THE GIFT OP Erofessor of the Romance Languages and Literatures. Cornell University Library arV14942 The philology of the French language. 3 1924 031 684 438 olln,anx Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031684438 THE PHILOLOGY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. BY A. L. MEISSNER, Ph.D., PROFESSOR OF MODERN LANGUAGES IN THE QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, IN IRELANj:). BEING A NEW AND CORRECTED EDITION OF THE " PALMSTRA GALLICA." LIBRAIRIE HACHETTE & Cie, LONDON: i8, KING WILLIAM STREET, STRAND, W. C PARIS: 79, BOULEVARD ST. GERMAU^. 1874. (\SZG7.']S " Ne quis igitur tamquam parra fastidiat giammaticeB elementa: non quia magnae sit operae, consonantes a Tocalibus discemere, ipsasque eas in semivocalium numerum mutarumque paitiii; sed quia interio'ra yelut sacri hujus adeuntibus, apparebit multa rerum subtilitaB, quae Don modo acuere ingenia pueiilia, sed exercere altissimam quoque eruditionem ac suientiam possit, " Quinct. Inat. Orat. i. 4. ' LONDON ; PRINTED UY HANKBN AND CO., DRURY HOUSE, ST. MARY-T.K-STRAND, W.C. PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. The copyright of this book having passed into other hands, and a fresh issue being determined on, I have gladly seized the opportunity of correcting some typographical errors and inadvertencies. The many favourable notices, both in the English and Continental press, as well as the frequent refe- rences made to the book in educational works edited by distinguished teachers, show sufficiently that the book filled up a void, and that its publication has promoted a more scientific and serious study of the French language. Students who have mastered its contents will be sufilciently prepared to enter on the study of the " Chanson de Eoland," or, .what I should prefer, M. Gaston Paris' edition of the " Vie de Saint Alexis." In the introductions to the various versions of this poem, M. Paris has given a complete history of medial French. As most students read, and most teachers prepare their pupils, for some examination, I have appended a series of examination-questions, which, I trust, will be found useful by both teacher and learner. Easter, 1874. EEEATA. Page 7 line 17 from the top, erase : eclnse, sluice, Bohleuse, which are derived from the L.L, exclusa. Page 20 line 11 from the bottom, read : kephale, caput, for daktyloa, digitus. Page 27 line 19 from the bottom, read ; hambre for hombre. Page 32 line 16 from the bottom, read : plaudo for plauda. Page 34 line 4 from the top, read : p6cher, to sin, for peoher. Page 44 line 12 from the bottom, erase : the before oraculum. Page 62 line 12 from the bottom, read : pficheur for pgcheur. Page 62 line 10 from the bottom, erase : dSahonneur. Page .78 line 7 from the top, put in : aut before (Q-. w — alt). Page 89 line 11 from the bottom, read : (pi.) instead of (sing.) Page 113 line 19 from the top, aiteijuxta, add : de (do), a (ad). Page 114 line 7 from the top, read : puisque for piusque. Page 115 line 16 from the top, read : momifier for moinifier. Page 116 line 9 from the bottom, read : constitutionnel for consti- tutional. CONTENTS. PAGE Pkeface V Of the Elements of the Fbench Langxtage .... 1 The Ebmance Languages 1 Low-Latin 3 German Element 6 General Characteristics of Bomance Languages . . 9 Words of Old and Modem Formation .... 9 Of THE Langue d'Oii. 11 Dialects of the Langue d'Oil 12 PHONOLOGY .... 15 Pbemutation of Consonants 17 Liquids ......... 17 Dentals 19 Gutturals 22 Labials 26 Of Vowels 28 Double Fobms and Homonyms 33 MORPHOLOGY ... 35 Or THE Aeticles 35 Op the Substantives 36 Declension ......... 36 Gender and Deriratiou 38 Gender determined by Suffixes ..... 39 Change of Gender 40 French Gender of Latin Neuters 41 Double Forms and French Communia . . . . 42 Derivation of Substantives from Verbs .... 44 The Crude Form of the Verb used as a Substantive . 46 VIU CONTENTS. Sufifixes of Substantives derived from Verts Suffixes of Substantives derived from other Substantives Suffixes of Substantives derived from Adjectives Suffixes of Diminutives and Augmentatives . Or THE Adjective Declension and Gender .... Derivation of Adjectives from Verbs Derivation of Adjectives from Substantives . Derivation of Adjectives from Adjectives Op the Nxtmeeals Of the Peonouns . ' . Personal Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Relative and Interrogative Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns Or the Verb . . . . Vowel Conjugation Consonant Conjugation Auxiliary Verbs . Derivation of Verbs Of the Advebb Of the Pbeposition Of the Conjunction Of Compound Words PAGB 49 56 64 67 72 73 78 79 81 81 82 83 84 86 87 87 88 91 100 104 107 111 113 113 114 APPENDIX Specimens of Old Fkench 117 PALJISTEA GALLICA. OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE FEENCH LANGUAGE. § 1. Latin, as an inflected language, may be said to have become unintelligible towards the end of die seventh and the beginning of the eighth century. But although dead as an in- flected language, it continued to develope itself wherever the Boman power had penetrated. This further development of Latin was not a mere decomposition and corruption of the classical language, but an organic process, which proceeded according to distinct and fixed laws of language. These changes were intimately connected with, and varied according to the literary, social, and political history of the countries which had been subject to the Roman rule,, and in which the Eoman language was spoken. A fixed and unchangeable lan- guage can be conceived only in a fixed and immovable state of society. Li a progressive society language must be likewise progressive. § 2. The languages which finally developed themselves from Latin into independent idioms, are: — the Italian, Spanish, Por- tuguese, the langue d' Oc and langue d' Oil, and Modern French. The Wallachian, another Eomance language, though important for philological purposes, never rose to the dignity of a literary language. France produced two distinct languages, the langue d'Oe in the south, and the langue d'Oil in the north. It is the latter which became the parent of our present French language. § 3. Although nothing seems more plain and simple than the statement that the Eomance languages are a continuation and development of Latin, nevertheless the fact has been but slowly proved, and at times violently contested. At the revival ^ B 2 PAL^STEA GALLICA. of Greek literature, the origin of the Komance languages was sought in Greek. In 1554, J. P^rion published a work, en- titled, loachimi Perionii dialogorum de lingum Gallicm origine ejusque cum Grceca cognatione, libri quatuor. He was followed, with great skill and erudition, by Henri Etienne, one of the first scholars of his age, in his Traicte de la conformite du Ian- gage franqois avec le grec. To the utmost absurdity went Guichard and Thomassin, the former in his Harmonie etymo- logique des langues, the latter in his Glossarium universale hebraicum, in which not only French, but all modern languages are derived from Hebrew. Duclos and La Ravaliere maintained that French is a mixture of Latin and Celtic. Their derivations remind one strongly of Dean Swift's witty tract, 'On the Aniiquity of the English Language.' It is only in the present century that the theory of a steady progress and development of language according to settled laws, has been finally established by the labours of Bopp, Grimm, Diez, Pott, and DiefFenbach, in Germany, and Ampfere, Che- vallet, Littr6, Burguy, and Eaynouard, in France. ^ 4. The great mistake made by the early philologists was to derive the Modern Romance languages direct from classical Latin, without allowing any intermediate stages of development, This false position produced manifold errors. To remedy these, Kaynouard, the father of Romance philology, assumed the exis- tence of an intermediate language, which he called la langue romane, and which he supposed to have been the parent of the various Romance languages. This mistake, ably refuted by Sir George Gornewall Lewis in his essay ' On the Origin of the Romance Languages,' was quite excusable in the time of Eay- nouard. Nearly all the documents on which we base our pre- sent researches were then unpublished, and those published had been mutilated and modernised in their grammatical forms. Copyists and editors proceeded on the notion that these early writers used a language of which neither the grammar nor orthography were settled. Every peculiarity and deviation from the modern idiom were ascribed to the ignorance of the authors, texts were corrected by each editor according to the grammar and spelling of his epoch, and only here and there an antiquated expression was left, like an indelible film on a newly - polished surface. Many of the most important documents, espe- cially in langue d^O'il,-vfB shall probably never see in their original form. Now we know that these peculiarities of spelling and gram- mar were not accidental, but the result of organic changes. The importance of the old spelling for etymological purposes may be LOW-LATIN. 3 seen by one example. The derivation of debonnaire seems at first puzzling ; but when we find the word spelled in Proven9al de bon aire, its origin becomes at once plain.* In order to ascertain correctly the various intermediate changes of the language, recourse has been had to old charters, contracts and private documents, which it was nobody's in- terest to transcribe from age to age, or to modernise for the better understanding of a later generation. These intermediate changes are to be found in the media et irifima Latinitas, in which we observe not only a great change in the conjugations of verbs, declensions and genders of nouns, the use of prepositions, etc., but also a remarkable change in the vocabulaiy. Archaic words, which occur only in inscrip- tions and the oldest Ecman authors, or are mentioned by classical writers as vocabula rustica, sordida, vulgaria, are found in the ordinary spoken and written language. On the other hand, a great many classical words of daily occurrence disap- * As a specimen of the manner in whicli even more recent writers are treated by editors, compare the following passage from Froissart. The mutilated text of Buohon is utterly worthless for philological purposes, whilst Lettenhove's edition of the Vatican MS. presents ns with a text in the Picardian dialect, and is evidently more trustworthy. BncHON. Vatican MS. Lors se partit dea crenaux messire Lors reparti meesires Jehans de Yiane Jean de Vienne et viut au Marchet efc des barrierea et vint sus le marchie et fit soDner la clocliepour assembler toutes fist sonner la cloce pour assembler tontes manias de gens en la halle. Au son de manieres de gens. Au son de la cloce la cloche vinreut hommes et f emmes, car vlnrent ils tons liommes et f emmes car -moult desiroient a ouirnouvelles, ainsi moult desiroient a oir noureres, ensi que gens astreints de famine que plus que gens si astrains de famine que pins n'en pouvoient porter. Quand ils furent ne povoint. Quand ils furent tout venu tons venus et assembles en la halle, et assemble en la place, messire Jehan liommes et femmes, messire Jean de de Yiane lor remonstra moult doucement Tieune leur demontra moult doucement les paroles toutes et telles que chydevant les paroles toutes telles que cidevant sent dittes et reciters et leur dist bien sont recitdes et lenr dit bien que autre- que anltrement ne pooit estre eteuissent ment ne pouvoit estre et eussent sur ce sur ce avis et brief consel, car il en avis et br^ve reponse. Quand ils ouireut convenoit faire reponse. Quand il oirent ce rapport ils commencerent tons ce raport ils commenchierent tout a crier a crier et a pleurer tellement et si etaplorersitendrementetsiamerement amerement qu'il n'est si dure cceur au que il ne fust si durs coers an monde, se monde s'il les eut vus on ouis eux demener il les veist et oist euls demener, qui n'en qui n*en eut eu piti6. oust piti6, et n'orent pour I'heure nul Et n'eurent pour I'heure pouvoir de pooir de respondre ne de parler et reponse ni de parler et mSmement messire mesmement Jehan de Viane en aroit telle Jean de Vienne en avoit telle piti6 qu'il piti^ que il en lacrimoit moult tendre- lacrymoit moult tendrement. ment. Even the ordinary texts of Eacine and Comeille cannot be trusted for philological purposes. If we shojild look for a correct text anywhere, it would be certaiinly in editions for academical studies. But even such men as GAruzez and Jullien have modernized the texts of Corneille in their editions for the. aspirants aw baccdlaweat. B 2 4 PALiESTKA GAIXICA. pear from the modem language, and are replaced by new derivatives or importations from the German. § 5. The following list comprises both archaic and Low- Latin words, with their corresponding French derivatives. The archaic Latin turns up so frequently as mediaeval Latin, that it is difficult to give two separate lists, without introducing, in some cases, the same word into both. The first column contains the classical equivalents of the Low- Latin words, which former have no etymological connection with the words in either the second or third column :^ Classical Latin. i iichaio, or Low Latin. French Derivative. anser auca oie adire aditEire aller Eeternus setemalis ^temel baculum' bastones baton discere apprendere apprendre edere manducare manger emere acceptare acheter OS bucca bouche equus caballus cheval avis aviceUa oiseau ensis spatha kfke exercitus armata armee humerus spatula ^paule iter viaticum voyage lapis petra pierre Indus JOCUS jeu magnus grandis grand mittere inriare envoyer pulcher, fonnosus bellus beau pulsare batuere battre prcelium batualia bataiUe verbum parabola parole Tertere tomare touxner , felis eatus chat caverna cava cave dejicere dejectare d^jeter directio directura droiture sermo, colloquium discursus discours duplicare duplare doubler palustris famicosus fangeux tabula plana planea planche prope accedere propiare, appropiare approcher caput testa tete portus baia bale ramus branca branche caminus caminata (room with fire-place) a eheminee via caminus chemin gladiator campio champion LOW-LATIN. Classical Latin. Archaic, or Low Latin. French Derivativ centurio, dux capitanus capitaine quercus casnus chfene res causa chose circumTenire circare chercher coUis collina colline conoobrinus cosinus cousin consuetude costiima coutume ignis focus feu fons fontana fontaiua thng inceneum encens praegnans incineta (quod est cinctu) sine enceinte puer, puella infans enfant iter facere iterare errer mutuo dare prsestare prater pretium ponere pretiare priser grex, turba troppus troupe, trop coccineus vermiculus vermeil § 6. The process of derivation is not symmetrical ; that is, we must not seek a corresponding Latin noun for a French noun, a Latin verb to' explain a French verb, and so on. But fre- quently the Latin etymon must be sought in a different category. Sometimes, indeed, the Latin furnishes us with the correspond- ing etyma for the roots and derivatives of French words. For instance : — sensus, sens arma, armes cireulus, cerde bonus, bon plangere, plaindre sensibilis, sensible armarp, armer circulare, circuhr bonitas, bonti planctus, plainte But sometimes we find the Latin root reproduced iu French without the corresponding derivatives: ccena, cene; fabula, fable; vorax, vorace; but the French verbs for C(B»ar«,/a6MZan, vorare, are wanting. On the other hand, we find in French a corresponding deri- vative, whilst the Latin root has no representative in French. We have oiseux from otiosus, irascible from irascibilis, belli- queux irom bellicosus, vulgaire from vulgaris, spectacle from spectaculum, rustre from rusticus ; but otium, irasci, bellum, vulgus, spectare, rus, are lost in the modem language. Frequently we find French words which can be explained only by forming a Latin derivative according to analogy. Thus, sommeil is explained by somnicolus, soleil by soliculus, taureau by taurellus, vaisseau by vasillum. But of this expedient we must be very chary. In every case we ought to endeavour to find the intermediate links 6 PALESTRA 6ALLICA. whioh connect the modern word with the classical, and to prove its existence ; otherwise we shall fall into the common error of the old etymologists of inventing words which never had any existence. Witness this example from Manage. Au- faine {destrier aufaine) he derives rightly from the Spanish alfana, a horse. But to connect it with the Latin, he invents the following intermediate changes: equus, equa, eka, aha, haJca, faka, facana, fana, and then, with the Arabic article, alfana. Now the word is not to be looked for in Latin at all, but comes direct from the Arabic. § 7. The invasion of the Roman empire by Germanic tribes in the fifth century introduced into the Eomance languages a large number of German words, many of which are lost in modern German. As the conquering nation, they impressed their stamp especially on the vocabulary of warfare. French was further enriched with Germanic elements by the Norman invasion in the tenth century. Although the Normans soon forgot their own language, and assumed that of the conquered race, they nevertheless deposited in the language sufficient proofs of their Germanic origin, especially in words having reference to naval affairs. The following is a list of words of German origin, some of which have been introduced at a comparatively recent date. Those which have been taken from the Old German, show their antiquity by their having undergone the phonetic changes ac- cording to Grimm's law. For convenience' sake, and to assist the beginner, we give the corresponding Modern German or English word, wherever possible. guerre, werra (O.H.Gr.) nord, nord massacrer, matsken (mdtzger) sud, sud flamberge, flamberg ilan, elenthier guivre, viper icrou, schraube lansquenet, landsknecht icrevisse, Jcrebs heraut, herold gazon, {viaso, O.H.Gr.) rasen chaloupe, sloop vague, wage in4t, mast garou, werwolf est, ost danger,* tamen ouest, west hair, hassen toulevard, bolvierk rotir, rosten briche, brehha (O.H.G.) cloche, glocke hampe, handhabe icharpe, schdrpe havresac, habersacjc ^peler, to spell (Engl.) marichal,* marschal dtoffe, staff faide, fehde galoper, gcHaufan, laufen cS.pre, kaper gufepe, wespe * These 0. H. G. words seem to have been received back into Modern German after their passage through French. GERMAN ELEMENT. haie, hag hareng, hering jardiii, garten mannequin, mdnnchen ouate, watte proue, prow (Engl.) rimer, rdmen groseille, krausbeere bosquet, busch guise, weise brun, braun blinder, blmden glisser, glitsohen gratter, kratzen Stamper, stamppa coussin, kissen icluse, scUeuse (Engl, sluice) faucon, folk fauteiiil, falf-stuhi* glapir, Maffen guichet, wicket (Engl.) hallebarde, hdlebarde harnais, harnisch ma<^n, {stein-) metz meurtre, murder (Engl.) bMeau, battel, pedell renard, rdrihari sabre, sabel rang, , ranger, \ rang arranger, ' tarir, darren, dorren trinquer, trinken tomber, to tumble (Engl.) wagon, wagen § 8. Sometimes the same idea has both a Latin and a Ger- man representative : — German. Latin. German. Latin. blano candide gripper voler bouqnin livre baine aversion bourgeois citoyen hameau village briser casser hardiesse andaoe choisir 61ire haveron avoine Acrevisse cancer base liivre est orient honnir d&honorer franc livre liste catalogue le franc la livre marquer designer franchise sinc&it^ nord septentrion Sr battre ouest Occident joie sud midi The state of feeling which existed between the German in- vader and the Celtic aborigines is illustrated by the change of meaning undergone by some German words; as, un pauvre here, faire la lippe, lande maigre, faire la moue, une vieille rosse, un vieux bouquin. § 9. Greek has furnished the French and other Eomance tongues with a large number of technical terms, imported by the learned. The Greek settlements in the south of France exerted no perceptible influence on the structure or vocabulary of the language. A greater number of Greek words must have been introduced into French, after passing through Latin, * ' Un faudestuel d'or fin aporta uns serjant.' — Gaufrey, p. 260, ed. Guessard. 8 PALESTKA KALLICA. by the earlier charchmen, notably so parole (parabola), and parler (parabolare). The following few are generally derived from the Greek : — aise, vSaios caravelle, K&paBos Mton, fiaaT&Qav moustache, /ido-ToJ bocal, ^avK&Kiov osier, o7aos gobelin, kSPoXos parole, irapaPoK^ moquer, ftax^v plat, irAaris page (le), vaiSiov saper, ffKairretv boutique, iaroBijKa serin, aapfiv bourse, fivpffa ^touffer, tv^s migraine, rifiutpavia But the affinity of the Greek and French languages does not end here. A large number of the etymologies of Etienne are words common to all Indo-European languages. Only it is wrong to say that such or such a French or Latin word is derived ftom such or such a Greek word. To this class belong the well-known words expressing relationship, the undeniable identity of which first attracted the attention of linguists, and served as a beacon in further researches. liaTrip, Skt. pilar, lisA. pater, Goth, fadar ; from the Skt. root pd, to feed, to pro- tect. MijTtjp, Skt. matar, Lat. mater, Old Germ, muotar. ^parrip and ania (but also Champagne). G before e, i, y, w, oe, changes into a lingual and has a sound approaching s. In Latin every c appears to have had originally the sound of k. Many documents of the sixth and seventh centuries have been preserved in and near Ravenna, in which c before e and i is invariably transliterated by Greek k : i; doute, dubito ; souvent, suhinde ; soudain, subitaneus. U in position imdergoesthe same changes as short u ; before nasals it changes into o, and otherwise into ou : ongle, ungula; plomb, plumbum ; dont, de unde ; flot-, Jluctus ; mot, M. L. muttum ; noces, nuptiae ; vergogne, verecundia. Double, c?«- ^Zea; ; ours, ursus ; sourd, surdus ; sous, subtus ; tour, turris ; doux, dulcis ; foudre, fulgur ; souite, sulphur ; goutte, ^aWa ; jour, dzMrnttm ; souvenir, swivemVe; cours, curro. German eu is in butin, beute ; and u in cruche, kruog, krug. M, (E. ^=^ie: del, Steele, ZiV (laetus). ^ := e : grec. ^, CE^oi: foin (foenum), pTOe(prseda). CE^e : c^nacle, p^nal, cenotapLe. Au. Latin had the same tendency, observable in French, of shortening diphthongs into monophthongs. This shows itself in such forms as Claudius, Clodius ; eauda, coda ; plauda, plodo ; lautus, lotus. The modem languages here continue the process : clore, claudere ; chose, causa ; tresor, thesaurus ; and diphthongally with j : joie, gaudium ; cloltre, claustt'um ; oie, auca. The etymological spelling of au is often retained, though the sound is diat of o : pauvre, restaurer, cause, fraude. Au=ou : alouette, alauda ; ou, aut ; louer, laudare. Paucus makes O. F. pau, po, and then peu ; cauda, coda, queue. Of Unaccented Vowels. § 32. Vowels in unaccented syllable seem to have a mere numerical value, and their changes are subject to many acci- dents. In an unaccented first syllable a is frequently put instead of e and i : farouche, ferox ; march^, mercatus ; paresse, pigritia ; jaloux, zelosus \ chacun, quisgue unus. HOMONYMS. 