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,:S$gsr^'^' 
 
 ERUPTION IN VARIOLA OVmAiPAPULAR,C01"IFLUENT 
 
 Aiber tVie Origuial plnLe inrrofessoL*' SimQr\ds'wr)r^ onSheep pox 
 
A TREATISE 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP 
 
 MANUAL OF OVINE PATHOLOGY. 
 
 ESPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR THE USE OF VETERINARY 
 PRACTITIONERS AND STUDENTS. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN HENRY STEEL, F.R.C.V.S., F.Z.S., A.V.D.' 
 
 lELLOW OF THE UNIVEESITT OF BOMBAY; 
 
 BEOFESSOB OF VETKBINAET SCIENCE AND PKINCIFAL 
 
 BOMBAY VETEBINAKT COLLEGE ; 
 
 LATE DEMONSTBATOB OF AND LEOTUBBB ON ANATOMY AT THE 
 
 EOYAL VETBEINABY COLLEO-B OF LONDON; 
 
 COEBESPONDING MEMBEE OF THE ITALIAN VETEBINAET ACADEMY ; 
 
 AUIHOE OF 'OUTLINES OF EQDINE ANATOMY,' 'DISEASES OF THE ELEPHANT,' 
 
 'CANINE PATHOLOGY,' 'BOVINE PATHOLOGY;' AND 
 
 EDITOE OF THE ' QUABTEELY JOUBNAL OF VETEBINAEY SCIENCE IN INDIA.' 
 
 NEW EDITION. 
 
 LONDON : 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO., 
 
 AND NEW YORK : 15 EAST 1611' STKEET. 
 1893. 
 
 All rights reserved. 
 
-Ar m , '^ 
 
 -^±3 
 
 WOEKS BY J. H. STEEL, F.R.C.V.S. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OP 
 
 THE DOG ; being a Manual of Canine Pathology. 
 Especially adapted for the Use of Veterinary Prac- 
 titioners and Students. With 88 Illustrations. 
 8vo, 10«. 6d. 
 
 A. TEEATISE ON THE DISEASES OF 
 
 THE OX ; being a Manual of Bovine Pathology 
 specially adapted for the Use of Veterinary Prac- 
 tioners and Students. With 2 Plates and 117 
 Woodcuts. 8vo, 15s. 
 
 A TREATISE ON DISEASES OF THE 
 
 SHEEP; being a Manual of Ovine Pathology for 
 the Use of Veterinary Practitioners and Students. 
 With Coloured Plate and 99 Woodcuts. 8vo, 12s. 
 
 London : LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 
 
 s r 
 
PROFESSOR GEORGE T. BROWN, 
 
 PRINCIPAL OF THE fiOYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE, 
 
 AND 
 CITIL TBTEEINAEX ADVISEB TO THE OOVEENMENT OE aBEAT BEITAIN, 
 
 THIS WOBK IS DEDICATEDj 
 
 AS A TESTIMONY 
 
 TO HIS 
 
 LABOURS IN ADVANCEMENT OF TBTEEINARY SCIENCE IN 
 
 KBLATION TO AOEICrLTITBE AND TRADE, 
 
 BY 
 
 A FOEMEE PUPIL AND COLLEAGUE. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 To tlie veterinary student or practitioner who has made 
 himself familiar with the Art and Science of Veterinary 
 Surgery and Medicine the study of diseases of the sheep 
 will present few difficulties and many novelties. The study 
 of diseases of the ox, by familiarising us with the ills rumi- 
 nant flesh is heir to, especially well prepares us for con- 
 sideration of the subject of Ovine Pathology. As few 
 veterinarians do much sheep practice except as regards ex- 
 tensive fatality from epizootic and enzootic disease, and 
 none make their living by sheep practice only, it is best to 
 follow the natural and practical course of events, and in 
 the following pages methodically and as fully as possible 
 touch on the facts which should be learned by the compe- 
 tent bovine pathologist who wishes to extend his practice 
 among sheep, as almost all veterinarians in agricultural dis- 
 tricts find it advisable to do. In pre-supposing that our 
 reader has a sufficient knowledge of general pathology and 
 therapeutics as well as familiarity with diseases of the ox 
 we would by no means close our pages to the non-profes- 
 sional reader by too free use of technicalities. It would 
 be ridiculous to pretend that treatment of sheep in disease 
 by the shepherd or the farmer is a thing of the past. In 
 some of the large sheep-runs of Northern Britain, and in 
 the enormous tracts of country grazed by sheep in the 
 Colonies, veterinary aid is quite inaccessible, and many an 
 experienced owner or caretaker of flocks may greet with 
 pleasure a work treating of scientific methods of dealing 
 with disease, emanating from the veterinary profession, and 
 
VI PEE PACE. 
 
 in fhe absence of whicli he would have merely empirical or 
 utterly unpractical works to consult in emergency. A cor- 
 dial welcome was given to Touatt's excellent and complete 
 book on sheep, issued in the early part of the current cen- 
 tury ; W. 0. Spoonee's valuable small work on the same 
 subject seems also to have had a good run ; but science 
 advances rapidly in the present day, and the last quarter 
 of a century has been marked by very considerable in- 
 crease in our knowledge of diseases of the sheep, which 
 we have endeavoured to embody in the following pages. 
 In mentioning above the names of two well-known veteri- 
 narians, we almost exhaust the list of the systematic 
 writers on sheep disease. Simonds by his lectures, and 
 books on Variola ovina. Dentition, and Foot-rot, has 
 taught the profession much about sheep ; Wallet, Wil- 
 liams, and Gamgee have contributed by tongue and pen to 
 this work. Scattered throughout periodical veterinary 
 literature we find occasional records of cases and disease 
 outbreaks among sheep. Fleming's works also contain 
 valuable information on the subject; we may especially 
 mention his Sanitary Science and Police, Veterinary Ob- 
 stetrics, and Animal Plagues. It must, however, be clearly 
 understood that the bulk of literature on ovine pathology 
 is that which has found its way into the veterinary journals 
 and records of our agricultural societies ; and, as consisting 
 of essays and records by practical men, this matter is 
 specially worthy of study. Nor are there wanting works 
 of sterling value by non-professionals, of shrewdness and 
 remarkable powers of observation and intimate knowledge 
 of the habits and derangements of sheep ; Hogg, the 
 Ettrick Shepherd, Randall, Mascall, and many others 
 might be referred to in this connection, and their work 
 will be mentioned in detail hereafter. As regards paucity 
 in veterinary literature of ovine pathology, foreign coun- 
 tries cannot find fault with Great Britain ; the subject, it 
 must be confessed, has been somewhat generally ignored 
 while we have been endeavouring to render ourselves 
 familiar with the larger domesticated animals when suffer- 
 ing from disease. This state of affairs must cease, and 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 VU 
 
 tlie enormous rise in the value of sheep, together with the 
 increase in number and wider distribution of qualified 
 veterinary practitioners, will in the immediate future deter- 
 mine more professional attention to ovine pathology. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enter into details as to the high 
 prices realised by the prize stock of improved breeds of 
 sheep, the enormous annual value of imports and exports 
 to the United Kingdom and the Colonies of live sheep and 
 mutton, and the large and ever-increasing trade statistics 
 of wool, especially of the more improved staples, the con- 
 stant notices of these matters in the daily and agricultural 
 papers, should prove incentives to increased study of sheep 
 diseases. Professor Brown gives statistics of the number 
 of sheep in Great Britain and Ireland in June, 1884, as 
 follows : — 
 
 England . • 
 
 . 16,428,064 
 
 Scotland 
 
 . 6,983,293 
 
 "Wales 
 
 . 2,656,997 
 
 Ireland 
 
 . 3,243,572 
 
 Isle of Man . . 
 
 63,764 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 1,097 
 
 Total . 
 
 . 29,376,787 
 
 It is estimated that in 1879 there were six hundred million 
 sheep in the world, and that the wool clip of that year was 
 worth three hundred million pounds sterling. We find in 
 our notes that during the first ten months of 1871 about 
 800,000 sheep were imported into Great Britain and Ire- 
 land, worth over one and a half million sterling. 
 
 The dire experience of many a year has led the farmer 
 to look for the assistance of the veterinary profession in 
 outbreaks of rot, scab, foot-and-mouth disease, sheep-pox, 
 and numerous other diseases which will be duly noticed by 
 us ; it has also convinced him of the urgent necessity for 
 adopting sanitary precautions in his folds and sheep-runs. 
 The periodic enormous losses of sheep, while constituting 
 a national misfortune, on many occasions have led to 
 excellent legal measures regulating the importation and 
 inland traflic in sheep, which measures are based on the 
 
Till PEE FACE. 
 
 opinions of veterinary experts, and have in Great Britain 
 been of mucli benefit. Thus in diffusion of information 
 concerning sheep diseases, in treatment of cases and out- 
 breaks among flocks, and by advising Government in 
 emergency, the veterinary profession has done its duty by 
 sheep-owners, and may reasonably, as we have seen, 
 expect increased opportunities of doing so in the future. 
 The high and increasing value of pedigree ewes and rams 
 and of show sheep of the improved breeds, secures an 
 increasing number of individual sheep as patients of 
 country veterinary practitioners. 
 
 We venture, therefore, to believe that in systematising 
 facts, practical and theoretical, concerning sheep diseases, 
 we are meeting a professional want ; we have striven to 
 collect all the special features of ovine practice and on 
 them to lay special stress, to indicate such points of general 
 practice as should not be forgotten when dealing with 
 sheep, and to show how they may best be brought to bear 
 in emergencies of sheep diseases ; to collate and compress 
 within due bulk the teachings of our learned professors and 
 authors, and, finally, to treat of our subject in its bearings 
 as a branch of the grand and noble art and science of 
 healing, in its relations to the health of other species than 
 the sheep. Some most valuable facts concerning diseases 
 of mankind have been brought to light as a result of recent 
 study of diseases of lower animals, including sheep ; the 
 meat question, water pollution, diffusion of entozoa, and 
 sanitation of factories are a few of the topics of great 
 public importance in consideration of which the ovine 
 pathologist must have his say. 
 
 To the cattle pathologist the diseases of sheep, while 
 seeming familiar in general characters, are novel in detail ; 
 the essential differences in constitution of the bovine and 
 ovine races are best exemplified by comparison of their 
 specific diseases, many of which are special respectively, 
 whereas some are mutually communicable, but presenting 
 themselves under more or less altered forms in accordance 
 with the species of the invaded animal. Again, the dif- 
 ferent conditions of life to which oxen and sheep are sub- 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 jected in accordance with the varied and diverse uses to 
 which they respectively are put by man entail correspond- 
 ing differences in their ordinary diseases and accidents, 
 while those physiological and anatomical variations which 
 are distinctive of the two races are reflected in the differ- 
 ences which careful study will disclose between patho- 
 logical processes in them. Thus. we may with confidence 
 urge that our subject is of great importa.nce to not only 
 the flockmaster and shepherd^ but also directly and imme- 
 diately to the veterinarian. The student of national 
 economy and trade, the practitioner of human medicine, 
 and the comparative pathologist also, will learn much from, 
 and find great interest in, the study of sheep diseases. We 
 have done our best to meet these varied requirements. 
 
 A reference to our list of illustrations will show that we 
 are indebted to various distinguished authors and publishers 
 for the privilege of making use of many woodcuts. The 
 great value these must prove to the student and general 
 reader renders an apology for reproduction of pictures often 
 well-known quite unnecessary. So long as a cut illustrates 
 the text and serves to impress facts on the mind of the 
 reader it can never be out of place, and the more familiar 
 it be the better. To Professor J. B. Simonds we are 
 specially indebted for kind encouragement in several ways, 
 and the Council of the Eoyal Agricultural Society deserves 
 our best thanks for permission to use its artistic illustra- 
 tions of fluke development. Messrs. Arnold and Sons' 
 loan of blocks from their instrument catalogue will, we 
 trust, prove to them a good advertisement, but we feel 
 assured that our readers will find that the cuts of surgical 
 instruments are a valuable illustration of our text. 
 
 J. H. S. 
 
 June, 189^ 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTION, 
 
 The wild and domesticated Ovidse; uses of domesticated forms; relative 
 functions of the farmer and the veterinary surgeon; variation. 
 Methods of offence and defence ; general physiological character- 
 istics of ovines; methods of seizing, throwing, and detaining. 
 Catching. Work of the shepherd ; holding for operation or ex- 
 amination; to throw a sheep. Sowiine management of a flock as 
 a cause of disease ; domestication predisposes to, but feral sheep 
 not exempt from, disease ; they also suffer from ravages of wild 
 beasts. The General Symptoms of disorder and signs of health. 
 Pulse ; internal temperature ; respirations, auscultation and per- 
 cussion ; the roughei' methods of diagnosis ; state of the tongue, 
 f eeces, and urine. Loss of wool ; condition of the skin. Causes : 
 miscellaneous ; effects of hot winds. Constitutional tendencies of 
 sheep in disease. Parasites — spurious enzooty and epizooty; its 
 influence on treatment. Wholesale administration — drenching, 
 cathartics, vehicles, enemata. Bleeding ; rough methods j surgical 
 methods ; the angular vein, saphenous, jugular, and cephalic veins. 
 Ansesthetics, effects of chloroform. Blisters; setons; charges; 
 fomentations and poultices. Preventive measures. Paucity in 
 numbers of specific diseases of sheep ; influence of diffusion of 
 races. Effects of early slaughter in lessening disease. Longevity 
 of " guide sheep." Bearings of sheep diseases on derangements of 
 man ..<•••• 
 
 1—17 
 
 CHAPTER IL— THE BLOOD. 
 
 Composition and characters. The pulse. SIMPLE DISORDERS: 
 Petee, Jaundice ; Plethoba, Bollinger's researches. Anemia; 
 form seen after shearing, symptoms of anaemia; different observa- 
 tions on debility by Williams, Fleming, and Robertson. Disease 
 in Oregon. SANauiHEOUS Ascites, Eed water, or acute dropsy. 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 I'.iLhology, oausea, and treatment. ViNQTTlSH or PlNlN a ; Hogg's 
 ideas on this disease. Nbce^mia; effects of lightning. SPECIFIC 
 DISORDERS : general remarks. Sheep-pox, Vabioia ovina; 
 forms, symptoms, duration of phases of attack, constitutional sym- 
 ptoms, cutaneous lesions; immunity of the offspring. Abortive 
 disease, irregular cases. Asthenic type, eye changes; discrete 
 condition. Malignant type, confluent; Gamgee's emphysematous 
 form. Causes, cyclic character ; contagium, Chauveau's researches, 
 conveyance and diffusion of the virus. Post-mortem examination. 
 Lesions, Klein on sheep-pox virus, Chauveau on the pathological 
 anatomy of sheep-pox. Characters of the flesh. Prognosis; 
 fatality of outbreaks. Study of variola ovina in relation to other 
 variolous affections. Simonds on the specific independence of sheep- 
 pox. Vaccination for sheep-pox prophylaxis. Vaccine disease in 
 s}ieep — Youatt on the differences between the eruptions of sheep- 
 pox and smallpox. Treatment. Inoculation, clavelisation or ovina- 
 tion. Conditions on which its value depends. Routine inocula- 
 tion. Selection of lymph and its preservation ; methods of ovi- 
 nation. Characters of the inoculated disease. Reynault on 
 rapidity of absorption of virus. General measures for prevention 
 of the disease. Vabiobila Ovium or chicken-pox of sheep. 
 Anthbax, Bbaxy, Hmmostasis, Inflammatory Fever, &c. ; mean- 
 ing of the terms Anthrax ; Braxy, four forms of braxy. Hogg's 
 views. Meaning of other synonyms. Great-head (Hogg) ; An- 
 THBAZ Fbyee, " staggers " in lambs (Youatt) ; symptoms, immu- 
 nity, causes, conveyance, and modes of access of the bacillus. 
 The disease is communicated to mankind. " Woolsorters' disease ;" 
 consumption of anthrax flesh; "mutton hams;" annual loss from 
 braxy; post-mortem examination. Splenic Apopleacy ; Gloss- 
 Anthrax, Blain; External Anthrax, Carbnncular Fever, Anthra- 
 coid Erysipelas. Intestinal Anthbax. Treatment of anthrax. 
 Pasteur's antlirax vaccination. Details of the operation. Chau- 
 veau on the effects of enormous amounts of bacilli intravenously 
 injected into protected sheep — Klein's results of vaccination- 
 other methods of lessening activity of virus besides Pasteur's; 
 Klein's results. Toussaint's method. Best practical means for pro- 
 phylaxis against anthrax. Emphysema infeotuosum, haiuiato- 
 sepsis, black leg, &c., a " shot o' blood " — ditterences between this 
 disease and anthrax — Intravenous injection of blood as a prophy- 
 lactic. RiNDEEPEST. Relations of the disease in sheep with that 
 of cattle. Prognosis. Treatment. Use of the flesh as food. PooT- 
 AND-MOTJTH Disease, Eczema epizootica. Infectious Aphtha; 
 relatibns with the disease of the ox. Symptoms — Youatt's notices 
 of the disorder, differential diagnosis from contagious foot-rot and 
 ergotism. Dormancy of the virus, loss resulting from the disease. 
 Rabies. Dogs as causing rabies in sheep. Precautions with the 
 bitten. Pasteur on inoculation for rabies. Virulence of saliva 
 
CONTENTS. XUl 
 
 PAGB 
 of rabid sheep. Period of incubation. Symptoms. Post-mortem 
 examination. Fatality. Use of flesh as human food. Non- 
 conveyance by milk. ScBoruiA, Tubbeculosis doubtful as 
 a natural disorder in sheep ; " pining," " evil.' ' Khbtjmatism. 
 Evidences as to its occurrence. Greswell's outbreak. Relations 
 with scoliasis. Symptoms, treatment. Milk Sickness or " the 
 Tebmbles." Haubner on "trembling disease" or "lumbar 
 prurigo " — Actinomycosis ? — Gangrenous stomatitis — Strangles ? 
 Ikplubnza: New South Wales outbreak in 1834-5; symptoms, 
 autopsy, treatment. Spooner's record of outbreaks; Darby's, 
 Clayworth's. Youatt's epizootic outbreaks of catarrh; Bochc 
 Lnbin's ; Wiltshire on " Heart water." Seron's ; epizootic and 
 enzootic pneumonia and pleurisy. Duncan Hutcheon's researches. 
 SspTiOiiiiilA, Sewage POisoNiira, disease as observed by Carless. 
 Topical contagious disorders — Contagious Foot-eot; debate as 
 to whether it really occurs, how it is caused, means of communi- 
 cation and vehicles of contagion; W. C. Spooner's remarks on 
 transmission — prevention. Note concerning diseases of the blood 
 mentioned elsewhere in this work . . . 18 — 76 
 
 CHAPTER III.— THE CIRCULATORY AND LYMPHATIC 
 SYSTEMS. 
 
 General considerations concerning the Circulatory System. Tbau- 
 MAIIO Pebicaeditis, by a needle, by spikes of Stipa ; Fatty de- 
 generation of the Seart. Derangements of arteries and veins. 
 The Lymphatic System. Simple lymphangitis — Strangles or 
 Stranguillon 1 — Tabes mesenterica i . . 77 — 79 
 
 APPENDIX: the Ductless or Blood- vascular Glands. The Spleen. 
 Bydatids. Tochenlin, of Baden, on Inelammation oe the 
 Spleen. Extirpation of the Spleen. The Thyroid Bodies. 
 GoiTEB, Spooner's record of the disease. Thymus, &c. 79, 80 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 Anatomical and physiological details; the voice; the brisket bone; 
 Gamgee on auscultation and on pbeoussion ; the diaphragm. 
 Succussion. Mensuration. Nasal Catabeh; apparently en- 
 zootic form ; erroneous ideas concerning relations of this disorder 
 to glanders of the horse. Oz^na, Nasal Gleet. (Estriasis. 
 Pentastoma t^nioides—CEstrus o«M— Bracy Clark's observations 
 description of the parasite and its habits. Symptoms; behaviour 
 of the flock when molested, of the sheep when struck ; migrations 
 aud development of the larvae. The adult bot. Eff'ects of the 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 FAQE 
 hot in the sinuses, Youatt's views, Bracy Clark's opinions; sup- 
 posed "maggots in the brain;" records of French observers; 
 treatment — migration of the larvae from the sinuses. The pupa 
 stage — prevention. Inflammation op the Labxnx — Trache- 
 otomy. Inflammation of the respiratory organs in the chest. 
 Pleurisy, hydrothorax, sporadic pleuropneumonia, pneumonia, 
 bronchitis, phthisis pulmonalis. Youatt's views. Simple pneu- 
 monia, " rot of the lights," chronic pneumonia, hydatids in the 
 hmgs, SIMPLE BBONCHITIS. PaEASITIO BBONCHITIS, HUSK, hoOSe, 
 " snots " — two forms of parasite present ; " lamb disease ;" de- 
 scription of Strongylus fila/riai its condition in the lungs and 
 elsewhere; its development; Cobbold's views; discussion as to 
 mode of entry to the lungs ; Ercolani's, Koch's, Grey's, and Cob- 
 bold's researches on vitality and life-history of the parasite; 
 causes and conditions under which the disease occurs. Losses. 
 Symptoms. Treatment. Thompson's preventive measures ; other 
 prophylactic means; Stephen's method of fumigating; intra- 
 tracheal administration of remedies. Further prophylactic mea- 
 sures. Strongylus rufescens, its efEects and diaguosis . ,. 81 — 103 
 
 CHAPTER v.— THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 Anatomical and physiological points. Teeth, accidents and injuries 
 of ; Dentition table ; signs of age in the Sheep ; names given to 
 Sheep according to age, shearing, &c. ; Aphtha, Thrush in the 
 mouth, pustular fever, or contagious ecthyma. Aphtha simplex, 
 stomatitis ; Aphtha maligna : its relations with Chapped or 
 Cracked Teats ; Contagium, honeydew, amcebae, oidium, Walley's 
 account of the disease; symptoms, treatment. The tongue: 
 Actinomycosis ; Baaula ; benign epulis, salivary glands ; paro- 
 tiditis ; Choking, passing the probang, cesophagotomy, fibrous 
 tumour in the gullet; Loss of the cud, dropping the cud; 
 Vomition, Indigestion ; Hoven or Timpany of the eumeh ■ 
 symptoms, treatment; Plenalvia; Hawes on the effects of 
 eating standing wheat; Axe on disease due to mangold tops; 
 Olver on the effects of eating maize; Ruminoiomy or Paunching ; 
 Alvilis rare ; Fabdbi BOtrnir, Gbass Staggbbs, " Drying up," 
 impaction of the faik or m'a'nyplies; Caiouious and othee 
 Concbbtions, earth-eating. Hair-balls in the rumen, Bezoars 
 in the AbOmasum, Aboinasitis ; ga;stro-enteritis, Pantas or moor 
 evil; Supture of the Abomasum. Impaction op the Abo- 
 masitm. Parasites in the rumen. The intestines, their length 
 and proportions. CoilO, strangulation, hernife. Enteeitis ■ 
 DiaeehceA, sJHjpfe, " white skit " and " green skit;" Parkinson 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 PAOE 
 on superstition as to care of this disease; parasitio diarrhoea, 
 outbreaks due to Tcewia expansa; Cox, Cross, Cobbold, Gamgee, 
 Curtice on this subject ; outbreaks due to nematodes, Simonds' 
 views on Trichoceplialus. Parasitio Oasfrio Catarrh or Gas- 
 Irorrhcea parasitica (Williams) ; Dysbntbby, bloody flux or 
 " cling ;" " pinding "-^Constipatioit. Imperforate anus (Proo- 
 tatresia). Haemorrhoids or Piles. Properties and characters of 
 Sheep's dung. Fibrous tumour in abdomen . . 104—133 
 
 iPPENDIX I : THE APPENDAGES OF THE ALIMENTARY 
 CANAL. — Pancreas. The Liver. Jaundice, Acute and chronic 
 liver degenerations ; plethora from overfeeding ; Hepatitis ; 
 echinococcus cjsts in liver ; Fascioliasis, Jluke disease, liver 
 rot, or Cachexia aquosa verminosa. A "jack rot;" history of 
 research into the nature of rot; Youatt's views and those of 
 Simonds and Cobbold. Pathology of rot, how the fluke pro- 
 duces its effects; supposed cases of fatal rot without flukes, 
 " water rot ;" determining causes, influence of pasture, season, 
 overstocking, overgrazing; a very brief period essential for in- 
 vasion ; relations of the disease in sheep to it in other individuals 
 and species, various supposed causes; the Fluke; concomitant 
 presence of other parasitic forms. Post-mortem appearances, 
 Friedberger's researches ; " fluke abscesses " — Symptoms ; Bake- 
 well's method of finishing sheep for slaughter, question as to 
 dishonesty of the process; Gerlach on the stages of rot; pre- 
 monitory symptoms according to Simonds and Beattie ; state 
 of the mucous membranes and skin. Efl'ects of the carcass on 
 human beings. Life-history of the Pasciola ; Thomas's researches ; 
 mode of development of the parasites ; development and diffu- 
 sion of the ova ; larvae ; the intermediary bearer, Limnseus ; inva- 
 sion of the liver ; chances against development of any one egg 
 into a fluke ; Treatment. Necessity for State action, Zundel's 
 suggestions, regulation of and dealing with pastures, destruction of 
 intermediary bearers. Summary of preventive measures. Cura- 
 tive treatment. Distoma lanceolatum. Cholocystic Calculi 133 — 172 
 
 APPENDIX II : The Peritoneum — Cysticercus tenuicoUis ; Peri- 
 tonitis, Ascites .... 172, 173 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— THE URINARY APPARATUS. 
 
 Chemistry of the urine and anatomy of the urinary system ( Litt on 
 the vermiform appendage. Simple diuresis. Nepheitis in lambs, 
 by Roger Williams. Levie on Whiequibtts, shell sickness:, or oil 
 poke. Renal Calculi, analyses ; Litt, of Shrewsbury, on 
 Urethral Calculi. Fraudulent amputation of the " Worm " in 
 
X.V1 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 breeding rams. Ctstitis or Water Braxy — Kupture of the 
 Bladder ; simple Atony of the Bladder ; pervious wrachvs, " navel- 
 ill," umbilical phlebitis; Hsematuriaor spurious "Ked Water " 174 — 180 
 
 CHAPTER VII.— THE SKELETON AND MUSCtTLAE SYSTEM. 
 
 Summary of points in the anatomy of the skeleton. The skull; 
 some observations on breeds as affecting shape of skull ; Joint- 
 ill or Joint evil; Williams', Robertson's, Youatt's, Simonds' 
 (" Scoliasis "), M'Gillivray's and Walley's views ; treatment, 
 prognosis. Rickets, Robertson's researches; Fragilitas et 
 mollities ossium, Robertson on this disease. Osteoporosis. 
 Fbaotubes. Spooner on setting fractures. Dislocations. 
 Wryneck. Amputations : of the limbs, of the ears, of the 
 tail {"Booking") — Methods of Fleming, Youatt, and Spooner. 
 HoBNS, AND theib injubies AND DISEASES J Anatomy of 
 the horns; advantages of "pollards." Many-horned sheep of 
 Iceland and Cyprus. Malposition of horns — Fracture of horns. 
 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. Spbains— Cystic larva of Trnnia 
 tenella ; cystlcerci of T. mediocanellata in the goat (Zenker). 
 Characters of healthy mutton . . . 181 196 
 
 CHAPTER VIII.— THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 SECTION I : MALE GENITAL APPARATUS.— Anatomy. Physi- 
 ology. Urethritis ; Castbation. The " Practical Parmer " on the 
 usual method of operation on lambs ; Spooner on the firing or hot- 
 iron method ; the covered operation ; " drawing " and scraping 
 methods. Castration of older sheep ; tying or lashing, trapping, 
 burning, cutting, bistournage, or the French method (Youatt), 
 Paget's method. Sterility . . . jgy 2O8 
 
 SECTION II : FEMALE GENITAL APPARATUS.— Anatomy and 
 physiology. CEstrum, pregnancy; prolonged bearing in ewes 
 and multiparity ; "Clatting;" Instruments and appliances re- 
 quired by the lamber, his duties ; False presentations. MoN- 
 STBOSITIES. Hermaphroditism, dead lambs ; " substitutes ■" 
 Embryotomy, Cesarean operation. Exhaustion after lambing. 
 Abobtion. Superfcetation ; Inversio vel Retroversio Uteri; 
 Scirrhous os uteri; Torsio cervicis uteri. Pabtubient Feveb 
 — Seamen on the disorder. iNrLAMMATioN op the Womb 
 Metbopebitonitis, False "red water;" Htstebitis, Sibbold 
 and Dick on this disorder. Discussion at the Obstetrical 
 Society — Walley ou Malignant pabiobieni peveb. Axe's 
 
CONTENTS. XVll 
 
 PAGE 
 report on thia disease. Vaginitis. HEAVlNft pains, Aftee- 
 PAINS, OB Paetueition tetee. Inflammation of the pudenda. 
 Hamatozymosis. Casualties at time of parturition ; Uterine 
 Milk. Mammitis or " Garget " — Noeard's contagious form ; 
 Rivolta's septic mammitis. Teats, injuries and diseases; ery- 
 thema chronicum ; imperviousness. Characters of ewe's milk. 
 Spaying or Otaeiotomt — Youatt's description of the operation 
 and its uses ..... 204 — 227 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 Anatomy ai.J physiology; Fhen'zt or Encephalitis; Epiiepst; 
 Ceeebbai Apoplexy ; Hydeocephalus ; Stttedt, Gid, Tubn- 
 SICE, HYrATiDOCEPHALUs, &c. Losses due to this disease ; sym- 
 ptoms; positions where the parasite chiefly occurs in their effects 
 on the symptoms ; pathology. DifEerential diagnosis of Gid, life- 
 history of the parasite; Treatment: general; Hartenstein's ice- 
 bag method, empirical methods for destruction of the hydatid, 
 Hogg's operation of " wiring," Youatt's modification of this 
 method ; Trephining, Youatt's method ; importance of prevention. 
 Fractures of the Cranium. LoTJPiNG-iLL, Trembles, Mad 
 Staqgees (Dick), Thwaetek-ili, &e. ; Brown on the range of 
 this disease. Confusion in diagnosis ; Gamgee's views on its 
 pathology ; symptoms, post-mortem appearances, Goodsir's ob- 
 servations. Pathology, views of Hamilton, Williams, Robertson, 
 and Goodsir. Botanical examination of pastures where louping-ill 
 prevails near Brotherston. Influence of Ticks in causation. 
 Miscellaneous causes. Prophylaxis and curative treatment. 
 Simple paealysis or Palsy; Tetanus; Chorea . 228—255 
 
 CHAPTER X.— ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 SECTION I: THE FOOT.— Anatomy. Interdigital Canal, Erco- 
 lani's researches on its anatomy. Inflammation op the 
 Canal. "The Worm in the Sheep's foot" — Mudballing, sore 
 cleft, worn feet, bruised or otherwise injured feet. FooT-BOT, 
 Paronychia, &c. — History; Dick's views, Williams', Youatt's, 
 and Hogg's opinions; Gohier's experiments; Spooner's views 
 on contagiousness; difi'erential diagnosis from Foot and Mouth 
 Disease; pathology; Brown on the lesions of non-specific foot-rot. 
 Dick on the same subject. " Scald ;" symptoms ; causes j 
 treatment. Randall on foot trimming and dressing. Various 
 foot dressings recommended by different authors. Prophylaxis. 
 The preventive foot-bath . . . 256—275 
 
 h 
 
XVIU CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOE 
 SECTION II: THE EYE.— Anatomy and physiology. Ophthal- 
 mia, "the blinds;" "lark-spurred." Simple ophthalmia; the 
 larmier or " tear-pit." Cataeact— Amatteosis. Fracture of the 
 margin of the orbit; bursting of the eyeball; cancerous disease 
 of the eyeball; Debmatoid Conjunctivitis; simple Staphyloma, 
 adhesion of the eyelid to the front of the eyeball; lElTiS and 
 Retinitis ; warts on eyelids . • 27a 278 
 
 SECTION III: MISCELLANEOUS.— Rudimentary external ear; 
 
 ear-marking; Otitis. GUSTATION— SMELL . 278,279 
 
 SECTION IV : THE SKIN.— Anatomy and Physiology— The Yolk. 
 "Kemps;" prickly fruits on wool; removal of the fleece, tear- 
 ing, SHEAEING, details of the operation ; notes on wool (Y'ouatt) ; 
 when to shear, ill effects of shearing. "Washinh, various methods. 
 Marking. Acute Peueitus ; Eeysipelas, " wild-fire ;" Eczema, 
 Hering's outbreak. Edgar's views on this disease. ECTHYMA; 
 Psoriasis; IMPETIGO iaevalis «. Lammergrind. Gamgee on 
 this disease. Eeythema, chronicum, traumaticum, intertrigo. 
 (Edema, "swelled head," "great head "—Ringwoem— Scab v. 
 Acariasi-s ovis; Saeooptio Scabies, " black muzzle" (Youatt). 
 Symbiotic Scabies (Ziirn) ; Deematobectic Scabies or " tbue 
 SCAB," symptoms, causes of spread, "foot mange;" contagion; 
 diagnosis; life-hUtory of the Psoroptes v. Dermatodectes ovis; 
 the effects on the skin, Hertwig's experiments on contagion, de- 
 termination of duration of a particular case by state of skin, and 
 state of Acari; changes of skin and development of parasites 
 according to Walz. Gerlach's estimate of rapidity of multiplica- 
 tion. Relations of the Acarus to those of other species, its 
 vitality; detection of Acari (Gerlach) ; post-mortem examination. 
 Treatment. Measures to be taken under Government control; 
 danger of half-hearted measures. Dipping, description of the 
 process on large and small scale. Properties of substances used 
 for treating scab ; enumeration of some of the principal methods 
 recommended; precautions in connection with dipping. "Spot- 
 ting" or "pouring." Methods in which dipping may prove 
 poisonous or otherwise dangerous to health. Salving or smear- 
 ing. The method of smearing, different ointments used for the 
 purpose. Skin parasites other than Acari, harvest bugs, ticks, 
 LICE; "bridling." The fly, maggots, fly-dressings; Nestor mira- 
 hilis; Lacilia sericata ; Youatt's remarks on the functions of 
 the skin. Oebinaey wounds and suepace lesions op the 
 body; Iruises, sore head, lacerations of the ears and limbs 280 — 327 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 CHAPTER XI.— POISONS AND POISONING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introductory remarks. StrpPEBSSED ctiTANEOua action ; Pathology 
 of this ooiidition according to Peinberg. Cutaneous Asphyxia 
 from exposure to the sun. Mbecubial poisoning. Hertwig on 
 the effects of calomel ; Corrosive suhlimate. Aesenical poison- 
 ing. Caebolic acid. Supposed poisoning by top-dressiug 
 wheat with soot. VEGETABLE POISONING : Helleboeb. 
 Tobacco. Poisoning by pastures. Linnaeus's analysis of pasture 
 plants. Yew leaves; Ranuncalus; Savin; Erioa; Hyoscyamus; 
 Water-hemlock; Rhododendron; Digitalis; Conium ; Aconite; 
 Rye-grass ; Nux vomica ; effects of mildewed and mouldy forage. 
 Ebgot op eye, its influence and production of abortion; re- 
 searches by Klage, Stoddart, Walker, and Law, on the efifects 
 of ergot. Conferva poisoning in Australia. Effects of acorn 
 mast; kalmia,Morrell on the effects of this plant. Lupine poison- 
 ing ; Shultz and Dammaun on the subject. ANIMAL POISONS : 
 serpent-bite ; Scorpion-bite. Tsetse fly ; Cantharides ; Ueine 
 poisoning. Schiitt on the effects of flax poison ; Martin on buck- 
 wheat; Runcimau on the water-betony ; Shand and Pappe on 
 poisonous plants. MINERAl POISON ; sewage contamination 
 of grazing land ; effects of overdose of nitre ; apparent non-action 
 of tartar emetic on the sheep ; Herpath on the effects of smelting 
 works on neighbouring pastures . . • 328—345 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 List of medicines for the sheep, showing their actions and doses 846 — 350 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 ' Anthrax vaccination 
 
 (Pasteur's) 
 
 after the circular 
 
 issued with the 
 
 PIG. 
 
 1. Simple enema funnel (Arnold) 
 
 2. Simple enema syringe (Arnold) 
 
 3. Patent enema apparatus (Arnold) 
 
 4. Skin in sheep-pox (Gamgee) 
 
 5. Ditto, confluent stage (Gamgee) 
 
 6. Vaccination 
 
 7. Withdrawal of lymph from tube 
 
 8. A vaccine tube 
 
 9. Withdrawal of lymph 
 
 10. The syringe 
 
 11. Thoracic viscera of a sheep (after Chuuveau) 
 
 12-18. Life history of (Estrus ovis, after IJraey Clark's original figures 
 12, the attack ; 13, the grub ; 14, the larva ; 15 and 16, the 
 fly; 17, a wing magnified; 18, a common fly for contrast. 
 
 19. Lung worms in sputum (Hurley and Brown) 
 
 20. Intra-tracheal injection syringe (Arnold) . 
 
 21. Alimentary caniil of sheep (diagram after W. C. Spooner) 
 22-26. Cuts illustrating replacement of incisors (Simonds) 
 
 27. The whipworm of ruminants (Cobbold) 
 
 28. Hydatids encysted in lungs and liver of sheep (Cobbold) 
 29-48. Life history of Fasciola iepaiica (reproduced by special per- 
 mission of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society) 
 
 29, the egg ; 30, egg ready for hatching ; 31, embryo ; 32, 
 
 embryo boring into snail ; 33, young dividing sporocyst ; 34, 
 
 change of embryo into sporocyst; 35, young sporocyst 
 
 36, full-grown sporocyst ; 37, a young redia 
 
 38, full-grown redia ; 39, a free eercariau . 
 
 40, encysting cercaria ; 41, liver-fluke cysts on grass stalk ; 
 
 42 and 43, limna;us ...... 
 
 44 and 45, adult fluke, showing its anatomy ; 46-48, three 
 young flukes ....... 
 
 49. Skeleton of the sheep (Chauveau) ..... 
 
 50. Sknll of a ram (Chauveau) ...... 
 
 51-53. Leg amputations: 51, oblique flap; 52, circular; 53, oblique 
 
 single flap (Fleming) ...... 
 
 54-56, Trench castration clamps (Peuch and Toussaint) . . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 13 
 13 
 13 
 28 
 29 
 
 56 
 
 82 
 85 
 
 95 
 101 
 105 
 107 
 127 
 135 
 
 158 
 
 159 
 160 
 161 
 
 162 
 
 163 
 181 
 183 
 
 192 
 199 
 
sxu 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Pia. PA an 
 
 57-60. Arnold's castration instruments : 57, forceps ; 5S, clamps ; 59, 
 
 firing iron; 60, knife ..... 200 
 
 61. A process of emasculating rams (Peuch and Toussaint) . . 202 
 
 62. Uterus, oviducts, and ovaria of sheep (Owen) . . . 204 
 
 63. Celosomian Iamb (Youatt) . . . . . .208 
 
 64. Cyclopean ram (Hering) ...... 203 
 
 65. Genital organs of an hermaphrodite goat (Leuckart) . . 209 
 
 66. Twin gestation ; pregnant uterus of a goat (Colin) . . 210 
 
 67. Arteries of base of brain of sheep (Cliauveau) . . . -30 
 68-81. 
 
 Details of anatomy, life history, &c., of Ccenurus oerebralis, 
 from various sources : 68, embryo, and 69 and 70, hooks of 
 two forms of tsnia contrasted (Van Beneden) ; 71, bookless 
 ccenurus, and 72, ccEuurus heads (Leuckart) ; 73-76, phases 
 of development (Van Beneden) ; 77-80, brains of sheep con- 
 taining ccenurus in various situations (Cobbold) ; 81, sturdy 
 instruments ...... 235, 236 
 
 Ravages of foot-rot (Brown) : 82, early stage ; 83, early stage 
 in an induced case; 84, advanced stage ; 85, section to illus- 
 trate extension of crack ..... 260 
 
 Fungoid horn from advanced foot-rot ( x 200) (Bvo\vn) . . 2GJ 
 
 Foot changes resulting from eczema epizootica (Willian)s) . 2Ga 
 
 Ear-marking pincers . , . . . . .279 
 
 Arrangement of glands and wool (Ercolani) . . . 280 
 
 Section of skin of sheep (Gault) . . . . - . 2S0 
 
 Oil glands from foot of sheep (Ercolani) .... 281 
 
 Portion of stem of wool of sheep (Reissner) . . . 2S1 
 
 (The last four illustrations from Gamgee's ' Our Domestic 
 Animals in Health and Disease.') 
 Dermatodecies ovis (Gerlach) , . . . . 294 
 
 94 and 95. Ectozoa of sheep ; the tick and louse (Gamgcc) . . 295 
 
 96. Young 6-legged acarus ( x 100) (Brown) .... 295 
 
 97. Mature male acarus ( x 100) (Brown) ■. . . . 296 
 
 98. Mature female acarus ( x 100) (Brown) .... 297 
 
 99. Skin debris of a case of scab ( x 40) (Brown) . . . 298 
 
 82-85. 
 
 86. 
 87. 
 88. 
 89. 
 90. 
 91. 
 92. 
 
 93. 
 
LIST OF OPERATIONS AND OTHER 
 PRACTICAL MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 NO. 
 
 1. Method of seizing, throwing, and detaining sheep . 
 
 2. To hold a sheep for examination 
 
 3. To catch sheep, and 4. to lift sheep 
 
 5. To take the pulse 
 
 6. Administration of drinks and enemas 
 
 7. Bleeding, from angular, sapliena, jugular, and cephalic veins 
 
 8. Ovination v. clavilisation 
 
 9. Anthrax vaccination (Pasteurian) . 
 
 10. Intra-venous hlood-injection for black leg 
 
 11. Operation for prophylaxis of lung plague 
 
 12. Auscultation and percussion 
 
 13. Horn trephining for "grub in the head" 
 
 14. Intra-tracheal method of treatment for hoose 
 
 15. To determine the age of the sheep by the teeth 
 
 16. Use of the probang ..... 
 
 17. Paracentesis abdominis in hoven 
 
 18. Euminotomy or paunching .... 
 
 19. Clatting or tagging ..... 
 
 20. Operation for impervious anus 
 
 21. Tapping the belly ..... 
 
 22. Amputation of the appendix vermiformis penis 
 
 23. Setting of fractures .... 
 
 24. Amputations : of limbs ; of ears ; of tail (docking) 
 
 25. Operations on horns .... 
 
 26. Castration — the usual method 
 
 27. Firing or hot iron method .... 
 
 28. The covered operation, drawing, scraping . 
 
 29. Methods resorted to for adult sheep— tying, trapping, 
 
 cutting ....... 
 
 30. Bistournage ....■■ 
 
 31. Castration by the ^crasi.'ur .... 
 
 32. Lambing . . . . 
 
 33. " Substitution " of lambs .... 
 
 34. Operation for prolapsus uteri 
 
 35. Rolling method for torsio cervicis uteri 
 
 PAGE 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 13-15 
 
 41 
 
 54 
 
 59 
 
 72 
 
 83 
 
 89 
 
 101 
 
 107 
 
 115 
 
 117 
 
 119 
 
 130, 206 
 
 131 
 
 173 
 
 178 
 
 190 
 
 191—193 
 
 194, 195 
 
 . 198 
 
 . 199 
 
 . 201 
 
 ling, 
 
 . 201 
 . 202 
 . 203 
 . 206 
 . 209 
 . 212 
 . 213 
 
SXIT 
 
 TABLESj ETC. 
 
 NO. PAG-B 
 
 36. Operation for impervious teats ..... 226 
 
 37. Ovariotomy or spaying ...... 227 
 
 38. Hogg's wiring operation for sturdy and Youatt's modification of it 242 
 
 39. Trephining for gid . . . . . . . 244 
 
 40. Opening up the interungulate canal .... 258 
 
 41. Randall's method of foot trimming .... 271 
 
 42. Foot-bath for sheep . . . . . . .274 
 
 43. Ear marking ....... 279 
 
 44. Tearing ........ 283 
 
 45. Shearing ........ 283 
 
 46. Washing ........ 287 
 
 47. Detection of acari in scab ...... 307 
 
 48. Dipping ........ 310 
 
 49. Spotting or pouring ...... 318 
 
 50. Salving or smearing ...... 320 
 
 51. Dressing for the fly . . . . . . . 325 
 
 52. Dressing for sore head ...... 327 
 
 TABLES, &c. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 7. 
 8. 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 Chemical composition of blood of sheep and goat . . ,18 
 
 Mea'^ures necessary for repression of contagions disease in sheep . 43 
 
 Dentition table, after Kreuzer, Simonds, and Gnrlt . . 107 
 
 Table of the names given to sheep according to age, sex, &c. . 108 
 
 Composition of urinary calculi (Fiirstenburg) . . . 176 
 
 Specifications of " dips " used in Victoria and South Australia . 311 
 
 Recipes for sheep dips by various authorities . , . 315 
 
 Recipes for salves to be used in smearing .... 321 
 
 Recipes for " fly oils " from various authorities . . . 325 
 
 List of medicines used in sheep practice (after various authors) . 346 
 
DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— INTEODUOTION. 
 
 We must remind our readers that among the hoofed 
 animals which chew the cud is one family known as the 
 Ovidse. ThiSj zoologists tell us^ comprises certain feral 
 forms which inhabit mountains and are remarkable for 
 hardihood, fleetnesSj agility, and sure-footedness. These, 
 we are reasonably given to believe, are descended from 
 ancestors common also to certain familiar domesticated 
 forms known in most parts of the world as sheep and 
 goats. "We are further informed that the wild Ovidse 
 are remarkably clever in gaining a living from short 
 highland and upland grasses together with the leaves and 
 shoots of shrubs and thorny plants, that they are gregar- 
 ious in consequence of the males being polygamous and 
 jealously assertive of their rights to such a number of 
 females as is suited to the requirements of each and as he 
 is able to preserve from the advances of more formidable 
 rivals. The flesh of these ruminants is found to be 
 extremely palatable to mankind and to admit of improve- 
 ment in quantity and quality under the influence of 
 artificial selection; their hair has proved capable of 
 development into copious fleeces of wool, remarkably 
 adapted for manufacture into clothing of various kinds ; 
 and it has been ascertained that the sheep is able to 
 
 1 
 
2 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 thrive under extremes of climate, as well, for example, on 
 the high, dry plains of continental uplands as on the low- 
 lying fields of Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and other seaboard 
 localities. Happily much intelligent interest and zeal has 
 been brought to bear on the improvement of the sheep m 
 various directions, some workers in this line have aimed 
 especially at mutton, most have endeavoured to obtain 
 increased quantity or improved staple of wool, and all 
 have recognised that with improvement must be associated 
 certain points of make and shape essential for due 
 nutrition of the body. Hence have arisen the accepted 
 views as to symmetry of sheep, and the practical instinct 
 whereby the sheep farmer can tell at a glance the good or 
 bad points of an animal offered to him for sale. The 
 veterinarian is seldom fully competent to offer opinions 
 either as to symmetry of sheep or staple of wool, the 
 farmer naturally knows much more about such matters 
 than his professional adviser can afford the time or has the 
 opportunity for learning ; but the latter will be competent 
 to point out how improved breeds lose in constitutional 
 vigour and are specially liable to disease, also how 
 wool may be preserved by checking debility and skin 
 disease, and what methods of treatment are least liable to 
 damage the wool while curing disease when unhappily 
 it is present. It is remarkable how much variation has 
 been brought about in the sheep by natural and artificial 
 selection, and no species illustrates more forcibly how 
 " plastic in the hand of man " the conformation and 
 qualities of domesticated animals are. We need here 
 merely contrast the small, hairy, neglected, semi-wild sheep 
 with some of the more marked, fully domesticated breeds. 
 The large-tailed sheep of Arabia and Persia, the sheep of 
 the Caucasus with fatty accumulations on the buttocks, the 
 short, deformed-legged sheep of America ("Otter breed"), 
 the richly fleeced Merino, the essentially pure-blooded 
 Southdown, and the huge long-wooled Lincoln present us 
 with a sufficiently ample series of illustrations of variation. 
 The Ovidse are naturally among the smallest of 
 ruminants, and, like the rest of their order, are adapted 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 rather for sedentary life than for excitement. They are 
 not^ however, all unprovided with offensive and defensive 
 weapons, for some have horns with hollow bony cores, and 
 the skull is enormously strengthened at the roots of these 
 horns, whereby they are rendered competent for their duty 
 as butting organs. These appendages, being so much 
 twisted that " like a ram's horn " has become a common 
 expression, are not adapted for either tossing or goring 
 an enemy, but the special form of attack adopted by the 
 ram, either against another ram or other animals, is butting. 
 In India, and elsewhere, ram-fights are common ; and it 
 is extraordinary how the animals, after a long course, will 
 meet with terrible force in accurate adjustment of forehead 
 to forehead, reeling backward if the meeting has been 
 even, but falling dead from broken neck if there has been 
 the slightest maladjustment of front or the most trivial 
 bend of the neck. The fury and obstinacy shown here is 
 in remarkable contrast with the timidity of the sheep as 
 most familiar in European countries. This timidity is 
 generally associated with stupidity, and it must be 
 admitted that, although there are not wanting anecdotes 
 to indicate elementary intelligence on the part of the 
 sheep, both anatomical and physiological evidence is 
 opposed to higher nervous functions being an attribute of 
 ovines. The organs of locomotion, on the other hand, are 
 well developed, the processes of the skeleton large, the 
 limb bones clean and compact, the muscles well defined 
 and of good tone in breeds which have to roam far for 
 their living. The foot differs in some essential features 
 from that of the ox, being more adapted for rough 
 progress on dry and rocky uplands. The organs of 
 special sense are well developed to enable the animal early 
 to apprehend danger, thus the sight and hearing are keen 
 and of wide range, but the frequency of poisoning from 
 noxious matters in pastures gives rise to a suspicion that 
 the senses of taste and smell are not so perfect as in the 
 horse and ox. The digestive system is specially adapted 
 to enable the animal to contend with hard conditions of 
 life, and to put up with food containing much woody fibre. 
 
4 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 The digestive powers are considerable^ and there is a great 
 tendency to the storing of fat both internally and 
 externally (especially the latter), as we see annually exem- 
 plified at Islington and other shows of fat cattle. The 
 facts that a sheep will thrive where an ox would starve, 
 and that folding sheep on ground proves an excellent 
 method of manuring it are most valuable in practical 
 farming. Lastly, we may refer to the generative system, 
 on considering which in detail many interesting facts, 
 anatomical, physiological, and pathological will be noted, 
 as, for example, the peculiar shape of glans penis, the 
 common occurrence of twin and triplet births, and the 
 extreme prevalence of parturient fever. 
 
 The small size of the sheep and his non-aggressiveness 
 under ordinary circumstances, render his manipulation for 
 surgical and medical purposes easy. The necessity to 
 avoid dragging at the wool, and not to injure the delicate 
 bones, especially of young animals, has led to certain 
 
 METHODS OF SEIZING, THEOWINQ, AND DETAINING animals of 
 
 the sheep tribe ; a rope for tying the feet together is 
 almost the only appliance required. But to examine the 
 animal with exactitude, he must first be caught, which 
 is by no means an easy matter in many cases, for 
 besides the fairly rapid pace which a sheep when frightened 
 can show, and which the whole flock will take up, he is 
 liable to bury himself among the rest, and all are packed 
 and jammed tightly together in such a way as to render 
 it diificult to get at any particular one. One or more well- 
 trained dogs to direct the flock and to turn and stop it 
 when inclined to bolt, a handy pen or fold to limit the 
 range, a race through which the sheep may be made to pass 
 almost in single file, and a handy experienced shepherd 
 with crook or other means for seizing the sheep by the 
 neck or hind leg, also a sharp boy to throw his arms 
 round the animal's neck, and so detain it, will all be 
 found useful by the practitioner. Not unfrequently the 
 sick are unable to rise and follow the herd, or they do so 
 only with difiiculty ; some poor, paralysed, and debilitated 
 brutes, " crawlers," crawl along the ground, and so gain a 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 precarious living for a time, until want, a friendly knife, 
 or some prowling carnivore puts an end to their sufferings. 
 The man experienced in sheep knows how to take advan- 
 tage of their peculiarities for driving, catching, or collect- 
 ing them ; their puzzling tendency to follow a leader, to 
 pack, and to get out of an enclosure by the way they 
 came in, may frequently be taken advantage of to attain 
 a desired end, so the veterinary adviser had better trust 
 to the experienced shepherd for collection, seizure, and 
 throwing of his sheep patients, having himself, however, 
 sufficient acquaintance with the subject to detect any want 
 of hearty co-operation, in the form of delay and other 
 obstruction. 
 
 A sheep is held for examination or operation (1) by t.n 
 assistant having the animal's body between his legs, and 
 holding it (standing on its hind legs) with a fore-leg 
 in each hand, or sitting with the animal in the same 
 position; (2) by throwing the animal, and seizing one 
 foreleg and one hind-leg in each hand and placing the 
 body on a stool or table if necessary. The feet may be 
 tied together in pairs, three at a time, or all four, their 
 relative position varying as is found convenient, and the 
 limbs may be held apart, backwards or forwards as 
 required. When a fore and hind leg of the same side are 
 tied together, the limbs must be so placed that the 
 cannon bones may be parallel (Fleming). 
 
 In handling sheep they should not be held or lifted by 
 the wool ; it hurts them, and also causes struggling and 
 bruising of the skin. Ewes in lamb should never be caught 
 by the hind leg and always must be handled with special 
 care. The ' New York Herald ' says, " When about to 
 catch a sheep move carefully towards the one to be 
 taken till you are sufficiently near to spring quickly 
 and seize the beast by the neck with both hands. Then 
 pass one hand around the body, grasp the brisket, and 
 lift the sheep clear from the ground. The wool must 
 not be pulled. If the sheep is a heavy one let one hand 
 and wrist be put around the neck and the other pressed 
 against the rump .... Others seize the sheep by a hind 
 
6 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 leg, then throw one arm about the body, and take hold of 
 the brisket with one hand " (' Veterinary Journal,' vol. iv, 
 p. 226). Kandall instructs us : — 
 
 To catch sheep. — Always by throwing the hands about the 
 neck, or by seizing one hind leg above its hock with a hand 
 crook, and then drawing the animal gently back until it can 
 be caught round the neck ; the crook should be used with 
 quick but gentle motion, and the caught sheep drawn back 
 promptly enough to prevent it springing to one side or the 
 other, and throwing itself down so as to wrench the leg. 
 When the sheep is within reach seize the leg and withdraw 
 the crook. 
 
 Lift a sheep. — 1. By placing both arms around body 
 iiJimediately behind the fore legs. 
 
 2. By standing sideways to it and placing one arm 
 before the fore legs and the other behind the hind legs. 
 
 8. By throwing one arm round the fore parts, and 
 taking up the sheep between the arm and hip. 
 
 4. By lifting with the left arm under its brisket, the 
 right hand grasping the thigh on the other side, and so 
 that the sheep lays on left arm with its back against the 
 catcher's body. 
 
 [1 and 2 are recommended as handiest and safest with 
 large sheep ; 3 will be convenient with small] . 
 
 Routine management of a floch varies in accordance 
 with breed, season, locality, available pasture, and other 
 matters almost innumerable. As, however, disease very 
 frequently depends on error in management and certain 
 diseases are due to specialities in rearing and feeding 
 of sheep as compared with other domesticated animals, it 
 is incumbent on the veterinary practitioner to have some 
 familiarity with the most approved methods adopted by 
 flock masters. Washing, shearing, dipping, castration, 
 lambing, and other routine matters of the life of sheep 
 under domestication are apt, when mismanaged, to give 
 rise to fatality, sometimes to a most serious extent. 
 Want of proper protection from inclemency of the weather, 
 apparently trifling errors in hygiene, and selection of un- 
 suitable pastures, are fruitful causes of disease, Domes- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 tication, as it renders the system more complex and the 
 life of the animal more artificial, must be considered as 
 predisposing our improved breeds to many diseases. On 
 the other hand, it must not be forgotten that sheep in a 
 state of nature suffer very severely from diseases of diffe- 
 rent kinds, and from exigencies of a climatic nature such 
 as drought, storms, cold and hot winds, and floods ; so 
 much is this the case in some countries that sheep cannot 
 live there. In Lower Burma, for example, no sheep are 
 found except such as are imported, and even they are apt 
 to quickly deteriorate and die. Wild beasts prove very 
 formidable enemies to the sheep, and occasionally are not 
 only directly destructive, but also conveyers of disease. 
 
 The general symptoms of disorder in a sheep are want 
 of natural vivacity, behaviour different from that of the 
 rest of the flock, inability to keep up with the main body 
 when driven, dulness and sadness of the eyes, a rough- 
 ness, dirty, and unkempt appearance (" clapping ") of 
 the wool, deficiency of strength, and a falling off in con- 
 dition, also an unnatural position and unusual posture 
 when standing or lying. The sick separate from the rest 
 of the herd and mope. A moist state of the muzzle is a 
 good sign, and among ewes it is customary to look for 
 firmness and whiteness of the teeth, sweetness of the 
 breath, brightness of the eye and general expression, firm 
 adherence of the wool to the pelt, a fair amount of fat, 
 and a normal state of the visible mucous membranes as 
 signs of health. A glutinous character of the liquor 
 amnii at lambing is also a good sign. 
 
 The PDLSE can readily be taken at the femoral artery 
 on the inner side of the thigh. Firm but gentle pressure 
 of the vessel against the bone is necessary. The normal 
 beat ranges from 90 in the young animal to 60 in the 
 adult ; this beat is firm, sharp, and of good tone. Some- 
 times it is necessary to take the pulse by auscultation 
 and pressure over the heart, but the frequency and 
 character of the pulse are much less often considered in 
 dealing with sheep diseases than with those of the horse, 
 ox, and dog ; for in ovines the pulse is very liable to 
 
8 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 " run up " considerably under the influence of excitement. 
 It cannot be taken at the jaw because the submaxillary 
 artery runs over the cheek from the temporalj and is not 
 arranged as in the horse. 
 
 The INTERNAL TEMPEEATUEB normally is put at 101 — 
 104° F. (38° — 40° C). Different observers have arrived 
 at somewhat various results in estimating the average. 
 Thus Singleton in June, 1888, found on taking the readings 
 of one-year-old crossbred sheep at the rectum, the average 
 of fifty females, 104-4° P., of fifty males 103'9° F., the 
 external temperature being 60° — 65° F. in the shade. 
 Siedamgrotzsky found the mean (40-2° C.) 104-2° F., and 
 the range very great, from 101-2° to 107-8° F. Shearing 
 causes a slight rise of -5° — 1-1° C. of short duration; the 
 temperature of unshorn sheep is slightly higher than that 
 of shorn. Fleming gives the average normal temperature 
 for the sheep as 40-25° C. ; Krabbe puts it at 39-8° C. 
 
 The EESPiEATiONS of a quiescent animal under ordinary 
 conditions are estimated at 13 — 17 (Gamgee), and at 30 — 
 200 by Brown. The effects of recent exertion, of high 
 atmospheric temperature, and of excitement, in causing 
 panting are so marked that rapid breathing must iiot be 
 unreservedly accepted as a sign of disease. Auscultation 
 and percussion when resorted to, which is seldom the case, 
 give more thorough and satisfactory results than simply 
 taking the number of breathings per minute. 
 
 Hitherto in the detection and differentiation of sheep 
 disorders the rougher methods of diagnosis only have been 
 applied to any considerable extent. The experienced 
 observer is enabled to determine at a glance what is the 
 matter in any particular case of such disorders as are of 
 frequent occurrence in the flock. Among the points 
 specially looked to are the gait and behaviour, which may 
 be altered from the normal, as in tetanus, rabies, or gid ; 
 the state of the visible mucous membranes as to colour, 
 moisture, presence or absence of discharge, and the nature 
 of the various evacuations. The eye of the sheep fed on 
 firm heathery uplands is normally redder than that of one 
 kept on low lands, and on some boggy pastures the conjunc- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 tiva is never red (in the absence of inflammation) be the 
 animal ever so sound. The condition of the tongue is a 
 specially valuable guide ; Touatt reminds us that it is 
 red in serous inflammations and as a premonitory sign 
 of red water, red at the edges previous to an attack 
 of dysentery, yellow-brown in diseases of the liver, purple 
 or black in blood- and respiratory diseases, pale and 
 soft in atonic maladies and anaemia. Its foulness, ulcer- 
 ated condition, and other states in special diseases will be 
 noted in due course. The state of the faeces, and com- 
 position, consistency, colour, and quantity of the urine 
 are valuable indications ; to make a sheep pass urine for 
 examination it is the custom to close his nostrils with 
 the fingers for a minute or two. Deformity or swelling 
 of any part of the body, lameness, unthriftiness, loss 
 of appetite and cud, cough, constant or intermittent 
 recumbency, grinding the teeth, and moaning or groaning 
 are symptoms which become familiar in the course of 
 ovine practice. A loss of the wool is a phenomenon 
 not uncommon after severe disease, especially in connec- 
 tion with parturition ; however, it may follow simple pecu- 
 liarities of diet, thus ewes fed on mangolds sometimes 
 become almost naked. A blue colour, dry and warm 
 condition, petechiated state, and eruptive manifestations 
 on the skin are valuable indications as to the pathological 
 condition present in many disorders. 
 
 Among familiar causes of sheep diseases we may men- 
 tion condition and nature of food; excess of turnips, rye 
 grass, astringent and laxative herbs, old coarse natural 
 grass, and rough aftermath may each and every of them 
 be factors in production of disease. Salt, which is gene- 
 rally useful, may be a cause of plethora ; cakes and corn 
 may be given in excess, or the fodder may be too watery 
 and deficient in some essential element, such as nitroge- 
 nous principles or phosphates. Even the well-known rule 
 that where Festiica ovina, the sheep's fescue, is found 
 the sheep will thrive is occasionally found to be erroneous. 
 Prom such facts we learn that what is good under some 
 circumstances of time, place, and condition may be bad 
 
10 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 under others. Soil^ elevation, manures or pastures, and 
 even chemical composition or physical characters of the 
 drinking water may sometimes be producers of special 
 disease, as illustrated hy rachitis, rot, plumbism, and 
 goitre or urinary concretions respectively. Spring, when 
 the feed is good after winter scarcity, is a most frequent 
 season for sheep diseases. Overcrowding in houses* or 
 over-stocking in pastures, over-exposure on uplands 
 without protection by jackets or smearing, neglect of 
 shelter of recently shorn or lambing animals, and want of 
 exercise, are defects in hygiene which commonly act 
 prejudicially on sheep ; but it is remarkable how long the 
 sheep, compared with the horse, can, without succumbing 
 to plethoric disease, remain housed, highly fed, and 
 devoid of exercise. Pallas has recorded the effects of hot 
 winds on the sheep. He shows that in July, between the 
 Don and the Volga, when hot winds blow, many sheep 
 perish; they fall like flies, foam with blood, swell, and 
 putrefy so rapidly that there is no time to remove the 
 fleeces. This condition may possibly be anthrax. Darwin 
 has commented on the fact that sheep not diseased never- 
 theless seem capable sometimes of introducing disorder 
 among the sheep of a district into which they are 
 imported, otherwise than by contagion. 
 
 The great variety in management of the sheep of 
 different breeds perhaps accounts for the various esti- 
 mates which have been arrived at as to their disease- 
 resisting capacity. Fleming places the sheep lowest on the 
 list of domesticated mammals as regards disease-resisting 
 power, and describes it as having a constant asthenic 
 tendency under disease. This certainly holds with some 
 of the least cultivated of the breeds, but the Southdowns 
 and other improved forms, when not rendered anaemic by 
 over- fattening, exhibit the sthenicity under disease and the 
 pluck in meeting it which is one indication of " blood," 
 and which reminds us of the thoroughbred horse in this 
 
 * Delafond relates how sixty out of two hundred sheep were lost iu a 
 single night from overcrowding in Beauce, and simple avoidance of over- 
 crowding sometimes causes fatality in a flock to cease (Fleming). 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 respect. As regards chest inflammation this sthenicity is 
 well marked, and contrasts favorably with the conditions 
 seen in the ox. Youatt shows that in sheep disease has 
 a constant tendency to assume a malignant or typhoid 
 form, but the latter expression was not used by him with the 
 meaning it conveys in the present day. It is remarkable how 
 many of the diseases of sheep are acute, rapidly fatal, and 
 tending to plasticity ; Spooner's statement that the sheep 
 enjoys immunity from active inflammation is hardly borne 
 out by the records, as will be found in the following pages. 
 Parasites are the most serious and fatal causes of 
 sheep diseases, and to them a very large proportion of 
 the undoubtedly enormous losses of sheep is due. They 
 invade all organs of the body, and in the aggregate 
 do incalculable damage ; they decrease in number and 
 severity of results with improved management, and, 
 being very tangible factors, can be met by scientific 
 methods of repression. If parasitic disorders were 
 blotted out, ovine nosology would be simple and 
 short. Over and over again we shall have to allude to 
 apparent but not real epizooty or enzooty of disease 
 among sheep; by this we wish it to be clearly under- 
 stood that a true enzooty affects individuals in num- 
 bers in a definite area, although their conditions of life 
 are most varied, and a true epizootic disease is a something 
 travelling like a wave over an animal population subjected 
 to various conditions otherwise. In sheep we find appa- 
 rent enzooty due to absolute and exact unifoi-mity of con- 
 ditions, whereby the cause may just as readily act on the 
 many as on one ; we look on this spuriousness of sheep 
 enzooty in the majority of cases as a fact most important 
 to be remembered. It accounts for the very frequent 
 occurrence of disease outbreaks among sheep as compared 
 with horses and cattle, and for the heavy losses expe- 
 rienced. It has an effect on treatment, which has to be 
 conducted in a wholesale and general manner.* The 
 
 * " On the hills the managing of sheep is one incompatible witli drugging, 
 incompatible with effectual shelter, and incompatible with altering the 
 nature of the diet " (Qamgee). 
 
]2 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 administration of drenches to several hundreds of sheep 
 is not often practicable ; individual prescription is 
 utterly impossible with the veterinary aid generally avail- 
 able, and measures must be adopted whereby each sheep 
 will take his share of medicine voluntarilyj only the 
 most severe cases or the most valuable patients being 
 brought up for individual treatment. This wholesale 
 method necessarily interferes with the niceties of medi- 
 cal practice, but it must be accepted as a practical 
 difficulty which can seldom be overcome, and which must 
 be obviated as much as possible by expedients tending to 
 ensure that each sheep gets its fair share of treatment. 
 The cases being very similar in the different individuals, 
 in most outbreaks the objections to wholesale treatment 
 are less than might seem at first sight, and, as a matter 
 of fact, doses of salt and sulphate of iron in feeding 
 troughs, foot baths in foot disorders, washings in skin 
 diseases, soil dressings, and salves of various kinds have 
 been found extremely useful in practice. It need scarcely 
 be insisted on that individual treatment when practicable 
 is best. 
 
 Sheep will be found very tractable patients, they 
 receive drenches by means of a small drenching horn or 
 bottle ; boli are no more suited for them than for the 
 ox. Cathartics are of special value because, though his 
 digestive powers are remarkable, the sheep is very liable 
 to disorders of the alimentary canal, and alimentary 
 influences especially produce and aggravate ovine dis- 
 eases. Experience has shown that oleaginous cathartics 
 are more frequently useful in the sheep than in the ox ; 
 but the G-lauber's and Epsom salts are not to be neglected, 
 and drinks containing them must be warm when possible 
 and administered carefully and slowly, that they may 
 trickle down into the true stomach and not be lost in the 
 rumen. The head should during administration be held 
 by an assistant standing astride over the sheep. Gruel 
 linseed tea, hay tea, and beer are excellent vehicles for 
 medicines, and each drench should consist of about half a 
 pint. Beer, when it can be ensured that the sheep gets it, 
 
INTKODOCTION. 
 
 13 
 
 is very useful^ because in treatment of slieep the benefit of 
 stimulant tonics is very largely resorted to for counteraction 
 of debility and anaemia. It is fortunate that pure seda- 
 tives are not so frequently needed, since some of them, such 
 as tartar emetic, have no appreciable action on the sheep. 
 Bnemata for the sheep may be given by means of the 
 syringe or funnel, and the bulk should be about half a pint. 
 
 Fia. 1. — Simple enema funnel. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Patent enema apparatus. 
 
 Blredinq is very freely resorted to, and is useful in 
 apoplexy, phrenitis, some blood derangements, and con- 
 o-estive disorders. . The rough method of bleeding adopted 
 by shepherds is to amputate the ear or the tail, thus 
 
14 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 performing arterio-phlebotomy. Surgically, phlebotomy 
 is resorted to, and we may condense from several authors 
 the methods following: (1) The angular, facial, or cheeh 
 vein is opened by means of the lancet. The operator 
 holds his instrument, opened, between his lips or teeth, 
 stands astride the sheep, and presses its body between 
 his knees, having the left a little in front of the right. 
 The left hand is then passed under the head of the animal 
 thus held, so that he can neither struggle much nor 
 escape, and pressure is made by the fingers of the left 
 hand beneath and within the right jaw near its posterior 
 angle, in order to raise the vein. With the right hand 
 the swelling of the vein on the cheek, about equally distant 
 from the eye and angle of the mouth, is felt, the lancet 
 seized, and then the vessel is opened from below upwards, 
 half a finger's breadth below the zygomatic tubercle. 
 Sometimes a ligature is put round the neck to make the 
 vessel rise. Simple removal of pressure will generally 
 stop the bleeding, but it may be judged prudent to pin 
 up the opening. (2) To bleed from the saphena : lay the 
 animal broadside on the table, or on some straw, tie three 
 legs, leaving the one to be operated on free, and let the 
 assistant draw it out and hold it firmly. Remove any 
 hair from the part to be operated on, compress by pressure 
 or ligature above seat of operation, and penetrate with the 
 lancet. This is resorted to in disease of the posterior part 
 of the body. A bandage over the part for a few hours 
 afterwards may be necessary to compress and protect the 
 wound. This operation is generally performed on the 
 external saphena, which is much larger, in proportion, than 
 in the horse. (3) Bleeding from the jugular is performed 
 by an assistant seizing the sheep, standing astride it, com- 
 pressing its body between the knees, and holding the head 
 steady and elevated by grasping the ears or horns. The 
 neck is compressed by a ligature, the wool cut away at the 
 seat of operation, and the vein opened by means of a lancet 
 or a fleam. The wound is usually closed by pinning. 
 Removal of a few ounces of blood generally suffices ; one 
 pound should rarely, if ever, be exceede'd. In fat animals 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 the layer of adipose tissue beneatli the skin renders the 
 jugular rather inaccessible. (4) The cephalic or plate vein 
 is occasionally opened by placing the animal on its side, 
 the limb to be operated on being uppermost. This leg is 
 drawn backwards, the wool removed from the front of the 
 arm, compression made by the thumb on the vein, which 
 is then opened by means of the lancet. The wound is 
 closed in the usual manner (Youatt and Fleming). 
 
 Anjisthetics are seldom used in ovine surgery, but 
 might be, not only without danger but also with advantage 
 and only slight increase in expense. Wakley, jun. and 
 Erasmus Wilson long ago, in the ' Lancet,' recorded the 
 results of experiments with anesthetics on domesticated 
 animals. They found that after administration of four 
 drachms of chloroform to a wether for 2^ minutes, the 
 following phenomena ensued : — 1^ mm., animal fell on its 
 side. 2 1 min., complete insensibility, respiration quick 
 and panting, eyelids closed, pupils largely dilated. 4 min., 
 animal raised its head, stretched its limbs, and made in- 
 effectual efforts to rise. 5 min., respiration still quick 
 and agitated. 5^ min., regained his legs and, after 
 several tumbles, staggered away. 
 
 Cocaine and other local ansesthetics are applicable in 
 ovine surgery. 
 
 Blistees are seldom used for the sheep, for it is advis- 
 able to save the wool whenever possible. Setons might 
 more frequently be used than they are in Great Britain. 
 Charges are very useful for some forms of fracture. 
 Fomentations and poultices are comparatively seldom 
 resorted to on account of the difficulty in applying them 
 simultaneously to a considerable number of animals. 
 
 With regard to preventive measures, we have con- 
 stantly to meet the argument, both concerning parasitic 
 and specific diseases, that the efforts of one individual 
 farmer are useless so long as the State remains apathetic. 
 To this we can merely reply that every little helps in 
 disease repression, and that there is reason to believe that 
 improved sheep hygiene, as adopted by farmers lately, is 
 beginning to have a perceptible influence for good on 
 
16 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 some prevalent and severe disorders. There are many 
 misconceptions and crude generalisations concerning sheep 
 diseases. Eandall is, as our work illustrates, wrong in 
 saying that sheep diseases are few, and whether or not 
 they are low in type has been discussed elsewhere. He 
 puts the fatalities among grown sheep in a well- managed 
 flock at 2 per cent. The paucity in number of specific 
 diseases of sheep, as compared with the horse and ox, 
 will be observed by the reader with satisfaction, but, it 
 must be noted, recent experience has rather tended to 
 increase the number as knowledge progresses and we 
 attain more skill in differential diagnosis. This paucity 
 of sheep diseases has been attributed to the covering of 
 wool protecting against contagion, but that is a weak 
 argument, the true cause would seem rather to be inherent 
 in the constitution of the sheep which resists some serious 
 diseases of other species, such as pleuro-pneumonia zymo- 
 tica, glanders, and relapsing fever. Experience has shown 
 that diffusion of special sheep races has tended to increase 
 the number of known sheep diseases. Bollinger of 
 Munich, in 1878, investigated an epizooty among large 
 game and cattle, and found it a new disease, communi- 
 cable by inoculation with fresh blood to sheep, goats, and 
 other animals ; sometimes it seemed a form of contagious 
 pleuro-pneumonia, in other cases it was rather contagious 
 erysipelas. Further, contagious foot rot and eczema epizoo- 
 tica are said to be associated with the spread of merinos. 
 Consequently, we may have in the future an increased 
 number of specific ovine diseases to contend against, and 
 the outbreaks among sheep in the colonies and freshly- 
 explored countries need to be observed with care and 
 suspicion for indications of specificity, The Australians 
 report a " Coast disease," for example, and the exact 
 nature of this ought to be determined. 
 
 A final point, which we may comment on, is that a large 
 proportion of the race of sheep undergoes slaughter before 
 the diseases of senility, or even adultism, set in. Thus 
 few really chronic diseases attract our attention in ovine 
 pathology, few of those serious changes of the skeletal. 
 
INTKODOCTION. 17 
 
 circulatory, and digestive systems, which result from over- 
 work and duties too prolonged. The system of the sheep 
 is not liable to great strain, except in the processes of 
 digestion, resisting extremes of climate, and the emergen- 
 cies of gestation and parturition ; the results of these 
 physiological phenomena are of an acute kind in the 
 majority of cases, and the low value of most sheep, with 
 their utility as human food, causes all cripples or slightly 
 diseased animals to be withdrawn from the breeding flock 
 and fattened at once for the butcher, or in emergency, 
 slaughtered without fattening. Bell wethers and breeding 
 ewes and rams occasionally afford interesting pathological 
 conditions, and animals used as " guide sheep " have been 
 known to live twenty or thirty years. 
 
 Although mutton is an extremely important part of 
 our food supply, wool is one of our most valuable articles 
 for manufacture of clothing fabrics, carpets, felts, and 
 the like, and in other ways the sheep contributes largely 
 to the welfare of mankind, and is, accordingly, in constant 
 and intimate relations with human beings, the hearings of 
 sheep diseases on derangements of man and other animals 
 are few. Mutton is notoriously a safe form of meat diet ; 
 a small number of tapeworms of the dog have sheep as 
 their intermediary bearers, a small number of specific 
 diseases (as anthrax and rabies) can be conveyed by 
 sheep to mankind. The study of ovine disorders materi- 
 ally assists us in appreciation of the phenomena of disease 
 action, and elucidates many points of general pathology, 
 especially, for instance, the influence of animal parasites 
 on the skin and internal organs. 
 
18 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— THE BLOOD. 
 
 Colin lias estimated that the blood of the sheep is one- 
 twenty-third of the total weight of the body. The red 
 corpuscles are small and seem inclined to the oval form, 
 or rather somewhat comma-shaped, although at first sight 
 they appear to be circular. Careful analyses of the blood 
 of the sheep and goat (quoted by Gamgee) give the 
 following results : — 
 
 Ingredients. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Goat. 
 
 Water . . . . . 
 
 827-765 
 
 839-440 
 
 Solids . . . . . 
 
 92'425 
 
 85-998 
 
 Corpuscles . . . . 
 
 62-705 
 
 62-705 
 
 Fibrin . . . ■ . 
 
 2-970 
 
 3-920 
 
 Fat .... . 
 
 1-161 
 
 0-910 
 
 Salts- 
 
 
 
 Alkaline phosphates . 
 
 0-395 
 
 0-402 
 
 Sodic sulphate 
 
 0-348 
 
 0-265 
 
 Alkaline carbonates . 
 
 1-498 
 
 1-202 
 
 Sodic chloride 
 
 4-895 
 
 5-186 
 
 Iron oxides . . . . 
 
 0-589 
 
 0-641 
 
 Calcic carbonate 
 
 0-107 
 
 0-110 
 
 Acid, phosphoric. 
 
 0-113 
 
 0-044 
 
 Acid, sulphuric. 
 
 0-129 
 
 0-023 
 
 Magnesia and silica were not detected in' appreciable 
 amounts. Poggiale found in the blood of the sheep con- 
 siderably less iron than in that of either the ox, man, or 
 dog. The pulse is described as active, small, and wiry ; 
 varying in number from 55 — 60 in old age up to 85 — 95 
 in lambs ; the normal for adults being 70 — 80. 
 
 SIMPLE DISORDERS OP THE BLOOD are com- 
 mon in the sheep, the results of irregularities and defects 
 in management. 
 
 Eevee is apparently sometimes present independent of 
 
THE BLOOD, 19 
 
 local disorder, the following being its symptoms. The 
 sheep is dull, off feed, off cud, hangs its head, is unwilling 
 to move, has a dry muzzle, quick full pulse, torpid bowels 
 or costivenessj skin, horns, and breath hot, increased 
 internal temperature ; quick, sometimes difficult breathing, 
 heaving of the flanks, dilated nostrils, swaying of the 
 body to and fro as the animal breathes, the belly and 
 flank sink, muscular tremors, hot and pendent ears, cessa- 
 tion or diminution of milk in the ewe. 
 
 In Jaundice to these febrile symptoms are added 
 yellowness of skin, mucous membranes, serum, and urine. 
 
 Plethoea certainly predisposes to some most fatal 
 maladies, such as anthrax, apoplexy, and acute hepatic 
 congestion. It results either from excessively high feeding 
 on cake and other nutritious substances, together with 
 rich pasture, or else from a sudden transition off a dry 
 sheep-run or from, very poor keep to rich lands where 
 but little ground must be traversed in picking up the 
 necessary amount of food. Salt is often looked on with 
 suspicion as causing the animals to " pick up " and make 
 blood too rapidly, and it certainly requires to be used 
 with judgment. High feeding with the express object 
 of avoiding losses from rot is apt to prove serious by pro- 
 ducing plethoric disorders, especially in ewes at or about 
 the time of pregnancy. Plethora is a state verging on 
 disease, if not actually disease, and it must be looked on 
 apprehensively, and much art displayed in getting sheep 
 into their highest condition for the market without over- 
 shooting the mark. Bollinger states that Heissler's expe- 
 riments show 8'10 per cent, of blood in the sheep, being 
 in proportion to the carcass 1 : 12 ; the minimum was 6"66, 
 and the maximum 10'43 ; also, that Andral, Gavarret, 
 and Delafond found in five strong sheep the number of 
 red blood-corpuscles was a third below the average, but in 
 anaemia the red corpuscles diminish considerably, sometimes 
 to a half or even still more below the average. Increase 
 of blood quantum is not necessarily true plethora ; thus 
 we m.ay have hydrsemic plethora, a false hypertrophy of the 
 blood (Veterinary Journal, June, 1886). The prevalence 
 
20 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 of this condition among sheep warrants the retention of 
 bleeding in ovine treatment to a greater extent than in 
 that of many other species of domesticated animals^ as also 
 does the fact that cases among sheep are seldom observed 
 earljj and yet they prove so rapidly fatal as to necessitate 
 very prompt and decided measures in treatment. 
 
 AniEMiA. — This is equally if not more frequent than 
 plethora among sheep^ and it also arises from mismanage- 
 ment of various kinds. As Robertson insisted, it is quite 
 possible for animals suffering from pure anaemia to die 
 fat, adiposity is not an indication of plethora, but often 
 of the reverse. Generally, however, anaemia occurs 
 among animals in which blood formation is checked by 
 disease or by undue exposure to arduous conditions of 
 life, it is seen also when there is any severe drain on the 
 system, such as in a ewe compelled to suckle more lambs 
 than her supply of food enables her to properly support. 
 So long as nature is not interfered with in adapting sheep 
 to climate she does so effectually, but she makes no pro- 
 vision for the annual deprivation which sheep are gene- 
 rally subjected to of the coating of wool, the folding of 
 sheep in exposed places, or their being suddenly turned 
 out into a bleak exposed situation after being accustomed 
 to plenty and a low-lying, well-protected pasture. A 
 form of anaemia, denoted by anasarca commencing near 
 the udder and extending to the forelegs and thighs, has 
 been noticed to occur as an enzootic about a week after 
 shearing, but readily yields to tonic treatment. Anaemia 
 is ordinarily denoted by paleness of the visible mucous 
 membranes, want of strength, tendency to dropsies 
 and debilitating disorders ; cool, damp, pale tongue ; 
 and general want of vigour. The most frequent seat of 
 dropsy of the sheep is below the jaw, when the animal is 
 vulgarly said to be " poked " or " checkered." Williams 
 notices the prevalence of ansemid, and dropsy among sheep 
 fed on food containing an excess of moisture and during 
 long-continued wet weather. He states that during the 
 winter of 1872—73 this condition was exceedingly preva- 
 lent owing to the inferiority of the grasses, the moist 
 
THE Blood. 21 
 
 condition of the turnips, and the humidity of the atmo- 
 sphere. Andral, Gavarret, and Delafond have found 
 " that in sheep affected with anaemia, with deficiency of 
 red globules but without dropsy or entozoa, there was no 
 deficiency of the albumen. Dr, Williams concludes from 
 this that cachexia and anaemia attended by dropsy owe 
 this concomitant to a want of albumen in the blood ; and 
 he seems to be of opinion that a deficiency of the albu- 
 men, by destroying the spissitude of the blood and 
 allowing it to transude through the coats of the vessels, 
 is a chief feature in the dropsical diathesis" (Williams). 
 Fleming mentions dropsical and other atonic maladies as 
 very common towards the end of autumn among sheep 
 feeding on low-lying and half-submerged pastures. 
 Robertson has given these ansemise of sheep special atten- 
 tion, and he divides them into parasitic and dietetic. 
 Among the latter the most important are the result of 
 feeding animals on too uniform a diet. An excellent illus- 
 tration of this was found in a report of diseases among sheep 
 in Oregon, one of the extreme westerly States of America, 
 wherein the following statement of the conditions and 
 symptoms of disease is given. " The lambs were weaned 
 in 1872, on the 20th of July, on Timothy aftermath; four 
 weeks afterwards they looked miserable and died fast. 
 Last year the lambs died rapidly shortly after weaning. 
 This season they began to give way while sucking." 
 The symptoms, both in young and old, were — 
 " tucked-np appearance ; cough, wool rough and dry, 
 with fleeces partially cast, and wool on faces carried 
 longer than usual ; the lambs do not gambol. Some of 
 the animals droop their heads, run at the nose, have 
 gatherings under the chin, which occasionally dispel and 
 at other times break out into running sores, a marked 
 blood appearance of the mucous membranes and skin." 
 These symptoms were seen in old and young, and were for 
 a longtime noted only "in long-woolled sheep, which for 
 six months in the year were continually wet, the Merinos 
 being comparatively heathy, their thick, close greasy 
 wool seeming to prevent the moisture from penetrating 
 
22 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 to the skin." Transference from the Timothy and hay to a 
 large pasture full of indigenous grasses seems to have 
 effectually removed the aneemia. Eobertson considers 
 the ohscure fatality of ewes at or about the time of partu- 
 rition, which we have elsewhere noted as associated with 
 yellow degeneration of the liver, to be true anaemia. He 
 gives a very good account of this and other forms of 
 anaemia in sheep in the Veterinary Journalj January, 1876. 
 This is the form of disorder known to shepherds as " blood 
 rot j" a weakly state and want of stamina in lambs one 
 season may be a warning of tendency of ewes to it at the 
 next pregnancy. Ewes with hard dry wool, free from 
 mellowness, hide-bound ("hard"), and losing flesh, which 
 become extremely feeble during the latter stages of gesta- 
 tion, are to be looked on with suspicion, and a prompt 
 inquiry into and change of their diet should be made. 
 Treatment of this affection without improved hygiene is 
 useless. The pasture should be more varied or supple- 
 mented by nutritive and not too-succulent diet ; iron and 
 vegetable tonics, also salt may be given ; shelter is of 
 benefit, and the worst cases must be taken up and nursed. 
 Search must be made among the surroundings and in the 
 management of the animals for all possible causes of 
 debility, and they must be removed or palliated as much 
 as possible. 
 
