superfluous outside twigs are cut off and the outside branches left to take the lead. There are generally five main branches coming out from the trunk, and from these grow others smaller in size. The branching would go on and on, becoming very com- plicated and tangled if it were not for the natural selection taking place all the time. The branches that get the best start in the beginning take up most of the nourishment stored in the stem and roots, and hence by their growth are able to crowd out the less fortunate and shade them from sunlight. This is the reason for the numerous little branches and twigs scattered here and there throughout the tree. The function of the stem and branches is three- fold; first, to lift the plant above the ground so that the leaves may be in the sunlight, and the flowers and fruits may receive opportunity for fertilization and distribution; second, to conduct the raw sap from the roots to the upper extremities of the tree; third, to distribute the food ma- terial wherever needed. The Apple Leaf. 4. The leaves are of the alternate, two-fifths arrange- ment. They are deep green in color. Their general form is ovate with rounded base, acute apex, and doubly serrate margin. They are pinnately veined, and have short petioles and free stipules. 5. The flowers of the apple-tree are arranged in flat compound curves. They are built on the plan of five and vary from three-fourths to one and one-fourth of an inch in diameter. The calyx is turbinate in form and has Examples of Pupils' Work 153 five bright green sepals of united cohesion, semi-inferior to the pistil. The delicate pink corolla consists of five petals of distinct cohesion and superior adnation. There are usually twenty stamens inserted with the petals on the throats of the calyx. The base of the calyx, however, is united with the base of the pistil or ovary, which has five cells, with two ovules in each cell. The pistil has five styles, with a rounded stigma on the end of each. As in all plants, the flower of the apple bears a definite relation to the stem and branches. The flower buds and the leaf buds arise in the same position. The sepals, as shown by their form and color, are but modified leaves; so also are the petals, though their appearance does not show it so plainly. The pistils and stamens, too, are merely modifications of leaves. The apple-blossoms by their fra- grance attract the bees and thus, through the agency of these insects, cross-fertilization takes place. Apple-blossoms. 6. The fruit of the apple-tree is an indehiscerit pome. It matures late in the summer and during the fall. The skin is generally smooth and variously colored, being red, yellow, brown, or striped, according to the variety. The apple is really the matured calyx of the blossom. In the center is the core, which in a cross-section appears as a star-shaped figure of five points. These are the ovary cells, and they contain the seeds. The seeds are brown when ripe and their coats are not very hard. The kernel has a rather rich taste not at -aU unpleasant. 154 Education through Nature 7. The apple-txee is a rather hardy plant, adapting itself quite readily to circumstances. It grows best in a comparatively dry, sandy soil. That is to say, its fruit is apt to be larger and more palatable under such conditions because then there is less inducement for the very great development of the roots and stem, a thing that always takes place in an extremely moist soil. While not requir- ing very great care in comparison with that necessitated by many other trees, the apple-tree, if neglected long A Divided Apple. will produce very tiny fruit. Its branches grow more up" right, and the twigs become spine-like. The trunk is generally quite sturdy and strong, not easily broken by wind-storms, though often the shape of the whole tree is bent so as to become one-sided, on account of the wind. 8. The honey-bees and yellow-jackets are the insects found in the greatest numbers about apple-trees. They are harmless, however, and aid in the fertilization necessary for reproduction. Often the caterpillars will take pos- session of an apple orchard and destroy all the leaves and fruit, leaving nothing but the bare branches of the trees, which but a short time before were beautiful masses of green foHage and fruit. 9. The famUy to which the apple-tree belongs is the Rosacea. Related to it we find the common and familiar strawberry, blackberry, rose, pear, and cherry, all exhibit- ing great variety of shape and size, and yet similar enough to be placed in one single group. Examples of Pupils' Work 155 10. William CuUen Bryant, in his poem, "The Planting of the Apple-tree," expresses some very beautiful thoughts. The following stanzas are especially weU put: An Apple. 'What plant we in this apple-tree? Fruits that shall swell in sunny June, And redden in the August moon, And drop when gentle airs come by That fan the blue September sky ; While children come, with cries oJE glee, And seek them where the fragrant grass Betrays their bed to those who pass At the foot of the apple-tree. Each year shall give this apple-tree A broader flush of roseate bloom, A deeper maze of verdurous gloom. And loosen when the frost clouds lower The crisp brown leaves in thicker shower. The years shall come and pass, but we Shall hear no longer where we lie, The summer's songs, the autumn's sigh In the boughs of the apple-tree." 156 Education through Nature XV. Grasshoppers. By B. H. B. {Outline. Supplied by the teacher.) I. Introduction, anecdotes; 2. body; 3. eyes; 4. antenna; 5. mouth-parts; 6. thorax; 7. wings; 8. legs; 9. protective resemblances; lo. color; 11. sense of hearing; 12. abdomen; 13. reproduction; 14. internal organs, 15. respiration; 16. I. Most of us like the cry of the grasshopper; it brings to mind the warm, dry, sunny days, the time of fruit and flowers. He likes to sing, is fond of moonlight, likes the shade and the cool, still places under the green herbs. When you see the large long legs stretched out behind, and the long feelers waving to the wind, you will know this is a grasshopper, the joyful, happy singer of the meadow. The name of the insect at once tells you something about him. He lives much in the grass; his chief motion is in hops and long jumps. Not all grasshoppers Uve in the grass however; some spend most of their time in trees, some live in garden walls, or under the leaves, and in the grass of the dusty wayside. Some also live in woods, among the pine- and fir-trees. In South America there are large and splendid grasshoppers; Examples of Pupils' Work 157 their wings are so gay that when they fly they look much like butterflies. The grasshopper is a musical insect. He hhas anoter name, the murmurer; this is because of the noise or song he makes. He sings to the female grasshopper in loud, shrill tones. It is made by rubbing his wings one upon the other. He has a little skin, like a tight drumhead, set in each wing. As he moves his wings, this tiny drum vibrates, or tremljles, and makes the shrill sound. This is called stridulation. The female grasshopper does not have this drum in her wings. She has, however, at the end of her body, a nice little sword, called ovipositor. She is called the jumper with the sword. This little sword opens into several blades. She uses it to place her eggs snugly into the ground. The sword blade opens and the eggs slide safely clown between them, into the little earth-bed. There they lie until the young grasshoppers hatch out. The grasshopper generally dies near where it was born. Frost and cold kill it. It does not outlive the winter, like bees and butterflies. Grasshoppers feed chiefly on grasses of different kinds, including most of the cultivated grains. They feed on almost any green part of plants. Some are gregarious and may be very destructive. They sometimes appear in great numbers, and when they do they damage the grass and young crops. But they do not usually- go in swarms as locusts do, who are their near relatives. There is a grasshopper called the Rocky Mountain grasshopper, because the old grasshoppers go to the moun- tains to lay their eggs. The little ones live in the mountains until their wings are strong, and then all the grasshoppers leave the mountains together, flying and jumping along in such numbers that they terrify the farmers in the plain below, for they eat up every green thing in their way, fields of com and wheat, and grass. Insects comprise the six-footed Arthropods, nearly one- half of tht^ animal kingdom, there being about two hundred thousand species. The Class Insecta are distinguished by having a body in three parts, head, thorax, and abdomen distinct. Three 158 Education through Nature pairs of jointed legs. Odc pair of antennje and generally two pairs of wings. The order to which the grasshopper belongs is Orthoptera. The name grasshopper is applied to several families closely related — grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, cock- roaches, etc. Their body is usually flattened, prothorax large and squarish, mouth parts adapted for biting. . M.eta- morphosis often incomplete; pupa often active; larva flattened, often resembling the adult. This order is called the straight wings because the insects belonging to it do not fold their wings crosswise. There are six