33 Latin vowels which become silent or are subject to excision, are almost always represented by e mute : aime, amo j &me, anima:, Virgile, Vergilius; Horace, Horatius. Double Fpems and Homontms. § 33. As one or the other of these phonetic laws came into operation, the modern word assumed a different form. Not to speak of words of modern origin, which are derived direct from Latin, without undergoing any physiological change, we find, that from one and the same Latin word two different modern forms are derived by phonetic laws. Generally speak- ing, some different meaning attaches to each of these forms. Thus we have : — credentia hospitals potion-em dotare L. L. souiare, signum natalis portions major senior crianoe, debt h6t6l, town-house, inn poison, poison doner, to give soin, besoin, want, care seing, signature natal, natal porche, porch majeur, of age sire, sieur croyance, belief hopital, hospital potion, draught doter, to endow tiesogne business signs, sign Noel, Christmas portique, portico maiie, mayor seigneur § 34. On the other hand, by the gradual impoverishment of the vocalism of the language, we find words from different etyma, having different meanings, but the same form : — loeare loiier, to hire, let laudare falsus focus louer, to praise faux, scythe tans, false feu, fire fuit feu, late, deceased* noTus neut, new novem neuf, nine palatium palatum palais, palace palais, palate pagina iroiSioi' tendero page, page in, a book page, a boy tendre, to span tenerum tendre, teMer cingulum singultus sanglot, girth sanglot, sob causari causer, to cause G. kosen causer, to talk sonus son, sound suum son, his * This etymology explains why /ea is never used in the plural, c 3 34 PALiESTRA GALLICA. career chartre, f. prison charta (ula) chartre, f. charter piscari pecher, to fish peceare pfecher, to sin persica (arius) pecher, peach-tree consuere coudie, to sow corylus coudre, coudrier, hazel maritua mariage, marriage mare 0. F. mariage, service at sea coquus queux, m. eooJe cos queirz, m. hone carpinus eharme, m. witch-elm carmen eharme, m. charm perea perche, f. perch [fish) pertica perche, f. perch (measure) § 35. The etymology of these homonyms is of especial value in the case of nouns of different meanings and genders. They wiU he spoken of in the chapter on Nouns. Here only a few as specimens : — sonmua le somme, nap gumma la Bomme, sum liber le livre, book libra la livre, pound This poverty of sounds has been the cause of the great facility of punning in French, giving thus an additional proof of the truth of Bacon's words : ' Men believe that their reason is lord over their words ; but it happens, too, that words exercise a reciprocal and reactionary power over their intellect. Words, as a Tartar's bow, shoot back upon the understanding of the wisest, and mightily entangle and pervert the judgment.' ARTICLES. 35 MORPHOLOGY. ARTICLES. § 36. By a process common to all modern European lan- guages, the demonstrative pronoun loses its purely demonstra- tive force, and is used for particularizing any common noim. In the Romance languages, tiie pronoun chosen for this purpose is the demonstrative ille, ilia. Traces of the original force of this pronoun have been preserved in such phrases as : Pour le coup, de la sorte, a Vinstant meme. In the old language the article presents a great variety of forms, which at present have been reduced to le for the masculine and la for the feminine. The most usual Old French forms are :-r- Masc. Fern. M, and F. Hoard, ^mg. Nom. li, 1' U, la, lai, r li,le Gen. del, den, don, du, do de la, de lai. del' de le, del Bat. al, au, en, ou k la, a lai, ai . lai, a 1' a le, al, el Aco. lo, lou, lu, le, r la, lai, !• le Plw. Nom. li les,U li Gen. dels, des dels, des des Sat. als, as, aus als, as as Ace. les les les In Old French the article undergoes frequent contractions with prepositions and pronouns : Tiel (ne le), nes (ne les), jel (je les), mes (me les), es (en les), the latter of which is pre- served in hachelier es leitres, es mains. The modem language preserves only the contractions with de and a. § 37. The numeral unus, una, is used as indefinite article. Traces of this use are frequent in the conversational language of the Romans : Unum vidi mortuum efferri (Plaut. Most. iv. 3, 9). Forte unam adspicio adolescentulam (Terent. And. i. I, 90). Constitit ante oculos Naias una meos (Ovid. Her. XV. 162). Like the definite article, the indefinite has more closely pre- served the Latin form in Old French : — Uasc. Fem. Nom. uns line Cos. Obliq. un une 36 PALJESTKA 6ALLICA. Even a plural of this article is frequent in Old FrencK : unes grandes Joes (jouea) ; unes narines ; reminding of the Latin una castra, unce literce. SUBSTANTIVES. For convenience' sake we shall consider the derivation and gender of nonns together, and treat separately of declension. § 38. Declension. — The great variety of six cases for each number of the five Latin declensions appears even in the classical language somewhat reduced and simplified. For the dative and ablative are always identical in the plural, and frequently so in the singular ; the nominative singular and accusative and vocative are frequently alike in form. The process of reducing the numerous cases and declensions shows itself in such nouns as senatus, domus, plebs, which seem to indicate a gradual merging of the fourth into the second, and of the fifth into the third declension.* The vulgar and mediaeval Latin carry the process of simplification still farther, until in Modern French only two distinct forms remain, one for the singular, and a second for the plural, formed by the suffix s or x. § 39. The old French declension has preserved a much closer resemblance to the Latin declension. The feminines in e mute alone form all cases of the plural by adding s : — corone, corona voie, ma corone, coronam Toie, viam eorones, coronee Toies, mcB eorones, coronas voies, vias All feminines not ending in e mute, and all masculines pre- serve a distinct form for the casus rectus {cas sujet) and for the casus obliqui {cas regime). The casus rectus of the sing, and the casus obi. of the plur. are formed by the suffix s : — MafC. Sing. Norn. mura rois chiens flours volontes Cas. Obi. mur roi chien flour volonte Plur. Nom. miir roi chien flours Tolentes Cas. Obi. murs rois chiens flours volentes A number of nouns from tor, toris, and o, onis, have a still greater resemblance to the Latin inflection by shifting their accent : — * The old ablatives diu (die) and noctu (nocte) indicate the same process. DECLENSIONS. 37 Sing. Nom. empereres, imperdtor bers, baro Cas. Obi. empere6r, imperatorem baron, baronem Flur. Nom. empereor, imperatoree baron, barones Cas. Obi. empereors, imperatorm barons, barones Thus are declined : chanteres, cantor, cas. obi. chanteor, cantorem ; sendre or szVe, senior, cas. obi. seignor, seniorem ; salverres, salvator, cas. obi. salvedr ; traitres, traitor. The Germanic fels, fellon, Charles, Charlon, and gars, garqon, of uncertain origin, and Greek Estevenes (Stephanus), Estevenon ; Pierres, Pierron, foUow this declension, the obKque cases of which became in course of time the ordinary nominatives: garqon, felon, empereur, baron, seigneur. Some remnants are likewise found of the accusative singular in am of the first declension : nom. sing, ante (amita), ace. aniain ; nonne (nonna), nonnain. § 40. The origin of the suffix s for the nominative singular is explained by a mere reference to the nominative terminations pf the Latin declensions. The suffix s appears in the nominative singular of all declensions {^neas, dominus, avis, pectus, flos, fructus, dies). In Low Latin, nouns not ending in s gradually drop their peculiar suffix, and assume the one peculiar to the nominative. The origin of the s of the casus obliquus of the plural is still more apparent, for all Latin accusatives plural, with the exception of the neuters, end in s. The neuter being merged in the masculine, the only termination remaining was s. The distinction between the casus rectus and casus obliquus was observed in French till the eleventh century. After that the suffix s (sometimes written z) was used for forming a dif- ferent form for the plural. The use of x as an inflectional letter was originally confined to words ending in I, and was appended after rejection of the I (vocalized in u) : fix=fils, m,ax=maux, castiax=ehdteaux. § 41. The Indo-Germanic suffix s for the nominative singular is without doubt a remnant of the pronominal root sa (Skt. and Goth, sd (m.), sa (f.) ; Greek o, if). In the nominative plural another inflectional s is added, which most likely has its origin in the same sa, so that the full original termination was sasa. Thus Skt. vdkh-s, pi. vah-as (for valc-sas) ; Greek oir-c (o>^), pi. oTTEc ; Lat. voc-s (vox), pi. voc-es. § 42. The genitive and dative are formed by placing the pre- positions de and d (Lat. de and ad ) before the casus obliquus. Even in classical Latin these prepositions were occasionally used with the noun in the ablative instead of the simple genitive or dative of the noun : Si quis de nostris hominibus 38 PALESTRA. GAIXICA. a genere isto ahhorrens fuit (Cic. Flacc. 41). Themistocles noctu de servis mis quim habuit fidelissirmim ad regem misit (Nepos, Them. iv. 3). De tuts innumerabilibus in me offldis erit hoc gratissumum (Cic. ad Fam. xvi. 1, 2). Haheatur sane orator, sed de minoribus (Cic. Opt. Gen. Or. iv. 9). Offerre se ad mortem (Cic. Tusc. i. 15). Scribas ad me quidquid veniet tibi in mentem (Cic. ad Att. xi. 25). In Low Latin de and ad are used indiscriminately with any case. A remin- iscence of the Latin case-endings is prahaps to be found in the frequent omission of the case-particles in Old French : Lefils Vempereor de Constantinople qui frere sa fame est (Ville-Har- douin). Cist Josias Jist go que Deu plout (2 Liv. des Eois). Ne le dirai fame ne home (Eustache d' Amiens). Et la jRoine Vesgarda, le Roi le mostra son Segnor (Marie de France). In Modem French this omission oide and a has been preserved in hotel-BieUjJete-Bieu, Faubourg Saint-Antoine; and in many names of places, as Chateau- Thierry, Bar-le-Duc, Flessis-les- Tours ; also in de par le roi (de parte regis). § 43. Derivation and Gender. — French nouns are derived either direct from Latin nouns, or from infinitives, participles, adjectives, and prepositions, sometimes without, but more generally with, the aid of a suffix. § 44. French noims derived from Latin nouns must be deduced from the Latin accusative as the case which invariably (with the exception of some neuters) shows the crude form. Although a few isolated forms {corps, corpus ; temps, tempus ; on, hom-o) seem to have preserved a Latin nominative, never- theless the bulk of French nouns point to one of the oblique cases. Comte cannot be derived from comes, nation from natio, or nuit from nox ; but they might as well be derived from a genitive, dative, or ablative. But it is most unlikely that the form which was to serve for ^ cases should be derived from a case of comparatively rare use, instead of the one most frequent in use. Our feeling for language rejects the genitive, dative, and ablative, and such decided accusative forms as homme (hominem), pom/n^ (pomum), femme (feminam), mon (meum), ton (tuum), son (suum), rien (rem), confirm the view that the Latin accusative is the normal case which has supplied the form of French words. When giving the Latin etymon of a French noun, the accusative should therefore be given, imless some other case appears to have supplied the French form. § 45. The gender of substantives is determined either by the meaning or by the suffix. § 46. Gender determined by meaning — (a) The names of GENDEK. 39 males, months, and winds are masculine both in Latin and French. Exceptions. — The names of some males, chiefly such as have changed an abstract meaning into a concrete, are femi- nines: une aide, la dupe, la sentinelle, la recrue, la cornette, la taille, la haute-contre, la clarinette (clarionet, clarionet- player). Compare Lat. operm, works, workmen. The names of festivals are feminines, la fete de having to be supplied to la Toussaint, la Saint-Jean, la Saint-Michel. La bise, la tramontane, la mousson, la brise. (J.) The names of trees and shrubs are masculine in French, but feminine in Latin. This change of gender is probably attributable to the custom of the spoken Roman language. Cupressus, laurus, and platanus are used as mascuhne in archaic Latin. On the other hand, the following are feminine in French : I'ymse, Vdbene, la bourdaine, Vhieble, la viorne, Vepine, la ronce, la vigne. (c.) The names of female persons and animals are feminine in both languages. (d.) By. far the largest number of abstracta are feminine in both languages. Exceptions are frequent : le vice, vitium ; Vegoisme ; le courage, L. L. coragium (cor) ; all in isme and asme, etc. § 47. Gender determined by Suffixes. — As the gender was in Latin determined by the suffix, which in French nouns derived from Latin nouns is either dropped entirely, or so weakened as to lose the force of a suffix, it follows that the modem substantives become, so to speak, genderless. So powerful, nevertheless, was the genius of the Roman language, that the French genders mainly coincide with the Latin genders. Masculines and feminines have retained their original genders ; all communia and most neuters have become masculines. The etymology of French nouns is, therefore, a fer safer guide in ascertaining the gender of substantives than their terminations. The termination -age, for instance, is enumerated in all French grammars as a masculine termination. But it is so only when it can be traced back to the Latin -aticum {-agiurn) : le voyage (viaticum), le courage (coragium). On the other hand, rage (rabies), image (imago), cage (cavea), plage (plaga), ambages (ambages), hypallage (yiraWayti) are feminine, following the gender of their respective etyma. In the same manner those in -aire are masculine when derived from -orium : oratoire, pretoire, purgatoire ; and feminine when derived from -oria : e'critoire, nageoire, mdchoire. Those in -ule are masculine when 40 PALJ3STRA GALLICA. derived from -ulus, -ulum : corpuscule, crepuscule, monticule ; and feminine when derived from -ula : canicule, capsule, formule. § 48. The principal deviations from the Latin gender are: — A. Change of Masculines into Feminines. (a.) Masculines of the first Latin declension rarely change their gender : la Marne (Matrona, m.), la planete (planetae, pi. TO.), la comete (cometes, m.). (6.) Some masculines of the second and fourth declensions become feminines : la mousse (muscus, to.), la rame (ramus, TO.), la merluche (maris lucius, to.), Vauge (alveus, to.), la grenouille (ranunculus, to.), la graille (graculus, to.), I'hieble (ebulus, TO.), Vasperge (asparagus, to.), I'emeraude (smaragdus, TO.), Vopale (opalus, to.), I'obole (obolus, to.), I'arche (arcus, TO.), lafigue (ficus, to. as fruit, /. as tree). The final mute e characterises this change of gender. (c.) MascuHnes of the third declension which become feminine are generally marked by the final mute e : la Loire (Liger, eris, m.), la ehartre (career, eris, m.), la police (pumex, icis, TO.), la puce (pulex, icis, to.), la herse (irpex, icis, to.), I'ecorce (cortex, icis, to.), la moustache {ftvara^, aKoe, to.), la tourtre (turtur, uris, to.), la poudre (pulvis, eris, m.), la cendre (cinis, eris). Of these, pulvis, cinis, cortex, and pumex, occur, however, occasionally as feminines, especially in poets. {d.) The abstracta in or, oris, have, without exception, ex- changed their masculine Latin gender for a French feminine : Couleur, douleur, faveur, fureur, without taking the mute e, which generally characterises these words. («.) A few other nouns follow this example, and exchange their masculine for a feminine gender, without taking a final e mute : la dent (dens, to.), la souris (sorex, icis, m.), la hrehis (vervex, ecis, to.), la fleur (flos, oris, »i.), les mceurs (mores, TO.), la paroi (paries, to.), les annales, f. (annales, to.). B. Change of Feminines into Masculines. (a.) Feminines of the first declension which become mas- culines by throwing off their original termination : Vepi (spica), le lezard (lacerta, /.), le fetu (festuca, f), le tilleul (tiliola,/.), le Languedoc (from lingua,/.), le daim (dama,/., used by Virgil as to.). A few retain their original termination : le lierre (hedera, /.), Vongle (ungula, /.), le rossignol (lusciniola, /.), le pie'ge GENSEB. 41 (pedica,/.), Vorchestre (orchestra, yi), le dmawcAe (dominica, ic. dies), Us thermes (thermse, /.), le litre (Ji Xirpa). With these must not be confounded the large class of sub- stantives derived immediately from the crude form of the verb without the addition of any suffix, as le plant, le repos (from plant-er, repos-er), and which must not be deduced from Latin substantives. Others again point to unusual or low Latin forms as their etyma. Thus le delice is from delicium, not from delicim ; le moulin not from molina, but from molinum ; Vantidote not from antidotus (f.), but from antidotum. (J.) Some feminines of the second and fourth declensions, chiefly the names of trees, become masculines : le cypres (cu- pressus), le buis (buxus, /. and buxum, n.), le pin (pinus, /.), le myrte (myrtus, _/!), Vaune (aln'us, /".), le plane, le platane (platanus, /.), le portique, le porche (porticus, /.), le dome (domus,/.), and the compounds of oSoe : le synode (synodus, _/I), Vexode (exodus, f.\ with some others from the Greek : le dialecte (dialectus, _/".), le diametre (diametrus, _/.), Vatome (atomus,/.), le perimetre (perimetrus,/.), le paragraphe (para- p'aphus, /.), VaMme (abyssus, /., abyssimus ?). Le periode, a space of time ; la periode, period in grammar, phrase. (c.) A few feminines of the third declension become mas- culines : r arbre (axboi, oiis,/,), le sort (sors, sortis, /.), Tart (ars, artis,/.), le salut (salus, utis,y!), le palus (palus, udis,/.), rappendice (appendix, icis, _/!), le sphynx (sphynx, gis, /!), le soupqon (suspicio, onis, /.), le poison (potio, onis, /.), le vertige (vertigo, inis, /.), le cartilage (cartilage, inis,/.), le diocese (dioecesis, /.), le jaspe (iaspis, idis,/.), le rets (retis, /.), Viris (iris,/.). Le cinabre is from cinnabari, m., and not from cinnabaris, f., le chanvre from cannabus, m., and not from cannabis, f. (d.) Substantives of common gender, as has been observed before, take in French generally the masculine gender : chien (canis), le serpent (serpen-tem) ; but la grue (grus, c.) and la perdrix (perdrix, c.) become feminines. § 49. C. French Gender of Latin Neuters. (a.) No principle has as yet been discovered, by which we might be guided in distinguishing neuters which become feminine from those that become masculine. A large number of the feminines are derived from Latin plurals : merveille (mirabilia), enlrailles (intra, and thence, perhaps, intralia), epousailles (sponsalia), aumaille (animalia), arme (arma, orum), 42 PALESTRA GALLICA. rmiraille (muralia), volatile (volatilia). The majority of them have the distinguishing mark of the final e mute : huile (oleum), levre (labrum), horloge (horologium), etoMe (stabulum), joie (gaudium), etude (studium), tourmente (tormentum), ache (apium), viome (viburnum), pomme (pomum), poire (pirum), prune (prunum), mure (morum), cymbale (cymbalum), toise (tensum), points (punctum), reponse (responsum), epithete (epitheton), voile (yehmi),feuille (folium), depouille (spolium), together with a number of words ending in aie (etuni) : saussaie (salicetum), boulaie (betuletum), ro&eraie (rosaretum). Neuters of the third declension which are in French femi- nine : etamine (stamen), pecore (peous, ora), pair (par, paria), and the neuter plurals mentioned before : merveille, volaille, muraille, etc. (6.) By tax the largest number of Latia neuters, amongst them the names of metals and fruits, assume in French the mascuUne gender : or (aurum), plomh (plumbum), argent (argentum), metal (metallum), vin (vinum), ail (allium), huis (ostium), hras (bracchium), prix (pretiiun), pre (pratum), del (coelum), vi)yo-vT-. The formation of subsfcintives and adjectives by means of this suffix takes place also in Greek : 6-S6-vt-, ok-ovt-, yip-ovr-, iic-orr- ; and still more frequently in Latin : silent-ium, sapient-ia, licent-ia, abun- dant-ia, prudent-ia, Constant-ius, Fulgent-ius, Florent-ia, volunt-arius, frequent-, recent-, petulant-, po-cul-ent-u-s, vin- ol-ent-u-s, vi-ol-ent-u-s, pest-il-ent-u-s, esc-ul-ent-u-s, fraud- ul-ent-u-s, luc-ul-ent-u-s, cru-ent-u~s. § 56. (6.) A very large number of substantives of the feminine gender are derived from the past participle : alle'e, arrivee, avaneee, bordee, chevauche'e, couve'e, croise'e, dictee, duree, entree, fumee, gele'e, levee, monte'e, niche'e, pensee, re- nomme'e, tournee, tranchee, rangee, veillee, pariie, saisie, sallie, sortie, issue, venue, avenue, tenue, retenue, fuite (from the O. F. p. p. fuit), decouverte, contrainte, feinte, prise, surprise, mise, remise, defaite, conduite. A few prefer the form of the Latin participle : promesse (promissa), requete, enquete, g'Me^e(qu£esita), perte (perdita), dette (debita), rente (reddita). Analogous to these are formed : fente (fendere), pente (pendere), tente (ten- dere), aftentc (attendere), descente (descendeTe), ponte (ponere), fonte (fundere). A few, derived from the neuter form of the Latin past participle, are of the masculine gender. They end all in t : avocat, adjoint, de'cret, objet, credit, depdt, impdt, re'duit, ecrit, * So that manant originally means a man who remains in a place, a serf, villain. 46 PALESTRA TALLICA. convert. But clos (clausum), apergu, arrete, neglige, crA, tissu, revenu, are masculine substantives in the form of French past participles. § 57. (c.) The infinitive supplies a large number of sub- stantives of the masculine gender : baiser, plaisir, souvenir, pouvoir, vivre(s), loisir, devoir, savoir, layer, manger, boire, souper, sourire, avenir, repentir, etre. § 58. (d.) The crude form of the verb is used as a sub- stantive of the masculine gender : — SttbstatttiTe. Verb. Stymon. I'aboi aboyer (ad-)baubari I'accord aceorder accordare I'accueil aecueiUir coUigere I'appel appeler appellare le cri erier quiritare le convoi conveyer (O. F.) conviare le dfcor d^corer decorare le d&lin d&liner deeUnare le d^daiu dMaigner dedignari le d^4t d^ater devastare le digel dueler gelare le dAbat d^battre debatuere le d^nt d^outer degustare le depart dipartir partiri le dfeir desirer desiderare le destin destiner deetinare le detail ditailler taleare le deuil douloir dolere renvoi envoyer jnviare rAelair eelairer exclarare I'emploi employer implicare Wveil iveiUer evigilare le maintien maintenir manu-tenere I'octroi octroyer auctorare le pardon pardonner perdonare le parfam parfomer fiunare le port* porter portare le present presenter praesentare le protet protester protestari le ragout ragouter regustare le rapport rapporter apportare le recel recAler celare le richaud r&bauffer calefacere le r&it reciter recitare le refaa refuser refutare le regret regretter reqniritare le renom renommer noDiinare le renToi renvoyer inviare * Postage, carriage ; not to be confounded mth le port (portua). GENDEE, DERIVATION. 