 Sanguineous Ascites is an anasmic disorder of frequent 
 occurrence and not fully-explained nature, well known 
 to shepherds and sheep-owners as a cause of serious 
 and sudden fatality. It is commonly called Red Water, 
 but under that name is liable to be confounded with one 
 of the several altered states of the urine in which that 
 excretion is found of a red colour. Touatt describes the 
 disorder as " acute dropsy." Post-mortem examination in 
 this disease shows a red fluid in the cavity of the belly, 
 there having been " a transudation not only of the fluid 
 part of the blood but also of the colouring material, the 
 globules being sometimes dissolved, sometimes entire, and 
 more or less altered in appearance in the serosity" 
 (Williams). The peritoneum, especially its mesenteric 
 
THE BLOOD. 23 
 
 and omental portions, is heightened in colour and inflamed. 
 The disease sometimes assumes a very acute character 
 and causes very considerable losses, the cases proving 
 fatal in a day or less ; not infrequently, indeed, sheep which 
 seemed well overnight are found dead in the morning 
 from this cause, having apparently died quietly. In 
 other cases the animal is evidently out of sorts ; the head 
 is protruded, breathing difficult, belly enlarged, wool 
 loose, some signs of abdominal pain, faeces liquid and 
 intermingled with mucus and bile, or obstinate constipa- 
 tion is present. The animal has a dull, heavy appearance, 
 and oedema of the lower part of the head and neck, is 
 decidedly anaemic and debilitated, and becomes much 
 emaciated. A fixed, staring look, bending of the neck, 
 and giddiness precede death. The disease is most fre- 
 quent in autumn or at the commencement of winter 
 among sheep which have just been brought on turnips 
 or other succulent food; it has been noted as following 
 injudicious changes of diet or pasture, especially transfer 
 to a cold and wet grazing ground when hoar frost prevails. 
 Lambs soon after weaning, and even before weaning, 
 suffer much from it, and it is stated that some are pre- 
 maturely born with the affection owing to some blood 
 depravity and error in feeding of the ewe. Night folding 
 on turnips has been supposed to be specially liable to 
 produce it. Treatment comprises a complete change of 
 general management, including pasture and artificial food. 
 Salt added to the food promotes its digestibility, and 
 sulphate of iron and turpentine have been found useful 
 agents. Good hard feed is an essential of treatment, and 
 a table-spoonful of tar per hogget per fortnight has been 
 considered an excellent prophylactic (W. Graves) . Sheep 
 when on roots specially require sound dry ground to rest 
 on. There can be no doubt that sanguineous ascites is a 
 disease primarily of the blood, and resulting from some 
 disproportion between its several constituents or the 
 entry of foreign and unsuitable matters. Until the 
 matter has been more thoroughly and scientifically in- 
 vestigated than hitherto, in this as in many other dis- 
 
24 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 orders of sheep, judgment must be reserved as to the 
 exact pathology of the condition. 
 
 ViNQuiSH or Pining. Hogg drew attention to this 
 disease as prevalent and fatal in North Britain, affecting 
 sheep, especially on certain farms, very frequent in the 
 Cheviot range and in some other hilly localities. He, in 
 nine successive years, lost nine hundred sheep from this 
 cause. He found the disease on lands which, previously 
 "rotten," no longer were so on account of having been 
 efficiently drained ; he further observed that extermination 
 of moles on such lands rendered them liable to produce 
 pining, it was presumed by deteriorating the character of 
 the pasture and rendering it more astringent in nature. 
 The farms were those with flats and ridges of white and 
 flying bent, and the prevalence of the disease is supposed 
 to be in exact proportion to the astringency of 
 the pasture plants, Potentilla iormentilla (the common 
 tormentil) having been considered especially liable to 
 produce it. These " binding lands " have specially dry 
 pasture, are most fatal in dry seasons, and especially so in 
 June and September, they being months when the grass is 
 least succulent. It may affect the whole flock at once or 
 only one or a few of the sheep ; want of exercise and the 
 costive habit prove predisposing influences. The blood 
 is thick and dark and will not flow freely. After death 
 there is but little found in the carcass, the ventricles of 
 the heart are found dry and pale, and the tissues in 
 general dry. The symptoms shown are languid move- 
 ments, dull eyes, the animals lying down, hanging their 
 ears, running at the eyes, and " looking at you like con- 
 demned criminals." The hair of the face is dry, the 
 wool bluish in appearance, and death occurs in the course 
 of a month if the pasture be not promptly changed. Hogg 
 adds to this list of symptoms a preliminary quick thriv- 
 ing and flushed appearance about a month before the 
 animals begin to fall off. It seems this extraordinary 
 affection is readily removable by timely change to succu- 
 lent pastures, especially clover, and by administration of 
 cathartic doses. Spooner suggests a course of the purging 
 
THE BLOOD. 25 
 
 flax {Linum catharticum) , which sometimes in pastures 
 proves troublesome iu exactly the opposite direction to 
 that present in vinquish. 
 
 NecejemiAj death of the blood, is a familiar condition 
 seen in the various forms of anthrax, in hEematozymosis, 
 and cutaneous asphyxia. However, it occurs most fre- 
 quently withou' presence of bacteria in the blood as an 
 effect of lightning strolce. Banham's valuable article on 
 " the effects of lightning on animals " in the Veterinary 
 Journal for 1881, should be consulted for details; the sub- 
 ject presents few special features in its bearings on sheep. 
 In one accident (Voigt's Magazine, vol. v, p. 503) when 
 lambs, sheep, and other animals were struck, the sheep 
 showed no appreciable lesions but the lambs were entirely 
 destitute of wool. In the Veterinarian, July, 1865, is 
 mentioned an instance where sheep killed by lightning 
 were covered with blood and their heads pierced through 
 and through, while the heads of others were removed from 
 their bodies. Destruction of seventy-seven out of a flock 
 of over five hundred is mentioned in the Veterinarian, 
 November, 1868, two more of the sheep being found in a 
 state of stupor, 
 
 SPECIFIC DISORDBES OP THE SHEEP may be 
 divided into (1) those peculiar to the species, such as 
 sheep-pox, and perhaps other diseases having close allies 
 in similar conditions as seen in other species ; (2) those 
 which are pathologically identical with but possibly inde- 
 pendent of similar disorders in other domesticated animals, 
 and (3) those which are directly obtained from the dog, the 
 ox, and so on. The sheep is remarkable for a paucity of 
 diseases of the first class and non-liability to some dis- 
 orders which seem of general occurrence in other species. 
 Our knowledge of specific blood diseases of the sheep, 
 however, is still deficient in that most important element, 
 exactness. 
 
 Shbbp-pox, Vaeiola ovina, Olavelee (Fr.), Shafpocken 
 (Ger.), demands careful and detailed attention, both 
 because it is one of the most forinidable plagues of sheep, 
 and because it bears interesting relations with smallpox in 
 
26 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 man and cow-pox in bovines. It is one of the exanthe- 
 mata or eruptive fevers, and is terribly contagious. There 
 is no evidence whatever to support the view that it ori- 
 ginates spontaneously j although there are parts of Europe 
 where its constant presence would seem to imply that it was 
 quite at home there^ yet in the historic period it is known 
 to have been imported into most of those localities, and to 
 have become domiciled either as a result of non-eradication 
 or of the practice of inoculation being adopted as a routine 
 method of protection. Thus, it is said by one author to 
 be of African origin, by another to come from Russia, and 
 to exhibit a constant tendency to pass from east to west, 
 in which it succeeds in degree exactly proportioned to the 
 laxity or efficiency of the veterinary service of the country 
 involved. As regards England, it is a fact of much 
 interest that sheep-pox invasion has always been traceable 
 to direct importation of the disease from the Continent, 
 and that it has been over and over again recognised 
 among sheep in ports of debarkation and invasion thus 
 prevented. Almost every year the Veterinary Depart- 
 ment of the Privy Council thus proves its value to the 
 country. At times this disorder finds favouring condi- 
 tions for spread in the state of the atmosphere, in climatic 
 irregularities, or in disturbance of civil inspection by the 
 march of armies, then sheep-pox spreads far and wide as 
 though epizootic, and in newly-invaded countries it proves 
 violent and active in the extreme. The losses of sheep 
 resulting from this one disorder are very considerable ; 
 thus it is estimated for one year (1819) that in France 
 1,000,000 died, and a similar number succumbed in 
 Austria and Prussia. Our colonies are said to be happily 
 free from it, but in these days of quick transit from 
 Europe there is need for careful inspection to exclude it 
 from Australia, New Zealand, America, and South Africa, 
 where, from the conditions under which sheep are kept, 
 its ravages would be terrible. This disease assumes 
 various /orms, in accordance, to an extent, with the sur- 
 roundings of the animal,.-the state of its general health 
 and the severity of the outbreak; thus it is variously 
 
THE BLOOD. 27 
 
 termed malignant and benign, discrete and confluent, 
 asthenic and hypersthenic. It occasionally assumes the 
 hasmorrhagic form, the vesicles filling with blood ; or the 
 emphysematous, where gas collects beneath the cuticle 
 and extends into the subcutaneous tissue by means of 
 gangrenous complications. Occasionally cases of early 
 fatality occur without the supervention of eruption, there 
 being high fever, diarrhoea, general ofEensiveness of the 
 evacuations, early prostration, and death. 
 
 The symptoms in ordinary cases are preceded by a 
 period of incubation, which averages ten or eleven days, 
 being six to eight days in the naturally acquired disease 
 in summer but longer in cold weather, extending, according 
 to Hurtrel d'Arboval, to as late as the twenty-fourth day. 
 The inoculated disease has been known to incubate only 
 three days, or to extend to as late as the twelfth day ; one 
 observer even puts it at ten weeks ! Professor Simonds 
 found the disease incubatory for seven to thirteen days in 
 inoculation cases, and from nine to twelve in natural 
 cases, and he gives as sufficient for practical purposes the 
 phases of an attack, with their duration, as follows : — 
 Incubation, one to ten or eleven days ; invasion, twelfth 
 and thirteenth days ; papulation, fourteenth, fifteenth, and 
 sixteenth days ; vesiculation, seventeenth, eighteenth, and 
 nineteenth days ; suppuration, twentieth, twenty-first, and 
 twenty-second days ; twenty-third to twenty-eighth days 
 desiccation and desquamation of crusts. It is estimated 
 that an outbreak in a flock, if not due to inoculation, will 
 extend over from three to six months ; the sheep which 
 will exhibit immunity from attack are variously estimated 
 at from 2 per cent, to 10 per cent. One month may be 
 estimated as the duration of an individual attack, but it 
 may be much prolonged by complications, such as severe 
 arthritis, extensive sloughing of the skin, and shedding 
 of the hoofs. The eighth or ninth day after invasion is 
 considered the most critical as regards the life of the 
 animal, and the period of maximum contagiousness ; 
 there is reason to believe that the contagium is most 
 persistent and is liable to convey the disease even after 
 
28 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 apparent convalescence. On the other hand, it has been 
 practically found that by separation of all the sheep which 
 show the slightest sign of eruption immediately from the 
 flock the plague may be stayed ; of course^ this is a fact 
 of the utmost practical importance. In an outbreak it 
 has been observed that the earliest cases and the latest 
 are comparatively mild, and not liable to extend beyond 
 the papular stage. A less severe attack follows inocula- 
 tion carefully performed than is ordinarily seen to occur 
 naturally, and as one attack secures exemption from a 
 
 
 Fl&. 4. — The appearance of skin in a case of sheep-pox, showing varions- 
 sized pocks (Gamoee). 
 
 second, unicity being a character of sheep-pox, in some 
 countries prophylactic inoculation has been adopted as an 
 economic measure. Simonds found that the eruption pre- 
 ceded the fever in an attack of this disorder, but other 
 observers have (with improved thermometers) noted its 
 occurrence hefore the eruption in considerable intensity, 
 with a decline when eruption takes place and a slight 
 second rise towards the stage of pustulation. A tempe- 
 rature of 108 P. is not rare on the second day, rigors are 
 present, the ears and nose hot, the spine and limbs rigid. 
 
THE BLOOD. 
 
 29 
 
 and pain exhibited when pressure is put on the loins ; the 
 patient is dull, carries the head low, the ears droop, the 
 pulse is quick, the eyes red, feces dry, and the animal 
 stands " all of a heap." The wool is unhealthy and dry to 
 the feel ("clapped"). Next the skin lesions begin to 
 appear; they are best marked where the skin is most 
 delicate, inside the thighs and arms, over the face, on the 
 chest and belly, and under the tail ; also they may occur 
 on the udder, prepuce, labia, and anus. Around the eyes, 
 nostrils, and mouth, and inside the limbs are where they 
 are first looked for, namely, on the most thin and tender 
 parts of the skin, whether those parts be covered by hair or 
 wool j they are not, however, absent from under the general 
 mass of the wool, as is especially evident later on in those 
 
 Fia. 5. — Sheep-pox ; the pocks few but becoming confluent (Gamgee). 
 
 cases in which the wool begins to be shed and the skin to 
 slough in patches. It is observed that at different parts 
 of the body the eruption may be found in different stages, 
 the invasion being gradual ; also that on any one part all 
 the pocks are not invariably in the same stage of develop- 
 ment. What are called " flat variolas," slow in develop- 
 ment and lying between the more marked ones, are seen 
 in weak animals and under adverse climatic conditions 
 (Fleming). The skin where involved by the eruption is 
 congested and dropsical. Simonds noted in many cases a 
 preliminary diffused redness (roseola), which is important 
 as an indication of the necessity for prompt isolation. 
 Whether this be present or not, there will soon be seen 
 
30 DISEASES 01* THE SHEEP. 
 
 small, fleabite-like spots, which are soon succeeded by 
 nodules or papules about the size of a lentil-seed, slightly 
 flat in the centre and of a florid red aspect. These 
 appear two or three days after the thermometer indicates 
 rise in temperature, and their number is not proportionate 
 to the severity of the febrile attack. On the fourth or fifth 
 day of the eruption the nodules begin to undergo change 
 into vesicles, but all do not thus develop, many simply 
 disappearing. Such as do become vesicles are (rarely) um- 
 bilioatedj i. e. hollow at the centre, but as a rule are flat 
 and with a well-marked prominent areola. On or about the 
 sixth day a slight recrudescence of the fever is associated 
 with change of the fluid in the vesicles. Hitherto this has 
 been transparent, viscid, and sticky, and will not escape 
 freely on puncture, because it has been produced in 
 several epidermal cavities, the vesicle being multilocular. 
 It now becomes turbid and the eruption of a yellow 
 colour, so the attack assumes the pustular phase, although 
 Simonds insists that there is true pustulation only in very 
 protracted cases. This lasts from three to six days, and 
 is followed by desiccation and desquamation, the contents 
 of the eruption having transuded and dried on the surface 
 as a scab, which is at first yellow, then becomes grey, and 
 finally dark brown. It was from the peculiar, circular, 
 thick black scabs, making the parts look as though they 
 had round-headed nails driven into them, that the disease 
 obtained its French name. These scabs are at first firmly 
 adherent, but later they become loose, and are at last 
 shed, leaving a deep red depression or " pit," which 
 remains hairless for a time, and the wool developed on 
 which is always somewhat imperfect. Scratching of the 
 sore parts with the feet or teeth, or rubbing them against 
 posts, complicates the case, delays healing, and may pro- 
 long the period of convalescence. The sick animal has a 
 peculiar honey-like, mawkish odour ; there is generally a 
 thick discharge from the nostrils, which may be tinged 
 with blood, the Schneiderian membrane has vari or 
 nodules on it, the respiration is frequent and obstructed 
 by the discharge collecting around the nostrils. The 
 
THE BLOOi). 31 
 
 moutli is involved in the disorder, the lips being swoUenj 
 frothy saliva is collected in the mouth, the tongue is pro- 
 truded and black, and the parts become fetid and unpleasant 
 in odour. Mastication is diflScult, the temperature of 
 different parts of the body is unequal, thirst is constant, 
 and the patient licks earth. Abortion generally occurs in 
 pregnant ewes, and sometimes the young animal thus pre- 
 maturely finding its way into the world is found to be 
 actually affected with the disorder (Roll). Her twig con- 
 sidered that affection of the mother served for protection of 
 the foetus, but Girard succeeded in conveying the disease to 
 lambs born from ewes which had been affected. There is 
 generally much debility and loss of wool ; diarrhoea usually 
 precedes death. Occasionally an abortive secondary erup- 
 tion appears ; Hurtrel d'Arboval has observed the disease 
 apparently hang fire in the papular stage. Of irregular 
 or special cases we find that in which the disease does 
 not get beyond the papular stage, the nodules becoming 
 first grey, then brown or almost black, without areola, 
 although the skin may be considerably inflamed ; this 
 form of disease often assumes the asthenic type, in which 
 the eruption is slow in development and respiratory and 
 digestive complications are specially liable to occur. 
 With much swelling of the head the eyes may be observed 
 to undergo special changes; at first they are dull in 
 appearance, and there is profuse discharge from them ; 
 then they get clouded through turbidity of the humours 
 and opacity of the cornea; finally, the latter becomes 
 perforated by ulceration, and the sight is completely lost. 
 The disease is discrete when the pustules remain distinct ; 
 generally in such cases they are but few, situated on the 
 face, inside the thighs, and on the belly. In the malig- 
 nant form the eruption is very extensive, quick in deve- 
 lopment, and confluent, the several pocks running freely 
 together. The fever runs very high in such cases, and 
 all the symptoms of most aggravated disorder are present, 
 for both the respiratory and digestive passages are the seat 
 of eruption. The nodules are at an early stage of a livid 
 colour, and undergo gangrenous changes, becoming emphy- 
 
32 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 sematous before the animal's death, and the affected parts 
 sloughing freely. The skin between the nodules is pete- 
 chiated, and may crack in a zigzag manner, the body is very 
 fetid, and the prostration extreme. Even if the animal 
 recover he may be so crippled by sloughing of tissues as 
 to be worthless. In these malignant cases, especially, there 
 may be subcutaneous abscesses and pus infiltrations, and 
 the eyes, ears, and skin may slough extensively. The lym- 
 phatic glands, too, may suppurate, and the animal succumb 
 either to pyaemia or exhaustion. Gamgee particularises 
 the emphysematous form, but this is only a variety of the 
 malignant. 
 
 Causes. — The contagium alone can produce sheep-pox ; 
 it especially affects the young (particularly when cutting 
 teeth) or the old, the pregnant and the adipose, males 
 rather than females, and recently imported animals rather 
 than those indigenous to, or thoroughly acclimatised in, a 
 locality. After prolonged prevalence in any place the dis- 
 ease becomes less severe and less fatal. Overcrowding tends 
 to spread of disease and increased severity of cases, and ia 
 cold, damp seasons the disease is specially liable to assume 
 the asthenic form. Among housed sheep it is very common 
 and fatal (Gamgee), thus in Germany 9 per cent, of the 
 sheep sometimes succumb. It spreads less rapidly in 
 winter than in summer, and seems, therefore, to be some- 
 what periodic in its development ; it assumes to an extent 
 the cyclic character, being most prevalent and severe in 
 some years, and in those countries where it almost con- 
 stantly prevails proving very severe at intervals of five, 
 ten, or fifteen years. The contagium has been made the 
 subject of careful experimentation; from the results hereby 
 obtained some general conclusions as to the nature of virus 
 and zymotic disorders have been drawn. The extreme con- 
 tagiousness of the disease has led to its generally being 
 considered infectious, and this is a difficult matter to dis- 
 prove, for dust of dry scabs may be carried freely through 
 the air to considerable distances. Chauveau has found 
 that where there are no nodules of the respiratory passages 
 the nasal mucus is not virulent ; the same observer has 
 
THE BLOOD. 33 
 
 found that the contagium is either itself solid or in intimate 
 and indissoluble union with solid particles or corpuscles, 
 which are extremely numerous in the contents of the 
 vesicles. It is considered that contagion generally occurs 
 through the air passages, but Ohauveau has shown that it 
 may result from absorption through the skin, Belliol has 
 demonstrated it through the alimentary canal, other 
 observers have induced it in various ways, notably 
 through intravenous injection. The contagium is much 
 more virulent than that of cow-pox, and Ohauveau found 
 it very active when the pulmonary nodules are being 
 broken up. Sheep-pox matter may be diluted with 1500 
 times its volume of water before it begins to be uncertain 
 in its action ; a temperature of 122° F. destroys the virus, 
 as also do frost, putrefaction, and the process of suppuration 
 (Haubner). A good morning dew has been found to have 
 a purifying influence on a pasture, so that a flock may be 
 freely turned out after the grass has been thus moistened. 
 The virus retains its activity for periods varying from 
 one day up to six months or even a year j if it be preserved 
 in capillary tubes or between glass plates the contagious pro- 
 perties long persist, but if exposed to the natural influences 
 of air and sunlight contagiousness soon declines and is lost. 
 Well-dried sheepskins have been found to be harmless as 
 a means of conveyance, but the red stains of the inner 
 surface of the pelt indicating that the animal had suffered 
 from sheep-pox may be detected long after the hide has 
 been thoroughly dried (Gamgee). Contagion seems to 
 hang about an affected animal for a long time ; thus care 
 must be taken in intermingling recovered animals with 
 the rest of the flock. Under ordinary circumstances the 
 radius of infection has been put at 100 feet, but in windy 
 weather and with the wind the contagium may be carried 
 1000 feet. The occurrence of the disease is influenced 
 by elevation, for it undoubtedly is most often seen in 
 low-lying places, though not absent at any range above 
 sea level. Nomadic flocks are specially liable to convey 
 the disorder, but dogs, shepherds, veterinary surgeons, 
 pastures, houses, ejecta, and each and every animal or 
 
 3 
 
34 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 thing wHch comes in contact with the sick may carry 
 the contagium, for sheep-pox is rightly considered one 
 of the most contagious of disorders. 
 
 Post-mortem examiuationj besides the state of skin, 
 shows the degree to which the internal organs are in- 
 volved ; the lymphatic glands are highly congested, solid 
 red nodules occur in the subcutaneous tissue ; the nasal 
 and oral membranes, and the lining mucous membranes 
 of the pharynx, bronchial tubes, and trachea are the seat 
 of vari or nodules, occasionally there are small ulcers in 
 the larynx, and in the oesophagus and rumen may be 
 found copper-coloured vari. The respiratory mucous mem- 
 brane is often inflamed throughout ; here and there in the 
 trachea is dirty, green, viscid mucus ; the lung parenchyma 
 is infiltrated with blood and the abdominal viscera are 
 more or less engorged with blood (Simonds). Serosan- 
 guineous effusion into the thorax in some cases is present. 
 Hallier and Zurn have recorded the presence of vibrios, 
 filaments, and ciliated cells in sheep-pox matter. Klein was 
 under the impression that he had found a mycelium, but 
 he subsequently modified his views, and out of the very 
 numerous low organic forms which he and other observers 
 have found in sheep-pox matter no special one can be 
 selected as the sheep-pox organism.* Much of interest 
 may be read in the article on this subject by Klein in the 
 ' Veterinary Journal ' for 1875, for although his mycelial 
 theory was withdrawn the actual observations there 
 recorded are reliable, and the figures instructive. Chauveau 
 has carefully worked out the pathological anatomy of 
 sheep-pox ; he found that " the subcutaneous connective 
 tissue participated largely in formation of the pustule, 
 having become transformed into a thick gelatinous layer 
 from which it was possible to extract a great quantity of 
 very virulent liquid, proving that the pustules are the 
 most active centres in the elaboration of the specific agents 
 
 * Kleiu, in liis "Micro-organisms," tells us that Cohn found very minute 
 micrococci in variolous lymph, and he, himself, has found the skin lymphatics 
 in the region of the pock in variola ovina filled with micrococci. The nature 
 of these organisms as causa moriji has not yet been fully established. 
 
THE BLOOD. 35 
 
 of the malady, and that it is in them that the study of the 
 genesis and multiplication of these germs is most likely 
 to be successfully carried out. He also remarked that, at 
 the commencement, the irritation is distinctly limited to 
 the skin itself, and more particularly to the surface of 
 the derma and rete mucosum, as well in the spontaneous 
 as in the inoculated pustule, extension of the morbid 
 process ultimately involving the connective tissue. It is 
 easy to discover when this extension occurs, and when the 
 first modifications caused by the propagation of the specific 
 irritant begin ; this is the moment to choose for the study 
 of the viruliferous elements. If one of the variolous 
 vesicles is excised at this initial period, when the skin is 
 only red and scarcely swollen, and the traces of the gela- 
 tinous substance which is beginning to appear on its under 
 surface be removed by a pair of scissors, then squeezed 
 into a little water on a glass, and a healthy sheep is 
 inoculated, the animal will become affected as readily and 
 effectively as if the matter had been extracted from a 
 perfectly developed pustule. This shows that the virulent 
 element is present when the very earliest local symptoms of 
 irritation offer themselves. The skin so removed, where 
 carefully and properly prepared for microscopical exam- 
 ination, exhibits: (1) Fasciculi of conjunctival tissue; 
 (2) interfascicular cells in process of proliferation j (3) 
 around the vessels, elongated and more or less consider- 
 able masses of white globules. The fasciculi of conjunc- 
 tival tissue do not yet appear to be altered, but all the 
 interfascicular cellular elements are considerably multi- 
 plied and developed. There are very large oval or 
 spherical parent cells, each containing from twelve to 
 fifteen small cells. There are also ramifying and even 
 anastomosing cells, which only differ from the normal cells 
 of the conjunctival tissue by their distension. The most 
 numerous elements are the simple cells without prolon- 
 gations. There are also masses of leucocytes or white 
 globules accumulated along the sides of the vessels. A 
 character common to all the cellular elements consists in 
 the mass of protoplasm, or bioplasm, of which they are 
 
86 DISEASES OE THE SHEEP. 
 
 composed being alwaj's granular^ tliougli at ttis early 
 period few, if any, granules exist in a free condition out- 
 side these cells. This would tend to demonstrate that 
 the virulent granules are not independent elements, multi- 
 plying by themselves, but form part of the cellular proto- 
 plasm in which they arise and are developed, though they 
 possess the same activity when free as when contained in 
 this protoplasm " (quoted in Fleming's ' Veterinary Sani- 
 tary Science and Police'). The flesh of variolous sheep 
 is said to produce diarrhoea, sickness, and low fever, but 
 this requires to be confirmed ; it is described as soft, 
 pale, moist, and unpleasant in odour (Walters). 
 
 Prognosis. — Even in benignant outbreaks a fatality of 
 10 to 20 per cent, is anticipated, and in average outbreaks, 
 where slight cases are mixed with the more severe, 40 
 per cent, of the patients die ; in England, where the 
 disease has found a new territory, a mortality of 50 per 
 cent, has been found ; in Prance, where the disease is fairly 
 constant, the fatality averages 30 per cent. ; in severe 
 outbreaks the whole flock perishes. Whether any par- 
 ticular case is or is not likely to recover will depend on 
 the health of the patient prior to attack, its age, and the 
 form which the disease assumes ; the influence of tempe- 
 rature is very marked, especially as regards the appear- 
 ance and development of the skin lesions. Thus, Girard 
 found in a flock with the pustules well developed, that a 
 sudden change in the weather to cold and damp, caused 
 the pustules to disappear, but when fine weather returned 
 a new eruption showed itself. Weak and aged animals 
 are so liable to die from the disease that Roll suggests, as 
 an economic measure, destruction of animals thus pre- 
 disposed, before their carcases and skins have become 
 deteriorated by sheep-pox invading the flock and selecting 
 them as victims. Apart from actual loss of individuals an 
 outbreak involves considerable restrictions as to movement 
 of sheep, much cost of treatment, and depreciation of 
 stock. Thus it will be evident that measures for dealing 
 with sheep-pox must be of a preventive rather than cura- 
 tive character; little can be done in the latter direction, 
 
THE BLOOD. 87 
 
 althougli some lives may be saved, especially as a result of 
 careful nursing. 
 
 Extremely interesting but most conflicting results have 
 been obtained in the study of variola ovina in relation to 
 other variolous affections. There can be no doubt as to 
 its being a disease independent from all other variolffi, 
 but it very closely resembles the pox of hares and rabbits. 
 Prof. Simonds was very positive in his lectures as to its 
 non-communicability to the goat, and used to suggest 
 that inoculation would suffice as a test for distinguishing the 
 two species. The latest researches in this direction, those 
 of Bremond ('Veterinary Journal,' June, 1888, p. 399), 
 tend to confirm those of the English observer, though 
 they are opposed to results obtained by such excellent 
 authorities as Hertwig, Hering, Gerlach, and Peuch. It 
 is stated that the disease as developed in the goat is 
 recommunicable to the sheep. Zundel says he has seen 
 cases of infection of cattle through cohabitation with 
 affected sheep, pigs have been successfully inoculated 
 with sheep-pox matter by Haubner. Roll says the disease 
 is communicable to both cattle and mankind, and Sacco, 
 in the case of the latter, found it protective against small- 
 pox. Korner gives cases of conveyance to mankind. 
 Cases are on record where dogs have been affected ; 
 Haubner found the disease thus induced was not recom- 
 municable to the sheep. Naunyn and Simonds have 
 failed to communicate it to the horse and ass. 
 
 " Kiichenmeister made a sheep breathe during one hour 
 air which was made to traverse the shirt worn for twelve 
 hours by a patient who was suffering from smallpox. 
 Five days afterwards the disease commenced, and the 
 eighth day a well-marked eruption of variola was developed 
 in the sheep " (Fleming) . 
 
 Smallpox being thus communicable to the sheep, 
 vaccination was tried as a preventive of sheep-pox. The 
 vaccination " took " and the disease passed through its 
 different stages, but on inoculation with ovine virus, one 
 fifth of the cases became affected (Touatt, quoting for 
 Hurtrel d'Arboval.) Manson and Simonds tried vaccina- 
 
38 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 tion in 1862, Jenneriarij Badcockian, and Smallpox 
 Hospital lymph being used ; 71 cases out of 200 took, but 
 sometimes tbis vaccination took a second or even a 
 tbird time. Ceely's experiments gave the same results, 
 moreover, be found tbat vaccinated sbeep take ovine 
 pox naturally. Pipin (' Wocbenscb. f. Thierbeil. u. 
 Thierzucbt,' 1870) gives as a result of bis researcbes tbat 
 vaccination is an efficient substitute for sbeep-pox inocu- 
 lation. The vaccine disease oj? sheep seems to be purely 
 local, it differs from the same disease in mankind. There 
 is seldom more than a small papule, occasionally resulting 
 in formation of a minute vesicle (or, more commonly, pus- 
 tule), sometimes, but rarely, with a slight areola. Usually 
 merely a small scab forms at the seat of puncture, and 
 falls, leaving no trace. The disease ends on the eighth 
 or ninth day or even before. On the fifth or sixth day 
 occasionally lymph is obtainable. 
 
 We need dwell on this obscure point of the inter-relations 
 of variolous affections no longer, but merely remark that 
 evidence tends to show that the variolas are under certain 
 conditions intercommunicable between the different species, 
 but, as a rule, with difficulty and without mutually prophy- 
 lactic influence, one exception being in the case of cow-pox 
 as preventing smallpox. No form of variolation other 
 than inoculation with sheep-pox has hitherto been found 
 of benefit for repression or prevention of ovine variola. 
 The differences between the eruptions of sheep-pox and 
 smallpox are worth remembering ; Touatt thus mentions 
 them : " That of smallpox was developed in the texture 
 of the skin, and surrounded by a rose-coloured areola, 
 that of the clavelee was evidently more deeply seated ; 
 it reached to the subcutaneous cellular tissue, and it 
 was surrounded by an areola of far deeper colour. The 
 virus of smallpox was usually contained in a simple 
 capsule, which elevated the scarf-skin, the virus of the 
 sheep-pox seemed to be more diffused through the cuta- 
 neous and subcutaneous tissue, and there was abundantly 
 more swelling and inflammation. The matter of small- 
 pox was first limpid, then it became turbid, puriform. 
 
THE BLOOD. 89 
 
 and at length assumed the form of white or yellow or 
 thick pus, which became concrete, and a scab was 
 formed which became at first yellow, and then brown, and 
 then black, and when it fell oif left an impression or 
 depression more or less distinct on the surface of the skin. 
 The pustules of the sheep-pox before there was any 
 appearance of pus degenerated into scabs, or formed a 
 hard or thick crust, under which the pus accumulated; 
 and when that scab fell ofE there was a sore left behind, 
 or sometimes a deep ulcer. There were other particulars 
 of disagreement, but these would be sufficient to prove 
 that they were not identical diseases " (' The Sheep '). 
 
 Treatment. — Foremost under this heading comes the 
 operation of inoculation, " ovination " as Simonds calls it, 
 " clavelisation " as it is termed in Prance. The economy 
 and utility of this process has been much debated, and 
 it has been fully ascertained that certainly it is not advis- 
 able as a routine process in countries little liable to 
 invasion and where the disease may almost invariably 
 be excluded by portal inspection. In some Continental 
 countries, on the high road of sheep traffic and neigh- 
 bouring on States where the disease is constantly present, 
 so great is the risk all sheep run that inoculation is 
 deemed advisable, even though, since the inoculated is 
 as contagious as the natural disease, it tends to keep 
 and even diffuse sheep-pox in the country. Although 
 the disease resulting from inoculation is itself mild it 
 seems that disease acquired hy contagion from an inocu- 
 lated sheep may prove as severe to another sheep as 
 would the natural disorder. The value of inoculation 
 depends on (1) the unicity of sheep-pox, its non-recur- 
 rence in the same subject, an animal which has recovered 
 from an attack seeming to furnish a sterile soil for the 
 disorder ; (2) the fact that the disease thus generated is 
 milder than the natural disease, and can, by accurate 
 selection of favorable time and circumstances, be reduced 
 in fatality to 1 or 2 per cent. ; (3) all the sheep of a flock, 
 except the few which enjoy immunity, can be made to 
 suffer from the disease simultaneously, and in this way 
 
40 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 the duration of sheep-pox on the fariUj and of the con- 
 sequent harassing regulations and restrictions^, can be 
 limited approximately to six weeks instead of the six 
 months during which the natural disease would probably 
 last. The induced disease requires all the care in nursing 
 and prevention of diffusion that the natural form demands. 
 If this be attended tOj extremely bad results, such as 
 tetanus, gangrene with sloughing, and lymphangitis re- 
 sulting in pyaemia, will be avoided. Whether or not the 
 attack retards the growth of young animals does not 
 seem to be quite established ; it probably does so to an 
 important extent only in the case of lambs which are 
 being brought forward for early slaughter. When it can 
 be arranged conveniently only healthy animals should be 
 operated on, and pregnant, rutting, or recently shorn 
 sheep, also those in a very fat state, should be avoided 
 as likely to swell the mortality, and they should be left 
 until they are more suitable for the operation. How- 
 ever, they generally must be ovinated at all risk, for when 
 adults are so treated it is in consequence of outbreak of 
 sheep-pox on a farm in the immediate neighbourhood, 
 when the germs of disease may actually be in the flock, 
 to limit duration of attack and render it mild, lessen the 
 amount of treatment required, and also the deleterious 
 effects of the disorder on the wool, skin, flesh, and progeny. 
 Lymph must be selected from transparent vesicles, and un- 
 contaminated with blood, pus, or crust ; the subject from 
 which it is taken should be suffering from a mild attack 
 of the regular disease and not affected simultaneously 
 with other diseases such as rinderpest or rabies, of which 
 instances are on record. " The best type of pustule is 
 one which is circular or oval in shape, prominent and 
 well formed, which is detached without difficulty or pain, 
 with the skin from the subjacent parts ; which is slightly 
 pale at its circumference and on the surface, and the 
 investing pellicle of which is easily removed " (Eleming). 
 The details of preparation of lymph at the Yienna School are 
 fully described in Fleming's ' Veterinary Sanitary Science 
 and Police,' with infoi;mation concerning the inoculated 
 
THE BLOOD. 41 
 
 disease and the process of inoculation. The leading points 
 are, modification of the virus by inoculation through several 
 generations of healthy sheep, the preliminary lymph 
 being selected from the most regular and best cases, and 
 that to be retained being taken from the inoculated 
 sheep which have the mildest attacks ; finally, it is found 
 inoculation induces but one pustule, and that most suitable 
 for collecting lymph. In the Vienna Veterinary School 
 the virus has not become inert after 297 transmissions. 
 The lymph must be kept in a dark place and away from 
 free access of the air. Eoll finds that careful ovination 
 from a natural case simply produces local eruption, but 
 is eSicacious as a preventive, and he denies the attenua- 
 ting effect of the so-called culture. The routine inocula- 
 tion is generally performed on lambs just after they are 
 weaned, the under surface of the tail, ear, or inside of 
 the thigh being selected as the seat of operation (but the 
 latter is thought to be the most liable to gangrenous 
 complications). Seton, incision of skin, abrasion of the 
 epidermis, or puncture is resorted to, but puncture seems 
 to be preferred; this must, according to Simonds, be 
 slight and in two places, except when the lymph is fresh, 
 under which circumstance one puncture will sufiioe. The 
 following details of the operation are given by Fleming : 
 " The animals are fixed in the following manner : If 
 the inoculation is to be made direct from the sheep which 
 bears the pustule that animal is thrown down, and fixed 
 on two bundles of straw tied together by a cord to the 
 right of the operator. If the inoculation is to be prac- 
 tised on the inside of the thigh, the sheep to be operated 
 upon is placed on its back on two bundles of straw or on 
 a table immediately in front of the operator, who seizes 
 the hind limb which is at liberty (usually the right), com- 
 presses it above the hock, in pulling the skin outwards so 
 as to make it tense at the seat of puncture. This mode 
 requires a number of assistants if there are many animals, 
 and if it is desired that no delay should occur. An 
 animal should be always secured and ready to be operated 
 upon as soon as one has been inoculated, and an assistant 
 
42 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 should be at hand, charging a needle with the virus. If 
 the tail be chosen two modes may be adopted : the sheep 
 may be thrown down and held by an assistant on a bank 
 or on straw in such a way that the tail shall be towards 
 the operator, its under surface, destitute of wool, being 
 undermost ; or the animal may be kept standing, its head 
 hold between the legs of the assistant, who seizes it by 
 the wool on its back and presents its croup to the operator. 
 The latter, stooping slightly, catches the tail, turns it 
 upward over the back, and inserts the charged needle 
 beneath the epidermis at two or three inches from the 
 root. If the ear is to be inoculated, the sheep is placed 
 on its side or seated at the left of the operator. Whatever 
 region be chosen, the charged needle is to be introduced 
 beneath the skin, its fluted side upwards, and when it 
 has penetrated to the depth of a line or a line and a 
 half, it is turned round, slight pressure being made on 
 its sides by means of the surrounding skin, to ensure its 
 being deprived of the lymph. If the epidermis is torn 
 by the needle it will be necessary to make a new punc- 
 ture." The inoculated disease is generally benign, and 
 the seat of puncture undergoes the usual changes, the 
 " flea-bite " like spot on third or fourth day, followed by 
 the nodule and vesicle ; the latter attains its maximum 
 development on ninth or eleventh day, and is then of a 
 bluish-white or yellow tint, and yields a clear, colourless, 
 stringy fluid. It has disappeared, with exception of the 
 resulting pit, in about thirty days. With regard to 
 rapidity of absorption of virus from the seat of puncture 
 Eeynault (in experiments not unopen to objection) has 
 endeavoured to show that cauterization of inoculated 
 sheep-pox wounds within five minutes after introduction 
 of the virus did not prevent development of the disease. 
 Inoculated animals require shelter and proper nursing. 
 
 Stamping out the disease by occision (or slaughter) is 
 the treatment prescribed by the Contagious Diseases 
 (Animals) Act, and no doubt it is best for the country at 
 large. Prohibition or regulation of imports of sheep from 
 infected countries can be made by Order of Council. In 
 
THE BLOOD. 43 
 
 a flock early and careful isolation of affected sheep has 
 been found effectual in checking spread ('Farmers^ 
 Magazine/ xvi, p. 524, quoted by Simonds). Treatment 
 comprises careful nursing and stimulant tonics in special 
 cases, also such measures to meet complications as the 
 medical knowledge of the veterinary attendant will sug- 
 gest. The main matter is to prevent, and the measures 
 necessary for this purpose may be given in detail here (as 
 collected from Fleming's standard work on ' Sanitary 
 Science and Police'), because they are applicable in all 
 contagious diseases of sheep, and so will be available for 
 future reference : — 
 
 I. Government action. 
 
 (1) Laws and orders giving the powers necessary for 
 
 action in the requisite manner. 
 
 (2) A reliable veterinary sanitary force to carry out 
 
 those laws and to advise as to their enforcement. 
 
 II. Portal and frontier inspection. Certificate of health 
 of imports, quarantine (in case of sheep-pox, for a fortnight) , 
 or immediate slaughter with due precautions for isolation 
 en route to slaughter-house.* 
 
 III. District and country inspection, as of fairs, markets, 
 and travelling flocks. 
 
 IV. Farm or sheep-walk measures. 
 
 (1) During prevalence in the neighbourhood. 
 
 (a) Frequent inspection of all the sheep indi- 
 vidually. 
 
 * Megnlations for Inspection of Imported Sheep from and after 31rf March, 
 1871. — Broad arrow, 4 in. long, to be clipped on forehead of foreign sheep 
 landed for slaughter. All animals landed to be detained twelve hours and 
 longer if suspect .d ; and no animal or part of animal to be removed without 
 permit from inspector. Inspection to be as soon as possible after landing, and 
 final inspection not earlier than twelve hours after, and by daylight. Affected 
 sheep to be kept apart from healthy, the latter to be slaughtered without 
 post-mortem examination, former to be examined post mortem. Lairs, &c., 
 not to be used after infection until thoroughly disinfected. All sheep of a 
 variola-invaded cargo to be slaughtered at landing place ; unaffected ones on 
 permission of Commissioners of Customs. In foot-and-mouth disease the 
 cargo may be moved to ordinary slaughter place ; affected animals to be always 
 slaughtered at landing place, except in scab, when may be moved with rest of 
 cargo to slaughter-house (' Veterinarian,' 1871). 
 
44 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 (b) Quarantine of recently purchased animals for 
 a fortnight at least. 
 
 (c) Exclusion of wandering sheep and of indi- 
 viduals (canine and human) who may carry contagion. 
 
 (d) Grood hygiene. 
 (2) On outbreak. 
 
 (a) Prompt isolation of tlie sick, suspects, and 
 segregation of invaded flock. 
 
 (fe) Prompt report to the Government Veterinary 
 Inspector or police. 
 
 (c) Slaughter or strictest isolation of all diseased. 
 
 (d) Destruction of carcases in bad cases by burn- 
 ing or burying in quicklime. 
 
 (e) Carcases, when passed by the veterinary officer, 
 may be used as food, and dried and disinfected skins 
 and wool may be disposed of in the same way, to 
 lessen loss from the outbreak. 
 
 (/) Disinfection of houses, fields, and other places 
 occupied by the sick, of articles used by them, and 
 of men and dogs in charge, should be rigidly carried 
 out in accordance with instructions from the 
 veterinary officer. 
 
 (g) The sick should be kept at a distance exceed- 
 ing 1000 feet (whenever practicable) from roads or 
 other public places, and from where other sheep are 
 kept. 
 
 (h) Suspects should not be removed from segre- 
 gation until a full fortnight has elapsed since the last 
 case occurred in this part of the flock, and before 
 being discharged each sheep should be thoroughly 
 washed with some disinfectant. 
 
 (i) Cases which recover should remain isolated 
 
 for at least a fortnight after all scabs are shed, 
 
 and should be thoroughly disinfected before being 
 
 allowed to intermingle with the rest of the flock. 
 
 Finally, the extreme contagiousness of the disease must 
 
 be again insisted on. Unless every possible source of 
 
 carriage of the extremely minute particles which constitute 
 
 the contagium be carefully attended to the precautionary 
 
THE BtOOD 45 
 
 measures will be insufficient ; hangers-on who have come to 
 see how the flock is getting on, butchers with an eye of profit 
 out of the farmer's misfortune, carcases of slaughtered 
 sheep, strays from other flocks, clothes, thermometers, &c., 
 of veterinary surgeons, all need disinfection. 
 
 Varicella Ovium is the chicken-pox of sheep, and has 
 been described by Gamgee, Fleming, and some foreign 
 writers. It lasts from four to six days and is characterised 
 by small red nodules which in from twelve to twenty-four 
 hours become conical pustules. It is sometimes con- 
 sidered merely an abortive form of sheep-pox. Goat-posa, 
 Variola caprina, is said to be especially frequent in 
 Norway. Hertwig describes it as more resembling cow-pox 
 than sheep-pox, the eruption being brief and principally 
 on the udder ; however, there is ample evidence that 
 goat-pox is an independent disorder. Fleming gives full 
 details concerning it in his work on ' Human and Animal 
 Variolas.' 
 
 Anthrax, Beaxt ; Hssmostasis ; inflammatory fever ; 
 maladie de Sologne ; Cumberland disease ; " pining ;" 
 splenic apoplexy ; gloss-anthrax ; great-head ; typhus. 
 These numerous and varied terms have been applied by 
 different writers or in various places to the derangements 
 which result from the presence and effects of Bacillus 
 anthracis in the blood and other tissues. To each name is 
 attached a history of considerable interest but too long to 
 be detailed here ; one or two facts, however, about the 
 various names which the disorder has acquired may be 
 referred to by us, since they serve to give some idea of 
 the nature of the disease. Anthrax is the name accepted 
 by science for the series of disorders in higher animal 
 forms which in their cause depend on a special bacillus, 
 B. anthracis, and these range from malignant carbuncle of 
 man, through the Loodiana fever of the horse, splenic 
 apoplexy and its allies in cattle, and braxy of sheep, to 
 the obscure fatalities of fish which occur in rivers into 
 which anthrax-contaminated pastures drain. Anthrax is 
 now the name accepted as linking together these numerous, 
 fatal, and most important disorders, and " anthracoid " is 
 
46 DISEASES 01" THE SHEEP. 
 
 the term applied to allied derangements not due to Bacillus 
 anthracis. The professional reader will have been familiar- 
 ised with the life-history of the bacillus by his study of its 
 effects on cattle and horses ; the non-professional, who is 
 interested in the subject (and it is the centre around which 
 the progress of modern medicine is pivoting), must be 
 referred to the various encyclopsedise of medicine, for we 
 have space and time at command only sufficient for a 
 practical study of its effects on sheep, and shall notice the 
 bacillus only casually here and there in the course of 
 completion of our aims. 
 
 Bkaxy is the derivative of a Gaelic word broc or brae, 
 the disease (Gamgee), and implies a disorder more 
 familiar and terrible than all others, just as epizootic 
 anthrax in man has been termed the plague, as cholera is 
 emphatically termed morbus, and as rinderpest is the 
 cattle plague. Braxy was the name crudely applied to 
 any enzootic or epizootic fatality the exact nature of 
 which the shepherd was too careless or ignorant to deter- 
 mine ; but Hogg expresses the results of observations of 
 the careful and educated shepherds of whom he was the 
 representative, in dividing braxy into four forms, — bowel 
 sickness, sickness in the flesh and blood, dry braxy, and 
 spauld. The two former are anthrax; dry braxy apparently 
 was enteritis and other disorders where colic is the leading 
 symptom; and the black spauld is quarter-ill, an anthracoid 
 affection to be noted hereafter. Professor Brown con- 
 siders it not absolutely proved that braxy is not septi- 
 CEemia ; Dr. Hamilton states he has found the Bacillus 
 anthracis in braxy, and this is the conclusive test of 
 anthrax disorders. To these forms of braxy are by some 
 shepherds added two others, dumb braxy or dysentery, 
 and water braxy, which in some cases is over-distension 
 of the bladder and inflammation of it as a complication, 
 such as may result from calculi in the urethra, in other 
 cases it is the familiar sanguineous ascites or red water. 
 Hgematosepsis, hsemostasis, and other terms, were applied 
 by Professor Simonds when, in his Lectures on Diseases 
 of Cattle and Sheep, he used to differentiate the several 
 
THE BLOOD. 47 
 
 forms of anthrax. Inflammatory fever was used by 
 Touatt as expressive of his ideas concerning the pathology 
 of the anthrax cases seen by him among sheep in England. 
 Maladie de Sologne is adduced as one of the names the 
 disease has acquired from its marked prevalence in a 
 special locality in France, just as anthrax among horses 
 in India is commonly known as Loodiana fever. Pining 
 is a name which Fleming gives as applied to anthrax 
 of sheep in some parts of Scotland ; other authors say that 
 this name is applied to tuberculosis, but we have reason to 
 believe that Fleming is correct in his view. Splenic apo- 
 plexy and gloss-anthrax are terms used to indicate special 
 manifestations of the disease. " Great-head" is applied 
 by Hogg to an obscure and sudden tumefaction which 
 gives some evidence of being anthracic in its nature, but 
 may be due to other causes. Typhus is evidently adopted 
 by Youatt as a suitable name for the intestinal form of 
 the disorder. Thus braxy may be divided into hill braxy 
 or braxy proper, and certain false braxies, and anthrax, 
 which is the true braxy, assumes in the sheep, as in the 
 horse and ox, various forms which -we may notice under 
 several headings, first dealing with the generalised form 
 of the disease, anthrax fever, next with the several local- 
 ised forms known as splenic apoplexy, gloss-anthrax, 
 external or carbuncular anthrax, and the intestinal variety. 
 Anthrax Fevbe often appears in the flock as sudden 
 and inexplicable death of two or three sheep in convul- 
 sions ; or after a severe storm several of the animals may be 
 found dead^ although previously they seemed quite well. 
 Lambs are often taken with what is called " staggers," 
 which runs through the flock like wildfire. It is similar to 
 " blood " in cattle (Youatt) . When the sheep are carefully ^ 
 watched some premonitory symptoms may be observed, 
 the patient being off feed and there being a short period 
 of excessive liveliness, a florid condition of the mucous 
 membranes, or a slowness and shortness of the step, with 
 straight carriage of the head due to stiffness of neck, which 
 attract attention. In other cases the animal is sluggish 
 and difficult to get to move with the rest of the flock, he 
 
48 DISEASES OF THK SHEEP. 
 
 tends to lag behind the rest, he looks ill, and staggers 
 about. When death has not been sudden, some or all of 
 the following symptoms are present in these cases : 
 feverishness, dulnesa, separation from the rest of the flock, 
 loss of appetite and off the cud, hanging head, ears pen- 
 dulous and cold, eyes shut and weeping, the patient 
 stupid, restless, or delirious, straining as though to expel 
 urine, the fluid which is expelled dark- coloured and 
 scanty, constipation, almost constant recumbency, apo- 
 plectic symptoms, and speedy death. There may be 
 present expulsion of sanious mucus from the nostrils, 
 bloody matter intermingled with the faeces, swelling of 
 the head or legs, which becomes emphysematous, forming 
 marked prominences along the back and sides ; tympany 
 is frequently present, the visible mucous membranes are 
 of a deep red colour, but in the mouth peculiar light- 
 violet patches have been noted, the heart's action becomes 
 tumultuous, the body temperature, at first very high, soon 
 becomes very low, muscular tremors occur, and various 
 oedemata and subcutaneous blood infiltrations, especially 
 about the shoulders and neck, set in before death. Ex- 
 treme prostration and a want of resisting power is a 
 phenomenon of the disease throughout its course. The 
 sheep, most readily of all species, contracts anthrax by 
 inoculation, and the disease in this species is very viru- 
 lent. Some few animals recover, and though it prevails 
 in the flock as an enzootic the disease does not affect 
 certain individual sheep, which for some reason or other 
 enjoy immunity. Its victims seem to be selected from 
 the best sheep in the flock, and those which have been 
 thriving most rapidly. It is very apt to show itself after 
 the flock has been moved from poor to rich pasture, and 
 is frequently associated with the plethoric state of animals 
 being prepared for the butcher. It is observed on par- 
 ticular pastures at every season of the year in a sporadic 
 form, sheep being found dead in the morning without any 
 previous sickness having been noticed among them, and 
 without any marks of violence. In Scotland it is considered 
 to be specially destructive on high moorlands, and salt 
 
THE BLOOD. 49 
 
 marshes are reputed to be to a great extent exempt. 
 "Whenever sheep are forced with rich food the disease 
 may occur. The shooting up of fresh grass in the spring, 
 and the consequent increase in nourishment after the 
 hard fare in winter, is a frequent condition under which 
 anthrax shows itself, for nothing is more provocative of 
 it than alternations of starvation and plenty. Want of 
 exercise, too much oil-cake, sudden change of the weather 
 to a frost (Hogg), chills (as from rain, a cold bath when 
 heated, or a drink of very cold water), morning dew on 
 pastures, and numerous other causes have been associated 
 with attacks. In Italy and Corsica low-lying pastures 
 are freely grazed during winter, but the flocks are exter- 
 minated if not removed to the mountains before summer. 
 Simple change of locality sometimes seems to secure 
 exemption from anthrax, at any rate temporarily (Fleming) . 
 Gamgee noted that most deaths occur at the time of full 
 moon, when the sheep overeat, and are restless, and do 
 not lie down as on dark nights ; also cold weather, espe- 
 cially when the nights are dark and tempestuous, increases 
 the number of fatalities. Bad water-supply and cold, 
 damp pastures are sometimes, apparently, specially opera- 
 tive in its production j animals of all ages succumb, 
 those in poor condition are least often affected, and most 
 likely to recover. Some have found anthrax most preva- 
 lent in cases of turnip feeding, others in constipation from 
 dry food. Thus the most varied, and often opposite, 
 causes are supposed to be at work to produce anthrax or 
 braxy ; of the occasional determining influence of these 
 different causes, as noted by various observers, there 
 can be no doubt, but it is now certain that there is 
 one factor without which none of them can produce 
 the specific disorder. This one factor is the anthrax 
 bacillus, which may remain in the system awaiting its 
 time for manifestation of its presence by fatal results, and 
 the various circumstances above alluded to are those 
 under which it finds its opportunity, either of access to 
 the body or of action in the body. Plethora is extremely 
 favorable to development of the organism, and temporary 
 
50 ' DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 disturbances of vitality of the sheep seem to enable it to 
 make headway. Ohauveau has commented on the apparent 
 immunity of Algerian sheep from charbon (anthrax), and 
 has hoped from it to learn in what resides nature's means 
 of prophylaxis. The disease has been thought to be in- 
 fectious and contagious, but this is still debated. Roche 
 Lubin succeeded in conveying the disease to a sheep 
 from a cow at the distance of eight metres ; Boutet was 
 successful in conveying the disease by cohabitation ; sheep 
 tied to windward of the grave of an anthrax patient have 
 become affected ; and in sheep which reoccupied a stable 
 after closure for twenty days the disease broke out on 
 the fourteenth day. Feser found that lambs may with 
 impunity suck an anthrax-affected ewe, but that the milk 
 is virulentwhen injected subcutaneously or on gaining entry 
 at an abrasion. Barthelemy and Renault tried the effects 
 of cohabitation in gloss-anthrax, the form which most 
 frequently seems contagious, but did not succeed in con- 
 veying the disease. Renault hung up the remains of 
 anthrax carcases in a confined space, but sheep enclosed 
 with them did not become affected. Pastures contaminated 
 with blood and other fluids from anthrax carcases, also 
 water containing the bacilli or their spores, are the most 
 common infecting media ; thus the animal becomes more 
 formidable after death to its fellow-sheep and animals 
 of other species than before death. Malignant carbuncle 
 in man results from the entry of anthrax blood into small 
 wounds, even almost imperceptible scratches ; woolsorters' 
 disease* results from inhalation of pulverised anthrax 
 
 * Aitlien, in his ' Science and Practice of Medicine,' says, " The sorting of 
 alpaca and mohair has long been known to be attended with considerable 
 risk to life. Also the sorting of all wools and hairs which are dry, dusty, and 
 more or less filthy from contamination with decomposing animal matter, 
 particularly if 'fallen fleeces' are present ; and all kinds of goat's hair, camel's 
 hair, low-class East Indian, Persian, and such-like wools, are injurious to 
 health : (1) from the dust and fine short hairs which arise from them exciting 
 chronic disease of the lungs; (2) from the amount and virulence of poison 
 from decomposing animal matter that is liberated producing a low form of 
 pneumonia (septic pneumonia) ; (3) from a specific blood poison derived from 
 the fleeces of animals which have died from anthrax producing the rapidly 
 fatal disease now known as ' woolsorters' disease.' " 
 
THE BLOOD. 61 
 
 matter from tlie wool of diseased sheep ; a case is recorded 
 of a shepherd, in bleeding a braxy sheep, getting a 
 drop of blood in his eye, not washing it out, and dying 
 from anthrax in three days. These are illustrations of 
 the necessity there is for extreme care in dealing with 
 anthrax carcases or anthrax products. The flesh is very 
 dangerous as food in conditions where it can be eaten imper- 
 fectly cooked, and it has frequently proved fatal to dogs, 
 pigs, and men ; but when thoroughly cooked or specially 
 prepared it is constantly eaten without appreciable ill 
 effect. Thus it is stated that " mutton hams," or braxy 
 hams, by some esteemed a delicacy, are prepared by 
 bleeding the carcass of a sheep which died of anthrax, 
 skinning, cutting up, washing, salting in a barrel,, and 
 subsequently smoking it for the market, where it finds a 
 ready sale and is not known to do any harm. The 
 annual loss from this disease in Scotland has been put at 
 150,000 sheep ; in certain low-lying lands it is considered, 
 in spite of every precaution, to kill 4 per cent, of the 
 sheep ; Gamgee says hill braxy is as widely distri- 
 buted in the world as the hill races of sheep. There 
 can be no doubt of the almost universal prevalence of 
 the disorder, which will (in Great Britain) ere long be 
 established by its more thorough and careful recognition, 
 since it has recently been included in the Contagious 
 Diseases (Animals') Act. 
 
 Post-mortem examination showb a dark, tarry condition 
 of the blood and imperfect coagulability ; congested and 
 enlarged state of the lymphatic glands ; bladder full of 
 bloody urine ; red serous effusion in the various cavities, 
 and gelatinous extravasations along the course of large 
 blood-vessels, as at the root of the mesentery and in the 
 groin and axilla. Petechise and blood extravasations in 
 the substance and on the surface of organs (especially 
 in the tissues of the skin), and dark blood inter- 
 mingled with the contents of viscera, are also present, the 
 body undergoes decomposition rapidly, the process having 
 commenced even before death, thus the odour of the 
 carcass is very offensive. The liver and spleen are gene- 
 
52 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 i-ally enlarged, and contain petechise or extensive blood 
 extravasations. CEdemata present before deatb may seem 
 to have quite disappeared when the autopsy is made. The 
 lesions are different in various cases, and not definite. 
 
 Splenic Apoplexy is described by Dick as frequent in 
 sheep, whereas Youatt mentions it as more frequent 
 among cattle than sheep in England, the reverse being the 
 case on the Continent, especially in Prance. In this form 
 of anthrax the animal is evidently out of sorts, stands 
 " all of a heap," with the back bowed and the four feet 
 together, and when the flock is made to move the best 
 falter and pant. There is distress of countenance, a dull 
 and heavy state of the eyes, grinding of the teeth, 
 moaning, almost incessant bleating from pain, frequent 
 rising and lying. A tendency to tympany after feeding, 
 fceces soft and intermingled with mucus and blood ; the 
 fleeces of some will be perhaps noticed to be stained with 
 the red urine of the affected animals. The gait is 
 faltering, the wool clapped, the mouth dry and perhaps 
 the seat of ulcers or pustules, the breath is most offen- 
 sive. If an attempt be made to withdraw blood it is 
 found black in colour, and it comes away very slowly. 
 Dick describes the animal as lying mostly on the right 
 side, as suffering pain when pressed on the left side, and 
 as " mopping with the lips ■" he also makes the rather 
 extraordinary statement that the " viscera of the abdo- 
 minal cavity sometimes burst." Different cases differ 
 somewhat in their symptoms and course, but the majority 
 are extremely rapid in their progress, although the 
 disease has been known to extend over four days. The 
 spleen is seen after death to weigh from eight to twenty 
 ounces, its normal weight being about one-tenth of this ; 
 it has been found ruptured, with escape of blood into the 
 abdominal cavity. 
 
 Gloss-Antheax, also termed Blain, is less often seen in 
 sheep than in cattle ; cases of it may occur sporadically 
 or enzootically. It seems more frequent on the Continent 
 than in Great Britain. The special symptoms are 
 slavering, a mixture of blood and thick mucus in the 
 
THE BLOOD. 53 
 
 saliva, wMcli is highly offensiTe; gangrene along the 
 sides of the tongue, with vesicular prominences containing 
 putrescent gas ; sloughing, ulceration, or abscess of lym- 
 phatic glands in the affected parts. Swelling of the head 
 and neck occurs to a marked degree, and the animal is in 
 imminent danger of suffocation. This formidable condi- 
 tion has been especially found among sheep in Galloway, 
 the G-rampians, and Skye (Hogg), and was attributed to 
 infection, atmospheric influence, exposure, and bad food, 
 also to supernatural influences. Gamgee has found 
 shelter, and twenty grains of nitre per hog daily, with 
 bran and bruised linseed, very effectual as a preventive. 
 
 External Anthrax, carhuncular fever, anthracoid erysi- 
 pelas, is rare, but described as affecting especially the 
 head and the udder. Another favourite locality is the 
 inside of the thigh, where inflammation sets in, and gan- 
 grene (commencing apparently at the glands of the groin) 
 extends to the walls of the belly and along the thigh, 
 causing death in a few hours, the most thriving of the 
 flock falling victims to the disorder, of which high fever 
 and stiffness or well-marked lameness are the leading 
 symptoms. 
 
 The INTESTINAL VARIETY, enteromycosis, of anthrax 
 is that in which the bowels are the seat of extensive 
 extravasations, and the fsecal evacuations consist almost 
 solely of anthracic blood. 
 
 Treatment of anthrax is seldom effectual. Gamgee 
 reminds us that if sheep when first (and early) noticed to 
 be diseased be made to constantly move about, an attack 
 may be warded off. Blood-letting has been found of 
 benefit ; the rough method of cutting off the ears or tail 
 at their roots is barbarous, and is ineffectual because 
 sufficient blood will not be obtained ; the jugular should 
 be opened, and even from it the flow will be sluggish, 
 and, we are warned, the amount of eight ounces should 
 not be exceeded. Friction about the head and to the 
 extremities may be of some use, free administration of 
 salt and carbolates, sulphites or hyposulphites, intrave- 
 nous injections of ammonia and corrosive sublimate, doses 
 
54 DISEASES OT THE SHEEP. 
 
 of carbolic acid, large doses of cathartic agents, also of 
 oil of turpentine and other stimulants, have occasionally 
 apparently been of benefit, but the suddenness of attack, 
 rapidity of progress, and inaccessibility of the parasitic 
 cause of the disease, render curative treatment of anthrax 
 of sheep almost hopeless. Prevention consists in reducing 
 the plethora of the animals as soon as possible by 
 cathartics, low feed, and even bleeding and setoning. 
 Bleeding is generally considered the best method in 
 emergency. Transfer from the pasture where the disease 
 was acquired should be carried out if practicable, and as 
 thorough a change in the diet made as possible. It will 
 probably prove an economic measure to at once dispose of 
 all sheep in high condition on an invaded pasture to the 
 butcher. 
 
 Among the benefits which the genius of Pasteur has 
 conferred on agriculturists is that of " anthrax vaccina- 
 tion " for the protection of sheep from the ravages of the 
 disorder. The balance of evidence is very strongly in 
 favour of this measure, which is becoming very exten- 
 sively adopted as a routine matter of sheep management 
 in Prance and other countries, to such an extent that 
 Pasteur has a diflSculty in meeting the demands of 
 farmers for supply of his special lymph. This vaccine is 
 sent out in closely-corked tubes, each of which contains 
 sufficient to inoculate 50, 100, 200, or 300 goats or sheep, 
 according to size. With this is sent a suitable Pravaz 
 syringe for hypodermic injection. This instrument is 
 first filled with the fluid, the stylet is removed from- 
 the needle, which is fixed on the syringe, then the 
 vaccine is shaken and drawn into the syringe, so as to fill 
 it completely, by slow withdrawal of the piston. 
 
 For sheep and goats, when the syringe is quite full the 
 little brass marker on the stem of the piston must be 
 placed at the division marked 1. An assistant must then 
 take hold of the animal which is to be inoculated and 
 hold it firmly by its forelegs in the required position 
 (see Fig. 6). The operator must next insert his needle 
 under the skin in the middle of the right thigh, and push 
 
THE BLOOD. 55 
 
 tie piston until the marker touclies the syringe. The 
 inoculation of the first animal is then complete. The 
 syringe is drawn back, the brass marker is placed at the 
 division marked 2 on the stem of the piston, and the 
 second animal is operated upon, and so on, each syringe 
 holding enough to inoculate eight. When empty the 
 syringe must be filled up again in the same way as 
 before. With a little practice a man would soon be able 
 to inoculate 150 sheep per hour. Twelve or fourteen 
 days after the first operation the process must be repeated 
 with the second vaccine, but this time the injection must 
 be made in the left thigh of the animal, i. e. in the 
 one which has not been already operated on {vide 
 M. Pasteur's circular with the vaccine). The details above 
 given are extremely minute, and unnecessarily so for the 
 veterinary practitioner, but they have been found essen- 
 tial for the agriculturist, as vaccination for anthrax is not 
 without its dangers. No tube should be used later than 
 the evening of the day on which it was opened. Every 
 care must be taken to ensure that the animal be inocu- 
 lated with the first vaccine before it receives the lymph, 
 or the latter may prove fatal. The details in full may be 
 read in vol. iii, No. 9, of the ' Quarterly Journal of Vete- 
 rinary Science in India.' 
 
 Among the many interesting experiments as regards 
 anthrax made by French workers, the following deserves 
 notice : the sheep, as being small and easy to handle, has 
 the misfortune to be convenient for such researches. 
 Chauveau took animals known to be refractory to the 
 anthrax poison, secured them almost completely fro.m 
 infection (by protective inoculation) and then injected 
 into the vein enormous quantities of anthrax bacilli. The 
 respiration immediately became painful, the head was 
 extended, the mouth was opened and foamed, its mucous 
 membrane became cyanosed, a moaning expiration was 
 kept up ; sudden panting movements of the sides were 
 accompanied by a very rapid pulse and stupor ; defsecation 
 was repeated several times, becoming diarrhceal ; bacteria 
 were found in the blood fifteen minutes after transfusion. 
 
,56 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 Fia 6 — ilii; \ iccuiition 
 
 Fig. 7. — AVithdiawal of the lynipli from tube 
 
 Fid. 8.— A vaccine tube. 
 
 Fig. 9. — Withdrawul of l^'iupb. 
 
 Fig. 10.— Tlie syringe. 
 
 Illustrations of Pasteur's antbrax vaccination (adapted from tbose of the 
 circular with his vacciue). 
 
THE BLOOD. 57 
 
 but they were few ; after two to six hours they could not 
 
 be found. One sheep, imperfectly protected, died from 
 
 true splenic fever in about sixteen hours ; another died in 
 
 twelve hours but not of true splenic fever, for no culture 
 
 of the organisms could be obtained, and two hours after 
 
 death scarcely any trace of them was found. Four died 
 
 in 46 to 100 hours, of local proliferation of bacilli in the 
 
 pia mater producing meningitis. The two remaining sheep 
 
 recovered, made good mutton, and were eaten. Thus, 
 
 bacilli in such cases rapidly disappear from the blood but 
 
 are not destroyed, as they enter some parenchymatous 
 
 organs, and if the subject survives the operation more 
 
 than three days they disappear altogether. The surface 
 
 of the brain seems suitable to growth of the organisms, 
 
 being somewhat similar to that of cultures, different from 
 
 natural disease {' Veterinarian,' 1881, p. 183). It is right 
 
 to state that many scientific workers, notably those of 
 
 Germany and Great Britain, have not attained anything 
 
 like M. Pasteur's published success with his anthrax 
 
 vaccine. Klein, for example, found that of sheep 
 
 vaccinated according to the instructions some died, and the 
 
 rest were not protected from the disorder. Thus we can at 
 
 present hardly consider Pasteur's method as to be adopted 
 
 universally, though that it promises to lead to most 
 
 important results must be conceded. Other methods of 
 
 lessening the activity of the virus, such as those suggested 
 
 by Ohauveau and Toussaint, and also Klein and Roy's 
 
 culture of the bacillus in the white mouse (whereby it loses 
 
 its fatal activity on sheep), may possibly supplant Pasteur's 
 
 in the future ; Klein has found that blood of a mouse 
 
 dead of anthrax, of whatever source, does not kill sheep, 
 
 but if culture be made of the bacilli of the blood of such 
 
 a mouse the bacilli of this new culture, with or without 
 
 spores, kill sheep. Also if a culture of bacillus of the 
 
 blood of a guinea-pig be established and kept at 42° to 
 
 43° 0. (107-6° P. to 109'6° P.) for two or three weeks it 
 
 loses, in many cases, its fatal action on sheep ; but if the 
 
 bacilli of such a culture be afterwards allowed to form 
 
 spores, or if a new culture is made, it proves again 
 
58 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 virulent to sTneep. The same holds good also for those 
 bacilli anthracis which, owing to the admixture of certain 
 antiseptics, lose their virulence, though they do not lose 
 their vitality. Such bacilli are capable of starting 
 cultures, in which the new bacilli, although not so 
 plentiful, still possess virulent action (' Report on the 
 Relation of Septic to Pathogenic Organisms'). Toussaint's 
 method of protection (which is efficient against intravenous 
 injection of millions of bacilli) consists in subcutaneous 
 injection of anthrax blood freed from bacilli either by 
 filtration, heat, or even antiseptics. He prefers the action 
 of heat, 131° P. for ten minutes, adding to the blood 
 1 per cent, carbolic acid, and waiting two or three days 
 before injection. An interval of ten days between 
 vaccination and test inoculation should take place. The 
 resulting immunity certainly lasts three months (' Veteri- 
 nary Journal,' September, 1880). 
 
 The most important means of repression of this very 
 serious disorder which the practical farmer can adopt are 
 to avoid, for pasture purposes, fields where it prevails as 
 a result of previous contamination, to early report occur- 
 rence of cases, and to adopt fully all the prescribed 
 measures, to avoid pollution of pastures, buildings, streams, 
 &c., with blood, excreta, and other animal matters from 
 carcases, and to destroy all such matters by fire, sulphuric 
 acid, or other powerful corrosive. The alkaline sulphites 
 and hyposulphites, also carbolic acid and its compounds, 
 have been considered to have some value as internal 
 disinfectants for protection from this disorder. 
 
 Emphysema infectuosum, hsematosepsis, blach leg, quarter- 
 ill, leg evil, hlach spauld, is an anthracoid disorder familiar 
 in young cattle, and not rare among sheep in some 
 localities, such as the Lowlands of Scotland, and the 
 Midlands of England (Gamgee). The disease is vulgarly 
 called a " shot o' blood," and was described long ago by 
 Sir George Stewart Mackenzie as beginning at the hoof 
 or the knee, which part swells, and the animal becomes 
 extremely lame. The skin turns a blue colour, and is 
 raised as a blister with dark-coloured contents, which is 
 
THE ELOOD. 59 
 
 succeeded by an ulcer. ' Bnjpliysemata, commencing at 
 the seat of swelling, set in and extend rapidly, and the 
 constitutional symptoms resemble those of anthrax so 
 closely that until quite lately the two diseases were con- 
 sidered the same. Now, however, differences are recognised 
 in the form of the bacillus, that of quarter-ill {Bac. emphy. 
 infect.) being larger than that of anthrax, less frequent, 
 more localised in the effusions, and absent from the spleen. 
 Dowdeswell adds to this list of distinctive characters 
 in the ' Thirteenth Anjiual Report of the Medical Officer 
 Local Government Board,' that it is also freely mobile, has 
 no effect when inoculated into the rabbit and cat (animals 
 which are killed by the anthrax organism) ; it readily 
 passes from the mother to the foetus, inducing the disease 
 in the latter ; it is anaerobic, cannot grow in the presence 
 of oxygen, and causes well-marked local disease when 
 injected into the subcutaneous tissue, but when injected 
 into the blood induces slight and transient disturbance, 
 while it appears to confer on the organism an immunity 
 against a natural attack of the disease, but such immunity 
 does not extend to anthrax and vice versa. Black quarter 
 is enzootic on low-lying pastures liable to be flooded. It 
 seems to be communicated in the same way as anthrax, 
 and affects especially young and thriving animals. Seton- 
 ing seems more effectual in this disorder than in anthrax 
 as a preservative, and age apparently exempts from attack 
 to a marked extent. Satisfactory results have been 
 obtained from intravenous injection of blood of affected 
 animals as a prophylactic in cattle, but the greatest care 
 has to be exercised lest any of the blood fall into the 
 areolar tissue. As the disease is intercommunicable 
 between ox and sheep by inoculation, this prophylactic 
 method will probably prove of value for ovines. MM. 
 Coi-nevin, Arloing, and Thomas introduced this process 
 ('Veterinarian,' 1881, p. 186). 
 
 EiNDEEPEST for some time was considered to be a disease 
 of bovine animals only, but it is now known to be com- 
 municable to other ruminants, including sheep and goats. 
 The researches of Professors Pritchard, Varnell, and 
 
60 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 Gamgee in Great Britain, and of various continental 
 observers, have established this beyond question. As 
 compared with cattle, however, the she^ep is much less 
 susceptible, and may often graze freely on pastures occu- 
 pied by cattle affected with rinderpest, although very liable 
 to suffer if shut up in sheds with such cattle. Out of a 
 number of sheep subjected to inoculation in Vienna only 
 45 per cent, became aifected, but it is found that in some 
 outbreaks and in some localities, sheep seem to exhibit 
 more than the usual susceptibility. This is especially the 
 case when the animals are overcrowded. Semmer, of 
 Dorpat, noted the following lesions in a sheep killed 
 eight days after inoculation by means of a hair steeped in 
 the subcutaneous connective tissue of a sick calf : — hyper- 
 emia of mucous membrane of abdomen and intestines, 
 tumefaction and cell-infiltration of intestinal glands and 
 follicles, cloudy infiltration of the kidney epithelium 
 and liver-cells ; globular bacteria in the corpuscles and 
 serum of the blood. The virus of the disorder is 
 apparently not materially altered by passage through the 
 system of the sheep, and the disease is freely retransmis- 
 sible to cattle. Incubation of rinderpest is more often 
 prolonged and variable in sheep than in cattle ; it has 
 been found to range from five to eight days in inoculation 
 cases, and from five to twenty days when the disease is 
 acquired by cohabitation or contact. The phenomena are 
 those of increasing debility, which at last becomes extreme, 
 gradual loss of appetite and cud, deep congestion of the 
 visible mucous membranes followed by discharges from 
 them, eruptions similar to those in the mouth of cattle on 
 the labial and gingival mucous membrane, erythematous 
 and papular eruption around the anal and genital orifices, 
 extending over the perinseum and udder. A short, husky, 
 painful cough, grinding of teeth, faeces liquid and red, 
 paralysis of the tail, sanguinolent diarrhoea in 50 per 
 cent, of the cases, are other indications which have been 
 recorded. The febrile symptoms and marked sinking of 
 the vital powers are seen in sheep as in cattle. We can 
 ailord to be more favorable in our prognosis of rinder- 
 
THE BLOOD. 61 
 
 pest among sheep than when it breaks out among bovine 
 patients ; in some outbreaks 80 per cent, may die, but the 
 average is put at 50 per cent. The third or fourth day- 
 is considered the most critical time, but the patient may 
 succumb to exhaustion on the fourteenth ; it is noticedj 
 however, that sheep may rally although very far gone. 
 
 Treatment, both preventive and curative, presents no 
 special features ; the sick must be nursed carefully and 
 treated with stimulant tonics, strict measures against 
 contagion and infection must be enforced. The flesh of 
 rinderpest victims, unless obviously deteriorated by pro- 
 gress of the disease or use of medicines, may freely be 
 utilised as human food. 
 
 FoOT-AND-MOnTH DiSEASE, BoZEMA EPIZOOTICA, INFECTIOUS 
 
 Aphtha is a well-known panzootic ; among sheep it may 
 appear simultaneously with the outbreak in cattle, or be 
 either antecedent or in succession to it. In its general 
 features the disease differs little from that of the ox, the 
 virus and its means of diffusion being the same, but there are 
 a few points in connection with the disorder as it specially 
 affects sheep which it is desirable to remember. Youatt, 
 in his classical work on sheep, lays stress on a " curious 
 coincidence between thrush in the mouth and foot-rot," 
 from which observation we may infer that he saw the 
 disease although he did not fully recognise its nature. 
 He quoted some French authors who mentioned outbreaks 
 of aphtha in which the sheep were off feed, had a flow of 
 thick stringy saliva from the mouth, general symptoms of 
 being out of sorts and feverish, pustules in the mouth, 
 nose, and gullet, with consequent diflSculty in, and inter- 
 ference with, swallowing, also rapid loss of condition, 
 lameness, shedding of hoofs, and ulceration of the cleft. 
 It has been since observed that the mouth very frequently 
 is not the seat of eruption in sheep, although probably 
 more frequently so than is supposed, because this part is 
 often not examined in consequence of the impression 
 having become general that no lesion will be found there ; 
 another reason probably for its not often being seen is 
 that the mouth and foot symptoms are constantly found 
 
62 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 not to occur simultaneously. The feet are the parts earliest 
 and most severely affected, and the lesions in them from 
 this disease are more serious than those found in cattle. 
 These lesions somewhat closely resemble those seen in 
 contagious foot-rotj but the differential diagnosis of the 
 two disorders will be hereafter described in dealing with 
 the latter. Ergotism in America has been found to rather 
 nearly resemble foot-and-mouth disease. The constitu- 
 tional symptoms are often less severe than in cattle, but 
 the soreness of the feet may result in very serious incon- 
 venience as regards feeding, and so the animal may fall 
 away considerably in flesh. Cases are sometimes seen 
 where the skin of the knees becomes ulcerated from 
 pressure and friction due to constant kneeling to feed, and 
 acute suppurative arthritis is set up in the carpal joints, 
 causing the animal to be permanently crippled, or to 
 succumb to starvation or exhaustion. Williams has re- 
 corded an instance where foot-and-mouth disease virus 
 seemed to lie dormant in the clothes of a shepherd for 
 one year. As the disease is principally manifested in the 
 feet it is more prevalent and severe in wet weather than 
 in dry ; often a sharp frost suffices for complete removal 
 of its contagious properties. As an actual source of loss 
 to the farmer, foot-and-mouth disease in sheep is not 
 nearly so important as in cattle, but loss of condition, 
 crippling, a few deaths, expense of treatment, and restric- 
 tions to sale and movement, render this sheep disease a 
 troublesome and unsatisfactory one. The treatment to be 
 adopted is the same as for the ox. 
 
 Rabies is frequent and serious, because sheep and dogs 
 are intimately associated, and the former are very liable 
 to be attacked by the latter, since they are inoffensive 
 creatures and little able to escape or defend themselves. 
 Fortunately, their fleece is to an extent protective. Yet 
 dogs which understand sheep usually attempt to seize 
 one of the limbs, or a part, the face especially, where the 
 wool will not protect the victim from their fangs. Thus 
 sheep dogs, or dogs which have learned to worry sheep, 
 are more formidable as a cause of rabies in ovine patients 
 
THE BLOOD. 63 
 
 than are other dogsj and when a dog has worried and 
 attacked a great many sheepj but killed or eaten none, 
 the shepherd and owner should be apprehensive and try 
 to learn more about that dog with a view to adopting 
 timely precautions with the bitten. These precautions 
 comprise excision and cauterization of all the bites, the 
 sheep being sheared for their detection, and careful manage- 
 ment and watching of the suspected up to three months, the 
 maximum period of incubation. Perhaps hereafter the 
 Pasteurian system of prevention of rabies will become 
 practically applicable to sheep. Fortunately, as being 
 naturally inoffensive, and even under the disease little 
 inclined to bite, sheep are not a serious means of rabies 
 propagation ; however, their saliva is virulent, as Prof. 
 Simonds long ago proved by inoculation of a rabbit with 
 it, and as has been amply confirmed by various observations 
 of the same nature but with other subjects of experiment. 
 Men handling rabid sheep should be careful to avoid 
 inoculation with the saliva, both from living animals or 
 carcases. The period of incubation varies considerably. 
 Haubner has made some exact observations on the subject ; 
 he found it over one month in 8 per cent, of his cases, two 
 months in 18 per cent., and up to sixty-eight days in 2 per 
 cent., and Vatel found it to extend up to seventy-four days 
 (Fleming) ; roughly, it varies from two to twelve weeks, 
 not presenting those extremely prolonged incubations 
 which have been recorded in some species. However, in 
 the ' Veterinary Journal,' December, 1879, p. 442, is 
 recorded a case of apparent dormancy for fourteen months. 
 The earliest symptoms observed in sheep are, the animal 
 being somewhat off its feed and having increased sexual 
 appetite, condition is lost rapidly, and the patient is dull ^ 
 and in a state of semi-stupor. In ewes there is generally 
 early paralysis, and the animal dies quietly ; lambs are 
 carried off in convulsions. In male animals, and some- 
 times females, there is an early stage of fury shown by 
 excited appearance and fierce attacks, mainly by butting 
 and charging, occasionally by biting and nibbling at 
 objects, animate and inanimate. These attacks may cause 
 
64 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 the foretead to become extremely sore, but this apparently 
 remains unnoticed by the animal. There is mucous dis- 
 charge from the nostrils, flow of ropy slaver from the 
 mouth and accumulation of froth about its angles, thirst 
 may or may not be present, the appetite is depraved, and 
 there is a tendency to eat dirt and filth. The bleating is 
 altered in tone, being a high and plaintive note ; the 
 pupils are dilated ; the patient is very nervous and excit- 
 able, especially at sight or sound of a dog, but will charge 
 at him as readily as at anything else. Tenesmus is pre- 
 sent. Tremors, panting, and drowsiness occur, and the 
 animal becomes weak in the loins and then paralysed, 
 and paralysis of the jaws sets in in some cases (Peele, 
 'Veterinarian,' 1871). Evidently there are in the sheep 
 the hallucinations seen in other species ; there are painful 
 sensations at the seat of the bite (the animal gnawing the 
 part and tearing the wool), but the patient shows no dread 
 of water. Death occurs in from two days to a week from 
 manifestation of symptoms.* Post-mortem examination 
 
 * Randall carefully observed the victims in an outbreak of rabies and 
 recorded the results. He found the average period of incubation to be 
 twenty-one days. He noted as the earliest symptom ungovernable salacity 
 exhibited by behaviour of the animal, even though a female, in the manner 
 of a ram in heat, the similarity to this natural phenomenon being exact as 
 regards movements, postures, and vocal utterances. The rabid ewe showed 
 none of the usual indications of rutting. Attempting to ride her companions, 
 also manifestations of rage and turning to fight with any animal attempting to 
 mount her, remained characteristics of the animal until she became too weak to 
 behave thus, but even then never entirely ceased. Rumination was from inva- 
 sion to death totally suspended ; there were complete refusal of food, depraved 
 appetite, manifested by ingestion of wool, gnawing the bars of the pen, eating 
 dung, and iugestion of urine and post-mortem discharges, absence of mastica- 
 tion, instead of it a peculiar hasty snatching and bolting of indigestible matters. 
 No thirst, no dread of water, faeces normal but scanty, urine scanty, and slight 
 unnatural glistening of the eye, were symptoms noted. The latter Randall 
 seems to consider present before other manifest symptoms. Irritability of the 
 bitten parts and recrudescence of scars was noticed on the second or third day, 
 after which the violence increased rapidly. The sheep opened their mouths 
 and gnashed their teeth when attacking a stick or a man, but did not seem 
 to bite their companions. On the fifth or sixth day they began to exhibit 
 weakness and less ferocity ; this latter symptom, however, generally lasted 
 long after the animal was physically able to make attacks. One case seemed 
 
THE BLOOD. 65 
 
 frequently shows no special morbid lesions, but in various 
 cases those characteristic of the disease may be seen in 
 the brain and its membranes, throat, alimentary canal, 
 and other parts. We need here merely remark that 
 though lesions are sometimes seen in the rumen asso- 
 ciated with accumulation of foreign bodies, the abomasum 
 is of the stomachs most frequently the seat of ulceration 
 and extravasation with presence of coffee-coloured slime. 
 Fatality among the bitten is sometimes 100 per cent., 
 Youatt considered that on average not more than one in 
 three of the bitten sheep will become affected. The use 
 of animals in the early stage of the disease as human 
 food is apparently harmless. Renault caused sheep to 
 eat the flesh of affected cows, but did not thereby induce 
 the disease, and numerous cases are on record where the 
 suckling of lambs by rabid or inoculated ewes did not 
 cause them any harm. 
 
 SCROFULA, Tuberculosis, Gonsumption. — It has else- 
 where been insisted on that, although this disease is con- 
 stantly mentioned in works on the sheep, we have no 
 distinct evidence that true tuberculosis is a disease of 
 ovines. Several disorders have been described under this 
 heading, but incorrectly : — Firstly, the state known as 
 "pining," which is either anthrax or the result of astringent 
 materials acting in a poisonous manner on the system ; 
 secondly, there is the disease vulgarly known as " Evil," 
 described by Spooner as a hard swelling of the submaxil- 
 lary glands, succeeded by small pustules on the head and 
 neck, which break and discharge white matter, perhaps 
 being succeeded by a second crop, almost uniformly fatal 
 by its constituting a drain on the system but occasionally 
 benefited by iodide of potassium internally and iodide of 
 
 to manifest vaginal irritation on the sixth da,y. Sometimes blindness occurred 
 but only when the wounds made by the dog were near the eye. Apparent 
 healing of the scabs, slight general trembling when standing quite quiet, 
 frothing from the front of the mouth, and ropy saliva dripping from the lips 
 of one case, were noted on or about the sixth day. Daring the last day or 
 two staggering, inability to rise, laboured, stertorous, or irregular breathing 
 set in, but no stupor, paralysis, or convulsions was seen to precede death. 
 The cases averaged eight days in duration. 
 
 5 
 
Q6 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 mercury externally. We must leave to future research 
 to determine what is really the nature of this condition. 
 Thirdly, bronchocele or goitre has heen described as 
 scrofula. Walley distinctly states that scrofula occurs in 
 the sheep. The only indubitable instance of the disease 
 which is to hand is one of artificial production in a lamb 
 as a result of ingestion of milk from a tuberculous cow, 
 mentioned by Bollinger in 'Archiy f. Bxperim. Path. u. 
 Pharmacologie,' 1873, p. 356.* 
 
 Rheumatism. — Youatt in one place speaks of "a thousand 
 proofs of the occurrence of this disorder in sheep," but 
 elsewhere of it being rare, owing to the protected state 
 of the skin. The general opinion seems to be in favour 
 of its somewhat frequent occurrence among lambs before 
 weaning, associated with some irregularity of the milk of 
 the ewe, also among lambs after weaning and old sheep 
 from exposure to cold and damp due to carelessness or 
 accident. It is described as seen both in elevated and 
 in low-lying marshy places, and as assuming an acute or 
 a chronic form. The descriptions of the acute disease 
 closely resemble those of the conditions known as Scoli- 
 asis, as we have elsewhere described them. Gresswell 
 {' Veterinary Journal,' May, 1883) describes an outbreak in 
 which he found the internal temperatures ranging from 
 104° P. to 107-5° F., the knees and hocks were mostly 
 afEected, there was discharge from the eyes and nostrils, 
 the urine was dark, and the bowels constipated. Although 
 the plastic products in scoliasis resemble those of rheu- 
 matism, metastasis and porcellaneous deposits have not 
 been noted in that disorder, and there is rather a marked 
 tendency to suppuration of joints. There are, therefore, 
 some grounds for the belief that scoliasis and rheumatism 
 are not one disorder. Acute rheumatism of sheep most 
 frequently affects the neck and loins, is metastatic, and 
 tends to recur. The loins become stiff and weak, and 
 the neck bent permanently to one side. In chronic cases 
 
 * Dun ('Journal Eoyal Agricultural Society,' 1856) speaka of scrofulous 
 lung, throat, joint, and osseous disorder in sheep due to hereditary influence 
 Rs undermining the animal's constitution. 
 