families of the straight wings, but the grasshopper, locust, and cricket interest us most. A locust is not a grasshopper, but much like a grass- hopper. It is his nearest relative. We do not like locusts because they do great harm. They are generally larger than grasshoppers and much more greedy. They destroy, all plants that come in their way, even to the bark of trees. Locusts live in swarms. Instead of dying and living where they -were born, they are given to travel. They generally live in hot lands, as Asia and Africa. In Europe and the eastern part of the United States they are not common, but in the Western States they have done much harm. His feelers are shorter than those of the grasshopper. The female locust has no sword for placing her eggs; she lays them in the earth in long tubes. Many boys make a living by digging them from the earth and selling them to be destroyed. People try many ways of killing locusts. Sometimes deep trenches are cut and filled with water so that young un- winged locusts, as they run along the ground, will fall in and be drowned. They are in such numbers that the drowned ones soon fill the trenches. The others run safely over the dead bodies. Sometimes great fires are lit across their path. Then the hordes of locusts crowd on, and at last the fires are put out by the burned bodies. After that the others pass on unhurt. One great trouble about locusts is, that when a full- grown swarm passes through a place the ground is left full of eggs. The next year these hatch and the larva; and Examples of Pupils' Work 159 pupae eat up all that has grown since their parents ravaged the land. Famines of two or three years' duration have been caused in this way. Foreign locusts are splendid to look at. They are dressed like soldiers in crimson and blue. Their fierce eyes shine and the rush of their wings makes a sound like the coming of an army. We can scarcely believe or understand what we are told about the multitudes of these insects which appear in the East. The Bible says that John the Baptist fed on locusts and wild honey. Lo- cust is the Bible name for grasshopper. In the far East even now people catch grasshoppers, toast them, and grind them into meal which they think very good; they eat them fried in oil and salt. People hear with terror that locusts are coming. They know their crops will be eaten up, then food will be scarce and people will be poor. They fill the sky like a great cloud, so that the day is darkened. When they see a green place they settle to feed. In a few minutes the green is all gone- The place is as bare as if a fire had swept over it. Locusts fly with the wind and are often driven into the sea and drowned. The coast of Africa has been found covered thick with them for a space of fifty miles. They are very strong on the wing, some species being very large. A great swarm of locusts was met by a ship twelve hundred miles from shore. They surrounded the ship and hid the sun. They are so strong that they can go from one country to another. They fly in the daytime when the air is hot and dry; towards evening they run alcng the ground and eat everything in their path. The front of the locust's head is harder and thicker than the grasshopper's. The hind legs are also thicker and stronger than even the big, strong ones of the grass- hopper. The locust sometimes makes loud, shrill sounds by rubbing the inner surface of the hind legs against the outer surface of the front wings. Sometimes the sound is very loud. Locusts are land pirates and not welcome visitors in the regions where they abound. The cricket is as happy and harmless as the locust is destructive. He may be seen creeping out of the hearth and waving his long feelers gently in the heat. There i6o Education through Nature are house-crickets, field-crickets, and mole-crickets. They have a shrill, gay little song. The body is not as slender as that of the grasshopper, but is short and thick. He also has a little thin drumhead for his music. His name sug- gests the noise he makes. The French call him cri-cri. The field-crickets sing all day, the house-crickets and mole-crickets sing only at night. The cricket has strong jaws, sharp teeth, and a thick round tongue. His feet are not broad and thick like the grasshopper's. He does not run up plants as the grasshopper does. The cricket runs about the ground; he has sharp thin feet. Sometimes he has stiff hairs on them. Crickets are fond of moisture, they are thirsty creatures, they will drink any liquid left in the way; they are also greedy and will eat anything, even to woolen clothes. Once a cook laid upon the grass a large piece of woolen blanket on which she had spilled some bread sponge. She left it there thirty -six hours; when she went for it the crickets had eaten nearly all of it. The blanket was so full of holes it was like a net. There were more holes than there was blanket. Crickets do not like to change their homes ; they prefer to stay where they were bom. Unless they fly to move from home to home they do not use their wings. They walk or hop. The poets or story-tellers are very fond of crickets. Many people think it lucky to have them sing in the hearth. They like new houses, where the mortar is not too hard for them to pick some of it out and make their little home; the field-cricket does this in the fall, choosing the kitchen or well-warmed rooms to live in. Little French children fish for crickets by tying an ant to a thread and dropping it into the hole. You can also make the cricket come out by poking a blade of grass into his hole. The field-cricket lays his eggs in the ground. In Spain the people like the cricket's song so much that they keep crickets in little cages to sing for them. If they have plenty to eat and drink they will sing and be happy. Each cricket will need a cage all for himself. Crickets, like grasshoppers, if shut up together, will fight, until one is Examples of Pupils' Work i6i killed, then he is eaten by the victor. Crickets always live alone. 9J»l}f iAntenuae- -_ Head Head and Mouth-parts of Grasshopper. 2. The body of the grasshopper is made of chitin, pro- tecting the delicate parts within. This integument is at intervals segmented or jointed, the segments are more or less like rings, which in turn are subdivided into pieces. The body consists of seventeen of these segments — four in the head, three in the thorax, and ten in the hind body or abdomen. The organs of sense are in the head. 3. The head also carries the compound eyes, which are composed of a large number of hexagonal cornea, or facets, often many thousands. They are so round that the grasshopper can see in all directions at once. That is why it is so hard to catch one even when you come softly up behind him. The ocelli or simple eyes are three in num- ber, two posterior and one anterior ocellus. Insects see objects best when moving. 4. The antennsE or feelers are inserted in front of the eyes, and between them is the anterior ocellus, or simple eye. All are tubular and jointed. They are supposed to be organs of touch and also sensitive to sound. There are long-haired and short-horned grasshoppers. The Katydid, which is the green giasshopper, has antennae i62 Education through Nature longer than its body. The song of the Katydid seems to exist in these words repeated again and again v/ith a slight variation. 5. The grasshopper is a great eater; you will be sur- prised to find how quickly he will eat a clover leaf. His jaws are very sharp and strong; he works them sideways (horizontally) instead of up and down. He has a number of mouth parts which help him get the leaf into his mouth and he uses his front legs besides, so it is not strange that he can eat up the leaf so fast. The upper lip is called the labrum. The true jaws are the mandibles, which are single-jointed; they are also broad and short, with a toothed cutting and grinding edge, adapted for biting. The mandibles are situated on each side of the mouth. Opening behind the mandibles are the maxillie, which are divided into three lobes, the inner armed with teeth or spines, the middle lobe unarmed, while the outer forms a five-jointed feeler called tine maxillary palpus. The maxillas are accessory jaws and probably serve to hold and arrange the food to be ground by the true jaws. The floor of the mouth is formed by the labium; to each half is appended a three-jointed palpus. Within the mouth, situated upon the labium, is the ligula or tongue, which is large and membranous; with chitinous spines on it to hold the food. The tongue extends back to the pharynx and narrows towards the back. -PTOtWoX. m 6. The motor organs belong to the thorax, which is com- posed of three parts. Examples of Pupils' Work 163 The prothorax or fore part of the chest is a large horny collar, saddle-shaped, which carries the first pair of legs. The front pair being shorter than the others, hinders him in walking on a level surface but helps him in walking up a tree or small plant or wall. The mesothorax or middle part carries the second pair of legs and fore wings, which are longer, narrower, and thicker than the other two. The metathorax or hind ring of the chest bears the hind wings and legs which are twice as long as the others. The thigh or upper part is very long and strong. By means of these big legs the grasshopper is a famous jumper. The hind wings are most active in flight; they are broad, thin, and membranous, being folded up like a fan when at rest, and tucked away out of sight under the fore wings, which act as wing covers. TorcWin^ 7. The wings are simple expansions of the skin, or crust, being composed of two delicate films of the epidermis, stretched upon a network of tubes or tracha;. Where the wings join the grasshopper's body you will find the drum-plate used in stridulation. The wings are used by muscles inside the thorax. 