47 Substantive. Verb. Etymon. le report reporter reportare le repos reposer pausare le retard retarder retardare le r^Teil r^veiller vigilare le secovirs seeourir BuccTirrerc le souci souci er Bollicitare le surcroit croitre crescere le viol violer violaro le vol vouloir velle (like volere) le vol Toler yolare This process of forming substantives from verbs was ob- viously the easiest and readiest method which offered itself to the Latin-speaking nations during the time of the morphological decay of the Eoman language. The numerous examples above show that the length of a word is a treacherous guide as to its etymology. The derivative is certainly in most cases longer than the root or stem, and the presence of a suffix a proof that the word is derived from one which has no such suffix. But in this instance the process is reversed, and the crude form of the verb used as a substantive must be considered as derived from the verb by throwing off the suffix of the infinitive. § 59. (e.) The suffix e (Latin a) is frequently added to the crude form of a verb and has the force of giving to it a sub- stantive meaning, expressing an act. (CoTaTpaxe fug-ere,fug-a.) These substantives are of the feminine gender, excepting those given in the next paragraph : — Frencb Substantive. Prenoh Verb. Etymon. I'adresse adresser directus I'affiolie afficher flxare I'aide aider adjutare I'amende amender emendare I'annonce annoncer annuntiare I'approehe approclier appropiare Tavance avancer ab-ante la baisse baisser bassus la charge charger carricare la consigne consigner consignare la conteste contester contestari la couche coucher collooare la d^bauehe d^baucher debacchari ? la dteharge dfcharger carricare la d^pSche d^pfcher pedica, depedieare ? la d^ense dipenser dispensare la dipouille d^pouiller spoliare la ditrempe d^tremper temperare la dispute disputer disputare les entraves entraver trabs,trabis(intrabarei') I'Apouvante ipouvanter pavere (expayentare) 48 PALSSTEA OALLICA. French Substantive. French Verb, Etymon. r^preuTe iprouver probare I'estime estimer sestimare I'excuse excuser excuaare la fatigue fatiguer fatigare la faute fauter (0. F.) fallere (fallitare ?) I'intrigue intriguer intricare la loge loger locare la nage nager navigare I'ofire ofiMr oflfere (for offerrere) la pfeche pgcher piscari la presse pressor pressare la recherche rechercher circare la rencontre rencontrer in-contra la reclame rtelamer reclamare la reserve reserver resernire la tonehe toucher taxare (augmentai.from tango, tactum) la tourmente* tourmenter tormentum la trempe tremper temperare (y.) To this general law a few nouns are exceptions, which remind of the Latin scrib-a from scrib-ere, incol-a from incol-ere, inasmuch as mey seem either to have been originally abstract nouns, or nouns of common gender : — Vilkye Clever elevare lejuge juger judieare le fourbe fourbir O.H.G. furbjau § 60. But no analogy can be found for the following, which take the feminine suffix e, and nevertheless retain the neuter gender of the crude-form substantives : — le blSme blamer blasphemare le change changer cambiare le compte compter le conte center le dAcompte dAcompter computare un escompte escompter ' le doute douter dubitare le risque risquer reseeare le reproche reprocher repropiare (?) le reste Tester restare le r^Te r^ver rabere, rabies le rAverbere rAverbirer reverberare le souffle souffler sufflare le trouble troubler turbulare * The termination and gender are a proof that la tourmente is de- rived from the French verb, and not from the Latin noun. From tormentum is derived le tourmeat. GENDEB, DEItlVATION. 49 § 61. Derivation of Substantives from Verhs by means of Suffixes. — In general it may be said of the Romance languages that they are poor in roots but rich in derivatives. Although a great many Latin suffixes in course of time have become so torpid as to be either entirely incapable of producing new de- rivatives or in very small numbei's, other suffixes have shov\fn a productiveness far surpassing anything in the Latin or the Germanic languages. The Germanic languages justly boa.st of their great facility for forming compound words, which, however, is frequently the cause of tumidity and awkwardness in style. The great treasures of derivatives of the Eomance languages more than compensate for their inferior powers of composition. More than one suffix is frequently added to the same word, thus modifying the radical in the most various and delicate ways. Thus the name Roma supplies the follow- ing derivatives : Rome, romain {-aine), romainement, roman, romance, romancier, romanesque, romanesquement, romantique, romantisme, romantiquementfhesides many others not in ordinary use. From the one word caballus are derived cheval, chevalier, chevaliere, chevalerenque, chevaleresquement, chevaler, chevalei, chevalerie, chevalement, chevaline, chevauchage, chevauchant, chevauche'e, chevauchement, chevaucher, chevauchons, cavalcade, cavalcadour, cavale, cavalerie, cavalier, cavaliere, cavalier einent. The English language stands in this respect midway between the other Germanic and the Romance languages. From the German it has preserved a greater facility of forming com- pounds than the Eomance languages, but far inferior to that of the other Germanic tongues. On the other hand, it makes up for its great poverty of suffixes by introducing the Romance derivatives ready-made. Suffixes which retain their formative power in French are appended to the crude form of the verb ; as, alli-er, alli-ance. Frequently, for the sake of euphony, e is used as a connecting vowel ; as, entend-re, entend-e-ment. In verbs of the second conjugation which have the inflection of inchoatives, the suffix is appended to the inchoatiye form with the intervention of the connecting vowel e : arrond-ir, arrond-iss-e-ment. Some suf- fixes, on the other hand, are appended to the participle present ; as, pes-er, part. pres. pes-ant, subst. pes-ant-eur. § 62. Lat. tor, sor, masc. ; trix, issa, osa, fem. Fr. teur, seur, tre, eur, masc. ; trice, esse, euse, fem. The Latin suffix tor was used for forming nomina agentis of the masculine gender from verbal roots : ama-tor, crea-tor, D 50 PAL^STEA 6ALLICA. audi-tor. This suflSx was changed frequently into sorz cens-or for cens-tor (from censeo, root cens-), spon^sor for spond-tor (from spondeo, root spond). Many Latin substan- tives formed with this siiffix pass into French, preserving both their gender and meaning : amateur, createur, debiteur, audi- teur, serviteur, imitateur, acteur, fauteur, protecteur, precurseur, censeur. In a few instances the long vowel of the termination is shortened ; as, chantre (cantor), peintre (pictor), trattre (traditor), pdtre (pastor), ancetres (antecessores), a process which this suffix has undergone as well in Latin in pa-ter, ma-ter, fra-ter. ti substantives formed from verbs of the a and i conjugations, the t is frequently thrown out : gouverneur (gubernator), jongleur (jociJator), pe'cheur (peccator), sanveur (salvator), vendeur (venditor), dormeur (dormitor). This suffix retains its formative power in this latter form, and is appended to the crude form as it appears in the par- ticiple present : danseur, colporteur,coureur, defendeur, couvreur, acquereur, entrepreneur, faiseur, diseur, liseur, confiaeur, con- naisseur, rieur, buveur. From verbs of the inchoative form : blanchisseur, polisseur, ravisseur, foumtsseur, abrutisseur,four- bisseur, nourrisseur. The Latin nouns in tor form a feminine in trix, to which the French form in ice corresponds : inventrice, accusatrice, bieit- faitrice, directrice, imperatrice. Most names of female persons tiike in Low Latin the suffix issa (French esse) : abbat-issa, sacerdot-issa, diacon-issa, cethiop-issa, arab-issa, prophet- issa, are found in the Fathers. This suffix strongly reminds of the fonnation of some Greek feminines : (iaatX-evc, jiaaiX-iiraa ; \api-tiQ, -j^api-itraa. Although this Greek formation may have had some influence on the corresponding forms in pa- tristic Latin, still there is no reason to suppose why it should have been taken from th« Greek. Many Etruscan names of women end in -isa, -asa, and -esa : Athial-isa, Eilial-isa, Atainal-isa, Lar-isa, Latin-isa, Latinial-isa, Marcan-isa, Apic-esa, Capin-esa, Sepi-esa, At-esa, Herm-esa, Laucan-esa, Achuni-asa, Lent-asa. In French we have: pretresse, trai- tresse, pe'cheresse, vengeresse, and, without any respect to the suffix of the masculine, abbesse, princesse, comtesse, tigresse, dnesse, prophe'tesse, ne'gresse, maitresse, druidesse, charunnesse, hutesse, pairesse, duchesse, deesse. Those nouns which append the suffix to the crude form of the verb as it shows itself in the participle present, make their feminine in euse (Lat. osa) : buv-eur, buv-euse {buv-ant), caus-eur, euse (caus-ant), dans-eur, euse {dans-ant), glan-eur, euse {glan-ant), port- GENDER, DEKIVATION. 51 eur, eiise (port-ant), ment-eur, euse (ment-anC), quet-eur, euse {quet-ant). § 63. Lat. men, mentum, neut. Fr. aim, ain, ime, ume, ment, masc. The Latin sufiSx men (enlarged mentum), added to verbs, expresses the instrument by which the action of the verb is carried into effect. In the old language the simple suffix men was more usiial, but its power being gradually weakened, it was reinforced by the secondary suffix turn. This is a process of frequent occurrence in all languages. Thus, in English, the primary suffix ic begins to be more and more usually reinforced by the secondary suffix al : idiomat-ic-al, problemat-ic-al, class-ic-al, diahol-ic-al. The Latin nouns ag-men, ful-men, gra-men, o-men, sta-men, are all good old words in which the primary suffix has remained in its original state. But even in the classical period we find side by side frog-men and frag-menlum, muni-men and muni-mentum, cogno- men and cogno-mentum, vela-men and vela-mentum. The enlarged suffix gradually displaces the simple suffix, and at a later period we find nouns formed in mentum which, have not passed through the preliminary formation in men : concre-mentum, excre-mentum, decre-mentum, imple-mentum ; till at last we find formations like regi-mentum, jura-mentum, cogita-mentum. From this it will be apparent that the primary suffix men could not retain its formative power in the modern languages. A very small number of nouns in -men pass into French with a more or less mutilated suffix: airaiii (seramen), essaim (ex- amen), nourrain (nutrimen), lien (ligamen), crime (crimen), volume (volumen), bitume (bitumen), charme (carmen), geime (germen), nom (nomen). The enlarged form mentum, on the other hand, has become one of the most prolific suflSxes of the French language for the formation of masculine substantives from verbs. Direct from the Latin are : ligament, ornement, aliment, detri- ment, argument, document, monument, fragment, segment, ferment, tourment, moment, froment. Words of modern formation append ment to the verbal stem, generally with the intervention of the connecting vowel e : bel-e-ment, hurl-e-ment, devou-e-ment, accabl-e-ment, acham- e-ment, commenc-e-ment, habill-e-ment, e'puis-e-ment, soulev-e- ment, begai-e-inent, deblai-e-ment, aboi-e-ment, mani-e-ment, entend-e-ment, abatt-e-menf, content-e-ment, vet-e-ment, roul-e- ment, gazouill-e-ment ; and of inchoative forms, abrut-iss-e- D 2 52 PAL^STEA GALLICA. merit, accompl-iss-e-ment, rug-iss-e-ment, arrond-iss-e-ment. But the following are exceptions : hlanch-i-nient, bdt-i-ment, garn-i-ment, assort-i-ment. Derivatives from verbs in ir which have not the inchoative form, take sometimes i-ment sometimes e-ment : consent-e-metU, recueill-e-ment, tressaill-e- ment, seni-i-ment, assent-i-ment, pressent-i-ment, ressent-i-ment, compart-i-ment. From connaitre is formed connaissement, and from croUre, accroissement, decroissement ; from bruire, bruisse- ment. Ameublement is from the simple verb meubler, not to be confounded with ameublissement (mellowing of lands) from ameublir (agi-icult. term). In chdti{e)meiit the short connecting vowel e is absorbed hy the long i. § 64. Lat. or (gen. 5ris), viasc. Fr. eiir (O. F. our), masc. and/em. The majority of substantives in eur are taken direct from Latin nouns in or, and express a state or quality of being or acting. They are mostly abstracta, and of the feminine gender:* ardeur, chaleur, clameur, couleur, ferveur, furetir, langueur, pudeur, rigueur, splendeiir, sueur (sudor), torpeur. The Old French termination our has been preserved in amour and labour. The number of Latin words has been greatly increased by a large number of abstract nouns formed from adjectives and participles present : aigreur, ampleur, blancheur, fadeur, grandeur, gi-osseur, laideur, largeur, longueur, lenteur, profondeur, rondeur, douceur, pesanteur (pesant), e'paisseur, froideur, tiedeur, puanteur (puant). The different manner in which' the descriptive grammarian and the comparative grammarian class the various suffixes, is well illustrated by this one. The descriptive grammarian mechanically classes under this head nouns like sauveur (sal- vator), pecheur (peccator), which the comparative grammarian ranges with nouns in teur. Similarly heur (augurium) and its compounds, bonheur, malheur, de'shonneur, are classed with nouns in eur. Now, although they terminate in eur, this eur is no suffix, but, on the contrary, the root of the word, deprived of its Latin suffix ium. As the suffix has the power of deter- mining the gender, it follows that these words must be French masculines, being original Latin neuters without a formative French suffix. The concrete nouns in eur are masculines. The only abstract noun in or which retains its Latin gender is Vhonneur. * This remarkaWo change of gender has teen discussed before, § 48. GENDER, DElUfATiON. 53 § 65. Lat. icins, masc. ; iciiim, neuf. Fr. is, masc. The suffix icius, icium (Pr. is) is used in Latin for forming adjectives from substantives meaning ' belonging to ' : tribun- icius, flcticius, pellicius, adventicius. In French it is generally added to verbal stems, whilst the feminine form icia {isse) prefers nominal stems. All derivatives in is are of the mascu- line gender: V abatis (abattre), Veboulis (^bouler), le hachis (hacher), le pdtis (paitre), le taillis (tailler), le chdssis (en- chlsser), le cUquetis (cliquer), le colons (colorer), le couchis (coucher), le logis (loger), le lattis (latter). From a noun is derived le palis (G. pfahl, L. paluin, Fr. pal). § 66. Lat. (t)orius, a, um. Fr. oir, masc. ; oire, masc. and fern. From the nomina agentis in for (sor) many derivatives are formed by the secondary suffix ius, ia, ium, signifying origin- ally an instrument; a,a, fac-tor-ium, e-munc-tor-ium ; but more frequently the place of the activity expressed by the verb. These words were originally adjectives, as is shown by the fol- lowing forms : forum Pistorium, atrium sutorium, operculum ambulatorium. Very early, even in the classical period of the Latin language, the neuter forms of these adjectives were used as substantives : qucestorium, prcetorium, deversorium. Their number was increased in the Silver Age : auditorium, dormi- torium, repositorium ; and continued to increase in Low Latin : lusorium, consistorium, cenatoriuvi, oratorium, repertorium, re- ceptorium, lavatorium. In Mediseval Latin we find lectorium, refectorium, redemptorium, laboratorium, observatorium. Of the feminine form only three substantives are formed : vic-tor-ia, his-tor-ia (connected with elSirai, root IB, and G. wiss-en), and gl-or-ia (from clu-ere, related to kXe'-oc). In tect-orium, port- urium, tent-orium, pro-mont- orium, we find orium treated like a simple suffix and appended to a nominal stem, showing that the original meaning of the compound suffix was gradually fading from the mind of the Latin-speaking population. In French all those in toir and toire taken from Latin neuters in torium are masculines : le purgatoire, le laboratoire, un oratoire, le pretoire, le refectoire, un auditoire, un directoire, le monitoire, le dortoir (dormitorium). In words of French formation the suffix oir is added to the stem of the verb : un arrosoir (arroser), un semoir (semer), un comptoir (compter), un rasoir (raser), un accordoir (accorder), un miroir (mirer), un crachoir (oracher), un hrunissoir (brunir), un abattoir 54 PALSSTEA GALLICA. (abattre), un parloir (parler), un lavoir (laver), un mouchoir (moucher), un trottoir (trotter), un laminoir (laminer), un chauffoir (chauffer), un ahreuvoir (abreuver), un eteignoir (eteindre), un grattoir (gratter), un decussoire (decusser). But feminines formed after this analogy are : une balanqoire (ba- lancer), une hassinoire (hassiner), une decrottoire (decrotter), une e'cumoire (^ctimer), une lardoire (larder), une mdchoire (macher), une mangeoire (manger), une rotissoire (rotir), une ecritoire (which, however, cannot be derived from e'criv-ant, but must be rather from scriptorium), and une armoire (armer, armarium). From the feminine form in oria three substantives are de- rived : la gloire, la victoire, une hisioire. In a few instances, two nouns of different gender, and with a different meaning, are derived from the same verb : — baigner wn baignoir, a bathing place ime baignoire, a bathing tub foiJer un fouloir, a rammer ime fouloire, afuUing board racier un racloir, a scraper une radoire, a strickle, strike § 67. Lat, antia, entia, fem. Fr. ance, ence,/em. A large number of abstract nouns are formed in Latin from thf participle present by the suffix ia : constant-ia, infant-ia (fari), scient-ia, provident-ia. Most of these pass into French, those derived fiom verbs of the first conjugation naturally taking the termination ance, whilst those from the other three conjugations take ence : Constance, ignorance, enfance, jactance, audience, de'cence, innocence, prudence, providence, science, sentence. Of the large number of modem words formed by this suffix, those in ance are derived from French participles present, whilst those in ence are from French adjectives or Latin participles : suffisance (suffisant), naissance (naissant), confiance (confiant), oheissance (obeissant), croissance (croissant), surveillance (surveillant), defiance (defiant), usance (usant), vengeance (vengeant), croyance (croyant), alliance (alliant) ; but adherence (adherent), urgence (urgent), permanence (per- manent), exigence (exigens not exigeant), cadence (cadens). § 68. Lat. (t)ura, fem. Fr. nre, fem. The suffix tura {surci) qualifies the activity or expresses the result of the action of the verb to which it is appended. The majority of Latin nouns formed by it seem to be derivatives from the nomina agentis in tor (sor): cultura, pictura, censura. GENDEB, DEEITATION. 55 But even in Latin the suffix ura is found added to the crude form of the verb : fig-ura. The majority of French words in ure are derived directly from the corresponding Latin words : culture, nature, peinture, sculpture, censure, creature. In words of French formation the suffix is appended to the stem of the verb, and in verba of the second conjugation to the inchoative form : allure, blessure, brilliire, doublure, dorure, parure, pdture (pattre), salure, serrure, moisissure, fletrissure, bouffissure. Rarely is this suffix appended to nominal stems : droiture (droit), bouture (bout), verdure (vert), encolure (col). Bravoure (brave) lias modified the vowel of the suffix. In accordance with the Latin formation are the following modern words : aventure, ouverture, lecture, nourriture, bru- niture. § 69. Lat. (tr)ma,/«»i. Fr. ine, fem. This suffix has the same history as the preceding one. Originallj', we find it used for the formation of feminines fiom nouns in tor, in order to express a place : tex-tor, tex-tr-ina, pis-tor, pis-tr-ina, tons-{t)or, tons-tr-ina ; and afterwards ab- stract nouns : doc-tor, doc-tr-ina. But the suffix is likewise found attached to the verbal stem ; as, ru-ina (ruere), far- ina (ferre), coqu-ina (coquere). Most of these pass into French : doctrine, mine, farine, cuisine, discipline, saline. Of French formation are poifri'nejraczne (from forms likep«ciorz«(2,racjna), courtine, resine, colline, routine, saisine, gesine, famine, narine. Frequent is this suffix in modern technical terms : gelatine, Jibrine, camelotine, cottonine, lustrine, quinine, vaccine (vache), which, however, are all formed from nouns. § 70. Lat. io (gen. ionis), fem. Fr. ion, fem. The large number of abstract nouns formed by adding the suffix io to the verbal stem (contag-io, leg-io, obliv-io, reg-io, relig-io, suspic-io), or also to nominal stems {commun-io, un-io, tal-io, rebell-io), have passed without exception into French. Nevertheless, not one new word has been coined on French ground by this suffix. The normal French form is ion : contagion, legion, opinion, rebellion, region, religion, communion. Soupgon is a masculine formed from soupqonner. (See § 58.) § 71. Lat. tio (sio),/em. Fr. tion, sion, son, con, /em. Eelated to the preceding suffix is undoubtedly tio {sio), of 5(? PALjESTRA gallica. which we have spoken before (§ 26), and which is an enlarged form of the suffix ti : men-ti-o (mens, mentis). This suffix forma a considerable number of abstract nouns in Latin, which also have all passed into French. But, differing in this from io, it has preserved its formative power in French, chiefly in derivatives of the a and i conjugations. Of Latin origin are action, motion, question, occasion, vision, procession, percussion, flexion, reflexion, genufl-exion, fluxion, chanson (cantionem), raison (rationem), _/agore (iactionem), leqon (lectionem), poison (potionem), maison (mansionem), toison (tonsionem). Words formed in French with this suffix are legalisation, certification, fanaison, fauchaison, floraison, livraison, garnison, guerison, boisson. § 72. Lat. nda,/em. (of ndus). Fr. ande, ende, /em. From the Latin participle in dus, a, um, which is generally considered an enlarged form of the participle present, a few feminine substantives are derived ; but the suffix has become sterile in French : une offrande, la reprimande, la viande (vivenda), la le'gende, la prebende, la provende (providenda). The masculines le multiplicande and/e dividende tixn explicable by the ellipsis of nvmerus. L'ordinand, as the name of a male person, has preserved a masculine termination. § 73. Lat. ela, fem. Fr. elle, ele,fem. The small number of nouns formed by this suffix are also found in French. Analogous words have not been formed. Vhandelle (candela), corruptele, clientele, loqvele, tutelle or tutele. Suffixes of Substantives derived from other Substantives. As a large number of adjectives become substantives, even in Latin, and still more so in French, we shall find it best to tieat among the suffixes forming substantives also those adjec- tival suffixes which in French have supplied a considerable number of substantives. § 74. Lat. arius, a, lun. Fr. aire, ier. In Latin the suffixes ari-s and ali-s are identical. Alis forms adjectives from nominal stems containing an r, whilst aris is added to stems in I. Thus we have rur-alis, mur-alis. &ENDER, DERITATION. 