THE BLOOD. 67 
 
 stiffness of the gait, especially during cold damp weather, 
 is observed. Death sometimes occurs from pyrexia, but 
 as a rule the disorder tends to become chronic, and the 
 animal must be prepared for the butcher. Treatment 
 comprises the alkaline carbonates and iodides with sali- 
 cylate of soda internally, and stimulating applications 
 externally. 
 
 Milk Sickness or "the Teembles." — This disease, 
 described in America as affecting cattle in new States and 
 on virgin soil, also is noticed in the sheep. It is due to a 
 spiral organism in the blood, and is detectable in animals 
 apparently well by the tremors, almost amounting to con- 
 vulsive attacks, which result when the animal is made to 
 take a run. In severe cases the tremors are at once 
 detectable without making the animal run. The disease 
 is communicated by ingestion of the flesh to camivora 
 and mankind. It disappears when the soil is brought 
 under cultivation. Much remains yet to be learned about 
 it. Haubner has described an enzootic malady of sheep 
 occurring in Europe, known as the " trembling disease " 
 or " lumbar prurigo." This is markedly associated with 
 locality, disappearing from sheep when removed from 
 such places as it inhabits, which are generally low, damp 
 valleys, subject to inundations or encircled by mountains, 
 and provided with a luxuriant vegetation, or else are sandy 
 regions with light soil and insufficient .pasturage (Fleming's 
 'Sanitary Science and Police,' vol. i, p. 30). Law has 
 added to our knowledge of " trembling " by his contribu- 
 tion on the subject to the ' Veterinary Journal,' September, 
 1877. He notes as symptoms : decubitus, which is charac- 
 teristic, the head resting on the ground, sweetness of 
 breath, bloodshot eyes, staring coat, great prostration, and 
 extreme muscular weakness, especially marked in sheep, 
 which often seem quite unequal to the task of rising. 
 The worst cases lie prone with head extended on the 
 ground, and are utterly indifferent to all sense of fear or 
 danger. The wildest whine and allow themselves to be 
 handled without the slightest effort at resistance or escape 
 when prostrated by the disease. All the organic func- 
 
68 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 tions are impaired, marked constipation is present. Mild 
 cases have a haggard appearance, drag their limbs slowly 
 and stiffly, and may after four or five miles drop dead. 
 
 Actinomycosis. — Bollinger has mentioned this disease 
 as possible in the sheep. Hardy had a case among some 
 rams on a heath farm ('Veterinary Journal,' April, 1885, 
 p. 281). MacGillivray, of Banff, has not unfrequently 
 seen gangretious stomatitis, similar to the disease of that 
 name as it occurs in calves, among sheep (' Veterinary 
 Journal,' January, 1881). 
 
 Steangles. — A disease in every respect resembling 
 ordinary regular strangles in the horse has been described 
 as affecting hoggets, but as being very rare. Treatment 
 is as for the disease in the horse. 
 
 Influenza. — A possible equivalent pathologically of the 
 disorder known as influenza in the horse, is an epizootic 
 which prevailed and was investigated in New South Wales 
 in 1834—5, causing the death of a large number of sheep. 
 It was seen, both in elevated situations and on marshy 
 soil, during rain at the latter part of spring, after a dry 
 winter with severe frosts. It proved fatal to 50 per cent, 
 of the animals attacked. If the animal survived the third 
 day it gradually recovered, but almost always with loss of 
 all the wool ; relapses sometimes took place on change 
 of the weather. 
 
 Symptoms. — The sheep becomes evidently out of sorts, 
 eyes watery, and Schneiderian membrane red ; frequent 
 sneezing is present, and a watery discharge from one nostril, 
 which soon becomes glairy and clammy. Mucus collects 
 around the eyes, encrusting the lids. The animal goes off 
 the cud, hangs the head, and is uneasy, constantly changing 
 its place or posture. The symptoms increase in severity ; 
 the discharge accumulates round the nostrils, obstructing 
 respiration, the nostrils swell. There is troublesome and 
 painful cough, the head is rested wherever convenient, 
 the visible mucous membranes turn purple and discharge 
 less, but the flow is of a bloody character ; tremors, 
 stupor, and coma precede death, which occurs in from six 
 hours to three days. 
 
THK BLOOD. 69 
 
 Autopsy shows rapid decomposition of the carcass, the 
 skin purple, the Schneiderian membrane and the lining 
 membrane of the faicial sinuses inflamed and covered with 
 lymph, the membranes of the brain congested, and the 
 heart engorged with black blood. In some cases the 
 whole lining membrane of the air-passages was inflamed. 
 Dry faeces accumulated in lumps in the rectum. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleeding and salts, repeated when neces- 
 sary, sufficed to cure cases when taken early, but bleeding 
 as a prophylactic was not a success. Isolation was 
 enforced, and the disease ceased. Details of the outbreak 
 are given more at length by Youatt. 
 
 Several records of disease among sheep which assumed 
 an asthenic character, with special affection of the mucous 
 membranes, thus entitling it to be ranked as influenza, 
 have been given by Spooner. {a) In one of these Darby 
 describes an outbreak which proved very fatal, four or 
 five dying in the flock daily, and the disease being espe- 
 cially prevalent in marshy places. In acute cases closed 
 eyes, disturbed respiration, purulent nasal discharge, early 
 prostration, pulse 80 — 100, thick discharge from the mouth, 
 and temporary blindness were present, and the patients 
 exhibited amaurosis and rotatory movements before death. 
 Other sheep exhibited the chronic form, the eye being 
 dull and vacant, the animal either partly or entirely off 
 feed, debility extreme and progressive, curved back, and 
 the patient liable to lean against the fence. Autopsy in 
 acute cases showed, besides turgescence of the vessels 
 of the brain, more or less extensive disease of all the 
 mucous surfaces, the lungs engorged with blood, the 
 manyplies distended with food. In chronic cases the 
 lungs were found adherent to the walls of the chest, 
 serous effusion in the chest, the liver and spleen enlarged, 
 the lining membrane of the trachea purple and covered 
 with frothy mucus, and inflammatory patches throughout 
 the whole alimentary canal. Cathartic salines, vegetable 
 tonics, and narcotics, with complete change of diet, sufficed 
 for cure.* (fe) Clay worth's outbreak also took place in 
 * (»') Randall, describing fully aud well an epizootic among sheep in 1846-7. 
 
70 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 marslies, but they were mucli exposed^ and near tlie sea; 
 it occurred among young stock for the most part, and the 
 disease was most prevalent in March and April. His 
 patients were dull and out of sorts, with thin mucous 
 discharge from the nostrils and eyes, the visible mucous 
 membranes highly congested, grating teeth, and stag- 
 gering gait, they fell on to their knees if hastened, and 
 then rolled over on to the side with head drawn back, 
 grating the teeth all the time. Then diarrhoea often set 
 in or the dung might be coated with mucus ; occasional 
 cough was present, there was a rale in the throat and a 
 flow of frothy mucus from the nose and mouth. Animals 
 which were not treated died, those properly supported 
 recovered. 
 
 The epizootic form of catarrh mentioned by Youatt 
 might properly be described as "influenza," which must 
 be taken to mean " not clearly understood by us ; " so also 
 might the epizootic and enzootic outbreaks of pneumonia 
 and pleurisy which have been described from time to time, 
 and of which the following may be taken as examples : — 
 
 (a) The 1836 outbreak, observed by Eoche Lubin in Saint 
 Afrique, destroyed many sheep, and was fatal to two 
 thirds of those attacked, even though the cases were 
 treated from the commencement. It seemed to result 
 from housing sheep throughout the winter under most 
 unsanitary conditions in hot sheds, and letting them perio- 
 dically out into the cold to drink half -frozen water, which 
 they did with avidity. Post-mortem examination showed 
 lung consolidation and sometimes hydrops pericardii. 
 
 (b) This is apparently very similar to the disease described 
 by Wiltshire, of Natal, as "heart water," and which is 
 apparently frequent among sheep and goats in South 
 
 says : " I am not prepared to aver that it was identically the same with the 
 ' distemper,' which used to sweep off 20 — 40 or 50 per cent, of carelessly 
 managed flocks as often as once in five or six winters, and which, though greatly 
 mitigated in the frequency and severity of its visitations, continues to destroy 
 more American sheep than all other maladies comhined. It is, indeed, the 
 only malady which proves mortal on a large scale. But except that the 
 ' distemper ' of the ' bad winters ' sometimes closes with dysentery I never 
 saw any difEerence." 
 
THE BLOOD. 71 
 
 Africa. He found post mortem normal rigor and not 
 much swelling of the carcass ; in some cases small caseous 
 nodules along the course of the intestines ; the gall-duct 
 ruptured in two cases and once almost impervious ; bile 
 dark ; liver dark- coloured, congested, and soft ; spleen 
 dark but firm ; gelatinous clot in the pericardium, of a 
 straw colour and slightly opaque ; blood but little altered, 
 if anything thinner than usual ; endocardium more or less 
 ecchymosed ; straw-coloured serum in pleural sacs, lobular 
 pneumonia and clear gelatinous matter in places beneath 
 pleura pulmonalis. Froth in the bronchi, (c) A severe 
 outbreak of epizootic catarrh occurred in Queensland in 
 July, 1884. (d) Seron dhserved enzootic pneumonia among 
 sheep which, after being accustomed to every hardship, 
 were confined in ill-ventilated and undrained cotes in 
 January and February. They became very feverish, had 
 the muzzle bent towards the side, the nostrils clogged with 
 yellow mucus, which the animal constantly tried to get 
 rid of, the loins very tender. In twenty-four to thirty 
 hours the attack proved fatal, and the lungs were, on 
 investigation, found to have their outer portions consoli- 
 dated. Sometimes the left lung only was affected, the 
 right being quite free from disease, (e) In the ' Veteri- 
 narian,' vol. X, is recorded an outbreak of enzootic pleurisy, 
 the deaths having been principally in a low marshy district 
 in spring and autumn, most frequently after turnip and 
 cabbage feeding, and seldom after grass or dry diet. 
 The attacks proved rapid and sudden, they were almost 
 invariably fatal, autopsy showing plastic lymph and serum 
 in the pleural sac, and the lungs free from disease. The 
 thin-skinned Leicesters were the principal victims. Sym- 
 toms : Pulse hard and very quick, respiration difficult, a 
 low short cough, dull countenance, head pendulous, nose 
 forced against the ground, bowels confined, visible mucous 
 membranes red, pain and 'grunting when the animal is 
 compelled to move, and it generally remains recumbent. 
 In one case streaks of blood from the nostrils. 
 
 On perusal of these records one cannot escape the con- 
 clusion that there is no element of specificity about such 
 
72 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 caseSj uniformity of simple causes acting on a number of 
 animals contemporaneously fully suffices to explain the 
 apparent enzooty of the outbreaks. 
 
 In the 'Veterinary Journal/ September, 1881, will be 
 found an account of contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Angora 
 goats at South Africa, recorded by Duncan Hutcheon. 
 This account is well worth careful perusal. We are told 
 " neither sheep nor cattle can be made to tate this 
 disease. Sheep have been kept with infected goats 
 during the whole course of the malady through the 
 flocks, and not one has been observed to be affected with 
 its typical form. But several sheep which had been suf- 
 fering from tubercle in the lungs died, and the patholo- 
 gical appearances in their lungs incline me to believe 
 that the immediate cause of death was a modified form of 
 the disease." Information as to whether this goat disease 
 occurs in Asia Minor (whence Angora goats come) is a 
 desideratum. In Morocco a virulent lung disease of goats 
 prevails, and is termed "bayoor." It does not attack 
 sheep. Prophylaxis is said to be effected by placing a 
 piece of diseased lung in a slit made in the ear of an 
 unaffected goat, and subsequent slight cautery, but what 
 the latter is and how applied has not been specified 
 ('Veterinary Journal,' September, 1887). 
 
 Septicemia : Sewage poisoning. — The contamination of 
 pastures with sewage matter is very liable to give rise to 
 outbreaks of anthrax, and when that sewage consists of sud 
 water from mills or the liquids from slaughter-houses, it may 
 contain mineral or vegetable poisons and so actually pro- 
 duce ordinary poisoning ; sometimes, however, it seems to 
 give rise to a sort of septicsemia or general systemic con- 
 tamination which assumes various forms. Quite recently 
 (' Veterinary Journal,' July, 1888, p. 54) Carless has de- 
 scribed the evil effects of sewage water as considerable loss 
 of condition, both of flesh and Wool, and in the case of ewes 
 tainted with it at lambing time, always a considerable 
 fatality from congestion of the womb. Brown, as we 
 have seen, is inclined to think some forms of braxy 
 septicasmic. 
 
THU BLOOD. 73 
 
 We Lave previously noted that under, certain conditions 
 variolous matter seems to develop locally and not to in 
 any appreciable way affect the sj^stem, although the local 
 products are capable of conveying the disease. Similar 
 phenomena have been npticed in other diseases, such as 
 glanders and anthrax, when inoculated on unsuitable sub- 
 jects. We have now to deal with a remarkable instance 
 of a disorder of a contagious character and communicable 
 by products, but apparently not in any way aiJecting the 
 constitution in genera.1 or producing blood contamination. 
 We may term it a topical contagious disorder. 
 
 The CoHTAGiotrs Foot-bot is a disease which for a long 
 time has been confounded with ordinary foot-rot, and the 
 existence of which is even now denied, especially in Great 
 Britain. Accumulated evidence as to its occurrence has 
 been effectual in securing its recognition by the profession, 
 and practical action against its spread will in the future no 
 doubt be more frequent than hitherto. On the Continent 
 of Europe its prevalence has been remarked for a long 
 time, and under the names crapaud and pietin it has been 
 the subject of careful inquiry by French veterinarians. 
 It is said to have been diffused by the Merino breed of 
 sheep, although not known among such animals in Spain ; 
 under favouring conditions it becomes epizootic, but even 
 under ordinary influences it seems to be widespread. 
 The conditions which give rise to and aggravate ordinary 
 foot-rot are considered to favour its occurrence, but we 
 have elsewhere shown how to distinguish one from the 
 other, and we have further entered into the subject of its 
 differential diagnosis in all necessary detail. We have 
 specially shown what evidence there is to lead us to con- 
 clude that it is not simple foot-and-mouth-disease. Prof. 
 Law ('Veterinary Journal,' September,. 1876) shows that 
 contagious foot-rot is communicated by sheep which have 
 suffered from the disease for months, which is con- 
 trary to foot-and mouth-disease, also it is not conveyed 
 to other ruminants and pigs, but sheep only suffer. The 
 evidence as to there being a contagious foot-rot, collected 
 and recorded by Law, is most valuable, and deserving of 
 
74 DISEASES OP THE SHBEP. 
 
 careful study. He discusses the nature of the contagium. 
 He argues that the disease not being eczema epizootica, 
 nor foot mange, nor (as Morel has suggested) due to some 
 animalcule acquired from the pasture, it may be a fungus, 
 an organic germ, or cell-elements of the diseased surface 
 which have taken on themselves unnatural potential ener- 
 gies. What it is remains an open question. If it were 
 an insect derived from soil or herbage " it would attack 
 animals only at particular seasons, when they had attained 
 a particular stage of existence, ■would disappear in winter, 
 would reappear year after year on the same soil, and 
 could never be rooted out of a locality by the simple 
 dressing of the feet of diseased animals." There is no 
 evidence of the occurrence of specific fever in this dis- 
 order, but it is believed to be communicable by contact 
 and inoculation, and yet to sometimes originate spon- 
 taneously. The contagium is a fixed one, and the period 
 of incubation has been variously stated at from three to 
 fifteen days. Certain races, especially Merinos (Eandall), 
 are most liable, and in America it has been noticed as 
 most severe in summer. The discharge from the feet in 
 which the contagium resides, and which is said to come 
 from pimples, pustules, and vesicles between the hoof 
 (Fleming) is yellow, sticky, and of a peculiar ammoniacal 
 odour. Spontaneous recovery usually occurs in from a 
 month to six weeks, but the disease is liable to recur, 
 each attack, however, diminishing the susceptibility of the 
 sheep. Death takes place in some of the more severe cases 
 from exhaustion and debility, and we find in the disease 
 all the complications and sequelse which are seen in cases 
 of ordinary foot-rot. Natural influences, such as heavy 
 rain and sharp frost, seem to purify pastures by washing 
 away, diluting, or destroying virus j pastures, washing- 
 pens, cattle ships, roads, litter, railway waggons, fairs, 
 and other places and articles are liable to act as conveyers, 
 and the disease is mainly transmitted by contact of the 
 sound with the diseased. As regards transmission, some 
 well-judged remarks by W. C. Spooner deserve to be 
 quoted, " When the horn is dry and strong, and free 
 
THE BLOOD. 75 
 
 from cracks and fissures, and the skin above also sound 
 and properly lubricated with the unctuous secretion which 
 is here particularly supplied, there is no disposition to 
 absorb foreign matters, but, on the contrary, a power of 
 resisting their influence, and thus we cannot be surprised 
 that the foot-rot matter has no effect under such circum- 
 stances. When, however, the oily secretion is washed off 
 the skin is in an irritable and probably sore state from 
 the friction of the wet and dirt between the clees, the 
 horn long at the toe and ragged underneath, and particu- 
 larly the upper or coronary portion which unites with the 
 skin and consequently is very thin. When this part is 
 blanched, weakened, and probably in some degree sepa- 
 rated from the skin above, we cannot be surprised that such 
 a state of the parts must greatly expose them to the action 
 of any infectious matter from without." Thus, for preven- 
 tion the feet should systematically be kept in good order, 
 and to prevent introduction of the disease the obviously 
 necessary measures of quarantine, inspection, isolation of 
 the sick, and chloride of lime foot-baths for the suspected 
 or those which may have been in contact with the sick 
 should be enforced. Standings should be freely dug up 
 and disinfected and other measures adopted which may 
 be considered necessary for eradication of a fixed con- 
 tagium. A diffusion of knowledge as to the contagiousness 
 of one form of foot-rot, and information as to its differential 
 diagnosis, is evidently a measure necessary for lessening 
 the general prevalence of foot-rot. 
 
 [In concluding this notice of blood diseases of the 
 sheep, we must refer the reader to the accounts, which 
 for convenience have been given hereafter, of the following 
 disorders, for they may, and probably will, hereafter find 
 a place in this chapter of any work on sheep diseases, 
 (a) As non-specific disorders of the blood — • 
 Wirquibus, a form of uraemia. 
 Eickets, a defective state of bone due to blood 
 
 poverty. 
 Cutaneous asphyxia, carbonic acid poisoning. 
 Hsematozymosis, a form of necrsemia. 
 
76 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 (b) As specific hlood affections — 
 
 Erysipelas, due to special cocci. 
 Aphtha maligna, due to micro-organisms. 
 These diseases may be readily found in the text by 
 reference to the index or table of contents] . 
 
CIKCULATOEY AND LYMPHATIC. 77 
 
 CHAPTER III.— CIRCULATORY AND LYMPHATIC. 
 
 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.— The circulation of 
 the blood in the sheep is seldom disordered, and although 
 conditions of disease have been found after death their 
 symptoms, causes, and other clinical features during life 
 have not been observed. The fact that a large propor- 
 tion of sheep are destroyed when young, and before the 
 heart and blood-vessels show signs of wear and tear, 
 accounts for infrequency of circulatory disorders, and 
 again, the sheep is not, like the horse, subject to cir- 
 culatory emergencies nor is he prone to rheumatism. 
 Vierordt showed that the round of the circulation in 
 the goat is accomplished in about thirty-eight seconds. 
 The heart presents some slight features of anatomy 
 worthy of comment, especially the large size of the 
 moderator muscular pillars in the right ventricle, more 
 considerable in proportion than in the ox ; also the pre- 
 sence of an OS cordis generally extending farther round 
 the root of the aorta than this horny basis in the ox ; 
 the average weight of the heart is 65 — 7 ounces. In 
 the ' Memoires de I'Acad. de Dijon,' vol. i, p. 107, is 
 recorded a case of Traumatic peeicakditis in a sheep due 
 to the passage of a needle from the rumen into the heart, 
 in a similar manner to the same accident as commonly 
 seen in milch cattle, and in the ' Annales des Sc. Nat.' for 
 September, 1826, is recorded how the spikes of the feather 
 grass, a species of stipa, collecting in the rumen may 
 there excite inflammation, and may penetrate thence into 
 the pericardium, and so prove fatal, as was exemplified 
 by considerable flocks in Hungary. Fatty degeneratiori 
 
78 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 of the heart is said to occur in animals overfed for show 
 purposes. It is generally only fatty infiltration. This, 
 with the fact that in inflammation of the chest structures 
 the pericardium is almost always more or less involved, 
 constitutes the sum of our present knowledge of heart 
 diseases of the sheep. 
 
 As regards the blood-vessels; on post-mortem exami- 
 nation redness of the lining membrane of the arteries, 
 calcification of their walls (especially in the vessels nearest 
 the heart giving rise to complex attacks and sudden 
 death), also aneurisms have been seen, but are not known 
 to have clinical importance. The venous system has not 
 been observed to be the seat of disorder. 
 
 The LYMPHATIC SYSTEM is well developed, and 
 doubtless frequently its vessels are traumatically inflamed 
 in cases of foot-rot, maltreatment of simple wounds, and 
 blood disease. Abscesses along the course of the lym- 
 phatics and at the seat of the glands are not infrequent, 
 and should be treated in the usual way. Perhaps the 
 most ordinary situation in which such inflammation is 
 seen is in the intermaxillary space constituting the dis- 
 order which has been described as strangles or Stran- 
 guillon. This is not, apparently, the specific disorder 
 known under that name in horses, but seems to be asso- 
 ciajted with teething, as it occurs most frequently in 
 hoggets (lambs between the weaning and first shearing). 
 The abscess must be brought to a head and encouraged 
 to discharge freely, the system of the patient being sup- 
 ported with stimulant tonics. The disease is rare and 
 not looked on as a serious condition. 
 
 Youatt describes Tabes Mesenteeica as occurring in 
 lambs, and is inclined to consider it tuberculous. The 
 balance of evidence is against the occurrence of true 
 tuberculosis in the sheep, and such cases as are described 
 by the author just mentioned were probably due to non- 
 specific causes, especially parasitic invasion. The sym- 
 ptoms are said to be, belly large and somewhat tender, 
 bowels irregular, loss of condition, and a voracious and 
 depraved appetite ; lambs especially being affected. Treat- 
 
CIRCULATORY AND LYMPHATIC. 79 
 
 ment comprises tonics, stimulants, gentle la^catives, careful 
 nursing, and alteratives, such as mercury with chalk and 
 the iodide of potassium. Animals thus affected, however, 
 are scarcely worth treatment. 
 
 APPENDIX.— THE DUCTLESS OK BLOOD- VASCU- 
 LAR GLANDS. 
 
 Little special knowledge with regard to these organs in 
 the sheep has been obtained. The spleen is proportion- 
 ately small as compared with that of the horse and ox, and 
 even with carnivora, which generally have a smaller spleen 
 than herbivora (Crisp). It sometimes is the seat of 
 hydatids, which are not known to cause inconvenience. 
 Tochenlin, of Baden, long ago recorded Inflammation of 
 THE Spleen of sheep as prevalent in the late summer and 
 early autumn, after the heats of summer and about the 
 time when the animals are shedding their wool. The 
 disease may possibly have been the abdominal form of 
 charbon, but there are some features of difference in the 
 description given of splenitis from that of ordinary anthrax. 
 The symptoms comprise uncertain and staggering gait ; 
 eyes red, watery, and half closed ; bowels constipated ; 
 off feed and cud ; swelling of the flank ; quick breathing, 
 and extreme and rapid emaciation. Death occurred 
 suddenly or in the course of a few days, post-mortem 
 examination showing gangrene of the intestine, liver soft 
 and engorged with blood and bile, distension of the 
 rumen with putrid food and gas ; spleen gorged with 
 blood, softened, enlarged, sometimes ruptured, and " filled 
 with tubercles and ulcers" (whatever that means!) . Treat- 
 ment comprised shelter from the sun, good pasture-, avoid- 
 ance of long journeys and of disturbance by dogs, also mild 
 stimulants and aperients. The attacks were possibly due 
 to blows, falls, long journeys, sudden changes of weather, 
 frequent change of pasture (especially to coarse, rank 
 feed), damp and ill -ventilated houses, and extension of 
 inflammation from neighbouring structures. The detailed 
 
80 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 aooountj as translated from the French, may be read in 
 Youatt's work on the sheep^ and is carious. Degive, in u, 
 paper on Laparotomy, mentions extirpation of the spleen 
 as having been performed on a goat. 
 
 The thyroid bodies are found enlarged in cases of 
 debilitating disorder, such as rot ; and in early-dropped 
 and half-starved lambs they are constantly enlarged. 
 GoiTEE in sheep as an enzootic has been referred to by 
 Baillarger, and, more in detail, in Spooner's V70rk, where 
 is mentioned a report of its occurrence during the spring 
 in South Downs, where it could be traced to no error in 
 food or water of the ewes. They began to fall off in condi- 
 tion some six weeks before lambing, and every lamb was 
 born with enlarged neck, varying as regards position of 
 the tumour, and ranging in size from that of a walnut to 
 that of a hen's egg. Many gasped once or twice after 
 birth, struggled a little and died, with the lungs not 
 pervious. Others did well, the swellings being loose and 
 almost pendulous, the breathing spasmodic and difficult, 
 and mucus trickling from the nostrils. One died in a fat 
 condition. The disease was enzootic, probably due to 
 conditions of the soil. Some of the ewes subsequently 
 had enlargement of the neck. Eandall speaks of it as 
 common iu American lambs, but rapidly yielding to 
 spirits of camphor or tincture of iodine. An article in 
 the ' Veterinary Journal,' xv, p. 128 (from the 'National 
 Live Stock Journal ') , tells us that affected lambs are 
 " soft " when born and liable to be ascitic. A rowel on 
 the top of the shoulders and excision of the thyroid are 
 said to have been effectual surgical means, and nitre and 
 salt useful as preventives. The condition is considered 
 to be hereditary. 
 
 The other ductless glands (thymus, adrenals, &c.) have 
 not yet been recorded as being diseased in sheep. 
 
EESPIRATOEY SYSTEM. 81 
 
 CHAPTER ly.— THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 The nostrils of the sheep are small and circular, but 
 flexible and capable of being mucli reduced in size to 
 keep out dust and insects ; the nasal peak is single as in 
 the horse. The opening of the organ of Jacobson on the 
 floor of the nasal chamber is large. The large ethmoid 
 cell forms, as in the ox, a well-developed so-called 
 " middle turbinated " bone. The maxillary sinus is not 
 large, and in hornless sheep the frontal is small but in 
 the horned considerably developed, extending over the 
 cranium and into the horn-cores, but not so far as in the 
 ox. The sheep can breathe ordinarily through the mouth 
 as well as the nasal chambers, the latter are posteriori)' 
 not separated from one another. The pharynx, larynx, 
 and trachea have the same shape as in the ox, but are 
 even less developed, and, therefore, much less highly 
 developed than the corresponding parts in the horse. 
 With the simplicity of the larynx is associated the want 
 of inflections and modificatious of the voice of the sheep. 
 The rutting ram and the ewe fondling her young give 
 short grunts, and the bleating of a sheep separated from 
 the flock is a familiar sound, but it is insisted on that 
 the sheep is altogether a silent animal. The chest is 
 rendered fairly capacious by the horizontal manner in 
 which the ribs stand out, the width and flatness of the 
 sternum, and the diaphragm being attached to the internal 
 surfaces of the ribs far back as in the horse, and not as 
 in the ox. The anterior bone of the sternum is a well- 
 marked manubrium; there are thirteen pairs of ribs. 
 Youatt refers to the first bone of the sternum and its 
 
 6 
 
82 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 coverings as follows : " From the front of the sternum is 
 a projection not seen in the horse, or rather occupying 
 the situation of the prominent convexity, the cariniform 
 cartilage in the horse. It is partly cartilaginous, but 
 more muscular and cellular and flabby, extending between 
 the forelegs of the animal iu a horizontal direction, and 
 termed the hrisket. It is justly reckoned a very impor- 
 tant part in the sheep, although it is never proportionally 
 so much developed as in the ox, for the animal that 
 will accumulate much fat and flesh about the brisket will 
 not be deficient in other parts. There is a joint between 
 
 Fig. 11. — Thoracic Viscera of n sheep (after Chauvcau). 
 
 1. Right lobe. 4. Heart in pericardium. 
 
 2. Left lobe. 5. Carotids. 
 
 3. Trachea. 6. (Esophagus. 
 
 the brisket and the proper breast-bone, which permits a 
 lateral motion to the right or the left, and allows the free 
 progression of the animal notwithstanding the protrusion 
 of the sternum." The amount of carbonic anhydride 
 
EESPIEATOEY SYSTEM. 83 
 
 exhaled has been estimated by Lassaigne ; he found it in 
 one hour in an old goat about one tenth that of the horse, 
 and one eleventh that of the ox. In a sheep eight 
 months old it was 55| litres by measure, and 3-41 oz. by 
 weight. Gamgee is our best authority on refined thoracic 
 exploration in sheep. He tells us with regard to auscul- 
 tation that in the sheep as in the horse the true respi- 
 ratory murmur is audible as far as the second last rib ; 
 that the mobility of the shoulder allows of the examina- 
 tion of the anterior part of the chest with a fair amount 
 of thoroughness ; that the anterior lobe of the right lung 
 being large, and the heart entirely surrounded with 
 pulmonary tissue, the vesicular murmur is stronger and 
 less confused with cardiac sounds than in the horse and 
 ox ; that the sound behind the shoulder is not more 
 powerful on the right side than on the left ; and that the 
 superadded sounds are similar to those met with in the 
 horse and ox, but subcutaneous crepitation is less frequent. 
 The views of the same observer as to peecussion may be 
 summarised as follows : — The special features in the sheep 
 are (1) clearer resonance over the fifth and sixth ribs in 
 the lower region on the left side, due to the left lung 
 overlapping the breast ; (2) the resonance maintains its 
 clearness and depth more posteriorly than in the cow, 
 owing to the position of the diaphragm j thus in the 
 superior region the sound is less clear than over the 
 eleventh, but detectable as far back as the twelfth or 
 thirteenth rib, in the middle region the sound diminishes 
 from the eighth to the eleventh rib, where it is lost, in 
 the lower region it is gradually feebler behind the seventh 
 as far as the tenth, where it is replaced by dulness ; ou 
 the right side posteriorly the resonance of the abdominal 
 viscera is not so likely to interfere with the proper appre- 
 ciation of that of the lung. In arrangement of its crura 
 and general shape the diaphragm of the sheep resembles 
 that of the horse rather than that of the ox ; disorders 
 of this muscle have not been recorded. Succussion 
 {shaking) and mensuration of the chest of the sheep are 
 applicable methods of exploration, but have not been 
 
84 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 utilised to any practical and appreciable extent; dia- 
 gnosis of chest-disorders in the sheep has hitherto been 
 crude in the extreme ; they are said by Youatt to be rare 
 in the sheep, owing to the protected state of its skin, but 
 subsequent experience has not confirmed this view of 
 infrequence of respiratory diseases. 
 
 Nasal CataeeHj vulgarly called '^ snuffles,"* affects 
 sheep which have been exposed to vicissitudes of climate, 
 especially in winter. It is denoted by frequent snorting 
 and sneezing, discharge from the nose and eyes, laboured 
 breathing with protrusion of the head, loss of appetite to 
 an extent, but not much fever. The newly-yeaned ewe 
 and recently dropped lamb especially are liable to suffer 
 in this way. The disease readily yields to proper nursing, 
 but when neglected in winter catarrh sometimes affects 
 simultaneously the greater part of the flock and persists 
 until more genial weather and the animals being put on 
 fresh grass in spring. Its prevalence among a number 
 of sheep at the same time has given rise to the im- 
 pression that it is contagious, but this is erroneous, the 
 number of animals sickening at once depending on their 
 being contemporaneously subjected to errors in hygiene, 
 a phenomenon very familiar in ovine pathology, as in 
 the cases of pleuritis, rot, and hoose. In such pi"o- 
 longed prevalence of the disease some cases prove fatal 
 by the inflammation extending down the air-passages, 
 and on post-mortem examination the Schneiderian and 
 tracheal mucous membranes are found ulcerated and 
 covered with pus, also the sinuses and turbinated bones 
 are full of pus, the lungs exhibiting the usual indications 
 of inflammation. These severe lesions gave rise to the 
 impression that such cases were allied to glanders in the 
 horse, but, apart from their being explicable as due to 
 ordinary causes, various experiments have amply proved 
 
 * " I early found that depletion in catarrh in our severe winter montha 
 rapidly produced that fatal prostration from which it is next to impossible to 
 recover the sheep — entirely impossible without bestowing an amount of time 
 and care on it costing far more than the price of any ordinary sheep. The 
 next course is to prevent the disease by judicious precautions" (Randall). 
 
EESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 05 
 
 not only that chronic nasal catarrh of the sheep is not 
 glanders, but also that glanders of the horse is not 
 communicable to the sheep. Nursing, stimulants, and 
 tonics suffice to cure nasal catarrh. 
 
 Oz.'ENA or Nasal Gleet is a continuous slight limpid or 
 a copious glutinous discharge from the nostrils, very 
 common in the sheep, and almost invariably due to para- 
 sitic invasion of the sinuses of the head, sometimes called 
 Qistriasis. Two forms of parasite take up their abode in 
 the sinuses, the least frequent is Pentastoma tanioides, 
 which also affects the horse, mule, and dog. Its larval 
 form, termed Pent, denticulatum, has been found in the 
 liver and mesenteric glands of the goat and ox, and the 
 liver of the cat. The more frequent is Qilstrus ovis, the 
 sheep-bot, the larval form of a species of gadfly, a valuable 
 
 15 16 17 18 
 
 flOS. 12 — 18. — After Brncy Clark's original figures ilhistrating life- 
 history of CEstrtis ovis. 
 
 12. The attack. 15 and 16. The fly. 
 
 13. The grub. 17. A wing magnified. 
 
 14. The larva. 18. A common fly, for contrast. 
 
 memoir on which (together with other bots) was published 
 by Bracy Clark in the 'Transactions of the Linnsean 
 Society,' vol. iii. Since the production of that paper few 
 additions have been made to our knowledge of the subject. 
 
86 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 although frequent mention of the gadfly and its eilects, in 
 veterinary and agricultural periodicals, show its practical 
 importance. The nasal Bot is said to be infrequent in 
 Merinos, because of the small size of their nostrils. The 
 gadfly, (Estrus ovis, may be seen on walls and railings 
 near flocks of sheep from the middle of May to the end 
 of July, especially near copses and in wooded countries. 
 It is a dull-coloured insect, with head and thorax together 
 about as long as the five-ringed abdomen ; its back is 
 brown, with small points and patches of a darker tint, 
 its under surface dark-brown, with a spot at the centre 
 of each abdominal segment. The wings are two in 
 number, almost as long as the entire body, and nearly 
 completely enveloping it, variegated with spots and stripes, 
 and having small horny internal portions which envelop 
 the poisers or balancers, small chitinous organs repre- 
 senting the posterior pair of wings in all Diptera. The 
 head is large, and bears two large greenish eyes, between 
 which on the dorsal surface are three ocelli arranged in 
 the form of a triangle. The rest of the head is yellow 
 and spongy in appearance owing to its perforation by 
 depressions, with a dai-k spot at the bottom of each. 
 Antennae two, bulbous at their bases, short ; a, few hairs 
 on the head, many on the body, sides, and legs ; on ventral 
 surface of head three small projections arranged like r. 
 triangle ; no proboscis nor appreciable mouth. Habits 
 as a rule sluggish, but during attack on the sheep active, 
 one male is supposed to impregnate only two or three 
 females and then die, females to deposit their ova and 
 then die. A few ova (or possibly larvse) only are probably 
 deposited on each sheep, the margin of the nostril being 
 instinctively selected as the best spot, and the act being 
 accomplished in dry weather and during the heat of the 
 day. The agitation of the sheep during attack probably 
 renders the process of egg deposition very precarious, so 
 that but few are put on each sheep. The actual process 
 is difficult to watch, as the sheep are very shy at this time 
 and thoroughly upset. They avoid the onslaught as much 
 as possible by getting in the roads during hot dry weather 
 
EESPIEATOEY SYSTEM. 87 
 
 and lying in the dusty ruts, holding their heads close to 
 the ground ; in other circumstances they pack together as 
 closely as possible in a dense phalanx, with heads towards 
 the ground, and they stamp and snort freely. The external 
 ones hold their heads down between the forelegs and the 
 muzzles against the ground, and the whole flock is in a 
 state of intense agitation, even though only a single fly be 
 the assailant. As a sheep falls a victim he becomes 
 agonised, may throw himself down, but generally breaks 
 away from the rest of the flock at a gallop, holding 
 his head towards the ground after shaking it, snorting 
 violently, and stamping furiously in getting rid of his 
 adversary. He looks about then anxiously lest the fly 
 pursue, and examines the grass lest the fly be hidden in 
 it ; sight of the pursuer alters the direction of the gallop. 
 Bracy Clark states that the nostrils become very sore 
 and inflamed from repeated attacks of the fly, and from 
 rubbing against the ground. Eiley affirms positively that 
 the larvse are deposited viviparously on the margin of the 
 nostrils. In a few days the eggs are hatched, and the 
 young larvse (scarcely visible to the naked eye) forthwith 
 crawl into the nostrils (by means of two hooks), and 
 commence to feed on the mucus. They traverse the nasal 
 chambers, and enter the sinuses, where they develop ; 
 generally but few (1 — 7 or 8) are found in each sheep, 
 but in some years and some localities they are very nume- 
 rous, and may muster over a score ('Veterinarian,' 1871). 
 The young bots are of a white colour and transparent, 
 and the larva becomes darker with age ; at the posterior 
 extremity are two brown patches or chitinous plates in the 
 posterior stigmata which, with the anus, are enclosed in a 
 kind of fleshy ring. The adult bot, as obtainable in June 
 from the horn-cores, is somewhat larger than the common 
 stomach bot of the horse but smaller than the warble bot 
 of the ox. It consists of eleven segments or rings, which 
 are of a brown colour owing to two dark transverse lines 
 on the dorsal or convex surface of each segment ; of these 
 lines the anterior is narrower and shorter than the pos- 
 terior. At the end of each ring are a few short stems or 
 
88 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 bristles, and below them some small, round, dark spots. 
 The inferior or flat surface bears small red spines on the 
 soft parts between the rings, inclined backwards and 
 probably intended to promote progression of the animal, 
 and render it more irritant. The anterior or smaller end 
 bears a pair of brown strong hooks, the large end is blunt 
 and forms a prominent fleshy margin or sucker over the 
 posterior cavity enclosing the brown patches which Bracy 
 Clark terms horny plates, and which he assures us are 
 occasionally cleared of mucus and pus by the sucker 
 closing over them, and he further states that the latter 
 opens again frequently with a slight snap from the sudden 
 admission of air. The animal moves rapidly in a ver- 
 micular manner, also probably by gripping with the hooks 
 and dragging the body towards them, the inferior rough- 
 nesses increase the grip on the smooth mucous surface. 
 During its residence in the sinus the larva gives rise to 
 disturbance by its presence and migrations, probably irri- 
 tation of the seroid lining membrane is essential to secure 
 it food, for in health the secretion of the mucous mem- 
 brane is slight. Opinions differ as to the severity of the 
 effects of bots on the sheep ; Youatt minimises them, and 
 even suggests that bots serve to avert apoplexy by acting 
 as derivatives to the brain, as thought by Clark, and also 
 to keep the nasal passages clear by the constant flow of 
 discharge. Clark speaks of the lining membrane of the 
 invaded sinuses becoming dense, white, and more or less 
 inflamed ; he notes that this change has occurred more in 
 the maxillary sinus than in the frontal, and infers that 
 during life the parasites inhabit the former, but after 
 death crawl into the latter ,• he also remarks that young 
 and old larvae are generally simultaneously present. 
 Randall, writing of this disease in America, tells us that 
 the term " grub in the head " covers many fatal cases in 
 the spring of the year, but ill effects from it are really 
 rare. Symptoms : loss of condition without explicable 
 cause in early spring, bloody mucus from nose, irregular 
 movements, twisting head occasionally as though in pain. 
 He recommends for prevention : — 
 
EESPIEATOEY SYSTEM. 89 
 
 (1) Furrows in pastures. 
 
 (2) Sprinkle the steep's salt over tar. 
 
 (3) Fumigate with tobacco smoke from the tail of an 
 
 ordinary pipe. 
 
 (4) Irrigation of tobacco water by means of a syringe. 
 Other observers have found severe distress when the 
 
 cestri are numerous, and enumerate, among the other 
 symptoms, occasional cough of a choking-like nature, 
 frequent sneezing, impeded respiration, swelling around 
 the anterior nares, effusion into the submaxillary areolar 
 tissue, great depression (leading in some instances to semi- 
 coma), loathing of food, and diarrhoea (Eds. 'Veterinarian,'' 
 1871), the result even proving fatal. Butchers, farmers, 
 and others often persistently state that the " maggots " 
 have been found in the cranium, and even in the brain-sub- 
 stance. This seems scarcely possible, but Dr. Cobbold 
 received some carefully recorded cases of maggot in the 
 brain, and it is just possible that absorption of the cribri- 
 form plate may occasionally occur. Bots sometimes pene- 
 trate the walls of the stomach of the horse, and work 
 among the tissues around. Whitworth {' Veterinary 
 Journal,' 1880) notes as useful in diagnosis the occurrence 
 of larvae agglutinated by mucus around the nares and 
 of others lying on the ground of the pasture. 
 
 French observers have recorded convulsions due to 
 these parasites and giddiness, distinguishable from that 
 of sturdy by the troublesome sneezing of the animal. 
 Besides in the sinuses, any part of which may be invaded, 
 the parasite may be found in the convolutions of the turbi- 
 nated bones in some cases, in which situation it may be 
 on its journey out of the animal. Inhalation of the fumes 
 of burning tar, especially if they be intermingled with 
 those of sulphur, causes early expulsion, and proves par- 
 ticularly useful when resorted to for animals showing 
 early indications of invasion. Exhibition through the 
 nostrils of glycerine and oil of turpentine has been found 
 useful. Trephining at the root of the horn for removal 
 of the organisms and for injection of fluids uncomfortable 
 or noxious to them is sometimes resorted to with benefit. 
 
90 DISEASES OF THE SHEEr, 
 
 for the most mature larvae generally take up their position 
 in this situation. In the ordinary course of things migra- 
 tion from the sinuses between April and the end of July 
 causes recurrence of the active symptoms of discomfort 
 exhibited by the sheep. This migration is instinctive. 
 On expulsion from the nostrils the larval oestrus if 
 insufficiently developed dies ; if mature by active move- 
 ments it works its way into the soil (or, according to Bracy 
 Clark, remains adherent to a blade of grass), and becomes 
 a pupa or chrysalis in about forty-eight hours. This pupa 
 is more uniformly brown than the grub ; after a period 
 varying from five to eight weeks a small portion of the 
 head end becomes detached, and the oestrus fly, or imago, 
 escapes and seeks its mate. Warm weather is favorable 
 to these changes, and in cold weather many individual 
 oestri are lost. This species may take up its abode in the 
 goat or the deer ; it has been known from the most 
 ancient times, and has been esteemed as a remedy against 
 epilepsy. A knowledge of the life-history of the parasite 
 will suggest means for lessening its prevalence, which, 
 though evident, are seldom practicable. Destruction of 
 the flies and the larvffi, also application of non-poisonous 
 fly dressings or fish oil (Spooner) about the muzzle might 
 be resorted to with benefit in invaded localities and during 
 seasons of extreme prevalence. Walker recommends to 
 feed the sheep on salt from two-inch augur holes bored in 
 a log, the surface of which is smeared with tar, so that the 
 sheep get a dressing every time they partake of the salt. 
 Inflammation op the Laeynx, in which the trachea is 
 to a varying degree involved, is not rare during the 
 changeable weather of the British spring and autumn. 
 It is denoted by some fever but not very marked, by 
 panting, protrusion of the muzzle, open mouth, and fre- 
 quent, painful, urgent, sharp, dry cough ; catarrh or bron- 
 chitis may be present as complications. Touatt twice 
 performed tracheotomy on sheep in emergency of oedema 
 of the larynx with satisfactory results. As a rule, nursing, 
 stimulating applications to the throat, and saline febrifuges 
 are sufiicient to cure such cases. 
 
eespieatoey system. 91 
 
 Inflammations of the Respieatoey Oeqans in the Chest 
 are not uncommon, but are, as a rule, imperfectly dia- 
 gnosed. It is certain that the sheep suffers much from 
 Pleurisy, for we have one recorded instance, as a specimen 
 of many, where three hundred sheep of a flock shorn in 
 February became thus affected, and thirty of them suc- 
 cumbed. Dick mentions Hydeothoeax in his list of 
 diseases of sheep, but he generally found it in association 
 with dropsy of other parts of the body, and specially 
 prevalent in enzootics of rot. Sporadic Pleueo-pneumonia 
 is not very common, but is seen in hilly and damp localities 
 from exposure and want of proper shelter, or neglect of 
 salving or clothing sheep in cold climates. However, it 
 seems that pneumonia and pleurisy are much more fre- 
 quently independent of each other in the sheep than in 
 most other domesticated animals. True Pneumonia and 
 Beonchitis are very severe and frequent, the former is 
 due to ordinary causes in the majority of cases, the latter 
 is generally, but not by any means always, parasitic. 
 Pulmonary consumption or phthisis is, we venture to 
 submit, doubtful as to its occurrence in sheep, the balance 
 of evidence being against these animals ever suffering 
 from tubercular disorder. In making this statement we 
 are aware that we flatly oppose the statements of previous 
 writers on ovine pathology. They describe phthisis as 
 destroying hundreds of thousands of sheep every year, 
 one lung in three examined at the butcher's shop being 
 thus affected, and that it proves very fatal to rams and 
 ewes over three and four years old, but in younger sheep 
 simply causes a cough, which does not interfere with the 
 animal's feeding nor with his attaining fair marketable 
 condition. Youatt, whose authoritative statements in this 
 matter no one seems to have hitherto dared to question, 
 considers that perhaps the tubercles stimulate the lung 
 to increased function, and so promote rapid conditioning, 
 and he speaks of phthisis causing increased cough, pro- 
 gressive ansemia, and occasional diarrhoea, and proving 
 " the winding up of turnsiok, the companion and the child 
 of rot." The same authority tells us also that the disease 
 
92 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 prevails in low and moist pastures, and most in the spring 
 and autumn when the seasons are changeable, and he 
 hereby gives us a cue to the real nature of the diseased 
 state to which he refers. It must be premised that of 
 late years our ideas on the subject of tubercle have 
 undergone a very considerable change, in that we now 
 accept it as the characteristic morbid product developed 
 by the Bacillus tuberculosis of Koch. We no longer 
 believe that in the absence of this organism simple irrita- 
 tion and ordinary inflammation of the lungs can develop 
 phthisis. We also know that many inflammations of the 
 lung produce such morbid appearances as would in days 
 gone by have been considered phthisis; for example, 
 true pneumonia affecting the air-cells causes little white 
 masses in the lungs more or less caseous or softened. 
 Again, calcareous deposits like vomicae in the lungs are 
 sometimes due to flukes, and (it will be observed) many 
 of Touatt's consumptive cases were associated with liver- 
 rot. Again, parasitic bronchitis is a disease which has 
 only attracted attention as a scourge of lambs in late 
 years, but it most certainly is not a new disease, and we 
 must conclude that the majority of Youatt's cases of 
 " phthisis " were of this nature. 
 
 Simple pneumonia has been noted to take on a gan- 
 grenous character very rapidly, and hence has been 
 termed " rot of the lights " by butchers and shepherds. 
 It is very frequently acute congestion, probably with 
 some pulmonary apoplexy, due to overdriving, chills after 
 the animal has been overheated by hard driving, want of 
 sufiioient protection after washing in cold weather with 
 east winds prevalent, or after removing the fleece in unsuit- 
 able weather. The disease is a familiar one in bleak, cold, 
 and (particularly) damp situations. It is highly probable 
 that in many flocks poisoning by applications for the 
 scab, also blood-poisoning from impervious coating of the 
 skin, perhaps also pulmonary anthrax, have been mistaken 
 for simple pneumonia. An attack of true pneumonia 
 commences with frequent and troublesome cough, unwil- 
 lingness to move, heaving of the flank and other signs of 
 
EESPIEATOEY SYSTEM. 93 
 
 laboured breathing, full and quick pulse, and refusal of 
 food, also loss of cud. In this congestive stage bleeding 
 may be resorted to promptly, and diffusible stimulants 
 administered. Soon, however, the symptoms become 
 aggravated, fever is present, thirst considerable, and 
 there is foetid discharge from the nose, the patient grinds 
 its teeth as though in pain, and may not be completely 
 off feed. Ere long the animal commences to stagger, to 
 become dull in the appearance of the eye, and to show 
 signs of delirium ; the subcutaneous tissue at the loins 
 crepitates on pressure, and exhaustion shortly carries the 
 animal off. It has been noted that, unlike the horse, 
 the sheep while suffering from pulmonary disease may be 
 given laxatives without fear of fatal diarrhoea supervening. 
 Treatment must be conducted in accordance with general 
 principles in other respects, but the special liability of this 
 disease in the sheep to assume a gangrenous character 
 indicates the urgent need for the stimulant tonic rather 
 than the purely sedative line of treatment. In chronic 
 pneumonia treatment is seldom worth resorting to, as the 
 animal is never likely to be useful for breeding purposes 
 or even for fattening. However, as this is said to be a 
 frequent disorder of tropical sheep in zoological gardens 
 in Great Britain, we miay note that the iodide of iron, 
 iodide of potassium, and common salt persisted in have 
 been found useful in such cases. Hydatids in the hongs 
 of sheep are not rare ; they seldom cause any inconvenience 
 but sometimes induce nutritive changes and mild chronic 
 pneumonia. 
 
 Simple Bkonchitis is a disease from which adult sheep 
 suffer severely, according to Gamgee, and lambs are very 
 liable to it from too early exposure or prevalence of 
 inclement weather. It is denoted by a moist wheezing ^ 
 cough, fever, tenderness of the throat and belly, and great , 
 rapidity of breathing. Auscultation determines the pre- 
 sence of mucous v&ie throughout the chest. Treatment 
 must comprise nursing (especially shelter), laxatives, bella- 
 donna, and stimulant tonics. 
 
 Parasitic Bronchitis, Husk, Hoose, or " Snots " resem- 
 
94 DISEASES Of THE SSEEt. 
 
 bles the disease of the same name in calves, but is due to 
 different species of strongyle, a fortunate point which lessens 
 the total prevalence of each of the disorders and limits 
 their possibility of spread. Two forms of parasite have 
 specially been found in the lungs of the sheep in connection 
 with this disorder, Strongylus rufescens and Str. filaria ;* 
 the latter is by far the more frequent and occurs also in the 
 goat, camel, and some other ruminants. A considerable 
 amount of confusion seems to have originated from the 
 term " lamb disease " being applied to this disorder and 
 also to parasitic diarrhcBa, and it seems that the strongyles 
 of the alimentary canal have been confounded with those 
 of the bronchial tubes, the two forms being frequently 
 simultaneously present. There is an ominous silence on 
 the part of helminthologists as to adult Strongyli filarise 
 being found in the alimentary canal, but practical observers 
 have no hesitation in stating that adult filarise do occur 
 there, and when in the intestines give rise to dysentery, 
 either independent and fatal, without either worms or eggs 
 being detectable in lungs or bronchi by the naked eye, or 
 else the combined lung and bowel diseases cause rapid 
 sinking of the patient. It seems probable that " the 
 lamb disease " is really two disorders quite distinct from 
 each other, though frequently contemporaneous, namely, 
 parasitic diarrhoea, elsewhere described, and hoose. Care- 
 ful observations are required to thoroughly settle this 
 point, which is a most practical one, and essential to 
 proper understanding of the disorder. The Strongylus 
 filaria is one to two and a half inches long ; sexes distinct ; 
 female white, male browish yellow ; body uniform in size 
 throughout greater part of its length, but tapering at each 
 end. Head short, stumpy, rather angular, not tubercu- 
 lated, armed ; alimentary canal straight ; tail of female 
 pointed ; vulva opens near anus and receives the oviducts, 
 which contain ova and live young (Williams). Thus the 
 strongyle is ovoviviparous and it has been estimated that 
 three hundred embryos may come from one adult female. 
 Eggs and embryos have been found in the alimentary canal, 
 
 * Koch describes a third form, Fsewdalius ovalia. 
 
EESPIEATOBY SYSTEM. 
 
 95 
 
 and it is said the parasite may undergo its full course of 
 development from ovum to adult there. Williams has " on 
 two occasions seen the parasite in the cavities of the heart 
 and m the blood-vessels/' presumably in the embryonic 
 
 Tig 19 — Lung woini'i in sj utuin 
 
 state, and he notes emboli in the blood-vessels from presence 
 of Str. Jilaria. Grey has utterly failed to find traces of the . 
 parasite in the blood. On post-mortem examination of 
 lambs the parasites are found encysted in the parenchj^ma 
 of the lungs and also free in the bronchial tubes. In 
 the adult sheep the parasites are for the most part curled up 
 and encysted in masses which have erroneously been called 
 
96 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 tubercles. These " tubercles " are described as invariably 
 in the lung parenchyma or connective tissue and varying in 
 appearance^ according to their age, from small vesicfe 
 containing fluid, through cysts with granular contents, to 
 hard and gritty masses varying in size from that of a 
 pin's head up to that of a hemp seed or even larger, 
 studding the substance of the lungs. These are evidently 
 the " phthisical tubercles " described by Touatt, and his 
 account of their frequency will modify the views of those 
 who hold that hoose in lambs has become much increased 
 in prevalence of late years. It does not seem to be clearly 
 established that the parenchyma, and not the air-cells, is 
 the seat of these parasitic nodules, on the contrary Grey's 
 researches tend to the latter view and to show that the 
 caseous material is altered epithelium. There is much to 
 be learned as regards development of this strongyle as of 
 all other nematodes. Cobbold considers " there can be 
 little doubt that the young of the strongyles which occasion 
 husk and lamb disease undergo their primary changes of 
 development, either within soft mud alone, or within the 
 bodies of larval insects and minute entomostracans inhabit- 
 ing ponds, ditches, and running streams." Certainly eggs 
 and embryos are expelled through the respiratory passages 
 of the sheep and so reach the pastures, and the conditions 
 under which the disease is developed are in direct relation 
 with locality and certain conditions of pasture. It is 
 probable then that the young parasites find their way into 
 the system from pastures, and the questions arise : (1) by 
 what route do they reach the lungs, and (2) must each 
 parasite have traversed that route to gain the bronchial 
 tubes ? The most commonly received view is that the 
 ova and embryos are ingested with food and water and 
 the eggs hatched in the stomach, that some of the embryos 
 remain in the alimentary canal and become adults (a view 
 which we have seen is doubtful), that others penetrate the 
 walls of the canal. The idea that they pass thence 
 directly to the lungs has been rejected, but it is presumed 
 that they pass in the round of the circulation and, with 
 the instinct found in parasites of almost all kinds, select 
 
EESPIKATOEY SYSTEM. 97 
 
 the locality most suitable for tlieir further development^ 
 the lung parenchyma, where they remain for a time, and 
 when adult escape into the bronchial tubes and set free 
 their ova and embryos ready for expulsion from the 
 host. It is said that in the lamb only are the tissues 
 penetrable by the strongyle, so that the nodules found in 
 adult sheep are relics of the individual parasites whose 
 aggressions the host has managed to outlive, but the facts 
 that filaria are found in the tubes of adult sheep and that 
 in their lungs nodules in the earliest or vesicular and the 
 granular stage are found, militate against this view and 
 render it probable that lambs succumb most because they 
 have least constitutional strength for resistance to the 
 parasites and least expiratory vigour for their expulsion. 
 The density of the adult tissues doubtless lessens the 
 number of ingested embryos which succeed in reaching the 
 lung. But (1) is there no alternative route to the lungs, 
 and (2) cannot the embryos set free in the lungs develop 
 into adults without leaving those organs ? The only possi- 
 ble alternative route is through the larynx and trachea. 
 It has been supposed that the young worms enter the 
 nostrils of grazing animals, and if two or three can pass 
 into the lungs (whether by crawhng or being drawn by 
 the rushing incurrent of air down to the lungs) they there 
 reproduce ovoviviparously after they attain the adult 
 stage (Moffatt and Grey), and so may produce enough 
 parasites to prove fatal to the patient, the embryos under- 
 going development while they are encysted in the paren- 
 chyma of the lungs, to penetrate into which they are 
 furnished with boring apparatus. This latter view is not 
 by any means so ridiculous as it has been made out to be, 
 and the physiological impossibility of its occurrence is 
 anything but proven; particles as small as ova and 
 embryos can be inhaled without irritation, and it has been 
 remarked how little the parasites in the bronchial tubes 
 irritate the adult sheep. Thus, though we by no means 
 refuse to accept the view commonly received, we must 
 remember that that view has to be more firmly based on 
 experimentation and exact observation than it is at present. 
 
yo DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 Biological research for tlie elucidation of economic 
 problems is in the present day practically a matter of 
 providing sufficient funds for allowing a specialist to devote 
 his time and attention to study, by means of the micro- 
 scope, of low organisms. It is to be trusted that ere long 
 this method will be adopted as an outcome of individual 
 liberality, public-spirited movement of agricultural socie- 
 ties, or Government action, and the secrets of the life-his- 
 tory of Strongylus filaria thus made known, to inform us 
 how to thoroughly prevent the disease, instead of, as now, 
 groping empirically in darkness and losing annually 
 enormous numbers of sheep from parasitic bronchitis. 
 What has been done as regards the liver-fluke should be 
 done concerning the filaria, we should face the question 
 of extermination in a business-like manner and not rely 
 on the happy chance of some self-sacrificing student of 
 natural history ultimately selecting this form of life for 
 study. Special skill is required and the country should 
 pay for obtaining it. Brcolani has made some researches 
 on the organism j he finds that it can resist the effects of 
 dryness for thirty days, and on being remoistened will 
 'show signs of vitality ; it also can resist immersion in 
 spirits of wine and in a solution of alum and corrosive 
 sublimate. Grey has shown that the organisms have 
 most remarkable powers of vitality ; they are active long 
 after the lungs turn putrid. Alois Koch, the distinguished 
 veterinarian of Vienna, has written a monograph on 
 parasitic lung disease of sheep. Some observations on 
 the lung-worm of cattle render it probable, according to 
 Dr. Cobbold, that the common earthworm may be the 
 intermediate bearer (or one of the bearers) of the lung- 
 worm of sheep. Walley cannot endorse these views, and 
 Grey considers the assumption of an intermediary bearer 
 superfluous. Practical observation has shown that natural 
 pastures, especially those with strong clay and other 
 retentive soils, low marshy and woody grazing lands and 
 meadows frequently flooded and which have been over- 
 stocked are those on which the disease occurs, and yet 
 that it is occasionally seen in dry summers and on good 
 
EESPIEATOET SYSTEM. 99 
 
 pastures, particularly when the ponds are nearly dry and 
 full of animalculse (Youatt) . It occurs most in lambs and 
 hoggets, the weak and neglected being the first to succumb, 
 but adult sheep are not exempt, and the disease has been 
 noted specially in pregnant ewes at or about the time of 
 parturition. It is much more prevalent in some seasons 
 than in others, and the degree of prevalence varies in 
 different localities according to season. In the natural 
 pastures of some of the Colonies it has proved most fatal ; 
 in Australia salt with fodder, and salt marshes or soils, 
 seem to prevent its occurrence or to cause animals fed on 
 them to be exempt from its ravages as from those of rot. 
 Thompson, of Aspatria, has noted its special occurrence on 
 grounds where Agrostis vulgaris, the white-topped grass, 
 prevails. The disease is seen especially in autumn and in 
 animals allowed to roam and feed during the night and 
 early morning. In some seasons the losses amount to 50 
 per cent, of the lambs dropped. A fairly well-verified 
 instance of an infected ram introducing the disease in a 
 flock of ewes by living among them and especially by 
 feeding out of the same troughs, may be read in the 
 ' Veterinary Journal,^ May, 1876, p. 336. In the same 
 paper the writer gives an instance of conveyance of the 
 disease by hay from " swails " or swamps. 
 
 Symptoms. — The presence of parasites in lung tissue of 
 adults may not excite appreciable irritation, though chronic 
 occasional cough may be present, and the animals at length 
 be sold to the butcher as prime mutton. In lambs there 
 are fits of most distressing and almost continual coughing, 
 difficulty in breathing, rubbing the muzzle against the 
 ground, and progressing anaemia, denoted by marked pallor 
 of the visible mucous membranes and the animal becoming 
 weaker and thinner until at length dysenteric purging 
 and dropsy set in as antecedents to death. Our prognosis 
 must be based on the strength of the patient, and on the 
 number of parasites presumed to be present and causing 
 distress. 
 
 Treatment. — In spite of the imperfect knowledge of the 
 parasite which we have above mentioned a number of 
 
100 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 valuable facts as to prevention and cure have been ascer- 
 tained. Thompson suggests for eradication of the similar 
 disease in the calf, a measure which is here also applicable, 
 — dressing the land with crushed rock salt in the early 
 spring months at 5 or 6 cwt. per acre, also causing all 
 rough grasses on old-laid grazing pastures to be mown 
 in autumn and converted into ensilage. The farmer must 
 consider whether these measures are suited to his farm and 
 practicable. Lambs in seasons when the disease threatens 
 or prevails should be kept from natural pastures and old 
 layers such as have been previously fed over by sheep, 
 hill-sides and dry pastures should be preferred, and good 
 food should be given to support the system. The affected 
 should be separated from the rest in some way or other, 
 preferably by housing or bringing into a straw-yard, the 
 straw of which. Dr. Cobbold suggests, should be subjected 
 periodically to the action of boiling water and salt solutions. 
 Both pasture and source of drinking-water should be 
 changed, and salt one and a half to two ounces with lime- 
 water six to eight ounces per sheep daily must be given 
 and supplemented when necessary by more active tonics, 
 such as sulphate of iron, ten to twenty grains to each lamb. 
 Turpentine may be introduced into the stomach to destroy 
 embryos in the alimentary canal, and, perhaps, when thus 
 used it proves of benefit by exhalation from the blood. The 
 following mixture has been found very useful : 01. Tereb. 
 5ij, 01. Lini ^j, Zing. Pulv. 9j, 01. Caryoph. gtt. v, in lin- 
 seed gruel repeated several times at intervals of some days. 
 Various antiparasitic fumes may be inhaled, the simplest 
 being those of tobacco smoke, tar fumes, and sulphur 
 vapour, but iodine and chlorine are the most effectual. 
 These are generated and administered in the same way as 
 to calves, two or three fumigations being generally neces- 
 sary. Stephen, of Carruther (quoted by Gamgee), suggests 
 to put about forty lambs at a time into an air-tight house, 
 to place tar, sulphur, and turpentine in a pot of burning 
 coals suspended by a chain from the ceiling and brought 
 as near to the heads of the lambs as possible, let the fumes 
 fill the house, and add more ingredients as required, the 
 
EESPIEATOET SYSTEM. 
 
 101 
 
 animal being kept in for twenty-five minutes each time, 
 and the process thrice repeated. The intratracheal method 
 of administration of remedies has been found specially 
 valuable in this disease. It has been thus described in 
 the ' Veterinary Journal ' for February, 1885, " Introduce 
 the needle of the syringe about half way down the cervical 
 
 PiCJ. 20. — Intratracheal injection syringe. 
 
 portion of the trachea without regard to an interannular 
 space, and inject the fluid slowlJ^ The exhalation can be 
 at once detected at the nostril. The animal appears to 
 suffer no inconvenience beyond a slight cough. So far I 
 have not found it necessary to repeat the operation although 
 some of my cases were suffering from advanced broncho- 
 pneumonia." The follomng is recommended as a dose for a 
 lamb : — Acid. Carbolic, gtt. v — x ; 01. Tereb., n^xv — xxx, 
 Chlorof ., niviij — xv ; 01. Olivse, f .5J — ss ; repeat daily for 
 three days. Chloroform is known to be deadly to para- 
 sites, therefore the effects of two or three administrations 
 at intervals should be tried. Walley urges that intratra- 
 cheal injection cannot meet the worms embedded in the lung 
 tissue and inflammatory deposits. Gamgee recommends 
 among other methods of treatment ether inhalations and 
 camphor drinks. The destruction of infested lungs of 
 sheep or lambs which are killed while suffering from this 
 disorder, or to which it proves fatal, should be by fire ; and 
 strong brine or hot water should be thrown over soil or 
 floors contaminated with expectorations in which embryos 
 and ova abound. Thompson, as we have seen, considers 
 a good spi'ing dressing of pastures with salt all that can 
 
102 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 be desired, but Grey's observations tend to establish a 
 remarkable degree of resisting power in tlie embryos. 
 
 As regards tbe Strorigylus rufescens, tbe following sum- 
 mary from an interesting record by Dykes, of Welling- 
 borough, from No. 2 of the ' Journal of Comparative 
 Pathology and Therapeutics,' will doubtless be acceptable 
 to our readers. 
 
 Symptoms. — Animal noted to " drucken," to isolate 
 itself, respiration quick, short hacking cough on forced 
 exertion, eyes bloodshot, wool tends to become detached 
 in patches, especially in region of loins ; sometimes sudden 
 death. Wanders down hedgerow or lies in some quiet, 
 sheltered spot ; when with its fellows stands apparently 
 motionless, legs slightly abducted, back arched, head 
 dependent, eye dull and expressionless, conjunctiva and 
 sclerotic injected, small accumulation of gelatinous mate- 
 rial at inner canthus, and the neighbouring integument 
 in some cases is excoriated by it. Extremities colder 
 than natural. Wool dry ; where it has become removed 
 the surface is abraded. 
 
 Post mortem are observed, perhaps peritoneal ecchy- 
 moses. Lungs large, sometimes indented by ribs, to 
 which in places firmly adherent from localised pleuritis. 
 Lung tissue lighter than normal, glistening and resistant 
 to the knife ; indurated in areas, the larger of which are 
 mainly opposite pleuritic adhesions. Nodules dirty or 
 reddish grey, and not sharply circumscribed. Softening 
 and subsequent formation of vomicae may occur ; emphy- 
 sema, congestion, and oedema in other parts of the lungs, 
 intense bronchitis in places. Eggs, large numbers of 
 young strongyles and adult worms of both sexes in the 
 less altered parts of the lung tissue. Animals of all ages 
 succumbed. 
 
 Four or five air-passage strongyles of sheep have been 
 described, but the two already referred to are the most im- 
 portant ; the following descriptions may be found useful : 
 
 (a) Strongylus filaria, whitish, vulva a little behind 
 middle of body, male caudal pouch has its posterior rays 
 trilobed, middle bilobed, anterior divided. Ovoviviparous. 
 
EESPIEATOEY SYSTEM. 103 
 
 (b) Brown's long strongyle, 6 — 7 inches long. 
 
 (c) Strongylus rufescens, oviparous; discovered by 
 Leucktart, described as causing verminous lung disease 
 of sheep by Railliet {' Archiv de Physiol.,' series iii, t. 4, 
 p. 519). Body very slender, of a reddish-brown tint. Head 
 not winged, mouth surrounded by three papilliform lips. 
 Male from 18 — 28 mm. long, its caudal pouch excised 
 behind, and offers two slight lateral notches in front ; 
 posterior rays or ribs short and indistinct, middle divided 
 into two, anterior split but reunited. Spicules curved 
 and transversely striated. Female SS — 35 mm. long ; its 
 tail terminated in a blunt point, vulva situated imme- 
 diately in front of anus at the base of a small eminence. 
 Oviparous : eggs ellipsoidal (brown, granular), from 75 — 
 120 mm. long by 45'82 mm. broad ; their proportion varies 
 greatly. Embryos have characteristic curved tail as de- 
 scribed and figured by Railliet. Eggs invariably in infun- 
 dibula and air-cells, sometimes sparsely scattered, but more 
 often in groups. Embryos vary in size, but give no indica- 
 tions of attaining sexual maturity in the lungs. 
 
 Ova many times too large to pass through the liver 
 capillaries. " The affection is a verminous pneumonia, 
 not a verminous phthisis " (Laulanie) . 
 
104 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 CHAPTER v.— THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 CoNSTEUCTBD On the ruminant type and agreeing in the 
 main, as regards anatomy and physiology, with the diges- 
 tive organs of the ox, there are, yet, minor differences and 
 special features in the sheep which require notice. Pre- 
 hension is performed by the lips, tongue, and teeth. The 
 lips are thin and fine, they bear hair and feelers, except 
 the upper one at the central line, where is the cleft which 
 splits the lip into two and forms a constantly moist channel 
 running from the nostrils to the mouth. This cloven 
 condition of the lip enables the sheep to graze on very 
 short grass, so that it is commonly said " the sheep will 
 thrive where an ox would starve." An indirect result 
 of this anatomical feature is of importance to the agricul- 
 turist; the close manner in which the sheep crops the 
 fodder improves the grass of a pasture by making it throw 
 out lateral shoots, whereby it gets a better bottom. Good 
 grasses for sheep are notoriously the crisp, firm, dry 
 pasture of uplands. The dental pad is firmer, smaller, 
 and less spongy than that of the ox ; the organ of Jacob- 
 son, with the duct of Stenson, is well developed in the 
 sheep as in other ruminants, and it has been conjectured 
 to be a special sense organ serving as a guide in the 
 selection of wholesome food and a warning means against 
 poisonous plants. Although rudimentary in mammals, its 
 fair size in all ruminants would seem to indicate that it 
 still has a physiological value, however limited. 
 
 The teeth present the ordinary ruminant arrangement, 
 and in the foetal lamb rudiments of upper front teeth can 
 be found. In the adult the teeth are regular and some- 
 what uniform in shape, presenting black crusta both on 
 molars and incisors. The latter are longer, narrower, and 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 105 
 
 PlO. 21. — Alimentary canal of sheep (Spoonee). 
 
 A. CEsophagus. 
 
 B. Sacs of rumen. 
 
 C. Reticulum. 
 
 D. Omasum. 
 
 E. Abomasum. 
 
 F. Pylorus. 
 
 G. Duodenum. 
 
 H. Floating small intestine. 
 
 I. Ileo-MBcal valve. 
 
 J. Colon. 
 K. Ca3cum. 
 L. Rectum. 
 
106 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 more upright than those of the ox, and present sharp 
 cutting edges of a gouge form, which renders them highly 
 useful for cutting of the fibrous food of the animal and, as 
 noticed by Randall, for scooping or prising out turnips 
 and other roots. They are somewhat loose, and Youatt 
 hints at the presence of special muscular fibres in the 
 
 2i years old. 
 
 UTT NOR* 
 
 3i years old. 
 
 Figs. 22— 26.— Natural size ; from Simonds ■ On the Age of tlio Ox, Sheep, 
 and Pig,' illustrating replacement of incisors. 
 
 gum to act as erectores dentis. This observation has not 
 been confirmed, nor is Youatt's statement that in epizootics 
 and diseases of the digestive and respiratory systems espe- 
 cially the teeth fall out, now accepted as correct. Teething 
 
 Ji 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 107 
 
 may cause disinclination to suck, in which case pressing 
 the back of the thumb-nail so as to compress the gum 
 against the tooth edge or lancing the gums is required. 
 Williams reminds us, when teething animals unaccount- 
 ably fall out of condition, to carefully inspect their incisors, 
 molars, and gums. Incisors are broken, or even drawn 
 out, by accident, and molars may become carious, even 
 lost, as the effects of disease, and these lesions are not 
 uncommon in old sheep, such as the guide wethers of 
 pastures in the North, but such losses are local and acci- 
 dental, not due to disorder of the system. Simonds 
 draws attention to the effects of broken incisors. Sheep 
 with this condition are in Norfolk called " chrones ;" 
 they require constant care and attention, and must be fed 
 from mangers, A broken incisor may cause displacement 
 of the other teeth, and may lacerate the pad even to the 
 bone. The age of sheep can be determined with a fair 
 amount of accuracy by means of the teeth, especially the 
 incisors ; breed exercises considerable influence, conse- 
 quently we hear of early and late varieties, and have to 
 make allowance accordingly. The following are the esti- 
 mates arrived at by the most reliable observers : 
 
 
 Dentition Table 
 
 of the 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 
 
 Observers. 
 
 
 
 
 Gurlt. 
 
 Kind of tooth. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Temporary. 
 
 Perma- 
 nent. 
 
 Perma- 
 nent. 
 
 Temporary. 
 
 Permanent. 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 Incisor, central 
 „ first inter- 
 mediary 
 
 'Before or a"! 
 
 ■ few days >■ 
 
 afterbirth J 
 
 2i 
 
 li-2 
 
 Birth to 8 d. 
 8—14 days 
 
 12—16 mos. 
 18—24 mos. 
 
 „ second 
 
 14 days after 
 
 Si 
 
 2J-3I 
 
 10—21 days 
 
 2i— 2| years 
 
 inter- 
 
 birth 
 
 
 
 
 or later 
 
 mediary 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ COTner 
 
 2 — 3 weeks 
 
 4i 
 
 3— 3J 
 
 3 — 4 weeks 
 
 3— 3a years 
 or later 
 
 Molar, 1st 
 
 r Before or a 1 
 
 H 
 
 — 
 
 10—14 days 
 
 IJ — 2 years 
 
 „ 2nd 
 
 i few days V 
 
 2* 
 
 — 
 
 0—8 days 
 
 Do. 
 
 „ 3rd 
 
 after birth J 
 
 3^ 
 
 — 
 
 3 — 4 weeks 
 
 Do. 
 
 „ 4th 
 
 — 
 
 5-1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3 — 5 weeks 
 
 „ 5th 
 
 — 
 
 2i 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 9—12 mos. 
 
 „ 6th 
 
 ^^ 
 
 4—5 
 
 ~ 
 
 ~ 
 
 18—24 mos. 
 
108 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 The signs of age in the sheep are found in the wearj loss, 
 and general state of the teeth, thickness and width of the 
 mouth, large size of the belly, and hoUowness of the loin. 
 The following Table shows the different names, according 
 to age, sex, Sj-c, given to sheep : 
 
 
 Male. 
 
 
 
 Events. 
 
 
 
 Vowiolo 
 
 Remarks 
 
 
 UncaBtrated. 
 
 Castratea. 
 
 £ cDlaiCi 
 
 xif(/ Luai. ivo • 
 
 Birth to 
 
 Tup lamb 
 
 Hogg lamb 
 
 Ewe lamb 
 
 A sheep until wean- 
 
 tveaning 
 
 Ram lamb 
 Pur lamb 
 Heeder 
 
 
 Gimmer lamb 
 
 ed is a lamb. 
 
 Weaning to 
 
 Hogg 
 
 Wether hogg 
 
 Gimmer hogg 
 
 Hogget wool is 
 
 first shearing 
 
 Hogget 
 
 He-teg 
 
 Ewe hogg 
 
 wool of first shear- 
 
 
 Hagerel or 
 
 
 Sheeder ewe 
 
 ing. 
 
 
 hoggerel 
 
 
 Ewe-teg 
 
 
 
 Tup-teg 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lamb hogg 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tup hogg 
 
 
 
 
 First to 
 
 Shearing 
 
 Shearing 
 
 Shearing ewe 
 
 A ewe which has 
 
 second 
 
 Shearling 
 
 wether 
 
 Shearing 
 
 ceased to give 
 
 shearing 
 
 Shear hogg 
 
 Shear hogg 
 
 Gimmer 
 
 milk is a " yeld 
 
 
 Diamond ram 
 
 Wether hogg 
 
 Theave 
 
 ewe ;" taken from 
 
 
 Dinmont 
 
 Wedder hogg 
 
 r Double- 
 \ toothed ewe 
 
 the breeding flock 
 
 
 Ram tup 
 
 Two-tooth 
 
 she is a " draft 
 
 
 One-shear 
 
 wether 
 
 r Double- 
 
 ewe " or draft 
 
 
 tup 
 
 
 • toothed 
 [_ gimmer 
 Gimmer 
 
 gimmer. 
 
 Second to 
 
 Two-shear 
 
 Three-tooth 
 
 Two-shear 
 
 Ewe if in lamb or 
 
 third 
 
 ram 
 
 wether 
 
 ewes 
 
 with lamb ; if not. 
 
 shearing 
 
 
 Two-shear 
 wether 
 
 
 a " barren gim- 
 mer ;" if not put 
 to ram are yild 
 gimmer (Scot.). 
 
 Third to 
 
 Three-shear 
 
 Pour-tooth 
 
 Three- shear 
 
 
 
 fourth 
 
 ram 
 
 wether 
 
 ewe 
 
 
 shearing 
 
 Three-shear 
 
 Three-shear 
 
 Winter ewe 
 
 
 
 tup 
 
 wether 
 
 (Scot.) 
 
 
 Afterwards 
 
 Aged tup 
 
 Pull marlted, 
 Aged 
 
 &c. 
 
 After fourth shear- 
 ing. " Aged " or 
 three winter. 
 
 These names differ somewhat according to the relations 
 of time of shearing to time of tooth eruption and replace- 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 109 
 
 mentj also tlie fact that lambs are sometimes shorn in the 
 first year and sometimes not introduces some confusion. 
 Thus the Scotch terms are somewhat different from the 
 English ones. 
 
 A " ripe " sheep is one fit for the butcher. A " broken- 
 mouthed " sheep is one in which the teeth are beginning 
 to drop out. Eandall suggests that when but two or 
 three teeth remain they should be removed; he found 
 that English sheep become broken mouthed three or four 
 years earlier than Merinos. The teeth are shed in con- 
 sequence of insinuation of gravel at the roots of the inci- 
 sorSj loosening them or causing them to snap off. When 
 teeth are lost the gum hardens to compensate for them. 
 
 Aphtha is a disease of much importance in the sheep. 
 Perhaps under this heading have been included several 
 conditions, some of a simple nature, others very complex 
 and probably specific, of frequent occurrence, and of 
 much interest in their practical relations. Youatt was 
 familiar with simple aphtha or thrush in the mouth, and 
 gives a good practical description of it. He refers to 
 malignant aphtha, as described by Paulet, in which 
 vesicles were seen about the nose, mouth, and other parts 
 of the head, and extended by continuity of structure down 
 the windpipe to the lungs, also to the record by Columella 
 of a similar disease^ often assuming an epizootic character, 
 consisting in malignant ulceration of the lips and mouths 
 of lambs supposed to be due to eating grass covered with 
 hoar frost, and readily amenable to treatment, of a simple 
 character in the case of weaned lambs and older animals, 
 but fatal to sucklings. Simonds in his lectures used to 
 give a good account of the disorder, describing it under 
 three forms : simplex, maligna, and anginosa. Brown 
 more recently describes also three forms, which he terms 
 the vesicular, pustular, and gangrenous. Walley {' Vete- 
 rinary Journal,^ August, 1888) considers the term malig- 
 nant aphtha unsatisfactory, and suggests the name pustu- 
 lar fever or contagious ecthyma for the disorder. It is 
 evident that, especially by the earlier authors, three con- 
 ditions have been mistaken for aphtha. Foot-and-mouth 
 
110 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 disease was described by Seyard and referred to by Youatt 
 under this heading; and we know that it is still termed 
 epizootic aphtha by the French and Italians. Further, 
 Walley in some of his cases observed catarrhal inter- 
 digital inflammation, such as is known as " dew scald," 
 and though he considered it quite independent of the 
 aphtha, evidently suggests the need for differential dia- 
 gnosis from foot-and-mouth disease. However, the tendency 
 to such confusion is less as regards the sheep than the ox, 
 owing to the less frequency of mouth-lesions in eczema 
 epizootica in the former animal, Simonds points out that 
 there is no reddening around the mouth eruption in foot- 
 and-mouth disease, the vesicles are larger and fewer, and 
 not conical (acuminate) . Sheep-pox is so like the disease 
 that Walley would have suspected some cases as variola 
 had he not been aware that no importation of disease 
 could have taken place. Finally, Simonds' aphtha angi- 
 nosa seems to be gloss-anthrax or the throat form of 
 charbon, and to be the same as Brown's gangrenous form. 
 Eliminating doubtful cases we can describe the simple 
 form of the disease, and then may proceed to the malig- 
 nant, which seems about to assume a separate place in 
 classification, among the specific disorders. 
 
 Aphtha Simplex or thrush in the mouth, also called 
 stomatitis, is a disease seen specially in lambs (most fre^ 
 quently in suckling animals) , occasionally in older sheep, as 
 vesicles in the mouth generally in successive crops due to 
 proliferation, degeneration, and desquamation of epithe- 
 lium. Ulceration, but no serious general or local mischief, 
 occurs ; the membrane of the tongue is specially affected 
 (Axe), and in general the eruption is confined to the 
 buccal membrane, benign in character, and lasting only a 
 few days. Some animals seem to suffer little, others 
 have high fever, suffer too much pain in the act of 
 browsing to permit of their feeding freely, and wander 
 about unhappily. The mouth and eyes are red, and the 
 former is the seat of eruption. Blood-stained, sticky saliva 
 in small quantity trickles from the mouth, the breath is 
 offensive, and the animal falls away in condition. It may 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. Ill 
 
 even prove fatal, tliough rarely ; post-mortem examination 
 shows the lining membrane of the abomasum red and 
 dropsical, the lungs consolidated and the seat of blood 
 extravasations. Axe traced one outbreak to blight of 
 tares and the larvse of insects ingested. Acrid vegetable 
 matter has been supposed to have a locally irritant action 
 when ingested, other cases have been attributed to gastric 
 and intestinal irritation, and the mouth fungus known as 
 O'idium albicans has been considered the cause of the 
 disease. This fungus certainly is present at the seat of 
 eruption, but whether as a producer of disease or as an 
 accompaniment has not yet been established. Treatment 
 comprises laxative doses of Epsom salts, followed by the 
 nitrate or bicarbonate of potash internally, and the topical 
 applications of borax and honey, alum solution, or tincture 
 of myrrh. A good plan is to put nitre mixed with 
 common salt and such other remedial agents as are con- 
 sidered necessary, into a trough, and to allow the affected 
 animals to lick in the medicine when they will. 
 
 Aphtha Maligna (Simonds), pustular fever v. contagious 
 ecthyma (Walley) . — This disease sometimes assumes for- 
 midable proportions, causing the death of even 30 per 
 cent, of the animals attacked. Simonds, in 1 852, observed 
 that the buccal eruption in lambs was associated with 
 disease of the teats and udders of ewes, familiar to shep- 
 herds as " chapped or cracked teats ;" he further observed 
 that it is a blood dyscrasia due to bad food or feeding, 
 occurring in all weathers, but probably as a result of im- 
 proper manuring or unfavorable atmospheric conditions, 
 especially unusually severe winter weather. Evidence is 
 tending to the conclusion that these causes are predis- 
 posing and that the disease is transmitted by a contagium. 
 In Saxony shepherds leave the crook on the ground over- 
 night, in order that in the morning they may see whether 
 or not it is covered with honey dew, to which they attri- 
 bute aphtha. In Canada the disease has been found in 
 connection with amcebse, which were also observed in the 
 water in which the sheep frequently stood ; but few, if 
 any, natural waters are devoid of amcebse, so these can 
 
112 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 hardly yet be accepted as the cause of the disease. 
 Reynault has seen the disorder spread rapidly among 
 groups of lambs, and has propagated it merely by depo- 
 siting Oidium albicans on the buccal membrane, especially 
 if the mouth was acid. Walley has investigated the 
 disease carefully. He confirmed the view that the dam 
 is first affected, and worked out the pathology ; we con- 
 dense the following information mainly from that pub- 
 lished by him. In the ewe there is first erythema of the 
 affected parts, udder and thighs ; next probably vesicles 
 form, but this is doubtful, at any rate this stage must- 
 be very short. Soon appear discrete or scattered and 
 separate pustules, varying in size from that of a vetch 
 seed to that of a large pea, and succeeded in from one to 
 two days by a sore, which gradually enlarges circum- 
 ferentially so that confluence occurs. A scab covers the 
 sore, and under it ulceration progresses, and may con- 
 stitute very serious destruction of tissue if the teat be 
 irritated by the hand of a milker or the mouth of a lamb, 
 or if the thigh and udder irritate each other by friction. 
 In other cases there is slight erythema, and a distinct 
 formation of discrete papules all over the udder and teats ; 
 on each of the papules a slight pustule may form at the 
 summit. Sometimes the papules disappear with slight 
 desquamation of cuticle, and there is no breach of surface. 
 In the lamb the eruption occurs on one or both nostrils, 
 on the edges of the lips, and on the labial aspect of the 
 gums. On the skin, first there is a raised patch of in- 
 flamed tissue, then a rapidly spreading sore, which becomes 
 covered with a detachable scab. On the buccal mem- 
 brane, after the inflammatory and ulcerative stage croupous 
 masses develop and may be mistaken for granulations. 
 In other cases these masses are very considerable in size, 
 and they may so destroy the gum and exert pressure on 
 the teeth as to cause them to become loose or even to 
 drop out. As regards constitutional symptoms, the ewe 
 suffers from fever, sometimes mild, but not uncommonly 
 severe, the temperature being at 106° — 107° F. ; in com- 
 plicated cases death ensues from exhaustion, septicaemia, 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 113 
 
 gangrenous mammitis (" udder clap "), septic pneumonia^ 
 or low inflammations of tlie serous tissues. The lamb 
 may be feverish, but usually there is no material inter- 
 ference with nutrition ; in severe cases he is out of sorts 
 and suffers from catarrh, stiffness of limbs, and profuse 
 exhaustive diarrhciea, and sometimes pulmonary, pleural, 
 or peritoneal disease of a low type occurs as a complica- 
 tion. Autopsy may show dropsy of the pericardium, 
 thorax, and abdomen, extravasations in different parts of 
 the system, omphalo-phlebitis, muco-enteritis where pro- 
 fuse diarrhoea has been present, lung lesions resembling 
 those seen in swine fever, and sometimes small abscesses 
 in the liver and lungs (Simonds). Among ewes, only 
 those with or in lamb suffer to any marked degree from 
 this disorder, and, except in being transmissible from 
 dam to offspring, it closely resembles varioloid or pustular 
 fever of cows. The ulcers of the lips of lambs resemble 
 those which occur in calves from sucking cows with foot- 
 and-mouth disease, and, apparently, also those seen in gan- 
 grenous stomatitis. A remarkable feature is conveyance 
 of the disease from ulcers to parts which come in contact 
 with them, as from lip to lip in the lamb, or from udder to 
 thigh in the ewe ; inoculation with discharge from one of 
 the ulcers determines the characteristic ulcers when applied 
 to ulcerated parts of the skin anywhere about the body. 
 Treatment is simple except when the cases are aggra- 
 vated by neglect, exposure, bad feeding, or other debili- 
 tating and deleterious influences. The cases must be taken 
 early, isolated, put on different diet, sheltered, and fed 
 well. The lambs must be removed from the ewes, fed 
 artificially, and treated as for simple aphtha ; in cases of 
 diarrhcea they must have skim milk and lime-water, also 
 malt to promote digestion. The ewes must receive laxa- 
 tives, chlorate of potash or hyposulphite of soda, and nitre, 
 and the milk must be drawn off regularly. A form of 
 septic mammitis different from the infective ovine mam- 
 mitis described by Nocard, may result from entry of decom- 
 posing material into the teat, or may ensue from the milk- 
 ducts being blocked up by scab. The latter must be re- 
 
 8 
 
114 , DISEASES 01" THE SHEEP. 
 
 moved, the milk syphon used if necessary, and, if gangrene 
 threatens, the teat should at once be amputated, for the 
 change begins generally at its root. The sores should be 
 touched with nitrate of silver and afterwards dressed with 
 mild astringents. In lambs omphalitis or omphalo-phlebitis 
 may be occasionally simultaneously present, but apparently 
 quite independent of the disorder just described. By thus 
 informing us Prof. Walley has considerably increased our 
 information of malignant aphtha, but it is evident much 
 remains to be added to our knowledge, especially as re- 
 gards the comparative pathology of the disorder. 
 