8. The six legs of the grasshopper, like those of all insects, have five parts. At the end of the big thigh we find the two strong hooks, coxa and trochanter. This is the hip to which the leg is inserted. The thigh is the femur; the shank, tibia; and tarsus is the foot. The tarsus is usually sub-divided into five joints and pair of daws. 164 Education through Nature You cannot feel their muscles, for their skeletons are on the outside of their bodies, and like coats of armor cover all their muscles. Jn locomotion the fore legs are directed forward and the two hinder pairs backward. In motion the fore and hind feet on one side, and the middle one on the other, are moved simultaneously and then the remaining three. T«TnaK.-»" Tibta. Tarsus (Toot) The grasshopper pushes against the support on whifh he is resting and away he goes just as you think you have him. He is not easy to find when he moves away from you for he looks so much like his surroundings. Q. Protective resemblances are strikingly exemplified in insect life. In the order Orthoptera the phenomena are carried to an extent elsewhere unsurpassed in the animal kingdom. Adaption to surroundings is noticed in insects by which a species is rendered practically invisible amongst its surroundings on account of it? resemblance to a leaf, stone, twig, etc., to remain immune from attack from other insects. 10. When a grasshopper lives on a dusty road, he is dust-colored. When lie lives on a speckled rock he is black or gray, and when he lives in fields he is green or mottled green and brown hke the grasses. Some _ are fine fellows with soot-colored wing cases, and brilliant wings. The color of the grasshopper does not seem to be laid on the surface of his coat, as that of the beetle or scales Examples of Pupils* Work 165 of a butterfly, but is dyed through and through the wings and the body. 11. The grasshoppers are a very timid family, and are very sensitive to sound. The organs of hearing may be situated either on the fore legs, as in the green grasshoppers, Katydids, or at the base of the abdomen. 12. The abdomen contains the vegetative organs. It is composed of chitin, attached to the thorax. It has ten joints, which are more or less movable, and sword-like blades at the end called the ovipositor. 13. The grasshoppers like to lay their eggs in dry, hot places. In the fall you may see hundreds of them in dry pas- tures or along the roadside, making holes in the ground to put their eggs in. The female grasshopper has four sharp points at the end of her body. She puts these together to make one point, which she thrusts into the ground, and then while it is in the ground she spreads the points and pushes the earth away; then again she puts the points together and thrusts the one point further down, and so by pushing the point down and opening it over and over again, she makes a hole Abdomen nearly as large as her body and lays her eggs in a case made of something like glue. Then she closes up the hole, and the eggs lie all winter safe in the ground. In the warm spring days the larva: hatch from the egg, and creep out of the ground and begin to eat the first green things they find. They are very small but shaped much like the parent, only they have no wings. They molt and change their skin several times. At first the littie ones are all alike, but after several changes of skin the larvae become pupae. New coats grow on them, while the old ones get too small. The old one splits down the back, and the young grass- hopper steps out of it. He may have five new coats before he is a grown grasshopper. The first and second new coats have no wings on, the third you can see the coming 1 66 Education through Nature wings under a little sheath. The fourth has small wings; after shedding the fifth coat he looks just like his parents. About six or eight weeks after hatching the final change is made. The perfect insect comes out of the last shed skin. It has two pairs of wings. Insects only grow during the larval, or caterpillar, state; molting is confined to that period. The young grasshopper develops from the young larvae to the winged adult stage without changing its mode of life. When larvae and pupae they are very greedy; they eat all the time. When they are grown they do not give all their time to eating. 14. The digestive apparatus of the grasshopper consists of a pharynx, gullet, gizzard, stomach, and intestine. The blood, which is a colorless liquid, circulates on the dorsal side of the body in a long pulsating tube beneath the skin. This dorsal vessel, or heart, as it is called, is open at both ends and divided by valves into compartments, permitting the blood to go forward but not backward. The blood enters the cavity of the abdomen, and mingles with the chyle which transudes through the walls of the alimentary canal. Tliis mixed fluid is drawn into the dorsal tube through the valvular openings as it expands, and upon its contraction all the side-valves are closed and tlie fluid is forced towards the head. Passing out at the front opening it is again diffused among and between the tissues of the body. The brain is formed of several ganglia massed together, and lies across the upper side of the throat, just behind the mouth. The main cord lies along the ventral side of the body, with a swelling for each segment; besides this there is a visceral nerve representing in function the sympathetic system of vertebrates. The gizzard is lined with horny teeth. The grasshopper has no true liver, but its functions are performed by little cell-masses in the stomach. The kidneys are also groups of tubes. 15. Respiration is carried on by trachae, a system of tubes opening at the surface by a row of apertures called spiracles — generally nine on each side of the thorax and abdomen. Respiration is performed by the movements of the abdomen. These pipes or tubes ramify the most Examples of Pupils' Work 167 delicate organs. To keep the pipes ever open, they are provided inside with an elastic spiral thread, like the rubber tube of a drop-light. It also has air-sacs in the head. The '^nerves or veins of a grasshopper's wing consist of a tube within a tube; the inner one is a trachee carrying air; the outer one sheathing it is a blood-vessel. So per- fect is the aeration of the whole body, from brain to feet, that its blood is o.xygenated as soon as it is carbonized. It therefore has only arterial blood. This is the hfe of the happy wayside insect. When the glad summer of his life is done he dies. He does not live to be sick, or hungry, or cold; he is the happiest of living things. He does nothing but dance and sing, eat fresh leaves, and drink cool dew, from early spring to late autumn, where they can be found by any grassy roadside. I would dwell with thee, Merry grasshopper, Thou art so glad and free, And as light as air; Thou hast no sorrow or tears, Thou hast no compt of years, No withered immortality, But a short youth sunny and free. Carol clearly, bound along. Soon thy joy is over, A summer of loud song, And slumbers in the clover. What hast thou to do with evil In thine hour of love and revel, In thy heat of summer pride, Pushing thy thick roots aside Of the singing flowered grasses, That brush thee with their silken tresses? What hast thou to do with evil, Shooting, singing, ever springing. In and out the emerald glooms. Ever leaping, ever singing, Lighting on the golden blooms? — The Grasshopper. Tennyson. 