5< austr-alis ; but sol-aris, consul-arts, smgul-aris. Though identical in their origin, the subsequent history of these two suffixes diverges widely. From aris is formed an enlarged suffix, arius, a, um, which, with all its formative power, has passed into the Romance languages, whilst alis has never been enlarged in Latin, and has remained in the modern languages an almost barren suffix. From the time of Augustus the for- mations in arius increase rapidly and begin to be used as sub- stantives. The force of this suffix is to name the agent (gene- rally an artisan and trader) after the article he manufactures or deals in : acuarius, coronarius, doliarius, annularius, carpen- tarius, candelabrarius ; or from the material in which he works or deals in: aurarius, lapidarius, argentarius, marmor arius, plumbarius ; or from the tool with which he works : cultrarius, lorarius, manicarius, parmulariiis. The locality of action, the workshop, is expressed sometimes by the feminine, but more frequently by the neuter form : mrarium, cibarium, armament- arium, ossuarium,plumharium, pomarium, solarium, pulvinarium, argentaria, carbonaria, herbaria, vinaria, cretaria. So manifold are these forms in arius, that even our most complete dictionaries do not give all the forms found in the authors of the Silver Age, nor, when they give them, all their meanings. Curious is the enlargement of arius by redupli- cation ; as, sal-ari-arius pugill-ari-arius, calo-ari-arius, vin- ari-arius, ocul-ari-arius, ferr-ari-arius and many others, which show the frequent use of the suffix. Of the original suffix aris, only a few examples have been preserved in French : e'colier (scholaris'), sanglier (singular is, sc. aper), oreiller (auricularis), luminaire (luminar). On the other hand, the enlarged suffix arius has preserved in French all its original mobility of gender, meaning and formative power. Names of persons in dire and ier from decidedly Latin forms are : lapidaire, libraire, statuaire, argentier, chambrier (came- rarius), huissier (ostiarius), ecuyer (scutarius), conseillier (con- siliarius), cavalier, chevalier ; whilst of unquestioned French formation are : cessiomiaire, diamantaire, proprie'taire, ban- quier, pdtissier, vsurier, jardinier, faiencier, menuisier (minu- tus), barbier, batelier, chamelier, cordier, getilier, lanternier, poiier, sellier, faisandier, btjcmtier, cloutier, cafetier, chainetier ; and, with absorption of the i : berger (vervecarius), vacher (vacca), linger (linge). Many of these substantives form a feminine ; as, la cessionaire, la bateliere, la cafe'tiere, la cham- briere, la cordiere, la lavandiere, lafermiere, la lingere, la bergere. D 3 58 paljEstea gallica. Names of animals in ier : belter (E. bell-wether), le pluvier, le levrier (leporarins), Umier (ligamen). Names of plants derived from the name of the fruit : aniandier, cotonnier, cerisier, citronnier, cocotier, cacaotier, murier, cdprier, eglantier,fraisier,figuier,framJ)ois{er, poirier, pommier, prunier ; and, with the i absorbed : noyer (nucalis, nucarius). The fol- lowing names of plants are, however, not derived from the name of the fruit : laurier (laurus), peuplier (populus). A place or vessel containing anything is expressed by the following, which, as masculines, must be referred to the Latin arium : colomhier (coltimbarium), laraire (lararium), chartrier (chartnlarium'), grenier (granarium), verger (viridarium), pou- lailler, bagwier, encrier, huilier, poivrier, sablier, vinaigrier ; but also other derivatives, which express the object which bears or belongs to the thing expressed in the primitive word : chandelier, e'chiquier, clocher, foyer, tahlier, collier, oreillier, suaire (sudarium), calendrier (calendarium), annuaire, douaire, (dotarium). But, as in Latin, sometimes the feminine gender is preferred for these nouns : aiguiere, bonbonniere, coute.liere, sauciere, tabatiere, the'iere, aluniere, carriere, ratiere, sabliere, argentiere, saliere, tourbiere, liniere, crapaudiere, Jiliere, pepiniere, barriere, *aniere, bontonniere, litiere, barriere, frontier e (frons), fourmiliere 'formicula), riviere (riparia), criniere, priere (preearia). § 75. Lat. alls, ale. Fr. al, el, masc. This suffix has been entirely displaced by th« preceding one. Only a few remnants of it are to be found in the present language : capital, hStel and hopital, local, canal, animal, fanal (0avof), madrigal (mandra), journal (diumalis), signal, natal, noel (natalis), mistral (magistralis), duel (dualis), pluriel (pluralis), cardinal (cardo, cardinalis), me'nestrel (ministerialis), caporal. A few feminine adjectives in ale have become sub- stantives : la capitale (sc. ville), la pastorale (so. chanson). The termination lis with preceding i has been preserved in chenil (canis), fenil (foenile), fusil (focus), campanile. § 76. Lat. anus, ana. Fr. ain, en, an, masc. ; aine, enne, ane,../em. A great many adjectives are formed in Latin by adding the suffix anus to nominal stems, especially to geographical names, which at a very early period began to be used substantively. ■ In French the suffix has been rarely employed for the formation GENDEE, DEEIVATION. 59 of substantives, and never been used sufficiently for attaining even uniformity of spelling. Thus we have in aim, : Africain, Alain, Germain, Romain, Syracusain, Napolitain, Palermitain (Panormitanus), /Samaf zfam ; and of modem origin : Mexicain. Americain, Chartrain (Chartres). From other than geographical names are : aubain (L. L. albanus, a foreigner, from alibi), puhlicain (publicanus), chdtelain (castellanus), chapelain (ca- pellanus), ecrivain. Sometimes the suffix assumes the form en : Chaldeen, Galile'en, Phoceen, Europeen, Idumeen, Ache'en, Vendeen, doyen (decanus), citoyen (like civit-anus) ; occasion- ally the form an : Pisan, Tolosan, Toscan, Mantouan, Par- mesan, Padouan, Castillan, Catalan, veteran, artisan, partisan, paysan, eourtisan. They form nearly all feminine substantives according to the general rules of descriptive grammar : cha- telaine, Romaine, citoyenne, ccmrtisane. A few feminines are formed in aine : la fontaine (fontana), une aubaine {albana, see above aubain), la mitaine, la fredaine, and the collective numerals : huitaine, neuvaine, douzaine, vingtaine, trentaine, with which must be classed semaine (septimana), and the metrical terms quatrain, sixain, domain. § 77. Lat. ianns, iana. Fr. ien, ienne. The French suffix ien has served chiefly for forming the names of nations from the names of countries, and the names of persons from the name of their trade or occupation. Its use is far more extended than that of the corresponding Latin ianus. Thus, for instance, the greatest part of names of countries in ia presuppose a gentile noun or adjective in us ; as, Lydia, Lydus ; Babylonia, Babyloniu? ; India, Indus ; Venetia, Venetus ; or have variously formed gentile nouns as a base ; as, Thracia, Thrax ; Caria, Car ; Plicenicia, Phoenix and Phoenicius ; Macedonia, Macedo ; Athencs, Atheniensis. All these various forms are absorbed in French by the suffix ien : Lydien, Assyrien, Babylonien, Indien, Venitien, Dorien, Beotien, Thracien, Phenicien, Macedonien, Athenien. Modem gentilo names follow this analogy : Algerien, Alsacien, Artesien, Aii- trichien, Bohemien, Prussien, Norwegien, Parisien, Peruvien, Canadien, Languedocien. Very large is the number of per- sonal nouns, expressing trade or occupation, formed by this Buffix : pharmacien, gardien, physicien, opticien, magicieii, chirurgien, comedien,musicien, grammairien, historien, the'ologie" mecanicien. The suffix is ftirther used for naming an individual from the society or sect he belongs to : academicien, pairicien. 60 PAL^STBA GALLICA. paroissien, chretien, preshyterien, Lutherien, Socinien, Plato- nicien, Pyihagoricien, Sto'icien, Epieurien. All these substantives are capable of forming feminine substantives or adjectives in ienne, with the exception of a few proper names like Appien, DiocUtien, Gratien, Baatien. § 78. Lat. etnm, neut. (eta). Fr. aie,/e?re. A small number of substantives, having chiefly reference to rustic affairs, are formed by the suffix etum (aie), which denotes a place in which the thing named in the stem abounds : jonchaie (juncetum), olivaie (olivetum), aunaie (alnetum), saussaie (salicetum, salictum), roseraie (rosaretum, rosetum), Fontenay (Fontanetum), Aulnay (alnetum), Chatenay (Casta- netum), ronceraie, boulaie, chenaie, foutelaie. § 79. L. Lat. aticTiin, agimn. Fr. age, masc. In its last stage of decomposition the Low Latin produced a new suffix, aticum, agium, by which various shades of meaning were effected in nominal stems. Thus we find herhaticum, herhagium (herba), cor aticum, cor agium (cor), formaticumf formagium (forma), viaticum, viagium (via). Its French form a^e has proved one of the mos*; productive and versatile suffixes in forming substantives not only from other substan- tives and verbs, but also from adjectives {enfantillage, infantOis ; parage, par), and even from prepositions {avantage, avant = ab-ante ; outrage, outre, ultra*). Generally speaking, it may be said that age intensifies the meaning of the base. As many words have different meanings, signifying at the same time an activity, or the result of that activity, a property or a condition, it is somewhat difficult to arrange the many deri- vatives formed by this suffix in distinct classes. Collective nouLns in age are : branchage, feuillage, ramage, cordage, herbage, nuage, plumage, vitrage, verbiage, voisinage, rouage, paysage, pdturage. Closely allied to these are augmentatives like marecage, omhrage, personnage, ouvrage, coquillage. A condition or property is expressed by apprentissage, esclavage, courage, veuvage, parage. An intensified activity is expressed by badinage, baladinage, * Although perhaps owtrer was first formed from vltra, and outrage from outrer. The same doubt will arise in many other nouns formed by this suffix. GENDEK, DEKITATION. 61 carnage, hommage, langage, orage (aura), voyage (via, Tiaticum), pillage, pelerinage, flottage, brigandage. The activity, and sometimes the result of that activity, are expressed in cabotage, filage,jardinage, labourage, blanchissage, abordage, outrage, passage, partage, racommodage, ravaudage, heritage, dommage, temoignage, eclairage, menage (perhaps maisonnage, mansionaticum, but more likely from mener, minare).* But the various shades of meaning produced in the base by this suffix defy classification. Sometimes it means ' belonging to,' or ' contained in,' or ' arising from ; ' as, fromage (forma), ermitage, visage, potage (pot), quaiage. Not to be confounded with this truly modern French suffix are words derived from the Latin in ago, which are of the feminine gender : image (imago), and une plage (plaga), la rage (rabies), la page (pagina), la nage (from nager, navigare). § 80. Lat. atns, masc. Fr. at, e, masc. The Latin suffix atus (gen. Us : episcopatus, consulatus) in its Latin form at retains also its Latin meaning of ' office,' ' estate of : cardinalat, ce'libat, episcopat, patriciat, apostolat, diaconat, archidiaconat, electorat, vicariat, generalat. In its more naodern form e it expresses more commonly the terri- tory subject to the dignitary expressed in the base : comte, duche, eveche, Dauphine, principaute. But the termination at has re- mained with this meaning in marquisat, landgraviat, palatinat. Collective nouns are clerge and senat. § 81. Lat. ata, /«TO. Fr. ade, ee,fem. Numerous are the derivatives formed from substantives by ade and e'e. The former shows clearly the origin of this suffix to be the Latin ata (the feminine form of atus), which as a suffix occurs only in Mediseval Latin, so that both forms ade and ee may be considered suffixes of purely Eomance formation. The various meanings of the suffix shade fre- quently off into one another. A compound formed by a collection of the things expressed in the base are named by palissade, colonnade, barricade (barrique), balustrade, enfilade, estocade. An intensified activity, and sometimes also the result ' * Minare, to drive cattle by threats, a collateral form of minari, used by Appiamis Marcellinus and Priscian. See Eiddle and White, s. v. 62 PAI^STEA GALLICA. of that activity, are expressed in fusillade, cannonade, hallotade, hastonnade, dragonnade, made, tirade, cavalcade, gambade, estrapade. The object which results from the base is ex- pressed in salade, estouffade, limonade, carhonnade, parade, brigade, estrade, exouade, charade.* La caronade (a species of ordnance) is so nained after its place of manufacture, Carron, in Stirlingshire. In passade and bourgade the suffix has a diminutive sense. Still more frequent is the form e'e, which must not be confounded with the feminine form of the past participle used substantively. (See § 56.) For although this suffix has its origin in a participial form, it is nevertheless used far more frequently for the formation of derivatives from substantives than from verbs. Its most ordinary meaning is that of the English yiiZZ in compounds (^plateful, etc.) : bouchee, brassee, charretee, chaudronne'e, poignee, assiettee, batele'e, becquee, cuillere'e, cuvee, couve'e, ecuellee, gorgee, hotte'e, pelle'e, maisonnee, paneree, pelleree, plate'e, potee, tasse'e, ruee. Time considered with regard to its duration is expressed by annee, matine'e, soiree, veillee, joume'e. Augmentatives or frequenta- tives are nuee, bruee, rise's, rosee, maree, guilee. Something effected by the base is rarely expressed by this suffix : hommee (a plot of land which a man can cultivate in a day), araignee (cobweb), denree (what can be bought for a denarius). § 82. Fr. erie,/«»i. The suffix erie has its origin in the custom of the Ro- mance languages of forming substantives from infinitives of the first conjugation by adding the suffix te (ia) : tromper-ie, fiatter-ie. The use of the suffix ie is then extended to sub- stantives ending in er : boulanger-ie ; and then erie is used as a new formative suffix, and appended equally to nominal and to verbal stems for the formation of derivative substantives. A strikingly similar process is observable in German, where the corresponding suffix ei forms abstract nouns fiam. nouns in er : fdrber-ei,jager-ei, zauber-ei, bdcker-ei, meier-ei. In course of time the suffix is appended to nouns whose plural ends in er : kind-er-ei, land-er-ei, biich-er-ei, and then erei is used as a new suffix, and indiscriminately added to verbs and nouns for the formation of new derivatives: ras-erei, zier-erei, schwein-erei, bub-erei, sclav-erei. But we must beware of inferring that the German suffix erei had any influence on the * Charade, either from carrus, carricata, a cart-load ; or from Ital. ciarlare, to chatter, to prate, from which are derived ciarlatano, a quack, and cmrlataneria, quackery. GENDEE, DEniTATIOlT. 63 development of the French suffix erie, or the reverse. The two languages formed two suffixes of striking resemblance by strikingly similar processes, but quite independently of one another. The most ordinary force of eri'e is to form abstract nouns expressing an activity, which by usage mostly pass into nouns expressing a property. Thus brusquerie means abruptness, and, as a repeated act of abruptness, gruffiiess. In many cases erie is used for the formation of words expressing an office, trade, art, or occupation, which words are then used also for naming the place where such trade, art, or occupation is carried on, and not unfrequently in a third meaning, ex- pressing the residt or object of such trade or activity. Thus charpenterie means the art or trade of a carpenter, a carpenter's yard, and a carpenter's or timber work. La boucherie means the trade of a butcher, a butcher's shop, a slaughter-house, and, figuratively, it expresses indiscriminate slaughter. Fri- perie means trade in old clothes, an old clothes' shop, and old clothes as well themselves. There is not a single word in the subjoined lists which is not used in two or more of these meanings. An act, frequently implying that the act is censurable, and hence a quality or property, is expressed by espieglerie, brus- querie, bouderie, fdcherie, etourderie, singerie, badauderie, niaiserie, be'gueulerie, bigoterie, cachotterie, causerie, criaillerie, clabauderie, chicanerie, menterie, hdblerie, diablerie, Jlatterie, gagerie, tromperie, lorgnerie, ivrognerie, gl(mtonnerie,fourberie, agacerie, minauderie, philosopherie, poltronnerie, tricherie. A place is expressed by bergerie, boucherie, nienagerie, linge- rie, boulangerie, fruiterie, bouverie, canarderie, faisanderie, ladrerie, juiverie, Mtellerie, laiterie, huilerie, huisserie (door- frame, from ostium), affinerie, briqueterie, cJiancellerie, galerie, nourricerie. Trade or occupation, with other meanings flowing im- mediately from it, is expressed by sorcellerie, piraterie, penitencerie, oiselerie, charpenterie, commanderie, cristallerie, patisserie, e'benisierie, chdrlatanerie, marbrerie, megisserie, friperie, Jierberie, pelleterie, plomberie. To those in the preceding lists, which also name a product, the following may be added : argenterie, bijouterie, broderie, maqpnnerie, soierie, verrerie, suererie, droguerie, verroterie, boiserie. Aa collectives may be considered : infanterie, artilleries loterie, cavallerie, tapisserte, messagene 64 PAL^STKA GALLICA. § 83. Lat. ista, masc. Fr. iste, masc. In patristic Latin a suffix ista, formed from the Greek lorjjc (Kidaptarfie), was used for the formation of nomina agentis: baptista, evangelista, psalmista. Its use has been somewhat extended in French, inasmuch as it serves not only to signify a man who cultivates a certain science or art, but also Kuch as follow ■ a certain doctrine : anatomiste, allegoriste, fabuliste, organiste, naturaliste, chimiste, oculiste, artiste, evangeliste, annaliste, dentiste, droguiste, ebe'niste, herboriste, latiniste, pay- sagiste, pianiste, duelliste, monarchiste, royaliste, communiste, tnaterialiste, socialiste, papists, moraliste, fataliste. § 84. Lat. ismus, masc. Fr. isme, masc. The Greek suffix lajxoe was introduced into the Latin language by grammarians in the classical period, for the for- mation of technical terms : barbarismus, soloecismus, archais- mus, syllogismus. In French its use has remained the same: paganisme, mahometisme, christianisme, atheisme, mJcanisme, fanatisme, heroisme, Mosaisme, Arisiote'lisme, Platonisme, ato- ■inisme, anglicisme, gallicisme, communisme, idealisme, socialisme, egoisme, mutisme. From the Greek lafia are le prisme, le schisme. Suffixes of Substantives derived from Adjectives. § 85. The Latin suffixes, used for the formation of substan- tives from adjectives, are tas, tia, ia and tudo. They are found in French in the numerous derivatives, which were received ready-made into the language. But tas, tia and ia have been productive of many modern derivatives, whilst tudo has been used only in the formation of three or four new words. All substantives derived from adjectives are of the feminine gender both in the Latin and French languages. § 86. Lat. tas. Fr. te. The most usual suffix of this class is tas, which in Latin is rarely added without the connecting vowel e or i (atroc- i-tas, pi-e-tas). As bases serve chiefly adjectives but fre- quently also substantives {tempestas, virginitas, civitas, ve- nustas), rarely verbs {egestas, potestas, voluntas). By far the largest number of French words in fe follow Latin derivatives GENDEE, DEBITATION. 65 in tas : aciivite, agilite, assiduite, afrocite, ce'le'rite, facilite, fatuite, morosite, perspicuite, msticite, stahilite, verbosite, sim- plicite, obscurite, parite, amabilite, mortalite, varieie, verite, satie'te. Nouns formed according to this analogy add the suffix to the feminine form of the adjective, but fluctuate in the use of the connecting vowel. Those of more recent and popular origin seem to prefer e: nettete, salete, souveramete,faussete,fer- mete, naivete, honnetete, legerele, pauvrete', gaiete, suzerainete, acaridtrete ; whilst t is not uncommon, especially in derivatives from adjectives in eux, euse : porosite (poreux), monstruosite, (monstrueux), frivolite, legitimite, nullite, nudite, priorite, supe- riorite. Bases ending in a liquid frequently reject the con- necting vowel both in Latin and French : faculte (facultas), difficulte {AiS.ea\\2ts), liberie Q.ih&[\is.a), volonte (voluntas), which practice is still further extended in French : cZar?e (clar-i-tas), sante (san-i-tas). Amongst these we ought to reckon those in I which vocalize this consonant : bequte (bellus), cruaute (cru- delitas). § 87. Lat. ia. Fr. ie. Added to adjective bases ia forms abstract nouns express- ing qualities {miser-ia); added to the bases of nomina gentilia it forms names of countries [Ital-id). Both are done by ie in French. But the Greek suffixes t/a and ia {Srii.inKparia, apiaro- Kpar£ca)have exerciseda decided inflnenceon the French suffix, although the mimber of words formed analogous to the Greek, and not taken directly from theGreek, isvery small. Latin forms are: argutie,faceiie, inertie, ineptie,minutie,modestie,patrie,per- fidie; and of countries: Arabic, Arcadie, Asie, Amienie, Assyrie, Beotie, Gemianie, Helvetie, Ligurie, TMsitanie, Laconie, Mysie, Samarie, Pannonie, Phenicie, Thessalie. French forms are : courtoisie, jalousie, maladie ; rarely derived from substantives: clergie (clerc), compagnie (compagne), Normandie, Cafrerie, Dalecarlie, Picardie, Leltonie, Laponie. Valaquie, Turquie, Tartarie, Franconie. Greek forms are : de'mocratie, aristocratie, chimie, in imitation of which we have geologie, biographic, hydro - phobie, anomalie, astronomie,ge'ographie, arche'ologie, mineralogie. The Latin suffix ia is represented in French by final e when the word retains its original Latin accent : angoisse (angustia), audace ( audacia ), concorde ( concordia ), envie ( invidia ), grdce (gratia), milice (militia), misere (miseria) ; and in names of countries, especially of those endincr in onia, ania, and annia : Bretagne (Britannia), Espagne (Hispania), Champagne 66 PAI^STKA GALUCA. (Campania), Jiomaffne (Romania), Allemarjne (Allemannia), Uatalogne (Catalonia), GascogTie (Vasconia), Pologne (Polonia), Cologne (Colonia), Boulogne (Bononia), Sardaigne (Sardinia), Prusse (Borussia), Grece (Grtecia), Inde (India), Gaule (Gallia), Alsace, Provence, Suede, Thrace, Perse. § 88. Lat. it-ia, itia. Fr. ice, ise, esse. The Latin suffix itia (which generally coincides with ities) cannot in French be distinguished from words in ia derived from a base ending in t (inept-ia). The French form ice appears most frequently in words taken ready-made from the Latin : avarice (avaritia), immondice (immunditia, -ies), justice (justitia), notice (notitia). The form ise is more peculiar to words of French formation : accortise (accort), balourdise (balourd), hdtardise (batard), Mtise (bSte), convoitise (concupisc-), franchise (franc), friandise (friand), gaillardise (gaillard), lourdise (lourd), marchandise (marcband), sottise (sot). The form esse frequently represents the Latin itia, but is by fer the most usual suffix for the formation of new nouns : justesse (justitia), mollesse (mollitia), paresse (pigritia), tristesse (tris- titia) ; and of French formation : atnesse (aine), altesse (alt-us, haut), finesse (fin), hardiesse (hardi), ivresse (ivre), jeunesse (jeune), largesse (largus), noblesse (noble), politesse (poli), richesse (riche), sagesse (sage), tendresse (tendre), vieillesse (vieil), Vitesse (vite), se'cheresse (sec), faiblesse (faible), bassesse (bas), delicatesse (d^licat), petitesse (petit), adresse (ad- directus). § 89. Lat. tudo. Fr. tude. The suffix tudo had nearly lost its formative power in the classical period of the Latin language. Many derivatives were formed by it, chiefly from adjectives in the ante-classical period, which classical writers displace by derivatives in tas. Thus we find as archaic expressions, especially in the scenic poets : anxitudo, claritudo, castitudo, celebritudo, duritudo,firmitudo, gracilitudo, hilaritudo, honestudo, lenitudo, suavitudo, scevitudo, severitudo, sanctitudo, temeritudo, vanitvdo, vastitudo, for which Classical Latin has the forms anxietas, claritas, castitas, celebritas, duritas, firmitas, gracilitas, hilaritas, honestas, lenitas, suavitas, scevitas, severitas, sanctitas, temeritas, vanitas, vastitas. The forms in ies (durities) and do {dulcedo) likewise assist in displacing the older suffix, without, however, striking as deep roots into the language as the suffix tas. From this it is GENDEE, DEEITATION. 