 The tongue of the sheep is less frequently in use, and 
 not so important functionally for prehensile purposes as 
 that of the ox, hence, perhaps, its less liability to disease. 
 It is shorter and less protrusible than that of the ox, and 
 not constantly required to pass over the muffle to clean 
 and defend it. Bollinger writes of actinomycosis of the 
 tongue of the sheep, but seems somewhat doubtful on the 
 point. As we have seen, examination of the state of the 
 tongue is useful in diagnosis. 
 
 Ranula, or inflammation of the freenum and gum, is 
 recorded by Prof. Dick as troublesome and protracted, and 
 leading to mortification ; also as needing prompt treatment 
 by scarification, and dressing with solutions of alum, borax, 
 and tincture of myrrh. Williams figures a tumour in the 
 inouth of a sheep, which he describes as benign epulis. 
 It was painless, of slow growth, mechanically- interfered 
 with mastication, and in structure resembled the tissue of 
 the gum. 
 
 As regards the salivary glands, they are larger in pro- 
 portion than those of the ox, a condition probably bearing 
 a direct relation to the drier nature of the sheep's food, 
 and to the fact, insisted on by Varnell, of the contents of 
 the rumen being more moist than in other animals which 
 chew the cud. The submaxillary gland is much smaller in 
 proportion than in the ox ; the molar glands, superior and 
 inferior, are very large, and Gamgee draws our attention 
 to the fact of the sublingual gland in the pig, ox, and sheep 
 being sometimes double. This is probably what Youatt 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 115 
 
 refers to when he points out a special " gland, almost pecu- 
 liar to the sheep, behind the lower jaw and deep in the 
 hollow which exists there, extending upwards as far as 
 the fatty matter that encircles the eye, and opening on the 
 palate opposite to and behind the last molar tooth." Two 
 convergent parotid ducts are described on each side. Evi- 
 dently a plentiful flow of saliva is essential for digestion 
 in the sheep. Paeotiditis is not frequent, and when occa- 
 sionally seen yields readily to a dose of salts, and fomen- 
 tations followed by stimulants externally. 
 
 Choe:ing is sometimes seen among sheep fed on roots 
 but is far less frequent than in the ox, probably as much 
 on account of the difference in method of eating as on 
 the articles used for food. The probang is, however, an 
 article requisite for sheep practice, and should be used 
 when necessary, as follows : — Place the sheep on its rump 
 with the shoulders resting between the knees of an assis- 
 tant, who must hold the forefeet, then fix the gag in the 
 mouth or use the hand as a gag, and pass the bulb 
 gently through the mouth and pharynx into the gullet. 
 The usual precautions must be observed as in the ox. 
 When this does not afford relief, cesophagotomy must be 
 performed in the usual way, the wool being clipped off 
 over the obstruction and the oesophageal wound closed 
 with catgut sutures. The wound subsequently should be 
 protected with a bandage, and soft diet given for some time. 
 In the '^Recueil de med. vet.,^ 1828, p. 229,is a case recorded 
 where return of non-ruminated food occasionally, painful 
 regurgitation of the cud, and comparatively easy passage 
 of food when masticated for the second time gave rise to 
 suspicion of oesophageal obstruction, and a fibrous tumour 
 wg,s found between the muscular and mucous coats of the 
 gullet just where it enters the thorax, and was removed by 
 operation successfully. Randall describes an impromptu 
 probang : " The best instrument now attainable on most 
 farms is a strong, flexible, elastic rod of hickory or elm, 
 made perfectly smooth and not far from five-sixteenths of 
 an inch in diameter. ,A little bag of flax seed is firmly 
 secured to the lower end, and on dipping the rod into hot 
 
116 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 water to limber it for use, the bag becomes perfectly 
 smooth and slippery. Some wind the end of the probang 
 with tow and dip it in oil." 
 
 The experiments of Spallanzani and Tiedemann tend to 
 show that no food is returned to the mouth from the rumen 
 for re-mastication under fourteen hours after it was swal- 
 lowed ; and that dry food will remain in the rumen for 
 thirty hours, and the average retention of the food in that 
 viscus is sixteen to eighteen hours. The sheep requires 
 remarkably little water, a fact which adapts him for dry 
 countries, such as the Deccan and Australia ; even on dry 
 food he will go a long time without drinking ; no water is 
 required for him on succulent pasture, and food containing 
 excessive moisture is a familiar cause of disease, mainly 
 of a dropsical nature. The paunch of this animal is pro- 
 bably never less than half full, as judged by observations 
 on the carcases of sheep which succumbed to burial in 
 snow, and under other forms of starvation. The amount 
 of saliva poured into the rumen has experimentally been 
 found to be enormous. 
 
 Loss OF THE Odd is sometimes present without appre- 
 ciable cause. Dick attributed it to gastric acidity. In such 
 cases a cathartic may be administered to restore the 
 natural function. In lambs as in calves the rumen is, it 
 must be remembered, small, and the cud is not chewed 
 until the animal gradually gets on solid food. Deoppinq 
 THE OuD is sometimes seen in sheep, in which case disease 
 of teeth should be looked for and, if present, attended to. 
 Tede vomition, i. e. return of material from the abomasum 
 into the mouth, is rare, except during the death struggle. 
 The wool-eating habit is a symptom of indigestion in the 
 sheep. Chalk and salt in the fodder has been found to 
 cure the habit in the course of a fortnight. 
 
 HovEN, or Ttmpany of the Rumen, is as severe a disease 
 as in cattle, but not so frequent, because most sheep being 
 generally out at pasture are not so liable to indulge in 
 excess of green fodder- as cattle freshly turned out. The 
 drinking of cold water, dew on grass, frosted roots or 
 root- tops, and mangolds before matured are frequent causes 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 1 1 7 
 
 of hoven (Walker). However, any abrupt change to 
 palatable diet, especially sucL. as contains much moisture, 
 turnips and clover for example, may bring it on, from 
 which may be inferred the important hygienic rule that 
 changes of diet in sheep should be made gradually. 
 Fermentation of food in the rumen causes this condition, 
 and it has been supposed that acidity of the contents of 
 the viscus is counteracted and absorption of the gases 
 effected normally by the alkalinity of the secretions and 
 the absorbent and alkaline characters of soil necessarily 
 ingested with the grass eaten by the sheep. When food is 
 unduly retained, as for example in cessation of rumination 
 due to systemic disease, hoven occurs as a complication; 
 it also is a complication in prolonged choking. 
 
 Symptoms. — The sheep is unwilling to move and evi- 
 dently suffers abdominal pain, he is dull and breathing 
 laboriously. The belly is blown out and the left flank 
 tympanic. 
 
 Treatment. — In the early stages, causing the animal to 
 run about for atime maybe effectual in dispersion of the gas. 
 In confirmed cases the hollow probang may be passed or the 
 rumen punctured as in the ox, a smaller instrument being 
 used, but the same precautions taken. Youatt insists on 
 the inadvisability of resorting to the shepherd's rough 
 puncture with a pocket knife, because, owing to the 
 churning action of the rumen, the wound in it will be 
 removed from juxtaposition with that of the abdominal 
 walls and the contents of the stomach will escape into the 
 peritoneal sac, ultimately giving rise to chronic peritonitis 
 and death. As an illustration of the innocuousness of the 
 same operation performed with trocar and cannula, he 
 gives a case in which he punctured the rumen seven times 
 in four days and the sheep recovered. The animal 
 having been relieved by operation, antiferments and 
 absorbers of gas combined with stimulants may be given, 
 the most effectual agents being chloride of lime, carbolic 
 acid, chlorate of potash, ammonia, and the hyposulphite of 
 soda. After-treatment comprises purgation and avoidance 
 of the causes of the attack by change in system of feeding. 
 
118 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 Plenalvia, or distension of the rumen with food, is much 
 more frequent and results from sudden transference from 
 poor to rich pasture and other influences which cause 
 rapid eating, as when animals are put on and left on 
 turnips. Hawes, of Taunton ('Veterinarian,' 1840), 
 records the effects of eating new wheat. He was called 
 in to attend a flock which, the day before, had strayed 
 into a field of standing wheat and fed on it freely. 
 Twenty-eight died that day and as many more were 
 almost dead ; the sick had been given Epsom salts and 
 castor- oil. In all fifty-eight died in five days, the rest 
 were bled, purged with 01. Lini, and recovered, but 
 many threw their lambs afterwards. Post-mortem exami- 
 nation showed the abomasum and bowels highly inflamed, 
 the spleen like a mass of coagulated blood, with its struc- 
 ture destroyed, and the rumen distended with wheat, 
 barley, and straw. Axe, in 1880 (' Veterinarian,' p. 198), 
 described a disorder of ewes, wide spread, fatal in charac- 
 ter, and rapid in its course, affecting the best bred and 
 best fed breeding stock, perhaps due to the high feeding 
 resorted to by farmers with a view to prevention of rot. 
 He associated the outbreak with feeding on mangold tops 
 in a frosted or otherwise damaged state. The attacks 
 occurred suddenly and proved fatal in at most three or 
 four hours ; sometimes premonitory general signs of dis- 
 order were noticed, unsteady movements, local emphyse- 
 matous swellings, hoven, fever, and cold, moist, sodden, 
 leaden-coloured skin; paralysis, convulsions, and loss of 
 consciousness immediately preceded death. Post-mortem 
 examinations showed the blood firmly coagulated, conges- 
 tions and extravasations, and the liver, kidneys, and intes- 
 tines more or less cedematous and softened. It will be 
 observed that these outbreaks in many respects resemble 
 anthrax, but in the former the cause was clear, and in the 
 latter the balance of evidence was in favour of its being 
 due to the mangold tops ; we must remember the resem- 
 blance between these food-generated disorders and anthrax, 
 and be careful in diagnosis. Ordinary plenalvia is denoted 
 by symptoms somewhat similar to those of hoven, the dis- 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEir. 119 
 
 tension is less and the flank not tympanic but pasty on 
 pressure. The animal is more dull. Olver, of Truro, re- 
 corded, in the 'Veterinarian' for 1871, the deaths of 
 several aged Shropshire ewes, pregnant and in good con- 
 dition, from eating maize, which was found accumulated 
 in the rumen to a great extent, in an unbroken and dry 
 condition. The animals lay in unnatural positions, were 
 off feed, breathed with difficulty, were dull, stupid, unwil- 
 ling to m.ove, tympanic, and with confined bowels. Treat- 
 ment consists in removal of the mass by pumping water into 
 the rumen by means of the stomach-pump, so as to cause 
 regurgitation or passage of some of it on to the omasum, 
 cathartics to arouse the action of the rumen, together with 
 other parts of the alimentary canal, and stimulants to excite 
 the activity of the peristalsis of the rumen, ammonia being 
 especially useful for the purpose, because it also suffices to 
 combine with and condense any gas set free, for hoven 
 always somewhat complicates such cases. In case these 
 measures prove ineffectual, and while the animal yet retains 
 strength, ruminotomy or paunching should be performed 
 in the usual way as for the ox, only about two thirds of 
 the contents of the viscus being removed. After-treatment 
 comprises careful feeding and nursing for a time, for 
 liability to intermittent hoven may be a sequel. In this, 
 as in other formidable operations on the sheep, we must 
 always consider whether it would not be better to destroy 
 the animal, so as to save the meat before much medicine 
 has been given or fever set in. Alvitis, true inflammation 
 of the rumen, is rare. 
 
 Faedel bound, grass staggers, called also " drying up," 
 impaction, of the faik or manyplies, occasionally occurs in 
 sheep as a result of abrupt changes of diet or undue 
 acridity or astringency of food. Where death is due to 
 this disorder autopsy shows the contents of the omasum 
 dry and considerable in quantity and the leaves of the 
 stomach are congested or inflamed, the brain and spinal 
 cord (with their membranes) also being the seat of con- 
 gestion. This state of the third stomach must not be 
 confounded with physiological dryness of its contents, nor 
 
120 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 must fhe case be dealt witli as wholly gastric. The 
 syraptoms are largely those of nervous derangement. At 
 first there are cough, diarrhoea, and signs of general 
 disorder. Next obstinate constipation sets in, and fever. 
 The sheep stands with neck outstretched, eyes protruded, 
 froth or slimy discharge from the mouth, and mncus 
 tinged or streaked with blood flowing from the nostrils. 
 Cerebral disturbance, denoted by delirium and violence, 
 succeeds a period of stupor, and the patient becomes 
 rapidly exhausted. In observation of these nervous 
 symptoms combined with the disturbance of the bowels 
 and the absence of the usual signs of hoven and plenal- 
 via, lies correct diagnosis. Treatment should consist in 
 endeavours to support the strength and restore tone to 
 the omasum and remove its contents by washing rather 
 than by active purgation • frequent administration of doses 
 of warm water swallowed slowly, oil, and gruel are of 
 benefit. Bnemata and external stimulants may prove 
 useful J sedative agents have been recommended to control 
 nervous excitement. Dysentery is considered likely to set 
 in as a sequela, especially when the disease has resulted 
 from accumulation of soft and putrid vegetable matter, so 
 frequent doses of salt water are recommended as after- 
 treatment. 
 
 Calculous and other Concretions. — Hair balls, the 
 result of felting of wool and food materials, are of not 
 infrequent occurrence in the rumen of the sheep, but 
 seem to cause no inconvenience. Guttridge {' Veteri- 
 narian,' vol. xii) , records considerable fatality among sheep 
 turned out on turnips where nearly the whole of the in- 
 testinal canal, the rumen, and the abomasum were filled 
 with sand and undigested food, which gave rise to inflam- 
 mation. The symptoms were ofE feed, out of sorts, and 
 heaving of the flank. Youatt suggested that acidity of 
 the stomach might have induced the earth-eating. In the 
 abomasum are found not infrequently brown, yellow, or 
 red bezoars with a soft velvety coating, and composed of a 
 mixture of wool, mucus, and earthy matter arranged in 
 concentric layers around some foreign body as a nucleus. 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 12] 
 
 They sometimes are as many as twenty in number, and are 
 m.ost frequent in September and October, months when the 
 wool is being shed. The wool of which they are composed 
 may have been ingested with the food or by animals licking 
 and nibbling themselves or one another. Lambs may get 
 it by sucking the long wool near the udder, therefore the 
 careful shepherd removes this wool when the ewe is about 
 to suckle. The facts that these accumulations are more 
 frequent in some sa&sons than in others and that they are 
 not seen in the faeces, are adduced as evidence that they 
 must undergo solution in the stomach or bowels. They 
 seem quite harmless, and are considered by the ignorant 
 as of value for charms. Youatt mentions a popular error 
 in France that they cause rapid wasting and death, and 
 were bought from butchers for the felonious purpose of 
 throwing them before the sheep of an obnoxious owner. 
 Such error was easily disposed of by the demonstration 
 that if thrown before sheep the animals will not eat them, 
 and that if they did, the rumen, not the abomasum, would 
 be the stomach into which they would pass. 
 
 Abomasitis, inflammation of the true stomach, occurs in 
 irritant poisoning and as a result of feeding on acrid and 
 coarse herbage. It is usually combined with dysentery, 
 producing gastro-enteritis, similar to the severe cattle dis- 
 ease known as pantas or moor evil. Rupture of the abo- 
 masum has been described as resulting from a fall of 
 unusual violence in a young lamb suffering from sturdy. 
 
 Impaction op the Abomasum with milk curd in the 
 sucking lamb is a very fatal and prevalent disorder of 
 serious importance, but exactly similar to the state result- 
 ing from similar conditions in the calf. It depends on a 
 want of proper balance between the supply or the quality 
 of milk and the digestive powers. It results from use of 
 cow's milk or giving the young animal too much milk in the 
 attempt to prepare it early for the market. A dense mass 
 of curd, amounting to three or four pounds in weight, has 
 been removed from the stomach in such cases after death. 
 The lamb is unwilling to move, dull, panting, costive, and 
 has its belly swollen. Treatment consists in giving plenty 
 
122 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 of thin gruel and horning down alkaline warm solutions, 
 or administering them by means of a Read's pump. An 
 oleaginous dose must follow, and stimulants may be given 
 throughout the attack. After it the ewe and lamb should 
 for a time be put on dry pasture. Amphistoma conicum 
 is the most frequent of parasites in the rumen of the sheep 
 and goat. 
 
 The intestines of the sheep are long and tortuous, being 
 twenty-seven times the length of the body (90 feet in all, of 
 which 65 — 70 feet are small), and arranged in the main like 
 those of the ox. The total percentage weight of internal 
 organs to the body has been put at 7| for the stomach with 
 contents (against 11^ in ox and IJ in pig) and 3| for intes- 
 tines and contents (against 2| in the ox and 6J in the 
 pig). Thus, the total alimentary canal and contents con- 
 stitutes about one fifth less than in the ox and nearly half 
 as much again as in the pig. In the ox the stomach is to 
 the intestines as 4 to 1, in the sheep it is as 2 to 1, and in 
 the pig as 1 to 5. There is more " internal fat in the sheep 
 than in the ox, and much less than in the pig ; an ox or 
 sheep in fattening will increase 50 per cent., whereas a 
 pig will increase 100 per cent. ; he, however, develops less 
 bone during fattening. The total carcass during the pro- 
 cess of fattening augments more than the total offal j the 
 water of the body lessens, ; the fats, nitrogenous and 
 saline matters increase slightly" (Lawes). The Peyer's 
 glands of the sheep are large, the patches being sometimes 
 eight inches long, they are very numerous in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the ileo-caecal valves. 
 
 Colic, called in America " stretches," in its several 
 varieties is a complex symptomatic condition considered to 
 be rare in the sheep, which rarity has been attributed to 
 the food being so thoroughly prepared in the stomachs 
 that acrid and indigestible matters seldom find their way 
 into the bowel. Randall tells us that some farmers lift 
 the sheep up by the hind legs, and in that position shake 
 it a little, to cure colic ; others drag the animal about by 
 the hind legs. Attacks of this disease become habitual in 
 some sheep. Epsom salts, warm tea, castor-oil, and aloes 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 123 
 
 in severe cases are useful ; prevention may best be effected 
 by giving green food even once or twice a week. Stran- 
 gulation is seldom seen ; of abdominal Jiernise, exomphalos 
 is the most frequent^ but even it is not of common occur- 
 rence. The symptoms of colicky pain are moaning, grind- 
 ing the teeth, uneasiness, frequent getting up and lying 
 down, and striking the belly with the hind feet. Lambs 
 show these symptoms much more commonly than adults, 
 as a result of errors in dieting, such as overfeeding with 
 cow's milk, or with that of a foster mother, or even its own 
 dam. When lambs are first put to grass colic may be 
 induced by acrid herbs or the unusual nature of the diet. 
 Antispasmodic and carminative agents, such as ginger, 
 peppermint water, and warm gruel usually suffice in such 
 cases, but an external stimulant to the belly, enemas, and 
 a cathartic also may be required. 
 
 Enteeitis. — Whether or not it will hereafter be proved 
 that in the sheep as in the horse true enteritis is seldom 
 seen, the general opinion at present is that it is not un- 
 common as a result of exposure to wet and cold, excessive 
 purgation, and excess of stimulating or acrid nutriment. 
 Certainly some forms of braxy have been considered enter- 
 itic, but Touatt mentions strangulation, intussusception, 
 hernia, rupture, and ascites as found post mortem in cases 
 where from the caecum to the abomasum, often including 
 it and the other stomachs, there was distinct inflammation 
 and sometimes gangrene. The liver also was generally 
 enlarged considerably and inflamed. 
 
 Symptoms. — The indications of colic are present and 
 aggravated, the pulse quick and small, muzzle, horns, and 
 limbs cold ; bowels confined. The sufferer strikes the 
 belly with his hind feet, lies down after frequent unde- 
 cided attempts to do so, stamps on and scratches the 
 ground, looks round at the sides, falls suddenly and rolls 
 on the back, and remains so for a time, then suddenly 
 starts and scrambles on to his feet again. The strength 
 is rapidly lost, and delirium and amaurosis precede death. 
 Violent purgation, difficult to control, may follow in non- 
 fatal attacks of this nature. 
 
124 DISEASES OF THE SnEEP. 
 
 Treatment. — Apply stimulating applications to the belly 
 or foment freely, give opium in gruel or mashes. In 
 severe attacks bleed early, give enemata, control subse- 
 quent diarrhoea by means of stimulant tonics. 
 
 DiABEHCEA, the result of mismanagement and neglect, 
 is somewhere spoken of as " the very pest of sheep." It 
 may be described under two headings, according to the 
 causes from which it results, simple and parasitic. Simple 
 diarrhoea may depend on organic change or be purely 
 functional, and it very frequently is to be encouraged as 
 nature's effort for removal of offensive irritant matters 
 from the alimentary canal. Abundant and over-succulent 
 diet, irritant and indigestible ingesta (such as unripe 
 grass), changes of diet of any kind, climatic changes, ex- 
 posure (especially after shearing or washing), are common 
 causes in the adult ; with ewes in lamb mangolds may 
 bring it on. There are some pastures known as " tart " 
 or " scouring " lands, which always produce this effect, 
 and so have to be ploughed up as unfit for pasture owing 
 to their geological formation and the chemical characters 
 of the soil. Diarrhoea among full-grown sheep is most 
 common when the new grass comes up in the spring. The 
 disease is usually complicated with dysentery, or terminates 
 in an attack of that disorder. 
 
 Symptoms. — Expulsion of faeces frequent, painless, nor- 
 mal in character, and free from blood or slime, and not of 
 very offensive odour. No fever, appetite a little sharper 
 than usual, and only a temporary stop to thriving of the 
 animal. In lambs, curd in the stomach sometimes causes 
 diarrhoea, with profuse white-coloured evacuations, a condi- 
 tion vulgarly called " white skit." The " green skit " 
 occurs later as a result of exposure to cold due to want of 
 shelter, and of errors in diet at the time of weaning, and 
 proves fatal in less than twenty-four hours in many cases. 
 
 Treatment. — Great judgment is needed in dealing with 
 this disorder, for if the evacuation is an effort of nature 
 to get rid of irritants, it is manifestly advisable not to do 
 anything to check the flow from the bowels. In all cases 
 the sheep must be taken up and sheltered as most con- 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 125 
 
 venient, and the strength supported by light diet, such as 
 will be readily digested in the stomach, and stimulant 
 tonics. In adults the flow will not need active treatment 
 unless there be much pain and the evacuations contain 
 much mucus, the animal being ofE feed, dull in the eye, 
 sluggish and slow in movement, and the fleece looking " un- 
 kindly." Then, with nursing and stimulants may be judi- 
 ciously given sulphite of soda, chalk, mercury with chalk 
 (followed by linseed oil in nutritive doses), and rhubarb. 
 Sulphuric acid has been found of benefit in obstinate cases, 
 and so has ipecacuanha. iSome times the disease is cured 
 by turning the sheep out on astringent pastures or giving 
 them cotton cake.* Invariably if sheep purge for longer 
 than twenty-four hours they should be moved to a drier 
 pasture or put on hay and corn or other dry food. Lambs 
 require specially careful nursing, must be removed from 
 the ewe, and given boiled or skim milk and malt. The 
 " sheep and calves' cordial," a well-known preparation, also 
 will be of benefit. Parkinson in his old book on ' Live 
 Stock ■" mentions a prevalent superstition that green skit 
 may be cured by tying a green willow wand around the 
 neck of an affected animal, and white skit by similar use 
 of a white willow wand. The attitude of the veterinary 
 practitioner to such popular ideas must be similar to that 
 of Cromwell when he told his men to keep their powder 
 dry ; they must be tolerated, since they secure more hearty 
 co-operation in the essentials, nursing and medicinal treat- 
 ment. 
 
 Parasitic diarrhoea is a derangement of great and grow- 
 ing interest on account of its frequency, its extensive dis- 
 tribution, and its fatality. Many outbreaks of fatal diar- 
 rhoea due to Taenia expansa are on record, and more con- 
 stantly come to hand. In 1855 Cox recorded one, in 1877 
 an enzooty in Central Park was described in the ' American 
 Veterinary Journal ' (as quoted in ' Veterinarian,' August, 
 
 * Astringent medicine for diarrhoea in sheep (Robert Smith in his prize 
 essay ' On the Management of Sheep ') — Logwood Jiv, Ext. Catechu gj, 
 Cinnamon 5ij, Water Oiij ; boil for quarter of an hour, strain, and add 
 laudanum 60 gtts. Dose, Oj, morning and evening as long as flux continues. 
 
126 DISEASES OP *HE SHEEP. 
 
 1877) . The intestines of tlie lambs throughout almost their 
 whole extent were filled with tsenise, fifteen feet long, and 
 which would fill a twelve-ounce measure glass. The animals 
 were two or three days out of sorts, they then became 
 affected with convulsions, would turn round in a circle, 
 and drop dead. Cross, of Shrewsbury, in 1877, dealt with 
 scouring in lambs, where the semi-liquid faeces contained 
 innumerable segments with double sexual organs and un- 
 armed tapeworm heads.* Cobbold ('Veterinarian,' 1876, 
 p. 675) mentions being consulted concerning loss from 
 worms of 1200 sheep out of 8000 on a farm two hundred 
 miles to the north-west of Sydney. Taeniae of several 
 fathoms in length were found in the intestines together 
 with certain nematodes. This reminds us of the fact re- 
 corded by Gamgee that in Australia, especially on over- 
 stocked land, tsenise occur in lambs and give rise to an 
 enzootic which proves fatal to many. The tapeworm seg- 
 ments may often be seen on the washed soil after a heavy 
 fall of rain. The parasites cause pain and emaciation, 
 and predispose the animals to other disorders. They cause 
 loss not only by fatalities, but by reduction in value and 
 amount of fat, flesh, and wool. Dr. Charles Curtice (' Vete- 
 rinary Record,' vol. i, p. 59) observed young and adult 
 tapeworms in immense numbers in 87 per cent, of western 
 sheep and lambs examined in Colorado in 1887. The 
 sheep were diseased in direct relation to the prevalence of 
 the parasites, which he thought new and similar in species 
 to that found in the Brazilian deer, but which probably is 
 our old friend T. expansa. It prevailed from Oregon and 
 Wyoming on the south and Nebraska and Kansas on the 
 west, was present from May to January in the duodenum 
 and gall-ducts. It was thought to take from six to ten 
 months to mature. Of the nematodes of the alimentary 
 canal of the sheep Gamgee mentions Strongylus cernuus, 
 Ascaris ovis (found once in Vienna) , Dochmius hypostomus, 
 
 * Eivolta (' La Clinica Veterlnaria,' Jan., 1879) describes a new ttenia of 
 the sheep, T. ovilla; this is distinguishable from T. expansa and T. denticu- 
 lata by the form and position of its uterus ; thus, there are three mature taenia; 
 of the sheep. 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 127 
 
 found in the intestines, and Strongylus filicollis (in the 
 small intestines). Cobbold considers only two nematodes 
 of pathogenic importance in this relation, and shows that 
 they, by means of the oral armature, behave as veritable 
 intestinal leeches, and produce fatal anasmia. These forms 
 are 8t. contortus, red and white thread- worms "marked 
 like a barber's pole," found principally in the abomasum. 
 
 Fig. 27. — The whipworm of ruminants (Cobbold). 
 Male. b. Female, c. Head and neck. d. Spirally curved tail 
 of male, with long spicule protruding from cloaca. 
 
 and for three or four inches along the small intestine, but 
 more or less abundant along the whole length of the gut ; 
 and St. Jiypostomus, a black worm about the size of a small 
 needle scattered along the intestine. These are figured 
 in Dr. Bancroft's report to the Agricultural Society of New 
 South Wales for 1871, St. contortus being recognisable 
 readily by its large lateral hood-lobes and the pecuHar 
 one-sided position of its posterior hood rays (Schneider 
 and Cobbold). 
 
 Tricocephalus affini-j is frequent. Simonds has shown 
 
128 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 that when a number of sheep at one time suffer from 
 diarrhcea, and much mucus is passed^ and their appetite 
 is increased by the disease^ it is generally due to these 
 wormSj which come away entangled together, and form 
 large lumps or masses. They burrow their heads in the 
 mucous membrane, exist principally in the CKCum and 
 colon, and are male and female, the young being hatched 
 within the intestinal canal. Sclerostoma also occurs in 
 the large intestine, and causes diarrhcea. Simonds used 
 to describe the 8t. contortus as Abomesi ovis v. Filaria 
 denticulata. Williams, at the Scottish Veterinary Medical 
 Association's meeting of November 12th, 1884, read a 
 paper on Parasitic gastric catarrh, or Gastrorrhoea para- 
 sitica due to this parasite. The principal symptoms ob- 
 served were great thirst, diarrhcea (with evacuations like 
 muddy water), constant desire to urinate, and urine as 
 clear as water, progressive anffimia, cedema of the head, 
 and abdominal pain. Strongylus filaria was concomitantly 
 present J Gerlach considered the two forms were in intimate 
 relation. The worm is cylindrical, red or white, taper- 
 ing very gradually towards its anterior extremity, where 
 is a mouth unprotected by papillte or other appendages. 
 Male smaller than female, having bilobed terminal bursa. 
 Bach lobe ovoid, and with five ribs, left lobe bears a smaller 
 one supported by two ribs. Spicules two, each tapering 
 to a point slightly curved outwards, and bearing a small 
 knob. Female, body tapers very suddenly to an extremely 
 fine point, in front of this the genital opening with two 
 papillae, the left the larger. Uterus convoluted. 
 
 Treatment. — Picrate of potash, 5 — 20 gr. daily (Zurn) 
 or 2 grs. daily for three days (Rabl) ; kamala ; or Chabert's 
 oil (1 pint with oil of turpentine 3 pints) one teaspoonful 
 per diem. 
 
 Prevention. — Plough up or salt all infested places. 
 
 In treatment of outbreaks of tsenia invasion we may 
 adopt the method, successfully resorted to by Cross, of 
 giving turpentine, areca nut, male fern, and linseed oil to 
 each animal, and, when necessary, following it up with 
 cordials ; also changing the pasture every week. Gamgee 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 129 
 
 suggests to reduce tlie number of sheep kept, improve 
 their sanitation, and give to each a drachm of turps in 
 linseed oil, linseed tea, or thick gruel. Where practicable, 
 thorough destruction of the faeces with ova and parasites 
 by -burning should be carried out, but we need much more 
 knowledge of the life-history of both strongyles and tasnia 
 before we can adopt thoroughly effective measures against 
 this serious disorder. Sulphate of iron and salt suggest 
 themselves as likely to be useful preventives. 
 
 Bloody Flux, Dysentery, or "CLms" is a serious scourge 
 of sheep, the result of obstinate or neglected diarrhcBa, 
 also of continued ingestion of coarse and unwholesome food 
 such as sheep are driven to by semi-starvation when turned 
 out on coarse uncultured pasture and on marshy and ill- 
 drained meadows. Fever is present, rapid and extreme 
 wasting and debility, the bowels rumble greatly. Thin 
 but adhesive faeces, laden with mucus and often containing 
 blood, is passed with pain ; evacuation is followed by tenes- 
 mus ; the belly is painful to pressure, swollen, and feels 
 lumpy, and these evacuations mat the wool of the tail and 
 thighs, whereby these parts become plastered and some- 
 times ulcerated. Flies are attracted and maggots develop 
 in the ulcers. The animal does not cease feeding but suffers 
 from thirst and depraved appetite ; it may die in a few 
 days from commencement of the attack, or prolong its 
 miserable existence to five or six weeks, ultimately suc- 
 cumbing to exhaustion. Sometimes the wool becomes so 
 matted over the anus that, in spite of efforts, fasces cannot 
 pass ; the animal is then said to be " finding," and its con- 
 dition may escape notice, the obstruction resulting ulti- 
 mately in death, or the careless attendant may produce 
 fatal result by overdosing with purgatives to overcome the 
 supposed constipation. Youatt, who cautions us specially 
 in this matter, tells us that it is found most frequently in 
 lambs sucking from highly fed ewes. It may yield to the 
 forcible expulsive efforts of the animal, but then soreness 
 and ulceration result. In cases of dysentery, therefore, 
 excess of wool on the tail and thighs should be cut off 
 and these parts be kept clean, chalk may be dusted over 
 
 9 
 
130 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 the wounds, and turpentine or otiier substance to keep off 
 tlie fly applied, a solution of tar in oil being useful for tlie 
 purpose. A thorough change must be made in the sur- 
 roundings of the animal, especially as to the nature and 
 digestibility of the dietj linseed oil, at first in laxative, 
 afterwards in nutritive doses, must be persisted in, and 
 may be combined with such mild laxatives and liver stimu- 
 lants as rhubarb and ipecacuanha. Opium in the form of 
 tincture, combined with stimulant tonics, may be adminis- 
 tered when there is much pain ; mashes, gruel, linseed tea, 
 and dry grass maybe given to the animal as food. Strychnia 
 has been found of benefit in promoting recovery when 
 these cases take a turn for the better ; it, of course, needs 
 to be given with great care and in average practice must 
 be superseded by bitter tonics such as beer, gentian, and 
 chiretta combined with the astringent metallic tonics, such 
 as, especially, sulphate of iron. Sulphuric acid may re- 
 place the metallic sulphates when its action can be watched. 
 Docking and powdered earth to the parts may be neces- 
 sary to prevent " pinding." In America clatting (tagging) 
 is adopted for all sheep in the spring when they are liable 
 to scour. The best position for tagging, and the only 
 safe one for a pregnant ewe, is on its side on a table or 
 large box covered except at one end, and with the breech 
 of the sheep placed at the opening so that the tags will 
 drop into it as they are cut. Tagging on the feet is very 
 inconvenient (Randall). In India the bael fruit and 
 "white oats" (the fruit of Wrightia antidysenterica) are 
 found of great benefit in this disorder. Robert Smith 
 recommends in treatment of dysentery, bleeding only in 
 the earliest stage and with the greatest caution, then, in 
 order to produce a reaction or perfect change of the system, 
 he excites the action of the skin by immersing the animal in 
 a tub of hot water for fifteen minutes, afterwards giving 
 castor-oil 5Jj laudanum, gtt. xxx, in a little gruel, taking 
 care that the animal be kept warm by wrapping and placing 
 in a warm shed. Subsequently we must support the 
 strength, and gradually accustom the animal to mixed feed. 
 To provent dysentery, change the pasture and do not " run 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 131 
 
 it too tliick." Tlie old metliod of bleeding and giving full 
 doses of physic in these cases is now utterly obsolete. Ee- 
 covery is very gradual^ and great care of the sheep must be 
 exercised for a long time after it is well to prevent relapse, 
 and to get it to fatten or to recover constitutional vigour 
 for breeding purposes. 
 
 Constipation of a prolonged character may be seen in 
 adults, the result of excessively dry pasture or dry feed ; 
 in lambs it must lead to suspicion of gastric derangement. 
 Bnemata should be given, in which act freedom from ob- 
 struction of the anal passage will be ensured ; the injection 
 should preferably be oleaginous. In younger lambs two 
 or three spoonfuls of hog's lard is a good purgative. Cow's 
 milk, or any milk given artificially, tends to constipation; 
 the first milk of the mother, it is said, sometimes has this 
 effect, and so has a lamb surfeiting itself on a full uddor 
 after straying for some hours. Cathartics do not act rapidly 
 enough ; an injection of milk warmed to blood heat, with 
 a sufiicient infusion of molasses to give it a chocolate colour, 
 should at once be administered with a small syringe, say 
 two ounces at a time for a small lamb and three for a 
 larger one. The lamb is held up perpendicularly by the 
 hind legs, so that the forefeet but just touch the floor, 
 during, and for a moment after, the injection .... this 
 generally gives prompt and entire relief, but if not, give 
 half a dozen teaspoonfuls of thorough [Eupatorium perfoli- 
 atus) tea, or pumpkin-seed tea when the urine is retained 
 (Randall). Linseed- or castor-oil, combined with aromatics, 
 should be given by the mouth and the animal given moist, 
 laxative diet, and carefully watched lest enteritis or dysen- 
 tery supervene, for prolonged constipation is sometimes a 
 fore-runner of serious disorders. In newly-born lambs, 
 sometimes non-passage of fseces necessitates either a mild 
 laxative through the system of the ewe or given directly 
 to the lamb, or mechanical unloading of the rectum may 
 be necessary. Impeefokate Anus (Peoctateesia) may 
 be present at birth and prove either relievable by sur- 
 gery or hopeless on account of non-development of the 
 rectum. 
 
132 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 HiEMOHEHOiDS Or PiLES, tumours detectable in or witMn 
 the anuSj and denoted by blood on the faeces, disinclination 
 to move the hind legs, and fever, have been recorded by- 
 Dick and Gamgee as seen in the sheep. Cathartics, clysters, 
 and laxative diets are recommended in such cases. Sheep's 
 dung is remarkable for the small amount of water it con- 
 tains, the solids of each kind being more considerable than in 
 the dung of other herbivora. The water amounts only to 58 
 per cent. ; of the solids no less that 36 per cent, is organic 
 matter containing "902 per cent, of nitrogen ; the mineral 
 matter is 6 per cent., and "62 per cent, of phosphoric acid 
 is estimated to be present. Youatt reminds us of the uses 
 to which sheep's dung is put in consequence of its pro- 
 perties and composition. It serves for cleaning wool pre- 
 vious to dyeing, also to prepare cotton and linen for receiv- 
 ing certain colours, in consequence of its mucous and other 
 albuminoid elements. Again, it is most valuable as a 
 manure, preferable to that of cattle in that it contains more 
 animal matter in a smaller compass and falls to the ground 
 in the form of small round pellets, such as can be readily 
 diffused over and mixed with the soil instead of over- 
 manuring spots, but leaving other parts of the pasture 
 uninfluenced, as does the pultaceous mass discharged by 
 cattle. It is thought that not only the dung and urine 
 from sheep prove of benefit to the soil, but also wool and 
 yolk left on the ground. In some places sheep are much 
 folded on arable land to manure it, but this practice is 
 less frequent than formerly, for, by controlling rest and 
 feeding, it is supposed to interfere with the health of the 
 sheep and prevent fattening ; it is now resorted to mainly 
 on unenclosed and down country, but not unfrequently the 
 sheep are folded on clover, tares, and roots. 
 
 Walley exhibited, in 1878, a fibrous tumour from the 
 abdominal cavity of a sheep, the mass weighing thirty-six 
 pounds {' Proceedings of the Scottish Metropolitan Vete- 
 rinary Medical Association'). 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 133 
 
 APPENDIX I.— THE APPENDAGES OP THE ALI- 
 MENTARY CANAL. 
 
 The Pancreas of the sheep has not been observed to be 
 frequently the seat of disease, though Touatt records hav- 
 ing noted in it induration and "tubercles," which may be 
 a possible source of indigestion. 
 
 The Liver is similar in shape to that of the ox, but 
 larger. It is one twenty-fifth part of the weight of the 
 animal, and said to be double the weight of that of man 
 in proportion to the size of the animal. It has been 
 stated that the liver is universally proportioned in size to 
 the lungs, but this does not hold in the case of the sheep 
 and ox for example, and is a very rough statement. The 
 pancreatic and common bile-ducts combine before opening 
 into the intestine ; the daily (?) production of bile is esti- 
 mated at 178 grains (containing 9'408 solids, and so much 
 as 6 per cent, of sulphur according to Strecker's analysis) 
 for every pound of the weight of the sheep. Landerer 
 examined a biliary calculus of a sheep, twelve grains in 
 weight, of a brownish-yellow black with green spots. It 
 tasted bitter, coloured the saliva yellow, fused when heated. 
 Swelled under the blow-pipe flame, emitted a muck-like 
 smell, and left behind porous scoriae mixed with lime salts. 
 Seventy per cent, consisted of cholesterine, gall mucus, 
 resin, colouring matter, and phosphate and carbonate of 
 lime in residue (Morton). 
 
 Jaundice is said by Dick to be more frequent in the 
 sheep and dog than in other domesticated animals, but in 
 the former animal it in a very large proportion of cases 
 depends on a special cause, the liver-fluke. Certainly, in 
 tropical climates the horse suffers more from liver disorder 
 than the sheep, as the latter has generally to range far and 
 wide for scanty feed. In Great Britain especially, but also 
 in other countries where sheep industry has attained a high 
 development, the liver is very liable to acute or chronic dege- 
 nerations of a fatty character, or else partaking of the 
 disease seen in man as acute yellow atrophy of the liver. 
 
134 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP, 
 
 This seems to be the nature of the fatality which often 
 occurs among highly bred sheep; especially pregnant ewes, 
 when high fed on cakes and Swedish turnips for some time. 
 Such a form of plethora results from overfeeding^ and is 
 referred to by Williams in his work on 'Veterinary Medi- 
 cine.' Animals in this state are verging on disease^ and 
 should have their diet lowered gradually and the system 
 reduced by cathartics. Outbreaks from overfeeding resem- 
 ble anthraXj but no bacilli are found on examination of the 
 blood, and change of food with administration of cathartics 
 suffices to check the fatality. An example of this is the 
 outbreak of disease recorded by Dick as reported by 
 Chalmers, of Tarves (Aberdeenshire) . It occurred among 
 black-faced mountain sheep on marshy or mossy-bottomed 
 pasture. Death occurred in sixteen to twenty hours, and 
 if the animals remained alive longer they usually recovered. 
 Among the symptoms was the sick being conspicuous by a 
 raising of the back, later purging set in, the evacuations 
 being first black, then green, and later bloody. Tenesmus 
 was also present. 
 
 Hepatitis is found in an acute form, and although when 
 chronic it generally depends on fluke, is sometimes due 
 to ordinary causes. Those cases in which it has been 
 mentioned as epizootic and in which salt has proved effec- 
 tual for both prevention and cure, were probably liver rot. 
 The sporadic disorder is said to occur most frequently on 
 low-lying, rich meadows, and to be due to over-nutritious 
 food. It is denoted by fever, acute jaundice, and pain on 
 pressure of the right side, also lameness of the right fore- 
 leg has been described as present in this disorder. Treat- 
 ment must be active, consisting of bleeding, purging, and 
 reducing to spare diet ; preventive measures must be 
 resorted to with the rest of the flock lest they become 
 affected. 
 
 Echinocoecus cysts are of constant occurrence in the liver 
 as well as lungs and spleen of the sheep, just as in the ox, 
 camel, and other herbivora. They cause some organic 
 disturbance of the organ, but do not materially interfere 
 with its functions, nor are they as a rule detectable during 
 
DIGESTIVH SYSTEM. 13', 
 
 s 
 
 the life of the animal. Dr. Hjaltelin states that hydatid; 
 occur in more than every fifth sheep in Iceland. They 
 have there been seen in every third sheep over three years 
 old ; in one district they are found in every adult sheep. 
 Livers containing these hydatids should be burnt lest dogs 
 eat them and become infested with, the Tasnia echinococcuK, 
 future larvaj of which might invade man and cause dis- 
 ease. An interesting case of liver hydatids may be read 
 in the 'Veterinarian' for April, 1870. 
 
 Fig. 2S. — Hyil.itids encysted in lungs and liver of sheep (after Coeeold). 
 
 Fascioliasis, Liver Rot, Fluke Disease, Cachexia aquosa 
 verminosa. In the whole range of veterinary studies we 
 find no subject of greater interest and importance than 
 that with which we next have to deal. The disease known 
 in English-speaking countries as " the rot " is sadly familiar 
 to the agriculturist, and associated in his mind with bad 
 past years and possibly ruinous future ones ; the mere 
 estimate made (of course on extremely uncertain data) by 
 Youatt that in Great Britain more than 1,000,000 sheep 
 annually die of this disorder, and by Haniont that the 
 annual fall of the Nile causes loss by rot of 160,000 sheep 
 
136 DISEASES OF THl! SHEEP. 
 
 C^ Veterinarian/ vii, pp. 557 and 587) will serve to illus- 
 trate the dimensions wliicli this disease assumes^ and the 
 value which a clear knowledge of it may have in the pre- 
 . sent and future. It is said to have been introduced into 
 the colony of Victoria in 1855 by German imported rams, 
 so even countries where it is not yet found must be appre- 
 hensive of invasion and careful to study the subject. 
 From the most ancient times sheep-owners have reckoned 
 on this disorder as one of the necessary ills with which 
 they have to contend, and have resignedly submitted to 
 the heavy tax on their flocks which it implies ; until quite 
 of late years it has ordinarily been received with a resig- 
 nation, the outcome of regular annual almost certain loss, 
 and in some countries, such as Burma, sheep husbandry 
 has been found impracticable on account of it. As a rule 
 the results of careful observation have sufficed to enable 
 the shepherd and flock master to hit on expedients for 
 keeping the losses of sheep from rot within reasonable 
 limits, but in some years an unusual extent and severity 
 of the disorder, a "jack rot," as farmers term it, occurs, 
 the flock being exterminated and the owner ruined on 
 many a farm and sheep-walk. It is quite unnecessary 
 here to record years of special prevalence in Great Britain, 
 but we may remark that farmers everywhere have had 
 experience of rot in many a year memorable to them on 
 account of severe losses, and that this experience varies in 
 accordance with climate and physical conformation of dif- 
 ferent localities. To the practical veterinarian rot is 
 specially interesting as one of the most frequent, exten- 
 sive, and serious of sheep diseases, and one in which his 
 services are of value for prevention and cure ; to the com- 
 parative pathologist no disease has a more instructive 
 history, whether as illustrating practical results of scientific 
 research in medicine, the typical phenomena of parasitism, 
 the evolution of knowledge of special disorders, or the 
 bearings of diseases of lower animals on the health and 
 wealth of mankind. Under these circumstances, it will 
 be conceded, the study of rot demands detailed and care- 
 ful notice, which we shall endeavour to make as concise 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 137 
 
 as possible and as can be combined with tboroughness. 
 Hippocrates, the father of medicine (veterinary as well as 
 human), was familiar with rot, and considered it due to 
 hydatids, a mistake which has been made again in very 
 recent years. Subsequently views were advanced which 
 were much less near the truth, but they are worth notice 
 because they illustrate how a disease which might in days 
 gone by have fairly been considered specific has now defi- 
 nitely assumed a position in classification as due to para- 
 sitic invasion. This is a result secured by pathological 
 research, and is parallel to the great advance in knowledge 
 of blood diseases occurring in the present time, whereby 
 microscopists have informed us of the true nature of such 
 diseases as anthrax. As the spirit of progress, by leading 
 to pathological anatomy, resulted in solution of the patho- 
 logy of rot, so in later years and by using even more 
 refined methods of research, it has made known to us bac- 
 teria and their pathogenic effects, and so in years to come 
 it will, by applications of instruments now known to us 
 but as " scientific toys," reveal the true nature of such 
 obscure disorders as influenza and contagious sheep foot-rot. 
 The observations of Hippocrates were not carefully followed 
 up by his successors, they ignored the practical methods 
 followed by him, and followed out the theory. Meanwhile 
 losses of sheep compelled farmers to make practical obser- 
 vations, resulting in the usual strange notions about dis- 
 ease when they gave rise to surmise as to causes, but con- 
 tributing to the history of the disorder not a few sound 
 observations and deductions. 
 
 While shepherds and farmers put rot down to the malign 
 influence of hobgoblins, witches, and other supernatural 
 beings, members of the schools of medical philosophy found 
 that it depended on " the ebb and flow of the humours," 
 " determination of bile," and other such nominal cloaks 
 of ignorance, of which one crops up unexpectedly in the 
 writings of Prof. Dick, who assents to the definition of rot 
 by Prof. Coventry (who held the Chair of Agriculture in 
 Edinburgh) as follows : "A direful ruin of the general 
 health and constitution which supervenes from deficient or 
 
138 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 depraved aliment." This, it will be noted, is merely the 
 conclusion that agriculturists had long ago arrived at when 
 they determined to call the disease rot, a short and ex- 
 pressive name which has received almost general accepta- 
 tion. " Among shepherds, ' rot ' was a very popular term 
 for several widely different diseases, and was, no doubt, 
 in those days convenient for covering gross ignorance. 
 So it was that we had the ' rot ' or ' great rot,' ' hydro- 
 pic rot,' ' pelt rot,' 'hunger rot,' ' glanderous rot, "blood 
 rot,' and other kinds of rot. These terms are meaning- 
 less, or at least inexpressive, and should be discarded " 
 (Fleming, 'Live Stock Journal Almanac,' 1881). Flukes 
 have long been known; thus Arnulphus described them 
 in 1542. Locally it has received special designations, 
 such as coathe (Dorsetshire), iles (Cornwall), bane (Somer- 
 setshire), and, according to Youatt, the " watery poke," 
 when the throat becomes swollen, the animal being de- 
 scribed as " checkered." The popular French name is 
 pourriture, but to veterinarians in France it is known as 
 watery cachexia ; in Germany it receives various names 
 such as Egelseuche, Faule, and Leberkrankheit. These 
 names have value as conveying popular ideas on the 
 disease, and also for recognition of it. Cobbold leads us 
 to infer that although rot now seems to be more constant as 
 an epizootic in Australia than in England it was originally 
 imported into the colony, not having been known there 
 before the year 1855. This is a matter which ought to be 
 settled authoritatively in so far as circumstances and re- 
 cords will permit, for it would be an important illustration 
 of diffusion of disease by trade in live stock, just as within 
 the last couple of years horse-pox has been conveyed into 
 the United States by imports from France. That excel- 
 lent observer Youatt gave the nature of rot most careful 
 and detailed consideration, and the arguments by which 
 he arrived at the conclusion that miasmatic gases from 
 decaying vegetation produce chronic inflammatory changes 
 in the liver, whereby the organ becomes a suitable nidus 
 for flukes (which are epi-phenomena but, as such, aggra- 
 vate the pre-existent disorder) are well worthy of detailed 
 
BIGESTIVE SYSTEM, 139 
 
 ptudy. Slmonds holds a somewhat similar view, in that 
 he considers the liver must be to an extent abnormal for 
 the parasites to produce their effects on it. Cohbold 
 adopts the view that the parasitic invasion is the essentia] 
 and sole cause of disease, and the tendency of modern 
 opinion is in favour of this view. The question which 
 here arises is a very general one applying to the whole 
 field of parasitism, and well known as that embraced in 
 the views of susceptibility, immunity, and the efficacy of 
 vaccination. As regards rot we may content ourselves 
 with the remark that the arguments against the disease 
 being essentially parasitic apply only to the earliest and 
 non-fatal stage of the disorder, and are seldom sound as 
 regards it. Thus Youatt states, " If the fluke follows the 
 analogy of the entozoa and parasites it is the effect and 
 not the cause of the rot. The ova are continually swal- 
 lowed by the sound animals and the diseased ; but it is 
 only when the fluids are altered, and sometimes essentially 
 changed, and the condition of the digestive organs is 
 materially impaired, that their appearance is favoured, or 
 their multiplication encouraged. They resemble the birds 
 of prey that hasten the death and the demolition of the 
 fallen deer, but who were not concerned in bringing the 
 animal down." The first part of this picturesque argu- 
 ment is pure supposition, for we have no proof that the 
 fluids are altered and digestion impaired before fluke inva- 
 sion resulting in rot. No doubt any slight structural dis- 
 order of the liver before invasion by lessening its bile- 
 producing power will shorten its period of efficiency as 
 compared with what it would have shown had the flukes 
 attacked it in an unweakened state, but we have no evi- 
 dence that the healthy liver has resistant powers against 
 fluke invasion as Simonds and Youatt imply or state ; 
 on the contrary, we have evidence that the healthy 
 liver may and does generally, contain flukes, as Youatt 
 in his next argument correctly but inconsistently shows. 
 Again, it is begging the question to say that the analogy 
 of other parasites supports the view that flukes are the 
 effect, not the cause of rot, for exactly the same question 
 
140 DISEASES OP THE 8BEEP. 
 
 arises in connection with, all parasites found in disease, 
 and in the present day we look on them as essentially 
 causes of disease, and term them pathogenic. It is believed, 
 for example, that a fluke has as much right to live in the 
 bile-ducts of the liver as a rabbit in a warren, but that at 
 times circumstances lead to excessive supply of flukes re- 
 sulting in liver disorder just as rabbits at times become 
 too numerous and constitute a rabbit plague, with the im- 
 portant difference that rabbits can breed in the burrow, 
 but flukes can not breed in the liver. It is excess of 
 parasites, not simple presence of the parasites, that gives 
 rise to rot ; Youatt himself suggests that a few flukes 
 may be of benefit to the liver " as exciting it to a more 
 uniform secretion of good bile," and he notes a reliable 
 observation that in autumn few sheep were absolutely with- 
 out a few flukes in the liver, sheep in better condition than 
 the rest were sure to have them, and that they were 
 numerous only in those showing the early symptoms of 
 approaching ailment. With characteristic frankness Youatt 
 admits that he never saw "the liver of a rotted sheep in 
 which the fluke-worm, or traces of his previous existence 
 in the liver, were not sufiiciently plain ;" and we fancy 
 the third argument brought forward, that rot can freely 
 be artificially produced at will, as by feeding a rabbit on 
 cabbage or other watery food, must in the present day be 
 unhesitatingly rejected as a fallacy. 
 
 We would lay stress on the fact that while we cannot 
 accept the views that rot commences as a simple inflamma- 
 tion of the liver, and that flukes are an effect of this pre- 
 existent disease, we freely admit that rot is not . simply 
 fluke in the liver. It is a disorganisation of the liver 
 resulting in constitutional disorder, such as might arise 
 from other causes than the fluke, but practically does not 
 do so. Hence to all intents and purposes we may deal 
 with rot as fascioliasis, i, e. the pathological state which 
 results from fluke invasion. Constitutional powers of re- 
 sistance are simply such as would be available against 
 ordinary liver disorganisation of a subacute or chronic 
 character, and pre-existent liver disorder is simply impor- 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. I4l 
 
 tant as lessening the general resistant powers of the con- 
 stitution. The fluke, it must be admitted, is a most active 
 and specially severe cause of liver disorder, and, as Youatt 
 has pointed out, it acts in several different ways : (1) it 
 causes irritation and disorganisation, and so undermines 
 the strength ; (2) it distends, and in that way weakens, the 
 bile passages ; (3) it forces its way into the smaller passages 
 against the stream of bile, and interferes with the relations 
 between minute bile-ducts, blood-vessels, and liver-cells ; 
 
 (4) it obstructs the flow of bile and so causes accumulation ; 
 
 (5) it clogs up the ducts with excrement and spawn ; and 
 
 (6) consumes the nutritive juices. Thus fascioliasis in 
 severity and intractability proves the most severe of all forms 
 of rot, but we can conceive that a less marked form would 
 result from certain non-parasitic influences sufficing to fully 
 account for symptoms of rot occasionally occurring without 
 the presence of flukes, although the symptoms shown differ 
 only in degree, not in kind, from the indications of fascio- 
 liasis. We well remember Professor Simonds laying stress 
 on the fact of livers coming into the Royal Veterinary 
 College during a rot epizootic in a high state of bile and 
 blood engorgement, but with no adult flukes in the ducts. 
 The animals from which such livers were taken seem to 
 have died from acute congestion of the liver produced by 
 invasion of countless minute young flukes, and these could 
 be detected on the point of the knife after section of the 
 liver as small masses of yellow jelly which might well have 
 been considered to be inspissated bile. An observation 
 made by an old but careful worker at the pathology of 
 rot may here be noticed ; he states that young flukes may 
 be found in the ducts of the liver as a whitish thick liquor 
 that appears all in motion ; examination with a pocket-glass ^ 
 confirms the view that this liquor is composed of the young 
 flukes ('Bath Society's Papers,' vol. ii, p. 118, quoted by 
 Youatt). Thus true fascioliasis may be present and no 
 adult full-sized flukes detectable in the liver, also fatality 
 in such cases may take place after acute liver derange- 
 ment, and be reported as " sudden death," and attributed 
 to other causes ; it is only in extremely fatal seasons, or 
 
142 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 in localities notorious in connection witli tlie genesis of rot 
 that such cases are seen. We find described a condition 
 mentioned as " water rot/' in which the liver is pallid^ 
 streaked with white here and there, and containing no 
 flukes. This, we are told, predisposes to the attack of 
 fluke, and is induced by wet weather and want of nitro- 
 genous food. Such cases may be non-parasitic chronic 
 hepatitis, but are much more frequently true fascioliasis 
 cases in which the fluke has left the liver, but not before 
 producing such considerable changes as are beyond the 
 reparative powers of the system, and ultimately prove fatal 
 by their aneemiating influence. 
 
 Causes. — Farmers found that rot proved prejudicial to 
 their interests, not only as causing loss of saleable wool, 
 mutton, and pelts, but as disturbing the working of the 
 farm routine by cutting short the supply of manure for the 
 production of which alone sheep were kept by many. 
 Loss thus being experienced severely and in many ways, 
 the causes of it were eagerly sought for and a number of 
 empirical but most valuable observations were made ; 
 their soundness has been confirmed by scientific observa- 
 tion and experiment, errors have to an extent been eradi- 
 cated, and supplementary results have been obtained from 
 exact study of the disease and of the parasite which occa- 
 sions it. It is evident that the fluke is the sole cause or 
 producer of true fascioliasis, the determining causes are 
 very numerous and are the conditions most favorable to 
 multiplication and spread of flukes, and to their entry into 
 the organism of the sheep. In the first place rot is enzootic, 
 directly associated with locality and affecting numbers 
 simultaneously ; it only in very bad years proves epizootic 
 (or apparently so) by extending over large tracts of country, 
 widely spread in spite of soil, water supply, nature of 
 pasture, and other such local conditions. Ordinarily, the 
 enzootic influence resides evidently in the soil and in the 
 conditions of the pasture ; low marshy lands, pastures when 
 drying up after flooding, stagnant pools, badly drained 
 spots in otherwise sound pastures, even accumulations of 
 water in ditches and in the footprints of cattle in mud are 
 
D16KSTIVE SYSTEM. 143 
 
 known to be dangerous to sheep ; wherever there is a 
 moist spot of a swampy character fluke may be acquired, 
 even a small, unnoticed pond may be the source of the 
 disease on a pasture. Such stagnant spots are especially 
 seen on tenacious soils with clay on the surface or as a subsoil ; 
 they occur between, and at the foot of, hills; they can be 
 got rid of by drainage and increased by neglect. In very 
 wet seasons, when the floods are out, swamps and marshes 
 and such low-lying pastures as in ordinary seasons are 
 " unsound," become covered with water and quite safe for 
 sheep so far as rot is concerned j on the other hand, pastures 
 on uplands or even highlands, ordinarily quite safe, then 
 become moist and marshy in a state which makes them 
 " unsound." Thus, with an unusually wet season, such as a 
 rainy summer, a moist autumn, or a very wet winter, the 
 disease may be expected, and excess of rain long continued 
 is a fruitful cause, and is specially operative as a cumu- 
 lative influence when there is a succession of wet seasons. 
 We can well understand its prevalence in certain parts of 
 Australia and other new countries liable to flood, and 
 where sheep must range over a vast tract of undrained soil 
 and long-standing pasture. "First the flood, then the 
 pestilence," is commonly exemplified in the prevalence of 
 rot in the Nile Delta, in association with the fall of the 
 Nile ; and another useful proverb to remember in this con- 
 nection is that " many a frost and many a thaw betokens 
 many a rotten ewe." With regard to the time of year 
 when rot is acquired, this varies somewhat in relation to 
 locality, climatic influences, and so on. It is remarked 
 that a flock may be turned into meadows in early spring 
 with impunity, whereas grazing in such meadows in autumn 
 would be almost certainly fatal ; towards the end of spring 
 is the critical time, and by the end of November few fresh 
 cases are observable ; the disease is acquired in May and 
 June in Great Britain (especially the southern part of 
 England), and fntalities occur in autumn and winter ; if 
 there is much wet towards the commencement of summer, 
 the outbreaks may be delayed, but, as we have already 
 seen, such untimely downpours prove a cause of serious 
 
144 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 mortality. Overstocking of land increases the liability to 
 outbreak, even tkough the excess of animals be of species 
 other than sheep ; this probably does not so much depend 
 on increased contamination of pastures by diffusion of fluke 
 eggs with droppings (for practically no flock is absolutely 
 free from fluke, and the parasite may occur in horses and 
 cattle as well as sheep), but from the necessity for sufii- 
 cient food driving sheep to the longer and less sweet 
 grasses of moist places, whereas, by choice, they would 
 have eaten only the short, crisp grasses of dry portions of 
 the pasture. Also, it causes the sheep to crop the herbage 
 even closer than usual. Over-grazing land is a cause of 
 rot, and Thomas suggests that the liability of the ovine 
 species to rot is in direct relation to the degree in which 
 it grazes more closely than other species. " Hog-jawed " 
 sheep, which cannot crop closely to the ground, are seldom 
 affected with rot. Thompson, of Aspatria, says that 
 parrot-mouthed or " shuttle-gobbed " sheep are seldom 
 affected with rot because the malformation of the lower 
 jaw prevents them nipping the herbage so close to the 
 surface as usual with sheep, and the larvse are more 
 frequently on the lower part of the grass stems. Pro- 
 bably the grand provision of nature whereby, with few 
 exceptions, the ewe with lamb at side seems to enjoy 
 immunity even on the worst ground, referred to by Youatt, 
 depends on the fact that milch ewes generally receive a 
 liberal allowance of artificial food, such as enables them to 
 dispense with coarse, bitter grass from doubtful places in 
 pastures. Luxuriant pasture is said not to be dangerous, 
 but this statement must be received with much reserve ; a 
 meadow on a good, uniform slope, having satisfactory 
 natural drainage, is practically always sound, and the same 
 remark applies to light, non-retentive soils, properly drained 
 by artificial means. 
 
 It is certain that in places where the larvee of flukes 
 prevail, such as the ditches of country lanes, stagnant 
 ponds on commons, and so on, sheep may pick up the dis- 
 ease with grass or water in an hour or two ; this is a 
 matter to be specially borne in mind, as it may have 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 145 
 
 important 'bearings on the returnability of affected sheep 
 as unsound at the time of purchase^ and also as pointing 
 to the importance of exercising discretion concerning where 
 sheep are allowed to graze and drink while on journeys or 
 in strange places. Sheep do not convey the disease directly 
 to other sheep, but food and water contaminated by rotten 
 sheep may in due course become a source of danger to 
 the flock, also to various animals in which the mature 
 fluke has been found, i. e, the ox, horse, goat, rabbit, 
 camel, deer, ass, hog, dog, guinea-pig, kangaroo, and other 
 mammals, in some of which at times true cases of fasoio- 
 liasis are seen. Various causes have been supposed from 
 time to time to produce the disorder, but are now con- 
 sidered to have only a very indirect influence, if any. 
 Thus, we are now sure that weak sheep are not specially 
 predisposed to parasitic invasion, though they are the most 
 liable to suffer fatally from it ; damp food operates only 
 in so far as it is liable to be a conveyer of fluke embryos ; 
 evaporation of water and the presence of decomposing 
 moist vegetable matters are insufficient in themselves to 
 generate it ; no one breed is specially predisposed, but the 
 heavier races may suffer most from the nature of the land 
 on which they generally pasture j the disease is not here- 
 ditary, contagious, nor infectious. Young sheep give evi- 
 dence of the disease more than older ones. 
 
 The fluke, which is the sole cause er immediate pro- 
 ducer of fascioliasis, is termed douve by the French, his- 
 cuiola by the Italians. Its technical name is Fasciola 
 hepatica or Distomum hepaticum, and it belongs to the 
 Trematode section of the ill-defined group of Annuloida. 
 In non-scientific language it is a flat-worm, non-segmented, 
 and shaped like the fish known as a flounder. It is found 
 in the bile passages of the liver, associated with a more or 
 less diseased state of those passages, some few are found 
 in the intestinal canal, many in the ductus choledochus 
 and gall-bladder, most in the gall-duct with its ramifica- 
 tions. They are numerous in proportion to the extent of 
 disease in the liver, and attention to their whereabouts will 
 generally be drawn by the white spots or lines on the sur- 
 
 10 
 
J 46 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 face which betoken a thickening of the biliary passages. 
 G-enerally parasites of other species^ especially echinococci, 
 cyst. tenuicoUiSj and intestinal nematodes are present in an 
 animal suffering from advanced rot, because circumstances 
 favorable to fluke invasion are such as prove advantageous 
 to secure entry of other parasitic forms. These other 
 organisms develop and undergo their life changes simulta- 
 neously with the flukes, but are quite independent of them 
 and of little importance except in so far as they may give 
 rise to symptoms complicating a case of rot. Because a 
 liver shows no external indications of disease it must not 
 be inferred that flukes are absent ; the bile-duct should be 
 slit up carefully from intestine to liver, and the gall- 
 bladder thrown open ; then the ramifications of the gall- 
 duct may be followed through the liver- substance. Dupuy 
 has counted as many as a thousand flukes from a bad case 
 of rot, but in the undiseased organ only two or three may 
 be found. In summer and spring not a single fluke may 
 be present, but the liver may show distinct indications 
 that it has long been invaded by the entozoa. Again, in 
 the early stages of overwhelming invasion, undoubtedly 
 the young, sexually immature flukes may be much more 
 numerous than a thousand. These latter are like little 
 soft masses of jelly of a yellow colour, and they have to 
 be spread out very carefully before we can distinguish the 
 peculiar shape of the fluke in them. As the animal grows 
 it becomes firmer in substance and of a darker chocolate 
 colour and crisp consistency, so that it is rather liable to 
 be cut by the knife in opening the ducts. The flukes 
 occur in bile highly vitiated, thick, and viscid not only 
 from defects in its secretion but also from a mixture with 
 it of excreta and ova of the fluke. On opening the body 
 of an animal affected with advanced rot, we find that the 
 blood is thin and watery. Delafond has shown that its 
 albumen is deficient. The tissues in general are pale, or 
 yellow and watery, soft, and flabby. The muscles seem 
 as though they had been macerated, and a yellow serous 
 fluid everywhere follows the knife (Youatt) . If any fat be 
 left it is especially yellow, but as a rule the fat is replaced 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 147 
 
 around the heart and elsewhere where its presence is 
 essential by a sticky^ slimy, white or yellow jelly. The 
 heart partakes of the general softening and may he en- 
 larged ; " the lungs are everywhere filled with tubercle/' 
 says Youattj by which he refers either to calcified hydatids, 
 changes wrought by the lung-worms, or to flukes which, 
 having found entry into the lungs, being carried to those 
 organs by the blood current from the hepatic veins 
 (Leuckart), have there become encysted and undergone 
 calcareous change. On opening the belly straw-coloured 
 or yellow serum escapes, and sometimes, it is said, pus 
 (and even flukes) are present, and the contained organs 
 are united together by false membranes, especially the 
 liver to the organs nearest it. The peritoneum is every- 
 where thick and yellow; the intestines are abnormally pale ; 
 kidneys pale, soft, and cedematous ; mesenteric glands en- 
 larged and yellow, and gelatinous looking. Priedberger 
 found the following conditions in an autopsy in liver rot : 
 Carcass emaciated, muscular tissue very pale, subcuta- 
 neous abdominal tissue very cedematous, fluid and coagu- 
 lated material in belly ; liver adherent to omentum and to 
 abdominal walls by fibrous bands, in which were some 
 freshly coagulated blood-clots about the size of beans. 
 Liver firmly united to diaphragm ; parietal peritoneum soft, 
 thick, and opaque, easily removable from underlying struc- 
 tures. Dark yellow fluid in pleural and pericardial sacs. 
 Pulmonary, gastric, mesenteric, and bronchial lymphatic 
 glands large, cedematous, pigmented. Visceral pleura 
 over pericardium reddened by blood imbibition. Lungs 
 slightly splenified in various portions, the bronchial tubes 
 leading to which showed spindle-shaped and cylindrical dis- 
 tensions, the mucous membrane of which was slightly thick 
 and covered with muco-purulent secretion. Heart : mus- 
 cular tissue soft. Liver enlarged to three times the normal, 
 mostly in thickness ; a fibrous false membrane over the 
 organ, thickest at the anterior surface, some distomata 
 beneath it and in the peritoneal effusion; hepatic lym- 
 phatic glands enlarged, cedematous, and pigmented. Liver 
 capsule in some places clouded, in others rough. Surface 
 
148 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 of liver uneven, presenting several prominences varying in 
 size and colour. Gall-bladder full of dark, olive-green 
 bile. Liver flesh-like in consistency and soft, its connec- 
 tive tissue hyperplastic. Infarcts which have undergone 
 degeneration and necrosis in the superficial and deep-seated 
 parts of the organ. Biliary mucous membrane ecchymosed 
 in places, swollen, and injected. Thrombi in the portal 
 veins. In another case the same observer found, among 
 other conditions, hard miliary nodules, consisting of gela- 
 tinous material with calcareous concretions, in the sub- 
 pleura and in parts of the parenchyma of the lungs, slight 
 ecchymosis of the endocardium, a few subcapsular heemor- 
 rhagic spots of the spleen and kidneys ; calcareous con- 
 cretions in the Uver ; ova of flukes in the gall-bladder. 
 The mucous membrane of the gall-ducts affected with a 
 violent desquamative purulent catarrh, in places studded 
 with hsemorrhagic spots, and the walls enormously thick- 
 ened in patches, surrounded by large extravasations of 
 blood. Friedberger finds in the living animal the abdo- 
 men enlarged, pain on pressure on the right side ; urine 
 containing chlorides, sometimes acid ; free from albumen 
 and bile colouring. 
 
 "Fluke abscesses" in distant parts of the body have been 
 found in man (Leuckart), the parasites having been pro- 
 bably carried to the seat of abscess in the circulatory 
 current ; some say their occurrence in the lungs is due to 
 direct penetration from the liver, and it is certain that 
 the walls of the bile-ducts and the liver tissues can be 
 penetrated by the young flukes, the head booklets of which 
 constitute a very good boring apparatus. Some penetrate 
 the walls of the hepatic veins, others the abdominal 
 cavity. 
 
 The liver is the seat of most serious changes ; it is de- 
 scribed (by Youatt) as speckled like the back of a toad, 
 in consequence of its chocolate-brown, mottled appearance, 
 or light yellow colour, interspersed with pale spots ap- 
 proaching white. May and others have observed open- 
 ings on the surface of the liver, through which the flukes 
 emerge. Its tissue is hard in parts, but elsewhere soft 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 149 
 
 and friable, and when boiled almost dissolves away. In 
 the main it is somewhat firm to the feel and irregularly 
 knotted on the surface and margins from the thickened 
 state of its ducts, large and small. These ducts become 
 sacculated from presence of the flukes in numbers, and the 
 mucous membrane undergoes calcareous change from con- 
 tinued irritation, so that the liver sometimes " cuts gritty." 
 The bile is found thick and dirty looking, grumous, and 
 laden with flukes and their eggs, as well as calcareous 
 material. In the bile the eggs are too small (g-g^i-th of an 
 inch in length) to be detectable separately by the naked 
 eye, but nevertheless are so numerous as to give it a dark 
 colour. In some of the small ducts where the eggs have 
 not been washed away by the bile, they may be present 
 in such enormous numbers as to form a stiff, dark-brown 
 mass, looking like fine, wet sand, and completely blocking 
 up the inside of the duct (Thomas). Careful examination 
 of the intestinal contents shows flukes and fluke eggs inter- 
 mingled with ordinary chyle materials, and both eggs and 
 mature parasites can be detected in the dung of living 
 animals for purposes of diagnosis, especially in the spring, 
 when the eggs naturally come away from the bearer, and 
 at any time after the flukes have been six weeks in the 
 sheep. 
 
 Symptoms. — The theory has been advanced that it is 
 the object of flukes in nature to enter the livers of higher 
 mammalia, especially the sheep, in small numbers, and act 
 as a mild stimulus to efficient action of the liver. Un- 
 doubtedly the presence of a few flukes in the liver does 
 stimulate the flow of bile, with the result of producing 
 improved condition of the animal, but since sheeps' livers 
 do very well without such stimulus, and the livers of some 
 animals closely allied are seldom or never invaded by fluke, 
 and there are hot, dry countries (such as the Deccan in 
 India) where sheep thrive but fluke is practically never 
 seen, we must conclude that fluke is by no means essential 
 to the sheep. This early thriving as a symptom of fluke 
 invasion is a well-known phenomenon, so much so that it 
 excites apprehension of the practical farmer when his sheep 
 
150 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 begin to get too fat. Bakewell, with characteristic shrewd- 
 ness, used to gain five or six weeks on his neighbours in 
 fattening his sheep for the market by turning them out 
 to finish on unsound meadows, and purchasers of sheep 
 for slaughter-purposes sometimes stipulate that they shall 
 have a final run on some meadow well known to produce 
 rot. This practice has been rightly condemned as tend- 
 ing to increase of rot prevalence by artificial diffusion of 
 ova, and is open to the suspicion of lessening the nutritive 
 value of mutton so forced as food for the people. The 
 former objection is the more serious, the latter has not yet 
 been soundly established ; Youatt describes the flesh in 
 such cases as " paler and approaching to yellow, and the 
 fat was flabby. The meat was tender, and perhaps would 
 please certain epicures, but it had not the firmness nor 
 the flavour of mutton honestly fattened, and probably was 
 not quite wholesome." We have underlined the word 
 " honestly " because we consider such practice not dis- 
 honest, and that it is by no means proved that such meat 
 is unwholesome. So long as the increased liver action is 
 followed by increased tissue formation it cannot be con- 
 sidered that the system is diseased nor the carcass dete- 
 riorated as food, any more than if the liver stimulation 
 and increased weight had been produced by high feeding ; 
 a yellow colour of the fat is not to be taken as an indica- 
 tion that the food is unwholesome. The condition is, how- 
 ever, a critical one as verging on disease, and where the 
 mark may be easily overshot ; the art of carrying out this 
 process without ill result consists in immediate detection 
 of the acme of condition, and slaughtering the animals 
 while thus in the condition of prime mutton. When rot 
 ; igthoroughly established, the meat deteriorates and decom- 
 poses , ra,pi;dly, and in the advanced stages it has a most 
 sickening/odour, and is manifestly unsuited for human 
 food, just as any other dropsical carcass would be. Flukes 
 eaten by the human subject in imperfectly cooked sheep's 
 liver can do no harm to the individual, but will make him 
 a temporary diffuser of fluke ova in his ejecta. 
 
 The disorder in the sheep is insidious in its invasion 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 151 
 
 and chronic in its progress. Gerlaoh enumerates the fol- 
 lowing stages of rot : 
 
 (1) Traumatic hepatitis, which occurs between June 
 and autumn, is seldom or never diagnosed but sometimes 
 seen after death from apoplexy. The liver is in a state 
 of acute inflammation. 
 
 (2) Dropsy. The liver pale and firm. Occurs from 
 September to November or December, i. e. six to twelve 
 weeks after invasion. 
 
 (3) Emaciation : this is the stage of greatest mortality. 
 It occurs in January and February, and the liver is 
 atrophied. 
 
 (4) Migration of the flukes occurs in May and June ; 
 but Thomas has evidence of flukes remaining in the sheep 
 longer than a year. 
 
 The times of prevalence of these stages vary in different 
 countries. Thus in England Thomas finds most fluke cysts 
 on the grass in September or October. 
 
 Simonds notices as premonitory indications the pre- 
 sence of occasional cough and fastidiousness of the appetite, 
 also that the animal's state of health is delicate, so that it 
 suffers to an undue degree from exposure to wet and cold. 
 Beattie, a mo?t experienced practical observer, notes (in the 
 ' Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society,' 
 vol. iii, 1807) that in spring when the ewes are dropping 
 their lambs if the liquor amnii be very white and like thin 
 watery bubbles it is a bad sign, and in September when 
 drafting the ewes he adopts the usual method of feeling 
 the condition. Those in which the lumbar muscles feel 
 soft and flabby, and in which the extremities of the lumbar 
 transverse processes can be plainly felt, are considered 
 unsound, they are known as " lean on the back," and the 
 impression is conveyed to the fingers of crackling as though 
 there were water and bubbles below the skin (" rippling " 
 as it is called). Beattie insists that this test is of value 
 only when applied by an experienced man, and that no 
 one can with absolute certainty "draw" a flock tainted with 
 rot. Next the condition of the conjunctival blood-vessels 
 is examined, the state of the caruncula lachrymalis, car- 
 
152 DISEASES or THE SHEEP. 
 
 tilago nictitans, and tlie vessels on the white of the eye is 
 noticed. If the flock has been on heathland, or otherwise 
 not highly fed, the conjunctiva may be pale in all of them, 
 but in well-fed sheep it should be of a bright red colour, 
 the blood-vessels should severally be sharply defined and 
 free from gelatinous deposit. In drawing a flock, judg- 
 ment must be arrived at by comparison of the colour with 
 that of the rest of the flock (Beattie) . The cartilage and 
 conjunctiva, especially if the animal has been driven a 
 short distance, will look moist and watery and be tinged 
 with pale or yellow blood, later the vessels are white and 
 scarcely to be distinguished except a few watery-looking 
 ones or containing dark blood (Simonds). Gelatinous 
 deposit beneath the conjunctiva against the caruncle, and 
 a distended white-coloured state of the blood-vessels is, 
 then, distinctive of rot, or at any rate of some serious inter- 
 ference with the condition of the animal such as in sheep 
 is almost invariably due to fascioliasis. Simonds notes 
 that the skin is dry and scaly, a condition which may best 
 be seen inside the thigh. To this may be added that the 
 skin assumes a pale yellow hue especially detectable about 
 the brisket, and the animal lags behind his companions, 
 lies down frequently, and is decidedly weak and dull. In 
 a confirmed case of rot the symptoms are those of anaemia, 
 slight jaundice, and subacute fever combined. Gerlach 
 and Friedberger rightly insist on the frequent complete 
 absence of symptoms of icterus in true cases of rot. The 
 visible mucous membrane becomesvery bloodless and yellow 
 to a more or less marked degree, the caruncle is decidedly 
 yellow; the flesh wastes until the animal becomes extremely 
 emaciated and very weak, the flanks are hollow, the back 
 stiff, and the spine prominent; there is yielding and 
 tenderness on pressure of the loins. The poor animal 
 suffers from thirst and depraved appetite, the bowels are 
 irregular. It is always suspicious in the autumnal months 
 to find sheep occasionally scouring, as Prof. Simonds 
 tells us. As the disease progresses purging sets in, an 
 indication of approaching death from exhaustion. The 
 pulse becomes weak and irregular j the changes in the 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 153 
 
 blood are denoted by anasmio murmurs detectable on aus- 
 cultation of the heart j and by progressive dropsy. There 
 is some hydrothorax, a pendulous condition of the belly 
 denotes ascites, and subcutaneous swelling of a dropsical 
 character occurs, especially about the throat. Besides tlie 
 dull yellow colour of the eye, we note changes of the 
 mucous membranes of the mouth and nostril, which first 
 become yellow, then livid, and the breath will be noticed 
 to be foetid. As regards the state of the skin, from its 
 yellow and dry condition with scanty yolk, we find it 
 becomes especially yellow about the nozzle, and at places 
 is spotted yellow or even black ; the fleece is loose and 
 drops off in patches ; the whole integument seems flaccid, 
 loose, and crackles on pressure. The attack may be pro- 
 tracted to four or six months, the animal becoming weaker 
 and weaker until it is a mere skeleton, purging freely. 
 Stupor sets in and death from exhaustion is not long 
 delayed. Consumption of carcases of animals in an ad- 
 vanced state of rot is known to have caused serious diar- 
 rhoea in mankind, and fatal diarrhoea with typhoid sym- 
 ptoms have occurred in butchers and others opening rotten 
 carcases. The exact reason for the latter phenomenon is 
 not clear. 
 
 In order to the thorough understanding of the disease 
 known as rot the life-history of Fasciola Jiepatica has been 
 studied with great assiduity. The adult parasite as it occurs 
 in the liver of the sheep and in a sexually mature state 
 is from | — IJ in. long by ^ — ^ in. broad at the shoulder, 
 and -^th inch thick. It has two suckers, one on the 
 anterior or " head " end termed the oral, and the other on 
 the ventral surface at a short distance from the head. 
 The oral sucker is a holdfast for nutritive purposes, the 
 ventral for reproduction, and probably each acts at times 
 as an organ of progression, to which end spines on the 
 skin and the movements of the animal contribute. The 
 digestive apparatus is a remarkably branched stomach with 
 two tubes, one on each side of the body, and these unite 
 to form an oesophagus which runs to the mouth. Absorp- 
 tion of nutriment probably occurs through the general sur- 
 
154 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP, 
 
 face of the body^ the branched stomach is generally found 
 filled with bile. There is a branched system of vessels, 
 termed the water vascular, for conveyance of a nutritive 
 lymph-like fluid. Eespiration is performed by the general 
 surface of the body. Flukes are hermaphroditic, each indi- 
 vidual having a well-developed testis and long penis, also 
 an ovary and an enormous oviduct considered to be capable 
 of containing several thousand eggs (40,000, for instance, 
 in one calculation). A well-developed ganglion consti- 
 tutes the nerve-centre, and is connected with a surface 
 seuse-organ or " eye " of a rudimentary character. The 
 parenchyma of the body contains numerous white muscular 
 fibres which confer on it its crispness and power of in- 
 voluntary contraction. We do not accurately know what is 
 the limit to the life of individual flukes ; it seems certain 
 that almost invariably they last but a season and migrate 
 or are expelled while depositing their ova. This is, of 
 course, a most important point practically, as bearing on 
 the curability of rot. Simonds seems to imply that under 
 exceptional circumstances, such as especially those which 
 lead to the continued production of good bile, i. e. good feed 
 for the flukes, their residence in the liver may be pro- 
 longed from season to season, and ultimately cause fatal 
 disturbance, but this is a point which requires to be veri- 
 fied. Thomas considers he has evidence to confirm this 
 view. It has been amply verified by experiment that the 
 transference of flukes or eggs between individual sheep does 
 not prove compatible with the vital condition of the fluke, 
 and so cannot produce rot ; thus error of observation lies 
 at the bottom of cases where sucking lambs which have not 
 fed on solid food have been supposed to obtain the disease 
 direct from their dams, it is quite possible for such lambs to 
 have ingested embryos while playing with grass, though not 
 actually eating it. Another important point is that flukes 
 as such do not multiply in the liver, they become sexually 
 mature, mutually impregnate (self-impregnation being 
 very doubtful), pass through the full period of egg bear- 
 ing, and expel the ova, but no budding or other such pro- 
 cess occurs whereby two flukes may multiply in the liver 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 155 
 
 into fifty, for example ; were such, not the case fluke in- 
 vasion must have proved invariably fatal, whereas under 
 existing circumstances the danger to the animal depends 
 on the number of young flakes which enter the liver, and 
 the period of their duration there ; also whether the sheep 
 have strength of constitution enough to outlive their term of 
 residence, and to sufficiently repair any ravages they may 
 have caused. We must next study the mode of develop- 
 ment of the parasites. Simonds insists that the eggs are 
 deposited, some of them in the minutest ramifications of 
 the bile-canals ; they certainly are expelled (by the fluke) 
 in. all parts of the bile-ducts (including the gall-bladder), 
 in the intestinal canal, and on the soil after escape of the 
 flukes from the body, but wherever they are deposited their 
 ultimate destination is the soil to which they are conveyed, 
 either with the faeces as free ova or in the mature fluke. 
 The bearer is a distributer of flukes in that he may move 
 from pasture to pasture expelling ova in the spring of the 
 year principally ; as one sheep may contain a thousand 
 flukes, and each fluke forty thousand eggs, it is manifest 
 that one bearer may contaminate a pasture, though that 
 bearer be in apparent health. 
 