1 68 Education through Nature I love to hear thine earnest voice, Wherever thou art hid, Thou testy little dogmatist. Thou pretty Katydid! Thou mindest me of gentle folks,— Old gentle folks are they, — Thou say'st an undisputed thing In such a solemn way. Thou art a female Katydid! I know it by the trill That quivers through thy piercing notes So petulant and shrill ; I think there is a knot of you Beneath the hollow tree, — A knot of spinster Katydids, — Do Katydids drink tea? — To an Insect, Oliver Wendell Holmes. The poetry of earth is never dead: When all the birds are faint with the hot sun, And hide in cooling trees, a voice will run From hedge to hedge about the new mown-mead; That is the grasshopper's — he takes the lead In summer luxury — he has never done With his delights ; for, when tired out with fun, He rests at ease beneath some pleasant weed. The poetry of earth is ceasing never ; On a lone winter evening, when the frost Has wrought a silence, from the stove there shrills The cricket's song, in warmth increasing ever, And seems to one in drowsiness half lost. The grasshopper's among some grassy hills. — The Grasshopper and the Cricket, John Keats, XVI. The Sage-brush Galls and Their Inhabitants. By V. M. G. Galls are abnormal growths caused by insects upon the parts of many plants. They are of various sizes and shapes and furnish a home and sustenance for the larva which develops within them. Some one has said that Lowell must have thought of these when he wrote: "Never a blade nor a leaf too mean To be some happy creature's palace." Examples of Pupils' Work 169 Whythis peculiar growth should take place we cannot say; but authorities have told us how a gall is formed. Comstock says, "The female gall-producing insect stings the plant and lays an egg in the wound. It is believed that in some cases there is deposited with the egg a drop of a poison (as in the gall, which we shall study presently) which causes the growth of the gall. But in other cases the gall does not begin to develop until the larva hatches from the egg and begins to feed upon the tissue of the plant. Fig. I. — Sage-brush with Gall. Evidently if there is a poison in such cases it must be secreted by the larva. Though the explanation of why galls grow is not clear, we know this much, that each species of gall-making insect makes a particular kind of gall. Hence, one versed in this subject can tell by the form and structure of a gall what species of insect produced it." 170 Education through Nature The gall which is of particular interest to us here in Ellensburg is that of the sage-brush. These sage galls, green globe-like bodies, vary in size from one-half inch to an inch in diameter, and are formed from the tip or middle portions of the leaves, as shown in drawing on the first page. The growth is certainly peculiar, for the middle- lines of the leaves may be traced through the galls. I have even found the gall closely surrounded by a group of leaves and formed from a part of each leaf, as represented by drawing. Fig. 2. In structure, these galls are fibrous and porous within, covered by a thick skin without, the latter being sur- FiG. 2. — Gall Uniting Several Leaves. mounted by innumerable grayish hair-like projections causing a fuzzy appearance of the galls. Sometimes the outer surface is smooth and shiny. I have noticed that the galls with such a surface seem to be the oldest. In all probability these smooth galls were once pubescent, like their younger sisters. In the very heart of the gall there starts from the base a conical capsule, varying in length from one-sixteenth of an inch to one-eighth of an inch, and composed of a thin green skin with a hard crust-like base (Figs. 3 and 4). Examples of Pupils' Work 171 Within this lies the small white egg — never more than one-eighth of an inch long — which the insect has laid in the leaf (Fig. 5). Frequently two eggs may be found in one gall, but from observation I can say that each egg has its separate capsule. Beginning this study with the egg, I had no way of deter- mining the length of time between the deposit of the egg 4 Fig. 3.— Gall. Fig. 4.— Capsule. Fig. S-— Egg. and its metamorphosis into the larva stage. As a usual thing the larva, which is about one-fourth of an inch in length and a grayish- white in color, eats its way out of the gall and spends some time in feeding upon the leaves of the sage-brush (Fig. 6). Upon examining the hushes dur- FiG. 6. — Larva greatly magnified; this line ( — ) shows natural size. ing the months of May and June, any number of these larvae may be seen crawling over the leaves or suspended from them by silk threads. 172 Education through Nature After a time the larva begins to spin itself into a cocoon, fastening it upon the under surface of the leaf. I placed several of the larvae in a covered glass dish and watched one of them start its cocoon on one side of the dish. It Fig. 7. — Weaving Larva. worked from side to side, weaving the net-work in front of it as shown in Fig. 7. Upon finishing about half of the cocoon it broke the thread, and turning about, backed under the partially completed mesh-work; then, drawing its head up and backwards, resumed its spinning. Just at this point I was unfortunate enough to knock the dish over and drop the larva out. Though I placed it back against its work and tried coaxing and leaving it Fig. 8. — The Completed Cocoon. alone by turns it would not resume its spinning. But on the next day I found the same larva in a new cocoon. On the contrary, when I purposely punctured the cocoon Examples of Pupils' Work 173 in which a second larva was still weaving, it began imme- diately to mend the hole. ■ Absent (naked) ■n > ( I. Petals (similar in shape) °^ (2. Sepals (similar in shape) ■r , ( I. Petals (dissimilar in shape) °^ (2. Sepals (dissimilar in shape) l4. As regards number I. Symmetrical .2. Unsymmetrical r I. Sepals 1 i. Petals I of same num- 3. Stamens [ 4. Pistils J ber ' I. Sepals I 2. Pistils [differing in 3. Petals J number ,4. Stamens J 254 Education through Nature "o a 2 "a . Coalescence {similar) I. Distinct (polysepalous) not united o , f I. Distinct (polysepalous) I . bepals 1 2 United (gamosepalous) 2. Petals I. Distinct (poly- petalous) s. United (gamo- petalous) ■ I . Distinct I . Wheel-shaped 2. Bell -shaped 3. Funnel-shaped 4. Tubular J. Papilionaceous ■ 6. Labiate 2. United (monodelphous, dia, tri, 3. Stamens -j ^^^^-^ ■ 4. Pistils I. Free i!. Adnation {dissimi- lar union) , 2. Adnate ■ [3. Syngenesious (anthers united) I . Distinct i!. United (monogynous, di, tri, etc.) 1. Calyx I. Hypogenous (under pistil) 2. Corolla 2. Perigenous (around pistil) 3. Stamens 3. Epigenous (above pis- J til) I. Calyx adnate to ovary (ovary in- ferior) i!. Petals adnate to sepals (episepa- lous) 3. Stamens adnate to petals (epipeta- lous) •„..., _ i I- Superior (free) U- Pistil orovary -j ^ inferior (adnate) 5. Inflorescence I. Indeterminate 2. Determinate 3. Mixed 1 . Raceme "1 2. Corymb I i. Simple 3. Umbel I 2. Compound 4. Spike J 5. Head 6. Spadix . 7. Catkin 1. Cyme ) i. Simple 2. Fasicle >• 3. Glomerule ) 2. Compound ii. Thyrsus 2. Panicle Classification of Plants 255 Adaptations of Flowers. 1" •-& <1 I. Other plants 2. Animals . 3. Functions 1 . Protandry (anthers first mature) 2. Protogyny (pistil first mature) . 3. Cleistogamy (self-fertilized inclosed flower) 1. Nectar 2. Color 3. Odor 4. Union of irregular petals 5. Hairs 6. Wax r. Production of fruit 2 Self-fertilization (cleistogamy) 3. Cross-fertilization {-^-;-5 1. Color 2. Odor 3. Nectar 4. Long stamens and short pistils 5. Long pistil and short stamens 6. Monoecious t 7 Dioecious 4. Insect fertilization d o ■■a .a 1 I. Self-pollination . .i. Cross-pollination .S.Fertilizationby{^;^^'J^^[ ZATI . Wind ) I . Obscure color 2. Light pollen Fertilization of Flowers. Close fertilization (same stamen and pistil) Cleistogamy (closed flower)' 1. Insects (entomophilous) 2. Birds 3. Wind (anemophilous) . 4. Water 8. Uses to Man Uses of Flowers. 1. Ornament 2. Fragrance 3. Production of fruit 4. Manufacture of perfumery J. Production of useful seeds 6. Medicinal 7. Nectar for honey 1. Oats 2. Barley 3. Wheat 4. Com 256 Education through Nature Origin or Flowers. 1 I. From bud i ■ I. Branch (torus) . ■ I. Sepals 2. Modified stem 2. Petals ( I. Claw r 2. Lamina 6> . 2. Leaves , ct„„„„„ j I- Filament 3. Stamens -j^^^^^^^ I. Simple (one leaf or car- . 4. Pistil • pel) 2. Compound (two leaves L or carpels) Fruit. I. Berry i!. Pepo 3. Pome 4. Drupe 5. Akene 6. Cremocarp 7. Utricle I. Simple 8. Caryopsis 9. Nut 10. Samara 11. FoUicle 12. Legiime 13. Capsule 14. Silique 15. SiUcle I. Kinds of 1 ^ruit . 16. Pyxis {origin) Aggregate! -a^^^ Accessory] l-l^-be^ 14. ^"''•p'« j I: iS" Kinds of Fruit {consistency) I. Fleshy] i!. Stone [3- 'Dry J I. Indehiscent Dehiscent -i '■ Loculicidal ( 2. Septicidal Classification of Plants 257 3. Origin I. Mature ovaiyj^;g^J^^^^ 2. Ovary and calyx 3. Ovary, calyx, and torus . 4. Ovary, calyx, torus, and rachis of several flowers of one flower. 4. Uses ■ I. Distribution of seeds ■A. Reproduction, of the plant I. Animals .3. Food for Bacteria 2. Plants \ 2. Yeast Fungi .3. Man 5. Useful Properties 6. Adaptive Structures l3- 1. Hard 2. Soft 3. Juicy 4. Mellow 5. Colored 6. Fragrant 7. Sweet 8. Sour 9. Bitter 10. Starchy ir. Oily 12. .Medicinal 1. Rind 2. Husk 3. Chafif 4. Bristles 5. PappuE 6. Hairs 7. Spines 8. Hooks 258 Education through Nature Leaves, theie. Form and STRtrcTTTRE, I. Parts of Leaves Blade u. Petiole . 3. Stipules ■ ' I. Epidermis 2. Pulp (parenchyma) 3. Ribs 4. Veins . 5. Veinlets I. Persistent .1. Deciduous 3. Dry or scarious 4. Free 5. Adnata 6. Spiny 7. Foliaceous or leaf -like 2. Venation of Leaves ■n 11 1 • J f I- From base I. ParaUel-vemed|^_ From midrib 2. Netted-veined (or r e t i c u- lated) I. Pinnately or feather- veined z. Palmately or digi- tately veined 3. Form of Leaves 4. The Base of Leaves 1. Linear 2. Lanceolate 3. Oblong 4. Elliptical 5. Oval 6. Ovate 7. Orbicular or rotund 8. Oblanceolate 9. Spatulate 10. Obovate 11. Cuneate 1. Cordate 2. Reniform 3. Auriculate 4. Sagittate 5. Hastate 6. Peltate 7. Obtuse 8. Acute 9. Rotmded Classification of Plants 259 5. The Apex of Leaves 6. The Margin of Leaves 1. Accuminate 2. Acute 3. Obtuse 4. Truncate 5. Retuse 6. Emarginate 7. Obcordate 8. Cuspidate g. Mucronate 10. Aristate 1. Entire 2. Serrate 3. Dentate 4. Crenate 5. Wavy 6. Cut or incised 7. Lobed "■ - ^ 8. Cleft 9. Parted 10. Divided] 2. Pabnately ' also applied to petals I. Pinnately I. Three u. Four 3. Five 4. Many I. Three i. Four 3. Five 4. Many 7. Kinds of Leaves 1. Simple _ J ( I- Pinnately I i. Pinnules .. Compound I ^ pajj^ately/ 2. Leaflets 3. Perfoliate 4. Equitant 5. Needle-shaped 6. Scale-shaped 7. Seed leaves 8. Fleshy leaves Special forms 8. Arrangement of Leaves Alternate 2. Opposite 3. Whorled 4. Clustered Two-ranked (one-half) Three-ranked (one-third) Five-ranked (two-fifths) Eight-ranked (three-eighths) 26o Education through Nature 9. Position of Leaves in the Bud 10. Structures of Leaves ii: I. Straight ■i. Folded 3. Inflexed 4. Conduplicate 5. Plicate 6. Circinate 7. Convolute 8. Involute . 