67 plain that the suffix tudo would not be used in French for the formation of many new words. The only new formations are : platitude (plat), promptitude (prompt), certitude (certus), exactitude (exactus), gratitude (gratus). All the rest are from Latin words which have resisted the absorbing power of tas : altitude, amplitude, aptitude, attitude (aptitudo), beatitude, desuetude, habitude, lassitude, latitude, longitude, mansuetude, multitude, servitude, similitude, sollicitude, turpitude, vicissitude, plenitude, inquietude, solitude. By rejection of the d and attraction of the suffix of the accusative, we' have amertume (amaritudinem), and coiitume (consuetudinem). Suffixes of Diminutives and Augmentatives. § 90. The Romance languages are rich in suffixes for the formation of augmentatives, diminutives, depreciatives, and the like. These suffixes are partly of Latin (ulus, a, um ; cuius, a, um ; inus, a, um ; aceus, a, um ; aster), partly of German origin (^ard, arde ; aud, aude). Others again are pure Romance suffixes (at, ate ; et, ette ; at, otte). The frequent use of diminutival suffixes occasionally weakens their force ; thus we have, even in Latin, words in which no Roman would have recognised a diminutive, like pop-ulus, fpeculum. Nevertheless, by the very same suffix Modem French has formed molecule, which has both the appearance and force of a diminutive. The force of the suffix was especially weakened in words which were received ready-formed from Latin or German ; as, cheville (clavicula), fortnule (formula) ; whilst in those formed in French the suffix retains its force. In a few instances augmentatives or diminutives seem to have been formed, because, after the rejection of the Latin suffix, a word remained which to the Romance ear appeared too short. Thus abeille (apis, apicula), Oreille (auris, auricula), soleil (sol, soliculus), taureau (taurus, taurellus), rognon (ren), though diminutives in form, express no more than their simple Latin bases. Very common is the addition of two of these suffixes (corps, cors-et, cors-el- et ; agn-eati, agn el-et ; Pierre, Perr-in, Perr-in-et ; Marie, Mari-on, Mar-ion-ette), which was also frequently done in Latin (cista, eistella, cistellula ; puer, puella, instead otpuerula, puellula). The following are the most ordinary of these suffixes, with their most usual combinations : — Latin Suffixes. § 91. nlus, a, tun (nle, m. and /.). Nouns in which the diminutive meaning has been lost, throw out u when a 68 PAL^.STRA GAIUCA* consonant precedes it: peuple (poptilus), sauge (cingulum), seille (situla), table (tabula), tuile (tegula). Words which remain dimimitives preserve also their original Latin form : le capitule (capitulum), le concilidbule (conciliabulum), le globule (globulus), le module (modulus), la formule (formula), la canule (cannula), la capsule (capsula), la cellule (cellula), la fecule (fsecula), la glandule (glandula), la pilule (pilula), la planlule (plantula), lunule, virgule, plumule. Le pendule (pendulum), la pendule (pendula). Those in ole, as giran- dole, gondole, have passed through the Italian. cuius, a, nm (cnle, m. and/.) is a very frequent suffix, and must be considered according to the letter which precedes it. cuius preceded by a consonant has been preserved in a few words: oncle (avunculus), escarboncle (carbunculus), muscle (musculus), cercle (circulus), couvercle (operculum). Larger is the number of recently imported words : animalcule, cor- puscule, opercule, opuscule, caroncule, portioncule. a-culus, a, um : gouvemail (gubemaculum), soupirail (sus- pirare = suspiraculum), eventail (eventilare), graille (graeula instead of gracidus), tenaille (tenaculum). Of modem for- mation are : epouvantail, fermail, plumail, travail, sonnaille. e-culus, a, um ; i-culus, a, nm : orteil (articulus), soleil (sol-iculus), sommeil (somn-iculus), peril (periculum), dbeille (apicula), oreille (auricula), houteille (M. L. buticula), corheille (corbicula), comeille (cornicula), cheville (clavicula), goupil (vulpecula), ouaille (ovicula), essieu (axiculus), crovstille (crusta), lentille (lenticula), coutille (culter). According to analogy are formed : groseille, chenille, jonquille, pointille, oseille {d^aXwo). n-culns, a, xim: fenouil (fccn(i)uculum), verrou (verT(i)- uculum), gcTiou (gen(i)uculum), grenoiiille (rana). Many modern words which preserve more closely their Latin form have been introduced. Masctdines : follicule, indicule, monticule, pe'dicule, reticule. Feminines: auricule, canicule, clavicule, cuticule, lenticule, particule, pellicule, radi- cule, silicule, molecule, nubecule. A change of gender has taken place in une utricule (utriculus). From the Latin aceus, iceus (icius), oceus, a suffix is formed which generally expresses degeneration or enlargement. It appears in the various forms of as (aceus), asse, ace, ache (acea), iche, isse (icea, icia), oche (ocea), uche (ucea). For those in is (icius), see § 65 Embarras (barre), coutelas (culter, cultellaceus ?), e'chalas (scala), tracas (trao), jatras (fartum), pldtras (eniplastum) ; GENDBE, DERIVATION. 69 becasse (bee"), crevasse (crever), cuirasse (cuir), paillasse (paille),. paperasse (papier), hestiasse, laidasse, coignasse, tirasne, liasse ; grimace, populace, rosace, villace, galeace ; mordache, moustache, panache, rondache; levriche, pouliche, caniche; caboche, ham- boche, galoche, mailloche, sacoche, filoche, epinoche. Of the few in uche, a diminutive meaning is attached only to guenuche (petit guenon). In peluche (pellis), breluehe, the meaning seems to, be rather collective. In Low Latin the suffix ulus was gradually displaced by ellus and illus. In words of Latin formation the suffix has rarely retained its diminutive force: anneau (annellus instead of annulus), cerveau, flambeau, passereau,moineau, bdteau, bandeav, barreau, chateau, drapeau, fabliau, troupeau, ecriteau,fourneau, fourreau, marteau, museau, poteau (postis), tuyeau (O. N. tfida), e'cuelle (scutella), hirondelle, sauterelle. In modern formations this suffix has diminutive power, and is frequently added to the names of animals in order to denote the young : chevre, chevreau; pigeon, pigeonneau ; dindon, dindonneau ; faisan, faisandeau ; paon, paonneau ; saumon, saumonneau ; renard, renardeau ; lion, lionceau ; tourtre, tourtereau ; baleine, ba- leineau ; and sometimes as a secondary diminutive suffix after et : levreteau, louveteau, cailleteau. Diminutives of trees, of human beings, and even of inanimate things, are frequently formed by eau : agneau, ormeau, cheneau, arbrisseau, preau, poetereau, larronneau, friponneau, pastoureau, faisceau (fasci- culus), m^nceau (monticellus), pinceau, jouvenceau, damoiseari, oiseau (avicella), vaisseau (vascellum). lia. Several adjectives in alis, His, ilis, and bilis, are used substantively in Low Latin in their neuter plural form, which was considered a collective noun. Such substantives are batu- alia, mortualia, genitalia, muralia, victualia, volatilia, mirabilia, nugalia. From these were formed the French substantives in aille : canaille (canis), racaille (E. rack, wreck), garqaille, moutonnaille, moinaille, gueusaille, truandaille, valetaille, ri- maille, poissonnaille, tripaille, limaille, volaille, muraille, ba- taille, semaille, antiquaille, broussaiUe, entrailles, ferraille, Jianqailles, quincaille, marmaille. In a similar manner are to be explained the suffixes of ormille, merveille, poitrail, be'tail, portail, vitrail, beatilles, broutilles. In many instances it will' be difficult to determine with certainty whether those in, aille follow a Latin form in aculus, a, um, or in alia. The suffix {io), French on (ion), was used in Latin for the formation of substantives signifying persons, animals, and things generally, e. g. latro, prcedo, falco, leo, carbo, mucro. 70 PAL^STKA GAIXICA. In French this use of the suflSx is continued, but it is fur her used as an augmentative and diminutive suffix ; as which it is sometimes merely added to the base, but more frequently with the intervention of another diminutive suffix, particularly ill, er, el, and et. Personalia formed by ora, according to Latin precedent, from the occupation of the person, are : larron, pie'ton, forgeron, hucheron, vigneron, poltron, espion, fripon. The names of animals: cochon,paon, pigeon, mouton,herisson,poisson, limaqon ; direct from the Latin are lion, scorpion, faucon. Names of inanimate things are formed by this suffix according to analogy : canton, charbon, houblon, flacon, jambon, menton, perron, man- chon. In some names of persons the suffix has depreciative power : hiberon, grognon, grison, glouton. As a diminutive, without a connecting suffix, it is used in : aiglon, ehaton, levron, oison, ourson, anon, raton, carafon, cruchon, lantemon, sablon; and freqiiently in proper names of women : Fanchon (Franfoise), Michon (Michel), Julion, Marion, Louison, Jeanmton, Margoton, Narum, Ninon ; also in iamily names : Ancillon, Gillon, Mabillon, Massillon. With the addition of a connecting diminutive suffix are formed : bouvillon, negrillon, taurilion, carpillon, oisillon, brocheton, mouchei'on, clocheton, feuilleton. The Latin suffix inus, a, um, which originally was used only for the formation of adjectives from substantives (asininus, caninus, eervinus, maiinus), is used in French also for the formation of substantives : sapin, lapin, moulin, coussin, e'chevin, fantassin, jardin, famine, routine, narine, poitrine. (Comp. § 69.) As a diminutive it is used in Colin (Colas), Jupin (Jupiter), Perrin (Pierre), Bobin (Eobert), diablotin, culottin, pulverin ; and with the concomitant idea of the contemptible, in faqvin, coquin, dandin, galantin, poupin, catin (f.). The German suffix chen is traceable in mannequin, brodequin, lam- brequin, and perhaps in arlequin. The Latin diminutive aster {poetaster, filiaster, oleaster, pinaster, calvaster) has survived only in a few Modem French substantives : mardtre, pardtre, e'coldtre, gentilldtre, muldtre ; more frequently in adjectives : bleudtre, grisdtre, noirdtre, rougedtre, belldtre.* * The necessity of making the largest possible lists of words derived by the same process, is shown by this rare suffix. Menage explains mardtre to mean mater atra. This leaves the «, or eircnmflex accent, which regularly appears in the termination atre {astre) to be acconnted for, and the attempt to explain the rest of these derivatives in this manner, ends in absurdity. GENDEK, DEEITATION. 71 German Suffixes. § 92. The German suffix hart was used in Old High German chiefly for the formation of noiiiina personalia : ' Eberhart, Meinhart, Reinhart, Deganhart. In Middle High German (and English) it is also used for appellativa ; e. g. M. H. G. nithart, liighart ; E. drunkard, tankard, coward, bastard. The force of the sviffix is that of an augmentative, occasionally of a depreciative. In French, the number of substantives and adjectives formed by ard is very large. A considerable number of them are derived from verbal stems : bavard (baver), babillard (babiller), braillard (brailler), criard (crier), fuyard (fuir), grognard (grogner), pendard (pendre), pillard (piller). Others are from nominal bases : batard (b§,t), bequillard (b^quille), cagnard (canis), couard (cauda),* gueulard (gueule), mouflard (moufle), mouchard (monche), soudard (solde), vieil- lard (vieil), montagnard (montagne), billard (bille), brassard (bras), cuissard (cuisse), mignard (G. minne, love), hagard,\ blafard. According to German precedent, a large number of personalia are formed in ard and art : Bernard, Bayard, Blanchard, Erai'd, Regnard, Ronsard, Sicard, Havard, Abeil- lard, Bejard, Bejart, Gambart, Giffart, to which may be added Savoyard. Names of animals : canard, chevriLlard, renard, beccard {-de, f.), grisard. Names of things : brancard, etendard, petard, iioignard, brooard, flambart. Feminines are : la moutarde (mustum), la nasarde (nasus), la mansarde (Mansard, nom. prop.). The German suffix aid {yald) seems, like the preceding one, to have been used originally for the formation of proper names, a large number of which siirvive to this day in Lombardy : Garibaldi (Weribald), Grimaldi, Bertaldi, Rinaldo. In French the suffi.v, with vocalised I, is appended both to verbal and adjectival bases: badaud, bagaud, courtaud, Jinaud, lourdaud, nigaud, ribaud, rougeaud, suligaud, richaud, clabaud, pataud, crapaud, herbaut, levraut, heraut. The number of these words was by far larger in Old French. Numerous are the family names : Amauld, Arnault, Marivault, Brunault, Bonald, Ferrault, Michault, Regnault, Rigault, Hunauld, Pinault. To these must be reckoned Saint-Cloud (Ghlodowald). * Ital. codardo, one who turns tail. t Hagard, generally derived from O. E. haiike, M. E. hawk. But it is more likely that the E. subst. haggard is from hawlc, and that the adj. is 10 be brought into connection with E. hag, G. hager, hexe, &c. 72 PALESTRA GALLICA. French Suffixes. § 93. The three suffixes at, et, ot, m. ; or ate, ette, otte, f., are peculiar to the Romance languages. They have been derived by some from the Celtic diminutive suffixes that, nat, net, nit ; by others from the Germanic suffixes aht, eht, iht, oht. Their great antiquity is proved by the Lex Salica : ' Si quis capritum sive capram furatus fuerit.' Owing to their antiquity, these suffixes have lost their force in some derivatives of compara- tively early formation. The suffix at has been preserved in Modem French only in goujat and verrat. In Old French it was used more fre- quently : aiglat, louvat. This suffix must not be confounded with participial derivatives such as opiat, forqat, mielldt. By far the most frequent of these three suffixes is et, ette : harillet, bassinet, cochet, jardinet, livret, poulet, rouet, sachet, loquet, navet, bouquet, ceinturette, chaussette, chemisette, chanson- nette, Jillette, historiette, maisonnette, manchette, villette, alouette, corvette, sornette, levrette. Very frequently this suffix is used for the formation of diminutives from personal names : Michelet, Jacquet, Blanchet, Gondorcet, Annette, Antoinette, Georgette, Juliette, Louisette. Often et appears as a secondary diminutive suffix : archelet, agnelet, annelet, chdtelet, corselet, sachelet, femm£lette, tartelette, Perrinet. The suffix has lost its diminu- tive force in bouquet, bracelet, couplet, navet, valet, loquet, etiquette, lorgnette, lunette, anisette. Ot, otte has also lost its diminutive ibrce in cachot, abricot, mulot, javelot, capote, linotte ; and in many family names : Abbot, Amelot, Brissot, Guiot, Petitot, Perrot, Oudinot, Marat, Clicquot. In Christian names, on the other hand, it has preserved its diminutive force : Margot, Pierrot, Chariot, Henriot, Jacot, Charlotte, and in Hot, hachot, bergerot. In a few rare cases this suffix has the force of an augmentative, as in ballot, gelinotte. OF THE ADJECTIVE. § 94. The loss of the neuter class of substantives entailed as a necessary consequence the loss of a .separate neuter form for the adjective. The neuter form is grammatically only pre- served in the substantive use of the adjective, as le beau. The majority of Latin adjectives ending in us, a, um, the normal form for the two genders of French adjectives, cor- ADJECTIVES. 73 respoads to us, a : bon (bonus), bonne (bona), vain (vanus), vaine (vana). § 95. Nevertheless, some Latin adjectives in us, a, um, become in French adjectives of one termination : (a) those in idus, a, um (rapide, cupide, avide) ; (b) those in anus, a, um {contraire, litteraire, primaire*) ; (c) those in orius, a, um (meritoire, oratoire) ; (rf) those in icus, a, um (classique, 7'ustique, aulique) ; (e) those in imus, a, um (maritime, legitime, sublime, douzihne, irentieme, etc.); (/) those which after throwing off the Latin suffix take for the sake of euphony a mute final e (ferme, ample, digne,fixe, vaste, superbe, ronde). The small number of Latin adjectives in er, a, um, which are preserved in French, are adjectives of one terraination : pauvre, tendre, apre, libre, sinistra, dextre. Adjectives in er, is, e, become in French adjectives of one termination : aigre (acer, oris, ere), champetre, sylvestre, celebre, salubre, pe'destre, e'questre. All Latin adjectives in is, e, were originally in French adjectives of one termination. In Modern French a great many of these have gradually become adjectives of two ter- minations : doux, douce (dulcis, e), fort, forte (fortis, e), grand, grande (grandis, e), bref, breve (brevis, e) ; and pai'ticulaily those in alis : tel, telle (talis, e), quel, quelle (qualis, e), fatal, fatale (fataUs, e), mortel, mortelle (mortalis, e). The majority, however, have remained in Modern French adjectives of one termination : triste, utile, aimable, fidele. § 96. In Old French all Latin adjectives of two temiinations had but one termination for the two genders : un horns loials, une fame loials ; des ordres royalx, des lettres royalx. Amongst the adjectives of this class which have passed and are passing into the class of adjectives of two terminations, some ti-aces of this uniform termination may still be discovered. Thus the adjective grand has remained uniform in grand'mere, grand'- messe, grand'route, grand' rue, grand' tante, where the apostrophe has been put in later times for a mute e, which has been .sup- posed to have been thrown out. So far from this being the case, this adjective seems even in these combinations to be assuming a separate form for the feminine, as the more modern mode of spelling in grande messe, grande rue, clearly proves. Another remnant of this formation is preserved in. the rule that the participle present, when used adjectively, is invariable as long as it retains the full meaning of the verb and expresses * But aXao premier, ipremiere. E 74 PAL^STKA GALLICA. an action and not a quality. But even this participle is frequently treated like an adjective of two terminations : Le go&t, la rime, en poe'sie, Tharmonie, les figures decident, says Aubertin.* § 97. Latin adjectives of one termination are also in French adjectives of common gender {feroce, vorace). But all those from original participles present pass into the class of adjec- tives of two terminations: plaisant, plaisante (placentem), ardent, ardente (ardentem). § 98. The declension of adjectives is like that of substan- tives. The Old French declension of adjectives followed more closely the Latin declension : — Masc. Fern. Nam. Stag, bons (bonus) bone (bona) Cos. Obi. bon (bonnm) bone (bonam) Norn. Hur. bon (boni) bones (borne) Cos. Obi. bons (bonos) bones (bonas) And for adjectives of one termination : — JVem. Sing, temporels Cos. Obi. temporal Nam. Plivr. temporel Cos. Obi. temporels § 99. The fonnation of the plural of adjectives in al is not settled. The Academie observes a discreet silence in the case of many doubtftil words. The general rule is to form the plural in aux. But the Old French form als is preserved in amieals, fatals, finals, frugals, glacials, initials, labials. Unguals, matinals, medials, natals, navals, ovals, pascals, penals, the'd- trals, virginals, vocals. French grammarians and authors use these adjectives in al vrith a somewhat ludicrous timidity, and recommend, as the safest rule, to avoid using them in the masculine plural, and to say, for instance, instead of combats navals, combats de mer ; or, instead of les Allemands soni musicaux (George Sand), to say, les Allevmnds ont heaucoup de talent pour la musique. The plurals especially to be avoided are those of austral, boreal, canonial, conjugal, fatal, filial, final, frugal, jovial, pastoral, nasal, total, special, nuptial, pectoral, and others. But of the majority of these words plurals may be found, in good authors, both in als and aux. Many of them are of rare occurrence, and have scarcely become naturalised inFrench."|' * See on this subject, Jullien, Traiii de Grammaire Frangaise, and Aubertin, Grammaire Tnoderne des J^lcriuains Frangais. t This pedantry has supplied Boursault with the material for an amusing scene in his 'Le Mercure Galant' (act iv. scene 7) : — ADJECTIVES. 75 § IGO. The comparative of adjectives was formed in Latin by the suffix ior, ius, and the superlative by issimvs, a, um. In the case of adjectives whose crude form ends in a vowel, the Eomans, for the sake of euphony, used the adverb magis La Bissole. Vous saurez que toujours je fus homme de guerre, £t brave sur la mer autant que sur la terre. J'^tais sur un raisseau quand Ruyter fut tuA, Et j'ai m^ine a sa mort le plus contribui : Je fus ohercher le feu que Ton mit a I'amorce Du canon qui lui fit rendre r8,me par force. Lui mort, les Hollandais sufirirent bien des mals ! On fit couler k fond les deux -vies-amiraU. MKRLIlf. II faut dire des mau;t, vice-amiraux. C'est I'ordre. La Eissole. Les vice-amiraux done ne pouvaut plus nous mordre, ]S^os coups aux ennemis furent des cow^a fata/ux; Nous gagndmes sur eux quatre combats navaux Meelin. II faut Aiiefatah et navals. C'est la r4gle. La Eissole. Les HoUandais rAduits a du biscuit de seigle, Ayant connu qu'en Dombre ils ^taient inigals, Firent prendre la fuite aux vaisseaux principals Meelin. II faut dire inegaux, principaux, C'est le terme. La Rissole. Enfin, aprjs cela nous fumes a Palermo. Les bourgeois a I'envi nous firent des rigaux : Les huit jours qu'on y fut furent huit carnavaux. Merlin. II faut dire rigals et carnavals. La Eissole. Oh! dame, M'interrompre a tous coups, c'est me chiffonner I'dme Eranchement. Meelin. Parlez bien. On ne dit point navaux, Ni fataux, ni rkgaux, non plus que carnavaux. Vouloir parler ainsi, c'est faire une sottise. E 2 76 PAliESTRA GAXLICA. for the comparative, and maxtme for the superlative. In the decay of the Latin inflections, the Romance languages adopted La K1SS01.E. Eh, moidie ! Comment done vooIez-TOUs qne je dise ? Si vous me reprenez lorsque je dis des mats, Ineg«»'«orerae, persona. The derivation of the following is plain enough: — autre, alter quiconque, guicun^ue autrui, alter queleonque, gualiscungue chaque, quiague tout, totus chacun, quisque unus nul, nullus quelque, quaUsquam tel, talis quelqu'un, qualisqiie unus aiicun, aliqtd unus 88 PALfiSTRA GALLICA. Plusieurs is a comparative formed from a comparative, a form like pluriores. A similar aberration of grammar is formd in the German mehrere. Beaucoup, literally, a fine stroke. The derivation from bella copia is inadmissible ; copia is in French, and never could be anything but copie. The u of coup is evidently a vocalised I. Compare the Italian colpire, to strike. Meme from semet ipsissimus, or rather from a contracted form like met-ipstmus. JUaint, from Goth, manags, O. H. G. manac, M. G. manch. Some Old French indefinite pronouns have been lost in Modern French : — al, el {alind) alquant, alkant, anqaznt (aliqitaniits) molt, mult ; pi. mulz, multes {multits) nesun, nisun (ne ipsum untii) Buns («e iinHs) nelui, nului {nuUus) OF THE VERB. § 122. French Verbs have been divided by descriptive grammarians into four regular conjugations, according to the termination of their infinitives. These four infinitives — er, ir, oir and re — they represent as corresponding to the Latin in- finitives in are, ire, ere, and ere respectively. According to the last edition of the DictionDaire de I'Academie, more than 3,400 verbs end in the infinitive in ei; 350 in ir, about 50 in oir, and about 240 in re. It will be seen presently that not all verbs in oir are derived from verbs in ere, some being from verbs in ere, whilst those in er, though chiefly derived from verbs of the first Latin conjugation, are also derived from verbs of the three other conjugations. This passage of verbs from one conjugation into the other had begun in the classical period of the Latin tongue, as fervere and fervere, frendere and fren- dere testify. § 123. Comparative grammarians reduce the ordinary four Latin conjugations to two, — the Vowel Conjugation and the Consonant Conjugation. The latter contains those verbs whose crude form ends in a consonant or u (p), i.e. the third conju- gation of ordinary grammars ; the former those who.se crude form ends in one of the vowels a, e, I, i.e. the first, second, and fourth conjugations of ordinary grammars. The chief distinc- tion of these conjugations is seen in the formation of the perfect which is formed in the consonant conjugation (a) by appending CONJUGATIONS. 