 Further, it is not essential that the bearer be a sheep, 
 for horses, cattle, hares, rabbits, kangaroos, deer, and 
 numerous other mammals can harbour the adult fluke 
 and may be victims of liver-rot. The ova vary in colour, 
 and from November to April may occasionally be seen in 
 the dung of healthy sheep, but swarming in that of a 
 diseased one. Such flukes as escape from the intestinal 
 canal can wriggle about sufficiently to conceal themselves 
 in the grass, and they expel many contained ova in single file 
 from the oviduct. They then die and decompose, or fall a 
 prey to insects ; in this way all the fluke ova sooner or later 
 become dispersed. We have no evidence as to how long the 
 eggs of the fluke retain their vitality and remain withoutger- 
 mination. Until escape from the body of the sheep the eggs 
 do not undergo much development. A temperature of 74 — 
 78° P. is most favorable to hatching, the embryo being then 
 found in two to three weeks ; at 60° it takes two to three 
 
156 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 montts ; at temperatures below this, as in winter, the egg 
 does not change at all. Simonds suggests that they may be 
 capable of prolonged vitality, and it has been supposed 
 that hay formed from grass cut in unsound meadows may 
 be a disseminator of the disease, but this, though possible, 
 is not probable, because the eggs at expulsion already 
 contain the embryo in its incipient stage of development, 
 the yolk having undergone segmentation, altogether in a 
 state almost too advanced to admit of prolonged dormancy. 
 Insects, the feet and other parts of cattle and sheep, dogs, 
 rabbits, men, and other animals are means of diffusion of 
 the ova, and it is stated that a ram turned among ewes is 
 not unfrequently a contaminator of pasture in this way, 
 whence the erroneous notion of the contagiousness of the 
 disorder has originated. Wind may possibly disseminate 
 the eggs, but probably does not, because the railing in of 
 a poachy or boggy spot sometimes suflBces to make a meadow 
 previously notoriously unsound a safe grazing place for 
 sheep. Rain washes the ova into drains, ponds, and other 
 accumulations of water, and running water proves a diffuser 
 of ova and embryo forms of fluke, whereas stagnant water 
 proves a favorable seat for their development and access 
 to intermediary and ultimate bearers. The egg-contents 
 develop into the ciliated embryo, which, like an Infusorian 
 in structure and habits, swims freely about in water. It 
 is enabled to escape from the ovum because the latter has 
 at one end or " pole " a kind of lid which yields after pro- 
 longed immersion in water and under vigorous impulses of 
 the embryo within. On rising of this lid the ciliated 
 embryo escapes ; it has the figure of an inverted cone, 
 with a proboscis-like papilla at the centre of its broad 
 and flat anterior portion. It has a cross-shaped dorsal 
 pigment spot (of two lateral parts), which is considered to 
 be an organ of vision. After a few days of free rapidly- 
 moving existence the young creature loses its cilia and 
 becomes a creeping larva, this finds its way into a mollusc, 
 which is thus the first intermediary bearer of the fluke. 
 Thomas flnds that the invaded mollusc is the Limnseus trun- 
 catulatus, a freshwater snail with a brown spiral shell. 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 157 
 
 common and widely distributed. Its shell is sometimes 
 even under a quarter of an inch in lengthy never over half 
 an inch. It has no popular name and is amphibious. Some 
 of these resisted six weeks^ drought, and lived in damp 
 moss for eleven weeks. The snails suffer much from the 
 invasion, and in the laboratory fluke disease is more fatal 
 to the snail than to the sheep (Thomas). This snail only 
 it seems is the intermediary bearer of the liver-fluke in 
 Great Britain, but in Australia, North America, and other 
 places where rot occurs (but this particular snail does not) 
 other species of Limnsei may act as intermediary bearers. 
 April, May, June, and July (especially the two latter 
 months) is when the snail is invaded. A severe winter 
 kills off rotten snails, but a mild winter may simply render 
 them torpid, and then unusually early cases of rot in sheep 
 may occur in the following May. In the tissues of this snail 
 it develops into the sporocyst, redia,* or "nurse," a kind of 
 sac in which develop numerous larvae with tails (cercarise) . 
 These escape through a special vent in the redia, and for 
 a time lead independent free lives in water. They then 
 come to rest, cast their tails, and develop an enveloping 
 cyst of a snow white colour, which adheres to the stalks 
 or leaves of grasses and water plants. These may remain 
 a few weeks, but if they then undergo no further change 
 of conditions the embryo within perishes. In this form 
 on grass or in water they pass into the alimentary canal 
 of the host or ultimate bearer (sheep, horse, or other 
 mammal) and the pupa-cyst is digested by the action of 
 the gastric juice, and from the stomach of the host through 
 the duodenum and bile-duct the fluke passes gradually up 
 into the liver (Zurn and Leuckart). Gerlach supposes the 
 embryos penetrate to the liver through the gastric walls. 
 During this passage it develops until it ultimately attains 
 sexual maturity. In favorable seasons and circumstances 
 the sporocysts produce not only cercarians, but also, by 
 
 * RedisD properly are the second generation of the embryo. The sporo- 
 cysts inhabit the snail's lungs, or thereabouts. The redise migrate into the 
 tissues of the snail, having burst out of the sporocyst, and take up their abode 
 especially near the liver. 
 
Fm. 20. 
 
 Via. 3U. 
 
 Fio. 31. 
 
 /^.. 
 
 Fia. 29. — Egg of the Liver-fluke examined sliortly after it was tali en from 
 the liver of a slieep. At the right-hand end of the shell may he seen the line 
 marking ofE the lid, and a little to the left the emhrjo in a very early stage 
 of development. The embryo is surrounded by round masses whieh serve as 
 food ; they arc all of them granular, hut only three at the left-hand side have 
 heen fully drawn. Magnified 680 times. (Original.— A. P. T.) 
 
 Fig. 30. — Egg of the fluke containing an embryo ready to hatch out; d, 
 remains of food ; e, a cushion of jelly-like substance ; /, boring-tool of the 
 embryo ; A, eye-spots ; k, germinal cells. Magnified 680 times. (Original. 
 — A.P. T.) 
 
 Fio. 31. — An embryo as it appears when swimming in the water ; f, 
 boring-tool; h. eye-spots. JIagnilied 500 times. (Original.— A. P. T.) 
 
Fio. 33. 
 
 —A,' 
 
 Fia. 34. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 1''IG. 32. — Embryo of Liver-fluke boring into a snail. Only a very small 
 part of tbe snail has been drawn. Magnified 370 times. (Original. — A. P. T.) 
 
 Fig. 33. — A young sporocyst dividing into two : K , eye-spots disappearing. 
 Magnified 500 times. (Original.— A. P. T.) 
 
 Fig. 34. — Sliows the change of the embryo into sporocyst just after it has 
 entered the snuil. — Magnified 500 times. (Original. — A. P. T.) 
 
 Fig. 35. — Shows a young sporocyst produced by the change of the embryo : 
 /, boring-tool ; K , eye-spots disappearing ; i, germinal cells. Magnified 500 
 times. (Original. — A. P. T.) 
 
160 
 
 DISEASES or THE SHEEP. 
 
 FiQ. 36. 
 
 FXG. 37. 
 
 FiQ. 36. — A full-jjrown sporocyst (the first generation) of the Liver-fluke. 
 It contains several germ>^ in different stages of growtli. The largest, at the 
 lower end, has assumed the characters of a redia. Magnified 230 times. 
 Oriffinal,— A. P. T.) 
 
 FiQ. 37. — A young redia (second generation) of the Liver-fluke, with the 
 contents forming into germs of the third generation. Magnified 230 times. 
 (Original.— A. P. T.) 
 
 [All these figures by Professor Thomas on fluke development are from the 
 'Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society' and published by special permis- 
 sion of the Council, which is hereby gratefully acknowledged.] 
 
Fig. 38. 
 
 FlO. 39. 
 
 <^t3; 
 
 "c)y 
 
 TO-- ? 
 
 u 
 
 or envelope. Magaified 160 times. 
 
 FlS. 38. — A full grown redia (second 
 generation) of the Liver-fluke. It con- 
 tains a large number of germs of the 
 third generation. Two of these are so 
 far advanced that they show the charac- 
 , ters of the tailed larva or cercaria. It 
 contains also, on the left hand, a young 
 redia ; c' and c'', the two cercariae ; in, 
 intestine of cercaria; w, jo', germs in 
 a very early stage ; r, r, the processes 
 which serve as feet ; «»', the intestine 
 of redia ; v, the birth-opening by which 
 the cercarifB leave. Magnified 120 
 times. (Original. — A. P. T.) 
 
 Fio. 39. — A free cercariaB (third 
 generation) of the Liver-fluke as it is 
 seen when swimming in the water : 
 y, ^', the two suckers corresponding to 
 the suckers of the adult fluke; in, in- 
 testine; cy, the rounded masses at the 
 sides of the body which provide the 
 material for the formation of the cyst 
 (Original,— A. R T.) 
 
 11 
 
PiO 40. 
 
 Fi&. 41. 
 
 Fia. 40. — A cercaria in the'act of forming ita cyst or envelope. Magnified 
 160 times. (Original.— A. P. T.) 
 
 Fi&. 41. — Three cysts of the Liver-fluke attached to a portion of grass- 
 stalk. Each cyst contains a young fluke, which remains quiet until the cysts 
 are swallowed with the grass by a sheep when grazing. Magnified 10 times. 
 (Original.— W. H. J.) 
 
 PiQ. 42. — The snail, Limnreus fruncatulatus, which serves as host to the 
 sporocyst, redia, and growing cercaria of the Liver-fluke. The drawing is 
 magnified, and the true length is shown by the line at its side. (Original. — 
 A. V. T.) 
 
 Fl(J. 43. — Limnreus fruncafulalus, of natural size. (A. P. T.) 
 
Fio. 45. 
 
 Te'- 
 
 Fig. 44. — An adult fluke, showing 
 the branched digestive tract : y, the 
 oral ; y' , the ventral sucker ; in, the 
 branched intestine. In the centre, be- 
 tween the two main branches of the 
 intestine, lies the chief trunk of the 
 water-vessel. Twice the natural size. 
 (Original.— W. H. J.) 
 
 FiS. 45. — Another view of an adult 
 I fluke, showing the reproductive organs : 
 ' y, the oral ; y', the ventral sucker ; 
 Od, the oviduct ; Oo, the ovary ; 77, 
 the vitellarium, or gland that forms the 
 granular yolk-cells surrounding the 
 embryo in the ^^^^ ; Te, the anterior ; 
 Te' , the posterior testis; their ducts 
 run forwards. The generative opening 
 is in front of the ventral sucker. 
 Twice the natural size. (Original. — 
 W. H. J.) 
 
 FlGS.46,47,48. — Three young flukes 
 from the liver of a sheep to show the 
 change in form during growth. All 
 are magnified 1\ times. Fig. 46 (ou 
 the left) represents the smallest fluke 
 I have ever found in a sheep ; it was 
 only Jj of an inch in length. Fig. 47 (in the centre) shows the shape of a fluke 
 i of an inch long, and Fig. 48 (on the right) shows a fluke which has reached \ 
 of the full length of the adult animal (Original.— A. P. T.) 
 
164 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 budding, other sporocysts, an observation which led Dr. 
 Cobbold to remark that " there is no recognisable limit 
 either to the variety or to the extent of larval fluke devel- 
 opment." Invasion of the various sheep of a flock occurs 
 at different times, and repeated invasions of the same 
 animal may take place. Gerlach puts the time of fluke 
 invasion at July to September, Johanni from the end of 
 summer to commencement of the frosts. The incubation 
 of the fluke in the liver before rot begins to appear is one 
 to one and a half months (Zurn), six weeks to three months 
 (Gerlach), at least six weeks according to Thomas. 
 
 It may well be asked with consternation how is it that 
 if one sheep contains many flukes, each fluke contains an 
 enormous number of eggs capable of developing into <5t)oro- 
 cysts, and each sporocyst can bud into many more, from 
 each of which many cercarise can develop, how do any 
 sheep, or indeed mammalia of other species, escape destruc- 
 tion by the Liliputian attacks of myriads of fluke invaders ? 
 As a matter of fact, the number of ova and of other means 
 of multiplication of animals is in direct relation with chances 
 of each possible individual undergoing development into 
 an adult J thus nature recognises the extreme precariousness 
 of fluke development. Any one possible individual for 
 development must be successful in obtaining moisture and 
 heat to ensure development of the embryo and hatching, 
 also for washing down into some stream or pool. It may be 
 dropped where moisture, heat, or chance of escape to more 
 suitable situation cannot be obtained. It has to succeed 
 in gaining access to more than one bearer, to run the 
 gauntlet of two free and three parasitic phases of existence, 
 and of ultimately passing into some unsuitable host. In 
 increase of these risks to the developing parasite lie the 
 veterinarian's hopes of prevention of liver rot. 
 
 Treatment. — Eot is a disease capable of prevention and 
 of cure under ordinary circumstances, although there some- 
 times, in this as in other parasitic disorders, arise seasons 
 especially favorable to the disease, when immense fatality 
 almost necessarily takes place, and we feel the full force 
 of an almost despairing remark of Cobbold, that " as we 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 165 
 
 cannot regulate tEe chai'acter of the seasons, so neither 
 can we prevent the occurrence of many epizootics.'^ How- 
 ever, on considering carefully the phenomena connected 
 with the disorder and the parasite we shall conclude that 
 neither prevention nor cure is an affair of desperation ; in- 
 deed, it would be astonishing if a disease presenting so 
 elaborate and clearly ascertained a history and due to so 
 familiar a cause did not present some weak points in its 
 invasion of sheep whereby reasonable hope of successful 
 attack by hygienic and medicinal methods will be afforded. 
 Undoubtedly prevention is better than cure, but unfortu- 
 nately farmers will not prevent, and too often are so 
 apathetic or despairing as not to attempt even to cure. 
 Here we come to a most important ihatter, which has as 
 yet been too much lost sight of, namely, that liver-rot is 
 such a scourge to the country and such a source of loss 
 to the farmer on account of its wide diffusion that its re- 
 pression becomes a national question such as should be 
 dealt with by the State. As not being " contagious " in 
 the legal sense of the term it has hitherto escaped notice 
 in the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Acts, but, with other 
 parasitic disorders, it ought to receive State regulation as 
 being distinctly diffusible, most fatal, and not thoroughly 
 repressible by individual or even local effort. Moreover, 
 questions are constantly arising in which action is brought 
 in consequence of alleged unsoundness of sheep from rot 
 at time of purchase, and actions for contamination of pas- 
 ture are quite possible and sustainable. Our first effort 
 at prevention consists in endeavours to destroy the ova. 
 Nature's methods of preventing fluke becoming too nume- 
 rous comprise drought and frost, which influences render 
 pastures ordinarily dangerous quite suitable for sheep-graz- 
 ing, probably by destroying the ova. We are not quite 
 sure as to the powers of vital resistance by ova, and ex- 
 periment might throw a little more light on this point, 
 moreover, we cannot produce frost at will on a large scale, 
 but we can in some parts, such as the wide grazing 
 grounds of Australia, burn the grass, whereby ova, inter- 
 mediary beai-ers, and embryos will be destroy ed and the pas- 
 
166 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 ture benefitted. TLorougli and efiicient drainage, so that 
 no doubtful places are left in a pasture, may render it sound, 
 but some parks and meadows are so impracticable in this 
 respect that they need to have the pasture broken up by the 
 plough and to be used no more for grazing purposes. The 
 clumsy method of grazing horses and cattle on such pas- 
 tures is sometimes resorted to, but it must not be forgotten 
 that these animals can be the ultimate bearers and diffusers 
 of fluke, and themselves suffer in condition, sometimes 
 fatally, from the ravages of the adult parasite. Salt 
 marshes are notoriously free from rot, probably because 
 the embryonic forms do not in them find suitable in- 
 termediary bearers, and possibly also from the direct de- 
 structive action of salt on the embryos in various stages ; 
 undoubtedly one of nature's methods for getting rid of 
 surplus fluke embryos is their being washed down into the 
 sea and salt estuaries or being retained in deep rivers and 
 lakes where the shallow-haunting intermediary bearers are 
 not to be met. 
 
 Rock-salt rollers on land is a useful method of providing 
 sheep with a good salt lick. Salting pastures to the extent 
 requisite to prevent rot would destroy their grasses and 
 their value as pastures, so is obviously impracticable, but 
 sheep, in the spring especially, and at other times when 
 ova are passing from them in quantities, should be pastured 
 on salt marsh, dry upland, or on hillsides ; or they should 
 be kept up in the straw-yard, and lots of salt be thrown 
 about. While thus taking measures to ensure that fluke- 
 invaded animals, when discharging the ova, shall feed only 
 on pastures and in places unsuitable to the parasites, direct 
 measures for destruction of ova must not be neglected. 
 The State might reasonably enforce the destruction of rot- 
 ten sheep, but such a measure should be introduced gradu- 
 ally with compulsory slaughter of the severely affected, and 
 the option of segregation for a fixed period on specified 
 pastures, and under conditions clearly defined might be 
 given. The carcases might generally be used as food and 
 sold at full market value of the sheep ; every butcher should 
 be compelled, in so far as is practicable, to destroy parasite- 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 167 
 
 bearing portions of the animals slaughtered by him hy fire, 
 not throwing them to the dogs or getting rid of them as 
 refuse manure according to his usual systemj than which 
 nothing is more calculated to the diffusion of parasites. 
 Whether a dog which has eaten a fluke-infested liver can 
 diffuse the ova from that liver, has not (in so far as we 
 are aware) been ascertained, but it is highly probable that 
 he digests the ova which thus are annihilated. Thomas 
 suggests that rotten livers, if boiled previously, may safely 
 be given to dogs. The temporising policy of Government 
 in the* matter of dealing with rot is well illustrated by a 
 Ministerial statement in the House of Commons, when 
 agriculturists were being ruined on all sides by rot, and 
 the agricultural societies were straining their resources 
 to devise methods of control of the ravages of this plague, 
 that " a dry, hot season is the one thing needed to arrest 
 the disease." Such trusting in Providence is culpable 
 neglect of the duties of government towards the agricul- 
 tural interest. The simple official collection of statistics 
 on rot would suffice to show that national combined effort 
 is essential for repression, and the veterinary advisers of 
 Government are able to show how the State may interfere 
 with benefit. Prof. Brown quotes non-official statistics, 
 obtained by Messrs. Bowler and Bros., of Liverpool, in 
 1879, which show that England apparently in one year 
 lost about 3,000,000 sheep, although ten counties re- 
 corded no fatality, because either they were free from 
 rot or were not affected to a greater extent than usual. 
 Pinlay Dun puts the losses in 1880 at the same amount. 
 Experience shows that about once every ten years ruinous 
 outbreaks of unusual magnitude occur, and also with reason 
 leads us to believe that such national periodic calamity is, 
 to an extent, preventable by State measures. Failing 
 destruction of the ova, and in supplement to the measures 
 adopted for that purpose, we resort to processes calculated 
 to check and limit diffusion of the ova and embryos. This 
 comprises efforts directed against intermediary bearers. 
 Zundel has recently propounded a well-conceived system 
 which he considers calculated, if thoroughly adopted (a 
 
168 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 uniformity of action only attainable by State edict) to 
 extirpate rot thoroughly. The plan consists in having 
 two sets of feeding grounds for sheep in wet seasons or 
 ia marshy localities, — one pasture for spring grazing to 
 June, the other for autumn feeding; the former, though 
 contaminated freely, would lack hosts suitable for the 
 parasites in their last phases of development, the frosts of 
 winter sufficing to free the pasture of the embryos and 
 intermediary bearers ; the autumn pasture would not be- 
 come contaminated with ova, or the latter would find no 
 suitable conditions for development. Theoretically this plan 
 sounds well, but we fear that practically it would hardly 
 answer, because of the uncertainty of seasons, the tendency 
 of the public to evade State measures, and the emergencies 
 of sheep traffic, which are not taken into account. 
 
 The eradication of rotten places on a pasture or a farm 
 is a practicable measure ; they may be improved and ren- 
 dered sound by drainage, may be fenced in so that sheep 
 cannot gain access to them, or be brought under the 
 plough and not used for grazing purposes. The com- 
 pulsory railing-in, ploughing up, or efiicient drainage of 
 pastures known to be rotten would, perhaps, be a practic- 
 able State measure, but there must always remain morasses, 
 " floes," or mosses notorious as rot-producers (especially on 
 the border-land), ditches in lanes, and semi-dried ponds by 
 the roadside, at which travelling flocks are liable to pick 
 up rot, and which the shepherd should be instructed to 
 carefully avoid when on journeys. Some benefit has been 
 observed on rotten ground from folding early in the evening 
 and enlarging the flock in the morning only when the dew 
 is thoroughly off the ground j possibly this is related to the 
 habits of intermediary bearers, which prefer the moisture, 
 and will leave the blade of grass when it gets dry j during 
 frost pastures are observed to enjoy impunity from rot- 
 producing qualities. Dry pasture is that natural to the 
 sheep, and should be given whenever possible both for 
 prevention and cure of rot ; thorough drying destroys the 
 vitality of the fluke egg ; but in wet seasons dry pasture 
 is not to be had, and that which with ordinary rainfall is 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 169 
 
 dry becomes dangerous to sheep. Thus no one class of pas- 
 ture, except salt marsh, can be unreservedly recommended. 
 Frequent change of pasture is insisted on by some au- 
 thorities but is a quite inefficient and haphazard measure. 
 Overstocking most certainly is to be avoided. Some of 
 the measures already recommended for destruction of the 
 ova prove efficient also against both intermediary bearers 
 and larvae, such are salting the pastures and burning the 
 grass. Destruction of. these intermediary bearers is pro- 
 bably effected to a large degree by natural influences, 
 such as the snail-eating habits of frogs and insectivorous 
 birds ; a recent inquiry into causes of rot, conducted by 
 Finlay Dun had for one of its objects the determining 
 of whether recent prevalence of rot was associated with 
 extirpation of special species of birds, but the intermittent 
 violence of rot ravages is not parallel with the gradual 
 extinction of bird species, though possibly in direct relation 
 with the rapidity of multiplication of batrachians. Cobbold 
 suggests that some good might result from subsidising 
 little boys to collect mollusca and grubs in rotten meadows. 
 If we cannot collect the snails we can, as already pointed 
 out, lessen the chances of secondary bearers being taken 
 in by sheep, especially by the avoidance of grazing on 
 rotten pastures and careful regulation and selection of 
 grazing grounds in rot-prevailing years. During undue 
 prevalence of rain and prolonged damp seasons full pre- 
 cautionary measures should be taken, and the efforts of 
 Government, farmers, veterinarians, and agricultural so- 
 cieties should be directed to averting the national calamity 
 which threatens. Even to the last stage the progress of the 
 parasite can be controlled, for these last changes occur in 
 the stomach of the sheep, where doses of salt and sulphate 
 of iron may prove fatal to the young fluke before it has 
 powers for mischief, and will at the same time, by pro- 
 moting digestion and acting as tonics, fortify the system 
 to resist the debilitating effects of the ravages of the para- 
 sites; a result also facilitated by shelter and good food. 
 We may place the measures for prevention as follows : 
 The Government should give its Veterinary Department 
 
170 DISEASES Of THE SHEEP. 
 
 power of separating rotten sheep and enforcing their deten- 
 tion in situations not favorable to diffusion of ova and 
 embryos, or their slaughter under prescribed precautions, 
 and the destruction of their livers and intestines with their 
 contents by fire ; the intestines and livers of sheep should 
 invariably be destroyed in this way. Government officers 
 should be empowered to compel drainage, sufficient enclo- 
 sure, ploughing up, or other satisfactory expedient with 
 regard to notoriously rotten spots. 
 
 Agricultural societies should collect statistics as to pre- 
 valence of the disease, diffuse simple knowledge as to its 
 prevention and cure, also by prizes and grants encourage 
 research as to its nature, &c. ; in these actions they might 
 reasonably demand aid from Government. Agriculturists 
 should lessen the number of rotten places on their farms, 
 intelligently keep their sheep in the pasture least likely 
 to prove dangerous according to season, rainfall, and other 
 climatic conditions ; destroy, segregate, or otherwise satis- 
 factorily deal with rotten sheep, keep up the strength of 
 their sheep by means of good food, shelter, salt, and tonics ; 
 salting, burning or liming dangerous pastures should also 
 be resorted to by them for destruction of snails and 
 embryos, in so far as is compatible with agricultural ope- 
 rations. Shepherds should early detect and report rot, 
 and jealously keep their sheep from dangerous places and 
 from unknown ponds, marshes, and ditches such as seem 
 likely to be dangerous. They should see that each of the 
 sheep gets his fair share of food, salt, and iron. Coal tar 
 oil or carbolic acid, salt, or lime should be added to fluke- 
 infested manure, and it should be kept for a considerable 
 time before it is spread over fields (Thomas). 
 
 All attempts at curative treatment are rather expensive ; 
 they consist in enabling the sheep to outlive the fluke or 
 its invasion, and must commence with removal of the 
 cause in so far as is possible, preventing fresh entry of 
 flukes by removal of the sheep to safe and dry pastures 
 or else to a straw-yard. To this must succeed tonic 
 medicines calculated to destroy parasites and germs in the 
 alimentary canal, and sufficiently convenient for practical 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 171 
 
 administration. Fortunately the substances best suited 
 for rot, common salt and sulpbate of iron, are readily eaten 
 by the sheep in combination with nutritive food-stufEs such 
 as crushed corn, oats, maize, peas, lentils, and good hay. 
 The exact food-stuffs used will be regulated by cost, but 
 Professor Simonds' recipe will prove a satisfactory guide : 
 Take of linseed oil cake and pea meal, of each a bushel ; 
 of salt and aniseed, each 4 lbs. ; of sulphate of iron, one 
 pound ; finely grind these substances and thoroughly mix 
 them, and give daily to each sheep ^ — 1 pint. Salt is 
 described as the sheet anchor of the practitioner in this 
 disease, not only on account of its direct value in pro- 
 moting health, and its tonic and anthelmintic properties, 
 but also because it is essential for formation of good bile. 
 One method of giving it is to sprinkle two or three drachms 
 twice a day over good hay. Change of diet is insisted on 
 in all outbreaks ; succulent vegetable food must be avoided, 
 and it is remarked that administration of salt must cease 
 in the lambing season, or it may cause abortion. Animals 
 severely affected may receive stimulants, such as tur- 
 pentine and sulphuric ether ; Simonds considers aniseed 
 specially beneficial. In individual cases the question arises 
 whether the animal is worth treatment, the result of which 
 is to an extent doubtful and which must extend over a 
 considerable time, and cost much in food and medicines. 
 The farmer often decides that " the first loss is the best," 
 and sends the sheep to the butcher while they are still 
 saleable ; later they fetch only the prices of their skins, 
 and even these are not of full value. There are limits to the 
 powers of medicine, or as it is roughly expressed, " we 
 can't put a new liver into an animal " so badly affected 
 that his own liver is useless, but cases taken in the early 
 stages are frequently curable. The line of treatment con- 
 sists in fortifying the system in every way, by good hygiene, 
 tonics, and stimulants, giving food of an easily digestible 
 character and such as can be digested with a minimum 
 of bile. Doubtless the Pharmacopceia would afford to the 
 inquirer agents calculated to promote and improve the 
 bile, render the liver unpleasant to the parasites, and 
 
172 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 counteract tlie tendency to degeneration of bile-secreting 
 tissue ; this, however, is a work for the future. Such 
 cholagogaes as we know at present are too debilitating 
 and drastic to prove effectual in rot. Our efforts must 
 be directed to enabling the animal to outlive the invasion 
 of flukes and its effects. Sheep which have recovered 
 from rot are sometimes " bad doers " and diflScult to fatten, 
 other cases they are completely cured, fatten well, or, in 
 the case of ewes, produce good lambs in the following 
 year. There is considered to be some risk of abortion, 
 insufficient nourishment of the lamb in utero, or deficiency 
 of milk, so that in each case judgment must be exercised 
 as to whether the ewe is safe to breed from. We have 
 already commented on the fact that rot is not hereditary. 
 Where rot is freshly introduced into a country the most 
 stringent measures, such as slaughter of the affected, may 
 be resorted to in the hope to check its progress and eradi- 
 cate it ; early slaughter has always the advantage that the 
 flesh is fit for food, and the flukes are checked in develop- 
 ment before they have attained the egg-bearing stage pro- 
 viding it be within three weeks of invasion. 
 
 Bistoma lanceolatum is found in the bile-duct and gall- 
 bladder of the sheep, and gives rise to rot, but is much less 
 irritant than D. hepaticum, as being smaller, narrower, and 
 free from spines ; Zurn found it almost solely present in 
 rot cases in Thuringia. Peser, Gerlach, and Eoloff found 
 B. hepaticum almost invariably in cases of rot recognised 
 by them. 
 
 Cholocystic Calculi. — Concretions are not rarely present 
 in the gall-bladder, but are not known to have clinical im- 
 portance. In many internal disorders the bile becomes 
 dark and inspissated, probably from retention. 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 The Peeitoneum in sheep, as in other ruminants, is 
 very tolerant of surgical interference. Omentum major 
 is remarkable for its large size and the amount of fat 
 
' DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 173 
 
 wMcli may accumulate in it. From all parts of tlie peri- 
 toneum may frequently be observed hanging specimens 
 of tbe slender-necked hydatid, Gysticercus tenuicollis, the 
 larval form of T. marginata which is found in the dog 
 especially. The parasite is seen also in the ox, deer, and 
 other herbivora, but is not known to have any pathogenic 
 importance, although extremely numerous in some subjects. 
 Sivaple Peritonitis is said to be common in old sheep as a 
 result of debility. It is shown by Ascites, which is not 
 uncommon together with dropsical states of other parts of 
 the body, especially submaxillary oedema, but is seldom if 
 ever seen as a distinct peritoneal disorder. That form 
 which depends on specific influences has been described 
 elsewhere. Laxatives, tonics, and the operation of para- 
 centesis or " tapping the belly " are resorted to ; the latter 
 presents no special features. 
 
174 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— THE URINAET APPARATUS. 
 
 The chemical composition of the urine of the sheep 
 varies considerably according to the food of the animal, 
 the tendency being towards excess of phosphates in highly- 
 fed animals and for the fluid to become acid in reaction, 
 also for sabulous deposits or calculi to occur in the organs 
 or passages of the urinary system. There are no special 
 features of an anatomical or physiological character in con- 
 nection with the urinary organs of sheep, except that it may 
 be noted the kidneys are unlobulated and the glans penis is 
 furnished with a peculiar corkscrew-like, pointed, vermiform 
 appendage, which is supposed to have an important in- 
 fluence in guiding the glans during the act of copulation. 
 Litt, of Shrewsbury, however, was " assured by a distin- 
 guished sheep breeder that the commonly received opinion 
 on this subject (that removal of the glans interferes with 
 procreative power) is an erroneous one, and that he has 
 had many lambs got by rams which had undergone the 
 mutilation in question." The urine of the goat, with sp. gr. 
 1008 — 1009, is, according to von Bibra, composed of water 
 980-07, solids 19-93, urea 3-78, hippuric acid 1-25, uric 
 acid nil, mucus 0-06, alcoholic extract 4-54, watery extract 
 1-00, soluble salts 8-50, and insoluble salts 0-80. How- 
 ever, as we have frequently seen, remarks based on obser- 
 vations of the goat by no means constantly apply to the 
 sheep, so careful analyses of sheep's urine are a deside- 
 ratum. The following analysis given by Spooner is useful, 
 but not sufficient. The amount passed is smaller, and con- 
 tains less nitrogen than that of the cow. The composition 
 is water 96 per cent. ; urea, colouring matter, and some 
 albumen, 2-8 per cent.; salts of soda, potash, lime, and 
 magnesia, with traces of iron, silica, aluminum, and man- 
 ganese, 1-2 per cent. In males it is necessary to open the 
 
THE DEmAET APPARATUS. 175 
 
 urethra at tlie perinaeum to pass a catheter. Simple diuresis 
 has been observed in sheep as a result of noxious plants 
 in pastures, especially certain foi-ms of anemone (nemorosa 
 and Pulsatilla) and Asclepias vincetoxictom (Gamgee). 
 
 Nepheitis in lambs. At a meeting of the Pathological 
 Society of Loudon on April 6thj 1886, Mr. Eoger Williams 
 exhibited specimens of acute nephritis in lambs. " The 
 disease began soon after being ' wet born/ with difficulty 
 in walking, the new-born falling down and lying on one 
 side, sometimes with choreoid movements, without loss of 
 consciousness, without difficulty in breathing or cough ; 
 they may linger on for two or three weeks, but in the end 
 always die ; sucking was not impaired, nor the appetite. 
 The disease appeared at Dunchurch, near Rugby, and 
 attacked the lambs of ewes imported from Scotland, and 
 especially those whose female parents were served by a ram 
 who was far from vigorous, having to spend his strength 
 on too many ewes. The disease may terminate in joint 
 evil, with pus in the joints and all along the spine. The 
 disease occurred on heavy clay soil, and in the lambing 
 season the east wind was cold and nipping. At all events 
 it was found that if a ram only served ten ewes the pro- 
 geny were vigorous, and did not become affected with the 
 disease. . . . The urine was albuminous and acid 
 (Dr. Pye-Smith said it normally is so in sucking lambs), 
 there were no renal casts, crystals, pus, or blood. The 
 capsules of the kidneys stripped off easily, exposing a sur- 
 face studded with congested stellate veins. The cortex 
 was swollen and soft, pale and yellowish in colour, whilst 
 the pyramids were firm and deep red in colour. The dis- 
 ease was an acute tubal nephritis. . . The interstitial 
 tissue was normal . . Nothing abnormal was detected 
 in any of the organs, and the spinal cord was healthy. 
 Some of the lambs were born with the disease and soon 
 succumbed." 
 
 Mr. Levie, of Lerwick, in the ' Veterinary Record ' for 
 August 11th, 1888, draws attention to a peculiar disease of 
 Shetland sheep known as Whiequibus, shell sickness, and oil 
 poke, which is seen in weanlings or sheep of the first shear. 
 
176 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 and is usually seen between November and April. It only 
 occurs in young growing stock, in cold wet weather, and 
 after a succession of storms, and is of indefinite duration, 
 lasting from a few days to several weeks. Besides general 
 signs of disorder, irregularity of the bowels, strangury, and 
 occasional nephritic colic are present. In advanced cases, 
 anaemia with localised anasarca, notably of the intermaxil- 
 lary space, appears, which, pressing on the larynx, causes 
 a peculiar unnatural sound to be emitted by the sufferer. 
 Ultimately ischuria sets in, ureemic poisoning results, and 
 death occurs from coma. Modifications occur in indivi- 
 dual cases. Mr. Levis suggests that the anaemia and 
 blood-poisoning result from defective secretion, especially 
 from the continuously saturated condition of the fleece, 
 and he advises, as means of prevention, use of eliminant 
 agents, occasicnal doses of perchloride of iron, never to 
 allow the sheep a feast or a famine, to protect the animal 
 as much as possible during storms, and to use a water- 
 proof covering for the back and loins. It is evident that 
 much remains yet to be learned about this interesting dis- 
 ease which Mr. Levie has introduced to the notice of the 
 profession. 
 
 Renal Calculi are not rare in the sheep. Fiirstenburg 
 has given us the following interesting analyses : 
 
 Ingredients. 
 
 Renal 
 (lalculus.* 
 
 Urinary ? 
 caiculus.+ 
 
 Calculus on 
 
 abdominal 
 
 wool of 
 
 sheep.* 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 Phosphate of lime 
 Atnmouio-Mag. Phos- 
 phate 
 Acid . . . . 
 
 Organic matter . 
 Iron, water, loss . 
 Oxalate of lime . 
 Carbonate of magnesiaj 
 
 21-21 
 
 42-24 
 
 (silicic) 
 
 27-64 
 
 1-84 
 
 7-07 
 
 4-45 
 9-84 
 
 76-13 
 3-00 
 
 (uric) 
 2-53 
 4-05 
 
 3-45 
 
 89-05 
 
 4-56 
 
 2-94 
 
 A trace 
 
 Silicates, supposed to be 
 derived from the drink- 
 ing-water, are found 
 especially in calculi 
 from cattle and sheep 
 (Gamgee). The cal- 
 culi of sheep differ 
 clearly from those of 
 the horse and ox in 
 containing amm.mag. 
 phosphate (Williams). 
 
 Sp. gr. . 
 
 13-55 
 
 — 
 
 13-43 
 
 * Quoted by Gamgee. + Quoted by Williams. 
 
 J In comparison of urinary calculi of herbivora with those of camivora it 
 
THE UEINAEY APPARATUS. 177 
 
 Calculi of various kinds are the almost invariable cause 
 of urinary disorder in the sheep^ and are said to be most 
 frequent in limestone districts. When in the kidney they 
 seldom or never give rise to noticeable symptoms ; they 
 have little pathological importance also when in the ureters 
 or bladder. Morton mentions oedema of the abdominal 
 walls in vesicular calculus. In the urethra they give rise 
 to severe obstruction to the passage of urine^ very fre- 
 quently with fatal results. Littj of Shrewsbury, has an 
 able essay on Ueetheal Calculi in the ' Journal of the 
 Royal Agricultural Society of England ' for 1867. Stevens, 
 of Newmarket, gave some interesting records of it in the 
 ' Veterinarian,' vol. xiii. When strangury occurs in rams 
 or wethers the penis should be carefully examined for 
 accumulations of gravel or sabulous matter choking up 
 the urethral canal against the vermiform appendix. 
 
 Sym-ptoms. — The animal is reported to have " stoppage 
 of the water," and possibly some of the flock have already 
 died from this cause. He is found down but able to 
 rise, and on doing so has a peculiarly sudden curvature of 
 the spine, after which a few drops of urine are passed. 
 Panting, grunting, anxious countenance, alternately rising 
 and lying down, and general restlessness, with refusal of 
 food and the general symptoms of being out of sorts, are 
 the earliest symptoms; later the animal becomes listless, 
 affected with abdominal pain and irritative fever, uraemia 
 sets in and causes death, or the animal may recover sponta- 
 neously owing to the " calculus finding its way through the 
 penis above the vermiform process. This accident in rams 
 renders them useless for breeding purposes" (Gamgee). 
 On examination of the external urino-generative opening 
 it will sometimes be found that the obstruction is due to 
 small calculi forming on the wool of the abdomen ; when 
 not sufficient to cause suppression of urine these may pre- 
 
 has beeu observed that carbonate of magnesia, sulphate of calcium, car- 
 bonate of iron, and manganese oxide, either predominate or are solely found 
 in herbivora; whereas in calculi of carnivora the following salts are in prepon- 
 derance : carbonate and phosphate of lime, oxalate of calcium, oxide of iron, 
 triple phosphate, also silicic acid (Gamgee). 
 
 12 
 
178 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 vent protrusion of the penis from the prepuce. Their 
 removal by snipping off the wool on which they form 
 suffices to afford immediate relief. In other cases the 
 orifice is choked with gravel, which may be easily removed 
 without operation by careful manipulation. Frequently 
 the phosphatic material (variously described as the simple 
 calcic phosphate or the triple phosphates in different cases) 
 is deposited on the lining membrane of the urethra for 
 some distance up, or a small calculus is present near the 
 orifice. In such cases either the calculus is cut down on 
 and removed, or the extremity of the urethra with the 
 appendix is amputated. According to Stevens's experience 
 it is as well to remove the part at once, for simple ex- 
 cision affords only temporary relief by permitting escape 
 of some of the deposit, and is followed by sloughing of 
 the appendix. Moreover (as we have already seen), re- 
 moval of the appendix does not always render the animal 
 unable to propagate his species, although it is said to be 
 sometimes fraudulently resorted to for this purpose either 
 in spite or to prevent diffusion of choice blood. The organ 
 is vulgarly called the " worm." Some cases are so severe 
 as to be irremediable, and on post-mortem examination de- 
 posits of gravel, calculi, or other materials from the urine are 
 found in all the passages, the kidneys and bladder inflamed, 
 the lining membrane of the urethra ulcerated, thickened, 
 or gangrenous, the blood and solid tissues impregnated with 
 urine so that the carcass is quite unfit for human food, 
 and the bladder may be even ruptured from over-disten- 
 sion, or on the verge of being so. Thus early operative 
 removal is essential, and if not practicable the animal 
 should be slaughtered before fever and urtemia set in. 
 Fomentations, lubrications, injection of oil into the urethra 
 and internal administration of extract of belladonna (8 — 
 16 grs.) are recommended to assist extraction. A cathartic 
 and such other measures as the constitutional symptoms 
 indicate must be resorted to, and steps must be taken to 
 lessen the liability of the rest of the flock to this condition 
 by removal of the causes in so far as is practicable. 
 
 This disorder has been noticed, especially in certain dis- 
 
THE URINAEY APPARATUS. 179 
 
 tiicts, as on the Cotteswolds, says Gamgee, but, we may add, 
 is dependent on dieting rather than locality. Thus it occurs 
 in animals fed high on saccharine roots rich in phosphates, 
 especially mangolds, and is in association with want of 
 exercise and total deprivation of drinking-water. Litt 
 speaks of a " lithic-acid diathesis," and is inclined to con- 
 nect the occurrence of the deposits with constant acidity 
 of the urine of fattening sheep, but there are several points 
 in the chemistry of this condition which require to be 
 worked out not only as interesting from a scientific point of 
 view, but also as a guide to practical measures for preven- 
 tion ; thus, while some authorities advocate a course of 
 mineral acids for these sheep, others suggest free doses of 
 carbonate of potash. Whichever course be adopted, a com- 
 plete change of diet should be given, and the fact that 
 sheep out at grass do not suffer from this disorder indicates 
 that flocks with a tendency to calculi should be turned out 
 on pasture and fed low, they also should have free access to 
 drinking-water, and any medicine given to them should be 
 largely diluted. Spooner describes as Cystitis a disease 
 of rare occurrence commonly termed Water Braxy, under 
 which name several other pathological states have been 
 included. In this case the animal is said to " drop with 
 water." So exactly does the description of cases of this 
 condition given by Spooner and his authorities correspond 
 with that already given of urethral obstruction that the 
 cases seem to have been imperfectly diagnosed. It is con- 
 fined to sheep kept on artificial food, such as beans and 
 . cake, but may also occur in those fed on new-mown clover. 
 It is said to be most frequent in males, but principally in 
 rams, and such as are highly fed. There is uneasiness, 
 constant shifting of the hind legs, frequent straining as 
 though to void urine, stiffness and unwillingness to move, 
 quick breathing, pulse quick and faltering, belly enlarged 
 and tender, costiveness, and attempts to stale, but inability 
 to perform the act. Tindal (' Veterinarian,^ vol. xv) re- 
 cords rupture of the bladder as a termination of such cases ; 
 relief may be afforded and a quantity of high-coloured 
 urine pass from the distended bladder, but whether with 
 
180 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 preliminary escape of calculus or sabulous matter is not 
 stated. Dickens treated a case successfully by bleeding 
 tlie animal to fainting^ and giving doses of oil and opium. 
 Thus, the occurrence of cystitis without urethral obstruction 
 in the sheep must still be considered doubtful. Armatage 
 describes a simple atony of the bladder due to debility. 
 
 Pervious Ueachus, " Navel III," Umbilical Phlebitis, 
 as seen in the foal and calf, is also observed in lambs, but 
 much less frequently, and it seems in the latter to be always 
 due to non-specific causes. It is, therefore, more amenable 
 to treatment, as not depending on scrofula, and less liable 
 to be associated with disease of internal organs. It is some- 
 times a concomitant of joint-ill, and is said to be associated 
 with occurrence of parturient fever in ewes. 
 
 HEMATURIA occurs in sheep as the result of injuries, and 
 sometimes perhaps from excess of diuretic substances in 
 the pastures ; probably conditions of highly nitrogenous 
 urine giving rise to colour apparently red, are the majority 
 of cases described as " red water." We have no evidence 
 that the specific disease of cattle known under that name 
 has its pathological equivalent in sheep. 
 
THE SKELETON AND MUSCULAE SYSTEM. 181 
 
 CHAPTEE VII.— THE SKELETON AND MUSCULAE 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 The bony framework of the sheep is light in build, com- 
 posed of firm osseous elements with well-developed pro- 
 cesses but on the whole very smooth and free from minor 
 prominences and depressions. The spinal formula is C. 7, 
 D. 13, L. 6 or 7, S. 4, Coc. 16—24. The cervicals are 
 
 Fia. 49. — Skeleton of the sheep (after CHAUVEAtr). 
 
 like those of the ox but less heavy in their bodies, the ante- 
 rior dorsals have not very long spines, the transverse pro- 
 cesses of the lumbars are of considerable length, and the 
 caudals vary in number and development according to the 
 
182 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 breed. The ribs are rather flat but less so than in the ox ; • 
 tbere are thirteen pairs, eight true ; the sternum, of seven 
 bones, is flat, and has a well-developed manubrium but no 
 manubrial joint. In the fore-limb the scapula has an 
 acromion, the humerus a single bicipital groove, the ulna 
 extends well down to the knee, and there are two splint- 
 bontfs, but they early coalesce with, the cannon-bone, which 
 is developed from two distinct lateral halves. In the hind 
 limb the ilium is narrow, the ischium large, with straight 
 symphysis and a process extending downwards from the 
 tuberosity. The femur has a well-developed neck, no outer 
 small trochanter, straight and small patellar grooves. The 
 patella is narrow, the flbula fairly developed, and its tarsal 
 element distinct. The astragalus has well-marked arti- 
 cular ridges below, and the bones of the hock (like those 
 of the knee) are few in number. The process of os calcis 
 is long and narrow, the large metatarsals are grooved 
 deeply along the central line in front, and the splint-bones 
 early become fused with the cannon. The skull varies 
 much in appearance in different breeds of sheep, owing to 
 two causes, the development of horn cores and the en- 
 largement of those parts to which muscles of mastication 
 are attached. Sheep with curled or straight horn cores 
 developed supero-laterally from the frontais have much 
 serrated and very strong cranio-facial sutures, well-deve- 
 loped sinuses, and early coalescence of the bones of the 
 forehead. The cores and the sinuses in them are less 
 developed in relation to the horny covering than the cor- 
 responding parts in the ox, but as a rule the horns are 
 much more curved. A careful contrast and exact measure- 
 ments of the skulls of three prize wethers of each of eight 
 breeds showed the differences between them to consist 
 almost entirely in development of the parts of the skull to 
 which the muscles of mastication are attached, in the 
 larger breeds resulting in an apparent downward turning 
 of the facial in relation to the cranial axis. This was least 
 marked in the beautiful and thoroughbred-looking skull 
 of the Southdown, and most marked in Lincolns and 
 Leicesters. In the improved breeds of sheep the skeleton 
 
THE SKBr.ETON AND MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
 
 183 
 
 loses its roughness and coarseness as seen in some of the 
 old country breeds, the limbs diminish in size in relation 
 to the carcass, but a general increase in bulk of the 
 animal occurs. A peculiar bandy- and short-legged breed 
 of sheep has been developed by natural selection in 
 
 FlO. 50.— Skull of ram (after Chattveau). 
 
 1. Occipital. 
 
 2. Parietal. 
 
 3. Horn core. 
 
 4. Root of horn. 
 
 5. Supra-orbitiil foramen. 
 5'. Supra-orbital groove. 
 
 6. Lachrymal. 
 
 7. Malar. 
 8 Nasal. 
 
 9. Superior maxillary. 
 10 & 10'. Premaxillary. 
 11. Premaxillary foramen. 
 
 America, as less liable to escape from bounds and stray 
 than ordinary sheep. 
 
 The skeleton of the sheep is subject to certain diseases 
 of bony tissue, in our knowledge of which there seems to 
 be a considerable amount of confusion. There is a disease 
 termed Joint III or Joint Evil, well known to shepherds, 
 
184 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 but the nature of .which, seems but ill ascertained. Some 
 consider it rheumatismal, others (among whom is Prof. 
 Williams) term it scrofulous ostitis, and describe it as oc- 
 curring in very young animals from a few days to a week 
 old, in association with pervious urachus. It is attributed 
 to imperfections of diet, and is said to be especially fre- 
 quent in lambs brought up on house milk. We have else- 
 where seen that occurrence of true scrofulous disorder in 
 sheep is very doubtful. Eobertson finds the disease as a 
 complication of rickets, and he attributes it to animals 
 suffering from that affection continuously lying on the 
 ground when it is damp, thus apparently to an extent 
 accepting the rheumatic theory. Youatt describes the 
 condition under the term " swelling of joints," and, with 
 his usual well-judged caution, does not commit himself as 
 to its pathology. He observed it especially in lambs from 
 two to five weeks old, affecting the knee most frequently, 
 and sometimes extending to the fetlock, occasionally in- 
 volving the hock. The joints become inflamed and first 
 of all dropsical ; to this succeeds abscess, from which 
 anchylosis results, such sequelae being especially common 
 when the knee is affected. A general stiffness precedes 
 the local attack. The patient either cannot get about at 
 all to pick up food, or crawls and drags himself about on 
 his knees. He wastes away, and is incurably lame and 
 worthless in a large proportion of cases. Warmth, shelter, 
 cordials in gruel, stimulant embrocations and cathartics, 
 are recommended in treatment, but the flock should be 
 removed from the low, damp situations in which this disease 
 occurs, and should be properly sheltered during cold wet 
 seasons. Simonds recorded his views on this subject in 
 connection with some specimens of knees and hocks of 
 lambs, of which many had died, sent up by Mr. J. Smith, of 
 Tewkesbury ('Veterinary Record,' vol. iv). The disease, 
 it seems, is not uncommon, especially in Norfolk, where it 
 is termed " Scole," perhaps a corruption of scoliasis (defor- 
 mity). It is evidently constitutional, and is prevalent in 
 some seasons more than in others. Agriculturists think 
 that feeding pregnant ewes on light land recently clayed 
 
THE SKELETON AND MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 185 
 
 causes it, and certainly for its prevention change of locality 
 as well as of diet for the ewe is essential. In Norfolk it 
 is seen often in the stifle, knee, and hock. Sometimes 
 death occurs in the acute stage, but generally only in the 
 chronic stage from marasmus. Autopsy shows acute 
 synovitis, especially of the part of the synovial membrane 
 lining the capsular ligaments, almost solid albuminous 
 material is found in the cavity of the joint, and lymph is 
 deposited externally to the capsular ligament. Later 
 changes are those generally seen in the form of suppura- 
 tion and ulceration of joints. These valuable observations 
 tend to confirm the view that joint ill is a rheum atismal 
 rather than scrofulous or rickety disorder. James M'Gilliv- 
 ray, of Eayne, Aberdeenshire, however, in his Gold Medal 
 Essay (Highland and Agricultural Society) on joint ill in 
 cattle and sheep, says, " I may here mention that I have 
 never met with joint disease resulting from rheumatism in 
 sheep. All the cases that I have met with in sheep were 
 in animals affected with tuberculosis. In the last case of 
 a diseased sheep that came under my notice, and which 
 I particularly examined, I found the bones completely 
 spoiled ; they were quite black on both sides of the joints, 
 and on cutting up the carcass I found tubercles in clusters 
 about the lungs, the liver, the mesentery, the kidneys, and 
 bladder, in fact, everywhere excepting about the heart. 
 From my experience I would infer that sheep are not so 
 liable to rheumatic affections as they are to strumous dis- 
 eases and their resultants." 
 
 Professor Walley, in the ' Veterinary Journal ' for June, 
 1876, has dealt at length with this disorder. He considers 
 it specific, traces it to an altered condition of the ewe's 
 milk, and notes that the ewes coincidently die of malig- 
 nant parturient fever in some cases. Among the symp- 
 toms noted are fever, extreme unwillingness to move, and 
 stiffness of action, preference for the recumbent position j 
 when the disease continues, wasting of the limb muscles 
 causes the joints to seem larger than they really are. The 
 joint swellings are doughy to the feel, intensely painful to 
 the touch, hot, stationary, or increasing in size. Diar- 
 
186 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 rhoea, loss of wool, and erysipelatous inflammation of the 
 skin, especially at the urino-genital opening, postero-infe- 
 rior part of the abdomen, and umbilicus set in, thus the 
 animal may be suffering from " navel ill." " If blood is 
 withdrawn during life or collected after death, and set at 
 rest for a time it deposits a peculiar, dark-coloured, grumous 
 mass at the bottom of the vessel, composed, as far as can 
 be seen by the microscope, of altered blood-cells. This 
 deposit lacks the firmness of the other parts of the clot and 
 bears a close resemblance to half -fermented damson pulp. 
 Bacteria are developed in the blood very shortly after death 
 and long before any putrefactive odour can be detected. 
 Pysemia is indicated by elevation of the temperature, fcetor 
 of the breath, diarrhoea, dark yellowish-red colour of the 
 mucous membrane, gnashing of teeth, rigors, and hectic 
 fever." 
 
 Treatment. — Is extremely unsatisfactory. Give milk 
 from healthy ewes, eggs beaten up raw, and good gruel. 
 House the patients, and administer castor-oil, mercury with 
 chalk, diuretics, febrifuges, and opiates. Inject morphia 
 subcutaneously at affected joints. Later, give tonics and 
 iodide of potassium. Locally apply a strong blister around 
 the joints, keep them at rest and support them with splints 
 and bandages ; treat abscesses and sinuses in the usual 
 way. 
 
 Prognosis. — Eepair is very rapid and the lambs may be 
 fattened for sale, but will need special care, as the disease 
 causes much deformity. Autopsy shows lymph effusions 
 between the intercostal muscles, under the pleura, and into 
 the lungs and other organs, engorgement of the small 
 vessels of the lining membranes of abomasum and bowels. 
 Dropsy of body-cavities, engorgement of the large vessels 
 with the peculiar grumous blood; liver often enlarged, 
 friable, and full of minute abscesses ; all organs and tissues 
 tinged with colouring matter of bile ; urachus sometimes 
 black, and the change in colour extending to the mucous 
 membrane of the bladder. Umbilical vein black and filled 
 with a cheesy material, either degenerated lymph or blood 
 coagulum. " If the animals have lived sufficiently long. 
 
THE SKELETON AND MUSCULAE SYSTEM. 187 
 
 pysemic multiple abscesses are found in the various organs 
 and structures of the body. Blood from diseased lambs 
 introduced into the veins of a dog gives rise to the forma- 
 tion of multiple hepatic abscesses." Eobertson insists that 
 the cause of joint ill, whatever it may be, is ante-parturient, 
 and that the associated omphalo-phlebitis is sometimes 
 present before birth and therefore not due to entry of 
 septic matter into the torn umbilical cord. He considers 
 the disease as " simply the outcome or development of a 
 condition of foetal malnutrition." And elsewhere we hear 
 that the disease as it occurs in Norfolk and Kent (where 
 it is termed rickets or swayback) is a congenital atony of 
 the haunch muscles depending on relaxation of the hip- 
 joint due to bad feeding of the ewes during utero-gestation. 
 Tornwaldt ('Veterinary Journal,' 1879, i, p. 59) finds sali- 
 cylic acid excellent for arthritis in lambs ; he gives 1 part 
 in 200 of Spiritus Vini and 100 of water, a spoonful (?) 
 every two hours. 
 
 Rickets in sheep seems to have been a favourite subject 
 of study and dissertation with the late Prof. Robertson. 
 His ideas are diflScult to follow, but he seems to have been 
 working towards a differentiation of three conditions which 
 have hitherto been classed as rickets, i. e. the true form 
 of the disease, fragilitas ossium, and osteoporosis. We 
 will summarise his views, in so far as we can interpret 
 them, of these affections. The true disease is one which 
 may easily be confounded with acute nephritis and louping 
 ill, indeed its relations with these two disorders require 
 careful investigation. Whereas in other young animals 
 the limb-bones are mainly affected in rickets, lambs suffer 
 mainly in the axial portion of the skeleton. It occurs as 
 an enzootic, some of the lambs never from time of birth 
 being able to rise, others losing motor power of the limbs 
 a few weeks after birth, and others suffering only at a later 
 period. The symptoms are those of motorial disturbance 
 and perfect paraplegia. At first the patient, if he has 
 walked after birth, falls when excited, loses voluntary con- 
 trol of the hind limbs, and there is a want of co-ordination 
 in movements between the fore limbs and the hind. The 
 
188 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 animal is persistently recumbent, rising only to meet the 
 wants of nature. Joint inflammation and dropsies super- 
 vene while the animal is lying on the ground. Autopsy 
 shows changes of the central organs of the nervous system 
 especially affecting the spinal cord, there being increase 
 of the fluids of the spinal membranes and changes of the 
 intimate nervous elements, the former condition being 
 most frequent, and the latter found only in chronic cases. 
 These changes are due to a bulging of the walls of the 
 spinal canal causing pressure. The epiphysial cartilages 
 especially swell causing constriction by pressure on the 
 spinal cord the result of an imperfect bone development 
 dependent on malnutrition. In older sheep the bones of 
 the limbs may be affected. The condition of the column 
 is similar to that described by Bland Sutton as affecting 
 certain ferae ('Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. 
 xvii) . 
 
 Causes. — When older sheep of the first year become 
 affected with this weakness of the loins it is chiefly those 
 which at intervals or entirely have been kept on such 
 situations as cause it, or else their dams have. The deter- 
 mining influences were not powerful enough to kill them 
 when lambs, but now some of them, when hoggets, will fall 
 victims. Those localities in which it is enzootic have light 
 gravel or sandy soils which have been dressed with quick- 
 lime, and this dressing may cause such properties of herbage 
 as will generate this peculiar pathological state, or, as Edgar 
 suggests, it is probable that deficiency of phosphate of 
 lime in the soil results in an insufficiency of that substance 
 for bone-making being a character of the food. Treatment 
 evidently consists in alteration in the management of the 
 ewes and feeding them on food rich in phosphates, espe- 
 cially cereals and cakes, avoidance of use of rams which 
 have produced rickety offspring, culling ewes which have 
 thrown rickety lambs, not putting too many ewes to one 
 lamb, also at mating and yeaning time feeding liberally. 
 
 Peagilitas kt MoLLiTiis OssiUM affords scarcely any 
 preliminary indications for its detection during life, but 
 fractures occur in the flock from most trivial causes. 
 
THE SKELETON AND MUSCtJLAE SYSTEM. l89 
 
 " The occurrence of rain sufficient to thoroughly wet the 
 ground, causing the sheep to dip or sink, is sufficient to 
 operate in this manner. The rough handling of the flock 
 with a dog, or an attempt to seize some for examination, 
 may lead to the production of a fractured limb or two. 
 Numerous cases, I have already observed, occur during 
 moonlight, when the animals are easily disturbed, or, apart 
 from disturbing influences, are disposed to gambol. In 
 the fracture itself there is some slight difference from what 
 occurs in a healthy bone when broken. It is attended 
 with more effusion, and the immediately contiguous parts 
 are at once more swollen, softer, and less well defined. 
 Any attempts to obtain reduction of the. fracture and re- 
 union of the parts are greatly more uncertain than in 
 otherwise healthy animals" (Eobertson). This disease is 
 said to prevail in direct ratio as lime is used for dressing 
 the light moorish soils of gravel or sand on which it occurs, 
 but only when used for such light soils has it this effect. 
 Further, we are informed that roots or grass or other food 
 supplied from such land in itself suffices to produce the 
 disease, acting with special force in this direction when 
 given to ewes in the middle or later stages of pregnancy. 
 Therefore we are warned that food from such lands should 
 not be given to pregnant ewes or young sheep. As flocks 
 become used to the soil fatality and losses from this cause 
 lessen ; it is, therefore, most frequent and severe in freshly 
 imported sheep in those light soil countries where it is 
 enzootic. 
 
 Osteoporosis is by Robertson said to affect sheep of all 
 breeds and all ages, being most frequent in cross-breeds 
 under two years of age, probably because they are the kind 
 of sheep most frequently exposed to the influences which 
 produce it, and which are exactly those which produce 
 fragility and rickets. It can be prevented by liberal 
 feeding, as with J — ^ lb. of linseed cake daily per adult 
 sheep, and by change to a better soil of different geo- 
 logical formation, and thus is to be treated in the same 
 way as other disorders of bone nutrition from which 
 Robertson merely distinguishes it by the conditions found 
 
190 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 post mortenij which are the fractured surfaces of the bones 
 (generally the long bones of the limbs) being very vas- 
 cular, the periosteum very thick and vascular and easily 
 stripped off the bone surface, the medulla highly vas- 
 cular, and ruptures of vessels with blood extravasations 
 having occurred throughout the bony tissue and in the 
 medullary canal. The bone cannot be cut by means of 
 a knife, but is very fragile, and ordinary observers sum 
 up the appearances by saying the bones are " rotten and 
 decayed." Leaving the subject of special disorders of 
 bone, with the remark that much remains in connection 
 with it on which future investigation must throw light, we 
 proceed to consider a few points with regard to common 
 disorders and accidents. 
 
 Fkactuees are rather liable to occur in sheep, because 
 their bones are brittle and slight, and sheep are often 
 knocked about very roughly and brutally treated; the bones 
 below the knee frequently are fractured, as also are the 
 tibiae and metatarsals. In severe cases, such as compound 
 fracture, if the sheep be in slaughter condition he should 
 be at once converted into mutton, but in the case of 
 breeding animals of considerable value, if treatment does 
 not hold out a fair prospect of relief, amputation may be 
 tried. Callus forms readily in the sheep, but from want 
 of care cases of distortion and false joint are frequent, 
 and it will seldom be considered necessary to alter this 
 condition ; but reunion of a more satisfactory nature may 
 be effected by fresh fracture, or in the case of false joint 
 by harsh manipulation and subsequent setting of the parts 
 by means of splints. Spooner's recommendations for 
 treating fractures of sheep are practical, and may be 
 quoted here. After restoring the parts to their proper 
 position the limb may be set. " The wool having been 
 cut from the limb, some slips of coarse brown paper 
 smeared on one side with gum or paste should be wound 
 round the part a great many times, and over this some fine 
 tow should be placed in the greatest abundance where 
 the limb is smallest, so as to render it of a uniform size, 
 by which means the bandage will be prevented from 
 
THE SKELETON AND MUSCDLAft SYSTEM. 191 
 
 shifting. Two bandages of linen or cotton, about three 
 or four inches wide and four feet long, should then be 
 carefully put on, a little paste or gum being likewise 
 smeared on one side. This mode of treatment will be 
 better than using wooden splints, and less likely to injure 
 the skin. The animal should be kept perfectly quiet and 
 the bandages should remain on for a month." Valuable 
 animals in the case of limb fractures may be supported in 
 small slings ; fractures in thin muscular parts, such as the 
 shoulder, may be supported by means of a charge of 
 adhesive plaster incorporated witb the wool over the part. 
 
 Of Dislocations the most frequent seems to be partial 
 separation with displacement of cervical vertebrae consti- 
 tuting the familiar condition termed " wry neck." It 
 is generally congenital, and may best be left alone, the 
 lamb being specially fed, preferably made a pet lamb of. 
 Thus it may be reared to maturity, and kept in good con- 
 dition. Sudden straightening of the neck is apt to cause 
 instant death. 
 
 Amputations are performed on the limbs, ears, and tail. 
 The limbs are operated on in case of incurable disease of 
 bones or joints, also for malignant tumour. The digits 
 are the parts most frequently removed, and sometimes a 
 supernumerary digit needs to be abscised, the severity of 
 the operation varying in degree from an ordinary limb 
 amputation to simple removal of an excrescence having but 
 slight connections with the main skeleton and other limb 
 structures except the skin. Amputation of limbs may be 
 performed in the ordinary way, by either the circular, 
 flap, or oblique operations, and care must be taken to get 
 a good stump. 
 
 Amputation of the ear is resorted to in emergency as a 
 means of bleeding the animal, and as a barbarous method 
 of treatment for gid and some other affections of the brain. 
 
 Amputation of the tail, or " docking," is a great deal 
 a question of fashion. Some breeds, such as the Dorset 
 and the Somerset horned, are left witb the tail long, and 
 sometimes ewes are allowed to retain the appendage for 
 the protection of the genital opening and udder, and to 
 
192 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 keep ofi tlie fly. It is geuerally resorted to as a routine 
 sanitary measurej for tlie organ when retained accumulates 
 filth, and may become so matted down by dried faecal 
 
 k Vi, \#M/ 
 
 ^ ll 
 
 Fig-. 51. — Oblique double-flap ampu- FiG. 52. — Circular amputation of 
 tation of sheep's lefj. o & i. The sheep's loot, 
 
 fore aud hind flaps. 
 
 Fig. 53. — Simple oblique amputation of sheep's leg, with single flap. 
 A. The flap. a. The bone. 13. Operation completed. 
 
 (These three figures have been obtained from Fleming's 'Operative 
 Veterinary Surgery.') 
 
 material in diarrhoea or dysentery as to cause retention of 
 fasces through obstruction, also its dirty state may attract 
 
THE SKELETON AND MUSCDLAR SYSTEM. 193 
 
 the fly. Its removal is considered to increase the beauty 
 of sheep, and to make the hind parts look larger than when 
 it is retained. Sometimes the tail is cut off within a few 
 days after birth, in the female lambs on the first, second, 
 or third day, and in the male when the animal is castrated. 
 Some farmers leave the operation until the third or fourth 
 month, depending on the state of health of the animal and 
 on the Weather, for as the tail assists in keeping the animal 
 warm it is considered inadvisable to remove it in cold 
 weather. Several methods are adopted for the amputa- 
 tion : (a) Fleming instructs us to draw the skin as much as 
 possible towards the base and then cut through the part 
 with scissors. (6) Youatt has the lamb held by an assistant 
 with its back pressing against the man's belly and the 
 haunches thus presented to the operator, who with a knife 
 or strong scissors or forceps cuts the tail off at the second 
 or third joint from the rump, a little astringent powder 
 being sprinkled over the part to assist in stopping the 
 bleeding. Bat if the hasmorrhage persists, a ligature must 
 be put round the tail and removed not later than twelve 
 hours after. The incision should be directly at the joint, 
 otherwise a small piece of vertebra will slough away and 
 delay healing. (c) Spooner places the tail on a block of 
 wood and cuts it off with a sharp red-hot iron at about 
 four inches from the root. 
 
 HoENS AND THEiK Injueies AND DISEASES. — The horn of 
 the sheep is rougher, more curved, and looser in texture 
 than that of the ox, but, like it, is somewhat intermittent 
 in growth, and thus presents transverse rings, which 
 have been used in determining the age of the animal, 
 but not found a very sure guide. Moreover, many sheep 
 have no horns ; they are termed polled sheep or pollards, 
 and now almost all the highest bred sheep are devoid 
 of horns, some of them having become pollards during 
 comparatively recent historic periods. It is found that 
 horned rams are fond of fighting and unruly among 
 their ewesj and Youatt urges that some of their nutri- 
 ment goes to support of their horns ; however, they are 
 advantageous in that they often get caught in a hedge 
 
 13 
 
194 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 where a pollard would get through and escape possibly 
 to among ewes where his presence is not required. 
 Almost all long-woolled and the best of the short-wooUed 
 sheep are now hornless. The horns are gradually lost, 
 the horn core becomes undermined by the increase of the 
 temporal fossa for extra attachment of the large temporal 
 muscle, and thus the horn core becomes attached to the 
 rest of the frontal bone only by a periosteal ligamentous 
 band ; in the next generation this loose horn is entirely 
 lost. These changes may take place with apparent abrupt- 
 ness in the different generations, but occurrence of con- 
 necting links shows how they are brought about in deve- 
 lopment, and that they are not to be attributed to per- 
 petuation of peculiarities of accidental varieties. All un- 
 improved sheep are horned, and in some forms the horns 
 are numerous. Youatt tells us that " the Iceland sheep 
 sometimes carry five or six horns. Three or four constitute 
 the original number. Those which grow straight or 
 nearly straight from the head, and which are seldom 
 more than three and never more than four, are projec- 
 tions or continuations of the frontal bones. Those which 
 curl below the ears . . . either have their base em- 
 bedded in the skin, or occupy circular cavities in the 
 outer plate of the frontal bone, but do not form a part or 
 portion of it." Youatt also figures and describes the 
 four-horned sheep of Cyprus. To restrain the rage of 
 unruly rams sometimes it used to be the custom to hang 
 in front of the horns a board with sharp spikes on the 
 surface next the forehead so that the animal hurt himself 
 by butting, or else the horns were pierced near the ears 
 where they wind inwards (Googe). 
 
 Malposition of the hoens occasionally occurs, and can 
 sometimes not be distinguished from keratoid growths on 
 the skin. The 'Gentleman's Magazine,' November, 1756, 
 contains an account of a horn 15 lbs. in weight, 2 ft. 7 in. 
 long, and 2 ft. 2 in. in greatest circumference, growing 
 from the throat of a sheep, the natural horns of which 
 were like two small walnut shells in the usual situation. 
 A contribution to the ' Proceedings of the Bombay Natural 
 
THE SKELETON AND MnSCULAE SYSTEM. 195 
 
 History Society,' vol. ii, will illustrate the bearings of 
 this matter. 
 
 Horns of a ram may press upon side of head or neck, 
 and a longitudinal section need to be sawed off inside 
 each and the edges rasped smooth. Ewes' horns some- 
 times grow into the eyes or sides of face (Randall). 
 
 Fkactuee op the hoen in the sheep is not infrequent, 
 and it causes considerable bleeding and inflammation. It 
 is generally nearer the base of the horn than the same 
 lesion in the ox but must be treated in the same way, by 
 means of tar bandage in ordinary cases, and such special 
 means as are rendered necessary by complications. 
 
 The MUSCULAR SYSTEM of the sheep is seldom the 
 seat of disorder. Speains doubtless take place in such coun- 
 tries as Thibet, in consequence of the sheep being used 
 as a beast of burden, but in most parts of the world they 
 only occur from efforts in escaping from men and dogs, or in 
 getting out of bounds as a result of violent struggling and 
 forced leaps. Of joints the fetlock is said to be that most 
 liable to strain, and the injury may be so severe as to 
 cause incurable lameness and interfere with the animal's 
 readiness to fatten. 
 
 A cystic larva resembling the pork measle is said to 
 occur in the sheep and to develop into T^nia tenella in 
 man. Cobbold describes Cysticercus ovis as armed with a 
 double crown of hooks and as having been several times 
 detected by him in joints brought to table ; Kirk observed 
 similar specimens in Africa. It is not common nor known 
 to be pathogenic (Fleming, 'Vet. San. Sc' vol. ii, p. 549). 
 Zenker found that cysticerci of Tsenia mediocanellata can 
 be developed in the muscles of a goat (1872). Five weeks 
 after administration of mature proglottides a small portion 
 of muscle removed from the back was found to contain 
 two larvae ; on the twelfth week the goat was killed, and 
 cheesy calcareous deposits were found in its muscular and 
 connective tissues. Walters, in his ' Inspection of Live 
 Cattle and Dead Meat,' shows that besides the anatomical 
 differences indicating sex, the fat of the ram is less firm 
 and clear than that of the wether, and in old rams it has a 
 
196 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 muddy white appearance ; also tliat the carcass of an old 
 ewe has a light and dry appearance of the flesh, a venous 
 congestion about the fat surrounding the kidneys and along 
 the back, and " an absence of that blooming redness of 
 the bark on the sides which is distinctive of good mutton. 
 A peculiar drab colour of this bark is characteristic of old 
 sheep." 
 
THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 197 
 
 CHAPTER VIII.— THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 Section I, — Male Genitai, Apparatus. 
 
 The testes of the ram are large and well developed, the 
 penis is small but long, and has a pointed glans, which 
 bears the peculiar vermiform appendage. This is a pro- 
 longation of the corpus spongiosum. 
 
 Young rams (shearlings) are considered competent to 
 deal with forty to fifty ewes, older ones are given seventy 
 or eighty, and a case is on record of success with a ram 
 given nine score ewes during the season. Giving too many 
 ewes to a ram results in many of them going empty, in 
 defects of nutrition of the lambs, and in other ill conse- 
 quences. The time of putting the ram to the ewe varies 
 in accordance with season and when the lambs are required; 
 it is generally in October or November. Care is essential 
 to determine which ewes have been tupped or covered by 
 the ram. The method of raddling is sometimes adopted, 
 *'. e. smearing the lower part of the body of the ram over- 
 night with red material, that he may leave a stain on those 
 ewes mounted by him. To make sure of effectual impreg- 
 nation sometimes a young ram is turned in the pasture 
 with the ewes, and an older one, and generally the latter is 
 removed after three weeks and another ram put in for a 
 time. Ewes which " hold " cease to follow the ram. With 
 improvement in breeding both male and female sheep attain 
 the age of puberty earlier, but it is a mistake to take advan- 
 tage of this too much, and fifteen to eighteen months old 
 is considered to be the time when they are sufficiently 
 matured, though some farmers deem it advisable to wait 
 
198 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 longer and others consider younger animals suitable. 
 Ueetheitis in old rams from over-copulation is sometimes 
 seen, causing stricture. 
 
 Castration. — It is the fate of the majority of young 
 males to become converted into wethers, and the time 
 selected for the operation of castration or " cutting " varies 
 according to the strength of the lamb, the season, and the 
 opinions of the owner or shepherd, some individuals pre- 
 fering early castration and ; others ±0 leave the testes |or 
 some time. Besides depriving the animal of sexual in- 
 stincts, gelding increases its tendency, to fatten, and lessens 
 the tendency to remain " raw on the back," promotes early 
 maturity for slaughter, and improves the ' quality of the 
 wool. . A " Practical Parmer," writing to the ' Mark Lane 
 Express,' 14th April, 1864, urges that the lambs selected 
 for the operation be strong, healthy, and not too young ; if 
 the ewe has plenty of milk and the lamb is doing well the 
 operation may be performed from twelve to twenty days 
 after birth, but if the lamb be unthrifty he can be left 
 until the auturfln or until he is strong enough. Indeed, it is 
 said that if the whole be left to the spring they will winter 
 better and grow larger. It is bad practice to yield to the 
 temptation to get all done at once. Sometimes the opera- 
 tion is performed with impunity from one to three days 
 after birth. Moist, cool weather should be selected, but 
 warm or changeable weather, heavy rains, and when cold, 
 bleak winds prevail should be avoided. The usual method 
 of operation is described by the " Practical Parmer" as 
 follows : an assistant places the back of the lamb upon, or 
 rather in front of, his shoulder, with a foreleg and a hind- 
 leg in each hand, and he holds the animal firmly with 
 limbs diverged to enable the operator to get at the purse. 
 The latter sees that the parts are all right for operation 
 and then cuts off the front of the purse, next divides the 
 membrane in front of each testis, then, holding the scrotum 
 with the finger and thumb, he gently presses each testis 
 forward and then with his teeth gradually and slowly draws 
 them separately away. He then carefuUy opens and 
 examines the purse, puts the flock mark on the ear, shortens 
 
THE QENEIiATIVE SYSTEM. 199 
 
 Pig 54. Fig. 55. 
 
 Figs. 54, 55, and 56.— Frpnch castration clamp for lambs, full size (Peuch 
 and Toussaint). Fio;. 56 gives another view of the arm of the clamp, 
 the ends marked A corresponding. B. The screw fastener. 
 
200 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 the tail, and puts the lamb out of hand gently, leaving him 
 undisturbed for some hours. There is no need for appli- 
 cation of oil to the parts immediately after the operation. 
 Spooner describes the firing or hot-iron method, which is 
 preferable to the above.. The details are pretty much the 
 same, but the operator sits astride on a high stool with 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 Fio. 60. 
 
 Pig. 57. — Castration forceps. FiG. 59.- 
 
 FiG. 58.— Castration clamps. Fio. 60.- 
 
 -Castration firiog Li'oo. 
 -A castration knife. 
 
 one of the hind legs of the lamb under each thigh, the 
 fore legs and head being held by an assistant. When the 
 testes emerge he fixes the iron clamp above them both, 
 and removes both at the same time by dividing the cords 
 with a hot iron. Removal of the lower part of the scrotum 
 
THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 201 
 
 is useful to prevent accumulation of pus and decomposing 
 blood (this latter being particularly prejudicial to sheep), 
 but a long incision opposite each testis is adopted by some 
 as less painful, or through one long incision through the 
 scrotum and a second through the septum scroti both testes 
 are made to emerge. Some carbolic ointment to the 
 surrounding parts is useful to keep off the fly. In cases 
 of hernia Spooner recommends the covered operation, small 
 slips of elder-wood four inches long being used as clamps ; 
 caustic preferably being put in place of the pith. Instead 
 of " drawing " the testicles, as pulling them out with the 
 teeth is called, the scraping method should be adopted, a 
 jagged-edged knife sufiicing for the purpose. The ope- 
 ration is usually performed in the field where the lambs 
 are sucking. Some time after the operation the flock should 
 be caused to move, and those lambs which cannot follow 
 their ewes must be looked to, the sore parts treated, and 
 the ewe brought to suckle them. Tetanus may cause 
 much fatality after the operation ; it may best be avoided 
 by cleanliness and selection of a favorable time for cas- 
 trating. The following are the methods adopted for 
 castration of older sheep, with their vulgar names : 
 
 (1) Tying or Lashing. — This consists in lashing a cord 
 around the scrotum. Youatt advocates it as the safest 
 method, but it is rather tedious, and if the cord be too 
 slack (as by the knot slipping, or too large a cord being 
 used, or part of the testis having been enclosed in the 
 ligature) much inflammation may set in, and the process 
 prove ineffectual. The elastic cord has been used for this 
 operation, and is preferable to the simple string. 
 
 (2) Trapping is the simple clamp operation, performed 
 by tying two slats of wood very tightly on either side of 
 the purse, and so causing sloughing. It is a safe but 
 slow method. 
 
 (3) Burning, or the "hot-iron method," is quick but 
 considered to be dangerous. The scrotum may be opened 
 with the hot iron, and each testis should be removed 
 through a separate scrotal orifice, as in castrating a horse. 
 
 (4) Cutting is quick, but considered more dangerous 
 
202 
 
 DISEASES OP THT! SHEEP. 
 
 than tying or trapping. It is said to leave a larger " cod," 
 a point mucli prized by graziers. 
 
 (5) Bistournage, the French method, is described by 
 Youatt as follows :— " The lamb being secured, the operator 
 seizes the testicles and pushes them violently upwards 
 
 C.-:ICCLET 
 
 j?i(}. Gl. — A process of emr.sculatinf}: rr.ms (Petjch and TorcS'AiNT). 
 
 and downwards several times in order to destroy their 
 adhesion to their coverings. Having effected this the 
 spermatic cord will be easily felt, and has become con- 
 siderably elongated. He grasps it between the finger and 
 thumb of his left hand about half an inch from the testicle. 
 
THE GENBEATIVE SYSTEM. 203 
 
 and then taking the bottom of the scrotum in his right 
 hand, he turns the testicle, pushing ■ it firmly upwards 
 until he has reversed it, and its inferior extremity is 
 uppermost. He now turns the testicle round five or six 
 times until there is great difficulty in proceeding with the 
 operation from the tightness and hardness of the cord. Prer 
 venting this testicle from descending or untwisting, he seizes 
 the other and elevates and turns it in the same way, and to 
 remove the possibility of the other descending or untwist- 
 ing, he ties a piece of waxed cord round the bottom of the 
 scrotum as tightly as he can. The circulation in the testicles 
 is thus entirely cut off, and they speedily wither away. The 
 cord is cut about the second or third day, but the testicles 
 have formed new adhesions above, and descend no more. 
 There is little danger attending this operation, and not a 
 great deal of pain, but there is considerable difficulty in 
 the manipulation, and it requires a great deal of practice 
 to be enabled to perform it adroitly." 
 
 (6) Paget describes a system of dividing the cord and 
 envelopes by means of a string passed twice round the 
 scrotum above the testes and tied in a peculiar way more 
 easily done than described. The ends of the cord are 
 then tightened until the tissues give way and the testicles 
 come off. This is almost bloodless, simple and successful 
 (' Veterinary Journal,' 1888). This is practically opera- 
 tion by the ecraseur. 
 
 Sterility in rams sometimes results from excessive use 
 of sexual powers, and sometimes from the animal being 
 too fat and too highly fed. 
 
204 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 Section II. — The Female Genital Appaeatits. 
 
 The pi'incipal points of interest as regards the anatomy 
 of the sexual organs of the ewe are the absence of canals 
 of Gaertner and the cup shape of the cotyledons. 
 
 FiO. 02. — Uterus, oviducts, find ovaria of sheep. /. Confluence of cornua ; 
 e. Round ligament ; g. Cornu ; ?i. Fallopian tube ; m. Broad ligament 
 (Owen). 
 
 Ewes naturally come in heat in September, but usually 
 the phenomena are shown in summer in improved breeds 
 when the ram is admitted to the flock. The duration of 
 the oestrum is a few days, and recurs only a few times, 
 there being congestion of and weeping from the vulva 
 (Fleming and Wiltshire). 
 
 Ewes are to be dealt with gently after they have been 
 with the ram, not to be bullied with dogs, nor over-fed. 
 
THE QeneeatiVe system. 20o 
 
 especially with turnips, nor over^driven, though daily 
 exercise does them good. They should be kept from the 
 rest of the flock and sheltered from inclement weather. 
 The young is carried for five months, an average of 152 
 days, the experiments of Tessier showing that the range 
 is from 146 — 161 days. Passage of semen to the ovum is 
 said to take four or five days ; male lambs are said to be 
 carried longer than females. Southdowns are considered 
 to go 144 days only as a rule. Merinos 150 days. Touatt 
 quotes a case where a lamb was supposed to have been 
 carried for two years and five months, but there was 
 probably some error in observation. The farmer has a 
 number of matters to consider in determining when his 
 ewes shall yean ; house lambs may be thrown in September 
 or October for the November or December market, but 
 the middle of March to the middle of April is the best 
 time, as the weather is then genial and the lambs will 
 come on grazing at a good time. Early lambs are said to 
 be larger and stronger than late ones, but are more liable 
 to the accidents resulting from exposure to cold. When 
 lambs are thrown too late the ewes are late for the butcher, 
 for in some parts it is the custom to fatten all ewes for 
 sale after the third or fourth lamb. Whether or not it 
 is advisable to get rid of breeding ewes at so early an 
 age is questionable. It is certain that ewes will breed for 
 many years longer ; an extreme example is given by Touatt 
 of a ewe which yeaned twins when a shearling and had 
 twins yearly for fifteen years, then one lamb each year for 
 two years. It is not very uncommon for five lambs to be 
 produced at a birth, and even six have been recorded ; and 
 as examples of prolific ewes we may extract from the records 
 one mentioned by CuUey which produced twenty lambs in 
 six years, and an old ewe mentioned by Touatt, which pro- 
 duced four lambs at different periods in twenty-one months. 
 It is the custom to breed from domesticated sheep only once 
 in a year. Triplets are not uncommon, but almost invari' 
 ably one of them must be removed from the ewe, who has 
 quite enough to do to keep two fully supplied with milk. 
 Twins are seldom produced at the first yeaning, but in 
 
206 DISEASliS OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 certain breeds, such as tlie Dorset, Teeswater, and South- 
 down, twins are constantly occurring when the conditions 
 of nourishment of the ewe are favorable. An hereditary 
 tendency to free prolification is marked both as acquired 
 from the male or female parent. It is considered a good 
 thing to have plenty of twins if there is enough food or 
 rich enough pasture to enable the ewe to support them, 
 and failing liberal supply of food a certain proportion of 
 twins is an advantage, as in this way loss of lambs may 
 be atoned for and substitutes provided. Cold weather is 
 liable to be fatal to the lambs, and very hot weather proves 
 an active cause of metritis in the ewes and may be pre- 
 judicial to the lambs by providing them early with too 
 luxuriant grass. As the time of parturition approaches^ 
 the process termed clatting is resorted to by some shep- 
 herds, others practise it just before the ram is admitted 
 to the ewe flock. It consists in removalof the wool from 
 under the tail, inside the thighs, and around the udder, 
 on which parts otherwise dirt may collect and prevent the 
 lamb sucking ; also, the lambs are less liable to suck in wool 
 from ewes thus prepared, and the lamber can the more 
 readily detect which ewes have yeaned. 
 
 Youatt thus enumerates the instruments and appliances 
 required hy the lamher : — a lamb crook j a bottle of milk, 
 ewe's if possible, and carried in his bosom or inside pocket 
 to keep it warm ; some cords for .tying the legs of such 
 ewes as require examination or assistance ; a small pot of 
 tai', with two or three small marking irons to enable him 
 to mark differently each pair of twins, with a view to sub- 
 sequent recognition ; grease or oil for lubrication of the 
 passages ; instruments, and hand in aiding delivery ; a 
 sharp knife with round or curved extremity for embryo- 
 tomy ; a stout polished iron rod, twelve inches long, of 
 the size of a goose-quill, shaped like a button-hook at one 
 end, as a crochet ; a sheep's drenching-horn ; a small 
 bottle of cordial consisting of equal parts of brandy and 
 nitrous ether; a strong infusion of ergot of rye. 
 
 The duties of the lamber are — (a) to keep the ewes to 
 their lambs, for some (especially young ewes) are singu- 
 
THE GSNEEATIVB SYSTEM. S07 
 
 larly careless^ going away to graze after yeaning, and 
 utterly neglectful of their offspring. On the other hand, 
 many cases of pathetic extreme affection for the lamb are 
 on record; (6) to prevent the lambs of the various ewes 
 getting intermingled, so that the ewes cannot find them, 
 and go about in a great state of distress, bleating con- 
 stantly ; (c) to assist those which need aid. This assist- 
 ance should not be premature nor too hurried ; different 
 ewes occupy different times in delivery, and it has been 
 found that cold weather and exposure protract the process. 
 The indications of need for assistance are thoseof increasing 
 weakness, and especially protrusion of the tongue, with a 
 black colour of the organ, " Cuckoo lambs," those born 
 late in April and early in May, are apt to require special 
 attention, as also are cases where twins are simultaneously 
 presented. A large head of the foetus is a frequent cause 
 of impediment, and results from errors in mating the 
 parents, especially from the use of a coarse-headed ram. 
 False presentations are not very frequent in the sheep, 
 and require simply adoption of those measures which are 
 familiar to the veterinarian as occurring in cow-practice. 
 Lateral, dorsal, breech, and nape-of-the-neck presentations 
 are the most frequent malpresentations, the two latter being 
 most severe. These accidents can almost always be traced 
 to some injury to the ewe due to rough handling in dipping 
 or shearing, or to brutal chasing by a dog ; the latter used 
 to be barbarously resorted to immediately after impreg- 
 nation to make the ewe " hold." Monstrosities of various 
 kinds — polymelians, dicephali, &c. — are sometimes produced 
 by ewes, and need embryotomy for their removal when 
 they cause dystokia ; possibility of their presence should 
 be remembered by the obstetrist. If safely delivered and 
 the little deformity lives, he may be of a certain value as 
 a curiosity, but otherwise is regarded by the practical 
 farmer as worthless.* 
 
 * Examples : (o) Peiocephalic cyclops ; absence of superior, maxilla and 
 nas;d bones ; a small proboscis, elongation and curvature of inferior maxilla 
 (' Veterinary Journal,' January 1882, p. 46). (J) absence of lower jaw (lb.), 
 (c) Rhinoeeplialus cyclop^; eye and cornea oval with loiig diameter trans- 
 
208 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 Hermaphroditism is not infrequent in lambs, especially 
 when a male and female twin are born. Any irregularity 
 in urination of lambs should attract attention ; the young 
 animal is known as a " free martin," i. e. a male born twin 
 with a female, and such lambs are reported to be puny 
 and not easily fattened. Dead lambs especially require 
 
 Fig. 63.— Cclosoraian lamb (Youatt). 1 and 2. Fore limbs. 
 3. Tail. 4. Muzzle. 5. Stifle. 6. Rump. V. Ribs 
 twisted. 8. Viscera. 
 
 PlO. 64. — Cyclopean ram (Heeiko). 
 
 assistance at birth. They should be removed, because if 
 they be retained the ewe seldom does well. Although cases 
 have been known where the presence of a dead foetus did 
 not seem to interfere with the health and fattening of the 
 ewe, as a rule a ewe carrying a decomposing foetus falls 
 away in condition, and is liable to succumb to marasmus, 
 and a similar state has been seen to follow retention of 
 
 veraely ; iris double and the two in contact, pupil iu middle of each iris 
 natural (' Voteriuarj Journal,' June, 1876, p. 442). 
 
THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 209 
 
 the fcetal membranes. It is the custom for the shepherd 
 to blow into the months of apparently dead lambs as a 
 rough system of artificial respiration, and this, supple- 
 mented by administration of gin and peppermint, and 
 placing the animal before a fire, constitutes treatment 
 which saves a few. Some farmers are weak enough to 
 give the lambers the skins of dead lambs as a perquisite, 
 others reward the man according to the success of the 
 
 Fig. 65. — Genital organs of hevmaplirodite goat (LnucffaBx). From 
 ' Journ. Vet. Obstet.' 
 
 a. Testes. e. Body of uterus and vagina. 
 
 b. Epididymes and abdominal f. Uterine cornua. 
 
 ends of Miillerian ducts. g. Fallopian tubes. 
 
 d. Vasa deferentia. h. Urethra. 
 
 lambings. For dead lambs the ewe has to be provided 
 with a ^'substitute," of the same age as the one she has 
 lost in order that her milk may not disagree with the little 
 one. Some difficulty is often experienced in getting her 
 to transfer her affections, and this is sometimes overcome 
 by putting the flayed skin of the dead one over the living, 
 and smearing the blood over its legs, and otherwise dis- 
 guising it so that when it is introduced during darkness 
 
 14 
 
210 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 to the ewe she may adopt it in mistake for her lost one. 
 This process may prove fatal to the substitute by sup- 
 pression of cutaneous exhalation^ as elsewhere explained, 
 Emhrijotomy and the Gsssarian operation are practised on 
 
 ~ K 
 
 
 
 "•l 
 
 X. s 
 
 ^^' ^ '^# 
 
 Pia. 66. — Goat, full-time twins (Colin). 
 
 A. Cervix. e. Amnion. 
 
 B. Left corna, P- Portions of uterine walls, 
 c. Eiffht cornu. G- Union of two chorions at 
 D. AUantois. cervix nteri. 
 
 the ewo in the usual manner, the incisions in the latter 
 being about five inches long. A successful case, where 
 the uterus was found adherent to the abdominal wall may 
 be read in the ' American Veterinary Review ' for Sep- 
 tember, 1883. The exhaustion which sometimes follows a 
 
THE GENEEATIVE SYSTEM. 211 
 
 prolonged labour is denoted by weakness, unwillingness to 
 rise, coldness of tlie udder and extremities, bloody serous 
 discbarge from tbe vulva, swollen and blue state of tbe 
 vulval mucous membrane,* and panting. Hoven sets in, 
 and general coldness, terminating in convulsions and 
 death. 
 
 Lambs are weaned at from three to six months old, 
 according to circumstances ; too rapid transition from 
 milk to rich solid diet causes jaundice due to liver con- 
 gestion, which may prove fatal in twelve hours. A lamb 
 thus affected is called a "gall lamb." Several abnor- 
 malities of importance may occur before the time of par- 
 turition. Abortion is not of so frequent occurrence in 
 ewes as in cows, nor when one ewe aborts are the rest of 
 the pregnant females on the pasture so apt to follow her 
 example. This accident is attributed to various causes, 
 such as deleterious matter in, or nature of, the food [in- 
 cluding fog or coarse grass ; heated corn ; mouldy or un- 
 ripe hay ; frosted roots, roots in excess, or mangolds too 
 early in the season before matured in the clamps (Walker) ] ; 
 too liberal use of salt in feeding, abuse of medicines, attacks 
 of hoven during pregnancy, unwholesome water, frights 
 caused by dogs and otherwise j violent leaps in attempting 
 to escape ; over-driving or too hasty driving during ad- 
 vanced pregnancy; throwing ewes so as to dress foot-rot, or 
 in markets to examine the state of legs and condition ; 
 overcrowding and being trodden on when travelling by 
 rail or sea ; also morning dew on pastures, from January 
 to June, is supposed in Spain to produce it. Starvation 
 of ewes in lamb may bring it on, and it has been attri- 
 buted on moor and mountain land to excessive intercourse 
 with the ram when gestation is far advanced, but this has 
 not been clearly established as a cause, for such intercourse 
 is generally refused. Axe mentions causes of abortion as 
 follows : (1) long-continued wet weather, (2) excess of 
 roots, (3) foot-rot, (4) inflammations of skin, (5) a wet 
 and slippery state of the ground. When a cold winter 
 
 * The external geuerative opening is commonlj known as " the bearing ' 
 or sliape. 
 
212 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 follows a wet summer and autumn abortion is most liable 
 to occur. The animal about to abort is out of sorts^ bleats 
 frequently and constantly, and has an offensive glairy red 
 or yellow discharge from the genital orifice. The lamb 
 is generally born dead, but if born alive soon dies. The 
 occurrence of abortion in a flock indicates the necessity 
 for immediate change of diet and pasture, avoidance of 
 turnips, good nutritious diet gradually increased, extra 
 care, and shelter. Animals which have recently aborted 
 may need a short course of stimulants and tonics and 
 some antiseptic injection into the genital organs ; usually, 
 however, nothing but good nursing and extra care is re- 
 quisite. Non-admission of dogs to the yeaning yard is one 
 of the most useful means in prevention. 
 
 Superfoetation. — A case may be read in the ' Veteri- 
 narian' for 1871 where the second impregnation probably 
 took place six weeks before the birth of the first lamb. 
 
 Inveesio v. Reteoversio Uteei is a not very rare acci- 
 dent which may result from excessive spasm of the uterus, 
 from great violence in artificial extraction of the lamb, or 
 after very severe labour pains. The organ must be re- 
 turned if possible after cleansing it from all dirt and foetal 
 membranes, and this replacement will be facilitated by 
 placing the animal on its back and elevating the hind 
 parts. Eetention may be effected by means of a pessary, 
 or the labia majora may be sutured or fastened by a small 
 iron ring, which will not be torn out by the straining of 
 the animal ; or the protruded organ may be amputated 
 freely in the usual way, or so ligatured that it will slough 
 off. The ewe should after recovery be fattened for the 
 butcher. Barnes, of Malpas, relates an interesting case 
 in the 'Veterinarian,' 1871, where the butcher was called 
 to a ewe with prolapsed uterus, but considered the flesh 
 not good, so the veterinary surgeon was then given a 
 chance. He cut off the womb, ligatured the arteries, 
 stitched up the vulva, gave stimulants, and his patient 
 recovered. MacGillivray, of Banff, mentions ante-partum 
 rupture of the vagina, vide 'Veterinarian ' for 1855, p. 765. 
 
 Cox, of Ardwick, has observed Scieehotjs Os Uteei in 
 
THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 213 
 
 the ewe ('Veterinarian/ July, 1877) ; Lewis, of Barnet, in 
 the same iournal for 1886, records how he found dystokia 
 from ToESio Ceevicis Uteei in a ewe. He rolled the 
 animal from left to right some five times, pressing firmly 
 with the finger against the os uteri, and this treatment 
 proved sufficient to undo the twist and facilitate delivery. 
 
 Paetueient Pevee is the name given to a disease which 
 occurs in pregnant ewes shortly before parturition, but its 
 exact nature seems to be obscure, although it is evident 
 that from some cause or other the blood has undergone 
 material alterations. . Th^ premonitory symptoms are 
 twitching of the muscles, especially those of the eaTs and 
 posterior extremities, and refusal of food. Although the 
 patient again takes its food, it remains dull and in a state 
 pf semi-stupor for two or three days, when the appetite 
 becomes completely lost, and the animal is weak, staggers 
 as though giddy, the head is pendent, the eyes are partly 
 closed, the state of stupor continues, and a dark discharge 
 takes place from the vagina. Here a crisis occurs, par- 
 turition may take place, and then the animal may do well 
 with the exception of shedding the greater part of its 
 wool, otherwise typhoid symptoms supervene, the body is 
 struck with the hind feet, indicative of abdominal pain, 
 prostration is complete, a dead lamb is born, and the genital 
 discharge is dark in colour and most offensive.^^ Stupor, 
 complete insensibility, and death finish the case. Treat- 
 ment comprises stimulants, removal of the lamb, smearing 
 the walls of the vagina and os uteri with extract of bella- 
 donna and giving saline febrifuges and laxatives. After 
 birth has taken place antiseptics must be injected into the 
 womb. Sedulous nursing must be persisted in throughout 
 the attack. Our information on this disease is mainly 
 derived from a paper by Isaac Seamen in the 'Journal 
 of the Eoyal Agricultural Society,' vol. xv. 
 
 Before parturition a form of Inflammation of the Womb, 
 Meteo-peeitonitis, occurs and gives rise to all the sym- 
 ptoms of ascites, which are urgent at about one month 
 before the time of lambing. Relief may be afforded by 
 paracentesis abdominis, " tapping the belly," a very simple 
 
214 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 operation, or spontaBeous recovery may take place, but 
 when the lamb is born it is found to be affected witli 
 dropsy of the abdomen, " water-bellied," and generally it 
 pines away and dies. Occasionally 10 — 15 per cent, of the 
 ewes in a flock are thus affected. On account of the colour 
 of the fluid in the belly this disease has been termed " red 
 water," but differs from the specific disorder of the same 
 name. This condition is said to be due to excessive feeding 
 of pregnant ewes on turnips. Another form of inflamma- 
 tion of the womb is that wbich Sibbold has described as 
 Htsteeitis, where the muscular and mucous coats of the 
 uterus are mainly affected but the peritoneum may subse- 
 quently be involved. The disease sets in from one to four 
 days after parturition when the membranes bave been 
 retained, and injury has been inflicted on tbe womb before, 
 during, or after parturition. It is fatal, sometimes 3 per 
 cent, of the yeaning ewes in a flock succumbing to it, and is 
 swift in its progress. Dick says it occurs especially in 
 young ewes, and found that it did not take place until 
 ten or twelve days after parturition. There is fever, as 
 denoted notably by the dry and hot nose, the udder is hot, 
 swollen, and tender, the labia are swollen and red, there 
 is straining, a dark-coloured fluid is expelled from the 
 uterus, and the animal cringes when pressure is made on the 
 loins. The ewe is restless, dull, and depressed, she violently 
 rejects the lamb when it attempts to suck, her breathing 
 becomes quick and laboured, and death supervenes in two 
 or three days. Treatment comprises catbartics, saline 
 febrifuges, stimulant tonics, fomentations to the udder and 
 external generative opening, also removal of wool from 
 the belly and stimulation of the parts thus exposed. Pre- 
 vention is much better tban cure, and consists in increased 
 care to avoid injury of the pregnant ewes. The rapid 
 sinking and early loss of strength in this and othier 
 uterine disorders is considered to be due to absorption of 
 septic material and pus from the inflamed vessels of the 
 uterus. 
 
 At a meeting of the Obstetrical Society of London on 
 $th March, 1876, Mr, Jonathan Hutcbinson read a " Re- 
 
THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 215 
 
 port on Certain Causes of Death in Ewes during and 
 after Parturitiouj witli notes on the Navel-Ill in Lambs." 
 The results of observations made during three seasons 
 seemed to prove that the death of the foetus before 
 delivery was of far more serious consequence in sheep 
 than in the human subject, and also that it was far from 
 an infrequent one ; the lamb after death appearing to be- 
 come a cause of metritis, and there being little tendency 
 to its expulsion. When metritis occurred it was apt to 
 run a rapid course, gangrene often ensuing, during which 
 rupture of the walls frequently took place. Peritonitis 
 and pyaemia not unfrequently occurred in connection with 
 metritis. Puerperal metritis and peritonitis, or the con- 
 sequent pyaemia, seemed to be invariably accidental, so to 
 speak, and not the result of contagion. They occurred 
 in animals treated in the open air, and yet ran a course 
 almost precisely similar to the parallel maladies in the 
 human subject. Ewes, during lactation, seemed liable, 
 by the use of an improper article of food, i. e. cotton- 
 cake, to a sort of idiopathic tetanus, which the same 
 article of food showed no tendency to produce in lambs, 
 hoggets, and undelivered ewes. Lastly, young lambs 
 were liable, quite independently of any known source of 
 contamination, to the occurrence of purulent phlebitis of 
 the umbilical vein, with the consequent phenomena of 
 pyaemia ; a fact which gave strong support to what Mr. 
 Hutchinson believed to be the true hypothesis of all 
 pyaemia strictly so called. 
 
 In the discussion on this paper Dr. Cooper Rose referred 
 to the salutary effects of opium in subduing pain and spasm 
 in sheep. Many ewes died after lambing from what was 
 called " straining." This he believed to be analogous to 
 " after-pains," which, if neglected, led to metritis, exhaus- 
 tion, and death of the sheep. In 1853 he advised a friend, 
 who had lost several sheep with this symptom, to try two- 
 drachm doses of laudanum in warm gruel every two hours. 
 This had the effect of entirely curing the disease, all the 
 sheep which were subsequently attacked, with one exception, 
 being saved. In order to eliminate all sources of infection. 
 
216 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 he would like to know whether the land had beea manured 
 by sewage or artificial manures. 
 
 Dr. Playfair said it would be difficult to over-estimate 
 the value of such a paper. It would be well if others 
 were to follow Mr. Hutchinson's example. His conclu- 
 sion as to contagion having nothing to do with the dis- 
 ease seemed hardly justified prima facie, and it would be 
 interesting to know if Mr. Hutchinson had really elimi- 
 nated the possibility of the disease having been conveyed 
 to the affected ewes. There were many points that 
 forcibly reminded him of the epidemics of puerperal fever 
 occasionally occurring in limited localities^ or in the prac- 
 tice of one man. In Mr. Hutchinson's series, the first case 
 of all was clearly a case of autogenetic septicaemia, a piece 
 of placenta being found in utero after death. Was it not 
 possible that the epidemic was started by this case, and 
 conveyed to the other ewes by the shepherd, or in some 
 other way ? 
 
 Dr Snow Beck, in further illustration of the subject, 
 had brought forward specimens of uteri removed from 
 sheep which had died after lambing. These he had care- 
 fully examined under water. They were large, flabby, and 
 uncontracted ; but otherwise all the tissues were perfectly 
 healthy. He had failed to detect any appearance of in- 
 flammation, nor were there any coagula in the veins. On 
 laying open the uterus, the inner surface was seen to be 
 covered by a copious, dirty, reddish-yellow, purulent-look- 
 ing fluid, which when washed away left the surface floccu- 
 lent and shaggy, as is usual. Some of the veins were 
 found to be filled with a fluid similar to that seen on the 
 internal surface of the uterus, but the coats of the veins 
 were healthy. On injecting air into these veins it 
 traversed the sinuses in the walls of the organs, and 
 escaped, by openings previously concealed, at the points 
 where the cotyledons of the placenta had been situated ; 
 leading to the conclusion that the fluid from the interior 
 of the uterus had been taken up by these veins, owing to 
 the flabby, uncontracting condition of the uterine walls, 
 and conveyed into the general circulation in the same 
 
THE GENEEATIVE SYSTEM, 217 
 
 manner as in the human female after a miscarriage or 
 parturition. The further changes generally found in the 
 human subject were not observed in the ewe, owing to the 
 animal being killed at an early stage of the affection. 
 
 Dr. Wiltshire thought that there might perhaps be 
 something poisonous in the pastures in which the ewes 
 were grazing, and was struck with the suggestion that 
 Mr. Hutchinson attributed the mortality among his lambing 
 ewes to the use of cotton-cake. In America, and espe- 
 cially among negresses, cotton-root is used as an aborte- 
 facient. The symptoms were markedly tetanic. Was there 
 any elevation of temperature ? Was the saliva of the mother 
 poisonous through nibbling the umbilicus of the lamb in 
 the disease called "navel-ill" as it is in hydrophobia ? 
 
 Dr. Aveling thought Mr. Hutchinson's paper very valu- 
 able. He would remind the Fellows that Harvey, the father 
 of British obstetrics, gained a great deal of his obstetric 
 knowledge from the numerous and accurate observations 
 he made upon generation and parturition in the deer. He 
 thought our knowledge might be extended by studying 
 the parturient processes, puerperal disorders, and diseases 
 of the female generative organs in animals. 
 
 Dr. Graily Hewitt said that when attached to the British 
 Lying-in Hospital he had noticed a condition analogous 
 to that spoken of by Mr. Hutchinson as " navel-ill." He 
 remembered reading a tract published some years since in 
 which the connection between morbid processes at the navel 
 and icterus of new-born children, with distinct affection of 
 the liver, had been noted. 
 
 Mr. Hutchinson inquired whether the patients generally 
 recovered when jaundice was marked or whether they 
 ended fatally with symptoms of pysemia. 
 
 The President (Dr. Priestley) inquired whether the 
 young lambs suffering from ; " navel-ill " belonged to the 
 ewes affected wi h tetanus, and whether the Iambs them- 
 selves showed any symptoms of tetanus. Drs. Dsborne 
 and Bland had contributed valuable information to the sub- 
 ject of the diseases and complaints of the lower animals 
 from parturition. 
 
218 DISEASES OE THE SHEEP. 
 
 Dr. Edis thought that in the first year's experience 
 recorded by Mr, Hutchinsonj the suggestion offered itself 
 that the high ratio of difficult labours may have been inci- 
 dental to the breed; the attempt to obtain large animals 
 by crossing the breed was, in all probability, the true expla- 
 nation of the mortality. This was a well-recognised fact 
 among sheep-farmers, who were always careful to avoid 
 placing rams of a larger breed with ewes than experience 
 warranted, for this very reason. As to " the death of the 
 fcBtus before delivery being a far more serious occurrence 
 in sheep than in the human subject," this might be 
 explained by the greater apathy among shepherds, owing 
 to their attention being divided among so many, than is the 
 case with medical men who, in addition to special know- 
 ledge, individualise their cases, and, where death of the 
 foetus occurs before labour, induce delivery at once before 
 any ill-results from decomposition and putrid infection have 
 had time to take place ; but where this has been neglected 
 septicaemia is by no means infrequent. A case occurring 
 in a dog, illustrating these views, was given. 
 
 Dr. Braxton Hicks stated that in an epidemic of puer- 
 peral fever in Paris the children were affected by perito- 
 nitis. It would be interesting to note how far this was in 
 connection with pyemic origin. There was unquestionably 
 some relation between septicaemia and this condition. 
 
 Mr. Hutchinson, in reply, asked whether, in the epi- 
 demics mentioned by Dr. Hicks, any distinct deposits were 
 found in the liver from inflammation of the navel. He 
 was surprised to hear children suffered so. In all his lambs 
 which died of the "navel-ill" pyaemic deposits were in- 
 variably found in the liver. The lambs affected were not 
 solely from sheep suffering from tetanus. There was no 
 association between the two, as far as he had observed. 
 The tetanus in the ewes was due to the food taken. In 
 one lamb the navel was long and had not been nibbled by 
 the ewe. Many of the lambs had not been touched by 
 the shepherd. Dr. Playfairhad suggested that the cases 
 were probably those of peritonitis, pyaemia, and metritis, 
 analogous to puerperal fever in the human subject ; that 
 
THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 219 
 
 the first case was autogenetic and the others from con- 
 tagion. The details given showed that any supposition 
 of that sort was out of the question, the dates showing that 
 the cases occurred at considerable intervals from each 
 other. In several it seemed due to the retention of a dead 
 lamb before delivery. It was puzzling to explain how 
 one year there were many deaths and another none. He 
 had no reason to believe the inflammations of the uterus 
 had any relation with each other, they seemed to arise of 
 themselves and from independent sources. As regards 
 tetanus he had not seen any case among the lambs, and as 
 to the influence of food he thought this had little to do with 
 it as last winter the ewes were fed on cotton-cake but there 
 were no cases of inflammation. He thought the dispro- 
 portion between the size of lambs and the maternal pass- 
 ages important. 
 
 After this very important discussion Prof. Walley pub- 
 lished ('Veterinary Journal,' June, 1876) a valuable lecture 
 on Malignant Parturient Fever, puerperal fever, milk 
 fever, metroperitonitis, puerperal peritonitis, also vulgarly 
 termed in Scotland " inflammation." This he considered 
 a true blood disease, analogous in all its causes to all 
 forms of anthrax ; it is enzootic, and appears much earlier 
 after parturition than true metritis. It must not be 
 confounded with parturient apoplexy or parturient para- 
 lysis. It attacks all female animals, but is most fre- 
 quent in the ewe, taking place generally from three 
 to twenty-four hours after parturition, though sometimes 
 not for three or four days. It is very fatal, lasting 
 three to eight hours, and if the animal lives longer it 
 will most probably recover. Sometimes erysipelatous 
 mammitis occurs conjointly ; lambs from affected ewes 
 or which are fostered by them are very liable to joint- 
 ill. The disease does not seem to be contagious ; septi- 
 caemia resulting from conveyance of decomposing material 
 by the hand of the lamber must not be confused with 
 it ; isolated cases may arise as a result of decomposi- 
 tion of coagula in the womb. It depends on improper 
 management of some kind prior to parturition, bad food. 
 
220 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP, 
 
 air^ wateTj or excessive housing. Among exciting causes 
 may be mentioned parturition, over-driving, excitement, 
 railway travelling before or immediately after parturition, 
 extremes of weather (barometrical and thermometrical), 
 and retention of the placenta. 
 
 Symptoms. — General signs of ill-health, fever, and 
 metritis ; bowels constipated or relaxed, and afterwards 
 foetid or blood-tinged evacuations with diarrhcea. Abdo- 
 minal pain, straining, unhealthy chocolate-coloured, foetid, 
 purulent discharge ejected through the vagina ; coma and 
 delirium precede death. 
 
 Autopsy shows the womb corrugated and hard, or 
 flaccid and soft and dark externally ; much purulent 
 matter in its cavity ; cotyledons soft, pulpy and disin- 
 tegrated or infiltrated with black grumous blood, many 
 having irregularly circumscribed yellow spots on their 
 exterior composed of fat, pus, and mucus cells, also 
 granular matter and debris ; blood-vessels surcharged with 
 black coagulated or fluid blood. These lesions are partial 
 or general. The peritoneal coat is sometimes diseased 
 and sero-sanguineous and sero-purulent fluid found in the 
 belly ; ecchymosis of mucous and serous membranes ; mus- 
 cular coat of womb thickened by effusion of serum ; patches 
 of yellow lymph in connective tissue of the broad liga- 
 ments ; muscular tissue dark and sometimes black and 
 tarry, unfit for human food ; blood dark and coagulated ; 
 heart usually filled with dark clot. Flesh eaten by dogs 
 with impunity. No bacteria detected in the blood. 
 
 Treatment. — Mild laxatives, diuretics (especially tur- 
 pentine, camphor, and oil of juniper), cinchona and other 
 antiseptics with stimulants and opiates. Sedative enemata, 
 and antiseptic sedative injections into the womb. Mustard 
 and hot cloths externally. Lamb to be taken away, and 
 milk drawn at intervals. Good nursing and tonics. 
 
 This lecture of Prof. Walley has been dealt with thus 
 at length both because of its practical importance, and 
 also since it renders evident the want of differentiation in 
 ovine obstetrics between simple inflammation of the womb, 
 septic metritis, and probably also specific uterine derange- 
 
THE GENEBATIVE SYSTEM. 221 
 
 ment after parturition. Axe, in a report on disease of ewes 
 made to the Royal Agricultural Society on March 5th, 
 1879, deals with parturient fever as directly associated with 
 preparturient anemia, and apparently he considers the two 
 conditions to be forms of the same disorder, which he 
 believes to be non-contagious and non-specific. Among 
 the symptoms noted by him are extreme prostration, para- 
 lysis, chorea of limbs ; eyes fixed, retracted, and abducted ; 
 opisthotonic or pleurosthonic spasm, and loss of wool. We 
 need much more evidence before the identity of the two 
 diseases under consideration can be accepted as established. 
 Some consider parturition fever a form of septicaemic in- 
 fection, and that it does not occur without wounds of the 
 genital passages, it being noted that frequently the udder is 
 simultaneously affected. It is suggested that the atten- 
 dants be frequently changed, that the lamber be not allowed 
 to make post-mortem examinations, that antiseptic solu- 
 tions be used as a matter of routine in parturition cases, and 
 that carbolic and salicylic acids, alcoholic stimulants, and 
 ammonia salts be given to support the patient ; in the 
 earlier stages aconite may be useful, and, if diarrhoea be 
 present, opium. 
 
 Vaginitis occurs not uncommonly in ewes, the result of 
 injuries received in forced or difficult labour. 
 
 After-pains, Beaking-pains, Paetueition Fevee (Gam- 
 gee) : prove extremely fatal, the cases sometimes amounting 
 to 20 per cent., it being most prevalent in the South of 
 England, and especially seen in plethoric ewes, well fed 
 all the year round and allowed very rich artificial food 
 near lambing time, and it has been especially attributed 
 to turnip-tops and salted hay. Want of exercise pro- 
 bably has something to do with its production j thus it 
 occurs in ewes fed on turnips or luxuriant pasture, such 
 as does not necessitate the animal walking about much to 
 obtain a sufficiency. It occurs apparently as an epizootic, 
 affecting the best ewes of the flock, and may follow either 
 easy or difficult labour, but is least frequent after the first 
 lamb. In warm weather the ewes run great risk from this 
 disorder. It is in close pathological relations with metritis, 
 
222 DISEASES OJ? THE SHEEP. 
 
 and the lesions of that disorder are found after death, so 
 it probably is a form of uterine congestion ; the diseased 
 parts run on quickly to gangrene. The symptoms are 
 those of simple metritis, but without so marked fever at 
 first. They occur on the second or third day after yean- 
 ing, the animal first being restless, panting, and having a 
 foolish, staring aspect, and neglecting the lamb. High- 
 coloured urine is expelled with severe straining; whether 
 this urine is high-coloured from blood degradation or from 
 contamination by uterine evacuations has been debated, 
 but the latter condition is certainly present, and the former 
 possibly may supplement it. Vulva red and swollen, pain 
 on pressure of the loins, pain and difficulty in moving, 
 followed early by complete loss of power and constant 
 recumbency, dullness of the eyes, and drooping of the ears, 
 show the near approach of death from gangrene or puru- 
 lent infection. Anodyne enemata and intra-uterine injec- 
 tions, the latter of small bulk, antiseptic, and bland in 
 their nature, antiphlogistics, and salines, are useful for 
 treatment of this disorder, but early support by diffusible 
 stimulants is absolutely necessary, with a view to prevent 
 sinking of the patient. After this, and all other severe 
 uterine disorders, any patients which recover should not 
 again be used for breeding purposes, but fattened for the 
 butcher. Moderate diet and exercise for ewes in lamb 
 are the best means of prevention. 
 
 Inflammation of the -pudenda, or "barren,'' is said to 
 be common in the ewe from injuries received in lamb- 
 ing. 
 
 Parturition proves to be the critical time in many chronic 
 or subacute progressive disorders of the liver, the result 
 of high feeding and want of exercise, especially in the 
 attempt to prevent the ewes falling victims to rot. These 
 cases resemble blood derangements in their severity and 
 suddenness. Prof. Simonds used to describe them as 
 HaiMATOZYMOSis, and attribute them especially to feeding 
 on turnips with green tops. The symptoms present are 
 those of nervous disorder, which evidently arises from 
 blood derangement. Naturally these attacks are confused 
 
THE GENBEATIVE SYSTEM. 228 
 
 with simple disease, sucli as apoplexy, and with special 
 blood diseases, such as braxy. Interesting records of dis- 
 orders such as are here alluded to may be read in Spooner's 
 valuable little work on Sheep, pp. 265 and 258 of the 1878 
 (4th) edition. Young, of Fordoun, reported extensive post- 
 partum fatality of ewes, and pathological examination by 
 Prof. MacPadyean showed fatty infiltration of the liver and 
 kidneys to be the cause. In some cases the symptoms are 
 those of acute rot, but on post-mortem examination no flukes 
 are found in the liver, which organ is moderate in size, firm 
 in consistency, and of a light yellow colour, looking as 
 though it had been boiled. Much practical experience and 
 no little adroitness and closeness of observation is essential 
 on the part of the agriculturist and shepherd to determine 
 the happy medium between under-feeding and over-feeding, 
 and in regulating hygienic conditions other than dietetic 
 of pregnant ewes in accordance with peculiarities of the 
 season and other special conditions with a view to welfare 
 of both lambs and ewes. Excess of roots is liable to cause 
 abortion and metritis at yeaning time. Corn given to preg- 
 nant ewes is open to the objection that they scramble for 
 it, and are kept restless in anticipating it (Walker). It 
 has been remarked by practical men that sound ewes in 
 good order drop the Iamb covered with thick yellow slime, 
 which the ewe proceeds to lick off, and the higher the con- 
 dition of the ewe the darker and thicker the slime. An ex- 
 cessively watery state of the fluid indicates poverty, but it 
 is a warning that comes rather too late for satisfactory 
 action. We have seen that several important accidents 
 and diseases may occur before parturition, and the prac- 
 tical shepherd will have gauged the condition of his ewes 
 long before he has an opportunity of inspecting the slime 
 on the newly-born lamb. This slime is the liquor amnii ; 
 it must not be confused with the uterine milk, which can 
 be collected between the maternal and foetal cotyledons, 
 which was investigated by Dr. Arthur Gamgee and found 
 to have a sp. gr. of 1031 — 1033 and the following chemical 
 composition :— water 88-30— 91-88, solids 11-70—8-12, fat 
 1-20 — r05, albumen (with cells and alkaline albuminate) 
 
224 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 together 9'97— 6-12, salts -45— -82. The uterus with its 
 membranes weighed about 3 lbs., and the lamb removed 
 therefrom 9^ ozs. — 1 lb. 3 ozs. ('Edinburgh Veterinary 
 Review '). 
 
 The mammary apparatus of the ewe differs from that 
 of the cow in a few points of anatomical detail, but not 
 essentially. 
 
 Masses of sweat-glands yielding a peculiar unctuous 
 secretion are seen on either side of the udder of the ewe 
 between folds of the skin (Gamgee). 
 
 Mammitis, or Garget, is a disease of very frequent occur- 
 rence, for many causes operate to produce it. Thus, ex- 
 posure to wet and cold, especially when the ewes are left 
 out all night on the pastures, moisture and filth in the 
 places where the animals lie down, hardness and dryness 
 of the soil of the pasture, bruises from the head of the 
 sucking lambs, not drawing off the milk properly when 
 weaning, removal of one twin lamb after the other has been 
 accustomed to suck only one side of the udder so that milk 
 accumulates in the undrawn side, and other causes produce 
 it. The disease is not only most frequent, but proves 
 most troublesome and destructive in wet seasons and not 
 rarely is fatal by mortification. It seems sometimes to be 
 due to special influences, and Nocard has observed that a 
 special form of mammitis found in the cow could be com- 
 municated to the goat. Fleming in his paper on the 
 ' Transmissibility of Diphtheria," read before the Epi- 
 demiological Society, May 31st, 1881, mentions Zurn's 
 observations that suckling ewes were infected from cows 
 with contagious mammitis after lying on the litter or dung 
 from the cowsheds, and their milk killed the lambs. He 
 also refers to Rivolta's description of an infectious mammitis 
 in sheep, a form of septic disorder concerning which 
 details are given in the ' Giornale di Anat., Pisiol., Patol., 
 degli Animali, 1875. •" This disease seems to be distinct 
 from gangrenous mammitis and gangrenous or anthracoid 
 erysipelas. It is a local disorder and frequently fatal. It 
 generally commences in or near one of the teats ; the teat 
 offers a circumscribed cedematous tumefaction with intense 
 
THE GENEEATIVE SYSTEM. 225 
 
 redness of skin whicli rapidly becomes changed to grey 
 and then black. Sometimes blood escapes from the teat. 
 The swelling and discoloration gradually extend^ and 
 shortly one half of the udder is afEected, becoming tumified, 
 doughy^ slightly or not at all sensitive^ and dark or black 
 in colour. This condition has a well-marked line of 
 demarcation and sloughing ensues. The disease may 
 extend to the skin of the abdomen. Emaciation and 
 debility set in, and the animal may succumb to septicaemia. 
 The disease is considered contagious, and to attack ewes 
 long kept on a thick bed of litter, but these points are 
 doubtful. Eivolta traces it to bacteria which penetrate 
 the teats or the skin. This, however, by no means estab- 
 lishes its transmissibility to the sheep, and it is always 
 necessary in study of diseases of the latter animal to 
 remember the probability of simultaneous operation of 
 one cause on many individuals in cases of seemingly a 
 communicable nature. In France the apparent contagious- 
 ness has long been noticed, and a curious notion is preva- 
 lent among the shepherds concerning the causation of the 
 disorder which is expressed in the name they give it, mal 
 d'araignee (spider disease) . Mammitis in the ewe in sym- 
 ptoms, progress, and treatment closely resembles the same 
 disease in the cow ; there is the same restlessness and pain 
 when sucked, leading to refusal to permit the young one 
 to obtain its natural nourishment and so reducing it, when 
 neglected, to a state of starvation ; also the same rapid 
 progress in healing or in occurrence of abscess, mortifica- 
 tion, or scirrhus. There is a marked tendency to recur. 
 During the attack it may be advisable to keep the lamb 
 on in order that- he may drain the sound division of the 
 udder if ^ there be one, but generally the little one must be 
 removed and house-fed, or put on a foster-mother. A ewe 
 which has recovered from garget should be fed up for the 
 butcher, thus following the rule which has few, if any, 
 exceptions, that sheep which have defects although they 
 may be suitable for " flying " stock, are not to be admitted 
 into the " breeding " stock. 
 
 After recovery from disease the ewe generally takes 
 
 15 
 
226 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 some time to " blossom/' that is to get into a state of 
 evident robust health, and a not uncommon sequela, espe- 
 cially of uterine disorders, is almost complete shedding 
 of the wool. The teats are liable to various disorders, of 
 which a chapped condition is the most frequent. This 
 has already been several times alluded to, especially in 
 connection with aphtha and specific disorders. When the 
 sore parts are irritated by dirt, milking, or sucking, a true 
 state of Eetthema Cheonica Mammillaeitm sets in, and 
 requires careful treatment on the lines mentioned by 
 G-amgee, comprising drawing off the milk by teat-tubes or 
 a milking machine, and protecting the teats by a gutta- 
 percha shield, if the young animal has to suck ; but when 
 the teat is deeply eroded, the lamb must be taken ofE the 
 ewe, and she must be dried up by putting her on bare 
 pasture and other familiar means, all nulk being removed 
 by the milking machine rather than by the hand. A 
 mixtare of equal parts of collodion and glycerine is a good 
 application for the wounds in these cases. 
 
 Teats impervious from various causes are treated in a 
 rough surgical, but effectual, manner by the insertion into 
 them of a red-hot knitting needle to the galactopherous 
 sinus, and then putting the young animal on to suck, 
 whereby an artificial fistula is established. It is said the 
 process is not very painful to the ewe, but sometimes she 
 will refuse to allow the lamb to suck, and then the pervious- 
 ness of the passage must be maintained by frequent and 
 careful withdrawal of the milk by hand. Accumulation of 
 milk in the udder causes pain and interferes with fattening, 
 therefore great care should be exercised in " drying up " 
 ewes when weaning the lambs. Ewe's milk is oily, and 
 gives much butter, heading the list among milks of domes- 
 tic animals in this respect ; it is second in place as regards 
 cheese, and lowest as regards sugar and whey. The butter 
 g^iven is oily and soon becomes rancid. The following are 
 the percentage results of analysis : — water 85"62 ; solids 
 14"38, comprising caseine 4'50, butter 4*20, sugar 5'00, and 
 salts 0'68. Feeding on mangolds deteriorates the milk. 
 
 Spaying or Ovariotomy is an operation which has not 
 
THE GENERATIVE SYSTEM. 227 
 
 found mucli favour as applied to ewes. Toiiatt describes 
 the operation as follows, apparently after Daubenton 
 (' Inptructions to Sbepherds ') : — At the age of six weeks 
 the ovaries are grown sufficiently large to be easily felt, 
 and that is the time usually selected for the spaying, being 
 immediately after the first formal examination of the flock. 
 The lamb is laid on her right side, near the edge of a 
 table, with her head hanging down by the side of the table ; 
 an assistant stretches out the left hind leg of the animal, 
 and holds it in that situation, with his left hand grasping 
 the shank ; and in default of a second assistant, he also 
 holds the two forelegs and the other hind leg with his 
 right hand. The lamb being thus disposed, the operator, 
 tightening the skin of the part, makes an incision of an 
 inch and a half in length midway between the top of the 
 haunch and the navel, and penetrating through the skin ; 
 another incision divides the muscles of the belly and the 
 peritoneum. A careful operator will perhaps make three 
 incisions, the first through the skin, the second through 
 the abdominal muscles, and the third through the perito- 
 neum. He then introduces his forefinger into the abdo- 
 minal cavity in search of the left ovary, which is immedi- 
 ately underneath the incision, and having found it he 
 draws it gently out. The two broad ligaments and the 
 womb and the right ovary protrude at the same time. 
 The operator cuts ofE the two ovaries and returns the 
 womb and its dependencies ; he then closes the wound by 
 means of two or three stitches through the skin, carefully 
 avoiding the abdominal muscles below, and last of all, he 
 rubs a little oil on the wound, or he does nothing more, 
 but releases his patient. 
 
 The operation is mentioned by Touatt as almost con- 
 fined to Great Britain and Italy, and he suggests that a 
 number of ewes might be spayed when in full milk, when pos- 
 sibly, like a cow thus operated on, the ewe may continually 
 produce milk, and so be available at all times as a foster 
 mother. Youatt's suggestion had no practical basis on 
 experiment, and does not seem to have ever been acted on. 
 
228 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 The nervous system of the sheep is not highly deve- 
 lopedj either anatomically or physiologically, as compared 
 with that of the horse or dog, but compares very well 
 with that of the ox, the encephalon being y^i^th part of the 
 weight of the animal, whereas that of the ox is only ^^th 
 part of its weight ; the brain mass is also longer and 
 broader, but the cerebrum overlaps the cerebellum less. 
 The convolutions of the brain are fairly marked and nume- 
 rous. There are not wanting traits and instances of sheep 
 and goats showing fairly good memories, skill in defence, 
 shrewdness in defending the young, and maternal afEection, 
 as well as courage, comradeship, and even low powers of 
 reasoning. In pet lambs and sheep well cared for and 
 receiving individual attention, the faculties get some 
 chance of development and of manifestation, but in the 
 dull round of ordinary sheep-life, comprised of feeding, 
 folding, breeding, shearing, washing, smearing, dipping, 
 journeying, and suffering from disease together with others 
 of the flock, it is no wonder if each individual settle down 
 to the dreariest uniformity, and seems foolish and stupid 
 when moved out of his routine. The skull is peculiarly 
 arched downwards, as may best be seen in longitudinal 
 section ; and whereby the axis of the posterior part meets 
 that of the anterior part at an oblique angle open below, 
 this anatomical feature to an extent influences the surgery 
 of the skull. It is associated with the outgrowths of the 
 horn cores in some animals, and the size of the frontal 
 sinuses for defensive purposes. The frontals become so 
 prominent that a strong ridge connecting the horns is pre- 
 sent, and the parietals and occipital seem, small and well 
 behind and rather below this ridge. The skull bones are 
 
THE NKEVOUS SYSTEM. 229 
 
 sutured togetlief in a beautiful manner and early become 
 fused. Simplicity of development implies comparative 
 fi'eedom from disease^ and the derangements which, have 
 been placed on record as affecting the nervous system of 
 the sheep are not numerous, and they affect the cerebro- 
 spinal system only, the ganglionic not having been ob- 
 served to be diseased. The cerebellum is to the whole 
 brain mass in the sheep as 1 to 3, whereas in the ox and 
 dog the proportion is 1 to 7. Frenzy, Encephalitis, is 
 seen as a sequela of operation for the removal of gid, of 
 cranial fractures, and of apoplexy ; it also may result from 
 the action of some poisonous substances ingested by the 
 animal, or be associated with food of a too stimulating 
 nature or in excess, as turnips after dry and insufficient 
 feed in an outbreak recorded by Tait (' Veterinarian,' vol. 
 viii, p. 611). Rye-grass tops is apt to cause the disease, 
 especially when over-ripe, probably due to development of 
 a narcotic principle in it (Dick). Severe exertion (as in 
 over-driving), hot weather, plethora, and a warm close 
 atmosphere, are predisposing influences^ The disease is 
 seen most frequently in lambs. Occasionally the cerebral 
 hemisphere only is diseased, as in Youatt's case of abscess 
 containing grey pus situated in the centre of one of the 
 cerebral lobes of a sheep presumably slaughtered in the 
 ordinary course of things. G-enerally, however, the attack 
 is one of true encephalitis, all the cranial structures being 
 involved. There is first a congestive stage, when the 
 symptoms are those of stupor, the animal being dull, heavy, 
 and unwilling to move, and the visible mucous membranes 
 markedly congested, and the eyes prominent. This is 
 rapidly succeeded by more active symptoms, which vary 
 somewhat in the form they assume according to the case. 
 Lambs are generally more frolicsome and ridiculous than 
 usual, and jump about constantly. Adults may all at 
 once spring from the ground and fall dead, or the attack 
 is more prolonged and the periods of excitement alter- 
 nated with short quiescent intervals. During the furious 
 periods the animal pants violently, its eyes are bright and 
 prominent, it gallops about with tail up constantly, and 
 
230 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHET5P. 
 
 attacks without judgment men, other sheep, or inamraate 
 objects, or may dash itself on the ground. Strong thirst 
 is present. In such a severe affection the treatment 
 must be correspondingly prompt, blood must be extracted 
 freely, and then a full cathartic dose given and the 
 
 Fig. 67. — Dmg:rymiTnatic represfTiffitToTi of jirteries at base of brain 
 of sheep, showing the rete mirabile major (16), and the rate 
 minor (19), the other numbers refer to the main internal carotid 
 and its branches, and may be studied in Chauveau's ' Anatomy,' 
 from which this woodcut is talten. 
 
 patient prevented from injuring himself and other sheep. 
 In valuable animals the influence of the bromide of 
 potassium or of the pure sedatives may be tried, but nar- 
 
THE NEETOUS SYSTEM. 231 
 
 cotics must be avoided. After death the lungs will be 
 found congested, and the brain vessels much distended, 
 and perhaps their walls have given way : a condition to 
 which the sheep is said to be more liable than either the 
 horse or the ox. A curious instance is recorded of where 
 lambs thus affected were supposed by country people to 
 be possessed by the devil, and one of the poor creatures 
 was burned alive to drive out the fiend (Lawrence) . Pining 
 and ultimately death, also recurrence of attack, may be 
 mentioned as sequelae. 
 
 Epilepsy is not unfrequent, especially in young sheep, 
 owing to sudden changes of pasture and neglect or mis- 
 management, such as not folding during the night, or 
 turning the flock out too early while hoar frost is yet on 
 the ground. Thus it is observed most in the early spring 
 or late autumn, and especially among sheep which are 
 thriving well and in good condition. Special pasturage 
 and certain peculiar states of the feed on it sometimes 
 cause this disease to assume an enzootic or even epizootic 
 form, as recorded by Tessier, who informs us that in some 
 parts of France sheep-farming had to be given up on this 
 account. The disease shows the ordinary suddenness of 
 attack denoted by cessation of grazing, looking round 
 stupidly, staggering, running round a few times, then 
 falling, struggling in a state of convulsions, rising in a 
 dazed condition, and getting up again and going on feed- 
 ing as though nothing had happened. Treatment com- 
 prises improved hygiene, for the necessity of which 
 occurrence of epilepsy is an indication, slaughter of animals 
 liable to attack, and not breeding from epileptics. Some 
 nursing and diffusible stimulants may be needed for 
 individual cases, but the dog must not be set at the suf- 
 ferer to drive the fit away, as is sometimes brutally done. 
 
 Ceeebeal Apoplexy is very frequent and fatal among 
 high-class sheep brcmght into show condition of .plethora. 
 It occurs especially in hot weather and on rich pastures, 
 or as an effect of over- driving. On long journeys by rail 
 or in close show-yards it may suddenly carry off many 
 animals, Touatt explains its greater prevalence in the 
 
232 DISEASES Of' THE SHEEP. 
 
 sheep than in the ox by less perfect heat-regulati'ng power 
 of the skin in the former animal^ and his being more 
 forced in feeding. The anatomical arrangement of the 
 arteries at the base of the sheep's brain has interest in 
 this connection ; vide Figure 67, on page 230. 
 
 Symptoms. — An animal which has not been noticed to 
 be out of sorts may stagger^ fail, struggle, and die, all 
 being over within a quarter of an hour. But if the sheep 
 has been carefully observed, some warning signs may be 
 detected, such as refusal of feed, the animal being off its 
 cud and heavy in appearance, the conjunctivEe congested, 
 and the flanks beating frequently. If such signs be 
 noted the sheep should at once be bled freely from the 
 jugular, as blood does not come away in sufiBcient amount 
 nor readily enough from the angular vein. The animal 
 should be removed at once to less luxurious or oppressive 
 conditions, given a purge and put on scanty pasture and 
 gradually lessened daily amounts of artificial foods. In 
 the actual attack the pulse is full, the respiration stertorous, 
 and nostrils dilated, the eyes amaurotic and fixed, the 
 animal being quite blind and unconsciously stumbling over 
 everything in his way ; or he probably stands persistently 
 in one spot, and when attempts are made to move him he 
 falls and dies. Finally his legs give way, and he falls 
 and dies quietly. It is a good rule to follow that if one 
 or two sheep die in the flock at the beginning of summer 
 the rest should be bled and purged. Clover pasture is 
 reputed dangerous as giving rise to this disorder, but no 
 confusion in diagnosis must be made between apoplexy 
 and the fatal acute attacks of liver congestion or blood 
 disorders, such as are very apt to occur under like condi- 
 tions and with sudden death of the most forward of the 
 flock. Inflammation of the brain may supervene in those 
 sheep, which recover from the immediate shock of apo- 
 plexy. 
 
 Htdkocephalus is by no means uncommon in the lamb. 
 When it is congenital it may endanger the ewe and give 
 rise to difficulty in parturition, necessitating puncture of 
 the skull J or it may be a cause of paralytic symptoms. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 233 
 
 nnthriftiness, and death of the lamb within a conple of 
 months after birth. Hydrocephalic lambs are generally an 
 indication of errors in breeding,, such as in-and-in breeding, 
 and use of predisposed ewes or rams ; it also may result 
 from imperfect or insufficient feeding of the pregnant 
 ewes. 
 
 Symptoms. — Stupidity of the young animal in look or 
 action or both, manifest increase in size of the cranium, 
 dulness and disinclination to move, staggering gait with 
 the head carried a little to one side, bowels and appetite 
 abnormal and irregular. After death, even though the 
 skull may have been but little enlarged considerable 
 accumulation of fluid may be found and the brain substance 
 correspondingly diminished in amount ; thus the ventricles 
 may be much distended, and the cerebral hemispheres 
 very thin. Generally the bony walls are thin, and the 
 sutures gaping, and nature has attempted to close them 
 by development of numerous Wormian bones. 
 
 Treatment. — By good milk, good air and exercise, and 
 stimulant tonics the lamb may in time be made fit for 
 slaughter, but he is not generally worth the requisite and 
 essential expenditure of care and tonics. The practical 
 lesson to be learned from occurrence of several cases of 
 hydrocephalus in a flock is to correct the breeding and 
 general management. 
 
 Stdedt, Htdatido-cephalus, Gid, Goggles, Turn, Blob- 
 whirl, Turnsick, Giddiness, Punt, Hydatid on the Brain, 
 Tournis (Pr.), is one of the most interesting and important 
 of all the disorders which affect ovines. It has been known 
 from ancient times, has been the subject of much super- 
 stition and ignorant theory and practice, and in certain 
 seasons may be a source of loss of one third of a flock (35 
 percent., Eds., 'Veterinarian,' 1871). It is said to be 
 less frequent than formerly, but perhaps this is d^^o an 
 extent to some increase in differential diagnosis s^^wne- 
 ral knowledge of sheep diseases. Its geographicalT|Bge is 
 limited only by distribution of the sheep ; its local preva- 
 lence depends a great deal on the methods of sheep 
 management and the extent of use of dogs ; thus on en- 
 
234 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 closed farms, where fewer dogs are required, it prevails 
 less than on open moors. It is well known and dreaded 
 in Australia, and on the continent of Europe it is more 
 frequent than in Great Britain. Thus it was estimated, 
 as mentioned by Youatt, that in France a million sheep 
 died from it annually ; and Gasparin puts the losses in 
 Germany per thousand at fifteen in the first year of life 
 (from eight to twelve months being the most critical time), 
 five in the second year, two in the third year, and one in 
 the fourth. The disease is seen in the winter and early 
 months of spring, especially when the former season has 
 proved severe and the latter is cold and wet. The sym- 
 ptoms are specially frequent in weakly lambs, but it is 
 probable that the poverty in condition resulted from the 
 presence and growth of the gid parasite. The disorder 
 has been described as hereditary, but this erroneous idea 
 has arisen from confused diagnosis between hydatid and 
 dropsy of the brain ; even the correctness of statement 
 that gid is congenital is doubtful, although it is well- 
 known that (as in some cases described by Drew of 
 Abingdon, in ' Veterinarian,' 1871) very young lambs may 
 be invaded. Simonds and Cobbold by their experiments 
 in 1865 showed that it is about two months from the time 
 of ingestion of tapeworm eggs to when the hydatids have 
 become sufiiciently developed in lambs to lead to manifes- 
 tation of gid symptoms ; they also reared Tsenia csenurus 
 in the dog by feeding him on hydatids from a sheep's 
 brain. 
 
 Symptoms. — The animal is dull, and his behaviour shows 
 he is out of sorts ; his natural gambols cease, and grazing, 
 rumination, and movements are performed in a listless, 
 imperfect, and semi-conscious manner. The patient keeps 
 apart from the flock, and walks in an uncertain staggering 
 manner, or stands looking at water in a ditch or brook 
 until he becomes giddy and suddenly falls in. Another 
 symptom of a marked character which has been noticed 
 is sudden cessation of grazing, looking wildly about as 
 though frightened, and galloping away at full speed over 
 the field. Williams distinguishes between the early sym- 
 
Fig. 68. 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 Fig. 69. Pig. 70. 
 
 235 
 
 Pig. 71. 
 
 Fig. 72. Fig. 73. 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 Pig. 76. 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Fig. 68. — Phase of development of ccenurus (Van Benedbn). — ' E. V. R.' 
 
 Fig. 69. — T. casnurus hooks. — ' Edinburgh Veterinary Review/ vol. i. 
 
 Fig. 70.— T. serrata.—' E. V. R.,' vol. i. 
 
 Fig. 71. — A young coenurus before acquiring hooks (Lbuceaet).— ' E.V. R.' 
 
 Pig. 72. — Pour heads of ccenurus (after Lextckaet). — ' E. V. R.' 
 
 Fig. 73. — Phases of development of coenurus (after Van Bbnbden.) — 
 ' E. V. R.' 
 
 Pig. 74. — Free scolei of ccenurus. — ' E. V. R.' 
 
 Fig. 75. — Proscolex of ccenurus with some inverted and some protruded sco- 
 lices (after Van Beneden). — ' E. V. R.,' vol. i. 
 
 Fig. 76. — Ditto, same source. 
 
 Fig. 77- — Brain of sheep with coenurus in posterior part of right hemi- 
 sphere (Cobbold). 
 
236 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 Fia. 80. 
 
 Fie. 81. 
 
 Fig. 78- — Brain of sheep with four ccenuri simultaneously (Cobbold). 
 
 Fig. 79. — Ccenurus cerelralis. Numerous specimens in one case (Gamgeb). 
 ' E. V. R.,' vol. i. 
 
 Fia. 80. — Cmnurus cerehralis on cerebellum (after Gamoee).— 'E. V. R.' 
 vol. i. 
 
 Fig. 81. — Arnold's sturdy instrument case. 
 
THE NBEVOUS SYSTEM. 237 
 
 ptoms of congestion and inflammation of the brain (whicli 
 occur when invasion of the brain by the embryo occurs, 
 which are followed by apparent return to health while the 
 cyst is gradually increasing in size and causing absorption 
 of brain tissue) and those of the m.ore advanced stages of 
 the disorder, when, as suggested by Davaine, the Gsenurus 
 cerehralis, the many-headed hydatid, protrudes from its 
 surface many armed heads, and causes irritation of brain 
 tissue. Before active brain symptoms have set in, the 
 lamb has fallen away in flesh and become weak; with 
 progress of the attack this condition becomes aggravated, 
 and the animal ceases to feed and ruminate, both because 
 the appetite is lost, and the patient is unable to graze on 
 account of debility, forced movements, and blindness. 
 The blindness is the result of pressure on the optic nerve, 
 and may affect one or both eyes ; it is markedly indicated 
 by amaurosis, which gives the sheep a special haggard 
 appearance, such as has been taken as distinctive of gid, 
 but may occasionally be found in other disorders affecting 
 the visual apparatus. The peculiar movements found in 
 sheep affected with this disease vary according to the 
 number and position of the hydatids. Huzzard recorded 
 the presence of as many as thirty cysts in one case ; Dick 
 informs us that the disease recurs in one case out of three 
 recoveries, which may be due to a refilling of the cyst after 
 operation, but much more often depends on maturation of 
 a, second cyst on removal of the one which first gave 
 trouble. Further, occasionally successful puncture, and 
 even complete removal of the cyst, may not result in cure 
 in consequence of one or more of the parasites remaining. 
 One or both hemispheres may be invaded, or the parasite 
 be between the brain and pia mater, in one of the ven- 
 tricles, or in the cerebellum. Cases are on record of its 
 producing paralysis by invasion of the spinal cord. The 
 favourite position seems to be the great longitudinal fissure 
 and the cerebral hemisphere where it is most accessible for 
 operation. The head is in some cases drawn to one side, 
 and rotatory movement towards, that side gradually sets 
 ia. At first it is only sufficient ^ interfere, with proper 
 
238 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 grazing, but soon the rotation becomes almost constant, 
 and may continue until the animal falls and struggles on the 
 ground till at length he can scramble up and recommence 
 the monotonous movement. Fortunately the poor creature 
 is unconscious all the time. He at last dies from emaciation 
 and exhaustion, or from injuries resulting from falling 
 over a cliff, or is drowned in a pond, brook, or ditch. 
 Growth of a hydatid on the surface of the brain not nn- 
 frequently causes gradual thinning of the walls of the 
 skull where it exerts pressure, and it is not uncommon in 
 careful examination of gid cases to be able to detect a 
 yielding spot, usually a little anterior to the root of the 
 horn and rather near the central line. Williams men- 
 tions spontaneous cure by bursting of the hydatid through 
 the skull and skin as a possible but rare occurrence ; it is 
 certainly one which we have not found recorded. The 
 relations of position of the hydatid to the movements ex- 
 hibited by the animal are most interesting, not only from 
 a practical point of view as directing to the seat of ope- 
 ration, but also as bearing on the question of cerebral 
 localisation.* Touatt tells us, quoting from the ' Journal 
 de Med. Vet. Theorique ' for 1883, that " if the head is 
 held constantly on one side, and the concentric circles are 
 always formed in that direction, the cyst will be found on 
 the depressed side, and probably in the lateral ventricle. 
 If the head is sometimes held on one side and sometimes 
 on the other, and the circles are occasionally in one direc- 
 tion and then in the contrary one, there is a hydatid on 
 each side of the head and probably in the ventricles. If 
 the sheep marches straightforward with his head depressed, 
 running against everything in his way and continually 
 falling, it is likely that the parasite occupies the middle 
 scissure of the brain and is attached to the corpus callo- 
 sum. In a few cases the muzzle will be elevated and the 
 head thrown back, the animal still pursuing its straight- 
 forward course, except that there will be a reeling motion 
 sometimes to the right and sometimes to the left like a 
 
 * There is a most interesting paper on this subject in the 'Journal of 
 Anatomy and Physiology' for 1879—80. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 239 
 
 boat at sea ; the intruder then inhabits the cerebellum or 
 the fourth ventricle." When more cysts than one are 
 present, the indications during life are obscure and no 
 operation would be of service. The French divide sheep 
 affected with gid into turners, trotters, and sailors, accord- 
 ing to their mode of motion. Williams agrees in the 
 main with the above, but states that when the parasite is 
 between the hemispheres the animal steps higher (probably 
 as being blind) and carries his head up, and he sometimes 
 becomes deaf as well as blind. 
 
 When the cssnurus occurs on the spinal cord or crura 
 cerebri or medulla oblongata, it gives rise to paralysis, and 
 when this symptom is combined with blindness it is pro- 
 bable that the hydatid is at the base of the brain. 
 
 Pathology. — The first crude ideas as to the nature of 
 this affection were that it depended on poisonous plants 
 picked up in wet and moorish districts or badly drained 
 pastures, where it had been observed to occur, though 
 seldom seen on dry uplands. The exemption to a marked 
 degree of sheep over two years old was considered due to 
 their being old enough to know what food would poison 
 them and what not. Pastures after hoar frosts were sup- 
 posed to specially give rise to it. Soon it was observed 
 that there were collections of fluid in the cranium, then it 
 was thought enough to say that the disease was serous 
 apoplexy or a form of hydrocephalus. Hogg was under 
 the impression that the fluid became squeezed into the 
 cranium from the spinal canal, and Price found a cause for 
 this in the lamb not being docked early enough ! Others 
 thought the collection of fluid due to blows on the head 
 from the shepherd or received in fighting. Such crude 
 ideas gave way when careful anatomical examination of the 
 brain was made. One or many hydatid cysts were found 
 in each case, varying in size from a pigeon's egg to a hen's 
 egg, and in situation as already described. Each cyst was 
 observed to consist of a wall of two or three layers, one mus- 
 cular, causing a peculiar vibration of the cyst on first extrac- 
 tion, and consisting of fibres crossing one another at right 
 angles like the wires of a sieve, and contracting on exposure 
 
240 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 in sucli a way that if the cyst be punctured its contents will 
 squirt out to a distance. The inner membrane is softer 
 and seroidj and inwards from the cyst project a number 
 of headsj which seem from the exterior like white spots. 
 The contained fluid is pellucid or turbid, and attached to 
 the wall, or free, are minute tapeworm heads, each bearing 
 a circlet of hooks and four suckers, each capable when the 
 cyst is eaten by a dog of developing into a full-grown 
 Tsenia cxwwrus. These small tapeworms are very active. 
 
 The life history of the parasite is simple and well known. 
 The adult tsenia is harboured by dogs and foxes, and in due 
 course its segments and their ova are expelled on pastures, 
 with the grass of which they are taken into the stomach of 
 the sheep after various adventures in the method of diffusion 
 similar to those of other ova of parasites. In the stomach 
 the eggs are hatched and the embryos find their way by 
 means of a boring apparatus into the circulatory canals, 
 and in the round of the circulation they pass to the brain 
 or spinal cord, where they take up their abode and develop 
 into the cystic organism. We are not quite sure whether 
 the six-hooked embryos are able to travel far through the 
 tissues by boring after escape from the blood-vessels ; pro- 
 bably many of them are lost. The greater penetrability 
 of the tissues of the young animal explains the more fre- 
 quent occurrence of gid in lambs than in adult sheep. 
 
 Differential diagnosis in cases of gid consists in deter- 
 mining the absence of apoplexy, rabies, phrenitis, and 
 certain forms of anthrax, which diseases, being acute in 
 character and generally accompanied by systemic distur- 
 bances, can easily be distinguished. 
 
 Treatment, — We are fairly well assured concerning the 
 details of life-history of the gid parasite, and so are in a 
 position to recommend rational measures of cure, although 
 they cannot effectually and fully be carried into practice. 
 Yet in this, as in other instances of the necessity for pro- 
 phylactic action on a large scale, it must be remembered 
 that each parasite destroyed is a gain, as it contributes to 
 general extermination of the race of Tsenia csenurus. Not 
 only so, but each hydatid burned is thousands of future 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 241 
 
 possible tapeworms destroyed, and each Tmnia csenurus 
 expelled in an unsuitable locality or destroyed involves the 
 failure in life of innumerable individuals yet in the ovum 
 stage. Thus theory tells us to keep our sporting and 
 sheep-dogs (the latter especially), free from tsenia by a 
 dose of male fern or areca nut administered every now and 
 then ; to keep our sheep on enclosed lands and away from 
 places where there is a public right of way, and from 
 commons and moors. Further, those parts containing the 
 parasite of lambs and older sheep which die from gid should 
 be burned and not given to dogs. We must remember that 
 such cysts are also found in cattle, and are not uncommon 
 in hares and rabbits, and it is even said that they may 
 develop in situations other than the cerebro-spinal canal.* 
 They have been seen in man and in the camel. As the 
 t^nia occurs in foxes, and probably also in wolves and other 
 canines not yet domesticated, it is evidently not possible to 
 entirely exterminate the gid organism, even if general action 
 on the part of sheep-owners and butchers could be secured. 
 It is satisfactory to know, therefore, that experience on 
 the Continent is to the effect that housing lambs during 
 the first year of their lives has suificed as a preventive, 
 and, further, that with improved general care of sheep the 
 disease decidedly lessens in frequency. Shelter for lambs 
 also is highly beneficial in this as in other respects, and 
 it has been specially remarked that gid attacks are more 
 frequent in animals exposed to rough and tempestuous 
 weather, which throws increased strain on the nervous 
 system and tends to increase the debility found in these 
 cases. As it is probable that in a flock of lambs a number 
 have been simultaneously invaded, it is advisable when one 
 or more cases of gid occur to quickly fatten the rest and 
 Bell off to the butcher on occurrence of the slightest indi- 
 cation of sturdy in any one individual lamb ; the flesh is 
 not at all unsuited for human food, and there is an impres- 
 sion that it is sweeter than other lamb. 
 
 The question of slaughter generally arises as soon as the 
 
 * Leuckiirt tells us that Eichler found ciEuuri in the subcutaneous tissue 
 of the sheep. 
 
 16 
 
242 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 animal is attacked, and as a rale the butcher receives the 
 carcass, which is in tolerably fair order. Even when treat- 
 ment has been successfully adopted, the liability to growth 
 of fresh cysts, to filling up of the old cyst after puncture, 
 and to other unsatisfactory sequelae must be remembered, 
 and it will generally be decided to fatten up the lamb and 
 sell him to the butcher. Various prophylactic measures 
 of treatment have been from time to time put in force with 
 more or less beneficial results. Mercurials administered 
 internally are useless ; tonics, and especially salt, may be of 
 benefit as lessening debility ; rowels, setons, blisters, and 
 mild firing over the skull are of little benefit ; heavy firing 
 over the skull may excite so severe inflammation as to 
 involve the dura mater and so prove fatal to the cyst in 
 the cranium. None of these methods has proved so effectual 
 as to secure its general adoption. As regards interception 
 of the parasite en route from the digestive to the central 
 nervous structures, this seems hardly practicable j at any 
 rate, no satisfactory method has yet been devised. The 
 only treatment which has been successfully carried out has 
 been surgical, though lately Hartenstein obtained good 
 results by continuous application of ice-bags to the head. 
 Shepherds observed that rough treatment sometimes 
 cured the patient; they used to cut ofl! the external 
 ears pretty close to the head, and one out of twenty 
 patients thus treated are said to have recovered, the 
 good eifect being attributed to the bleeding which re- 
 sulted. Parkinson observed immediate recovery in the 
 case of a sheep which had been caught by the ears and 
 twirled round several times, so he recommends as very 
 effectual the practice of prolonged and forcible pulling of 
 the ears. Others set their dogs at the unfortunate sheep 
 to worry him until he fell down some declivity, when, if 
 he did not break his neck, he was sometimes found to have 
 benefited. These methods probably sometimes acted by 
 causing the cyst to become burst and its contents evacu- 
 ated and absorbed. Then came Hogg's celebrated operation 
 of " wiring ;" he conceived the happy inspiration of " prob- 
 ing a knitting-needle up the nostril to the very brain." 
 
THE NBKVODS SYSTEM. 243 
 
 But he must describe Ms own method. " The operator 
 must feel for the part of the skull that is soft and lay his 
 thumb flat and firm upon it ; then taking the wire in his 
 right hand, he must push it up the nostril that points 
 most directly towards the place that is soft, where the 
 disease is seated ; and if he feel the point of the wire 
 below his thumb he may rest assured that the bag is per- 
 forated, and that if the brain does not inflame the sheep 
 will be better. The bladder being thus pierced on the 
 lower side the liquid continues to drip through the hole as 
 long as any remains, and even as fast as it gathers ; so that 
 the perforation has no opportunity to grow up or close 
 again until the animal is quite better." Certainly a very 
 remarkable operation for a shepherd to invent, and it 
 seems to have proved very successful in his hands through 
 careful selection of cases and skill in performance. Later 
 it has been suggested to operate when external softening- 
 is not perceptible, guided by the peculiarity in behaviour 
 of the animal as to the best seat of operation. Also to use 
 a trochar and cannula instead of a knitting-needle. The 
 cannula must be long enough to extend from the nostril 
 to the inner cranial wall behind the horn, being passed 
 through the nasal chamber between the turbinal structures, 
 through the ethmoid cells and cribriform plate, and so into 
 the cranium. A blunt-pointed instrument is used in the 
 cannula while it is passing through the nasal passage, and 
 then for perforation of the bony cells and plate a sharp 
 trochar is substituted for the probe and some force is re- 
 quired. Youatt's figure is an excellent one for guidance, 
 and his remarks on the operation are very much to the 
 point. He tells us the sharp instrument will perform 
 the actual perforation with less pain and injury than 
 the blunt one, and that no severe bleeding is likely to 
 follow. Tet, " it was not always that he could hit at 
 once the plate of the ethmoid bone and enter the skull ; 
 for it did not present itself precisely as in the horse or ox. 
 He did not find it so easy a matter as it seems to have 
 been to Mr. Hogg ; and when he had perforated it, he 
 might reach a hydatid on the superior part of the braiu. 
 
244 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 but not deep in its surface, and assuredly not in the cere- 
 bellum." This being the result of the cranial axis and 
 that of the face not being parallel. Evidently when the 
 hydatid is considered to be in the substance of the hemi- 
 sphere, the cribriform plate should be perforated as high 
 as possible, and when in the ventricle as low as possible. 
 Death under the operation, phrenitis as a sequela, and 
 absence of favorable result, also liability to recurrence of 
 the disease, render this paracentesis cranii through the 
 nose not altogether satisfactory. It is probable that in 
 the cases such as Hogg selected for operation the fatality 
 atid risks may be lessened by the more refined method of 
 trephining, or opening the cranium surgically when the 
 skull bones have become absorbed by pressure from the 
 hydatid. Yvart of Alfort (quoted by Youatt) recommends 
 puncture of the hydatid three or four times, with intervals 
 of two days between each puncture. This may be done 
 over the softened spot of the skull by means of a trochar 
 and cannula, or even by a gimlet. The sheep is placed 
 on his back during the operation to allow the fluid to 
 freely flow off, and to the trochar was adapted a small 
 syringe to draw off the fluid, and even the hydatid in some 
 cases. To the trephining operation are raised the objec- 
 tions that air will be admitted extensively into the cranial 
 cavity, but this can be obviated by antiseptic precautions 
 under which no serious inflammation is likely to ensue. It 
 has further been considered that complete removal of the 
 cyst will suddenly alter the intracranial pressure and dis- 
 turb the balance of the circulation in the cranial cavity. 
 This seems a feasible objection and a diflaoult one to meet, 
 especially since, as in a case recorded in the ' Lancet ' for 
 1830 — 31, vol. i, p. 763, the cyst may occupy practically 
 the whole interior of the skull. In this case after division 
 of the dura mater, Mr. Stephens, the operator, found that 
 the hydatid partly protruded, and broke when he attempted 
 to extract it whole. However, he succeeded in getting it 
 out, and then looked into the large empty cavity remaining, 
 and explored it by letting a wax light down into it. The 
 sheep which had received these elaborate and unprece- 
 
THE NFRVOUS SYSTEM. 245 
 
 dented attentions got up and fed after the hole had been 
 closedj but on the fourth day died. Autopsy showed a 
 little only of the brain at its base was remaining, and a 
 few remnants at the sides forming an imperfect shell of 
 cerebral substance, and several other hydatids were present. 
 The actual details of operation in trephining present no- 
 thing special. The soft spot on the skull is selected as the 
 site, and this is, as we have seen, most frequently just in 
 front of the root of the horn or, in hornless breeds, of the 
 part of the skull corresponding to the horn core. It has 
 been suggested to not completely remove the portion of 
 bone elevated by the trephine, but to use it for closing the 
 opening, care being taken not to separate it from its mem- 
 branes. No benefit can, however, result from this precau- 
 tion, and the soft tissues, supplemented by antiseptic and 
 adhesive applications, will sufiice to close the opening effectu- 
 ally ; a leathern cap may subsequently be worn for a time. 
 Insertion of salicylic acid in the cyst cavity has been 
 resorted to, it is said with benefit. It will be evident 
 from the foregoing that although operative removal or 
 destruction of the parasite of gid is not to be despised 
 or neglected, the interests of the farmer lie specially in 
 satisfactory and well-directed prevention, or on that proving 
 insufficient, in efficient supervision of the flock, whereby 
 cases of gid may be taken in time and the lamb disposed 
 of profitably, or with a minimum of loss, to the butcher. 
 It is curious how in some minds different diseases of sheep 
 are confused. Thus, one writer, doubtless misled by good 
 results obtained against the fl}, recommends in good faith 
 smearing tar over the face as an infallible preventive of 
 sturdy. 
 
 Pbactuees of the Ceanium in the sheep are sometimes 
 seen as a result of falls, blows, and fighting. They pre- 
 sent no special features, but must be treated after the 
 usual manner of such accidents, the superior portion of 
 the skull and its base being the most frequent seat of 
 lesion. Immediate death, or signs of brain pressure and 
 subsequent phrenitis, are results of such fractures. 
 
246 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 LoupiNG-iLL,* Thwarter-ill, Thorter-ill, Tremblings, 
 Chorea Paralytica Ovis, Mad Staggers {Bich), Maladie 
 Tremblante (Fr.), Traber Kranhheit (G-er.), are terms ap- 
 plied to a remarkable foim of nervous disorder of specially 
 frequent occurrence in Scotland and notably tbe Silurian 
 districts extending from the Hebrides to the southern 
 extremity of Dumfries-shire, being found in the southern 
 parts of this area from the middle of April till the end of 
 June, and very occasionally in autumn, and in the island of 
 Skye in two outbreaks, in the early summer, and in autumn 
 from September to the middle of October respectively 
 (Prof. Brown). The great losses resulting from this dis- 
 ease, and the obscurity of its pathology, have resulted in a 
 considerable amount of practical and theoretical research 
 into its nature, especially under the auspices of the High- 
 land and Agricultural Society, and conducted by the pro- 
 fessors of the Scotch schools, as an outcome of which 
 light is gradually being thrown on the matter. A very 
 important report on the subject was read before the 
 Teviotdale Farmers' Club on November 4th, 1880 ('Veteri- 
 narian,' February, 1881, p. 135). In the first place we 
 must note that it is extremely probable that cases of 
 several other well-known diseases have been confused with 
 true tremblings, and that this has given rise to some 
 exaggeration of the prevalence and fatality from the 
 malady. Certainly paralysis from other causes has been 
 recorded as louping-ill, and so, according to Fair, have 
 apoplexy and tetanus. Dr. Hamilton, of Hawick, who has 
 given the subject much attention, notes that many cases 
 of simple inflammation of the lungs are considered by 
 farmers to be the trembles. We must next remember 
 that it Is not impossible, in disorders of a specific character, 
 for some cases to assume a nervous type of various forms, 
 so that though the symptoms of paralysis, apoplexy, and 
 tetanus are present yet are all due to one cause only, 
 
 * This name is said to be derived from the Scandinavian hlonpa = trem- 
 bling. Dick says the disease is called louplng-ill because the lambs make 
 convulsive efforts to rise (leap p), and that in such cases the brain is affected 
 as well as the cord. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 247 
 
 namely, the specific element, and that this same cause 
 may produce pulmonary and serous derangements such as 
 we see in louping-ill. 
 
 Gamgee seems to suggest that agriculturists have 
 grouped together under one heading three distinct patho- 
 logical conditions, louping-ill being dropsy of the spinal 
 cord (hydrorachitis), thorter-ill being due to parasites, 
 whereas trembling is a disease hitherto unexplained. One 
 report on this subject terminates with the stigma that " it 
 cgrtainly is not creditable to agricultural or veterinary 
 science that such diseases should be allowed to exist with- 
 out a full and scientific investigation of them," but this is 
 not a fair view of the case ; both agriculturists and veteri- 
 narians have done what they could to investigate the 
 disease in a scientific and exhaustive manner, and though 
 they have not yet arrived at conclusive ideas on the sub- 
 ject of its true nature this is not an isolated instance of the 
 failure of science in elucidation of such problems. Let 
 us see what is really known, and what is surmised so far ; 
 an orderly statement of our position at present will assist 
 future inquirers. 
 
 Symptoms. — There is difference of opinion as to the sheep 
 which are most liable ; Fair says the ewes and lambs in 
 best condition, another writer (Mathewson) the thin and 
 ill-conditioned. Richthofer considers the disease has only 
 developed and become hereditary since the introduction of 
 the merinos, and Roll mentions it as specially a disease of 
 high-bred fine-woolled sheep. It seems that at any rate 
 in the early stages of the disease the animals are evidently 
 in poor condition and falling off ; they have a dull heavy 
 appearance, and the coat is dead to the feel. Nervous 
 symptoms set in. These vary much in different cases, 
 being sometimes paralytic, sometimes such as result from 
 hyperstimulation of the brain and spinal cord. In the 
 former there is sudden weakness of the back which in- 
 creases gradually ; when the animal is approached by a 
 man, dog, or even other sheep it seems much excited and 
 tumbles over, and in trying to get away it drags its 
 hind legs, being paraplegic ; in other cases but one 
 
248 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 limb is paralysed, and yet again amaurosis, hemiplegia, 
 or total paralysis may be present. In many cases the 
 symptoms are those of clonic and tetanic spasm, the 
 animal stands with head erect, nose protruded, muscles 
 of neck, back, and loins in state of tonic spasm, other 
 muscles, especially those of the limbs, clonically spasmodic. 
 When excited the poor brute falls on its belly and chesi 
 with head and neck protruded, and on being raised walks 
 away trembling violently. Or the spasms may especially 
 afEect the muscles of one side, the neck being bent and 
 the head drawn towards the shoulder, the jaws locked and 
 mouth frothy. The spasms relax and recur frequently, 
 often once or twice in every minute. The respirations 
 are frequent only during the fits, when they are also 
 jerky and irregular, the pulse is frequent, and the tempe- 
 rature high (105"3° F., Brown). While down the sheep 
 rolls and tosses about in a state of convulsions ; giddiness, 
 delirium, lateral rotation, and sidelong movements are also 
 present in some cases. In others the animal is restless 
 and trembling and has an anxious appearance as though 
 suffering from thoracic or abdominal pain, the mouth being 
 champed and the teeth gnashed. During the spasms the 
 compression on the oesophagus causes danger of suffocation 
 when liquids are given. Some cases recover thoroughly, 
 others for some time drag one hind leg behind them, the 
 limb being cold and dead to the feel, and it has been 
 observed that if the foreleg be thus affected wdth tem- 
 porary paralysis not uncommonly a tumour varying in size 
 from that of a pigeon's to that of a hen's egg appears, 
 full of pus or ichor, especially in the neighbourhood of 
 the joints, but also on the arms, brisket, or any neigh- 
 bouring part of the body. 
 
 Post-mortem examination shows conditions varying in 
 different cases according to the form the attack has taken 
 and its stage of progress. Dr. Hamilton found inflamma- 
 tion of the lungs and pleura and the serous membranes in 
 general liable to be affected, also serous effusion in the 
 cavities around the brain and spinal cord. Groodsir, in 
 well-marked cases of the paralytic form, found the spinal 
 
THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM. 249 
 
 cord soft, especially its dorsal portion, as indicated by- 
 slight collapse of the cut surface when a section was made 
 through it. The cervical and lumbar portions were abnor- 
 mally hard. In the soft portions the cells and fibres were 
 normal, but there was an increase of the granular sub- 
 stance, which floated in a quantity of fluid between the 
 nerve-elements. Profs. Williams and Young have found 
 the cord abnormally hard, owing to development of the 
 fitrous tissue between the nervous elements, also a quantity 
 of jelly-like exudation in the spinal canal extending along 
 its whole length outside the dura mater, usually in large 
 masses in the lumbar region, but sometimes in patches only 
 round the roots of the nerves. Such are the evidences 
 given by some observers ; others have found no jelly-like 
 exudation on the spinal cord, the flesh pale and the carcass 
 thin, while Prof. Dick insisted on the importance of the 
 state of the gastric contents, which he found to be a pulpy 
 mass of wool, grass, clay, and milk. Ticks are found in 
 association with the disorder. 
 
 Pathology. — Dr. Hamilton considers the disease cerebro- 
 spinal meningitis, that first congestion of the brain and 
 spinal cord sets in, and that their lining serous membrane 
 becomes involved, which he has observed to be more espe- 
 cially the case when lung complications are present. Thus 
 excitement precedes serous effusion in the substance of the 
 brain and in that of the cord ; when the former is affected 
 sudden death occurs, when the latter, paralysis. When 
 chronic it leads to softeningand paralysis, which is generally 
 bilateral, or death. Goodsir and Robertson consider the 
 symptoms indicate that the nerve-centres are affected, and 
 especially those in the portion of the cord in immediate con- 
 nection with the brain, and that the changes are more in 
 the coverings than in the true nerve-tissue. Williams con- 
 siders that there is evidently subacute inflammation of the 
 cord itself, affecting its connective rather than its nervous 
 elements. Dick strongly advocated the ergot theory, and 
 both Eobertson and Hamilton consider that the disease is 
 probably due to ergot on grasses, but this goes no farther 
 at present than a supposition. Brotherton found smut 
 
250 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 on some CjperinsB of infected pastures, none on the Jun- 
 cacese, but ergot on the Grraminaceae. He suggests graz- 
 ing the pastures bare as a remedy for this form of ergotism. 
 Coarse withered grasses used as food seem to be distinctly 
 associated with the disorder. Brydon, of Traquair, long 
 ago noticed that good fat lambs often suffer from eating 
 the tops of dry rye grass. It has been supposed to follow 
 the eating of rye grass in July and August, and it has 
 been suggested that its following dry weather maybe due 
 to the latter securing premature ripeness and over-ripeness 
 of grass. Grass which comes up rapidly to a full bite is 
 a fruitful influence in its production, and Strangeways and 
 other observers have found ergot in quantity on louping- 
 ill-producing pastures. On the other hand, ergot when in- 
 gested does not induce the characteristic symptoms of 
 the disease, and ergot prevails on many pastures without 
 producing it. We cannot look on the ergot theory as well 
 sustained. Ticks are supposed to be in direct relation 
 with the disorder ; thus the tick season and the lotiping-ill 
 season coincide, and where louping-ill prevails ticks also 
 are found. Also destruction of these parasites seemed to 
 prevent the disease. These ticks are obtained from coarse 
 grasses, and are, according to Walley, only concomitants 
 of the disease, though they may prove predisposing and 
 exciting causes of it. Doubtless by the irritation they 
 cause when in numbers and by their blood-sucking habits 
 they much debilitate the animal, and they might produce 
 reflex nervous symptoms. Robertson suggests they may 
 be conveyers of a specific poison. It has been noticed that 
 in the occasional cases which occur during autumn in the 
 southern Scotch country few or no ticks are present ; again, 
 that sheep and lambs may be covered with ticks and yet 
 not suffer from the disease. Thus ticks as ticks do not 
 cause it. So with a view to testing whether they carried 
 the contagion the ticks were put into culture fluids and 
 bacilli were obtained and termed Bacilli chorese ovis. Simi- 
 lar organisms were said to be found in the gelatinous 
 matter about the cord. However, it was doubtful if the 
 ticks got the organisms from the sheep, for it was found 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 251 
 
 that ticks from healthy sheep developed the same organ- 
 ism. It was inferred that the system of the sheep must 
 become susceptible before the disease can be taken; 
 its inoculability is doubtful and no communication by 
 contagion has been established. Again, the disease is said 
 to occur in pigs, where the tick theory cannot apply, and 
 it is much more probable that conveyance was by offal or 
 the carcass of a diseased sheep. Considering all the argu- 
 ments of the case, and that the " cultures " of the ticks 
 were of a roughness calculated to startle bacteriologists, 
 we must conclude that the probability is that ticks of any 
 form can be only looked on as possible conveyers of the 
 disease. Williams insists that there are three kinds of 
 ticks, and it is not the common form or " red." Waldie, 
 of Jedburg, long ago suggested that louping-ill was due 
 to liming of the soil, and that it disappeared when the lime 
 became exhausted. Over-stocking, poverty, in-and-in- 
 breeding, cold and sleety or dry and frosty east winds, im- 
 provement of lands, coarseness of pasture, transitions from 
 improved to coarse pastures and vice versa have been enu- 
 merated as causes, evidencing at any rate much doubt and 
 nauch diflBculty in arriving at correct conclusions. It cer- 
 tainly prevails in special seasons and localities, being most 
 frequently enzootic on hills (the Cheviots are said to be 
 free from it) , but it occurs at all altitudes and on all sorts 
 of soil. It is periodical in recurrence and sometimes epi- 
 zootic. The Lowland shires of Scotland are its special seat, 
 and it may cause a loss of 20 — 25 per cent, of the stock 
 there in April and May. It seems sometimes curiously 
 localised, but as an argument against its being due to pas- 
 tare, cases of lambs becoming affected before they have 
 commenced to graze are brought forward, but are mani- 
 festly not sufficient to conclude the argument on this point. 
 Want of shelter, hot and dry seasons, lambs being badly 
 nursed and so led to ingest grass prematurely, and to even 
 eat wool to fill their stomachs, wet lands, cold barren 
 seasons, and manures or top dressings used, also a moist 
 condition of herbage may be added to the confused and 
 contradictory list of suggested causes. Such being the 
 
252 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 unsettled state of ideas on this disease, we are prepared to 
 find no suggestions as to treatment, and but the most 
 general views on prevention. " Improve your pastures but 
 ' don't leap in the dark/ " say the Teviotdale farmers ; 
 annually prepare a plot of ground for the lambs and ewes 
 to be turned out on for a part of every day, or give them 
 a small quantity of linseed cake to clear out the bowels, 
 writes Dick ; to prevent sturdy and louping-ill Brydon 
 advocates the ploughing up of old pastures when possible, 
 so as to get a good bottom of clover, and to give daily to 
 hoggs good meadow hay and a quarter of a pound of rape 
 or linseed cake when grass is scarce. Remove the ticks 
 by cutting them through ; apply dressings of tobacco, 
 creosote, or linseed oil ; burn old pastures and give the 
 sheep artificial food ; also give the lamb enough common 
 salt to purge him, and then tonics, are other suggestions. 
 Such of these measures as are practicable may be tried, 
 but it is manifest that the disorder must be better known 
 before scientific treatment, further than that for palliation 
 of the symptoms, can be adopted. We may be permitted 
 finally to remark on the marked similarity as regards causes 
 and symptoms to diseases of the horse and ox tribe which 
 in Asia and America have been found due to spiral organ- 
 isms in the blood. It is to be hoped that those practi- 
 tioners who have the opportunity will shortly give the 
 blood of liAdng animals aifeoted with louping-ill careful 
 scrutiny for at least seven successive days. 
 
 Simple Paralysis or Palsy is a frequent disease in lambs 
 especially due to cold and want of proper care of the ewe 
 at yeaning time, not supplying her with proper shelter; and 
 after abortion or difficult labour it occurs in ewes. Another 
 critical period is when the young animal is being weaned. 
 Injuries of various kinds may produce paralysis in sheep 
 of all ages. Williams relates a case of general paralysis 
 of a goat apparently due to the mental disturbance caused 
 by removal of her kids, and we have seen that it is a 
 symptom of several serious disorders, such as gid or 
 tremblings. The motor functions are those generally 
 affected, the animal seldom thoroughly recovers, and alter 
 
ttHE NEEVOtJS SYSTHM. 253 
 
 an attack may suffer from severe and persistent diarrhoea. 
 In such cases probably the cause of the palsy lay in some 
 deleterious substance ingested ; lead spray on pastures has 
 markedly this effect. Sheep are said to be less frequently 
 paralysed than cattle, but this statement would hardly 
 bear thorough investigation. Treatment of lambs para- 
 lysed from cold consists in gradual restoration of warmth 
 by friction, clothing and stimulants such as ginger and 
 ale, the little animal being returned to the ewe as soon as 
 possible, and both well protected from the cold. Para- 
 lysis in adults may be treated with purgatives, tonics, 
 external stimulants, and other measures calculated to re- 
 move the cause and restore vigour to the system, but such 
 cases seldom do well, and immediately after severe acci- 
 dent causing paralysis the best course is to slaughter and 
 sell to the butcher. 
 
 Tetanus or Locked jaw is, like paralysis, a complex of 
 symptoms rather than a disease. It is not rare in sheep, 
 being especially common when animals, after shearing, are 
 turned out without shelter of any kind and exposed to 
 cutting east winds ; long exposure to rain is another fruit- 
 ful cause, and at weaning time and after castration is a 
 critical period for lambs. "Earns are far more subject 
 than horses to tetanus after castration, and especially on 
 the Continent, where the operation by torsion (bistournage) 
 is often performed with unnecessary severity." The old 
 shepherds pretend to foretell what lambs will fall victims 
 to it after castration. IE when the operator is sawing 
 through the spermatic cord with his blunt knife or gnawing 
 it asunder with his teeth, the jaws of the little animal are 
 strongly and spasmodically clenched the man says that the 
 lamb is in danger of locked jaw ; and in order to prevent its 
 occurrence he thrusts his thumb into the mouth of the suf- 
 ferer and forcibly separates the jaws. " Hurtrel d'Arboval 
 laughs at this," writes Youatt with reference to this con- 
 dition and the crude notions formed by the shepherds con- 
 cerning it. The same author tells us, " The symptoms of 
 tetanus in sheep differ materially from those of the horse 
 and cattle. A peculiar plaintive sigh is present in such 
 
254 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 cases (Gohier). It generally commences with a singular 
 involuntary spasmodic motion of the headj or of one or 
 all of the extremities attended by a grinding of the teeth 
 and a fixedness of the jaws. To this succeeds a peculiar 
 stiffness of the greater part of the frame ; the neck is pro- 
 truded and the head bent back, and forcibly retained in 
 that bended form j and one leg is drawn up and fixed in 
 an unnatural position. This rigidness occasionally relaxes 
 and gives way to violent convulsions of the head^ neck, 
 and extremities, followed again by fixidity of them and of 
 the whole frame. The disease runs its course most 
 speedily ; the animal is often dead within twelve hours 
 from the first attack j or if he lingers on beyond thirty- 
 six hours it may be regarded as a pledge of his ultimate 
 recovery. 
 