9. Revolute Epidermis Network of veins Green mesophyl I. Adaptations of Leaves to Light Adaptations of Leaves. I. Flat and expanded surface i!. Cut, divided, or cleft to let in light 3. Separated on the stem 4. Petiole lengthened or shortened 5. Rolled up so as to expose litde surface 6. Turning flat surface or edge to light 7. Placed uppermost on the stem 8. Bending towards the light 9. Green color chlorophyl 10. Palisade arrangement of cells on ex- posed surface 2. Adaptations of Leaves to Water 1. Hairy 2. Waxy 3. Covered with cuticle 4. Large and broad for floating 5. Drooping 6. Pitcher-shaped 7. Prostrate position on the groimd 8. Upright position on stem 3. Adaptation of Leaves for Protec- tion from Other Plants r I. Prickly 2. Hairy 3. Changed into tendrils 4. Thick, spherical, and fleshy . 5. Converted into spines Classification of Plants 261 4. Adapta- tions to Func- tion I. Transpiration g. Adaptations to Animals • 2. Photosynthesis 3. Respiration 4. Nutrition 1. Stomata 2. Expanded surface 3. Differentiation of two surfaces 4. Hairs J. Rosin 6. Cuticle 7. Porous mesophyl 8. Spherical or fleshy form I. Flat and expanded surface ■£. Cut or divided 3. Separated on the stem 4. Petiole lengthened 5. Drooping in sleep 6. Heliotropism 7. Chlorophyl 8. Stomata {I. Expanded surface 2. Stomata 3. Spongy mesophyl 11. Forming roots 2. Trap-shaped 3. Pitcher-shaped 4. Thick and fleshy for storage 1. Hairy to prevent injury 2. Spiny for protection 3. Bitter 4. Sticky 5. Smooth 6. Powdery 7. Trap-shaped 8. Pitcher-shaped o. Nutritious for food 6. Adaptations of Leaves to Man's Uses 10. Broad for shelter 1. Nutritious for food | \ fj^^^ed 2. Chemical elements for j ^' pj^_g 3. Manufactures { ^; Le^^ery 4- Shelter {-^^^^1, .5. Ornaments 262 Education through Nature Roots or Plants. 1. Kinds of Roots as to Origin 3. Roots as Regards Distribution ■ I. Primary 2. Secondary 3. Tertiary .4. Adventitious 1. Soil-roots 2. Water-roots 3. Aerial roots 4. Parasitic roots 3. Forms of Roots 1: Fibrous 2. Fascicled 3. Fleshy I. Napeform' ■i. Conical 3. Fusiform . Tap-roots 4. Roots as Regards Duration 1. Annual 2. Biennial . 3. Perennial 5. Structure of Roots ■ I. Hair-like 2. Woody .3. Soft and juicy I. Outer bark — epidermis Central wood] ;• ^^^^f^^'^^" . 3. Cambium ' 1. Absorption ■ 6. Adaptations of Roots to 1. Thin walls of root-hairs 2. Increase of surface by division 3. Thickening of epidermis pre- vents evaporation 2. Storage 1. Underground position prevents freezing 2. Thickened epidermis prevents loss of water 3. Support — Hard tap-root and tough secondary roots r r. Ramification of rootlets ,4. Holdfasts- 2. Large descending tap-root 1. 3. Twisting of aerial roots Classification of JPlants 26s 7. Uses of Roots to I. Man 2. Animals .3. Plants 1. Food 2. Basket-work . 3. Medicine 1. Food 2. Shelter 3. Support 1. Absorption 2. Food-storage 3. Holdfasts .4. Protection Stems of Plants. ( I . Above ground I. Distribution of Stems <, ', 2. In water 3. In air .4. Underground 2. Kinds of Stems ■ r. Above ground 2. Under ground ■ r. Culm (straw stem of grass 2. Shrubby 3. Bushy . 4. Tree-trunks I. Rhizome (root-stock) ^. Tuber (potato) 3. Com (solid bulb) 4. Bulb (scaly) 3. Stems as Regards Direction of Growth 1. Leaning 2. Reclining 3. Rising 4. Prostrate 5. Creeping Climbing Twining r. Stolon 2. Offset 3. Runner f I. Sucker Anomalous Stems and Branches ■{ ■^. Tendril [ 3. Spines 5. Foimsot Stems 1. As regards j i. Deliquescent (divided) branching ( 2. Excurrent (central shaft) 2. Jointed 3. Square 4. Cylindrical 5. Flat or leaf-like 6. Spherical 264 Education through Nature 6. Structure of Stems 1. Woody (exogenous) 2. Pithy (endogenous) 3. Herbaceous 4. Hollow or porous 5. Fleshy . 6. Scaly Annual 7. Duration of Stems ■{ 2. Biennial [ 3. Perennial ,{:; (I. Exogenous 3. Definite annual growth 4. Indefinite annual growth 9. Uses of Stems to Uses of the Stem. I. Plants 2. Animals 3. Man I. Conduction of sap 2. Storage of food 3. Support of leaves 4. Protection 5. Support of other plants 1.6. Reproduction ' I. Larvse n. Ants Is ■ I. Homes of ■ 3. Birds 4. Toads 5. Snakes .6. Monkeys 2. Food .3. Protection and shelter I. Food 2. Medicines I. Lumber 3- Building material 2. Furniture 4- Fodder 3. Tools 4. Sugar S- Manufacture of S- Starch 6. Paper 6. Fibers for manu- 7. Rubber factures 8. Dyes 7- Bark for tannin g . 9. Linen goods . 8. Bark for Indian canoes, etc. Classification of Plants 265 O -a < 5. Plants 6. Animals 7. Man 1. Light 2. Heat 3. Moisture ■ 4. Wind Adaptations of Stems. Heliotropism (bending to light) Erect position Branching Elongated or climbing Branching only at extreme top Underground stems 1. Bark and hardened cuticle 2. Underground below frost 3. Periodic diminution 4. Flow of sap 5. Hairs 1 . Cuticle prevents evaporation 2. Rosin 3. Hairs 4. Powder .5. Creeping and floating posture 1 . Hard heart wood 2. Hollow 3. Firmly rooted 4. Low and prostrate 5. Flexibility 6. Drying and carrying seeds in wind 1. Hollow for strength 2. Firm and woody for support 3. Long and slender for twining 4. Divided and slender for floating in water 5. Underground for protection and propagation 6. Branched for leaf exposure 7. Covered with bark or cuticle for protection Spiny for protection Covered with bark for protection Hairy for protection from insects Sticky for protection Bitter for protection 1. Hard and woody for use 2. Soft and juicy for use 3. TaU and graceful for beauty 4. Tough and flexible 5. Light and heavy 6. Spicy . 7. Sweet and bitter 266 Education through Nature Adaptations of Stems to Work. o in Ml o ■a I. Climbing 2. Storage 3. Circulation . 4. Support Roots at many joints Production of tendrils Twisted petioles or leaf -stalks Slender stems for climbing 1. Underground position 2. Thickened and fleshy 3. Corky bark to prevent evaporation 4. Pithy I . Fibrovascular bundles z. Cambium layer 3. Sieve-tubes and tracheids 4. Thickened walls of wood-cells . s- Medullary rays 1. Heart wood of trees 2. Hollow stems of grasses . 3. Hard wood and bast-tissue I. Exogens Tissues of Stems. ' I . Epidermal tissue Fundamental system Fibro-vascular system L3' Fundamental parenchyma Sclerotic parenchyma Sclerotic prosenchyma 1. Bundle sheath. 2. Phlcem sheath 3. Bast-fibers 4. Sieve-tubes 5. Phloem parenchyma 6. Tracheids 7. Scalariform vessels 8. Spiral and pitted ducts T-. J ( Systems as above, but 2. Endogensj ^differently arranged. Cells of Plant Tisstxes. r. Spherical 2. Cylindrical 3. Flat 4. Spindle-shaped 5. Hexagonal 6. Elongated 7. Irregular 13. Forms of Plant -cells ■ Classification of Plants 267 14. Kinds of Tissue-cells I. Cork cells or epidermal cells z. Bast cells 3. Green-bark cells 4. Cambium cells 5. Primary meristem cells 6. Wood cells 7. Tracheids or pitted cells 8. Pith cells Seeds. I. Reproductive Bodies ( i. Spores of cryptogams (cells) in Plants | 2. Seeds of phjenogams (containing embryo) II. Hilum (scar) I Szf '^^^ 4. Micropyle Testa \ 3. Color r I. Wings 2. Fibers (coma) ,4. Appendages j 3. Wool (cotton) I 4. Aril (bladders) L 5. Strophiole Seed-coats . 2. Inner coat (thin membrane) ■ I. Embryo .2. Kernel Cotyledons 2. Plumule One or mono- cotyledonous Two or dicot- yledonous Many or poly- cotyledonous Hypocotyl (radi- J 1. Superior cle or caulicle j 2. Inferior ,,, ( I. Present (albuminous) Albumen I ^_ Absent (exalbuminous) 268 Education through Nature Uses or Seeds. r I. Wild animals j^;^°°f 1. Poultry 2. Hqrses I. Domestic animals ■ 3. Cows 4. Pigs ,5. Sheep I. Food for . 2. Man • ■ I. Com meal 2. Oatmeal 3. Flour 4. Starch l5- Rice „ -n^,™. S I- Coffee 2. Drugs |3_ Cocoa I. Nutmegs 3. Spices ^. Juniper .3. Extracts o ■2 2. Man I . ■ Fermented spirits ■s i!. Cotton goods & 4. Manufactures ■ 3. Linseed-oil "6' 4. Ornaments . 5. Ointments 13 I. Timothy CO 2. Clover 3. Red-top 4. Blue grass S- Buckwheat 6. Com 7. Oats 8. Wheat 5. Agricul- 9. Barley ture 10. Flax II. Sugar-corn 12. Broom-com 13. Garden vegetables 1. Maple 14. Cultivated flowers 2. Cherry 3- Apple 15. Trees 4. Peach 5. Orange 6. Cott'nwood , 7. Osage ,3. ThePla -i-g: ise mma- oducti ion on Classification of Plants 269 <3 i •I Adaptations or ■ I. Drouth t. Resting period d ■I I. Wind 2. Water L 3' 3. Animals {;: Seeds. Small surface Impervious outer coat 1^ . . J I. Dry albumen °'^ ^ I 2. Hard impervious outer coat 3. Mechanical injury ' I. Small size 2. Spherical form 3. Spines and prickles :i. Protection 3. Dissemination 4. Germination 1. Hardness 2. Compactness 3. Thick and hard outer coat 4. Spherical or arched surfaces . 5. Protective coloring I. Color i!. Loose bladder appendages 3. Wings 4. Spines 5. Hooks 6. Hairs . 7. Lightness ( I. Albumen j 2. Embryo Seeds blown by the wind Fruit carried by the wind Entire plant carried by the wind 1. Floating seeds 2. Floating fruit 3. Floating plants I. Birds 1. In beak 2. On feet . 