89 the suffix I to the crude form, and lengthening the radical vowel if it should happen to be short : %-o, leg-i ; in-cud-o, cud-i ; (6) by prefixing the reduplication : posc-o, po-posc-i; pang-o, pe-pig-i; (c) by the iise of the connecting consonants s or v, which latter after a consonant is changed into u : carp-o, carp-s-i; col-o, col-u-i. The vowel conjugation Ibrms its perfect by appending vi to the crude form : amd-vi, dele-vi, audi-vi. Applying this principle to the French conjugation, we shall find that the three conjugations in er, ir, and re are the repre- Fentatives of the Latin vowel conjugation ; whilst that in oir continues the consonant conjugation. § 124. The first French conjugation («»•') contains, besides a large number of Latin verbs in are — aimer (amare), porter (por- tare), chanter (cantare), appeler (appellare), creer (creare) — a great many of the consonant conjugation (in ire") : affluer (af- fiuere), eider (cedere), contrihuer (contribuere), eriger (erigere), negliger Cnegligere), opprimer (opprimere), obstruer (obstruere), resister (resistere), tisser (texere) ; and a great many in ere, which belong partly to the vowel and partly to the consonant conjugation : absorber (absorbere), exercer (exercere), per~ suader (persuadere), reviver (revereri). Verbs in ire rarely pass into the first French conjugation : tousser (tussire), mouiller (mollire), clmtouiller (catulire), of which mmiiller, ehaiouiller seem to presuppose some intermediate form like molliare, catulliare. § 125. The second French conjugation must be subdivided in two classes : (a) verbs of the simple or primitive form ; and (6) verbs of the enlarged or inchoative form. From a desire of having a fuller and more expressive form, the French lan- guage frequently adopted the Latin inchoative form, simply on account of its fuller sound, and without assigning to it any other meaning than that of the Latin primitive. Or the Latin inchoative suffix gradually lost its force. The Latin inchoative form is confined to the French present (sing.) and imperfect (sing, and pi.), indicative and subjunctive (sing, and pi.), and to the participle present. Originally confined to verbs from the Latin in esco — noircir (nigrescere), eclaircir (exclarescere), gemir (in-gemiscere), fleurir (florescere), durcir (durescere), rougir (rnbescere), palir (palescere), abolir (abolescere) — the French inchoative form was gradually extended to verbs, which have no corresponding etymon in esco : pirir, punir, finir, ravir, rigir. Besides Latin verbs in ire, the second French conjugation contains a large nvimber pf verbs in ere of the consonant conjugation, and in ere, which 90 PALSSTRA GAILICA. partly follow the consonant conjugation : agir (agere), applau- dir (stpplaudere), convertir (convertere), fle'chir (flectere), fremir (fremere), ravir (rapere), regir (regere), trahir (tradere), fuir (fugere), envahir (invadere), cueillir (coUigere), fieurir (florere), resplendir (resplendere), abolir (abolere), etnplir, remplir, aceompUr (implere). A few are derived from O. H. G. verbs in jan: Aair (hatjan), rutir (rostjan), fimrnir (frum- jan), fmirhir (fiirbjan), ehoisir (chiusan), honm'r (honjan), brandir, bruii; croupir, garnir, meurtrir. § 126. The French conjugation in re (commonly called the fourth) differs from the simple or primitive form of the second only by its infinitive in re and its past participle in «. It con- tains verbs in ere : vendre (vendere), craindre (tremere), fendre (findere); with several in er« : tondre (tondere), se- mondre (semonere), repondre (respondere), mordre (mordere), tordre (torquere). § 127. Though the French conjugation bears such a striking resemblance to the Latin conjugation, that their identity - cannot for a moment be doubted, yet we see at a glance that a large number of the Latin inflections have been entirely lost, or are in a greatly advanced state of phonetic decay. The deponent verbs, wherever they are preserved in French, have assumed the active form : consoler (consolari), suivre^ (sequi), naitre (nasci), mourir (mori), imiter (imitari). This process of changing the active form for the deponent had made considerable progress amongst the verbs of the first conjuga- tion, even in the classical period. Cicero and Viigil use both populo and poptdor, mnnero and muneror. Cicero prefers the forms au^picor, oscitor, fabricor, whilst Plautus and Terence, together with the later writers, say auspico, oscito, fabrico. Also deponent verbs of other conjugations began to assume the active form, like partiri and dispertiri. A gradual transition seems observable in the infinitive moriri : Cupidus moriri (Ov. Metam. xiv. 215). Moriri sese misere mavolet, quam nan per- feetum, reddat quod promiserit (Plant. Asia. i. 1, 108). Set nunc se ut ferunt res foi'tunceque nostrce, moririst par nee meliust morte in miseriis (Id. Rtid. iii. 3, 12). But in Low Latin aU deponents are conjugated like the active voice. The passive voice was defective even in Latin, and the wanting tenses and moods were expressed by periphrasis with the verb esse. This method was extended in French to the re- maining tenses and moods. Only the perfect participle of the passive (amatus, aime) was retained, as its existence was neces- sitated hj the periphrastic formation of the passive. The in- CONJUGATIONS, 91 finitive also, which in Latin was only distingtdshed by the final e or i, retains its passive force, and the French infinitive, after rejecting the distinguishing mark, may be considered as a fusion of the Latin infinitive active and passive: Cette, marchandise est a prendre, a laisser. Cela est a /aire, a revoir, a recommencer (Acad.). Une seule remarque reste afaire (Ch&teaubriand). The loss of the Latin passive voice and the deponent is re- placed in French by the reflective or pronominal verb : Le spectacle se donnait (dabatur) en Vhonneur des dieux (Mme. de Stael). Rien ne s'y voyait plus (videbatar), ^as 7neme des debris (De Vigny). Tin en s'ere<«nd (auditur) (Alfred de Vigny). This use of the reflective verb, instead of the passive, seems quite natural, when we consider the intimate connexion between the two forms. The Latins had many passive forms with a purely reflective meaning : delector, crucior,fallor, feror, coinmoveor, inclinor, mutor, vertor. § 128. The gradual phonetic decay of the Latin conjuga- tion, the connexion of the Modern French conjugation with it and its derivation, will be best seen by comparing the sub- joined simple tenses of the Old French regular conjugation, in the Burgundian dialect, with the corresponding Latin and Modern French tenses. Indicative. Present. I. n. a. n. 6. III. chant(e) part flor-is (x) vend chant-es par-s (z) flor-is ven-s (z) chant-et part-et, part flor-ist vend-et, vend chant-ons part-ons flor-issons vend-on 3 ehant-eiz, -ez part-eiz flor-isseiz Tend-eiz chant-eut part-ent Impe flor-issent rfect. vend-ent chant-eve part-ote flor-issoie vend-oie chant-eves part-oies flor-issoies vend-oies ehant-evet part-oit flor-issoit vend-oit chant-iens part-iens floMssiens vend-iens chant-iez part-iez flor-issiez rend-iez chant-event part-oieut Per flor-issoient feet. vend-oient chant-ai part-i flor-i vend-i chant-as part-is flor-is vend-ia chant-at part-it flor-ifc vend-it chant-ames part-imes flor-imes vend-iraes chant-astes part-istes flor-istes vend-istes chant-a,rent part-irent flor-irent vend-irent 92 PiLESTBA 6AXLICA. Future. I. II. a. II. i. III. chant-erai part-irai flor-irai vend-rai chant-eras part-iras flor-iras vend-ras ehant-erat part-irat flor-irat vend-rat chant-erons part-irons flor-irons vend-rons ehant-exeiz part-ireia flor-ireia vend-reiz chant-eront partiront flor-iront vend-ront Conjunctive, Present. chant-6 part-e flor-isse Tend-e chant-es part-es flor-isses Tend-es chant-et part-et flor-isset vend-et ehant-iens part-iens flor-issiens vend-iens chant- iez part-iez <}or-issi6z vend-iez chant-ent part-ent flor-issent vend-ent Imperfect. chant-asse part-isse flor-isse vend-isse chant-asses part-isses flor-isses vend-isses chant-ast part-ist flor-ist Tend-ist chant-assiens part-issiens flor-issiens vend-issiens ehant-assiez part-issiea flor-issiez vend-issioz chant-asseDt part-issent flor-issent vend-issent Conditional. chant- eroie part-iroie ■flor-iroie vend-roie chant-eroies part-iroies flor-iroies vend-roies chant-eroit parl>iroit flor-iroit Tend-roit chant-eriens part-iriens flor-iriens Ycnd-riens chant-eriez part-iriez flor-iriez Tend-riez chant-eroient part-iroient flor-iroient vend-roient Imperative. chant-e part flor-is vend vend-eiz chant-eiz part-eiz flor-isseiz Infinitive. chant-eir, -er part-ir | flor-ir_ Geednd. 1 vend-re «hant-ant part-ant | flor-issant Participle. vend-ant chant-eit, reie part-it, -ie flor-it, -ie 1 vend-uit, -uie CONJUGATIONS. 93 § 129. From this it appears that the only inflected Latin tenses preserved in French are the indicatives of the present, imperfect and perfect, the conjunctives of the present and plus- quamperfeotum, the imperative and infinite active, and of the passive voice only the participle perfect. The subjoined tables show the Latin suffixes with their corresponding Old French and Modern French representatives. The dialectic variations are given in the column of Old French suffixes. I. FISST CONJUGATION. Indicative. Present. LatiB. Old French. Modem French -o -e -as -es -es -at -et -ed -e -e -amiis -ons -omes -ommes -um -ons -atis -eiz -es -ez -ez -ant -ent Imperfect. -ent -abam -eve -oie -one -ois -ais -abas -eves -oies -cues -ois -ais -abat -evet -oit -out -oit -ait -abamiis -iens -iemes -iomes -ium -ions -abatis -ieiz -ies -iez -iez -abant -event -oient -ouent Perfect. -oient -aieut -avi -ai -ai -avisti -ais -as -as -avit -ait -at -ad -a -a -avimiis -ames -asmes -kmea -aristis -astes -4te3 -averunt -ere -erent (-arent) Conjunctive. Present. -&rent ■em -e -e -es -es -es -et -et -ed -e -e emus -iens -ions -iemes -iom -ium -ions etis -ieiz -ies -iez -iez ent -ent -ent 94 PALjESTEA gallica. Latin, -avissem -avisses -avisset -avissemus -avissetis -avissent Plusquamperfect. Old French. Modem French -aisse -asse -aisses -asses -aist -ast -assiens -assions -assiemes -assiiim -assieiz -assies -assiez -aissent -assent -as -asses -4t -assions -assiez -assent Imperative. -(e) -e Infinitive. -eir (-ier) -er -er -andum -antem -atus Geeond and Pakticiple. -ant -eit -et -ed -ant -k § 130. n. SECOND CONJUGATION. (a.) Simple Form. Indicative. Present. -10 -is -it -imiis -itis -iunt -iebam -iebas -iebat -iebamiis -iebatis -iebant -ivi -ivisti -ivit -iTimiis -ivistis -iverant, -ere -ons -omes -ommes -ura -eiz -es -ez -ent Imperfect. -oie -eie -oies -eies -oit -eit -iens -iemes -iomes -ium -ieiz -ies -iez -oient -eient -IS it ■imes (-ismes) °stes rent -s -s -t -ons -ez -ent -ois -ais -ois -ais -oit -ait -ions -iez -oient -aient -IB -is -it -imes -Ites -irent CONJUGATIONS. 95 Conjunctive. Present. Latin. Old Fiench. Modem Fiench -iam -e -e -ias -es -es -iat -et -ed -e -e -iamiis -iess ions -iemes -iomes -ium -ions -iatifs -ieiz ■ ies -iez -iez -iant -ent Pliisquamperfect. -ent -ivissem -isse -isse -ivisses -leases -isses -iyisset -ist -Jt -iTissemiis -issiene -assioBS -assiemes -assium -issions -ivissetis -issieiz -isaies -issiez -issiez -ivissent -issent Impeeative. -issent -i 1 - Infinitive. l-s -iendum -ientem -itns Gerund and Paeticiples. -ant -it -i -ant -i § 131. (b). Enlarged or Inchoative Form. Indicative. Present. -isco -esco -IS ■13 -is '^^ V -ist -Imus -issong, etc. ■Ms -issieiz, etc. iunt -issent escebam -issoie, ete. eseebas -issoies, etc. eseebat -isBoit, et c escebamiis -jssiens, etc. ■escebatifs -issieiz, etc. escebant -issoient -IS -is -it -issons -iesez -issent -issois -issais -issois -issais -issoit -iseait -issions -issiez -issoient -issaient (As in the Simple Form.) 96 PALiESTEA GALLICA. CONJDNCTIVE. Present. Latin. OM FrencU. Modem French escam -isse -isse escas -isses -isses escat -isset, etc. -isse escamus -issiens, etc' -issions escatis -issieiz, etc. -issiez escant -isseut -issent -escendum -entem §132. in. ■Fliisguamperfect. (As in the Simple Form.) Gerund and Participle. -issant TSIMD CONJUGATION. Indicative. Fresent. -issant -eo — -s -es -z -s -s -et -t -t -emus -ons, etc. -ons -etis -eiz, etc. -ez -ent -ent Imperfect. -ent -ebam -oie eie -ois -ais -ebas -oies eie -ois -ais -ebat -oit eit -oit -ait -ebamiis -iens, etc -ions -ebatis -ieiz, etc. -iez -ebant -oient - eient -oient -aient Perfect. -btI -i -is -eTisti -is -is -eni -it -i -it -evimiis -imes (-ismes) -imes -evistis -istes -ites -everunt -ere -irent -irent Conjunctive. Present. -earn -e -e -eas -es -es -eat -et, etc. -e -eamiis -iens, etc -ions -eatas -ieiz, etc. -iez -eant -ent -ent Latin. Imperfect. Old French. • Modem Fienoh evissem -isse -isse evisses evisset -isses -ist -isses -it evissemus ■ evissetis evissent -issiens, etc. -issieiz, etc. -issent -issions -issiez -issent Imperative. -5 - Infinitive. l-s -ere -re (-oir) 1 -re (-oir) Gerund and Participle. -endum -entem -etus(-uitus, -utus^ -ant -uit -ut -ud -u -ant -u 97 No account is taken in the above table of verbs whose pre- terite ends in us, us, ut, Ames, utes, urent, vs-hich are small in number, and follow the consonant or irregiilar conjugation. In the regular verb, the following forms (using the cu.stomaiy Brench names) are identical : (a.) the indicative imperfect and subjunctive present, with the exception of the enlarged second conjugation ; (S.) the preterite, with the exception of the first conjugation ; (c.) the participle present, with the ex- ception of the enlarged form of the second conjugation. § 133. A new tense and a new mood are formed in French by using the abbreviated present and imperfect of the aux- iliary verb avoir (habere) as suffixes ; viz. the future and con- ditional : aimer-ai, aimer-as, aimer-a = amare habeo, habes, habet and aimer-ais (avais), aimerais (avais), aimerait {avait) ^ amare habebam, habebas, habebat. § 134. A comparison of the above tables shows the follow* ing general results as to the personal suffixes of verbs : — (a.) Unaccented vowels of personal suffixes, whether final or not, are rejected : sens (sentio and senti), sentes (sentias), pars (partio and parti), aimons (amamus). In Modern French the rejection of a final vowel is sometimes marked by a mute e, where in Old French simply the stem of the verb was used : M. F. chante, O. F. chant, L. canto ; M. F. aime, O. F. aini, L. amo ; M. F. supplie, O. F. supply, L. supplico. (S.) Final consonants, especially m and <, are rejected: F 98 PALSSIBA GAILICA. ai7ne (amem, amat, amet), dormisse (donnivissem), mentant (mentienditm, mentientem), aimas, (amasti),^m, (finitus). (c.) Syncope of a vowel and consonant takes place in the second person plural, where of tis only the final s otz remains : aimez (amatis), etes (estis), partites (partivistis). (d.) An inoiganic s, which makes its first appearance in the fourteenth century, is gradually added to the first person of the present of the second and third conjugation (finis, pars, vends ; but not in fouvre, je souffre, etc.), and to the first per- son of all imperfects (aimais, finissais, vendais'). This s had probably its origin in a confusion of the first and second per- sons. In some instances, as in imperatives before y and en, ita origin is euphonic : vas-y, cueilles-y, donnes-en. In forms ending in a double vowel this s was not used by Molifere, Comeille, and Eacine, who wrote : je croi, voi, sui, je tien, etc. Poets have retained these forms in rhymes to the present day : — Eh t vous n'^tes done pas sorcier? — Pas pins que toi. Mais que savez-vous done? — Je sais ce que je voi. Ponsard. (e.) The t of the third person singular, which was preserved in Old French, has been lost in the affirmative and negative form of the verb in Modem French. In the interrogative form it is still preserved both in writing (between two hy- phens) and in pronunciation : a-t-il, aime-t-il, aima-t-il, aimera-t-il. (f.) The forms ois and ais belonged originally to different dialects, but gradually ^ latter form became general. In 1675 Berain, avocat au parlement de Eouen, proposed the substitution of ais for ois. Latouche, in his ' Art de bien parler Fran9ais' (16W:), teaches that ehantois, chanterois, etc., are to be pronounced chantais, chanterois. The form ais became universal through its adoption by Voltaire, and is hence commonly called the Voltairian orthography. The change was sanctioned by the Aca^mie only in 1835. The change was Atrther extended to verbs in oitre and their de- rivatives — connaatre, connaissance ; instead of connoitre, con- noissance ; to some other verba, as faibUr instead of foiblir ; and to adjectives in oi*:. Anglais, Frangais, instead oiAtiglois, Franqois. To the present day we findi hamois, roide, roidir, roideur, as well as harnais, raide, raidir^ raideur, though the latter seems to be the more usual form, in speaking. The old form and pronunciation have been preserved in Hongrois, Vau- dois, Chinois, Ge'nois, Carthaginois, etc. CONJUGATIONS. 99 (g.) The final r of the infinitive was audible in Old French. The Picardian form ler was gradually displaced by the Norman form er. In the process of rejecting the dialectic i, Modern French has occasionally rejected an i belonging to the stem, as in commencer (com-initiare), embrasser (im-bracchiare). (A.) All verbs of the simple form of the second conjugation end, with the exception oi fair, in their crude forms in a double consonant : ment-ir, dorm-ir, serv-ir. They therefore throw out the final n, m, t or v of the crude form before s and t, in order to prevent the accumulation of three consonants : dors, dort ; mens, ment ; repens, repent ; sens, sent ; pars, part ; sors, sort ; sers, sert. Vetir, having rejected s before t, forms its present according to the general rule, i.e. vets, like fuis from fuire. (i.) Verbs of the second conjugation, whose crude form ends in U, vr,fr, take, instead of the inorganic s, an e: saille, cueille, ouvre, couvre, offre, souffre, and take throughout the indicative and subjunctive present the inflections of the first conjugation. Only houilUr takes s : je lous. In the future cueillir, with its compounds accueillir, re- Cueillir follows the first conjugation : cueillerai, etc. (k.) Verbs of the third conjugation differ from the simple form of the second only by their infinitive in re and the past participle in u. In the third person singular of the present indicative, verbs of this conjugation, whose crude form ends in d, retain this d and reject the inflectional t : il repondy instead of repond-t. In battre, one t is rejected before an inflectional t or s : je bats, il bat. In coudre, which stands for cousr^e (consuere), the original Latin s reappears in cousons, Gousis, cousu (consutus). (Z.) Verbs with an intercalated d (ndre), from the Latin verbs in ngere, nguere and mere, throw out the intercalated d of their infinitives and futures in the monosyllabic forms of the present and imperative. In all other fprms of more than ■one syllable, they change n in ng. To this class belong: ceindre (cingere), e'teindre (extinguere), etreindre (stringere), contraindre (constringere), astreindre, restreindre (restringere), feindre (fingere), enfreindre (infringere), peindre (pingere), plaindre (plangere), teindre (tingere), atteindre (attingere), joindre (jungere), conjoindre, dejoindre, disjoindre, enjoindre, oindre (ungere), poindre (pungere), e'preindre (exprimere), empreindre (imprimere), craindre (tremere, O. F. cremer, cremir, crembre). F 2 100 PALSSTKA GALLICA. IV. CONSONANT CONJUGATION. § 135- The consonant conjugation is older than the vowel or regular conjugation. The tendency of the language is to absorb verbs of Qie consonant conjugation gradually into the vowel conjugation, whence it happens that many verbs belong- ing iu Latin to the former have been received in French into the latter, particularly those in indre and uire. § 136. As in Latin the perfect is made the criterion for distinguishing the conjugation of a verb (see § 123), so in French the corresponding tense, the preterite, is the form ac- cording to- which verbs are classified in the consonant conju- gation. Theis infinitives, which are the guides of descriptive grammarians, end either in oir, re, or ir. They are divided into the following three classes : — (a.) Verbs which form their preterite by modifying the radical vowel into i and without adding any temporal sufiSix : inf. ven-ir, pret. O. F. ving, vine. The final s of the Modem French vins is inorganic. (See § 134 d.) (6.) Verbs which form &eir preterites in an s, which has its origin in an s of the Latin conscmant conjugation : mis (misi), eonclus (conclusi), dis (dixi),_^s (feci ; compare fksim^ faxo). (c.) Verbs which form their preterite in us (O. F. ui). The Old FreDich termination i was rejected when the inorganic s was added to the first person. The termination us shows it- self especially in the preterite of verbs in oir, which are derived irom Latin verbs in ere with a perfect in ui : M. F. dus, O. F. dui, L. debui (debere) ; M. F. tus, O. F. tui, L. tacui (tacere) ; M. F. voulus, O. F. voului, L. volui (volere). But it has been subsequently extended to other verbs, especially those which form their Latin perfects in vi, hi, pi : M. F. con- nus, O. F. conui, L. cognovi (cognoscere) ; M. F. crus, 0. F. ci-ui, L. crevi (crescere) ; mus (movi), repus (pavi), resolus (resolvi) ; M. F. hus, O. F. bui, L. hihi (bibere) ; M. F. con^Sj 0. F. concui, L. concepi (concipere), re^s (recepi, recipere). § 137. The following tables show the conjugation of the three forms of the preterite of the consonant conjugation both in Old and Modem French : — UUJMJUUATlUJMiS. (a.) First Class. Indicative. Old Prench. Modem French. Ti ■vis veis vis vit vit reimes (ismes) vimea veistes vites virent virent SuBJtnsiCTlVE. v«isse visse veisse visses veist, eta vit, etc (6.) Second Class Indicative. dis dis desis, deis dis dist dis desimes, deimes, dismes dimes desistes, deistes dites distrent, dissent, disent, dirent dirent Subjunctive, desisse, deisse disse desisses, deieses disses desist, etc. dit (c.) Third Class. Indicative. dui dus deus duB dut dut deumes, dusmes d^mes deustes d^ltes durent durent Subjunctive. deusse dusse deneses dusses deust, etc. dAt, etc. 101 The termination of the past participle of the consonant con- jugation is, like that of the preterite, threefold : (a) u .