 Tetanus is a far more manageable disease in the sheep 
 than in the horse or ox. Thousands die because nothing 
 is done." Randall observed tetanus among a number of 
 rams castrated by ligature with the waxed cord rather 
 late in the season when the fly was troublesome, those 
 rams operated on under like circumstances by traction 
 not becoming affected. After the animals apparently 
 did well for ten days some were suddenly found rigid 
 and unable to walk, the hind limbs especially being 
 immovable. The jaws were set. " The parts of the abdo- 
 men near the scrotum were considerably swollen and very 
 hard. They generally stood with their legs a little farther 
 apart than usual, but their postures were so natural that at 
 a few rods' distance their situation, or that anything unusual 
 was the matter with them, would not have been suspected 
 by anybody. . . . There was not, in a single instance, any 
 peculiar protrusion or retraction of the head or any other 
 member ; though I watched them for hours, I did not dis- 
 cover the least approach to a convulsion, or even a spasm 
 involving a single muscle. They gave no peculiar evi- 
 dences of pain — breathed without difficulty — and I think 
 that they all died within about twenty-four hours from the 
 time their situation was discovered." The treatment re- 
 commended is careful nursing and especially warmth and 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 255 
 
 quiet, eaFly administration of a purgative and even timely 
 abstraction of blood from the jugular. 
 
 Nunn placed on record (in tlie ' Veterinary Journal/ 
 February, 1884) an interesting case of Chorea in a goat. 
 The animal was a female, four years old ; it stood in a 
 natural manner, but on trying to walk two or three con- 
 vulsive movements of the hind limbs were first made, and 
 then the hind quarters were thrown up and the hind legs 
 flexed in a remarkable manner ; the animal could walk a 
 considerable distance on its fore feet (over 300 yards) with 
 the hind quarters elevated in the air, and while it did so 
 the hind limbs moved spasmodically but rhythmically with 
 the fore ones, but on stopping were brought to the ground 
 with some considerable force. She had a kid at foot and 
 was a good milker. 
 
256 DISEASES OP THE SHBEt. 
 
 CHAPTER X.— ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 Section I. — The Foot. 
 
 A CAEEPDL examination of the anatomy of the foot of 
 the sheep as compared with that of the ox shows a num- 
 ber of minor differences and one or two major ones. 
 Brown, writing long ago, shows that the foramina in the 
 pedal bone are fewer, there being less extent of horn- 
 producing surface for blood-supply ; that the ligaments 
 are less powerful, as the foot has to support less weight ; 
 that external oblique ligamentous bands are absent, as 
 luxation is less liable to occur ; that the nerves are fewer ; 
 that two large anterior veins are absent ; that commou 
 integument extends down between the digits ; that the 
 two elastic navicular ligaments are absent, but the supe- 
 rior ligament is elastic ; and that there is an interdigital 
 canal. We may say in summary that the foot of the 
 sheep is less highly developed than that of the ox, its 
 horny investment is smaller, more upright, harder, and less 
 elaborate, and the two claws are independent ; there are 
 only traces of a superior interdigital ligament, and the in- 
 ferior one is elastic. The interdigital, interungulate, or 
 biflex canal is a remarkable inversion of the skin forming 
 a double pouch, which has an opening of moderate size, 
 visible on separating the two claws, between the pasterns. 
 From its orifice project a few long hairs, generally matted 
 together by the peculiar unctuous matter of the canal. It 
 divides into two parts, one running along the inside of 
 each pastern and bent on itself in a very marked degree ; 
 thus its direction is downwards and backwards, then up- 
 wards and forwards. The secretion of this canal is ceru- 
 
OKGANS Of SPECIAL SENSE. 257 
 
 minous, being yellow and unctuous. It is, doubtless, a 
 valuable protective of the skin of the cleft from the ill 
 effects of friction and irritation by dirt and foreign bodies. 
 Ercolani finds the deeper part of the canal studded with 
 yellow coiled tubular glands j the yellow secretion when 
 mixed with sebaceous matter from the hair-follicles loses 
 much of its yellowness and tenacity, becomes diffluent, and 
 so does not obstruct the canal (Gamgee) . Sometimes this 
 structure itself becomes diseased, giving rise to consider- 
 able disorganisation of the whole tissues of the foot and 
 developing into foot-rot, or the latter disease when origi- 
 nating below may extend upwards and invade the gland 
 of the cleft. 
 
 Inflammation of the Inteeungulate Canal is denoted 
 by lameness, erythematous reddening around the part, with 
 protrusion and tumidity of the orifice and pain on pres- 
 sure ; one foot generally is affected at a time, usually a fore 
 one. As in foot-rot or any other serious lameness or pain of 
 the feet, the animal may rest on its knees to graze, or walk 
 about on three legs. If not promptly treated the disorder 
 may increase in severity, and ulceration of the walls of 
 the canal occur, and abscesses and sinuses form from the 
 orifice becoming blocked up and pus burrowing. The 
 sheep may be feverish, off feed and cud, and evidently in 
 much pain. In extreme cases the resulting exhaustion 
 may prove fatal. Treatment comprises, firstly, removal of 
 the cause when practicable ; this cause may be entry of 
 foreign matters such as irritant gravel and grit, or excessive 
 accumulation of dry sebaceous matter in the orifice. The 
 disease is most common after the fatigue and friction of a 
 long journey, especially when the animals are heavy from 
 fat or otherwise and the weather is hot and dry or the 
 roads are very dirty. On hard, dry, sandy pastures the 
 disease is also seen. The parts must be examined and 
 thoroughly cleaned j all foreign bodies and accumulated 
 secretion having been cleared away, the canal maybe gently 
 syringed with soap and water and the foot fomented and 
 poulticed. Subsequently an astringent dressing or paint- 
 ing with tincture of myrrh will promote cure. In more 
 
 . 17 
 
258 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 severe cases local bleeding may prove of benefit as reducing 
 the inflammation, and the part may be so disorganised that 
 strong carbolic solution, Burnett's fluid, or chloride of lime 
 may be necessary as an antiseptic and deodorant applica- 
 tion. Or surgical treatment, consisting in laying open 
 the canal, inserting a seton in it, or even dissecting the 
 whole structure out may be necessary ; by the use of a 5 
 per cent, solution of cocaine this may be done without 
 causing the animal any pain. When the case has deve- 
 loped into foot-rot the treatment for that disorder must be 
 adopted. In all cases careful and regular cleansing of 
 the feet is necessary, and the animal may beneficially be 
 taken up and put in a clean straw-yard. The reflex canal 
 is the source of the prevalent idea among rustics that there 
 is a worm in the foot of the sheep. The quaint extract 
 given by Youatt from Sir Anthony Fitzherbert's ' Boke of 
 Husbandry ' (1523) is well worth perusal : " There be 
 some shepe that hath a worme in his foote that maketh 
 hym halte. Take that shepe and loke between his close, 
 and there is a lyttell hole, as moche as a grette pynnes 
 head, and therein groweth fyve or yxe black heares, like 
 an inche long and more. Take a sharpe poynted knyfe 
 and slitte the skynne a quarter of an inche longe above 
 the hole and as moche bonethe, and put thy one hande in 
 the hollowe of the f ote under the hynder clese, and set thy 
 thomb above almooste at the slytte, and thruste thy fyngers 
 undernethe forward, and with thy other hande take the 
 black heares by the ende, or with thy knyves poynte, and 
 pull the heares a lyttel and a lyttel and thruste after thy 
 other hande, with thy fynger and thy thombe, and theyr 
 wyll come out a worme lyke a piece of fleshe, nygh as 
 moche as a lyttel fynger, and when it is out put a lyttel 
 to we into the hole, and it wyll be shortely hole." 
 
 Other diseases of the feet of a trivial character requir- 
 ing passing mention are : (1) " Mudballinq," i. e. the fix- 
 true beween the digits of hard (often frozen) masses of 
 clay, stones, and other foreign bodies, causing their sepa- 
 ration to such a degree as to produce much pain, lameness, 
 and tension at the cleft. This if neglected may result in 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 259 
 
 actual interdigital ulceration, but if taken in time imme- 
 diate relief may be afforded by removal of the foreign body 
 causing the mischief and dressing the cleft with carbolized 
 tar. (2) Sore Cleft, in addition to the above causes, may 
 result from long sharp grasses in pasture, sharp stones, 
 pieces of wood, and other such substances. Tension on 
 the interdigital skin when the animal moves may aggravate 
 this condition. The sheep should have the part dressed 
 with tincture of myrrh or carbolized tar, a bandage put on, 
 and be kept in a house, pen, or straw -yard for a short 
 time, or otherwise be prevented having to travel far for 
 his food. (3) Worn FEET result from long journeys, espe- 
 cially by heavy sheep with feet soft from continual grazing 
 in moist lowland pastures ; and when sheep which have 
 travelled far are put at once into such pastures it is com- 
 mon for them to suffer from suppurative inflammation of 
 the sensitive tissues of the foot. In severe cases astrin- 
 gent poultices may be put on, or strong astringent oint- 
 ment applied, but as a rule such cases require nothing more 
 than constant attention in order to promptly detect and deal 
 with complications. The sulphate of zinc or alum or oak- 
 bark decoction foot-bath will prove useful when many 
 sheep are foot-sore ; valuable sheep may be penned on tan 
 or sawdust well impregnated with astringent solution. The 
 American drovers call worn feet " travel sore," and find it 
 much more frequent in English than in merino sheep. 
 They dress the feet of sheep on the march nightly with 
 sulphuric acid and tar. (4) Bruised or otherwise injured 
 Feet are not uncommon, but require only ordinary care 
 and methods of diagnosis and treatment. 
 
 Foot-Rot ; onychia, "galled feet;" paronychia interdigi- 
 talis ; gravelling ; loose claws ; " soreness of feet," is a dis- 
 ease with a most instructive history and of great practical 
 importance. It is a very severe scourge to sheep, and has 
 been known as such from very ancient times, although its 
 introduction into several European countries is sometimes 
 said to have been coincident with the spread of merino 
 sheep, and to have occurred recently. So many animals were 
 simultaneously affected that no hesitation was expressed in 
 
260 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 believing that it became spread by contagion^ and special 
 precautions for keeping tlie lame apart from the sound were 
 
 Fio. 82. 
 
 ^,^s>^ 
 
 Pia 81. 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 Fia. 82. — 1. Shrivelled or decayed horn. 2. D.irk spot indicating a 
 cavity. 3. Minute fissure. 
 
 Fi&. 83. — Early stage of foot-rot induced by rubbing matter on interdigital 
 cuticle at a. 
 
 Fl&. 84. — Advanced foot-rot. Hoof-horn overgrown to a degree highly 
 abnormal ; undor-surface broken and rotten at b. From one digit the hoof- 
 horn is nearly detached, exposing inflamed foot at a covered with fibres of soft 
 horn. (These three illustrations are from originals by Professor Brown.) 
 
 Fig. 85. — Section of foot through horn-fissure (a), showing extension of 
 the crack to the interior ; (J) edge of hoof bent under, permitting collection 
 of dirt (Brown). 
 
 insisted on. Most marvellous stories of its transmission 
 in this way began to be propagated, and the verge of the 
 
ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 261 
 
 ridiculous was reached when the public was asked to believe 
 that the disease had persisted in a meadow which had been 
 unoccupied by sheep for seven years, so that sheep then 
 placed in it became affected. In the face of the very con- 
 siderable amount of evidence brought forward in support of 
 its contagiousness, opponents to that view could do little 
 more than feel a suspicion that its transmission by this means 
 was much exaggerated, that certain special conditions were 
 essential for its conveyance, and that such lesions as were 
 found might easily be traced to ordinary causes. Prof. Dick, 
 with his usual energy, took up the matter, and in an able 
 address, which may be read in his collected papers, argued 
 out the contagiousness of foot-rot and decided against it. 
 The disease was nothing extraordinary, we were told, and 
 could be fully explained by our ordinary knowledge of 
 disease, without calling in the aid of contagion. The 
 sheep being naturally an inhabitant of dry mountainous 
 countries, when brought on to the rich old pastures and 
 lawns of lowlands, and to soft, marshy, and luxuriant 
 meadows, underwent certain changes of the feet, the result 
 of want of proper wear and tear. Moisture, as in wet 
 seasons and badly-drained pastures, was found a most 
 powerful cause, and where town drainage was thrown on 
 the fields the moisture and filth combined to produce the 
 disease. But it is also found on light, sandy, soft soils, 
 and in dry localities, and in fact wherever sheep can 
 not get sufficient natural wear for the feet, and especially 
 when the conditions favour the growth of horn. It has 
 been noticed that heavy sheep in general are liable to 
 foot-rot, and Shropshires and Oxfordshires are said to be 
 especially prone to it. Over-stocking may develop it in 
 any breed. 
 
 Overgrowth, Dick pointed out, gives rise both to hoof 
 disease and to injuries and destruction of parts situated 
 higher up in the limbs, the sensitive structures become 
 affected, and even the bones, tendons, and joints ultimately 
 become involved. As the state of the pasture affects 
 simultaneously all the flock, so it is no wonder that many 
 suffer from the same result of a uniform cause, hence the 
 
262 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 apparent contagiousness of foot-rot. Further, the appa- 
 rent invasion of foot-rot among fresh sheep brought into 
 contact with lame ones is mostly a result of the former 
 being subjected to the conditions which have already given 
 rise to it in the latter, and generally it will be found that 
 supposed contagion is due to this. Again, the frequently 
 recorded instances of a diseased ram bringing the disease 
 among ewes is associated with the fact that pregnant ewes 
 are notoriously liable to foot-rot as being much better 
 cared for, highly fed, and less travelled than flocks intended 
 solely for wool or mutton, and such cases may often be 
 associated with specially wet seasons, which remain un- 
 noticed as possible causes of increased spread coincidently 
 with putting the ram with the ewes. 
 
 The party of non-contagionists was rapidly recruited 
 by some of the best writers and practical authorities on 
 sheep, and in the present day several authorities stoutly 
 deny the contagiousness of foot-rot. On the other hand, 
 the frequency of apparent contagion continued to attract 
 attention, and experiments made in France supported 
 the possibility of transmission in this way so powerfully 
 that Touatt concludes it is contagious, but also may be 
 spontaneous. Hogg, like most other shepherds and agri- 
 culturists, adhered to the theory of transmission by con- 
 tagion, and stated that he had known simple driving of 
 a flock over a particular farm to cause it. The question 
 was confused by the fact that at first foot-and-mouth dis- 
 ease in sheep, a disease extremely contagious, was thought 
 to be only simple sheep-rot, and some good authori- 
 ties even were thus led astray; for example, Gasparin^ 
 whose statement that pigs and other animals may be 
 affected is thus readily explicable. Gohier, of Lyons, made 
 some noteworthy experiments as to inoculability of foot- 
 rot. He put fragments of horn covered with foot-rot 
 matter on the sole of the foot cut down to the quick, also 
 he well rubbed the cleft of the foot in another case with 
 a foot affected with the disease ; in neither case did any 
 result follow. In his third experiment he pared the soles 
 of the same animal until the blood started, then he bound 
 
OEGANB OF SPECIAL SENSE. 263 
 
 on tte part a portion of horn from the foot of an affected 
 sheep. Six days after the piece of horn was removed 
 unmistakable foot-rot followed, and ultimately healed 
 spontaneously. Two subsequent experiments showed that 
 the disease was not communicated until the second inocu- 
 lation, lasted about a month, and then disappeared with- 
 out treatment. Thus Grohier succeeded in conveying the 
 disease in two cases out of six, but Dick urges that it is 
 not wonderful if the disease be excited by dirt applied 
 persistently to a sore about the foot, and that these results 
 prove nothing. Faure inoculated thirty-two sheep with 
 the matter of foot-rot, and twenty of them became affected. 
 Eeynal's experiments and observations are confirmatory 
 of contagiousness of foot-rot. Quite recently we find the 
 profession in Great Britain, which seems to have entirely 
 for a time accepted the teaching of the schools as to con- 
 tagiousness of the disease, beginning to yield to the accu- 
 mulation of evidence to the contrary. W. C. Spooner 
 states that " as for the disease being always or even gene- 
 rally contagious, snch opinion is undoubtedly erroneous," 
 but he considers it sometimes contagious; Prof. James 
 Law cannot explain some outbreaks of the disease other- 
 wise than by contagion, and, finally. Prof. Brown, who 
 seems previously to have firmly held the opposite view, as 
 a result of careful experimentation concludes that " in the 
 advanced stages of the disease the exudate may possess 
 infective properties, but the virulent form of foot-rot which 
 is recognised on the Continents of Europe and America is 
 not often observed in this country," and again, " The re- 
 sults were so far definite as to establish the fact of the 
 contagious nature of one form of foot-rot properly so- 
 called J but at the same time they prove that the con- 
 tagious property is only manifested after a long period, 
 and then under certain conditions. On a perfectly dry 
 surface the disease, so far from extending to sound animals, 
 will quickly subside, but if the necessary amount of mois- 
 ture is present in the land, foot-rot, it appears, may be 
 communicated by simple contact in from six weeks to 
 three months after the introduction of the diseased ani- 
 
264 DrsEASES or the sheep. 
 
 mals. Inoculation by incision or scarification is found to 
 produce less decided and less durable effects than the 
 application of the matter to the injured surface of the in- 
 tegument ; and it is certain that the disease to which 
 these experiments refer arises quite independently of any 
 defect in the hoof horn, being primarily an affection of the 
 skin." Thus the question should not be worded " Is foot- 
 rot contagious ?" but " Is there a contagious form of foot- 
 rot ?" and we can reply that there is^ but it is not nearly 
 so frequent in Great Britain as the simple foot-rot, and the 
 latter must not be mistaken for the former when it arises 
 uniformly among sheep in a flock subjected to like dis- 
 ease-producing influences. We must next inquire which 
 is the contagious form, and how it can be distinguished 
 from the non-specific form and from other disorders affect- 
 ing the feet. In the first place, as regards eczema epi- 
 zootica,in which disease as affecting the sheep mouth-lesions 
 are not unfrequently absent. Professors Williams and Brown 
 inform us (a) that foot-rot commences at the sole or inter- 
 digital structures and thence diffuses, causing disease of 
 bones and tendons, with sloughing ; whereas eczema com- 
 mencos in a redness of the skin surrounding the coronet, 
 whicli first appears as a spot above the interdigital space, 
 especially at the heels, and then extends all round the 
 coronet. (&) That eczema consists in redness, vesiculation, 
 scab, and desiccation in orderly sequence, whereas the 
 changes in foot-rot are suppuration and degeneration of 
 horn, (c) That in eczema the hoofs tend to separate 
 from the sensitive structures owing to inflammation with 
 serous effusion commencing "between hair and hoof," 
 whereas in foot-rot the tendency is for the horn to fall 
 away piecemeal, [d) That whereas there is a strong ten- 
 dency to fungus in foot-rOt there is no fungoid growth in 
 uncomplicated cases of eczema, but Brown insists that 
 the peculiar fungoid structure on which, as occurring in 
 foot-rot, so much stress has been laid, is merely horn in a 
 disintegrated state, wanting the firmness which results 
 from the ordinary arrangement of cells. It is such horn 
 as grows when removed from the influence of pressure, as 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 265 
 
 we see, for example, in its early condition of development 
 in the foetus, (e) That whereas foot-rot generally com- 
 mences only in one foot and the others subsequently become 
 affected, foot-and-mouth disease usually breaks out on 
 several feet simultaneously. (/) In eczema fever runs 
 
 Pia. 86. — " Fungoid born " from advfinced foot-rot. Showing grit and 
 loose epithelial cells (Brown), x 200. 
 
 
 Fig . 87. — Illustrating the condition of a sheep's foot four weeks after the 
 first or febrile stage of foot-and-mouth disease (Williams). 
 
 high and is a constant accompaniment and a preceder of 
 local eruption, but in foot-rot there is seldom much fever 
 present, except when the local ravages of disease are ex- 
 treme. We shall see elsewhere that although these dia- 
 gnostic indications generally suffice, there are cases of the 
 
2P6 DISKASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 contagious form of foot-rot wMch are remarkably like foot- 
 and-moutli disease unless they can be seen in the incipient 
 stage. Simple overwear of the feet after a long journey, 
 especially seen in fat sheep or ewes heavy in young, also 
 mechanical injury to the interdigital structures and inflam- 
 mation of the interdigital canal, will not be confused with 
 foot-rot when carefully examined, but it must be remem- 
 bered that each of these conditions may by extension and 
 aggravating conditions become so extended and comphcated 
 as to give rise to lesions in no way distinct from those of 
 ordinary foot-rot ; in fact they, by neglect, maltreatment, 
 and accident or unfavorable complications, become cases 
 of foot-rot. Brown's records show that in the commu- 
 nicable form of the disease the hoof horn is not affected at 
 the commencement, but the interdigital skin of the fore feet 
 up to the interdigital canal is red, tumid, and pulpy, and 
 it has a small quantity of white purulent matter on the 
 inflamed parts. The hoof may or may not become much 
 overgrown. The disease occurs sometimes in the hind feet, 
 generally in the fore. The horn breaks away on the 
 inner side of the hoofs, and ultimately the latter may be- 
 come almost wholly disconnected, the exposed sensitive 
 structures spring up, forming the so-called fungoid, which 
 differs, however, in nO respect from that of severe thrush 
 and canker in the foot of the horse and foul in that of the 
 ox. " The whole progress of the disease foot-rot and 
 other allied affections is an illustration of the function 
 of reparation in excess ; the development of the elements 
 of the tissue in abundance, unchecked and undirected 
 by the normal conditions which obtain in a state of 
 health " (Brown). The secretion of the interdigital 
 canal is excessive and intermingled with foreign matters. 
 In the contagious form lameness, generally of one foot at 
 first but involving others later on, is followed by pain on 
 manipulation and redness, a moist appearance, and then 
 foul deposit as of pus-impregnated horn on the skin, and 
 beneath this is ulceration which extends down the inside 
 of the claws, and thence passes inwards, forming sinuses 
 and separations between the horn and hoof which com- 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 267 
 
 mence generally iat the heel. These changes are slow in 
 progress, extending over a month, but are apt to result in 
 complete disorganisation of the foot, such as may resemble 
 ordinary foot-rot, from whichj when the disease has become 
 thoroughly established, it cannot be distinguished. The 
 non-specific foot-rot is a disorder in which the hoof horn 
 is first involved, and consists in the beginning of one of 
 three conditions, carefully described by Brown : (a) the 
 horn shrivelled and pumiced in appearance, due to a 
 blocking up of the horn tubes with grit and dirt, along 
 the outside edge of the wall. (6) A dark spot on the 
 hoof appears, and it indicates a cavity into which, from a 
 crack below, dirt enters. The opening may be very small 
 and yet the cavity large, and horn may even grow over 
 and close the cavity below, and it may grow round so as 
 to embed pebbles and other foreign bodies completely, much 
 in the same way as a bullet may become embedded by 
 growth in an elephant's tusk, (c) A small, black, and appa- 
 rently insignificant line running transversely on the hoof 
 is the most serious of all these lesions, for it runs into a 
 deep crack or channel penetrating through the wall to the 
 sensitive structures, and through it foreign bodies may 
 gain entry. In other cases puncture from sharp stones, 
 thorns, or even nails may originate an attack, the condition 
 being neglected until there is much mischief done ; bruises 
 to the feet, overwear, disease commencing in the joints, 
 and other injuries and accidents of the feet may all result 
 in foot-rot. Dick showed how overgrowth of horn through 
 insufficient wear alters the bearings of the foot, throwing 
 extra strain on the crust and producing laminitis, how the 
 diseased state of the laminae rendered the horn soft and 
 penetrable by grit, how the horn, curling over, enclosed grit 
 and filth which gradually worked its way up to the sensitive 
 parts, and how excessive growth of hoof gave rise to strains 
 and other injuries of the pastern and fetlock joints. He 
 further noticed that inflammation of the skin of the inter- 
 digital space might occur from the friction of long coarse 
 grasses, and be known under the popular name of Scald. 
 He found this the most frequent form in low rich pastures 
 
268 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 where the grass was long, but on dry soils the form com- 
 mencing from the sole was generally found. 
 
 Symptoms. — The animal is observed to be lame, gene- 
 rally of one foot ; usually a fore limb is first involved. On 
 examination the claws are found diseased, broken, and over- 
 grown, and there is a discharge from them of most offen- 
 sive odour. The disease at first is confined to the foot, 
 afterwards it may extend upwards ; it may involve only one 
 of the " clees " or claws. The whole foot is hot and 
 tender and the coronet swollen ; the hoof horn becomes 
 soft, rotten to appearance and smell, and detached piece- 
 meal, and as the sensitive structures become exposed they 
 sprout out in the form of fungous masses, which attain 
 considerable size and bleed freely when irritated. The 
 horny sole gradually crumbles away and may leave the 
 sensitive structures of the lower part of the foot com- 
 pletely exposed. The ulcers rapidly increase in size, their 
 discharge is thin and not profuse, but most foul in odour, 
 they ultimately extend into the soft structures, forming 
 sinuses. To a degree varying with the climatic conditions 
 and the previous neglect of the cases, maggots invade the 
 wounds and cause further disintegration. In the less 
 acute and severe cases the hoof is not shed, but becomes 
 much deformed, enlarged, ridgy, and bent. It is seldom 
 the case that the whole hoof is shed, some portions usually 
 remaining adherent even in the most severe cases. The 
 affected animals feed on their knees if the fore feet are 
 affected, and crawl on their bellies if the hind feet are 
 severely diseased. The lame sheep lie down a good deal, 
 cannot keep up with the rest of the flock, and fall away in 
 condition from the combined effects of pain and inability 
 to get about and feed freely. Ewes, when in milk, give 
 much less than usual and their lambs do not thrive. The 
 lameness is often progressive, gradually involving feet not 
 at first affected and increasing in severity, but sometimes, 
 and especially in the contagious form, heals spontane- 
 ously. Hogg has noticed that such spontaneous cure occurs 
 generally at Matinmas ; elsewhere we are told that on the 
 hill farms in Scotland the disease appears almost invariably 
 
OEGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 269 
 
 about tlie end of July, and readies its height towards the 
 end of August or beginning of September, because then 
 the dews are very heavy. A nasty complication is that 
 where the discharge from the feet gets smeared on the 
 wool the fly may deposit its ova, and in due course maggots 
 develop and sores may appear, involving the surface of 
 the body in loathsome disease, and aggravating the 
 debility of the animal. 
 
 Causes. — It has been suggested that the disease is here- 
 ditary, but this idea must be rejected for want of sufficient 
 evidence. Moisture of pastures and the animal standing 
 too long on his own dung and urine are undoubtedly 
 influences in its generation. Overgrowth of hoof and 
 long grasses in pastures (Dick), sandy and chalk soils and 
 clay lands containing much grit (Brown), also changes 
 of pasture have been considered potent as causes. It 
 certainly seems as if race had something to do with the 
 matter ; thus animals brought from an upland range are 
 notoriously most liable to the disease when turned on 
 marshy lowland. Again a case is recorded where a large 
 flock of half-bred Leicester and Down sheep, though occu- 
 pying a sound pasture, became affected by a neighbouring 
 plantation which was almost constantly in a wet state 
 being thrown open to them, the effect of which was the 
 development of foot-rot in almost every sheep which 
 entered it, but after a time the flock seemed to have com- 
 parative immunity, yet if any strange sheep were turned 
 in they were sure to become affected {' Veterinarian,^ vol. 
 xii). A Mr. Black, quoted by Touatt, found that his 
 black-faced sheep were first affected and to the greatest 
 degree ; next in degree was a cross between the black- 
 faced and the Cheviot ; then the Cheviot, and last and least 
 of all the Leicester breed. This was traced to the habit 
 of the black-faced getting up from their lairs the earliest 
 in the mornings, and from their being accustomed to roam 
 from the hill to the glen at the approach of daylight in 
 search of their food, this habit being continued in the form 
 of wandering through the park before they began to feed; 
 The other breeds possessed this disposition precisely in 
 
270 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 the order in which the disease appeared. Moisture, though 
 not essential for development of the disease, no doubt 
 proves a powerful predisposing or determining cause j it is 
 continuous maceration of the feet in damp pulpy soil which 
 proves most prejudicial as softening the horn and weaken- 
 ing it, while increasing its growth and lessening its wear. 
 Spooner insists that decomposing animal and vegetable 
 matter is specially liable to induce such changes when in 
 contact with the hoof ; he also is inclined to attribute ill- 
 effects to excessive paring away of the hoofs by shepherds, 
 resulting in exposure of sensitive structures brought about 
 with the best of intentions to thoroughly remove all under- 
 run horn. That ewes in or with lamb are so often affected, 
 may be due to their greater weight when pregnant (as 
 suggested by Touatt) or to their getting less exercise and 
 being put on richer pasture and general diet than other 
 sheep. One supposed cause remains to be noticed, and that 
 is the ravages of animalculse in the foot. Youatt mentions 
 the Pulex penetrcms, but in evident disbelief concerning 
 its occurrence and results ; later Axe has found an acarus 
 in the horn debris in seedy-toe in the horse, and it has 
 been suggested that a similar organism may be present in 
 foot-rot. 
 
 However, it is generally acknowledged that when the 
 acarus occurs it is an epiphenomenon or concomitant of 
 the disease, which finds suitable conditions of growth in 
 breaking up of horn, and not a producer of foot-rot. Dick 
 compares some cases of the disease to chilblain in man, 
 and attributes them to constant exposure of the seat of 
 the disease to cold and moisture. 
 
 Treatment. — Must be simple, economical, speedy, and 
 effectual, for generally many sheep are affected, and treat- 
 ment of them individually runs in to a lot of time, so that 
 it should not occupy long nor need to be repeated, and if 
 it is expensive it will seldom be adopted. Ewes in lamb 
 should not be thrown to dress the foot-rot. Eandall directs 
 procedure as follows : — " The principal operator or fore- 
 man seats himself in a chair, a couple of good sharp 
 knives (one at least a thin and narrow one), a whetstone. 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 271 
 
 powerful toe nippers, a bucket of water with a couple of 
 linen rags in it, and such medicines as he chooses to employ 
 within his reach. The assistant catches a sheep and lays 
 it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the 
 foreman, the head coming up to about his middle. The 
 assistant then kneels on some straw or seats himself on a 
 low stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep. If the 
 hoofs are long, and especially if they are dry and tough, 
 the assistant presents each foot to the foreman, who 
 shortens the hoof with the toe nippers. If there is any 
 filth between the toes, each man, after first using a stick, 
 takes his rag from the bucket of water, draws it between 
 the toes and rinses it until the filth is removed. Bach 
 then seizes his knife, and the process of paring away the 
 horn commences, and on the effectual performance of this 
 all else depends" ('The Practical Shepherd,' p. 363). 
 The routine consists in thoroughly cleaning the foot and 
 softening the horn either by turning the animals in dewy 
 grass or through water, or else by washing, and in severe 
 cases and valuable animals, poulticing ; next carefully 
 examining the parts to determine exactly what is the con- 
 dition to be dealt with. All loose and under-run horn 
 must be thoroughly removed, but no sensitive structure 
 unnecessarily exposed, the sheep-foot knife should be used, 
 also small drawing knives, a rasp, and a toe clipper. Abs- 
 cesses and sinuses must be opened, and the whole diseased 
 foot washed with a solution of chloride of lime or of carbolic 
 acid. Profuse granulations must be cut ofE with a knife or, 
 preferably, with a fine, keen, hot iron (Read), or nitric acid 
 may be applied to them and to the parts in immediate 
 contact with them. Where new but imperfect horn is 
 forming, apply some powerfully astringent substance, and 
 endeavour to secure firm pressure by wrapping tow dipped 
 in tar round the part and fixing it by means of a tight 
 bandage, secured in whatever way the case will admit ; 
 pressure on all sprouting points is considered essential. 
 Daily dressing must be carrried out if possible, but at any 
 rate the cases must receive frequent attention. One prac-.' 
 tical point which has been insisted on is that it is not 
 
272 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 advisable to specially soothe the parts by poultices and 
 carbolic dressings, for this gives rise to sluggishness in 
 repair, which may render the case practically interminable. 
 Further, it is necessary to remove the exciting causes, to 
 pare the feet well down to proper shape and length, to 
 avoid wet places for lame sheep, but run them on dry 
 pasture, or, preferably, take them up and fold or house 
 them on a good bedding of tan or sawdust, or if straw be 
 used it should be kept dry and clean, but it is open to 
 the objection that it irritates the feet when fresh. All 
 lame sheep should be treated promptly, as delay may make 
 the case incurable, and will certainly cause it to give more 
 trouble in treatment. Taking up the diseased sheep is 
 useful, both as facilitating dressing and as securing their 
 shelter and easy access to food, and so lessening the neces- 
 sity for getting about and the falling-ofE which must result 
 from the disease to a greater or less degree. Again, the 
 possibility of the outbreak being a contagious one should 
 be held in mind, and separating the diseased from the 
 healthy and well washing the cured before allowing them 
 to intermingle with the sound are routine precautions 
 which should not be neglected. Stimulant astringent 
 dressings have been adopted at all times in treatment of 
 this disease. Thus, in 1529 Etienne and Sebault applied 
 alternately quick-lime and verdigris. Lisle recommends 
 arsenic and alum dissolved in vinegar and water, and that 
 the foot be allowed to dry when dressed, and be kept dry 
 for an hour afterwards. Others suggest to throw quick- 
 lime over the floor of the house in which the lame sheep 
 are put. The butyr of antimony is the favourite appli- 
 cation as a mild surface caustic and astringent in these 
 cases, and rightly so ; it can be kept well under control, 
 and the extent of its application determined. It should 
 be supplemented by dressings with carbolised tar (1 — 20), 
 which keeps out moisture and dirt, and is antiseptic and 
 keeps away the fly. To the interdigital skin in cases of 
 scald, creosote, or the tincture of the perchloride of iron, 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, or corrosive sublimate solution 
 may be applied with benefit, and tow dipped in these solu- 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 273 
 
 tions may be insinuated (by means of a probe) into any 
 small fistulas present, but deeper ones sliould be opened 
 up. Williams recommends that the feet be covered with 
 a solution of gutta percha or some thick drying varnish ; 
 others have invented gutta-percha foot protectors. Of 
 course, there are some cases of extensive disorganisation 
 of the pedal structures which no treatment can cure, and 
 where the digit or the lower part of the limb must be 
 amputated if the animal after such mutilation would be of 
 any value, otherwise the poor brute must be slaughtered, 
 and if he has suffered much and is very poor the carcass 
 should not be sold as human food, indeed, it will be of 
 little value ; in some cases, however, the carcass may 
 reasonably be sent to the butcher. Foot-rot ointments 
 are sold by every druggist, and they vary in efficacy 
 from a negative to a positive degree. We may here men- 
 tion some of the dressings advocated by different authori- 
 ties, premising that no dressing improperly, carelessly, and 
 imperfectly applied will cure the disease, that nature 
 sometimes cures cases in spite of the most improper dress- 
 ings, and that any rational application almost, if efficiently 
 and zealously used, will suffice for cure in all cases not 
 beyond power of recovery. Hogg applied a mixture of 
 eight parts of oil of turpentine in one part of sulphuric 
 acid. Prof. Brown dissolves two drachms of mercury in 
 two ounces of nitric acid, adds an ounce each of hydro- 
 chloric and acetic acids, and dilutes the mixture with four 
 to twelve parts of water as the case seems to require. 
 Fleming advises application of a mixture of sulphate of 
 copper and Stockholm tar, and mentions Delafond as advo- 
 cating nitric acid, and Derenden a mixture consisting of 
 an ounce each of nitric and sulphuric acids, with half an 
 ounce of crude opium dissolved in two teaspoonfuls of 
 water, forming sufficient for nearly one hundred sheep. 
 Solutions of chromic acid and bichromate of potash 
 (2 — 10 per cent.) are also advocated by some. When 
 many sheep have to be dealt with and labour is scarce and 
 expensive, as in the colonies, the sheep are only in very 
 severe cases treated individually, but as a rule are 
 
 18 
 
274 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 periodically driven through a foot-bath containing some 
 stimulant astringent substance, such as warm solution of 
 sulphate of copper four inches deep and applied for from 
 five to ten minutes, according to the strength of the 
 solution. Prophylaxis demands most careful attention by 
 those in charge of sheep, because in badly cared for flocks 
 the disease may be a most serious source of pecuniary loss, 
 pain to the sheep, and expense in time, labour, and money 
 to the owner, and also because it is very decidedly a pre- 
 ventable condition. Pastures such as are liable to give 
 rise to foot-rot cannot' always be avoided, but by care in 
 prevention lands which have borne a bad repute may be 
 so kept free from the disease as to recover from the 
 deterioration in value which resulted from their bad 
 reputation. It must be remembered that for moist lands 
 such vigilance is especially needed in wet weather, but 
 that on dry lands extremely dry weather is when foot-rot 
 most prevails and the necessity for preventive measures 
 is most evident. All injuries to and irregularities of the 
 feet must be promptly detected and corrected. Thus in- 
 flammation of the interungulate canal may if neglected 
 run on into foot-rot, and an attack may first appear as a 
 simple splitting of the cleft of the foot. Again, a long 
 journey when the feet have been overworn and the 
 laminae have become congested will be liable to produce 
 suppuration beneath the horn, especially if the sheep be 
 put afterwards on wet pasture. The hoofs of all the 
 flock should be examined at least twice a year, preferably 
 every month, and thoroughly shortened, and sheep grazed 
 habitually on soft pastures might with advantage every 
 now and then be turned out on a wide, dry, bare sheep 
 run, or travelled along a hard road, as suggested by Prof. 
 Dick. This examination and paring may best and easiest 
 be done when the feet are clean after a wet day or two. 
 Folding on good, hard, dry ground is an excellent pre- 
 ventive, and artificial hardening of the feet is spoken of 
 very favorably by Prof. Williams as having been benefi- 
 cially adopted by certain eminent breeders of sheep. They- 
 put arsenic, one pound, with some washing soda in a 
 
OKGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 275 
 
 gallon of boiling water (making allowance for bubbling) 
 in a cauldron and continue to boil until the arsenic is 
 dissolved. They place a solution of this strength in a 
 wooden trough nine feet long by four feet wide and one 
 and half feet deep, and drive the sheep through the solu- 
 tion deep enough to cover the feet once a week, or of tener 
 if necessary (but in that case lessening the strength of the 
 foot-bath) J and the sheep while driven through the bath 
 are prevented jumping out by hurdles placed along the 
 sides, and they are folded on a bare spot for a short time 
 after the bath to prevent contamination of the pasture 
 with arsenic. Prevention of the contagious form will 
 require special measures. Hogg shows that the altera- 
 tions produced by destruction of moles in the soil tend to 
 cause foot-rot, a curious and far-seeing dbservation which 
 may have a good deal of shrewd common sense in it. 
 
 Section II. — The Bte. 
 
 The eye is somewhat frequently the seat of disorder in 
 the sheep, and, as usual with diseases of this animal, those 
 affecting the eye are apt to assume an enzootic character 
 through uniformity of influences acting on the several in- 
 dividuals of the flock. The occurrence of blindness in 
 sheep is apt to remain unnoticed, as the animal, guided by 
 hearing and habit, remains with the flock, moves about 
 and grazes without restraint and difficulty. Careful obser- 
 vation has, however, made it clear that a number of dis- 
 eased conditions of the eye and its appendages have to be 
 dealt with in treating sheep, and, indeed, that ovine 
 ophthalmology is not deficient of points of considerable 
 special and general interest. Ophthalmia, vulgarly " the 
 Blinds," is very frequent, and apt to grow severe and 
 result in blindness ; it sometimes even assumes an epizootic 
 character, especially in autumn, and brings about rapid 
 changes in the eye, particularly opacity of the cornea. 
 Youatt comments on the sheep as more than other animals 
 being liable to attacks of inflammation of the organ of 
 
276 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 vision, which frequently originates spontaneously in many 
 cases, without evident cause. This disease is, accord- 
 ing to Lawrence, known among shepherds as the sheep 
 being larh-spii/rred, because they have an idea that when 
 the animal treads in the nest of a lark the bird springs up 
 and strikes the unfortunate intruder blind with its spurs. 
 " H. D. W.," a student, wrote to the ' Veterinary Journal ' 
 inquiring as to treatment of an eye disease of black-faced 
 ewes of an evanescent character and apparently recurrent, 
 seen both in winter and summer, both in old and young ; 
 he noted the iris inflamed, conjunctiva a little injected, 
 vitreous opaque and bulging, cornea opaque and yellow, 
 somewhat staphylomatous. This inflammation is, it has 
 been noticed, recurrent in character, each attack proving 
 more severe, until cataract with complete blindness results. 
 Thus in apparently constitutional character, unexplained 
 origin, tendency to recurrence, and severity increasing 
 with each repetition, it resembles specific or rheumatic 
 ophthalmia of the horse, of which disease it is considered 
 a close ally. Its exciting causes are those which are apt 
 to give rise to simple ophthalmia when acting on a system 
 exempt from the specific tendency : they are catarrh, 
 exposure after washing or shearing, changes of weather, 
 over-fatigue, and long journeys on dusty roads. It is not, 
 as has been erroneously thought, infectious. It is remarked 
 that in various blood diseases the cornea becomes opaque, 
 and that in Scab the eyelids are very frequently involved, 
 and thus ophthalmia may be a concomitant. Simple oph- 
 thalmia is a frequent complication of ordinary nasal 
 catarrh or from exposure to cold, and must be treated by 
 means of astringent ointments or eye lotions, and keeping 
 the affected parts thoroughly clean. It differs in no 
 essentials as regards symptoms and treatment from the 
 same disease in other animals, local bleeding, zinc, and 
 opium lotions proving curative. 
 
 The eye of the sheep is laterally placed and very pro- 
 minent, so it is well adapted to secure for the animal a 
 wide range for horizontal vision. The iris is of light 
 grey colour, and the tapetum of a greenish yellow, ren- 
 
OEOANS or SPECIAL SENSE. 277 
 
 dering the interior brighter in colour than the pupils of 
 most mammals. There are no corpora nigra ; the anato- 
 mical conditions of the eye are supposed to adapt it for 
 nocturnal use and vigilance in discerning approach of 
 prowling beasts of prey during the night. There is a 
 " tear pit " or larmier in the sheep, a depression below the 
 inner angle of the eye, consisting of skin, with large 
 sebaceous glands fitting in a corresponding depression of 
 the facial bones. In deer activity of the similar organ 
 seems a sexual function associated with rutting, in the 
 sheep a movement between the cutaneous edges of the 
 pit will be noticed in association with mastication. A 
 well-developed Harderian gland lies in cartilage nictitans. 
 Cataract, save when complicated with opacity of the 
 cornea, is not frequent in sheep. Amatjeosis is seen 
 rather often, but as a nervous rather than ocular disease, 
 due to tumours and parasites in the cranium causing loss 
 of power of the optic nerve. It is sometimes seen also as 
 a result of injuries of various kinds and in the later stages 
 of some debilitating disorders, such as louping-ill. Frac- 
 ture of the margin of the orhit from blows and injuries 
 received from the dog, or shepherd, or in fighting is some- 
 times associated with a bursting of the eyeball, the result 
 of compression. Here the humours and the crystalline 
 body escape, and the sight is entirely and irretrievably 
 lost. Cancerous disease of the eyeball, causing ultimately 
 thorough disorganisation and, earlier, suggesting the 
 advisability of enucleation of the eyeball, occurs in the 
 sheep as in the ox, but less frequently; and an eye thus 
 affected may quickly become filled with maggots and 
 decomposing, most offensive material. Dbematoid con- 
 junctiva, or the presence over part of the eye, even ex- 
 tending over the cornea so as to interfere to an extent 
 with vision, of semicuticular, hair-bearing structure has 
 frequently been observed in sheep, and removal of the 
 portion of conjunctiva thus affected has been followed by 
 satisfactory results. Simple staphyloma has been seen in 
 sheep. One unsatisfactory sequela of conjunctivitis is 
 adhesion of the eyelid to the front of the eyeball through 
 
278 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 union of tie granulations to two exposed surfaces and 
 neglect of animals with sore eyes. This may cause 
 blindness and permanent opacity of parts beyond the 
 adhesion, and probably this is accelerated by non-removal 
 of foreign bodies from the front of the eyeball in conse- 
 quence of fixture of the lid. To prevent this in sheep 
 suffering from ophthalmia the eyelids should be frequently 
 moved, and not allowed to become matted together by 
 discharge, also the handle of a small spoon or a piece of 
 hard smooth wood shaped like a spatula may be frequently 
 passed along the whole length beneath the lids to remove 
 discharges and to break down any incipient adhesions, a 
 little carbolic oil and glycerine being used to facilitate 
 movements of the lids. The ill effects of neglected oph- 
 thalmia are not uncommonly very marked in cases of Scab, 
 the eruption on or about the lids may cause temporary or 
 even permanent shedding of the eyelashes, adhesion, and 
 crust-like deposits extending over the lids and for some 
 distance down the sides of the face. Armatage writes of 
 Ieitis and Retinitis following simple ophthalmia and due 
 to rheumatic conditions, especially cold and wet following 
 warm weather, also to intense radiation of sun's rays from 
 heated ground destitute of vegetation, as especially in the 
 summer of 1868, when whole flocks became quite blind. 
 Waets on the Bfelids are almost as frequent in sheep as 
 in cattle, and sometimes by their size and expansion of 
 base they necessitate removal by excision of a consider- 
 able piece of the eyelid, and precautions lest ectropion 
 supervene. Such growths occur more on the upper than 
 on the lower lid ; they may when small preferably be 
 removed by caustic. 
 
 Section III. — The Eae. 
 
 There are no auricular mastoid cells in the sheep 
 (Chauveau) . Watson, in the ' Veterinarian ' for Septem- 
 ber, 1876, recorded the case of a deaf and dumb Leicester 
 sheep devoid of external ears, and in the November number 
 
ORGANS OV SPECIAT. SENSE. 
 
 279 
 
 of the same periodical two similar cases were recorded . This 
 rudimentary or absent condition of the external ear seems 
 not very uncommon ; sometimes the animal is dumb, in 
 other cases the voice is noted as being peculiar and dis- 
 cordant. The external ear is used for punching in it 
 
 Fig. 88. — Ear-marking pincers. 
 
 marks distinctive of the owner ; it is also subject to lace- 
 rated and incised wounds and injuries of various kinds 
 from dogs and shejiherds, the latter being very fond of 
 slitting it up for cure of sundry diseases. A large coarse 
 ear is looked on with suspicion as indicating coarseness of 
 breed and liability to fatten slowly. Otitis, or inflamma- 
 tion of the dermal lining of the external ear, has been 
 noted, attention being drawn to it by an occasional shaking 
 of the part and low carriage of the head, which is kept 
 a little to one side. Maggots in large numbers may be 
 present in the diseased part, and must be removed as a 
 preliminary to ordinary methods of cure, especially clean- 
 liness and frequent dressing. 
 
 GosTATiON may be perverted, as in the case mentioned 
 by Youatt of a sheep which would eat tobacco and swill 
 spirits. 
 
 Smell is doubtless much interfered with in eases of 
 parasitic invasion of the sinuses. The remaining organs 
 and functions of sense require no special mention, with 
 the exception of the skin, which in the sheep is very 
 liable to disease. 
 
280 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP, 
 
 Section IV. — The Skin. 
 
 The skin or pelt of the sheep is delicate in structure, 
 and therefore can by tanning be converted into some of 
 the most delicate forms of leather used for bookbinding 
 and glove-making, also for parchment. The researches 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 Fl9. 80. — Arrangement of glands and wool (Ercolani). a. Excretory 
 duct of sweat gland; 5. Oil gland; c. Hair follicle; d. Hair bulb. Right- 
 hand figure fi'om interungulate canal. (Prom Gamgee's ' Our Domestic 
 Anim.ils in Health and Disease.') 
 
 Fio. 90. — Section of skin of sheep (Gault). a. Epidermis ; h. True sldn ; 
 d. Wool bulb; e. Stem of wool;/. Hair follicle; g. Oil glands; h. Sweat 
 glands ; i. Ducts of sweat glands. 
 
 of Ercolani have shown that its sudoriparous glands are 
 well developed, and the sebaceous glands are remarkable 
 for their large size, number, and tendency to, as in the 
 dog, coalesce, and the plentiful secretion by which they 
 keep the wool moist and pliable, and protect the surface 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 281 
 
 of fhe body. On the presence of a full amount of the 
 sebaceous material or yolk depends to a groat degree the 
 health of the sheep and its power of resisting extreme 
 cold, and, on the other hand, the presence of a good 
 quantity of yolk gives mellowness to the fleece by means 
 of which it is the custom to determine the general state 
 of the health, a dull, dry, " dead " fleece being much 
 objected to by sheep owners. The yolk is calculated to 
 weigh about one half of the unwashed fleece, it is sapona- 
 ceous, and therefore supplants the necessity for artificial 
 soaps in sheep washing ; it contains a notable amount of 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 Fig. 91. — A. Simple oil glands from near the foot of a sheep (Ercolani). 
 B. Compound oil gland from the skin of the mammse in the ewe. C. (a) Stem 
 of hair; (b) Sebaceous glands ; (c) Hair bulb and follicle. (From Gam gee.) 
 
 Fig. 92. — Portion of stem of wool of sheep, showing the imbricated scales 
 of the cortex (Reissner). 
 
 potash, an aromatic oil, and fatty matter ; it is alkaline in 
 reaction. The yolk or wool oil of the sheep, known to 
 the ancients as cesypus, has lately been reintroduced into 
 the Pharmacopoeia in a purified form as lanolin by Oscar 
 Liebreich. He shows that it is found in all horny tissue, 
 and the brilliancy and elasticity of horn is exactly pro- 
 portioned to its amount. When several times rubbed in it 
 makes the skin distinctly softer. It is a cholesterine fat, 
 neutral in reaction, miscible with water. 
 
 After washiug it is advisable to wait for a few days up to 
 
282 DISEASKS OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 a week in order to allow the new yolk to rise in the fleece 
 before shearing, to increase the weight and softness of the 
 wool. There is most and best yolk about the neck and 
 shoulders; it differs in qualities in different breeds, the best 
 being found in merinos ; deteriorated yolk sometimes stains 
 the wool. The more sheep are washed in one water the 
 more rich and soapy it becomes, and the more value it is 
 subsequently as manure ; one of the good effects of folding 
 on land is supposed to be the amount of yolk which passes 
 on to the soil, supplying it with potash, which constitutes 
 so much as 60 — 84 per cent, of the yolk. The yolk lessens 
 after six years of age. The hair of sheep is of two kinds, 
 the ordinary coarse variety such as is seen on wild breeds 
 and goats, and the soft, long, more or less curly form which 
 attains such high development in domesticated breeds as 
 to render it an article of great commercial value under 
 the term wool. The hair in high-bred sheep is apt to 
 crop up at times in the form of "kemps"* or tufts, 
 unless constantly repressed by following the methods of 
 wool improvement adopted by our excellent sheep breeders, 
 to whose efforts we owe not only the enormous increase in 
 amount of wool produced by sheep, but also its varieties 
 as regards length and quality. Thus, as is well known, 
 long, short, and middle wools have each its own special 
 value and properties in the preservation of which much 
 care, zeal, and knowledge has to be constantly expended. 
 The competition of different countries as to qualities of 
 wool is one in which England has always borne a dis- 
 tinguished part, and her colonies have followed in her 
 steps and are now to an extent becoming her rivals. 
 Various methods, varying in refinement and economy, have 
 
 * These kemps are removed by combing and scribbling from the long and 
 short wools respectively ; their coarseness and want of elasticity spoils the 
 cloth and makes it diificmlt to dye. " Jar " is short, detached, not very coarse 
 glistening particles of hair found in the fleece j these mostly drop out in 
 processes of manufacture. They are not so objectionable as the long strong- 
 rooted hair which crops out through the wool on the thighs and on the edges 
 of the folds. " Getting " is a felting of wool on the back. To give merinos 
 destitute of colour the fashionable tint of some of the best strains they are 
 sometimes artificially coloured (Randall). 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 283 
 
 been adopted for removal of the fleece ; two of these 
 require special notice. Tearing is adopted in the northern 
 Highlands, and consists in dragging away the old wool 
 as it rises from the skin, leaving the large proportion of 
 hair, " scudda," behind, firmly implanted in the skin. 
 This method seems to be termed " rowing " in the Orkneys; 
 it is found better than shearing for semi-wild sheep with the 
 coat half fleece, half hair ; it is done with extreme rough- 
 ness, the blood is determined to the skin, and if the season 
 be harsh much destruction follows (Gamgee). Lambs do 
 not shed their wool in the first year, and when left to the 
 second summer it is called Hoggett wool ; breeds producing 
 finer wools often lose some of the coat in spring, probably 
 would lose all in due course. In neglected breeds, also, in 
 summer the greater part or all of the fleece separates from 
 the pelt. Yet cases are known where the wool persisted 
 for three (Lord Western) and even five years without 
 then any disposition to separate ; at four years it attained 
 its utmost limit of staple, fourteen inches ; this was in 
 merinOs. But the tendency to persistency is not confined 
 to any particular breed ; good condition, good health and 
 length of wool tend towards persistency. In olden times 
 sheep used to be confined and starved until they became 
 so debilitated that the wool could be torn away freely. 
 Shearing is preferable for a good fleece to other methods 
 of removal of the wool. The time when it should be per- 
 formed varies according to the locality, breed, season, and 
 condition, the object being to obtain the maximum weight 
 of fleece but not delay until the wool has been shed and 
 is deteriorating and lost. The operation is generally per- 
 formed in seasonable, warm and mild weather in May and 
 June, the earlier the spring the earlier the shearing, the 
 object being to anticipate shedding of the winter coat. 
 Neglected sheep may not need shearing until June. Too 
 early shearing is damaging to the health of the animal, 
 and cruelly exposes it to cold ; when the old wool has 
 fairly risen from the skin and a coat of new wool covers 
 the skin the sheep is ready for shearing, but the new coat 
 should be ready before the old one is removed ; leaving the 
 
284 DISEASES or the sheep. 
 
 old coat on too long stunts the growth of the new^ also the 
 wool is damaged by flies, and much of it may be lost ; the 
 more perfect the shearing the better the new crop of wool. 
 "We may follow Youatt's example in quoting the following 
 practical description of shearing. " A barn or shed, into 
 which plenty of light can be admitted near the shearers, 
 should be selected, and a part of the floor, covered with a 
 large canvas sheet, on which two shearers can operate. 
 The sheet should be nailed down and a little straw placed 
 under it to soften it as a cushion. The floor of the barn 
 should be swept out quite clean, and a light broom should 
 be at hand to sweep the sheet when necessary. Every- 
 thing being arranged, a shearer seizes a sheep, and sets 
 it on its rump, and keeps it in position by resting the 
 back against his own legs. He removes all straws, thorns, 
 burs, &c., that may have adhered to the wool. While 
 thus held, the wool is removed from the head and neck, 
 so far as the shoulders, and also from the belly, the 
 scrotum, and the edge of the thighs. The head of the 
 animal is then bent down sideways, and the shearer, 
 placing a leg on each side of the head of the sheep, pushes 
 out the opposite ribs by pressing his knees gently against 
 the ribs that are nearest to him. He next shears the 
 wool from the far side with his left hand, from the belly 
 to the middle of the back, and as far down as the loins. 
 The sheep is now turned, and the right hand is employed 
 to shear the wool from the near side. The sheep is then 
 laid flat on its side, and kept down by the shearer with 
 his face towards the rump of the sheep, resting his right 
 knee on the ground in front of the neck, and his right toe 
 being brought to the ground a little behind and below the 
 poll ; the head and neck of the sheep are thus confined 
 by his right leg, while he uses his right hand to shear 
 the wool from the hind quarter. In this way the clips of 
 the shears will appear in concentric rings round the body 
 of the sheep. The dirty portions of wool about the tail 
 are then removed and kept by the shearers themselves ; 
 the outside of the fleece is folded inwards, beginning at 
 the sides, and narrowing the whole fleece into a stripe 
 
ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 285 
 
 about two feet wide. This stripe is then rolled firmly up 
 from tlie tail end towards the neckj the wool of which is 
 stretched out and twisted into a rope and wound round 
 the fleece to give it a cylindrical shape." 
 
 Wool is considered to be good when it is fine with close 
 or thickly matted ground, pure, straight haired when 
 broken by drawing, elastic (in consequence of its more or 
 less spiral curvature), not too long in the staple, of white 
 colour, tenacious, without too much pitch mark, and 
 having whatever coarse material is in it very coarse. Bad 
 wool among other defects may be thin grounded, " toppy " 
 or curly haired, contain little fine fibre, tender in staple, 
 devoid of elasticity, over-full of yolk, or dead white as 
 procured from carcases. The following qualities are espe- 
 cially looked for : — Fineness of the pile, i. e. a considerable 
 quantity of fine wool in the fleece and each fibre less than 
 ■5^ inch in diameter. This quality differs much according 
 to breed, part of the body from which taken, and so on. 
 Fineness of staple is evenness of growth, freedom from 
 kemps and coarse hair, and from " breaches " and un- 
 evenness, breaches being the joints or roots of wool where 
 the fibre is softest and most liable to break. Soundness 
 is strength and freedom from breaches. The wool of dis- 
 eased sheep is found to be "tender." Free from felting 
 or catting, a matting together into knots of the wool, as 
 seen in neglected and half-starved sheep, especially when 
 the fleece has been saturated with wet. Long exposure 
 to water deteriorates wool, causing it to become " watery " 
 and swollen. Another common defect is when it becomes 
 " feathery." Softness of pile is an advantage, as it in- 
 creases the value of the wool. It depends on fine fibre, 
 breed, and state of the yolk. Chalky soil deteriorates the 
 fleece, and keeping wool stored for some time lessens its 
 weight and moth may invade it. Long and middle wools 
 are used for combing ; the former averages eight inches in 
 staple, the latter five inches ; short wool is used for 
 carding, and averages three and a half inches in length 
 of staple. Beating and compressing wool together with 
 the aid of moisture is the oldest and original method of 
 
286 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 manufacture of fabrics from wool j now cloths are prepared 
 by carding and other processes, worsteds by combing and 
 its accessory means. The woolstapler is able to select 
 specimens of no less than twelve kinds of wool ; four of 
 these are good : Picklock, prime, choice, and super. Six 
 are inferior : head, downrights, seconds, the abb, livery, 
 and breach wool. The felting of wool is found to depend 
 on the imbricated arrangement of the horny overlapping 
 scales on the surface of the fibre; there is a direct rela- 
 tion between the firmness of wool, spiral flexure of fibres, 
 and degree of serration and imbrication of the surface. 
 Good feeding markedly increases the firmness of wool ; 
 climate materially affects the staple ; thus on rich land in 
 warm places it becomes long and coarse. These facts are 
 condensed from the valuable chapter on the subject in 
 Youatt ' On the Sheep.' 
 
 Wool is but a variety of hair, long, fine, spiral, and 
 uniform in diameter. The parts of the body on which 
 hair of the ordinary kind grows vary according to the 
 breed and, to an extent, the individual. In all sheep the 
 lower parts of the limbs and more or less of the face are 
 covered with hair, which may be white, mottled, grey, 
 black, or of some red shade in foreign breeds. The sheep 
 farmers of South Africa have to contend against damage 
 to wool production by the tearing out of the growing wool 
 by the achene or fruit of a plant called Xanthium spinosum. 
 This plant was first introduced by the achenes adhering 
 to the fleece of imported merinos, and has now become a 
 perfect pest, needing legislative repression. This per- 
 nicious plant has also found its way to Australia (Queens- 
 land), where it is called the "Bathurst burr." However, 
 Xan. strumarium, the small burdock of Loudon, has also 
 been introduced with cotton seeds from South America, 
 and promises to be not only more destructive to wool as 
 having larger burs than Xan. spinosum, but also when 
 eaten it proves poisonous to cattle and sheep, causing 
 much pain, slimy matter tinged with blood from the 
 bowels, and the animal to lie motionless as though para- 
 lysed (Gordon). The principal bur-producing plants are 
 
OEGANS 01' SPECIAL SENSE. 287 
 
 burdock {Arctium lappa), large and small hound's-tongue 
 or toryweed {Gynoglossuni officinale and virginicum) , and 
 the wild bur-marigold, beggar ticks, or cuckold {Bidens 
 frondosa) . They must be collected and burnt. The dry 
 prickles of thistles also hurt the wool and render it dis- 
 agreeable to wasli and smear (Randall) . 
 
 Rams should be shorn about a fortnight before being 
 turned among the ewes, the latter when the rams are 
 taken from them, towards the third week in June. Lambs 
 are shorn less frequently now than formerly. Hog's wool 
 is the first fleeces of long, deep staple kinds, tegs wool 
 of the shorter kinds ; wether fleeces are those of the second 
 shearing ; the term " ewes " is, in the case of long staples, 
 applied to short, tender, and inferior fleeces from the old 
 or diseased ; in short staples it is applied to wool, both of 
 ewes and wethers. Skin wool is that from sheep slaugh- 
 tered for human food (Gamgee). The shearing of ewes 
 with lambs causes great confusion in the flock, for the 
 ewes and their young cannot recognise each other at first ; 
 this Youatt attributes not so much to change in appear- 
 ance as to loss of special distinctive odour of the indi- 
 viduals. It is a good plan after shearing to smear with 
 some greasy substance as a temporary substitute for the 
 yolk, and sometimes the animals are clothed with cloth 
 jackets. At any rate, except in the mildest of weather, 
 they should be housed or sheltered, to accustom them to 
 their loss. Inflammation of the lungs or pleura, tetanus, 
 and other severe disorder may follow exposure after shear- 
 ing; erysipelas is a disease sometimes due to this cause; 
 and " cutaneous asphyxia " may be the true pathology of 
 the "very mysterious cases in which it appeared as if an 
 animal poison was the cause of destruction among a flock 
 of shorn sheep," as mentioned by Gamgee. In hot 
 weather the animal should be kept without food for a few 
 hours before shearing. An important preliminary to 
 shearing is Washing. This should not be performed 
 immediately before, but an interval of several days allowed 
 between the processes. Some prefer warm water, as not 
 giving the men and sheep cold, as more freely dissolving 
 
288 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 the yolk and forming a good, natural, saponaceous solu- 
 tion with it, and as more effectual, but it complicates the 
 process, and is unessential, so its advantages are more than 
 counterbalanced by its disadvantages. The simplest method 
 of washing is to cause the sheep to swim across a pool 
 several times, but more elaborate methods are more 
 effectual ; by damming up a stream a good bath may be 
 made, suitable for thorough and sufficient immersion, the 
 men standing against a strong wooden dam, rising above 
 the water level and substituted for part of the bank like the 
 " bund " of an Indian tank. " It is common for men to 
 stand in tbe water for the sheep washing, by which they 
 sometimes get colds and rheumatic complaints, and must 
 besides be supplied with gin ; so disagreeably situated they 
 hurry over the work, and the wool suffers. A stream or 
 pond offers the requisite opportunity for doing it well, and 
 at the same time comfortably to the men. Eail off a 
 portion of the water for the sheep to walk into by a sloped 
 mouth at one end, and to walk out by another at the other 
 end, with a depth sufficient at one part for them to swim ; 
 pave the whole ; the breadth need not be more than six or 
 seven feet ; at one spot let in on each side of this passage, 
 where the depth is just sufficient for the water to flow over 
 the sheep's back, a cask, either fixed or leaded, for a man 
 to stand in dry. The sheep being in the water between 
 them, they wash in perfection, and pushing them on, they 
 swim through the deep part and walk out at the other 
 mouth, where is a clean pen or a very clean, dry pasture 
 to receive them. Of course there is a way to the tubs, 
 and a pen at the first mouth of the water whence the sheep 
 are turned into it, where they may be soaking for a few 
 minutes before being driven to the washes " (' The Sheep,' 
 Warne's Country Library). The washing bath and the 
 dipping bath must, of course, be quite distinct, and the 
 latter should not be allowed to run into streams, as it will 
 probably prove poisonous to fish. A vivid description of 
 washing lowland sheep may here be inserted as likely to 
 be interesting to the reader : " At least three, and at most 
 four, men will be necessary to stand in the water, so 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 289 
 
 arranged that the first man shall be the lowest down the 
 stream and the last man shall be the shepherd himself. 
 There should be plenty of hands to keep the sheep near 
 the edge of the water, for the ewes are apt to wander 
 away in search of their lambs, which should be left at the 
 homestead on this occasion. Everything being thus pre- 
 pared, the first man at the water's edge should get a 
 sheep brought towards him, which he seizes and pulls 
 towards him into the water, and immediately turns over on 
 its back, holding the arm of the fore-leg with the left 
 hand and grasping a portion of the wool at the side of 
 the head with the right hand. He swings the sheep into 
 the water, turning it over on the one side and on the other, 
 while at the same time he pulls it gently backwards and 
 forwards, to and fro from him at every successive turning. 
 In the process the wool waves up and down in the direc- 
 tion of the length of the body, and twirls round the body, 
 first in one direction then in another. He then hands the 
 sheep to the next washer, who repeats the same operation, 
 and he to the next till the shepherd gets it, who, after 
 feeling the skin with his hand and judging by the clear 
 state of the water of the cleanly condition of the animal, 
 dips him over the head, and turns him gently over on his 
 feet, and assists him up the grassy bank, where he stands 
 dripping and woe-begone. At length, twirling his wool like 
 a mop, and making the spray fiy from him in a shower, he 
 forgets the rough handling he has passed through, and 
 begins to crop the green herbage" {' Quarterly Journal of 
 Agriculture,' vol. iii, p. 867). After washing, the sheep 
 must be kept in a dry meadow and sheltered from inclement 
 weather until shearing. 
 
 After shearing the owner's mark is put on the animal ; 
 it used to be composed of ochre and tar, but this was diffi- 
 cult to remove and thus lessened the value of the fleece, 
 and a mixture of lamp-black and tallow, with a small 
 quantity of tar, was found preferable, removable by means 
 of soapsuds, but sufficiently durable against storms. 
 
 Some efforts have been made to differentiate the simple 
 disorders of the skin of the sheep, but much remains to 
 
 19 
 
290 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 be done in this direction. Youatt refers to a form of scab, 
 wMch is rather Actjte Peueitus, but whiobj as a distinct 
 disease, does not seem to have been fully recognised. It 
 is most prevalent in Norfolk, we are told ; the sheep look 
 ragged and tufty, some few seem as if mad, jumping about 
 and staggering as though drunk. Most of the flock scratch 
 furiously without a moment's intermission, the wool falls 
 in flakes, yet the skin is clear and presents no appearance 
 of disease. The better the food the more severe the 
 itching, but the disease seems not to be contagious. The 
 animals waste and die in three or four months, and the 
 flesh is found green and stinking. Treatment consists in 
 housing the animals, shearing them closely and washing 
 them every second day with lime-water and tobacco decoc- 
 tion or anointing them with unguentum mercurialis. 
 
 Eetsipelas is frequent in sheep, more so in them and 
 dogs than in other domesticated animals (Gamgee). It 
 follows injuries to the skin in shearing, and is then severe. 
 Other cases seem to depend on plethora and suppression 
 of skin excretion. Dick observed it generally in winter 
 and first affecting the breast and belly. Fleming alludes 
 to it as a disease of high temperature. Touatt mentions 
 it as "erysipelatous scab," a non-parasitic form of skin 
 eruption, which unfortunately has received the name " red 
 water," and so clashed with sanguineous ascites in the 
 nomenclature. In it the skin is raised into blisters con- 
 taining a reddish watery fluid, which by bursting of the 
 cuticle becomes discharged as thin pus and forms a 
 blackish scab. This is rare, but a similar condition of a 
 more wide-spread and violent character, and " to a certain 
 degree infectious," sometimes occurs as an epizootic, and 
 receives the name of " wild fire." According to Dick it 
 is most frequent in autumn, continues about eight days, 
 and the sufferer is liable to relapse. Touatt speaks of a 
 violent dermatitis, epizootic only, under the name of ignis 
 sacer. He treats such conditions by bleeding, purging, 
 and local applications of common or camphoretted oil. 
 
 Eczema is common in the sheep as in all other domesti- 
 cated animals assuming the acute vesicular form. Gamgee 
 
ORGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 291 
 
 calls it impetigo labialis s. facialis^ Edgar speaks of it as 
 crusta labialis at facialis. It occurs especially in young 
 sheep when highly fed, is rare when they are on green food 
 only, but has been noted particularly when they are turned 
 in summer to pasture on clover with many bristles (Edgar) . 
 In America it has been attributed to St. John's-wort. 
 Morrell tells us that sometimes the body and legs are 
 afEected and the bowels become involved, and it proves 
 fatal to lambs, causing brain symptoms. Salt is recom- 
 mended as a preventive, and tar and lard as treatment. 
 Hering in 1833—4 saw swelling, redness, and sloughing of 
 the white parts of the skin among animals which partook 
 of buckwheat in flower and seed, and other observers have 
 noted that it follows feeding on buckwheat. Edgar recom- 
 mends liquor arsenicalis in its treatment, but finds that 
 generally entire change of diet and situation and a dose 
 or two of salines suffices to remove the eczema. 
 
 Ecthyma is often seen as an eruption on the skin of 
 sheep, especially in the summer months, of small pointed 
 pustules, which disappear without leaving any cicatrix. 
 These are unimportant, except that they must not be mis- 
 taken for the pustular stage of sheep-pox (Brown). 
 Armatage refers to Psoriasis, "rat-tails," as seen in 
 sheep when kept on wet pastures containing clay and irri- 
 tating substances such as lime, particularly in cold weather. 
 The skin of the limbs inflames, becomes blistered, cracks, 
 discharges ichorous fluid, and is the seat of chronic ulcers, 
 which cause much lameness, pain, and loss of condition. 
 
 Impetigo larvalis, Ldmmergrmd (German), is a pustular 
 condition assuming various forms and found on the face 
 a'ud lips of lambs and goats, and supposed to be due to 
 too rich milk or to the presence of irritant substances in 
 the animal's fodder. Gamgee describes it " often in lambs 
 either on the under (?) or lower lip, are seen round pus- 
 tules from which a thick scab or crust drops off in a few 
 days, leaving a red and inflamed skin. . . Not unfre- 
 quently we find that lambs folded on long grass, espe- 
 cially when there is an abundant dew, suffer from excoria- 
 tions and pustules. I have seen many cases associated 
 
292 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 with considerable fever, but all symptoms disappeared on 
 removal of the cause, i. e. on changing the diet." 
 
 Eeythema. — Chaps on the udders of ewes and lips of 
 lambs are described as Ery. chronicum, and noted as 
 remarkable in well-kept plethoric animals at spring- 
 time ; we have dealt with them under the heading 
 Aphtha, with which disease they seem to be associated. 
 Eandall considers chapped lips perhaps due to the dry 
 prickles of bull thistles in hay. He notes this condition 
 as frequent in winter, and finds that tar and sulphur 
 treatment removes it. Read, of Crediton, in 1846 reported 
 losses from traumatic erythema in his district to amount to 
 30 per cent, or more, farmers attributing the disease to 
 flies and to hot and scorching weather in June. Acute 
 dermatitis led to early subcutaneous effusion. In some 
 cases the skin was yellow, with petechial spots. Swellings 
 occurred, at first hard and then could be indented by 
 pressure. Death resulted from gangrene. This reads like 
 the disease described above as erysipelas. Erythema in- 
 tertrigo is described by G-amgee as common after shearing, 
 especially in warm climates, and as causing much suffering 
 of sheep in Germany, owing to the filthy stables in which 
 they are kept in large numbers. 
 
 QHdema. — Of external dropsies from which sheep suffer 
 one of the most remarkable is that which has been termed 
 " swelled head." Wounds on the head are said to fre- 
 quently become thus complicated in consequence of the 
 constant pendent condition of the head in grazing. The 
 swelling is also attributed in some cases to poisoned wounds 
 from insects and vipers. In this latter case ammonia 
 administered internally and carron oil applied externally 
 is suitable treatment. An obscure form of " great head," 
 possibly specific oedema, was described by Hogg as occur- 
 ring in Skye and on the Grampian and other hills among 
 sheep which frequent the bare tops of hills except when 
 driven from them every night. The result of this expo- 
 sure is cellulitis or cellular dropsy of the head, leading to 
 abscess, the sheep either rapidly dying from exhaustion 
 or recovering. It has been attributed to a peculiar little 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 293 
 
 tnonsterj Phaanij wlio frequents the mountainsj and if any 
 living being crosses where he has passed^ that being will 
 suffer from enlarged head in mimicry of his large skull ! 
 Ringworm has been described as affecting the sheep, but 
 is rare. 
 
 SCAB, SHAB, Acariasis ovis, is a parasitic disorder of 
 the skin well known from the earliest times, extremely 
 wide-spread and a severe pest to the agricultnrist, because 
 it destroys the wool and skin of sheep, reduces the con- 
 dition of the affected animal and undermines his consti- 
 tution ; it proves expensive and troublesome in treatment, 
 renders its victims for the time it persists unfit for 
 breeding purposes, and, finally, it in many countries places 
 the farmer under legal restrictions as regards removal of 
 the diseased animals from pasture to pasture ; the law also 
 forbids sale of the diseased sheep and compels their treat- 
 ment in a proper manner (Act of 1878). The disease is, 
 fortunately, less frequent than formerly, and where the 
 legal restrictions are strictly enforced, becomes eradicated, 
 a result said to have been achieved by some of the 
 Australian colonies and much to their credit and advan- 
 tage. In the United Kingdom the disease still prevails 
 extensively, but is less frequent now than before it was 
 the subject of legal restrictions, which have, however, been 
 longer in force in connection with scab than with any 
 other disease of sheep. It has been observed by Eeynal 
 that the prevalence of scab is invariably related to the 
 development of agriculture in any country, but this 
 sweeping rule will not stand minute inquiry. Youatt 
 observed that there are several different forms of scab 
 related to seasons of occurrence and the animals affected. 
 This observation has been recently confirmed to a degree 
 which would probably have astonished Youatt, no less 
 than three varieties of scab having been distinctly differ- 
 entiated as being due to various species of acari. Two of 
 these may be promptly disposed of as being only to a 
 minor degree important from a practical point of view. 
 
 Saecoptic Scabies. — Youatt mentions as described under 
 the name of " black muzzle " an eruption seen both in 
 
294 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 Great Britain and on the Continent of Europe, consisting 
 of pimples and scab about the nose, sometimes extending 
 to the eyes and ears, encircling the former and covering 
 the latter. Most frequent in lambs, especially when 
 
 Fig. 93. — Dermatodectes ovis (Geelaoh). 
 
 sucking, considered due to chapped and filthy teats of the 
 ewe or to feeding among stubble or on stony ground. 
 It was thought to be " non-infectious " or not readily 
 
OEGANS OF SPHOIAL SENSE. 
 
 295 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 Fio. 95. 
 
 Figs. 94, and 95. — Ectozoa of sheep ; the tick and the louse (for comparison 
 with the acari which produce scab). 
 
 Pia. 96. — Young 6-legged acarus. x lUU. Drawn with camera (Bhown). 
 
296 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEF, 
 
 communicable, and was found to be readily cured by 
 application of mercurial ointment (1 part), diluted with 
 11 parts of sulphur ointment. Thus Youatt seems to 
 have been acquainted with the disease known in Prance 
 
 Fio. 97.- 
 
 -Mature male acariis from sheep with scab, x 100. 
 with camera (Beown). 
 
 Drawn 
 
 as Noir Museau or Datre (Chabert), information concerning 
 the true nature of which has been introduced into this 
 country by Dr, Fleming. Its first indications are found 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
 
 2P7 
 
 on the upper lip, around the nostrils, rarely on the eyelids, 
 and around the ears. There is intense pruritus, and on 
 examination may be discerned well-defined vesicles with 
 red areola. The animal licks the lips and scratches the 
 diseased parts with the fore and hind limbs. Thus the 
 
 Fig. 98. — Mature female acams (sheep scab), 
 with camera (Bbown). 
 
 X 100. Drawn 
 
 vesicle becomes broken, a yellowish discharge escapes and 
 dries into a round hard crust. The disease extends to 
 the parts used in rubbing, so that the legs become covered 
 with papules, vesicae, and greyish scabs, beneath which 
 latter the Sarcoptes can be found. The parasites extend 
 
298 
 
 PISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 their ravages only to the parts covered by hair, the 
 several patches on the face coalesce^ and at length form 
 one enormous scab ; the skin becomes thickj corrugated, 
 
 Fio. 99. — X 40. Drawn with camera (Beown). 
 
 a. Mature female acarus in a mass d. Ovum with yolk contracted. 
 
 of scab. e. Ovum containing a young acarus. 
 
 h. Young acarus after change of skin. f. Ovum witli young acarus in iute- 
 
 c. Cast-oi¥ skin of an acarus. rior about to be hatched. 
 
 and even ulcerated ; respiration, prehension, and vision are 
 interfered with by the swelling of the orifices. Professor 
 Williams records a case which proved fatal from exhaus- 
 tion. 
 
 Symbiotic Scabies has only recently been discovered by 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SINSE. 299 
 
 Ziirn, of Leipzig. He observed a disorder on well-bred 
 but neglected sheep, especially of tbe breed known as 
 Negretti, known to sbepberds as " Salzfluss," because they 
 attributed it to excess of salt in the food of the sheep. It 
 prevailed amongst animals housed in winter as an eruption 
 at the lower parts of the limbs, and especially the pasterns, 
 in the hollows of which it was much marked. The skin 
 becomes corrugated, thick, and ulcerated after a prelimi- 
 nary stage of infiltration, exudation, and encrusting. It 
 is very local and extends only gradually ; examination of 
 the crusts shows the parasites in numerous family groups, 
 the males being nearly as numerous as the females, rather 
 an unusual feature of acari. 
 
 Thus Sarcoptes (flesh burrowers or hiders) and Sym- 
 biotes (livers in family groups) are pathogenic in the sheep. 
 The latter have been variously designated Dermatophages 
 (Fiirstenburg), Chorioptes (G-ervais), and Sarcodermato- 
 dectes (Delafond), but by far the most serious tormentors 
 of_the sheep are the Psoroptes (crust hiders), known also 
 as Dermatodectes (skin prickers), or Dermatocoptes (Fiirst- 
 enburg) . 
 
 Deematodectic Scabies or True Scab is that too familiar 
 to shepherds, farmers, and veterinarians in every part of 
 the world. The most prominent symptom is a most severe 
 pruritus, compelling the patient to rub itself wherever 
 possible, against hedges, posts, hurdle stakes, trees, and 
 other such objects ; to scratch and kick himself with his 
 feet, thus dirtying the wool wherever the feet can reach ; 
 to nibble and bite himself wherever possible, and to be 
 extremely restless and violent in all his efforts to afford 
 himself relief. There is what is termed a " flowering of 
 the fleece," a loosening of it in tufts, giving it a ragged 
 and tufted appearance, with occasional large bare spots, 
 the wool being irregular, brittle, dry, and hard. The 
 back, shoulders, and upper part of the neck are generally 
 affected, the brisket later being invaded. Gentle friction 
 to these parts causes the animal to move its lips and jaws 
 with pleasure ; this *' nibbling " may best be detected by 
 putting one hand on the mouth, while the other rubs the 
 
300 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 affected parts, but it is generally detectable plainly wlien 
 the animal is touched. In a pasture where a scabby flock 
 has been feeding, loose flocks of wool will be found lying 
 about, and especially adherent to all convenient " rubbing 
 places," some of which will probably be in use by the 
 sufferers at time of examination. Even in the excitement 
 of being shipped or entrained the sheep cannot resist the 
 inclination to rub themselves, and will take advantage of 
 the edges of boxes, gangways, landing-stages, and such 
 like, to obtain such temporary relief as rubbing affords. 
 The unkempt appearance, roughness and change in colour 
 of the coat, and poor condition of a scabby flock at once 
 attracts attention to it, and the various attitudes assumed 
 by the poor animals in their attempts to scratch or rub 
 soon leave no doubt about the matter. In Australia grass 
 seeds often cause biting and scratching, but this is not 
 performed so sharply nor persistently as when due to scab. 
 On cool days, except in bad cases, it may be necessary to 
 pinch and scratch the parts with a sharp instrument to 
 cause nibbling (Bruce) . The continuous scratching, biting, 
 and rubbing soon renders the skin raw, and then it is liable 
 to be attacked by the fly, and maggots penetrate the sub- 
 cutaneous tissues and ravage in their usual manner, in- 
 creasing the suffering and exhaustion of the patient. 
 " When permitted to run its course unchecked, the malady 
 commonly results in a complete loss of the wool and exten- 
 sive structural (and functional) derangement of the integu- 
 ment ; the surface of the body becomes covered with scabs, 
 the sebaceous follicles, being obstructed at their exit from 
 the skin, are dilated with an accumulation of secretion, and 
 form nodules or buttons all over the body. The fleece on 
 the back, shoulders, and rump becomes light coloured 
 from rubbing ; the wool is knotty or broken, and it hangs 
 in loose tufts about the shoulders from scratching with the 
 hind feet, on the back and ribs from biting, and on the rump 
 from rubbing. The muscles of the back and loin are wasted, 
 the abdomen is pendulous, an offensive odour is extracted 
 from the surface, and the aspect of. the animal is miserable 
 in the extreme " (Brown). For some time the strength 
 
OEGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 301 
 
 of the animal enables it to resist the intense irritation of 
 the disorder, and the derangement resulting from func- 
 tional imperfection of the skin, but gradually the health 
 gives way and the animal at last succumbs. Scab prac- 
 tically never becomes cured without treatment, locally 
 the scab becomes " raised," indicating that the para- 
 sites have ceased to occupy particular parts of the skin, 
 which gradually recover their normal structure to an 
 extent, but the whole body is never thus relieved from 
 invasion, for the strength of the animal gives way before 
 it can occur. "Foot mange" is troublesome scab affect- 
 ing the skin above the hoof and tending to extend up 
 towards the thigh. The progress of the disease is influ- 
 enced to a marked degree by the weather and season. 
 As Professor Brown remarks, the finer the weather and 
 the better suited it is for sheep the more favorable it is 
 for spread of the disease ; and he urges that " no safe rule 
 can be given for calculating the modifying influence of 
 atmospheric changes irrespectively of the condition of the 
 animals, stage of the disease, number of the flock, locality, 
 and the nature of the remedies which are used ; but it is 
 always correct to assert that, all other things being equal, 
 scab will spread more rapidly in hot dry weather than 
 during the prevalence of wet and cold." Taking this fact 
 into conclusion, and considering also the large size of the 
 flocks and the unenclosed character of the country, we can- 
 not be surprised at scab making enormous headway in a 
 country with such favorable climatic conditions as Aus- 
 tralia. The most striking seasonal phenomenon in Great 
 Britain and Ireland is that during the winter the disease 
 is at a standstill owing to quiescence of the parasite, and 
 in cold weather at all times the same thing is to a less 
 degree observed. Thus a recrudescence occurs in the 
 spring and early summer, when the acari are re-aroused 
 into activity ; this is naturally often mistaken for a fresh 
 attack, and we are therefore told the disease occurs parti- 
 cularly in the spring and after exposure to cold and stormy 
 weather, whereas it may occur at any time from con- 
 tagion, but the parasites are more liable to migrate, as 
 
302 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 being more active during warm than cold weather, and it 
 has been noted that they become active when the scab 
 dries. Putting a freshly shorn affeci -d sheep among un- 
 shorn sheep readily spreads it through the flock, for the 
 longer the wool the more liable are the sheep to invasion ; 
 thus the long-wooUed breeds specially suffer from scab, 
 those animals with loose fleece and little yolk being parti- 
 cularly apt to become diseased. Old and unhealthy animals 
 and those exposed to starvation, neglect, over-driving, 
 imperfect housing, and excessive harrying with dogs are 
 said to be most frequently and earliest affected, but it will 
 be observed that these are the conditions of an ill-kept 
 flock or individuals, and that in direct ratio with want of 
 proper care and attention is the liability of the flock or 
 individual to disorder. Whether or not debility predis- 
 poses to this as to other parasitic invasions has not been 
 thoroughly settled, but it is probable that laxity of tissue 
 is favorable to invasion of the skin and debility unfavor- 
 able to development of a suflBciency of yolk, the natural 
 protective of the sheep's skin. Ewes in lamb are known 
 to be especially severely affected and frequently invaded. 
 In summer, when the fleece has been removed and the 
 pastures are in good order and the climatic conditions 
 favorable, the disease is much checked in prevalence. 
 The supposed spontaneous origin of the disorder is now 
 considered no longer a tenable view, for it involves spon- 
 taneous generation of such highly organised beings as 
 acari, recent researches on the life-history of which have 
 shown great tenacity of life and powers of multiplication, 
 snch as fully suffice to explain all cases of supposed spon- 
 taneity ; indeed, so thorough is the collapse of the spon- 
 taneous generationists in this instance that those who hold 
 the opposite view concerning other contagious disorders 
 are encouraged to hope that the march of science will prove 
 in due course that they also cannot originate de novo. 
 The skin becomes red and rough at first, or white hard 
 spots form, with numerous points of yellow exudation ; 
 there may be numerous, small, hard points, succeeded by 
 vesicles and pustules. These latter burst, and the fluid 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 303 
 
 which escapes dries, forming the scab or crust, which at first 
 consists of small, round, hard masses ; later these become 
 confluent and form considerable patches. The lymphatic 
 vessels and glands become enlarged, especially in connec- 
 tion with skin abrasion and penetration by the fly. In 
 animals kept in hot and confined sheds and houses the 
 changes in the skin are very rapid, and none of the sheep 
 remain exempt from contagion, although in pastures some 
 individuals enjoy comparative immunity. Hot weather or 
 placing the animal in a warm position at once aggravates 
 the irritation. Touatt commented on the frequency of eye 
 disease in scabby sheep, and that sometimes the symptoms 
 first appear on the eyelids. Evidence tends to show that 
 direct transmission from sheep to sheep is less frequent 
 than indirect transmission, the rubbing places being foci 
 of transmission, which are specially potent ; it seems that 
 the acari, when on the sheep, are usually comfortable and 
 little inclined to desert, but from the rubbing places they 
 are on the look-out to return to more luxurious quarters 
 on the living animal. However, as Professor Brown shows 
 us, a small quantity of wool and scabs suffice for diagnosis 
 not only as to the disease but also as to its duration, and 
 as to whether the animal from which the wool was taken 
 was at the time suffering from the disease or had com- 
 pletely recovered. Presence of acari with their ova and 
 of their young brood and cast-ofE skins in all probability 
 will suflBce to settle the first point, the condition of the 
 wool, debris, and development of the parasites will guide 
 us as to the second, and the raised condition of the scab 
 {i. e. its being attached to the hairs at some distance from 
 their root) suffices for the third. It is manifest that exact 
 determination as to the period of existence of scab, and 
 as to whether it has or not been brought under control is 
 of great importance in its relations to breach of warranty, 
 to liability for infringements of the Contagious Diseases 
 (Animals) Act, and as regards movability of the animals. 
 Specimens of wool from the dried skins of diseased sheep 
 some months after death may prove a basis for good expert 
 evidence in a law court. A one-inch objective amply 
 
304 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 suffices for diagnosis. The acari are visible to the naked 
 eye as white points, which can be plainly seen on a dark 
 surface. It is the more remarkable, therefore, that they 
 were discovered only comparatively recently, in 1812, by 
 Walz. He found that the parasites are male and female, 
 and described the behaviour of each sex when put on the 
 skin of a healthy animal. His observations have been 
 well supplemented by those of numerous subsequent 
 workers, notably Gerlach, Hertwig, Delafond, Piirsten- 
 burg, Simonds, Bourguinon, and Brown, so that we are 
 well acquainted with the life-history of Psoroptes or Derma- 
 todectes ovis. Both male and female acari (the latter 
 carry young and eggs on their legs. Directly the young 
 are hatched from eggs on the skin they burrow) placed on 
 the skin or on the wool quickly burrow through the cuticle, 
 and bury themselves, leaving either no mark or a small 
 red point to indicate the spot of entry. In man, ten days 
 after invasion by the similar parasite, a sense of pricking 
 is experienced. Generally from the tenth to the twelfth 
 day, small papular nodules begin to appear on the surface, 
 preceded by a little hardening of the skin, and a yellow scurf 
 which was noticed on the eighth day by Hertwig, when 
 he experimentally transferred a mature female to the sur- 
 face. When males only have been transferred, the erup- 
 tion develops, but is slight and soon ceases, a small scab 
 forming, but when females only or together with males 
 have been transferred, the disease develops fully ; and to 
 explain this we may give a summary of some of the 
 admirable experiments (quoted by Brown) of Professor 
 Hertwig to illustrate modes of conveyance of the disease. 
 