3. In crop ^. Hairy animals 1. In wool 2. In hair .3. Alimentary canal Man _ . . , I I. In mouth L 3. Burrowing anunals j ^_ stored food 1. Clothing 2. Wagons 3. Cars 4. Ships 5. Mud on boots 6. Sowing by hand or machine 270 Education through Nature Soils akd Germination of Seeds. 6. Properties of Soils 1. Sand 2. Clay 3. Loam 4. Moisture ' I. Carbon compounds 2. Carbon dioxide 3. Proteids ^ 4. Ammonia 5. Organic substances 6. Various salts 7. Conditions for Germination • Classification of Buds 8. Effects of Ger- mination I. Resting period of some seeds ■z. Moisture 3. Heat . 4. Oxygen or air ,, ,. J „ - ( I. Seed leaves Absorption of albumen from j ^ Endosperm Unfolding of embryo Longthening of the hypocotyl l-'ormation of roots Connection with the soil I. Position 2. Number Kinds Buds. 1. Terminal 2. Lateral ( I. Axillary I 2 Extra-arillaiy 2. Homology of Buds r^- Solitary ( I. Collateral Supernumerary j ^_ superposed 1. Accessory 2. Naked 3. Scaly 4. Leaf-buds 5. Flower-buds 6. Mixed 7. Dormant Leaf-buds, stems in miniature Flower-buds, homologous to leaf-buds, as the flower is a modified stem Classification of Plants 271 3. Adaptations of Buds to I. Light 2. Temperature 4. Uses of Buds to Moisture I Plants 1. Arrangement on stem .i. Underground 3. Under the bark 1. Hairs 2. Scales 3. Position under ground 4. Position under the petiole 5. Position under the bark 1. Waxy 2. Hairs 3. Scales 4. Location under petiole 5. Location under bark 1. Reprod.uction 2. Condensation of exposed parts 3. Saving of time iij early spring 4. Provision for accidents , . , ( I. Food (insects, mammals, etc.) ■^. Animals -j ^^ shelter (insect eggs) .3. Man 5. Protective Adaptations I. Food i!. Medicine 3. Seed I. Scales i. Wax 3. Bitter taste 4. Obscure color 5. Hairs 6. Position under bark . 7. Position under petiole 272 Education through Nature CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. Flowering Plants. a, a, C/3 I. Dicoty- ledons 1. Order Cupulifera 2. SalicineiB 3. UrticacecB 4. Composites 5. LabiatcB 2. Mo no- cotyledons } ' I. Oak, Qtiercus 2. Hazel-nut, Corylus 3. Birch, Betula •4. Alder, Alnus 1. Willow, Salix 2. Poplar, Populus 3. Cottonwood, Populus Elm, Ulmus Hop, Humulus Aster, 4s/er Dandelion, Taraxacum Sage, Salvia Monkey-flower, Mimulus fi Umbelifem l'^' Parsnip, T^i^wm 1. Locust, Rohinia 2. Bean, P.haseolus . 3. Lupine, Lurpinus ' I . Rose, JJoio 2. Apple, Pyrus 3. Cheiry, Prunus 4. Strawberry, Fragaria 5. Raspberry, Rubus . 6. Plumb, Prunus 1 . Buttercup, Ranunculus 2. Marsh-marigold, Caltha 3. Larkspur, Delphinum . 4. Virgin's-bower, Clematis Lady's-slipper, Cypripedium 8. RosacecB Ranun- culacecs Orchidacecs— IridacecB — Flag, /m ' I. Onion 3. Liliaceiz GramincB (grasses) Juncacea (rushes) Camass, Camassia . 3. LUy, Lilium ' I . Timothy, Phleum 2. Barley, Hordeum 3. Wheat, Triticum 4. Com, Zeo . 5. Bluegrass, Poa ' I. Bog-rush, Juncus . 2. Class Gymnospermse Conifers Wood-rush, Luzuala .6. TyphacecE — Cat-tail, Typha ' I. Pine, Pinus 2. Spruce, Picea 3. Fir, Abies 4. Juniper, Juniperus 5. Arbor-vitae, Thuja 6. Redwood, Sequoia 7. Larch, Larix Classification of Plants 273 Floweeiess Plants (Cryptogams). Mosses and Ferns. 2. Pteridophyta Club moss, Lycopodium Scouring rushes (horestails) Equisetum w Spleenwort, Asplenium Christmas fern, Aspidium L 3. Ferns, Filicales j ^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ J,^^^^ 3- Maidenhair, Adianium 3. Bryophyta ' I . Mosses, Musci 1. Polytrichium 2. Hypnum 3. Dicranum .2. Liverworts, H-e/.o«ic«{;^; MafcST 274 Education through Nature Algi and Fungi. ' I. Higher algi, Characece, stoneworts i '' '^'^'''^ t. .si a. a .a H Algi , . 2. Nitella 2. Brown algi, PhaophycecB, brown seaweeds {'.: Laminaria 3. Red algi, Khodophycew, red sea- y i. Dasya weeds Fucus f I. Das \ 2. Ptilota 4. Green algi, Chlorophycea, pond-scum I. Desmids ■z. Pleurococcus . 3. Spirogyra f I. Oscillo colonies \ 2. Nostoc Uchens, Lichenes \^- Crusted and scaly, CojW I. 2. i'lliform and branched, Usnea 3. Fungi I . Basidia fungi, Basidi- omycetes I. Toadstools, Polyporus z. Mushroom, Boletus 3. Puff balls, Crucibulum 2. Polymorphic fungi, / i. Smuts, Phragmidium ^cydiomycetes Rust, Puccinia 3. Sac-fungi, Ascomy- r i. Mildews, Microsphmra cetes \ 2. Blue Mold, PenicilUum 4. Alga-fungi, Phyco- mycetes f I. Bread Mold, Mucor \ 2. Water Mold, Saprolegnia 5. Yeast, Bread yeast — Saccharomyces cerevisia ii. Spirillum ^ B* "11 4. Micrococcus . 7. Slime Molds, Myxomycetes Classification of Animals 375 IX. Classification of Animals. METAZOA. SUBKINGDOMS AND CLASSES OF ANIMALS. A • 1 T7- J _ f !• Series Melazoa (many-celled) Animal Kingdom |^ Series Protozoa (one-celled)^ ' I. Vertebrata (animals with back-bone) 2. Arthropoda (animals with segmented body and jointed legs) 3. MoUusca (soft body covered with mantle) 4. Vermes (bilateral, with no legs) Subkingdoms ■ 5. Echinodennata (radiate, with leathery or spiny covering 6. Coelenterata (radiate, with tentacles and nettling cells 7. Porifera (sponge-like animals) . 8. Protozoa (no true tissues, single cells) Classes of Vertebrates 1. Mammals (suckle the young) 2. Birds (feathered, wings, lungs) 3. Reptiles (lungs and scales) 4. Amphibians (gills and lungs) . 5. Fishes (permanent gills, fins) Classes of Arthro- pods Insecta (six legs, distinct head, thorax, and abdomen) Arachnida (eight legs, head and thorax united) Myriapoda (many legs, body of distinct seg- ments) Crustacea (more than eight legs, gills) SI. Cephalopoda (head with arms around the mouth) n. Gasteropoda (shell of one valve, tentacles) I, 3 Lamellibranchiata (shell of two valves) 1 . Annelides (worms with soft body of similar segments) 2. Brachiopoda (worms with shells) Classes of ) 3. Polyzoa (minute, composite worms) Worms 4. Rotifera (minute ciliated worms) $. Nematelminthes (thread-like, not jointed) , 6. Platyhelminthes (flatworms) 276 Education through Nature Classes of Echi- noderms Classes of Ccelen- terates 1. Holothuroidea (cylindrical and soft body) 2. Echinoidea (covered with spinous shell) 3. Asteroidea (body star-shaped) . 4. Crinoidea (cup-shaped body, stalked) ■ 1. Ctenophora (transparent body with eight rows of paddles) 2. Anthozoa (soft body with radiating septa) 3. Hydrozoa (simple bag-like body) Classes of Porifera ( '• Spongida (collectiou of cells held together by a nbrous skeleton Classes of Protozoa 1. Infusoria (covered with ciiticle and cilia) 2. Gregarinida (a single worm-Uke cell) 3. Rhizopoda (having root-like feet) . 4. Monera (homogeneous protoplasmic body) Orders oe Mammals and Some Common Genera. 1. Primates, great toe ■ 1. Man, Homo 2. Gorilla, Troglodytes 3. Orang-outang, Simia 4. Gibbon, Hylohaies . S- Monkey, Ateles ^. Prosimii, arboreal, clawed — Lemur, Lemur 3. Camivora, fiesh-eaters Seal, Phoca Walrus, Trichecus Sea-lions, Zalophus Bear, Ursus Badger, Taxidea Raccoons, Procyon Lion, Felis Tiger, Felis Leopard, Felis Panther, Felis Cat, Felis Dog, Canis Wolf, Canis Fox, Vulpes Coyote, Canis Otter, Lutra Weasel, Putorius Mink, LiUreola Skunk, Mephites , pinnigrade plantigrade digitigrade Classiiication of Animals 277 ruminants 4. Ungulata, hoofed J.. Ox, Bos 2. Camel, Camelus 3. Deer, Cervus 4. Elk, Alces 5. Sheep, Ovis 6. Goat, Capra 7. Pig, Sus 8. Hippopotamus, Hippopotamus 9. Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros ip. Tapir, Tapirus .11. Horse, Equus ^ -n , .J. -.T J. I. • f I. Mastodon, ilfai* S. Probosadia, wzth proboscts | ^_ Eigpt^nt, Eleph, , c- • 7 I- r I- Manatee 6. Smma,, herbivorous |^_ Dugong, Mastodon ■as 7. Cetacese carwi'UoroMi I. Manatee, Manatus Halicore 1. Whale, Physeter 2. Porpoise, Phocana 3. Dolphin, Delphinus 8. Cheiroptera, winged — Bats, Lasiurus Insectivora, insect-feeders I. Mole, Scalops i. Shrew, Sorex . 3. Hedgehog, Erinaceus ' I . Guinea-pig, Cavia 2. Beaver, Castor 3. Rabbit, Lepus 10. Rodentia, gnawers ■ 4. Mice, Mus J. Rats, Af«^ 6. Muskrat, i^iier . 7. Squirrel, Sciurus {I. Armadillo, Dasypus 2. Sloths, Brady pus 3. Ant-eaters, Myrmecophaga .2. Marsupalia,,.«c;.. {-. g^um? Sff } Siredon 4. aa, y -j^ _j^ Furrowed salamander, Necturus Classification of Animals 281 1, Dipnoi, Eel-like, with gills and bladder-like lungs Some Orders and Common Genera of Fishes. 1. Australian lungfish, Cerotodwj 2. S. American mudfish, Lepidosiren .3. African mudfish, i'roto^fe/'Mi 1. Cod, Gadus 2. Herring, Clupea 3. Bluefish, Pomatomus 4. Bullhead, Ameiurus 5. Toadfish, Batrachus 6. Searobin, Prionotus 7. Rockfish, Roccus 8. Perch, Perca g. Bass, Micropterus 10. Salmon, Salmo 11. Flounder, Paraiichthys 12. Flying fish, Exocastus 13. Dogfish, Amia 14. Pickerel, Esox 15. Trout, Salvelinus 16. Whitefish, Coregonus 17. Snakefish, Synodus 18. Anchovies, Stolephorus 19. Shad, Dorosoma 20. Ladyfish, Albula 21. Minnows, Notropis 22. Suckers, Catostomus 23. Catfish, Ameirus 24. Smelts, Mallolus 25. Eels, Echelus 26. Swordfish, Remora 27. Mackerel, Scomber 28. Halibut, Hippoglossus 2. Teleostei, Jowy /J^Aei 3. Ganoids, heterocercel tail, skele- ton incompteiely ossified 4. Elasmobranchs, uncovered gills, cartilaginous I. Spoonbill, Polyodon J.. Sturgeon, Acipencer 3. Gar-pike, Lepisosteus 4. Mudfish, ^>»ja 1. Dogfish, Squalus 2. Shark, Carcharhinus 3. Ray, Torpedo 4. Skate, iJoj'a 5. Sea-devils, Manta 6. Chimera 282 Education through Nature Orders of Arachnida and Some Common Genera. I. ArSLneina., spiders with cepha- lothorax, eight legs 1. Garden-spider, Epeira 2. House-spider, Theridium 3. Crab-spider, Myale 4. Running spider, Lycosa 5. Jumping spider, y4«« J 6. Grass-spider, Agalena 7. Trap-door spider, Cteniza 8. Wheelweb-spider, Argiope 9. Water-spider, Argyronetra ! I. Scorpion, Centrums \ 2. Harvestman, Phalangium 2. Arthrogastra, jointed abdomen, clawed palpi 3. Acarina, divisions of the body ( v. Mites, Acarus \ 2. Ticks, Ixodes united Orders of Insects and Some Common Genera. Hymenoptera, mostly social Bees I. Hive-bees, Apis _ ^. Humblebees, Bombus 3. Leaf-cutters, Megachile 4. Mason-bees, Osmia.. 