(O. F. 102 PALESTRA GALLICA. lilt, ut), which generally represents the Latin ttus : dA (debitus), connu (cognitus) ; (b.) s, which chiefly represents Latin parti- ciples in sus : mis (missus), pris (prensus, prehensus) ; (c) t, from Latin participles in tus : cuit (coctus), fait (factus), dit (dictus). The first and third subdivisioii of these verbs form their past participle mostly in u, the second in s and t. The following list contains all the Latin verbs of the con- sonant conjugation, which have been preserved in Modem French * : — § 138. Latin Inf. tenere venire videre I. FiEST Class. French Inf. tenir venir voir Pret. tm(s) viii(s) Ti(s) Past Part, tenu venu va § 139. csedere claudere dicere facere mittere prehendere ridere surgero trahere quserere sedere II. Seconb Class. circon-cire dore diie faire mettre prendre rire sourdre traire con-querir as-seoir circoncis clos dis fis mis pris ris conquis assis circoncis cloB dit fait mis pris ris trait conqnis § 140. babere concipere ealere cadere debere fallere moTere plnere ni. Third Class. avoir concevoir chaloir dA-ehoir devoir &lloiT mouToir plenvoir posse (=potere) pouvoir sapere savoir vaiere valoir velle ( = volere) vonloir con9iis (chalut) di-chus dus fallut muB plut pus sus valus voulus con9u (chain) dd-chu dit fallu mxL plu pn su vain vouln * Compound verbs are not included in this list; but where the simple verb has been lost in French, a representative compound has been chosen. CONJUaATIONS. Latin Inl, French laf Pret. Past Part. currere courir covirus coura jaeere gisiv (j"i. j"c) (jeut, jut) mori (moriri) mourir mourns mort bibere boire bus bu credere croiro crus cru crescere croitre criis crii legere lire lus lu molere moudre moulus moulu cognoscere eonnaitre connus connu pascere paJtre re-pus re-pu parere(paresoere)paraitre parus pani placere plaire plug plu solvere ab-sovdre ab-solus ab-sous tacere taire tas tu vivere vivre vJcus vAcu 103 § 141. All the verbs in oir form their future like the verbs in re : recevoir, recevrai ; savoir, saurai (savrai). Forms like verrai, de'cherrai, pourrai seem to indicate that assimila- tion has taken place in the infinitive voir=iverre, pouvoir= pourre. § 142. The subjunctive of the present of these verbs retains, generally speaking, a greater resemblance to the Latin sub- junctive than in verbs of the vowel conjugation: sache (sapiat), vaille (valeam), voie (videam), sois (sim). § 1^. Th« first, second, and third persons singular, and the third person plural present of these verbs, shows a phenomenon which somewhat resembles the German modification of the radical vowel, although this resemblance is merely apparent, and has a very different origin. In tiens, tient, tiennent ; viens^ vient, viennent, and so on, this reinforcing of the vowel seems to have its origin simply in the desire to strengthen the monosyllabic form of the verb, inasmuch as the original vowel reappears as soon as a syllable is added to the word : tenons, tevez ; venons, venez. In Old French this process was extended to many verbs of the vowel conjugation, as aimer and donner. The present of aimer, for instance, was ; — aim aimmes, aimes aimmet, aimme, aims amons ameiz, amez aiment, aimment § 144. It has been attempted to divide all French verbs into two conjugations, the strong and the weak, on the basis of 104 PAl^STEA GALLICA. this modification or reinforcement of the radical vowel. The process, however, has a mere outward resemblance to the modification of the vowel in the German conjugation. In the latter, new tenses are formed by the modification of the vowel, whilst in French it serves simply to give a little more body to a &ding form. AUXILIARY VERBS. § 145. The lost tenses and moods of the active and the whole of the passive voice are expressed periphrastically by the participle perfect and the auxiliary verbs avoir and etre. In the earlier stages of development the auxiliary avoir was also used with infinitives for the formation of tenses, and became gradually a new suflSx for the formation of the future and conditional : aur-ai ^ aver-ai = habere habeo ; ser-ai-=- essere-habeo ; aur-ais = habere habebam ; ser-ai = essere ha- bebam. § 146. The verb esse had been used already by the Romans for the formation of several tenses and moods of the passive voice. Its extended use in French was a natural consequence of the loss of the inflected passive. The infinitive etre was derived by Schlegel and Raynouard from stare. The use of stare for the formation of the imperfect, and the presence of the t support this view. On the other hand, the long e does not agree with this derivation. Diez and Burguy, therefore, derive etre from esse, or rather from essere, like tistre (for iis're) from texere* The Latin imperfect was preserved in the Old French : ere, teres, iert, erium, eriez, ierent. But in the earliest records we find stabam used as the imperfect of this auxiliary verb. Stare is used even in classical Latin in some combinations where it closely approaches the use of an auxiliaiy verb : Hannibal, postquam ipsi sententia stetit pergere ire (Liv, xxi. 30). Stat pectore fixum JEetce sociare manus (Val. Flacc. V. 289). And in the frequent phrase per me stat. Besides the imperfect etais (stabam), the past participle ete (status), and the participle present etant (standum, stantem), are derived from stare. § 147. The verb habere was frequently used by the Latins with a participle perfect passive as a pregnant circumlocution for the perfect : Inclusum in curia senatum habuerunt {Cic. Att. vi. 2, 8). Romulus habuit plebem in clientelas principum de- * Compare also connattre (cognoscere), nattre (nascere). ATIXILIAKT VERBS. 105 scriptam (Id. Bep. ii. 9). Si nondum eum satis habes cognitum (Id. Fam. xiii. 17, 3). De Ccesare satis dictum habebo (Id. Fhil. V. 19, 52). § 148. The following tables contain the simple tenses of the verbs avoir and etre in the three dialects of the langue d'Oil. The gradual phonetic decay will be apparent on comparing these ibrms with the corresponding Latin and Modern French fbrms : — Habere. BuigundlaB. Picardian. irorman. avoir avoir (aveir) Habeo. aver ai ai ai as, ais as as at, ait at, a ad avons avomes avum aveiz aves avez out ont Habebam. unt avoie avoie aveie avoies avoies aveies avoit avoit aveit ariens aviemes avium avieiz avies avies avoient avoient Habni. aveient aiii, oi, o im, euo u, ou auis, ois, os ^uia us aiiit, oit, ot iuit ut aiimes, etc. iuimes umes aiiistes, etc. ^uistes utes aiiisrent, etc. ^uirent Habere habeo. urent (aver-) aurai aurai aurai aurais auras auras aurait aurat aurad aurons aurommes aurum aureiz aures aurez auront auront Habere habebaia. aurunt aver- (aivr-) oie aver- (aur-) oie aver- (aur-) eie auroies auroies aureies aurolt auioit aureit auriens auriemes auriura aurieiz anries auriez auroient auroient F 3 aureient C K 106 PALESTRA GALLICA. Habeat, etc. Burgundian. Pioardian. Norman. aie aie eie aliens aiemes eium aieiz aies Habeam. eiez aie aie eie aies aies eies ait ait eit aiiens aiemes eium aieiz aies eiez aient aient Habuissem. eient aiisse Suisse, basse usse aiiESes iuisses usses aiist dnist ust aiissiens duissiemes ussum aiissieiz ^uissies ussiez aiissent ^uissent ussent Habentem, habendum. aiant aiant Habitus, a, um. eiant aut &ut ud § 149- Esse (Esseee). eelre iestre Standum, stantem. estre estant estant Status, a, um. estant esteit estet Sum. ested Buys, sui sui sui es ies es est est est Bomes Bommes sum estes iestes estes 8ont Bont Stabam. sunt estoie estoie esteie estoies estoie esteies estoit estoit esteit estiens esti ernes estiura estiez esties estiez estoieut estoient esteient AUXILIAKY VERBS. 107 Fui. Buigandian. Picardian. Nonnan. fui fui fili fuis fus fns fait filt fud iiiimes fumes fum fiiisces fustes fustes furent furent £s8e(re) habeo. furent serai serai serrai Berais seras serras serait serat serrad serons seromes Berrum sereiz seres serrez eeront seront Esse(re) habebam. serront seroie seroie serreie seroies seroies serreies seroit seroit serreit serieng seriemea serrium serieiz series serriez seroieut Geroient Sis, etc. serraient eois sois seie eoiens soiemes seium soieiz soies Sim. seiez soie soie seie soies soies seies Boit soit seit Boiena soiemes seium soieiz soies seiez soient soient Fuissem. seient fuise fuisse fusse. fuises fuisses fusses fuist faist fust fuisiens fuissiemes fussum fiiisiez fuissies fiissez fuiseut fuissent fussent DERIVATION OF VERBS. § 150. Verbs are derived either from nouns or from primi- tive verbs. All derivative verbs follow the vowel conjnga- 108 PALiESTKA GALLICA. tion ; the majority the first in er, and a few the second in ir. A modification of the vowel of the base is of rare occurrence : digne, daigner; has, bauser; — droit, dresser; /aim, affamer. The final consonant of the base frequently undergoes phonetic changes, the principal of which are : (a) Final / of the base changes into v ; chef, achever ; savf, sauver. (J.) Final x changes into s 01 ss; prix, priser ; paix, apaiser; toux, tousser. (c.) The final consonant is doubled : ias, entasser ; epdis, epais- ser; pas, passer; mol, mollir. {d.) Latin consonants which have been rejected by the French base,r eappear in the deriva- tive: corner (cor, cornu). (e.) Nasal n changes into ^fre : dedain, dedaigner ; soin, soigner ; gain, gagner ; also here the original forms dignor, etc., reappear, for from main is formed manier. {f.) A euphonic t is frequently added to bases ending in a vowel : abri, abriter ; clou, clouter. § 151. I. Verbs may be derived from nouns in three dis- tinct ways : (a) by adding the verbal suffix er to the nominal base ; (J) by adding er to a derivative substantive or adjec- tive ; (c) by proper verbal suffixes. (a.) From primitive substantives are derived : ambrer, (ambre), ancrer (ancre), auner (aune), couper (coup), camper (campus), ecumer (ecume), Jeter (fSte), ganter (gant), gommer (gomme), larder (lard), monter (mont), venter (vent).. Those from adjectives end frequently in ir : aigrir (aigre), blanchir (blanc), bleuir (bleu), blemir (blgme), che'rir (cher), froidir (froid), maigrir (maigre), pdlir (pile). A few are derived from particles: devancer (devant), jouter (juxta), outrer (outre, ultra). (b.) The restrictions observed by the Latins in forming verbs from nouns are broken down in the Lower Latinity, where we find such derivatives as viaticare, medicinare, christianare, mi- rabiliare, occasicnare, contrariare, consuetudinare, solatiare, vagabundare, parlamentare, sententiare. In fact, nearly all derivative substantives gave rise to verbs. Occasionally the derivative verb prefers the vowel of the original noun, though derived from a French derivative : contrarier, contraire, con- trarius. The following list contains verbs derived from almost all derivative nouns : — ade (ata) : barricader, pallisader, gambader. age (aticum) : avantager, m&ager, ravager, outragei^ voy- ager, envisager, partager, fourrager. al (alis, ale) : ^galer, signaler. ance, ence (entia) : fiancer, sentencier, engeancer, differen- cier, licencier. DEEITATION OF VERBS. 109 ard (hart) : bavarder, mignarder, bombarder, nasarder. as, asse, ace (aceus, acea) : embarrasser, cuirasser, crevas- ser, grimacer. dtre (aster) : folatrer, opiniS,trer. ail, eil, il, ouil (a- e- i- u-culus, a, um) : grailler, griller, aiguiller, grenouiller, verrouiller, gargouiller. aim (amen) : essaimer. aire (arius) : contrarier, salarier, vicarier. and (wait) : badauder, courtauder, nigauder. eau, el, elle (ellus, illus) : agneler, bateler, bourreler, cr^ne- ler, marteler, oiseler, amonceler. ele, elle (ela) : quereller. ent, ant (ens, ans, ntis) : absenter, diligenter, presenter, patienter, serpenter, 6pouvanter, plaisanter, ensanglanter, en- fenter. esse, ice (itia) : caresser, apparesser, justicier. ice (itium) : siipplicier. et, ette ; ot, otte : breveter, oacheter, caqueter, feuilleter, lo- queter, louveter, aiguilleter, chiooter, ballotter, mailleter, de- mailloter. eul, ol (81us) : flageoler, rossignoler. eur, our (or, oris) : savourer, labourer. eux, oux (osus) : jalouser, ventouser, creuser (corrosus). ide (idus) : liquider, intimider. ier (arius) : aci^rer. if (ivna): activer, joliver. in, ine (inus) : cheminer, discipliner, mariner, ruiner, enra- ciner. on (o, onis) : bouohonner, cramponner, crayonner, irisson- ner, gasconner, grisonner, rayonner. on, ion, tion, son, qon (tio, sio) : actionner, additionner, af- fectionner, cautionner, emprisonner, empoisonner, occasionner, raisonner, fa9onner, mentionner. u (utus) : bossuer. us (utis) : s'^vertuer. ule, cule, le (ulus, cuius) : formuler, craticuler, sangler. ume (udinem) : accoutumer. ure (ura) : aventurer, peinturer, manufacturer. land (bundus) : vagabonder. lent (lentus) : violenter. ment (mentum): alimenter, cimenter, parlementer, tour- menter, experimenter. time (timus) : legitimer. (c.) The suffixes which are used in Modem French for the 110 PALiEsTRA GALIilCA. formation of verbs are mostly of Latin origin. The follow- ing are the principal suffixes : — icare appears in French in the form of iquer, cher, ger, guer and ier. Words formed with this suffix in French generally prefer the latter form. Of Latin formation are : fabriquer (fabricare), communiquer (communicare), revendiquer (vindi- care), empecher (impedicare), mdcher (masticare), precher (predicare), /org'er (fabricare), ^Mg^er (judicare), manger (man- ducare), venger (vindicare), publier (publicare), communier (communicare), plier (plicare). Of French formation are : cdtoyer (cote), fetoyer (fete), Jlamboyer (flambe), foudroyer (foudre), cmidoyer (coude), guerroyer (guerre), larmoyer (larme), ond'oyer (onde), rudoyer (rude), nettoyer (net). The forms ayer and eyer are varieties of this suffix : begayer (b^gue), grasseyer (parler gras). issare, izare, is used as an equivalent of the Greek li^eiv in grmcissare, atticissare (iWriviltiv, firidi^civ). Originally it expressed imitation, but in Low Latin many verbs were formed by this suffix which express simply activity : baptizare, seandalizare. In French this suffix is very prolific : centraliser, diviniser, fertiliser, latiniser, naturaliser, legaliser,f rater niser, autoriser, tranquilliser, brutaliser, maitriser, e'conomiser, pul- veriser, ridiculiser^ familiariser. escere (iscere), used originally for the formation of inchoative and intransitive verbs, gradually becomes a suffix for the for- mation of transitive and factitive verbs. Of Latin formation are : durcir (duresoere), eclaircir (clarescere), noircir (nigre- scere). French formations are : etrecir (etroit), obscurcir, en- forcir, accournir, brunir, enche'rir, affaiblir, enorgueillir, at- tendrir, vieillir. ulare (uler) is mostly used for forming verbs with a diminu- tive meaning. Of Latin formation are : cumuler (cumulare), moduler (modulari), pulluler (pullulaxe). Of French for- mation : ebranler (branca), fourmiller (formica), habiller (= habitulare). Hare (iler): ventiler (ventilare), bosseler (bosse), botteler (botte), chanceler (chance), harceler (herse), ecarteler (quart), ensorceler (sors). aculare, iculare, uculare (ailler, iller, ouiller) are mostly used for the formation of frequentative and diminutive verbs : egosiller (gosier), grappiller (grappe), boursiller (bourse), barhouiller (barba, barbula), rimailler, tirailler, mordiller, sautiller, gazouiller. eter and oter are used as diminutive and frequentative AOTEBBS. Ill suffixes : buvoter, chevroter, clignoter, frisotter, gobelotter, vivoter, trembloter, feuilleter, marqueter, be'queter, chucheter, chuchoter. § 152. II. Many Latin suffixes used for the formation of derivative verbs from primitive verbs, bave been lost in French, and of those preserved, some have been productive of but few new derivatives. tare (ter, ser). Of Latin formation are : chanter (cantare), dieter (dictare), intenter (intentare), jeter (jactare), noter (notare), trailer (tractare), penser (pensare), pousser (pulsare). Of French formation : executer (exsecutus), exempter (ex- emptus), infecter (infectus), inventer (inventus), persecuter (persecutus), sculpter (sculptus), inciser (incisus), infuser (infusus), oser (ausus), professer (professus), raser (rasus), user (usas),Jixer (fixus), oublier (oblitua), arfmon«i«r (admonitus.) itare (iter, eter). Of Latin formation are : agiter (agitare), he'siter (hEBsitare), palpiter (palpitare). Of French formation : graviter (gravare). Both in Latin and French this suffix is sometimes used for the formation of verbs from nouns : ddbiliter (debilitare), pericliter (periclitari), feliciter (felix), fadliter (facilis), habiliter (habilis), vanter (vanus). I'care (cher, oyer) isvery rarely used: pencAer (=pendicare), soudoyer (= solidicare). ulare (uler, ler). Of Latin formation : ambler (ambulare), postuler (postulare). Of French formation : meler, trembler, troubler. illare (jiler, eler). Latin are : titiller (titillare), vaciller (vacillare). French formations : gratteler, greneler. i onner and asser are two verbal suffixes, the former formed from the Latin nominal suffix o, onis, the latter from the ad- jective suffix aceus, which are chiefly used for the formation of depreciatives : chantonner, griffonner, nasillonner, revasser, ecrivasser. OF THE ADVERB. § 153. French adverbs are either simple adverbs without any special adverbial suffix, or adverbs formed from adjectives by a suffix. Amongst the former class we must reckon adjec- tives formed by composition. (a.) Simple adverbs : oii (ubi), y (ibi), la (iliac), hier (heri), quand (quando), loin (longe), bien (bene), certes (certe), tard (tarde), mal (male), volontiers (voluntarie). Many adjectives are used as simple adverbs ; but this use ia mostly confined to certain phrases : sentir bon, vendre cher, 112 PALESTRA GALLICA. parler net, coAter cher, payer double, entendre dur, tenir ferme, jurer faux, peindre gras, voir juste, rdpondre sec, gagner gros, faire gras, and many others. (6.) Adverbs formed by composition were not uncommon in Latin : extemplo, imprimis, invieem, obviam, posthac, adhuc, antehac, quapropter, and so on. Only a few of these Latin formations have been preserved in French : ailleurs {aiioiBnm), souvent (subinde). But a number of new adverbs have been formed by the same process : encore (hano horam*), alora (ad illam horam), enfin (in fine), partout (per totum), depuis (de post), derriere (de retro), desormais (de ipsa hora magis), dordnavant (de hora in ab ante), ensemble (in simul), id (ecce hie), jadis (jam diu), qa (ecce hac), dedans (de[-d-]intu8), avant (ab ante), dehors (de foras), devant (de ab ante), dessus (de susum), dessous (de subtus), or (hora), demain (de mane), parfois (per vices), aussi (aliud sic), autant (aliud tantum), assez (ad satis), aval (ad vallem), amont (ad montem). This process of composition is continued with words of purely French form : maintenant, aujourd'hui, auparavant, alentour, quelquefois, cependant, and so on. (c.) Adverbs are formed from adjectives by appending the suffix ment. This suffix has its origin in the feminine sub- stantive mens, and consequently is appended to the feminine form of the adjective. The choice of mens as an adverbial suffix was peculiarly happy. Its ablative mente, joined to an adjective, serves even in Latin the purposes of an adverb : Bona mente factum, ideoque palam ; mala ideoque ex insidiis (Quinct. Inst. v. 10). Quale sit id quod amas, celeri circumr spice mente (Ovid. Rem. Am. 89). Ultro quin etiam devota mente tuentur (Claud.). The oldest Italian manuscripts write mente as a separate word, and up to the sixteenth century it was customary to use mente only with the last of several ad- jectives : Lo cavaliere fece la domanda sua umile e dolcemente {Nov. Ant. 3). II padre loro rispose villana ed aspramente {Nov. 19). Besides, mens is the unmistakeable representative of the Indo-European root man, which has been so extensively used both for composition and derivation. It occurs in ve- hemens, vehementer ; demens, dementer ; amens, amenter ; men' tio, man-eo, mend-ax, memin-i, Miner-va, commen-tum, com- ment-arius, and all other derivatives in mentum and mentariua. It is found in Greek Mev-ruip, 'Aya-fii/xvui', jxviiyiri, liijxvftoKiiif jjtfjms, fivao/jiai, pivoe, fiairis. The many Liitin substantives * In Old French also uncore (unquam hora). PREPOSITIONS. CONJUNCTIONS. 113 in mentum must have made the suffix femiliar to the Latin ear. Latin authors of the tenth and eleventh century are fond of using mente with adjectives : Fixa mente statutum habes, aqua mente, devota mente, tacita mente. (For authorities, see Grimm, Gram. iv. 923.) § 154. In one instance a modern adverb is formed by the suffix ment from an original adverb : comment from comme (quomodo); The Old French had several such adverbs : alsiment, ensement, ensemblement. Other attempts to form adverbs were not successful. Some remnants there are of adverbs in ons : a reculons, a tdtons, a chevauchons. OF THE PEEPOSITIONS. § 155. French prepositions are either original Latin pre- positions, or compounds of prepositions with adverbs, adjectives or pronouns, participles, or substantives. Latin prepositions are : contre (contra), en (in), enfre (inter), outre (ultra), par (per), pour (pro), sans (sine), sur (super), vers (yersas), jouxte (juxta). By composition of Latin prepositions are formed : avant (ab ante), depuis (de post), devant (de ab ante), devers (de versus), envers (in versus). By composition of prepositions with adverbs, adjectives and pronouns are formed : dans (de intus), de^a (de esce hac), dela (de iliac), derriere (de retro), dessous (de subtus), dessus (de sursum, susum), apres, d'apres (ad pressum), parmi (per medium), selon (secundum longam ), a travers (ad transversum), aveo (apud hoc), des (de ipso). Participles used as prepositions are : durant,joignant, moyen- nant, nonobstant, pendant, suivant. Prepositions derived from substantives are : chez (oasa), faute (It. falta, faltare), manque (mancus), malgre (malum gratum). Latin adjectives and adverbs used as French prepositions : pres (pressum), proche (propius), hors (foras), hormia (foras missum). OF CONJUNCTIONS, § 156. Many Latin conjunctions have been lost in French, others have been preserved with a changed meaning. New conjunctions have been formed by composition. 114 PAL^STHA GALLIC A. From the Latin have been preserved : et (et), ni (neque), ou (aut), quand (quando), comme (quomodo), si (si), qve (quod, quam). With a different meaning have been preserved : mats (magis, for potius, autem, and sed), car (quare with the mean- ing of nam), done (tunc instead of igitur), tandis que (tam diu quam instead of dum), quoique (quidquam instead of quam- quam), piusque (postquam instead of quoniam). By composition are formed, amongst others : neanmoins (nee ens minus for nihilominus), aussi (aliud sic instead of etiam, quoque), encore (hanc horam), lorsque, alors que (ad illam horam quod), sans que (sine quod), apres que (ad pressum quod), parce que (per ecce istud quod), and a large number of compound conjunctions, whose origin and meaning require no further explanation. OP COMPOUND WORDS. § 157. A large number ofth^compoimd words of the French language have been received as compounds from the Latin ; others have been formed according to analogy. Some of the old compounds have been so welded together, that at the present day they present the aspect of simple words. A con- siderable number of the compounds of modern formation are mere parasyntheta, or words syntactically dependent on each other and connected in writing and speaking so as to form one word, such as : bon-heur, casse-noiselte, arc-en-ciel, faineant, li-cou. Of importance for the organic development of the language is only the composition with particles. § 158. Composition of substantives with substantives : hindi (lunae dies), mardi (Martis dies), mereredi (Mercurii dies), jeudi (Jovis dies), vendredi (Veneris dies), samedi (sabbati dies), eonnetable (comes stabuli), merluche (maris lucius), champart (campi pars), autruche (avis struthio), oripeau (auri pellem), orfevre (auri faber), oriflamme (auri flamma), salpelre (sal petrse), heberge (G. heri-berga), haubert (G. hals-perc), loup-garou (L. lupus ; G. werwolf), Montmartre (mons mar- tyrum), Finistere (finis terrse), Abbeville (abbatis villa), Chatelleraut (castellum Eraldi). § 159. Composition of substantives with adjectives : banque- route (banca rupta), outarde (avis tarda), vinaigre (vinum acre), romarin (ros-marinus), dimanche (dies dominica), raifort (radix fortis), Vaueluse (vallis clausa). Compounds of modern formation are generally connected by a hyphen : aigue-marine COMPOSITION, 1 1 5 (alga marina), pont-levis, taille-douce, main-forte, eau-forte, fer-blanc, cerf-volant, pot-pourri. § 160, The adjectives precede the substantives in : aubepine (alba spina), printemps (primum tempus), bonheur (bonum augurium), malheur (malum augurium), midi (media dies), minuit (media nocte), primevere (prima veris), Courbevoie (curva via), Clermont (clarus mons), Chaumont (calvus mons). Modern compounds -with the hyphen : hasse-cour, chauve- souris, franc-magon, beau-pere, belle-mere, grand-pere, petit- Jils, savf-conduit, and many others. § 161. The composition of verbs with substantives and ad- jectives is almost confined to imitations of the Latin com- pounds with facere (ficare). Direct irom the Latin are: edifier, modifier, signifier, purifier, multiplier, amplifier, and many others. Imitated are, with Bubstantiye.s : moinifier, ossi- fier, petrifier, vitrifier, ramifier, personnifi^r. With adjectives : dulcifier, aoidifier, rectifier, verifier, qualifier, identifier. Very large is the number of apparent compounds formed by the imperative of the verb and the accusative of a noun : casse- cou, garde-fou, passe-temps, porte-faix, porte-manteau, tire bouchon, tire-bottes, trouble-fete, coupe-gorge, essuie-main^ chauffe- pieds, rendez-vouh. And graphically connected : vaurien, faineant. § 162. Two adjectives are frequently united by a hyphen into one : vert-blanc, clair-obscur, premier-ne. Formations like anglo-franqais, which were some short time ago greatly ob- jected to, have nevertheless obtained currency. Littr^ uses novo-lafin instead of Eaynouard's hybrid form neo-latin. § 163. Composition with Particles. All the Latin prepositions are used in Modem French for forming compounds. Even those which have lost their exist- ence as separate words {cum, ex, prce) are used as prefixes. The Greek prepositions are used only in words derived directly from the Greek, avri, however, has entered the popular language : anti-constitutional, anti-social, etc. § 164. Decomposita, or words with two prefixes, are of more frequent occurrence in French than in Latin, owing to the large number of compounds which were received ready-made from Latin, and which to the Frenchman appear simple words: re-de- faire, as-su-jettir. A triple prefix occurs in re-com-en-c-er (re-cum-in-iti-are) . With respect to assimilation, French prefixes follow the same phonetic laws as Latin prefixes. 