5. Carpenter-bees, Xylocopa 2. Ants, Formica 3. Wasps, Vespa 4. Ichneumons, Pimpla 5. Gall-flies, Rhodites 6. Saw-flies, Tremex Lepidoptera, scaJy, mouth a proboscis I. Butterflies 1. Papilio 2. Terias 3. Vanessa 4. Anosia 2. Clothes-moth, Tinea 3. Regal moth, Citheronia 4. Sphinx, Smerinthus 5. Codling, Carpocapsa 6. Silkworm, Bombyx 7. American silk, Polyphemus 3. Diptera, one pair membranous wings 1. Bot-fly, Gasterophilus 2. House-fly, Musca 3. Mosquito, Culex 4. Flea, Pulex 5. Daddy-long-legs, Tipula 6. Flesh-fly, Sarcophaga 7. Horse-fly, Tobamis 8. Hessian-fly, Cecidomyia Classification of Animals 283 4. Coleoptera, Chitinous Elytra 1. Tiger-beetle, Cicindela 2. Potato-beetle, Doryphora 3. Ground-beetles, Harpalus 4. Water-beetles, Dytiscus S- Ladybirds, Coccinella 6. Weevils, Balaninus 7. Bark -borers, Dendroctonus 8. Fireflies, Lampyris 9. Carrion-beetle, Silpha 10. Tumblebugs, PhancBus 11. June-bug, Sachnosterna 12. Goldsmith-beetle, Cotalpa 13. Sexton-beetle, Necrophorus 5. Hemiptera, i«gi 1. Bedbug, Cimex 2. Louse, Pediculus 3. Squash-bug, ^«ara 4. Assassin-bug, Reduvius 5. Water-boatman Notonecta 6. Water-strider, Hygroirechus 7. Plant-louse, Aphis 8. Apple -blight insect, Schizoneura 9. Scale insect, CoccidtB 10. Cochineal insect, Coccus 6. Orthoptera, /we «ii«^ straight and narrow 1. Cricket, Gryllus 2. Grasshopper, Acrydium 3. Cockroach, Blatta 4. Locust, Locusta 5. Stick insect, Daphomera 6. Leaf insect, PhylUum 7. Earwigs, Forficula 8. Seventeen-year locust, Cicada 9. Book-lice, Psocus ii. Dragon-fly, Libellula 2. White ants. Vermes 3. Caddis-flies, Phryganea 4. May-flies, Ephemera 5 . Lace- wing flies, Hemerobiu Orders of Crttstacea and Some Common Genera. I. Lobster, Homarus A. Crab, Cancer 3. Crayfish, ^jtocai 4. Shrimp, Crangon 5. Prawns, Pandalus 6. Hermit-crab, Pagurus X. Decapods, ten limbs 284 Education through Nature rrixj J I , ijjfi- Sand-flea, Gammarus 2. Tetradecapods,/o«rfee»-/o<7fei. Marine, Collosphara Monera uni- 1 1. Order Gymnomonera { ^; My^^^^y^^ lular forms ] •^ j j ^ J T r !• Protomonas L 2. Order Lepomonera | ^_ p^<,to«»y«a 4. Class miA »o distinct nucleus CHAPTER IV Material and Equipment XIV. Collecting and Preserving Material Saturday and vacation excursions offer best oppor- tunities for collecting. Each member of the party should be provided with something in which to carry the material collected. Small baskets, bags, tin cans, and bottles will do. For collecting plants a rubber bag or a tin can, which prevent evaporation and hence the wilting of the speci- mens, are desirable. A convenient form of collecting can is an oval, elongated one with a hinged lid on one side. Eighteen inches long, with ends 9 inches by 6 inches, is a convenient size. It should be provided with loops for straps, by which it can be susp^ded from the shoulder. Any tinner will make such a can for about $1 or $1.50. It can also be purchased from dealers (see below). For preserving plants, they should be pressed while fresh; if possible, the same day as collected or at least early next day. Wrapping them in moist paper or sprinkling them in the can with water will preserve them from withering for some time. In order to preserve its form and color the plant should be placed between blotting-paper (or porous carpet-paper) with pieces of newspaper between. A convenient size of dryers is 18 inches by 12 inches. All parts of the plant, root, stem, leaf, and fruit should be preserved if possible; and it should be so placed in the dryers as to exhibit the natural appear- 289 290 Education through Nature ance when dried. The dryers are then piled up one on top of the other, and are finally placed between two boards of the same size as the dryers. Consid- erable pressure is then produced, either by a heavy weight, such as a large stone, or better by a stout cord or rope wound around projecting cleats fastened to the boards. Such convenient portable hand-presses can also be purchased for $2 (see below). The dryers should be changed at first once a day to preserve the natural color. If the dryers are allowed to remain moist, the specimen it apt to turn brown. For mounhng specimens good stiff white paper should be used. It can be obtained from dealers at a small cost (see below). The specimen, when thoroughly dried and pressed, is placed on the mounting paper and fastened by means of glue, or better, narrow strips of white court-plaster. Some taste should be used in placing the specimen on the sheet and in making the sticking strips as inconspicuous as possible. A label bearing the owner's name, printed at the top, is placed in the right hand-lower corner, the edges coin- ciding with the edge of the sheet. On this is neatly written, in pen and ink, the date of collection, the local- ity, kind of soil, the scientific and common name. A convenient size for these labels is 3^ by i\ inches. Printers usually charge about 15 cts. per hundred for them. All specimens belonging to the same genus (or order) are then placed into covers of strong Manilla paper with the genus or order written in the right lower cor- ner. Finally, these are placed in portfolios manufac- tured expressly for that purpose. They can be had from dealers at prices ranging from 35 cts. to $1. Animals. For collecting animals, a small leather grip, contaiu- ing bottles of various sizes partly filled with alcohol, Material and Equipment 291 is convenient. A tin pail, with a cover having a hinge in the middle, so that one-half the cover can be opened, is also convenient. Tinsmiths make them to order at a small cost. Instead of alcohol a 5% aqueous solution of For- maldehyde (Formalin) may be used. This is very much cheaper than alcohol and preserves some deli- cate organisms Hke jellyfishes b^utifully. Alcohol, however, is better for general use. On Raising Insects lor Study. The life history of insects is exceedingly interesting. To actually observe this life history is worth considerable trouble, even if that were necessary to secure the specimen. Seeing the actual transformation of an insect is a revelation compared with merely reading an account of it. But insects are very easily reared. The simplest and, in many localities, the most convenient insect for study is the "potato-bug." Its eggs are found on the under side of the leaf of the potato, where they can be readily watched while hatching. It requires but little atten- tion to see this beetle actually lay its eggs. Dragon- flies often deposit their eggs when held in the hand, and moths kept in confinement lay their conspicuous eggs where they can readily be seen. In the case of the potato-beetle, it is an easy matter to watch the gradual transformation of the egg into the larva, and to observe this transforming itself into the adult beetle. But their history is not so interesting as that of the common fly, butterflies, and moths. Flies can be reared for study in the following way: (i) Soak some beans for a week or two; (2) place soaked decaying beans, or other decaying substance, in a dish covered with a bell jar (a common saucer covered with a tumbler will do for a moist chamber) ; in warm weather flies are attracted, by the odor, and if carefully watched they can be seen projecting a tube under the cover into the decaying substance. The 29? Education through Nature eggs can actually be seen through this tube as they pass down one by one and are placed regularly in tiers. These eggs then begin to hatch and after a time are converted into worm-like larvae, usually called maggots. Observe these through the glass. After some days of feeding, they begin to crawl around on the glass and finally come to rest, gradually changing their color from white to a dark brown — the pupa. Observe the actual transformation. After two weeks the real fly can be seen coming out through an opening of one end of the brown shell. Butterflies-. Collect some of the large larvae walking over leaves or stems or sometimes on the ground. Note the kind of plant they Hve on, and supply them for a few days with fresh food of the same kind. They may be kept in paper boxes if nothing better can be had; a very convenient cage can be made from an ordinary sieve into which is fitted, as a cover, an ordinary kitchen fly-screen. This allows circula- tion of the air, and gives an unobstructed view of the larva at work. The pupation usually takes place in a few days, for when the larva begins to wander about, it is a sign that it is looking for a suitable place to remain during the pupa stage. The final transforma- tion takes place the next spring in May and June after an apparent sleep of six or eight months. Moths can be secured as larvae; or the adult moth may be taken and kept for a few days, when it will lay its eggs. From these then the larvae can be reared. (See pupil's paper in Part I on the "Sage Galls and Their Inhabitants.") On Killing Insects. Insects and similar organisms should first be put into a cyanide bottle. This can be made without much difl&culty as follows: Put a few lumps of Potassium Cyanide (druggists keep it) into a wide-mouthed bottle; or, better, a small museum or preserving jar; cover the cyanide with cotton batting, Material and Equipment 293 and place over it all a piece of stiff paper cut to fit the inside of the bottle or jar; fasten the edges of this paper with glue after having punctured a few holes in it for the fumes to pass through. Keep the bottle or jar constantly closed, for the fumes are poisonous. An insect put into such a jar will be put to sleep in a few minutes, but often recovers if removed too soon. A collecting-net is very essential. It can be made very cheaply from cheese-cloth, a stifif wire, and a broom-handle. The cheese-cloth is made into a bag about 2 feet long. The free edge of this bag is wound around the stout, stiff wire bent into a circle about i^ feet in diameter, and sewed firmly to it. The ends of the bent wire are crossed and tied firmly to the handle (bamboo may be used), about 4 feet long. This may be done by winding fine wire around the crossed ends of the hoop after making a notch in the end of the handle to receive the crossed hoop wires. A pair 0} forceps and a stout knife are also essential. Equipment of all kinds, Uke those enumerated above, can be purchased from Bausch and Lomb, Rochester, New York, by sending directly to them. They also have branch houses in Chicago and San Francisco. Druggists can frequently supply alcohol, formalin, viols, etc. The following items, with the price of each, are taken from the Catalog (sixteenth edition) of the Pacific Micro-Materials Company, 432 Montgomery Street, San Francisco: 1. Drying Paper, extra heavy, 33X46 cm., per hundred, $1.00. 2. Genus Covers, 42.5X61.3 cm., extra quality, per hundred, $2.00. 3. Mounting Paper, 29.2X42 cm., purest and strongest stock per ream, $4.50. 294 Education through Nature 4. Portable Plant Press, elastic bands with six dryers, $2.00. 5. Vasculum (collecting-box) enameled, each, $1.50. 6. Hand-lenses of various makes can be had for from 20 cts. to $2.00. 7. Forceps, medium fine, straight points, file-cut edge, each, 40 cts. 8. Scalpels, with ebony handle, best steel, each, 35 cts. For $5 can be had the following complete set of in- struments of the best quality of steel in Morocco-leather two-fold case, with velvet lining and chamois-skin pro- tecting flaps: Catalog No. 1612. It contains: I Scalpel, No. 1458; all steel ,edge 45 mm. I " " 1462; " " " 32 " I " " 1464; " ". " 25 " I Scissors, " 1550; fine, straight. I " " 1560; heavy " 140 mm. long. I Forceps," 1394; for vertebrate work. I " " 1388; heavy, straight, 120 mm. long. I Cartilage Knife, No. 1492 ; all steel, edge 45 mm. I Tenaculum, No. 1596. I Seeker, No. 1590. I Triple Chain and Hooks, No. 1430. I Blow-pipe, No. 1370. XI. Reference Books for the Teacher's Library. 1. Wood's New Illustrated Natural History. George Routledge & Sons, New York. 2. Animal Life, by Jordan and Kellogg. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 3. Introduction to Zoology, by Davenport. The Macmillan Com- pany, New York. 4. Plants, by John M. Coulter. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 5. The Foundations of Botany, by Bergen. Ginn & Co., Boston. 6. The Structure and Habits of Spiders, by J. H. Emerton. B. Whidden, Boston. 7. Manual of the Vertebrates, by David Starr Jordan. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago. S. Flowers and Ferns in their Haunts, by M. O. Wright. The Macmillan Company, New York. Material and Equipment 295 9. Nature Study and Life, by C. F. Hodge. Ginn & Co., Bos- ton. 10. Outlinesof Botany, by R.G.Leavitt. American Book Company, Chicago. 11. Johnson's Natural History, by S. G. Goodrich. A. J. Johnson, New York. 12. The Royal Natural History, edited by Richard Lydekker. Fred- erick Wame & Co., New York. 5 vols. 13. Gray & Coulter's Text-book of Botany. American Book Com- pany, Chicago. 14. The Butterfly Book, by W. J. Holland. Doubleday & McCIure Co., New York. 15. Bird Neighbors, by Neltje Blanchau. Doubleday & McClure Co. 16. Comparative Zoology, by James Orton. Arperican Book Com- pany, Chicago. 17. Animals and Plants under Domestication, by Charles Darwin. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 18. Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 19. Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews, by T. H. Huxley. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 20. Apes and Monkeys, by R. L. Garner. Ginn & Co., Boston. 21. Nature Study in Elementary Schools, by Mrs. L. L. Wilson. The Macmillan Company, New York. 22. Nature Study, by Jackman. Henry Holt & Co. 23. One Hundred Lessons in Nature, by Frank O. Payne. E. L. Kellogg Co. 24. Handbook of Nature Study, by D. Lange. The Macmillan Company, New York. 25. How to Know the Wild Flowers, by Mrs. William Starr Dana. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 26. Lives of the Hunted, by Ernest Seton-Thompson. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 27. Wild Animals I Have Known, by Ernest Seton-Thompson. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 28. The Beauties o'f Nature, by Sir John Lubbock. The Macmillan Company, New York. ,„, ,, 29. The Friendship of Nature, by Mabel Osgood Wnght. The Mac- millan Company, New York. ^,. ,, 30. Short Studies in Nature Knowledge, by William Gee. The Mac- millan Company, New York. 31. Wake-Robin, by John Burroughs. Houghton, Mifflm & Co., Boston and New York. 32. Fresh Fields, by John Burroughs. Houghton, MifSm & Co., Boston and New York. 33. Birds and Poets, by John Burroughs. Houghton, Mifflm & Co., Boston and New York. „ . , „ ^ 34. Insect Life, by J. H. Comstock. D. Appleton & Co., 1901, New York. 296 Education through Nature 35. How to Know the Ferns, by Frances Theodora Parsons. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 36. A Text-Book of Entomology, by A. S. Packard. The Macmillan Company, New York 37. Jelly-fish, Star fish and Sea-urchins, by G. J. Romanes. D. Appleton & Co , New York. 38. Trees of Northern United States, by Austin C. Apgar. Ameri- can Book Company, Chicago. 39. Animal Biology, by C. Lloyd Morgan. Rivingtons, London. 40. Mosses of North America, by Lesquereux and James, Bradlee Whidden, Boston 41. The Naturalist's Assistant, by J. S. Kingsley. Bradlee Whidden, Boston. 42. Microbes, Ferments, Moulds, by E. L. Trouessart. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 43. Vegetable Mould and Earth-Worms, by Charles Darwin. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 44. Methods of Study in Natural History, by L. Agassiz. Houghton, Miflain & Co., Boston and New York. 45. Naturalist's Voyage, Round the World, by Charles Darwin. D. Appleton & Co.. New York. 46. Flashlights on Nature, by Grant Allen. Doubleday & McClure Co., New York. 47. In Bird Land, by Leander S. Keyser. McClurg & Co., Chicago. 48. Young Folk's Illustrated Book of Birds, by T. Bilby. Hurst & Co., New York. 49. Fungi, their Nature and Uses, by M. C. Cooke. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 50. Insectivorous Plants, by Charles Darwin. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 51. Animal Life, by Karl Semper. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 52. The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals, by Angelo Heilprin. D. Appleton & Co. 53. Industries of Animals, by Frederic Houssay. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 54. The Study of Animal Life, by J. Arthur Thomson. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 55. Bird-Life, by Frank M. Chapman. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 56. A Child's Garden Verses, by Robert Louis Stevenson. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 57. The Story of the Birds, by J. N. Baskett. D. Appleton & Co, New York. 58. Curious Homes and their Tenants, by James Carter Beard. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 59. A First Book upon the Birds of Oregon and Washington, by W. R. Iiord. The Irwin-Hodson Company, Portland Ore. Material and Equipment 297 CHILD LITERATURE. 60. The Poetical Works of Lucy Larcom. Houghton, M ifflin & Co, Boston and New York. 61. The Poetical Works of Alice and Phoebe Gary. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston and New York. 62. Botanical Reader. Jane Newell. 63. Plants and their Children. Mrs. Dana, 64. Story of the Trees. Mrs. Dyer. 65. First Lessons on Minerals. Mrs. Richards. 66. Familiar Trees and their Leaves. Schuyler Matthews. 67. Fairy Land of Science. Arabella Buckley. 68. Songs for Little Children. Eleanor Smith. 69. Thirty-six Observation Lessons on Common Minerals. Clapp. 70. Nature in Verse. L.ovejoy. 71. Parables from Nature. Mrs. Gatty. 72. Poems by Helen Hunt Jackson. 73. The Poetical Works of William CuUen Bryant. 74. The Poetical Works of John Greenleaf Whittier. 75. In the Child's World. Emile Poulsson. 76. When Life is Young. Mrs. Dodge. 77. Stories Mother Nature Told. Jane Andrews. 78. Poetical Works of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 79. Wordsworth's Poems.