116 PALESTRA GALLICA. A great difficulty is the use of the graphic accents over the prefixes de and re. Be seems to be always accented, except- ing (a) before a double sibilant {ss, sc) and before gt. (i) In the adverbs debout, dega, dela, dehors, demain, demi, depuis, derechef, derriere, devant and its derivatives devanoier,devanture. (c) In demander, demeurer, deviser, deviner, and their deriva tives. In degre the prefix is not accented in writing ; but ac- cording to the best authorities, in speaking. Demoiselle is not a compound with de, but from dominus (compare damoiseau). As to the accentuation of the prefix re, no principle whatever seems to have been followed. It is, however, always accented before a vowel : reedifier, reiterer. Pre is always accented, excepting before ss, sc and st : pressentir,prescrire,prestance.* § 165. The following qualitative and quantitative adverbs are likewise used as prefixes : Men (bene), mai (male), me's, me (minus), his, hi (bis), demi (dimidium), and the negative par- ticles in (im, U, ir) and iwn. * The present system of French aecentnation is scarcely a hundred years old, and of very slow growth. The Neufehatel Bible of 1535 has not a single accent, which is the more striking as in its orthography (Jaict, sowbs, iorfait, sous, etc.) the inflaence of grammatical theories is evident. The acute accent on the final i seems to have been the first written accent used. Towards the end of the sixteenth century the grave accent is used as a mark of distinction over a, ou, etc. The use of the circumflex over e instead of es (meme instead of mesme) is severely censured by the Academy in the preface to the first edition of its Dictioiuuy. Jacques Dubois (sixteenth century) was the first who had a regular, though somewhat whimsical, system of accentuation. Up to the end of the last century considerable diversity prevailed as to accentuation. In an edition of Crebillon (2 vols. 4to. Imprimerie Koyale, 1750), every word appears accented as at present, with the additional use of the circumflex over im, pu, aperfu, and so on. The Geneva edition of Kousseau, in thirty volumes, of 1782, and a Paris edition of Montesquieu, of 1782, have, as far as I have observed, the system now in use. Bayle and the Dictionnaire de Trevoux use accents with great carelessness in the commonest words. The grave accent on the penultimate is regularly discarded in an edition of Racine of as late a date as 1799 (Pans : P. Didot I'aine). Who was the inventor of the present system ? Not the Academy, which simply followed the received usage. Nor Voltaire, who was notoriously careless as to spelling, but who, if he had invented it, would at least have laid down a guiding principle. Beza used accents ; but I have no means of consulting his hook. The plan of Du Gruez (An Introduetorie for to learn French trewly : Loudon, no date, probably published about 1550) of writing accents below the line, is evidently a mere device for the use of foreigners. APPENDIX. SPECIMENS OF OLD FEENCH. 9th century. Les Seements de Stbasboueg, Ergo XVI Jcalend. marcii Tjodhuimous et KaroVus in cimtaie, quiz olim Argentaria iiocahatw, nunc autem Str&zburg tmlgo dicitur, convenerunt, et gacramenta, que sitbter notata mnt, Lodhuwicus romana, Karolus vero teudisca lingita jwaverunt. Ae sio ante sacramentum circumfusam plebem alter teudisca, alter romana lingua alloquuti sunt. LodhuvAeus autem, qui major natu, prior exorsue sio coepit : ' Quotiens Lodharius me et hunc fratrem mMim' etc. Cumque Karolus licec eadem verba romana Ungua perorasset, Zodhuvicus, quoniam major natu erat, prior hcsc deinde ae servaturmn testatus est : Pro deo amuT et pro christian poblo et nostro (jommnn salvatnent, d'lst di en avant, in quant dens savir et podir me dunat, si salyarai eo cist lueou fradre Karlo et in adjudha et in eadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salyar dist, in o qnid il mi altresi fazet, et ab Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit. Sacramentum autem, guod utrorumque popuhis quique propria lingua testatus est, romana lingua sio se hahet : Si liodhuvigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, eonservat, et Karlus meos sendra de sua part non los tanit, si io returnar non Tint pois, ne io ne neiils cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha, contra LodBuvig nun li iv er. Cantiliine pe Sainte Eulalie. Buona pulcella fut Eulalia, bel arret corps, bellezour anima. Toldrent la veintre li deo inimi, Toldrent la faire diaule servir. elle non eskoltet les mals conselliers, qu'elle deo raneiet, ehi maent bus en ciel, ne por or ned argent ne paramenz, por manatee, regiel ne preiement. niule cose non la pouret omqi pleier, la poUe sempre non amast Io deo menestier. 118 APPENDIX. e poro fat presentede Maximiion, chi vex eret a eels dis sovre pagiens. il li enortet, dont li nonqi chielt, qued elle fuiet lo nom christiien. eir ent adnnet lo suon element, melz sostendreiet les empedement^ qu'elle perdease sa virginitet : poros foret morte a grand honeetet. enz enl fbu la getterent, com aide tost, elle colpes non avret, poro nos coist. aezo nos Toldret concreidre li rex pagiens ; ad ime spede li roveret tolir lo chieef. la domnizelle celle kose non contredist, Tolt lo seule lazsier, si niovet Krist. in figure de colomb Tolat a ciel. tuit Oram, que por nos degnet preier, qued auuiss^ de nos Christus mercit post la mort et a lui nos laist yenir par souue dementia. 10th century. La Passion du Cheist. Christus Jliesus den s'enleved, Gehsesmani yil' es n'anez. toz SOS fidels seder trovet e Tan orar ; sols en anet. Crianz fa li dols, fort mammenz. si coiidormirent tuit ades. Jhesus cum Teg, los esreled, trestoz orar ben los manded. Et dune orar cum el anned, si fort sudor dunques suded, qUD cum lo sangs a terra curren de sa sudor las sanetas gutas. Als SOS fidels cum repadred, tam beulement los conforted. li fel judeus ja s'aproismed ab gran cumpannie dels judeus. Jhesus cum Tidrit los judeus, zo lor demande que querent, il li respondent tuit adun ' Jhesum querem Nazarenum.' ' Eu soi aquel,' zo dis Jesus, tuit li felun caden ginols. terze Tes lor o demanded, a totas treis chedent enTers. Mais li felun tuit trassudad yers nostre don son aproismad. Judas li fel ensenna fei ■ celui prendet cui baisarai.' APPENDIX. 119 Judas cum veggnet ad Jhesum, semper li tend lo sou menton ; Jhesus li bons nol refaded, ad tiadetur baisair doned. ' Amiox,' zo dis lo bons Jhesus, ' per quem trades in 90 baizol ? melz ti fura non fusses naz que me tradas per eobetad.' Armad esterent evirum, de totas part presdrent Jhesum ; nos defended ne nos usted, a la mort vai cum uns anel. llTH CENTURY. La. Chanson de Koiand. CHANT IV. More est Bollana : Seus en ad Vanme es ceh! Li emperere en Eenceval parrient ; II nen i ad ne veie, ne senter, De yoide tere nen alne ne plein pied Que il n'i ait Franceis o paien. Carles eseriet : ' U estes vos, bels nies ? IT est Taroevesque e li quens Oliver? U est Gerins e sis cumpainz G-erers ? U est [dux] Otes e li quens Berengers ? lye e Irorie, que jo ayeie tant cher ? Que est devenuz li gascuinz Engeler, Sansun li dux e Anseis li bers? TJ est Gerard de Eussillun li reilz ? Li .xii. per que jo aveie laiset ? ' De 90 qui calt, quant nul n'en respundiet ? ' Deus, dist li reis, tant me pois esmaer Que jo ne fui al estur cumencer ! ' Tiret sa barbe cum home ki est iret; Plurent des oilz si baron cheTaler, Encuntre tere se pasment .xx. millws, Naimes li dux en ad mult grant pitet ! II nen i ad chevaler ne barun Que de pitet mult durement ne plrart; Plurent lur filz, lur freres, lur nerolz E lur amis e lur lige seignurs ; Encuntre tere se pasment K plusur ! Naimes li dux d'i90 [i] ad fait que proz, Tnz preioeTeins '1 ad dit I'empereur ' Veez avant de dous liwes de nus : Veder puez les granz chemins puldrus, Que asez i ad de la gent paienur ! Car cheyalchez, vengez ceste dulor ! ' 120 APPENDIX. — ' E Deus, dist Carles, ja sunt il ja si luinz ! . . . Cunseilez mei e [le] dreit et [I'jhonur ; De France dulce m'nnt tolute la flur ! ' LI reis cnmandet Gebuin e Otun, Tedbalt de Eeins e le cunte Milun : ' Guardez le champ e les Tals e les munz, Lessez gesir les morz tut cum il sunt : Que n'i adeist ne beste ne lion, Ne n'i adeist esquier ne gar^un ; Jo Tus defend que n'i adeist nuls hom Josque Deus voeile que en cest camp revengum.' E cil respundent dulcement par amur : ' Dreiz empereres, cher sire, si ferum.' Mil chevaler i retiennsnt des lur. Aoi. Li empereres fait ses graisles puner. Puis si ehevaloliet od sa grant est li ber. De eels d'Espaigne, [ki] unt lur les dos turnez, Tenent I'enchalz : tuit en sunt cumunel. Quant veit li reis le vespres decliner, Sur I'erbe verte descent [il] «n un pred ; Culchet sei a tere, si priet damne Deu Que le soleil pur lui face arester, La nuit larger e le jur demurer. Ez Tuz un angle ki od lui soelt parler, Isnelement si li ad commandet : ' Charles, chevalche, car tei ne fait clartet ! La flur de Prance as perdut, 90 set Deus ; Venger te poez de la gent criminel!' A icel mot I'emperere est muntet. Aoi. Pur Karlemagne fist Deus vertuz mult granz Car li soleilz est remis en estant ! Paien s'enfuient, ben les enchalcent Franc ; El Val Tenebres, la, les vunt ateignant ; Vers Sarraguce les enchalcent li Franc, A colps pleners les en vunt ociant, Tolent lur Teies e les chemins plus granz ; L'ewe de Sebro el lur est de devant, Mult est parfunde, merveilluse e curant ; II n'i ad barge ne drodmund ne caland ; Paiens recleiment un lur deu Tervagant, Puis saillent enz ; mais il n'i unt guarant : Li adubez en sunt li plus pesaut ; Envers les funz s'en turnerent alquanz, Li altre en vunt [en] cuntreval flotant. Li miez guariz en unt boiid itant, Tuz sunt neiez par merveillus ahan ; FranceiS escrient : ' Mar veistes EoUant ! ' Aoi. Quant Carles veit que tuit sunt mort paien, Alquanz oeis e li plusur neiet, Mult grant eschec en unt si chevaler, APPENDIX. 121 Li gentilz reis descendiit est a piet, Culehet sei a tere, si'n ad Deu graoiet ; . Quant il se drecet, li soleilz est culchet. Dist I'emperere: ' Tens est del herberger; En Rencesvala est tart del repairer : Noz chevals sunt e las e ennuiez ; Tolez lur seles, les freins qu'il unt es chefs, E par cez prez les laisez refreider.' Eespundent Pranc : ' Sire, vos dites bien.' Am. Li emperere ad prise sa herberge: Franceis descendent en la tere deserte, A lur chevals unt tolutes les seles, Les freins ad or, e metent jus les testes ; Liverent lur prez, asez i ad fresohe herbe ; D'altre cunreid ne lur poent plus faire. Ki mult est las il se dort cuntre tere ; Icele noit n'unt unkes escalguaite. Li emperere s'est culcet en un pret ; Sun grant espiet met e sun chef li ber : Icele noit ne s' volt il desarmer. Si ad vestut sun blanc osbero saffret, Laciet sun helme ki est ad or gemmet, Ceinte Joiuse, unches ne fut sa per, Ki cascun jur muet .xxx, cl^rtez. Asez avum de 1' lance [oit] parler Dunt Nostre Sire fut en la cruiz iiaffret : Carles en ad I'amure, mercit Deu ! En I'oret punt I'ad faite manuverer. Pur ceste honur e pur ceste bontet, Li nums Joiuse [a] I'espee fut dunet : Bamns franceis ne 1' deivent ublier : ■ Enseigne en unt de Munjoie [es]crier ; Pur 90 ne 's poet nule gent cuntrester. Clere est la noit e la lune luisante ; Carles se gist, mais doel ad de EoUant, E de Oliver li peiset mult forment, Dos .xii. pers, e de la Franeeise gent. En Eencesvals ad laiset morz tanz genz ! Ne poet muer n'en plurt ne s' desment, E priet Deu qu'as anmes seit guarent. Las est li reis, kar la peine est mult grant ! Endormiz est, ne pout mais en avaut. Par tuz les prez or se dorment li Franc N'i ad cheval ki puisset estre en estant : Ki herbe voelt, il la prent en gisant ; Mult ad apris ki bien eonuist ahan ! Karles se dort cum hume traveillet ; Seint Gabriel li adDeus enveiet, L'empereur li eumandet a guarder ; Li angles est tute noit a sun chef. Par avisiun li ad anunciet 6 122 APPENDIX, D'une tataille ki encuntre lui ert ; Senefiance Ten demustrat mult gref : Carles guardat amunt enrers Ifi ciel, Veit les tuneires e lee Tenz e les giels E les orez, les merveillus tempez, E fous e flambes i est apareillez : Isnelement sur tute sa geut chet ! Ardent cez hanstes de fraisne e de pumer, E cez escuz jesqu'as budes d'or mier ; Fruisent cez hanstes de cez trenehanz esiriez ; Craissent osbercs e cez helmes d'acer. En grant dulor i veit ses chevalers : Urs e leuparz les voelent puis manger, Serpenz e guiveres, dragun e averser, Grifuns i ad plus de trente millers ! Nen i ad eel as Franceis ne s'agiet, E Franceis crient : ' Carlemagne, aidez ! ' Li reis en ad e dulur e pitet ; Aler i volt, mais il ad desturber : De vers un gualt uns granz leons li vient. Mult par ert pesmes e orguillus e flers ! Sun cors meismes i asalt e requert ; Prenent sei a braz ambesdous por loitier, Mais 90 ne set quels abat ne quels chiet ! Li emperere ne s' est mie esveiUet. Apres icele li vient altre avisiun : Qu'il ert en France, ad Ais, a un pernm. En dous ehaeines si teneit un brohun ; De vers Ardene veeit venir .xxx. urs, Cascun parolet altresi eume [uns] hum ; Diseient li : ' Sii'e, rendez le nus ! II nen est dreit que il seit mais od vos. Nostre parent devum estre a sucurs.' De sun paleis ez uns veltres aeurt, Entre les altres asaillit le greignur Sur I'erbe verte, ultre ses cumpaignunS. La vit li reis si merveillus estur ! Mais 90 ne set li quels veint ne quels nun ! Li angles Deu 90 ad mustret al barun. Carles se dort tresqu'al demain cler jur. 12th century. Le Roman de Rou. Taillefer, qui mult bien cantoit, sor un ceval qui tost aloit, devant li due aloit cantant de Karlemaine et de Eollant e d'Olivier e des vassals ki morurent en Renchevals. quant il ourent chevalcii tant APPENDIX. 123 qu'as Englois vinrent aprismant, ' sire,' dist Taillefer, ' merci, jo yos ai longetaent servi, tot roon servise me devis ; hui, s'il vos plaist, le me rendAs. por tot guerredon vos reqiiier et si T08 voel forment proiier : otroiiis moi, que jo n'i faille, le premier oolp de la bataille.' li duR li a dit < jo I'otroi.' et Taillefer poinst a desroi, devant tos les altres se mist. nn Englois feri, si I'oeist ; desoe le pis par mi la pance 11 fist passer oltre sa lance, a terre estendu I'abati. puis traist s'espee, altre en feri. puis a cri6 ' yenis, vines ! qui faites vos ? fer&, feris ! ' dont I'ont Englois avironni al seeont colp qu'il out get^ et vos noise levee et cri, et d'ambes pars puple estormi. Fran9ois al assaillir entendent et li Englois bien se deffendent ; li un fierent, li altre botent. tant sont hardi, ne s'entredotent. es vos la bataille assemblee, done encore est grant renommee. mult oissife gi'ant comeis et de lances grant froisseis, de machues grant fereis et d'espees grant capleis. a la fois Englois fuioient et a la foie recovroient ; et oil d'oltremer assailloient et bien sovent se retraioient. Normant s'escrient ' dex aie,' la gent engleske ' out out ' s'escrie. 90 est I'ensegne que jo di quant Englois salent hors a cri. lors veissiAs entre serjans gelde d'Englois et de Normans, grans barates et grans mellees, bous de lances et cols d'espees. quant Normans kiet, Englois s'escrient, de paroles se contralient et mult sovent s'entredeffient, mais ne sevent qu'il s'entredient. cis vont avant,- Account for the difference in gender and meaning of h critique, and la eritiqyte, le satire and la satire, le paste and la paste, le paraUele and la parallele. 72. Give the French derivatives, with their respective genders, of alnus, ulna, liber, libra, somnus, summa, pahnus, palma. 73. What is the etymology of bonheur and malheur ? Show that the popular etymology {bona liora, mala hora) is erroneous. 74. ' How is the feminine gender of la patente, la constituante, la seeanie to be accounted for P 75. What is the gender of substantives which artf'originaUy French past participles ? 76. Form nomina agentia from blanehir, fournir, polir, eourir, eouvrir. 77. Mention the only abstract noun in eur which retains its original Latin gender. 78. Substantives ending in — anee are derived from ? and those ending in — enee from ? 79. Give a historical account of the suffix — erie, and compare the same with the German suffix — erei. 80. What is the gender of substantives derived from adjectives ? 81. Are the sufixes — ard and — and of Latin origin ? 130 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 82. What explanations have heen given of the suffixes at, et, ot ? 83. In Old French we read : des ordres royals, des lettres royals. Why not royales ? 84. Grand' mire, grand'rue. Show that the apostrophe had its origin in the ignorance of grammarians. 85. State the reason why the masculine plural of many adjectives in — al is at present deuhtfiil. 86. What renmants are there in Modem French of the Latin com- parison of adjectives ? 87. Modeme, ancien, souverain. Of what rare process ef the deriva- tion of adjectives are these words examples P Qive some similar derivations in Latin. 88. From what language'were the adjectival suflSxes — eaque, — asque, imported. What Greek and Oeiman suflixes correspond to — uqu$, asque ? 89. Les quinze-vingts, six vingts. Of what method of counting are these expressions remnants ? 90. Give the etyma ef en, dont, hetucoup, maint, y. 91. Me, inoi; te, toi; se, sot. Explain the origin of these double forms. 92. Lmr is derived from f Give analogous derivations in Latin. 93. What is the meaning of ma mie ? How should these words be properly spelled ? 94. Give the etymologies of celui, eeUe, ce, eette. 95. Si Von ,. . . Why is the V put in here? What part of speech is it f 96. How are the Latin Passive Voice and the Deponent Verb re- placed in French p 97. What is the origin of the su£Sx of the future tense : aimer — at, as, a, etc. P 98. Explain the suffix of the conditional : aimer — ais, ais, ait, etc. 99. Account for the final « in je vends, je vendais. At what time does this s first appear in the written language ? 100. ji-t-il, efime-t-il. Of what is this < a remnant ? Why has it been preserved only in the interrogative form ? 101. II parloit, il parlait; miglois, anglais. Give an account of these two modes of spelling. 102. In which forms of the verbs tenir and venir does diphthongaison take place ? Explain the causes of this process, 103. Give the two etymologies of etre, and show which is the correct one, 104. Analyse the form j'aurai. 105. Which two Latin forms have coalesced in the French parti- ciple present ? 106. What is the origin of the adverbial suffix — ment. 107. Give the etymologies of : d^uis, dans, ojeant, parmi, telon, avee, devant, hormis. 108. Give the names of the seven days of the week, with their etymologies. i09. Give a few compound substantives formed by the combination of an imperative with a substantive, 110, Give a few compound substantives formed by the combination of an adjective and a substantive. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. From the " JRevue Oritiqite." On ne peut que donner des eloges h. la maai&re dont M. Meissner a compria et execute son travail : la dispoaition est commode, la forme claire et Elegante. Je louerai partiouliferement ce qui conoerne la derivation des noma, des adjectifs et des.verbes, les obaervations interessantes aur le genre des eubstantifa, les etudes disseminees & plusieuTS endroita aur les doubles formes et les homonymes, le petit chapitre aur la composition. H. Meissner fait rentrer k I'occasion les faits qu'il rencontre en fran^aia dans I'ensemble des phenomdnes gendraux dea langues indo-europeennea ; c'est one bonne methode et qu'il a Bouvent heureuaement employee, qui d'autrea fois aurait demande k Mre appliquee aveo plus de prudence Nous souhaitons done a son petit livre tout le succ^s qu'il merite : il repandra sans doute en Angleterre I'^tude historique de notre langue. — Gabtoh Paris. From the "Sevue de l' Instruction PubUque." Si, de I'autre cdte de la Manche, les grammaires et les guides- anes pour apprendre notre langue ne font pas defaut, il n'existait pas, que je sache, d'ouvrage serieux aur I'histoire de notre langue. Le livre de M. Meiasner vient k propos combler cette lacuna ; il est court, clair, et puise aux meilleures sources. L'auteur a eu I'heureuse idee d'y joindre en appendice quelquea iragments d'ancien fran9aia Nous voyons aveo satisfaction I'histoire et la grammaire acientifique de notre langue deaonnaia representeea dans la litterature scolaire d« I'Augleterre par oe recommandable manuel. — H. Gaidoz. From the " Athmteum." The Professor of Modern Languages in the Queen's Univeraity pre- sents in this text-book the groundwork of his lectures in Queen's College, Belfast, and a good solid foundation it is, on which both lecturers and students may build with safety. Of course it is not, nor ia it intended to be, light reading. The author's object is not to exhibit the results of modem philology in an attractive form for popular readers, but rather to supply materials of thought and sug- gestive hints to those -who wiah to acquire a philological knowledge of the French language in ita aucceasive stages Beginning with a brief but excellent account of the origin of modem French— including an accurate survey of the several characteristic diatinctions between the Eomance languages and the parent Latin, and a description of the three dialects of the Langue d'Oil — he proceeds to set forth under the head of " Phonology " the various changes of lettera which have taken 132 OPINIONS OF THE PKESS. place in pasBing from one period to another. The remainder of the work is devoted to " Morphology," or an account of the formation of words hy the modification or addition of syllables or the composition of words. The forms assumed by verbs at different periods_ of the language are clearly and fully set forth. By way of iUustration the etymology of many words is explained — of some more than once, because they happen to be instances of more than one general prin- ciple—which is no bad thing, and is far better than giving derivations in an isolated way without pointing out the laW to which they con- form. From the " Spectator." This work is emphatically a book for students, or rather for teachers. From the "Educational Times." A well-written and thoughtful treatise on the history and philology of the French language, scholarly in its tone and treatment, and full of valuable information on many of the most interesting points of comparative grammar. Though primarily intended for advanced students following a course of college lectures or preparing for some of the higher competitive examinations, it may be used with great advantage in the upper forms of our public schools. From the " Musium." This book supplies a want which has long been felt. The French language is at present learned too much as a mere matter of rote, and the pupil knows nothing of the formation and history of the language. Br. Meiesner's work supplies this information in a satisfactory manner. It is scholarly, accurate, and thorough. The author traces the various inflections up to their original forms, and goes minutely into the changes which words have undergone in passing &om Latin and other languages into French. It is a work which ought to be used in all schools where Latin is taught, and it will be read with much interest and much profit alike by those who teach French and those who teach Latin. The book has only to be known to come into extensive use. ^ V\ ^^ X-^ \-* ASv^