 I. Contact of sick animals with sound : 
 
 (a) Subject left for some days with three diseased. On 
 tenth day, several acari found on the back ; on twelfth 
 day, several small, yellowish spots on the skin ; on four- 
 teenth day, the spots moist ; on fifteenth day, scabs begin- 
 ning to be apparent ; on sixteenth day, scabs larger, and 
 the sheep nibbled when the parts were rubbed ; at the 
 end of the fourth week the scabs had extended over the 
 back and shoulders, and commenced in the neck. At the 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 305 
 
 end of the tenth week they had covered the body. Treat- 
 ment was commenced on twenty-third day in this case^ but 
 proved ineffectual. 
 
 (b) Subject left in contact with one diseased sheep for 
 several days. On seventh day, acari seen, but no irrita- 
 tion of the skin ; on ninth day, yellow spots on many parts 
 of the skin, acari along the back and behind the shoulders ; 
 on tenth day, skin elevated and inflamed in spots, a glairy 
 discharge dried up to form scabs ; on fourteenth day, the 
 symptoms well developed, the scab hard and adherent ; 
 on nineteenth day, disease had extended to the neck, skin 
 in some places blue and green ; finally, only the legs and 
 feet remained free from the disease. 
 
 (c) A sheep kept in direct contact with a diseased one 
 for two hours only ; result, negative. 
 
 II. Direct transference of acari : 
 
 (a) By means of a lock of wool placed and fixed in con- 
 tact with the skin. On tenth day small scabs and several 
 young acari were found, and the skin was irritable. At 
 the end of the seventh week scab had formed over the 
 greater portion of the back. 
 
 (b) One mature female placed on the skin. On second 
 day the parasite could not be seen ; on eighth day, a little 
 yellow scurf on the spot, and the skin around hardened ; 
 on tenth day, the skin rough and moist, with a yellow 
 exudation ; on thirteenth day, a quantity of yellow scurf, 
 the skin around inflamed, and the animal nibbled when 
 rubbed ; on fourteenth day the scurf darker, and five young 
 acari found under the scab ; on thirty-first day, a patch 
 of disease over five inches in circumference. Gerlach 
 inoculated with skin exudation, dried scab, and blood, but 
 in each case with negative results. 
 
 These results have been detailed, because they will prove 
 an accurate guide as to the length of time disease has existed 
 on an animal or on any particular part of an animal. 
 To determine the duration of any case, the state of the 
 back, the part generally first invaded, should be the guide 
 unless there be any obvious indication to the contrary ; of 
 course the oldest disease spot on the animal is that which 
 
 20 
 
306 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP, 
 
 must be taken as a guide to date of invasion. When the 
 scab is raised, it indicates chronic or cured disorder, the 
 duration of which is uncertain. The condition of the 
 acari also gives a certain amount of information ; they are 
 hatched about the eighth day after the ova are expelled 
 by the female, on the fourteenth day or thereabouts occurs 
 the first change of skin, on the twenty-fifth day the second 
 change, on the thirty-sixth day the third change, and at 
 the beginning of the seventh week the acarus begins to 
 lay eggs. These results have been obtained from the 
 parasite of man, but are approximately those which occur 
 in the corresponding ovine organism. The male has its 
 •hird pair of legs long and perfect, the fourth being rudi- 
 mentary and having no suckers. The female has a body 
 larger and rounder than that of the male, with its third 
 and fourth pairs of legs almost equal in size ; the fourth 
 pair bears suckers, but there are none on the third. In 
 the young before the first change of skin, the fourth pair 
 of legs is absent ; the young ones are soft and transparent ; 
 there are said to be from eight to fifteen in each litter, and 
 they adhere to the legs of the mother (Walz). Gerlach 
 gives an interesting calculation of the rapidity of multi- 
 plication of acari, from which it seems that in three months 
 a single pair will have descendants to the sixth generation, 
 amounting to about a million females and half that number 
 of males. As the number of parasites is in direct ratio to 
 rapidity of spread of the disease we cannot wonder that 
 the invasion of the skin becomes very marked at the end 
 of a month ; weather influences rapidity of hatching of 
 the ova and therefore of spread of the disease to an 
 extent. 
 
 The acarus will not live on the horse, ox, nor even on 
 an animal so closely allied to the sheep as the goat ; when 
 placed on the skin of man it produces only a small red 
 spot and temporary inconvenience j thus the disease, 
 though allied to the mange in other animals and the itch 
 in mankind, differs essentially from them ; the common 
 mano-e of the horse is due to a Dermatodectes, but that 
 of the dog being dependent on a Sarcoptes is still further 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 307 
 
 different from scab in sheep. The scab insect in sheep 
 is rarely found where the wool is thinnest^ as on the chest, 
 belly, insides of the thighs, and limbs, it must be searched 
 for in the wool and scab ; the Sarcoptes have teeth adapted 
 for cutting in strong jaws and short legs projecting but 
 little from the body ; they penetrate the true skin, but 
 the Dermatodectes are to be found among the wool and 
 the scab. Newly hatched acari when kept in a dry place 
 die in a few days, but the older ones are much more 
 tenacious of life ; Hertwig finds that at 47° F. the parasite 
 dies in two hours, and that it lives in cold weather for six 
 days, in hot weather for ten ; Gerlach considers four weeks 
 a sufficient length of time to keep sheep out of a pasture 
 which has been infested with these parasites. Other 
 observers give different estimates ; thus one finds that at 
 a temperature alternating from 29° to 59° P. the acari lived 
 for twenty-eight days, another puts the duration of their 
 vitality apart from the sheep's body at the long period of 
 eight months ; the conclusions of Hertwig and Gerlach 
 are to be accepted, these observers being among the most 
 distinguished of the numerous and able veterinarians of 
 Germany. Gerlach's directions for detection of acari are 
 worthy of recollection : 
 
 1. Place animals in the sun; Sarcoptes do not get on 
 the surface of the scales and hairs as Dermatodectes do, 
 and these latter can be seen with the naked eye. 
 
 2. Sarcoptes occur below the scales or scabs which may 
 be so firmly adherent that on its removal the skin may 
 bleed. Dermatodectes after exposure of the animal to 
 the sun are found on the outer surface of the scales. 
 " The scales examined should always be fresh; they may 
 be laid on black paper, in a warm place in the sun, and 
 then examined by a weak lens embracing a wide field of 
 view. The small Sarcoptes are only discovered when the 
 cuticle has been removed with the scab." 
 
 3. To find Sarcoptes easily and certainly lay the scales 
 with under surface uppermost on the arm into the skin of 
 which they will burrow in twelve hours, under the scab, 
 and on removing this the parasite is seen as a white spot 
 
308 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 on red skin or a red papule. If many parasites are on the 
 scab they may be found on the arm in a few hours, and 
 if only a few perhaps not till next day. Dermatodectes 
 may be found in a similar way sometimes only in one hour. 
 When Sarcoptes are found in this way the arm should be 
 dressed with 01. Tereb. or oatmeal to dispose of any 
 parasites remaining. Old hard scabs may need to be dis- 
 integrated with a little caustic potash solution before 
 microscopical examination. 
 
 Post-mortem examination of sheep which die of scab 
 besides the cutaneous lesions and the resulting aneemia 
 show generally intestinal inflammation of a chronic cha- 
 racter associated with the presence of many helminths; 
 the liver scirrhous ; the spleen enlarged, and frequently 
 effusions into the chest and belly. A rough estimate of 
 the loss in money to France annually from scab is iive 
 millions of francs ; the losses in Great Britain, Ireland, 
 and the colonies are still very great. These points will 
 indicate what a serious practical matter the treatment of 
 scab is, and it will be at once evident that its prevention 
 and cure is a matter of national importance. The steps 
 to be taken with this aim comprise (I) legislative 
 measures and the action of the sanitary veterinary officers 
 of Government, (2) vigilance on the part of the farmer to 
 avoid contamination of his flocks, and (3) energetic 
 measures for repression when unfortunately the disease 
 appears. Quarantine of imported sheep, except those 
 destined for immediate slaughter, destruction of wool and 
 skins in severe cases, but their prompt treatment with 
 acaricides in milder cases, systematic dressing with acari- 
 cides of fair pens, sheep trucks, and sheep-carrying ships, 
 thorough cleansing of places known to have been occupied 
 by scabby sheep, especially such parts of them as are 
 evidently convenient for rubbing against ; substitution in 
 markets and fairs iron pens for wood, as the latter splinter 
 and entangle and retain locks of wool (Gamgee) ; careful 
 avoidance of accidental or intentional coming together of 
 sick and healthy ; keeping the diseased 200 yards apart 
 from roads, pastures containing sound sheep, and from 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 309 
 
 other places where sound sheep may become cortaminatedj 
 are all measures essential for prevention, and further pre- 
 cautionary measures will suggest themselves for avoid- 
 ance of contagion in particular cases ; we have seen that 
 places in which scabby sheep have been should not be 
 reoccupied by sheep for at least one month, preferably 
 a longer period. Imperfect and half-hearted treatment 
 is a source of great danger, and so too is the tendency of 
 some owners to give the attempt to eradicate the disorder 
 up in despair, and just keep the disease under control by 
 occasional treatment of those of the flock which are most 
 severely affected. By such measures the disease is simply 
 kept going on a farm, and the annual loss is apt to be 
 augmented rather than decreased. Another danger is 
 lest the men set to apply remedies be allowed to work 
 against time. Great care is requisite when a large number 
 of sheep has to be dealt with that each receives the full 
 attention his case requires, but that no delay occurs un- 
 necessarily ; thus the overseer of dipping, salving, and 
 other operations adopted for cure or prevention of scab 
 has to be careful, painstaking, and vigilant ; he must not 
 be told that a certain number of sheep are to be done in 
 a certain time, but must be allowed to exercise his discre- 
 tion. Treatment of scab must be effectual for destruction 
 of the acari, cheap, simple, readily and quickly practicable, 
 it must hurt neither sheep, wool, nor men who apply it. 
 It may beneficially continue in the depths of the wool for 
 some little time after application, that it may destroy the 
 young acari as they are hatched from the ova which 
 escaped destruction or removal ; most applications require 
 repetition after about ten days, sometimes even a second 
 or third time. The systems which have been found prac- 
 ticable are dipping, smearing or salving, and pouring, each 
 of which processes must be noticed in detail. The days 
 when it was considered sufficient for the shepherd if he 
 saw a patch of scab on a sheep to catch the animal, spit 
 on the patch, and rub it with mercury ball have long 
 passed by, and some of the methods of treatment now 
 resorted to are most elaborate, especially in Australia and 
 
310 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 tlie other colonies where labour is expensive and sheep are 
 very numerous. In England the old tub-dipping arrange- 
 ment is sometimes still resorted to. Dipping consists in 
 the thorough immersion of the sheep in some acaricide 
 fluid contained in a bath (or a dipping well in some cases), 
 its proper performance depends on adoption of a number 
 of precautions and exercise of the greatest care. The 
 liquid used varies much in different cases and countries ; 
 every chemist has his formula for a sheep dip, ranging 
 from McDougall's valuable compound and Tuson's equally 
 valuable soluble sheep-dip mixture to the poisonous empi- 
 rical preparations of local country chemists and the ancient 
 recipes in possession of shepherds and farmers. So 
 numerous are the preparations which their originators and 
 possessors are prepared to swear by, that one is driven to 
 the conclusion that any acaricide if properly applied wiU 
 be effectual, and, further, that if improperly applied it 
 may prove extremely fatal to the flock. With a view to 
 a clear understanding of this subject of dipping we may 
 first describe some methods adopted by practical authori- 
 ties, and then give some of the recipes of our leading 
 authors, winding up our remarks on the subject with some 
 precautions as to details of the process. Mr. Bruce, Chief 
 Inspector for Sheep in New South "Wales, issued official 
 instructions on dipping, which were published in the 
 ' Edinburgh Veterinary Review.' Of these instructions 
 a precis may be given, as they are most practical, and 
 give the process as carried out on a large scale. The 
 receiving and forcing yards should preferably be of a 
 circular form ; this turns to advantage the habit of 
 " ringing " which sheep have when disturbed in a yard, 
 and saves labour by men and dogs, and the sheep cannot 
 "pack" or stop, however much they try. It also is 
 advisable to have the exit of the yard near the entry, 
 because the instinct of the sheep prompts him to try to 
 get out where he came in. If the sheep are at all back- 
 ward in moving let a man jump over the fence and run 
 through the flock in a direction opposite to that in which 
 they are wanted to move, this will start them at once. 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 311 
 
 There must be several yards in series, so that too many- 
 are not in any one of them at a time ; from the last yard 
 to the dip must run a race 2 feet 3 inches wide by 20 feet 
 long, and having the last five feet smooth and at an in- 
 cline of 25° — 30°, in order that the sheep may slide along 
 it into the dip. The yards can be used for drafting pur- 
 poses, after disinfection, by simple modifications. The race 
 and commencement of the dip should have high fences to 
 prevent the sheep jumping out. Around the dip should 
 be a stage from which the sheep can be thrown into the 
 dip either by men or by means of a tilt. The sheep on 
 the race and stage should not be able to see the dip, nor 
 those in the yards be able to see the stage and dip. 
 Decoy pens may be placed in such a position that the 
 sheep coming up see those in these pens and suspect 
 nothing ; this economises much time. A slide gate sepa- 
 rates the race from the dip, and is better than use of 
 simple hurdles for the purpose. Three kinds of dips are 
 used in Victoria and South Australia. 
 
 (1) Eound, 9 feet in diameter and 8 feet deep in the 
 clear, having a drawgate 4| feet wide at the commence- 
 ment of the race from the dip into the draining yard, 
 which race is 10 — 15 feet long by 4J feet wide, commencing 
 at 2 feet from the bottom of the dip and gradually rising 
 to the level of the draining yard. 
 
 (2) Oblong, 20 — 25 feet long by 4 feet long at the 
 stage end narrowing gradually to 2 feet 3 inches at 12 
 feet from the end of the stage, remaining that width to 
 the race to draining yard which is 2 feet 3 inches wide 
 by 10 — 15 feet long. 
 
 (3) Is used with circular yards. It is similar to No. 2, 
 but is 2 feet 3 inches across throughout. The dip is 
 made of pine tongned and grooved or of colonial timber 
 sawn or in slabs. Around the race and dip should be 
 puddled to a thickness of 2 feet if colonial timber be 
 used, and the slabs should be secured with stays attached 
 to posts in the ground behind the dip. The depth and 
 contents in gallons should be indicated by a plainly 
 marked scale on the sides ; there should be a depression 
 
312 
 
 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 on the side next to the boilers to collect the mixture. 
 Both dip and draining race should have water-tight covers. 
 The draining yards (which may be two in number each 
 for 200 — 300 sheep) and the gangway which leads to them 
 should have battens so arranged as to allow the drippings 
 to flow back into the dip. The tobacco and sulphur 
 dip is used. Infusion boilers with air-tight covers must 
 have one pound of tobacco to five gallons of water, and 
 the infusion be made in the same way "as though making 
 tea/' allowed to stand for eight to ten hours, then fresh 
 water may be boiled with the tobacco for two hours, this 
 may be drawn off and a second boiling tried, after which 
 the tobacco will be exhausted. A measure consisting of 
 a cask gauged and marked lies on the tube running from 
 boiler to dip, and serves to gauge the amount of water 
 passing in. The sulphur water must be thoroughly mixed 
 with the tobacco infusion. Six men and the overseer will 
 be required for the job, one to the yard, two to throw in 
 the sheep, one to the boilers, and two men armed with 
 crutches consisting of a seven-foot handle attached to the 
 middle of a head 12 inches long of half -inch round iron 
 bent so as to either pull or push. The dip is filled to 
 within 12 inches of the top, each sheep is made to swim 
 round the No. 1 dip at least twice, with Nos. 2 and 3 
 swimming along the full length is sufficient. By means 
 of the crutches each is made to pass at least twice com- 
 pletely into the solution. The overseer at the drawgate 
 of the draining gangway passes each sheep as sufficiently 
 dipped. Care must be taken to keep up the strength and 
 temperature of the bath, and it should not be let get lower 
 than 2 feet 3 inches from the top lest the sheep's legs be 
 broken against the bottom when they are thrown in. 
 With a short fleece the bath should be at 110° P. in 
 winter, 100° F. in summer, and the sheep left in each 
 about for one minute. If the dip be cooler they should 
 be kept in longer, but it should never fall below 85° F. ; 
 with a long fleece 90° — 95° in summer and 95° — 100° in 
 winter will suffice, and each sheep may be kept in a little 
 shorter time because it will take longer to drain. The 
 
OUaANS OF SPECIAL STUNSE. 313 
 
 sulphur must be kept well stirred up from the bottom in 
 order that each sheep may carry away some on the fleece. 
 " In putting through the first and second dipfuls of sheep 
 it was at first found that some of them were killed, as 
 has been generally supposed, by the fumes of the sulphur, 
 which, when allowed to do so, collects at the commence- 
 ment of the dipping on the surface of the mixture, and 
 the practice has been to keep the mixture well stirred up 
 until the third or fourth lots have left the dip." When 
 care is taken there are few deaths. 
 
 4. Small portable zinc dips, 4 feet wide by 4^ feet deep, 
 6 feet long at the bottom and 9 feet long at the top, are 
 used for the smaller stations ; they will hold three sheep 
 at a time, and 600 sheep can be dipped in them daily. 
 
 A careful description of sheep dipping is given in the 
 'Scottish Farmer^ for 13th February, 1864, which may be 
 extracted as giving the process on a smaller scale than 
 that described by Bruce. The dipping apparatus may be 
 in form of pond or trough, and may be fixed or movable. 
 It should be narrow and deep to economise the liquid, and 
 narrower at the bottom than at the top. It should hold 
 not more than 80 — 100 gallons of fluid, if for flocks of 
 thirty to forty score a movable dip capable of holding 
 50 — 60 gallons will be sufiicient. One end of the trough 
 should slant to facilitate lifting of the sheep on to the 
 drainer, and should be fitted with battens to enable the 
 sheep to walk up when turned on to its legs by the shep- 
 herd, who lifts the head, while his assistants leave the hind 
 legs free and lift the fore-quarters. The trough should be 
 freely washable and have a ready outlet, and water should 
 be constantly kept in it to keep it water-tight. The drainer 
 is a wooden or metal grating on a wooden channel inclined 
 towards the trough, sufficiently large to accommodate 
 forty or fifty sheep at once, surrounded by a railing, and 
 divided into halves, each with a gate of entry and one of 
 exit, the latter being furnished with a sliding board to 
 prevent injury when the sheep are lifted off the drainer. 
 The dipper should have beside him a stool or inverted 
 pail on which to turn the sheep to prevent rough and 
 
314 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 hurried handling. Not fewer than six men are required 
 for the movable apparatus^ and four for the fixed. One 
 catches the sheep, the shepherd holds the head, two men 
 catch the legs and turn the animal into the bath, two 
 more men hold the sheep on to the drainer. Two 
 enclosures should be to hand, one near the apparatus for 
 three or four sheep, and a larger for about ■ fifty sheep ; 
 fixed dipping apparatus may be paved, and roofed to keep 
 out the rain. To begin with, the bath should be of extra 
 strength rather than a weak one, the dip should be at 
 80° — 95° F. Not more than fifty sheep per hour should 
 be done, and six men can do 500 in a day, giving two or 
 three minutes' immersion for each scabby animal. The 
 mixture recommended is Melossoon dip, which dissolves 
 readily in tepid water, and is non-poisonous, even at five 
 times the necessary strength (of 1 to 40) . Gamgee points 
 out that all substances used for smearing, pouring, or 
 dipping sheep must contain active principles to destroy 
 vermin which live and breed on sheep, and must fix in 
 the fleece materials which will not be washed out by the 
 first shower of rain. These must be mixed with excipients 
 or vehicles, such as soap, solid fats, or oil. The active 
 principles must not injure the sheep or wool, and the ex- 
 cipients must not destroy the colour of the fleece nor so 
 mat it together as to endanger the life of the animal by 
 rendering it an impervious coating, nor must it prevent 
 the clips realising a fair price in the market. Gramgee 
 then first deals with excipients. Venice turpentine, called 
 by shepherds "white tar," impregnates the wool, and 
 makes it less valuable as difficult to work and liable to 
 impede the machinery, to cause the wool to break and 
 tear. Resins are even more objectionable and less power- 
 ful. Common tar discolours the wool so that it can only 
 be used for darker fabrics and those not required to take 
 brilliant colours, and when applied in quantity causes the 
 wool to pack so much as to injure the sheep ; wool dressed 
 with it is called " laid wool." Oil of tar kills the parasites 
 and may also kill the sheep ; it is devoid of tenacity, and 
 not readily miscible with other smearing substances. 
 
OEQANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 3l5 
 
 Fats, sucli as rancid butter, promote growth, of wool 
 and make it soft, but are adulterated with water, which 
 is bad for the fleece, and some fats give the wool a golden 
 tint. All oils are deficient in tenacity, so are suitable 
 •only for lowland countries. Oily dips are useful to protect 
 the fleece and the sheep, and are most effectual if warm. 
 Few oils, however, are of use, and fish oil is objected to by 
 the wool merchants as giving the wool a permanent odour. 
 Soaps do not actively destroy vermin, they wash out 
 readily, and are useful only for cleansing purposes. Watery 
 dips are now generally accepted as most satisfactory on a 
 large scale, soap assists their cleansing and penetrating 
 properties, but increases the expense, and is superfluous, 
 for the natural yolk is saponaceous. We may pass in review 
 some of the methods which have been recommended, select- 
 ing from the many those which have been advocated by 
 competent authorities. 
 
 (a) Youatt suggested an arsenical solution of strength 
 one pound to twelve gallons, the skin having been first 
 cleared of scab and yolk by washing ; he, however, prefers 
 smearing. 
 
 (b) Finlay Dunn : — Take arsenic, pearlash, soft soap, and 
 sulphur,of each two pounds,and add to 100 gallons of water; 
 this is described as effectual, but discolouring the wool. 
 
 (c) Infuse or boil a pound of common tobacco in about 
 eight gallons of water, and apply thoroughly after washing 
 with soap and water. This is expensive, but effectual 
 (Spooner). 
 
 {d) Take arsenic and soft soap, of each half a pound, 
 potassium carbonate four ounces, water twenty gallons ; 
 boil the arsenic and potash together in half the water, and 
 dissolve the soap in the other half ; mix for use ; will 
 suffice for twenty sheep, and may be used moderately 
 warm (Simonds). 
 
 (e) Take terebane (cresylic acid), a liquid residue obtain- 
 able from carbolic acid, and water and mix in proportions 
 of 1 to 40, add bar soap in proportion of two pounds to 
 each gallon of the terebane, and stir with a wooden rod, 
 warming the mixture in a water-bath, until the soap dis- 
 
316 DISEASES OF THE SFIEEP. 
 
 solves, but do not let it boil. When the mixture, removed 
 from the fire, ceases to give off vapour, add oil of turpen- 
 tine, one pint, to each gallon of terebane and pour the 
 mixture into casks or carboys ready for use. Add water 
 according to circumstances : when about to use for sheep 
 with long-standing scab, one gallon of the mixture to 
 forty of water ; for fresh cases of scab, one to fifty ; for 
 lambs, to remove lice and ticks, one to a hundred. For 
 scab, keep the sheep in the dip for at least two minutes, 
 longer in severe cases ; repeat in eight to ten days (Brown). 
 Carbolic solution in water, 1 per cent, strength, kills acari 
 in two minutes, but 2 per cent, strength, which is quite 
 safe for sheep, destroys all acari in ninety seconds. 
 Williams objects to the carbolic preparations, as altering 
 the colour of the wool, 
 
 (/) Take impure carbolic acid, 1500 grammes ; quick- 
 lime, 1000 grammes ; carbonate of soda, 3000 grammes ; 
 and soft soap, 3000 grammes ; mix, and dissolve in 260 
 litres of tepid water to dip 100 sheep. Dress badly affected 
 animals in about three days. Immerse the body and apply 
 with friction (Zundel). 
 
 {g) Tessier's bath, as improved by Clement. Arsenious 
 acid, 1 kgr. ; zinc sulphate, 5 kgrs. ; peroxide of iron, 4 
 kgrs. ; gentian powder, 2 kgrs. ; water, 100 kgrs. ; boil 
 eight to ten minutes, put in the dip. When of proper 
 temperature, immerse all the sheep, except the head, and 
 keep in for ten minutes. A second dipping very seldom 
 required. 
 
 (h) Arsenic 1 part, alum 100 parts, soft water 1000 
 parts (Matthieu). 
 
 (i) Gerlach recommends two baths, (1) the preparatory 
 consisting of pot. carb. 2 parts, cale. oxidi 1 part, aquas 
 5 parts, and (2) the parasiticide, a tobacco decoction (1 — 20), 
 about three pints is required per sheep. A 1 — 5 decoction 
 of tobacco will destroy the parasites in ten to twenty 
 minutes, but may kill sheep; a 1 — 25 or 30 decoction 
 will destroy the parasites but will cause no harm to a dog 
 or sheep immersed in it for five to ten minutes ; a 1 — 10 
 decoction destroyed parasites in two to five hours, and a 
 
OEGANS Ol' SPECIAL SteNSE. 317 
 
 1 — 50 decoction in four to ten hours. Thus tobacco is an 
 effectual and practicable parasiticide, as has been proved 
 on a large scale in Australia. 
 
 Whatever preparation or method of dipping is adopted, 
 there are certain precautions which have to be taken both 
 to protect the sheep and to ensure that the application be 
 effectual. Animals should be dipped only when in good 
 health and able to stand it ; ewes in lamb should be handled 
 gently and only dipped for scab, those with lamb should 
 not be dipped until the lambs be weaned, unless non- 
 poisonous dips be used. A useful precaution with ewes 
 is as a preliminary to smear the udder and teats with an 
 astringent ointment. The dipping is useful not only to 
 cure scab but also for removal of lice, ticks, and other 
 ectozoa ; it is usually resorted to at least twice a year, the 
 entire flock being dipped in October, the hoggs after 
 being taken off turnips in the spring and the ewes in 
 summer. It is considered that fat sheep should not be 
 dipped before going to market, because the drippings on 
 the grass from the fleece on the pasture give the flesh a 
 bad odour. Settled weather should always be selected 
 for the process. Hot weather is found to be dangerous 
 if the poisonous solutions be used, but dry warm weather 
 is best ; frosty weather is not bad, but the sheep will require 
 shelter then, especially at night, until the fleece is dry ; 
 a fleece saturated with wet from continuous rainy weather 
 does not take the dip mixture readily, and wet weather 
 necessitates sheltering after washing, lest all the mixture 
 be quickly washed out. In cold weather of any kind 
 there is risk to the health of the animal from exposure 
 after washing ; good warm drying weather when the 
 animals can be exposed to the sun in the open air is best. 
 If shelter is necessary the sheep must not be overcrowded, 
 or they will not dry properly. After exit from the drip- 
 ping yard, the flock for a time should be put in a per- 
 fectly empty place lest they poison themselves by picking at 
 grass or other food impregnated with poisonous drippings. 
 In Australia after use of dips which not only kill the para- 
 sites at the time of dipping but also have an effect of some 
 
318 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 duration as thoroughly impregnating the woolj the sheep 
 are turned from the dripping yards to their own infected 
 yards, where they prove the most effectual means of dis- 
 infecting trees, fences, and other rubbing places. It is 
 better, however, to put the dipped sheep on a clean run 
 and not again expose them to risk of invasion by acari. 
 All stragglers ought to, as a matter of routine, be dipped 
 once or twice for precaution's sake, and special care must 
 be taken with what are in Australia termed " crawlers," 
 poor brutes scarcely able to get about in consequence of 
 emaciation induced by disease, generally advanced scab. 
 These get concealed in the bush, and are apt to remain 
 uncollected when the rest are brought in from the run to be 
 dipped ; they may act as fresh foci of disease, so should be 
 destroyed before the dipping commences and their carcases 
 burnt. It is always as well to dip a second time at an 
 interval of from ten to twenty-one days, although on the 
 Continent after some dressings it is thought enough if 
 those sheep only which give indications of disease be re- 
 dressed after an interval of five or six days ; from what 
 we know of hatching of the ova, the British method is 
 decidedly the more practical, and should be adopted. Very 
 bad cases may with advantage be subjected to " spotting " 
 or "pouring " the day before they are run through the 
 dip with the rest. This consists in giving a preliminary 
 dressing with strong solution (such as tobacco infusion, 
 one pound to four gallons) at 110° P. One man should 
 hold the sheep either on its side, on the ground, or stand- 
 ing up and opening out the wool over the affected parts, 
 while another pours the strong mixture from a coffee-pot 
 on to the exposed parts, and beats and rubs them with his 
 hands to cause the wool to absorb the mixture. These 
 sheep should be kept in the yard during the night. The 
 dipping may require to be repeated a second time as some 
 eggs are hatched as late as sixteen days after the first 
 dipping ; this second dipping also serves to make sure of 
 any sheep which may have been insufficiently dipped the 
 first time being freed from the disease. 
 
 Animals should not be brought into the dip when 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 319 
 
 excited or heated ; any scabs present may be removed by 
 brushing so as to let the poisonous matter gain access to 
 the parasites, and in the draining yard, especially with 
 long-wooUed animals, the process of removal of super- 
 fluous fluid may be removed from the fleece by pressing 
 or scraping it with the hand and a scraping instrument, 
 and the opportunity may be taken to rub a little of the 
 fluid over the head sufficient to moisten it, for except 
 when non-poisonous dip mixtures are used the head must 
 be carefully held above the surface while the sheep is in 
 the dip. Besides the animal accidentally swallowing 
 poisonous solution, absorption through a broken or even 
 entire skin may occur or the animals may suffer from 
 being, while still wet and dripping, turned out on a pasture 
 and eating the grass or other food on which the poison 
 has dropped. These different methods of poisoning in 
 relation to dipping have been elsewhere dealt with in 
 detail, but we may remark that the chances of poisoning 
 are inversely related to care in dipping. Exposure to cold 
 after dipping or sudden changes of weather at this critical 
 time may cause ordinary disease such as stiffness of limbs 
 and rheumatism. The use of warm dips has been objected 
 to as giving rise to catarrh, but this has not been found 
 true in practice, and the warm dips are more effectual than 
 cold and more comfortable to the animal. It is always 
 advisable that one of the adjuvants in a poisonous bath be 
 some astrigent which will lessen the tendency to absorption 
 by the skin, and such baths ought preferably not to be of 
 a high temperature. Care should be taken lest the refuse 
 after dipping prove poisonous to animals, it should be 
 made use of when required for killing lice on cattle, other- 
 wise it should be thrown down a drain, or if held over 
 should be kept in a covered vessel. The dip and draining 
 yards should not be accessible, but the former kept covered 
 and locked and the latter shut up and padlocked. Men 
 when using poisonous dip mixtures should not have open 
 wounds about their hands, and ought to smear their arms 
 with oil and grease before commencing work. Gamgee 
 forcibly urges that veterinary surgeons should more fre- 
 
$20 DISEASES OP THE SHEEt. 
 
 quently than hitherto be called on to treat scab, for, besides 
 the inadvisability of trusting shepherds and other such 
 men with poisons, few men are able to treat scab with 
 the necessary judgment except those who have received a 
 professional training in animal disease repression. " Vete- 
 rinary surgeons should not be called when animals are 
 gasping for breath and moribund. It is unfair to them, 
 as they cannot perform miracles and purify poisoned blood 
 in the way in which pure water may be made to displace 
 impure from a pitcher. This is a stupid notion which pro- 
 fessional men encourage when they bleed as a means of 
 purifying the blood." 
 
 Salving or Smeaeing is the application to the skin of 
 mixtures with an oleaginous or fatty basis for removal of 
 parasites, the cure of skin diseases, and to protect the 
 animal and the wool from severities of climate, and espe- 
 cially from cold and wet j hence they are much in favour 
 in cold countries, where they supersede dipping, and 
 where it is found that salving is essential for fulness, 
 softness, and richness of the fleece. The process consists 
 in having the sheep held, making a parting of the wool 
 from head to tail along the upper part of the animal, 
 putting on the " shed " or parting a sufficiency of oint- 
 ment or salve, next making parallel with this line succes- 
 sive partings not more than four inches distant from one 
 another, and the whole body having thus been anointed, 
 well rubbing and kneading the salve into the wool and 
 skin by means of the hand. Of all applications for this 
 purpose mercurial ointment seems to have been most in 
 favour until it was found that, though quite effectual in 
 destroying parasites, it sometimes caused death of the 
 sheep. In mild cases it is mixed with lard in the pro- 
 portions of one part of the former to five of the latter ; one 
 to three was used in severe cases. Others used the mer- 
 curial ointment mixed with olive oil and a little oil of 
 turpentine, and brought to the consistency of thick cream 
 for pouring on the exposed skin. In parting the wool all 
 scabs must carefully be removed, not much force must be 
 applied to ewes in lamb, otherwise abortion may result ; 
 
ORGANS Of SPECIAL SENSE. 321 
 
 about one third of the amount required for a sheep should 
 be used for a lamb ; this will vary according to the extent 
 of disease, but should not exceed two ounces for an adult. 
 Mercury has been to a great extent supplanted by less 
 poisonous agents equally good for the wool and protective 
 to the animal, but not so effectual against parasites ; indeed, 
 sometimes the latter object is comparatively of little im- 
 portance in smearing, simple rancid butter being used to 
 supplement the natural coating of yolk ; as a rule, how- 
 ever, common tar was added as a parasiticide. The simpler 
 the dressing the better, because sometimes, especially when 
 the animals are able to get only sufficient food, in spite 
 of all care and precaution in the processes of dipping and 
 salving, fatal cases will occur. Tar and butter is simple 
 enough, but mats the wool too much and gives it an odour 
 and colour, so Graham, of Newbigging, substituted a resin 
 ointment composed of butter and lard, of each eighteen 
 pounds, resin twelve pounds, Gallipoli oil one gallon ; this 
 sufficed for fifty-five sheep, and left the wool quite white. 
 We may give a few more recipes for salves, but may pre- 
 mise that the subject has not been materially advanced 
 since the days of Touatt, by whom the processes already 
 described were mentioned : — 
 
 (a) Hogg's ointment : — Take powdered corrosive subli- 
 mate, eight ounces ; white hellebore powder, twelve 
 ounces ; whale or other oil, six gallons ; and resin and 
 tallow, of each two pounds ; mix the sublimate and helle- 
 bore with some of the oil and add to the other ingredients 
 melted over a firej thoroughly incorporate. This oint- 
 ment is reputed to be dangerous. 
 
 (6) A preparation recommended by Hogg is train or 
 seal oil, four gallons ; tar, half a gallon ; oil of turpentine, 
 one pint. Mix, and in applying well rub in after shearing, 
 a time when salves are especially valuable as protectives 
 and effectual for destruction of parasites. 
 
 (c) Spooner finds the following useful: — Take oil of 
 tar, half a pound, and sulphur, one pound ; mix these toge- 
 ther gradually and rub down with them lard or palm oil, 
 
 two pounds. 
 
 21 
 
822 DISEASES 01' TEE SHEEF. 
 
 Smearing may require to be repeated for effectual re- 
 moval of scab ; it is stated tbat rapidity of growth, of 
 woolj tlie result of this process, compensates thoroughly for 
 any slight deterioration in quality, but the " white " or un- 
 salved wool is, of course, of the highest value. 
 
 Parasites othee than Acaei infest the skin of the sheep 
 and prove troublesome : ticks, lice, and the fly require spe- 
 cial attention. Law notes that Lepttts autumnalis (harvest 
 bug) and Leptus Americana attack the skin of sheep around 
 the muzzle, and also the skin around the pasterns. The 
 subcorneous tissues are not, however, as in contagious 
 foot-rot, involved, and " the true chigoe is unknown in the 
 latitudes of Iowa and New York," where contagious foot- 
 rot prevails. 
 
 Ticks, Keds, or Fags are not true ticks in a zoological 
 sense. Melophagus minus is an apterous insect of a dark 
 red colour with white abdomen, but no abdominal segments. 
 It has six legs which are muscular and powerful, each 
 bearing claws like harpoons, toothed and striated ; accom- 
 panying the claws is an elegant feathery tarsal brush, and 
 on the under side of the last tarsal joint is a bilobed pec- 
 tinate organ. Eyes small and oval ; setae (or piercing 
 instruments), three enclosed in two sheath-like, hairy, un- 
 jointed organs {labial palpi), resembling otherwise those 
 of pules, and arising from the sides of a triangular labium 
 (Micrographic Dictionary) ; the animal almost buries its 
 head and proboscis in the skin, and once fixed hangs on 
 for weeks or months. It is nimble and active and some- 
 times as large as a horse bean. Its antennse are small 
 and sunken in an eye-like cavity of the head. It has 
 nine pairs of spiracles, two thoracic and seven abdominal, 
 round in form, edged with simple cilia. These spiracles 
 are less numerous and complex than those of the common 
 fly, they dilate and contract, and the cilia shorten by 
 muscular contraction at the base. In th.e rectum are four 
 papillse as in most of the Diptera, but Melophagus has them 
 covered with short spines. They have a branch of tracheal 
 vessels and short muscles, work freely and seem to assist 
 in the process of defascation. The sheep tick propagates 
 
OEGANS OP SPECIAL SENSE. 323 
 
 rapidly, but not so rapidly as the sheep louse. It is pupi- 
 viviparous. A single egg occurs in the body of the female 
 attached by an umbilical cord. At an early stage of 
 development it has two spiracles at its base by which air 
 is conveyed to the pulpy substance within from an open 
 aperture on the abdomen of the mother. Later, eighteen 
 spiracles develop on the surface and remain covered with 
 a thin transparent membrane till birth. The pupa-case 
 is brown and hard, and is called by the shepherds an egg ; 
 at the anterior end is a slight seam through which the 
 Melophagus will emerge. As in the dung-fly there is a 
 distinct ptilineum or soft elastic membrane which the 
 animal inflates and so pushes open the lid of the pupa case 
 {' Intellectual Observer,' January, 1864). The tick will 
 exist on the shorn fleece for twelve months ; it prefers the 
 region of the neck and shoulders, and its excrements give 
 the wool a tinge which is difficult to remove. These 
 parasites sometimes prove serious when they infest lambs 
 by causing so much irritation as to arrest growth. They 
 abound on ewes in spring, and when the ewes are shorn 
 they pass to the lambs, which have to be dipped to remove 
 them. Mere washing with soap and water does not suffice 
 for their removal ; either the ewes should be dipped before 
 shearing as a preventive of them passing to the lambs, 
 or they must be snipped through one by one, and some 
 mercurial ointment or oleum terebinthinse applied around 
 where they hold on. 
 
 Lice. — Hiphobosoea ovina v. Trichodectes sphmrocephaltis 
 is the sheep louse, and it differs markedly from the goat 
 louse, HxmatopiriMs stenopis, being more nearly allied to 
 that of the dog. It is found often in large numbers, 
 associated with scab, or producing symptoms somewhat 
 like those of scab in hogs and lambs out of condition ; it 
 prefers the inner part of the thigh or of the arm, and the 
 sides of the neck. When the lambs lie in the sun, the 
 small, active, brown parasites come to the surface of the 
 fleece. As they are most numerous in the neck, and cause 
 irritation, the sheep may get his head sideways between 
 the bars of a gate and, straightening it suddenly, becomes 
 
324 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 fixed and strangled. Hogg talks of another accident 
 wHcli may result from their presence, which he terms 
 " hridling." It consists in " the animal bending its neck 
 extremely, in order to claw its throat with its teeth, on 
 which occasions the teeth often fasten in the wool, so that 
 it cannot disengage them, and it soon loses the power of 
 its neck. I have known several die in this way, and many 
 more who, if they had not been relieved, must necessarily 
 have perished.'^ When the wool is broken short, or 
 detached, and the sheep nibbles the flanks and other parts 
 of the body and scratches his elbows with his hind feet, 
 examine him for lice (Simonds). Tobacco water or mer- 
 curial ointment will at once destroy these pests, but the 
 latter should not be used in cold or wet weather. Gohier 
 made some experiments, showing that tobacco and helle- 
 bore are more effectual against these parasites than staves- 
 acre or common salt, but, as Prof. Simonds shows, sulphur- 
 ated oil is safe and sufficient even for in-lamb ewes. 
 
 The Fly, Musca vomitoria v. Sarcophaga carnaria, pre- 
 vails in sultry weather and after showers in summer, and 
 is specially frequent in May in woody districts with high 
 fences and among sheep kept in enclosures. In milking 
 ewes the animal should not be steadied by holding the 
 tail with the milky hand or putting the hand impregnated 
 with odour of the flanks and udder, on any part of the 
 wool, for this will attract the fly. The maggot season 
 ceases in autumn in England, but at the latter end of 
 their time the flies get very fierce, and a mild season may 
 prolong their stay. Dirty locks of wool should always as 
 much as possible be removed. It deposits its eggs on 
 the wool, where it lives on yolk, especially about the 
 tail and other parts which are contaminated in diarrhoea 
 and dysentery. Further, it finds out sores of all kinds, 
 and is very frequent among rams and other sheep after 
 fighting in wounds and abrasions of the head. Its pre- 
 sence in foot-root, scab, eye injuries, and other disorders 
 and accidents constitutes a serious complication. Directly 
 the eggs are hatched the young maggots begin to burrow 
 and torment the animal. The victim becomes very un- 
 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 325 
 
 easy, stamps, shakes the tail, runs about, or bites himself, 
 or he may stand listless with head hanging down, and 
 apart from the rest of the flock j the wool at the seat of 
 injury is raised and rough. Price informs us that even 
 a dog is able to tell when sheep have been struck by the 
 fly. A mercury stone rubbed into the place after the fly 
 has struck will prevent all mischief. Spirit of tar applied 
 freely, and the surrounding wool being cut off will suffice to 
 destroy the maggots and keep off the fly. A simple oint- 
 ment of butter and flowers of sulphur is sufficient to keep 
 the wounds clean. Fish oil smeared over the fleece is 
 effectual, but it gives the wool a peculiar smell, which is 
 difficult to get rid of, and makes the sheep unpleasant to 
 handle ; a few drops sprinkled on the animal in May will 
 protect it for the whole season. Some so-called " fly- 
 oils " are harmful as being poisonous ; many are the pre- 
 parations recommended for prevention of ill effects of 
 ticks and flies ; we may give a few examples : 
 
 (a) Arsenic, one and a half ounces, boiled in a bag in 
 water and mixed with tobacco two ounces boiled in water, 
 and the two solutions mixed when cold to form one gallon, 
 in which three ounces of bar soap in slices are dissolved 
 by boiling for half an hour (Earl of Leicester) . 
 
 (fe) Tobacco water, ten gallons ; arsenic, four ounces ; 
 soft soap, half pound ; and assafcetida, one ounce. 
 
 (c) White lead, 4 parts ; arsenic, 1 part ; sulphur, 6 
 parts j and cinnabar, two parts, mixed. 
 
 ((£) Powdered white lead is a good remedy for maggots, 
 which must be removed with a piece of sharp-pointed wood. 
 
 (e) Youatt recommends that for sore head a plaster 
 composed of pitch, one pound, and beeswax, two drachms, 
 be melted and spread on soft leather or linen which should 
 be sewn on the head or otherwise fixed, such as by apply- 
 ing when warm. The following is an astringent powder 
 recommended by Spooner for a sore which by inattention 
 or neglect has spread : Take each of the following, finely 
 powdered, and mix together in the following proportions : 
 CretsB Praep., 5iij ; Alum, Jj ; Boh Armen. et Plumb. Alb. 
 aa 5j; Gale. . Chloridi, 5J. Dipping prevents the fly 
 
326 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 striking, but is inefficient unless there be " such a bite 
 of wool as will retain sufficient dip for this purpose" 
 (Walker). 
 
 Nestor mirabilis, the New Zealand parrot, has latterly 
 taken to sucking sheep's blood instead of the juices of 
 plants, and the blue-nosed baboons of South Africa occa- 
 sionally are guilty of killing and devouring sheep. Lucilia 
 sericata by change of its food in the larval stage has 
 become a dangerous parasite of sheep. The larvae used 
 to live in dung, especially of the sheep, and dead flesh, 
 but in many districts of the Netherlands the maggot now 
 infests the flesh of living sheep ; it is most formidable in 
 luxuriant marsh pastures, and is sometimes a veritable 
 pest. Eitzema Bos says the fly deposits its ova on excre- 
 ment adherent to the wool or, less frequently, on clean 
 parts. These are in groups of ten to twenty until about 
 500 are deposited in twenty to forty hours, according 
 to the state of the weather. Maggots like those of the 
 blowfly escape and grow for fifteen to twenty-four days, 
 then they fall to the ground and become pupae in the 
 grass of the pasture and pass the winter, but there may 
 be several generations in one summer. 
 
 The irritant effects of the larvae on the skin cause exu- 
 dation of offensive serum, which gives the wool a bad 
 odour, and mats it together ; the skin is bored by the 
 maggots, and becomes hot, blood red, and swollen. Re- 
 covery may follow fall of the parasites, but generally 
 there are successive invaders, and the disorganisation ex- 
 tends sometimes into the very muscles. The occurrence 
 of this maggot disease was first noticed in 1860, and it 
 was erroneously supposed to have been introduced from 
 England. The fly is increasing in Germany, but not yet 
 known to have attacked the sheep (' Scientific News'). 
 
 Much remains to be learned about the cutaneous dis- 
 orders of ovines, which promise in the future to be an 
 interesting and complex study j there has hitherto been too 
 great a tendency to confuse them all together under the 
 heading Scab. Touatt comments on the skin of the sheep 
 as being defective for excretion, perspiration, and heat 
 
ORGANS OP SPECIAI, SENSK. 327 
 
 regulation as compared with that of many other animals. 
 Gamgee found from experiment that " substances dissolved 
 in water are not dissolved through the skin of the sheep," 
 an important matter in relation to poisoning by sheep 
 ■washes. Only about half as much caloric is said to be 
 radiated in proportion from a sheep as from a man, and it 
 is suggested that the covering of wool is valuable as a 
 means of preventing active conveyance of infection, as in 
 scab for example, but this view is purely theoretical. 
 Czokor states that Oschatz has found in the meibomian 
 glands of the sheep a Demodex which is larger than that 
 of man. 
 
 Oedinaey Wounds and Suepace Lesions op the Body 
 present but few features of special interest. Bruises are 
 rather rare in consequence of the amount of protection 
 afforded . by the thick and elastic fleece and the care 
 exhibited lest the mutton be damaged. It may be re- 
 marked also that after serious injuries the scar seldom 
 produces wool, but a thick hornlike mass of epidermis. 
 Sore head is an annoying form of wound caused by 
 injuries or as a result of the sheop scratching the part 
 with the foot on account of irritation by the fly. Once 
 the skin is abraded maggots are a cause of rapid and 
 troublesome spread. The fly is said by Spooner to be 
 different in species and smaller than the ordinary one ; he 
 recommends whale oil smearing as a preventive, and 
 cure by means of covering the wound with common sticking 
 plaster, and then with a canvas cap having loops to admit 
 the ears and tape to tie under the chin and throat. Lace- 
 rations of the ears and limbs are often caused by dogs, 
 which animals should be dispensed with as unnecessary on 
 close pastures, and no shepherd should keep a savage 
 dog. It is sometimes necessary to detect a dog which 
 has been worrying sheep, and this has been done with 
 sufficient accuracy to satisfy a court of law by adminis- 
 tration of an emetic causing the animal to disgorge ingested 
 pieces of mangled carcass. 
 
328 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 CHAPTER XI.— POISONS AND POISONING. 
 
 The subject of tMs chapter comprises tnedicines mal- 
 administered or mal-applied, and tteir effects ; deleterious 
 agents wilfully administered or accidentally ingested ; and 
 certain blood contaminations, wbicb partake somewhat of 
 the nature and character of the true blood disorders, as 
 elsewhere dealt with. These latter can most conveniently 
 be dealt with here, because they are practically associated 
 with the poisonous influences of certain salves or smearing 
 agents. It is not only in this respect that the subjects of 
 blood-poisoning and specific affections are related to one 
 another, but also there is generally a question of differential 
 diagnosis when extensive mortality has occurred in a flock. 
 Sudden and considerable mortality among sheep is gene- 
 rally due to one or other of the following causes : Anthrax, 
 rinderpest, acute liver disorder, poisonous plants in the 
 pasture, or poisonous contamination of food, absorption of 
 poison from the skin in cases of too-powerful or improperly, 
 used sheep dips, sewage contamination of pasture, and 
 suppressed cutaneous action due to exposure, or to invest- 
 ment of the skin with an impervious coating. The investi- 
 gator has often a difficult task before him in determination 
 of the cause of fatality, but the history of the outbreak, 
 results of post-mortem examinations, and symptoms shown 
 by the living will generally, when carefully considered in 
 all their important bearings, enable him to arrive at a 
 correct conclusion. 
 
 Stippeessed Cutaneous Action flrst requires notice. 
 Although the skin of the sheep is naturally covered with 
 a thick coating of wool and a greasy investment of yolk, 
 we have ample and sufficient evidence that when its action 
 
POISONS AND POISONINO. 329 
 
 is interfered with, either by extreme coldj as from exposing 
 shorn animals or newly-born lambs, or else by an impervious 
 coating of salve, accumulation of effete materials in the 
 blood occurs, and the animal dies. A lamb covered with 
 the freshly-flayed skin of another, for which it is being 
 substituted, may be killed in this way if the false coating 
 be kept on too long, and so may sheep in the northern coun- 
 tries, when the wool has been much matted by ointment, 
 and especially when dry weather enables the dust and dirt 
 to accumulate and convert it into an impervious coating. 
 Peinberg, in the ' Archiv f. Pathol. Anat. u. Physiol.,' 
 recorded the effects of covering the surface of the body 
 with an impervious coating. He found the following sym- 
 ptoms : — Cutaneous hyperaesthesia, with proportionate re- 
 flex excitability ; trembling was an initial symptom, and 
 sometimes continued until death occurred ; constant immo- 
 bility, the result partly of mechanical impediment to 
 muscular activity, and partly of sanguineous extravasations 
 in the spinal cord and muscles ; convulsions rarely absent, 
 paroxysmal, and usually tetanic ; as a rule, a day before 
 death incomplete paralysis, especially of the posterior part 
 of the body, paralysis of the bladder with incontinence of 
 urine frequent ; respiration diminished and heart's action 
 becoming gradually feeble ; temperature varying ; if the 
 coating was a good conductor of heat the rectal reading 
 sometimes fell to 68° — 66*2° F., if a bad conductor, the 
 mercury ascended above the normal and remained there 
 until shortly before death, when it descended more or less 
 rapidly ; an absence of hunger and thirst, faeces normal, 
 often passed involuntarily. Autopsy showed dilatation of 
 all the subcutaneous vessels, and enormous distension of 
 the pulmonary capillaries, and frequently subpleural 
 haemorrhage. Repletion of the heart's cavities with blood, 
 and haemorrhage into the texture of the organ. Very 
 great dilatation of the branches of the vena portae, and san- 
 guineous extravasations in the liver and mucous membrane 
 of the stomach. Catarrh of the intestinal mucous mem- 
 brane, and hyperaemia and parenchymatous inflammation 
 of the kidneys. Catarrh of the mucous membrane of the 
 
330 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 bladder. Capillary dilatation and hsemorrhagic extrava- 
 sations in the peripheral nerves and striped muscles, with 
 injection of the meninges of the brain. Intense conges- 
 tion of the grey substance of the dorsal and lumbar por- 
 tion of the spinal cord ; and, histologically, dilatation of 
 the capillaries and capillary haemorrhage, with destruction 
 of the nerve substance. In many cases there was intense 
 proliferation of the neuroglia in the spinal cord (' Veteri- 
 nary Journal,' 1875, p. 146). 
 
 These researches admit of comparison with the cases of 
 suppressed cutaneous action which have been recorded as 
 occurring in sheep. In these latter the respiration is 
 quick, pulse small and frequent, eyes red, and frothy 
 mucus flows from the mouth and nose, in fact the sym- 
 ptoms are of asphyxia similar to those which result from 
 suffocation, and the animal is supposed to have died of 
 some lung complaint. On autopsy the blood is found 
 dark coloured and fluid, the abdominal organs healthy, 
 the lungs engorged, and the air passages full of frothy 
 material. The conditions present have, it has been re- 
 marked, a great resemblance to those seen when plethoric 
 sheep succumb after sudden transference from a poor to a 
 rich pasture. Death occurs in a few hours. Often the 
 animal is noticed to be out of sorts, and it would seem 
 that we have seldom to do with suppressed skin action 
 pure and simple, there being almost invariably some com- 
 plicating conditions in the case. Exposure of freshly- 
 shorn animals to cold is penal ('Veterinary Journal,' 1877, 
 August, p. 157). A remarkable form of cutaneous 
 asphyxia from exposure to the sun of newly-shorn lambs 
 in very hot weather is referred to in the ' Veterinary 
 Journal ' for September, 1876. The animals died sud- 
 denly, gangrene of the skin commencing at one part, most 
 frequently the hind legs and buttocks, and extending over 
 the body very rapidly, so that in a few hours the lambs 
 were quite black. Some died on the day when clipped, 
 others in two, three, or four days after the operation. 
 Autopsy showed skin, subcutaneous tissues, and muscles 
 intensely hyperaemic, as though the surface of the body 
 
POISONS AND POISONING. 331 
 
 had been burned or scalded, blood very dark-coloured, 
 semi-coagulated in right side of heart. In the more pro- 
 longed cases nervous derangement, general erysipelas, and 
 gangrene were the causes of death. 
 
 Meectteiai, Poisoning. — Euminants, especially sheep, are 
 considered more than other orders of mammalia suscep- 
 tible to the action of mercury. Hertwig found that 
 calomel in 15 — 30 grain doses purges a sheep, although its 
 action may not be apparent until the third day, but if the 
 dose be repeated suppurgation will set in, together with 
 the symptoms of mercurial poisoning, and prove fatal. 
 This agent is said to-be safe in doses of two to three grains, 
 but in excess to cause speedy insalivation and break up 
 of the constitution. On post-mortem examination of such 
 cases the stomach and intestines are found pale and flaccid, 
 the blood-vessels empty, the organs blackened or grey in 
 appearance, and the intestine often quite empty. The in- 
 "testinal mucous membrane sometimes bluish-red or leaden 
 coloured, inflamed, deprived of its epithelium, the seat of 
 blood extravasation and excoriations with pale or whitish 
 borders. Gall-bladder full of bile, liver and other viscera 
 soft and friable, red patches due to inflammation or blood 
 extravasation in the abomasum, duodenum, and rectum. 
 As regards corrosive sublimate, it is found that one drachm 
 kills a sheep in twelve hours, the most remarkable sym- 
 ptom being a peculiar exhausting cough. Ordinary mer- 
 curial poisoning results from several causes ; thus exces- 
 sive smearing and inunction with blue ointment insufii- 
 ciently diluted with lard, abuse of the practice of applying 
 the ointment indifferently to all newly purchased sheep as 
 practised by some farmers, and in the case of lambs 
 sucking ewes which have been dressed with mercurials 
 (Gasparin). It has been observed especially when an in- 
 dividual sheep has been dressed with mercurial ointment 
 a second time, and Dickenson, of Boston, recorded fatality 
 of 5 — 25 per cent, in flocks, probably from this cause, but 
 possibly from high feeding on rank grass and over-manured 
 turnips. 
 
 (Symptoms.— A few premonitory indications are detectable 
 
332 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 on careful observatioiij although not generally noticed by 
 the shepherd, such as dulness, unwillingness to move, 
 appetite doubtful, breathing a little quick and nostrils 
 dilated. The urgent symptoms set in some nine or ten 
 days after the application ; they are purging, salivation, 
 loosening of the teeth (Gamgee), redness of the skin, 
 fcetor of the breath, panting and sudden signs of sufEoca- 
 tion, pulse small and frequent, eyes bloodshot, rapid 
 sinking and sometimes spluttering of frothy mucus from 
 the nose immediately before death. Treatment consists 
 in promptly removing the wool from all the salved sheep, 
 washing them with alkaline solutions, sheltering the sick 
 and supporting their strength with stimulants such as 
 whisky and wine. The remainder must be removed to 
 a bare pasture and carefully watched in order that cases 
 may be taken in hand directly any symptoms are shown. 
 Professor Brown mentions a less acute form of mercurial 
 poisoning than that above referred to, the symptoms being 
 extreme debility, diarrhcea, foetid breath, loss of appetite, 
 emaciation and death. 
 
 Aesenical Poisoning. — Two drachms of arsenious an- 
 hydride introduced into the stomach poisons a sheep, and 
 this accident may readily take place if an arsenical wash 
 be used for dipping sheep and the animal when in an 
 excited state allowed to dip its head under the surface of 
 the solution ; or again if the pasture become contaminated 
 with the sheep dip by the animals being turned out before 
 they are dry, or if there be fodder in the drying yard 
 which can become covered with arsenical solution in this 
 way a poisoning dose may be ingested. That actual 
 absorption of a sufficient amount to poison the animal can 
 take place seems to have been disproved by direct experi- 
 mentation, especially the researches made by Gamgee. 
 Therefore it must be inferred that whenever any extensive 
 mortality from this cause occurs there is a probability of 
 negligence in the process of dipping. Apart from the 
 unsatisfactoriness of permitting shepherds to handle and 
 use poisons there are many arguments in favour of non- 
 poisonous dips constantly being used, but unfortunately 
 
POISONS AND POISONING. 333 
 
 they are as a rule less e£fectual as parasiticides than the 
 poisonous ones. The arsenic, in whatever way it enters 
 the system, acts on the bowels, but it is always out of 
 free access by antidotes ; in such cases the remains of the 
 dip may be removed from the sheep by washing, and the 
 usual measures for arsenical poisoning adopted. 
 
 Carbolic Poisoning. — When terebane or other forms 
 of carbolic acid in washes are not completely dissolved, 
 they may injure or kill sheep, especially those first put in 
 the bath. The brownish scum which floats on the surface 
 covers the first animals dipped with "undiluted acid which 
 acts at once and energetically as a caustic, causing pros- 
 tration and death, unless immediately on observing the 
 symptoms of distress means are taken to wash off the agent 
 with warm water and soap; this treatment is not, however, 
 at all times successful " (Brown) . Coates, of Gains- 
 borough, recorded fatality of sheep turned out on wheat 
 top-dressed with soot in spring. Paralytic symptoms were 
 present, but other causes may have been operative 
 (' Veterinarian,' xvi). The soot may have been impreg- 
 nated with carbolic and other products of combustion. 
 Certainly carbon in itself would not prove fatal. 
 
 Hellebore Poisoning. — Sometimes hellebore is an in- 
 gredient of sheep dip. One to three drachms of the drug, 
 Helleborus niger, given internally kills sheep. 
 
 Tobacco Poisoning. — Occasionally it is found that some 
 of the first sheep put into a tobacco and sulphur bath 
 succumb, but this is generally attributed to sulphur 
 vapour. Tobacco can be freely introduced into the stomach 
 of the sheep or goat in the form of dry leaf without 
 detriment or apparent inconvenience. 
 
 As regards poisons which may be acquired at pastures 
 by sheep a number of interesting observations have been 
 placed on record. It was observed as a direct result of 
 experiment by Linnaeus that of the indigenous pasture 
 plants of Sweden sheep ate 387 out of 528 species, whereas 
 horses ate only 262 and oxen 276 (' Veterinarian,' 1833, 
 p. 532), and Youatt remarks that, as compared with the 
 horse and ox, the sheep is when left entirely uninfluenced 
 
334 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 by man on grazing land not only less liable to be poisoned, 
 but able actually to consume a greater variety of plants ; 
 he mentions that lambs are more frequently the subject 
 of poisoning from noxious plants than adults because they 
 have less power of discrimination, and he considers yew 
 and crowfoot the most frequent poisonous vegetable sub- 
 stances. Gamgee in his ' Memoranda Toxicologica Vete- 
 rinaria' has collected a number of useful facts and records, 
 from which some may here advantageously be summarised 
 and collected, the original records being mainly in German 
 veterinary periodicals. Yew leaves prove most fatal when 
 dry, and are eaten freely by most herbivora. Spooner 
 reminds farmers to avoid yew bough hedges, to be sus- 
 picious of green yew leaves, which may do mischief though 
 generally they have no deleterious effect, and to be careful 
 lest sheep escape into flower gardens and eat rhododendra. 
 Dried ivy prunings have proved fatal to sheep. Ranunculus, 
 or the crowfoot of various forms, is found in rich pastures; 
 R. acris, R. repens, B. flammula, and R. sceleratus being 
 those which have been specially observed in pastures where 
 enteritis prevails. R. bulbosus is said to be eaten by 
 sheep with impunity (Daubenton). R. arvensis, common 
 crowfoot, is that which has most frequently proved preju- 
 dicial to sheep. Brugnon {' Ins. et obs. s. les mal. des 
 An. Dom.,' iii, p. 309) describes how in two hours three out 
 of seven sheep died with symptoms of hoven and colic 
 from eating the roots of this form of ranunculus which 
 seemed palatable to them. He appears to have stopped 
 the fatality by giving white wine vinegar. He found on 
 post-mortem examination the blood rather liquid, dark-red 
 patches on the lining membrane of each of the stomachs, 
 these patches being large, almost black and gangrenous 
 in the abomasum ; some similar patches extending for 
 some way along the duodenum, and the roots of the crow- 
 foot in the stomach. Lipp saw a flock of sheep poisoned 
 by this plant. In half an hour after they had been put 
 on the pasture some began to tremble, become convulsed, 
 and died ; almost aU showed symptoms of vertigo. Imme- 
 diately after death the abdomen was found distended, 
 
POISONS AND POISONING. 335 
 
 stomach inflamed, liver and spleen black and soft, ecchy- 
 moses beneath the skin and in the flesh. The young of 
 Galtha palustris, the marsh-marigold, is eaten with im- 
 punity by goats, B. flammula is said to cause fatal enteritis 
 (Pabregow), and B. sceleratus to be even more dangerousi 
 As in other forms of poisoning with acrid vegetable sub- 
 stances, rumenotomy, use of the stomach-pump, encourage- 
 ment of purgation, especially by oily cathartics, and the 
 administration of vegetable charcoal are the principal 
 measures of relief. 
 
 Bavin, given in frequently repeated doses, induces tym- 
 pany and dysenteric symptoms ; Erica v. Calluna vulgaris, 
 the common ling, is supposed in excess to cause dysentery, 
 and Grasparin considers it produces red water ; fresh Eyo- 
 scyamus niger, henbane, is said to be eaten with impunity 
 by herbivora, and belladonna is stated to be harmless to 
 the smaller ruminants ; Gicuta virosa, the water-hemlock, 
 has, in Sweden and Norway, been found extremely fatal 
 to goats and sheep, more especially the latter. 
 
 Bhododendron, nine hours after ingestion by two goats, 
 produced colic and ejection of the partially digested mate- 
 rial from the mouth, slavering, and vertigo from time to 
 time. Free bleeding and administration of olive oil 
 proved ineffectual, for both animals died in less than three 
 hours. Autopsy showed inflammation of the rumen, and 
 its contents somewhat thin and liquid, a little food in the 
 reticulum, some fluid in the omasum, and in the abomasum 
 the medicine which had been given. Small intestine 
 bluish red, brain injected, a red fluid in the ventricles 
 (Gemelin). Dunlop found in rhododendron poisoning, 
 fast respiration, frothing at the mouth, attempts to vomit, 
 during the paroxysms of which the animal emitted a 
 peculiar sound. Autopsy : General fulness of vessels, 
 lungs congested, clots in both sides of heart (' Veterinary 
 Journal,' February, 1881). Thompson reports poisoning 
 of sheep by -digitalis, the green leaves of which were 
 eaten while snow was on the ground. 
 
 Conium maculatum, spotted hemlock, is recorded by , 
 Eead as destroying lambs which had eaten it from a boggy 
 
3S6 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 part in the pasture. The symptoms shown were giddiness, 
 listlessnesSj inability to move about, struggles, and death. 
 The contents of the rumen were found to be of a beautiful 
 green colour and of a peculiar odour. Bleeding, sulphate 
 of magnesia, and dilute sulphuric acid sufficed to prevent 
 the death of all except three ('Veterinarian,' 1845). 
 
 Aconite is said to be eaten by goats on the Austrian 
 mountains with impunity, but " Hertwig has seen sheep, 
 and still oftener goats, eat the flowers of monkshood and 
 die speedily afterwards. Hiibner says that goats that eat 
 it become affected with tympanitis, vomit frightfully, and 
 have a starving and anxious look. They recover without 
 treatment ; and the milk secretion, which is checked from 
 the influence of the poison, soon returns " (Gamgee) . It 
 is probably the Aconitum ferox which proves fatal in the 
 majority of cases in mountainous districts. 
 
 Lolium jperenne (the rye- or ray-grass) has been sup- 
 posed to be prejudicial to sheep, but this probably has 
 arisen from the tendency to confuse it with Lolium temu- 
 lentum, the darnel-grass or " sturdy." Sheep eat the 
 L. perenne freely, and in preference to most others when 
 it is in the earliest stage of its growth, but after the seed 
 approaches towards perfection they leave it for almost any 
 other kind (Sinclair). Brosche observed the effects of 
 the darnel-grass in sheep, which became giddy and stag- 
 gering. After death no lesion of the alimentary canal 
 was found, but inflammatory spots on the upper or right 
 side of the brain, and on the right side of the medulla 
 oblongata a table-spoonful of clear liquid (Gamgee). An 
 ounce of nux vomica caused death of a sheep in half an 
 hour, but it required eight ounces to produce marked 
 symptoms of poisoning in a goat (Tabourin, from the 
 Eeport of the Lyons Veterinary College, 1812). Promment 
 recorded considerable loss among sheep in Pranconia in 
 1663-5 from eating mildewed herbage ; and Delafond, in 
 his " Traite de la Maladie de Sang des B^tes a Laine," 
 states that mouldy forage causes intoxication, and a dis- 
 eased condition of the blood different from carbuncular 
 affections. Sheep have been observed to succumb to a 
 
POISONS AND POISONING. 337 
 
 charbon-like affection when they have eaten the ordinary 
 shepherd's-purse, Gapsella hursa-pastoris, on which grew 
 Uredo Candida. 
 
 Eegot of Eye is said to frequently cause sudden loss of 
 sheep in autumn, the symptoms being dysentery, enteritis, 
 diarrhoea (the evacuations resembling coffee-grounds), 
 succeeded by exhaustion, collapse, and death. Abortion 
 has also been noted, and where the ergot prevails it is 
 said foot-rot is constantly present, though the soil be 
 light and porous and on a slope. The animals avoid the 
 dry mature plants (infested with ergot) as much as possible, 
 probably warned by the odour of trimethylamine, which 
 appears only when the sclerotium of the ergot has fully 
 developed and the starch quite gone. Kluge, of Berlin, 
 observed that, for some reason or other, the properties of 
 ergot vary according to whether it is gathered before or 
 after the harvest, in the former case it being energetic, 
 in the latter frequently powerless. The conidia of the 
 fungus may be generally detected post mortem in the 
 intestinal canal of a poisoned animal by use of a low 
 power of the microscope (Stoddart, ' Veterinarian,' July, 
 1880). Ergot is less frequent as a cause of abortion in 
 the ewe than in the cow. Only in early breeding districts 
 are the ewes sufficiently advanced in pregnancy to abort 
 before the spurs form, this accident being most frequent 
 between the second and third month. Ergotism is to be 
 feared in England from the beginning of August to 
 Christmas, or even later ; in Ireland it occurs a month 
 earlier. In a report emanating from the Agricultural 
 Department, Washington, an outbreak of severe ergotism 
 investigated by Salmon, in Coffee County, Kansas, is re- 
 ported. The symptoms were so like those of foot-and- 
 mouth disease that the disorder was considered as such 
 until proved to be non-contagious ; gangrene of limbs was 
 a conspicuous symptom. The following details concerning 
 ergot as given by Walker (' The Sheep and Lamb ') will be 
 found useful : — " The different states of ergot are as 
 follows : — The spurs fall to the earth with the seed of the 
 grass in the late autumn or early winter, ripening at the 
 
 22 
 
338 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 same time as the host plants. The spurs lie impervious 
 to frost, rain, or the inclemency of winter weather. In 
 spring the fungoid spores throw up small bodies (from one 
 to ten on each spur) resembling minute mushrooms. These, 
 the first growth, are called ' Olaviceps purpurea.' They 
 mature in a week or ten days, and then discharge un- 
 countable millions of invisible spores or seeds. These are 
 so numerous as to almost fill the air, and they alight on 
 all surrounding objects both far and near, but only such 
 as fall upon the grass bloom prove fruitful. Being needle- 
 shaped, they quickly find their way into the section of the 
 grasses that should develop the grass seeds, and while the 
 plants are still in bloom they support and nourish the para- 
 site, imparting to it such sap as nature had provided for the 
 true seed, and the ergot thus nursed soon arrives at matu- 
 rity. Later on the spur has a second reproducing period, 
 called the ' sphacelia ' state. When the fungus is nearly 
 fully grown, it forms an apex or snout at the end of the 
 ergot grain. This apex abounds in spores, myriads of 
 which are thrown off, and, as they settle on other grasses, 
 ergotise them. Thus it will be seen that the first repro- 
 ducing bodies are the Claviceps purpurea, and the second 
 the contents of the apex, called the ' sphacelium ' state. 
 No wonder, therefore, that in a humid season many grasses 
 are diseased, seeing that at two periods in the life of the 
 ergot spores are thrown off in such profusion, and are 
 scattered by every passing breeze. Ergot revels in 
 moisture in all stages of its life, and it is chiefly found 
 between August and December in low-lying meadows that 
 have not been mown under hedges, in lanes, on road-sides, 
 by rivers and their tributaries, on the banks of canals, 
 round ponds, and indeed in all humid situations. 
 The pest is best destroyed by mowing all meadows and 
 rough grasses, on pastures and other places where the 
 plants are liable to be diseased, before the seed is ripened 
 — if when in full bloom, so much the better ; by draining 
 all wet land ; by keeping hedges low and trees lopped to 
 give a free current of air, and by setting women and 
 children to hand-pick when the spurs are visible. Nothing 
 
POISONS AND POISONING. 339 
 
 is lost to the farmer by cutting his hay in good time, for 
 the quality will be much better than if the plants are 
 overgrown." 
 
 Law divides the effects of ergot and of the smut of maize 
 into three categories, according as the poison acts on the 
 brain, producing convulsions, profound paralysis, or pro- 
 found lethargy ; on the womb, tending to abortion ; or on 
 the extremities, causing dry gangrene. Symptoms of the 
 nervous form. — Unsteady gait, a great tendency to lie down 
 and to remain in a torpid state little conscious of what 
 is passing around, loss of lustre of wool, coldness of 
 skin, dilatation of the pupils of the eyes, and dulness of 
 the special senses mark the early stages. This may go on 
 to paralysis or deep lethargy without any active nervous 
 excitement, or paroxysms supervene, during which the 
 special senses become more acute, the animal very excit- 
 able, and twitching of the muscles or spasms, like those of 
 lock-jaw or epilepsy, convulse the patient. Then there 
 is a relapse into the fornier stupor and drowsiness, with 
 palsy of the hind limbs or knuckling forward of the fet- 
 locks. Death may ensue in a few hours or days, or the 
 affection may become chronic, the patient remaining with 
 variable appetite, but getting no good from his food, with 
 spasms of the pharynx, vomiting, or diarrhcea : he usually 
 passes off in a convulsion (' Farmers' Veterinary Adviser ') . 
 Ergot was introduced, it is supposed, with rye-grass seed 
 into New Zealand, and is extending to native grasses. In 
 dry seasons it affects sheep, which under its influence will 
 " take a fit if disturbed or made to run, and even if moved 
 gently will stagger like a drunken man. I have seen two 
 or three thousand sheep in one of our paddocks that we 
 could not remove out of the field except with the greatest 
 difficulty, and by giving them any amount of time. I have 
 heard of sheep having to be carried out of the field, as 
 they would not drink, and the owner was afraid of losing 
 them. We generally leave them completely undisturbed 
 when we find them affected, as even riding through the 
 paddoc]£ causes several of them to tumble over. I don't 
 reraemlber ever seeing any sheep paralysed permanently " 
 
340 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 (Captain Lockhart's Report on Louping 111, ' Veterinary 
 Journal/ February, 1881). 
 
 Francis, of Adelaide, records (in ' Nature,' February, 
 1878) the effects of a Conferva indigenous and confined to 
 the lakes forming the estuary of the Murray River. It is 
 considered to be Nodularia spermigera, allied to Proto- 
 coccus, and floats on the surface of the water, being wafted 
 to the lee shores and forming a dense scum like green 
 oil paint, some two to six inches thick, and as pasty as 
 porridge ; it is swallowed by animals when drinking, and 
 sheep die from its effects in one to six or eight hours, 
 showing stupor and unconsciousness, falling and remaining 
 quiet as if asleep unless touched, when convulsions come 
 on, with head and neck drawn back by rigid spasm, which 
 subsides before death. The scum given experimentally in 
 doses of thirty ounces caused death in fifteen hours, and 
 autopsy showed no green scum in the stomachs, but their 
 contents dry ; two pints of serum in the abdominal cavity ; 
 heart flaccid but not pale ; much effusion of serum around 
 the heart. Dura mater congested. Blood black and 
 uncoagulable, did not become scarlet on exposure to 
 the air. 
 
 Simonds and Brown have on record in the ' Veterinarian •" 
 for 1884 some interesting facts concerning acorn poisoning 
 through cattle and sheep eating the acorn fruit or " mast." 
 It seems this may be used as food for all kinds of stock, 
 but needs " grinding." It seldom causes death, but it 
 tends to produce constipation ; however, this tendency may 
 be lessened by malting. 
 
 In the ' Veterinarian ' for February, 1877, is an account 
 by Young, of Braintree, of sheep poisoning apparently by 
 Kalmia. The victims were in-lamb ewes, and strayed into 
 a garden during the night, and were found there in the 
 morning lying down at rest as though they had been in for 
 some time. When driven out one was very ill, and by 
 evening 130 out of the 150 were attacked with symptoms 
 described as those of gripes, the sheep being full but not 
 swollen. Some difficulty was noticed in swallowing the 
 castor-oil given them, and those which lived longest were 
 
POISONS AND POISONING. 341 
 
 stiff before death. Twenty died. Two species of J^aZmia 
 are known to be poisonous : K. latifolia, " laurel ivj," is 
 said not only to be poisonous, but to render the flesh 
 poisonous, giving rise to trembling sickness. K. angusti- 
 folia is called the sheep laurel because it is poisonous to 
 sheep. Both are natives of North America. Morrell, 
 in ' The American Shepherd,' attributes to St. John's- 
 wort irritation of the skin sometimes extending over the 
 whole body and legs, and he considers that if eaten in 
 too large quantities it produces enteritis, fatal in lambs 
 and sometimes in adults, denoted by fantastic capers and 
 various other peculiarities in behaviour. Kalmia lati- 
 folia is said by the same writer to be eaten by hungry and 
 unwary sheep, causing the animal to be dull and stupid, 
 swell a little, and constantly gulp a greenish fluid, which 
 it swallows down ; a part of it will trickle out and discolour 
 the lips, and " in the early stages if the greenish fluid be 
 suffered to escape from the stomach the animal most gene- 
 rally recovers. To effect this, gag the sheep, which may 
 be done in this manner : Take a stick of the size of your 
 wrist and six inches long, place it in the animal's mouth, 
 tie a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and 
 down to the other end, and there make it fast. The fluid 
 will then run from the mouth as fast as thrown up by the 
 stomach. In addition to this give roasted onions and 
 sweetened milk freely." Kalmia latifolia is said to be 
 equally fatal, by Grrennell, in Massachusetts ' Agricultural 
 Eeport,' 1860 (Randall). 
 
 Lupine Poisoning is described, from the labours of 
 several German observers, in the 'Veterinarian ' for 1880. 
 Reports from various sheep farmers go to show that 
 lupines act differently on different sheep, and that when 
 injurious they have generally been grown on a poor damp 
 soil, or on one which has been sown with lupines for 
 several years previously. In the lupines are found three 
 alkaloids (Schulz), the first crystallizable and harmless, 
 the second and third combined to form a yellow oily 
 liquid, which causes tremors, violent cramps, diarrhoea, 
 and death ; but in no case could the same appearances be 
 
342 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 found as when death had been caused by feeding on lupines. 
 In the latter case the disease arises from urinary and 
 biliary impregnation of the blood. Dammaun experi- 
 mented on this poisoning as very frequent in Prussia, 
 though lupines are often a great part of the food of 
 sheep there. He fed sheep on lupine hay slightly in- 
 fested with Pleospesa fungus : this killed most of the ex- 
 perimental animals, but whether fodder or fungus proved 
 toxic was not clear. Death was due to ursemia com- 
 bined with bile poisoning, the result of paralysis of the 
 urinary and gall bladders, and reflux of their contents on 
 their respective glands (Oest. Viert. f . Wissen. Veterinar- 
 kunde). Andromeda ovalifoUa of the Himalayas has been 
 recorded as poisoning sheep and goats (' Journal of the 
 Agri- and Horti-cultural Society of India/ vol. xiv). 
 
 Schiitt found that fully ripened flax with seed capsules 
 attached caused a gwasi-paralytic condition and strong 
 convulsions ending in death. He considered this due to a 
 narcotic principle which causes inflammation of intestines 
 and kidney disease. 
 
 Martin, of Rochester (' Vet. Journ.,' May, 1876), records 
 the results of lambs in low condition being put on buck- 
 wheat, beech-wheat, or " Saracen corn " (Polygonum fago- 
 pyrum, v. Fagopyrum esculentum) when in full flower or 
 nearly ripe. " They soon began to exhibit symptoms of 
 giddiness — in fact, of intoxication, and they fought and 
 butted each other, behaving generally in a most extraor- 
 dinary and unlamb-like manner. Soon their faces and 
 heads broke out into sores and ulcers, while their ears 
 also became ulcerated, but did not drop off. A great 
 many of them became blind owing to swelling of the 
 eyelids completely excluding the light ; not only this, but 
 in some cases the eyes became ulcerated, and were totally 
 destroyed. There was also a muco-purulent discharge 
 from the nose ; the lips were swollen ; the appetite was 
 entirely in abeyance, and the sun and flies appeared to 
 terrify them extremely. Nine of the number died. The 
 noxious effects of this plant are not entirely new ; it has 
 been recorded as blanching the wool of sheep, and to be 
 
POISONS AND POISONING. 343 
 
 especially powerful in dry bright weather. It acts when 
 in the dry strand or trodden strand state as well as when 
 in flower." 
 
 Eanciman, of Market Deeping (' Vet. Journ.,' March, 
 1§85), relates non-fatal poisoning of in-lamb ewes by 
 Scrophularia aquatica, the water-betony. The symptoms 
 shown were reeling and staggering, followed by complete 
 loss of voluntary muscular power, loss of appetite, consti- 
 pation, and inactivity of the kidneys. All recovered under 
 treatment with a cathartic, stimulants, and nux vomica. 
 One had partial paralysis of a hind leg for two or three 
 days after the others recovered. 
 
 Dr. John Shand, in his paper " On the Disturbing In- 
 fluence of Extensive Sheep Farming on the Vegetation of 
 South A-frica " (in vol. xiv, p. 208, ' Journ. of the Linnsean 
 Society,' Botany), speaks of some poisonous Asclepiads, 
 Tripteres, and the Melica or Dronk-grass ; Dr. Pappe 
 adds Dioecia monadelphia (Davidjes) to the list of known 
 poisonous plants of South Africa, but much remains to be 
 added to our knowledge in this respect. 
 
 ANIMAL POISONS other than those of specific dis- 
 orders are seldom seen in sheep, although snake and serpent 
 poisonings have been noted abroad, and viper bites are 
 said to sometimes produce oedema of the face in Great 
 Britain. Scorpion bites may cause similar conditions, and 
 the tsetse fly produces its peculiar anthrax-like effects on 
 sheep in the countries which it inhabits, especially the 
 northern parts of South Africa and the hill regions about 
 Assam. These conditions have but little practical rela- 
 tions with the health of the more valuable breeds of sheep, 
 and their effects on the smaller ruminants have not yet 
 been specially recorded. Hence we need notice them no 
 further in this place. Gantharides powder taken inter- 
 nally in doses of a drachm proves fatal to a sheep. Sheep 
 are said to eat the poisonous Tarantula with impunity. A 
 remarkable case of poisoning by drinking urine was re- 
 corded by Gavard in May, 1879 ('Journal de Medecine vete- 
 rinaire). Symptoms: Immediately after ingestion violent 
 general tremors, head outstretched stiffly, gait staggering, 
 
344 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 aspect staring ; later, tympany and diflBculty in breathing ; 
 death, in less than an hour. Half an hour after, the car- 
 cass violently tympanic, conjunctiva blue, thick black blood 
 flowing from nostrils. 
 
 MINERAL POISONS accidentally ingested or wilfully 
 administered seldom cause mortality in flocks. We may 
 refer casually to the fact that sheep may suffer, as cattle 
 do, from lead spray on pastures, and that somewhat pecu- 
 liar conditions, perhaps due to mineral matters, but more 
 probably to decomposing animal matter, have been observed 
 as a result of sewage contamination of grazing land, the 
 sheep on which suffer from dyscrasia and emaciation of 
 an obscure character. 
 
 Lambs are recorded to have died from licking walls 
 covered with niti-e, but why the walls were thus covered 
 is not very evident, and the practical value of the obser- 
 vation simply lies in the fact that it shows nitre cannot be 
 abused by too free use in sheep practice, especially in 
 administration to young animals. Tartar emetic, on the 
 other hand, has been administered to sheep in large doses 
 without appreciable effect. 
 
 Herpath, in the ' Chemist,' 1855, records the results 
 of his study of the effects resulting from erection of 
 smelting furnaces on the Mendip Hills in 1853. These 
 seemed due to oxide, carbonate, and (perhaps) sulphate of 
 lead on the herbage, hedges, and hay, even as far off as 
 half a mile to a mile from the chimney. The live stock 
 became stunted in growth, lean, short of breath, paralysed 
 in the limbs, especially the hind ones, swelling of the 
 knees took place, and death in a few months ; no con- 
 stipation nor colic. The young suffered most severely. 
 " Lambs were yeaned paralytic. When three weeks old 
 they could not stand, although they made efforts to do so. 
 In attempting to feed them from a bottle they were nearly 
 suffocated from paralysis of the glottis. Twenty-one died 
 early out of twenty-three." The milk of ewes was re- 
 duced in quantity, deteriorated in quality, and contained 
 minute traces of lead. Autopsy showed the mucous mem- 
 branes pale, the lungs with large portions of a dark red 
 
POISONS AND POISONING. 345 
 
 colour, with circumscribed edges, not unlike ordinary in- 
 flammation, but evidently surcharged with fluid. A blue 
 line appeared in the gum of the lower jaw, and this, on 
 analysis, was found to contain lead. 
 
 As the subject of poisoning is intimately bound up with 
 that of the action, uses, and doses of ordinary remedies, 
 it will be as well to give a list of the latter here. Further, 
 such a list will prove useful to the reader who has not a 
 standard work on Materia Medica available for ready 
 reference. 
 
 The subject of Ovine Therapeutics has not been so 
 thoroughly worked out as it ought to be, and it is too 
 often taken for granted that the dose for the sheep is in 
 direct proportion to that for the ox. Further, it is as- 
 sumed that medicines in all cases act on the sheep as on 
 the ox ; this is certainly a fallacy in some instances, per- 
 haps in more than have hitherto been recognised. 
 
346 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 LIST OF MEDICINES 
 
 Administered internally and applied externally in Ovine 
 Practice ; after various Authors, especially Morton, 
 Finlay Dun, Gamgee, and Tuson. 
 
 
 
 
 Actions, special on sheep. 
 
 
 Agent. 
 
 
 T)naf> in adnlt 
 
 
 H p m n rlr Q 
 
 
 MJUaC lU tlUUlb. 
 
 Internally. 
 
 Externally. 
 
 J.lfUIllCll AS. 
 
 Acetic Acid . 
 
 
 mv — XV 
 
 
 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 . 
 
 5D 
 
 
 
 
 Aconite, Tinct. 
 
 r 
 
 mvj— X (P.B.) 
 ^ij— "J (Fig-) 
 
 
 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 
 Spt. Rect. fgss 
 
 Hertwig fiuds 
 
 sheep and goats 
 
 take 6—10 oz. 
 
 freely, and 
 
 enjoy it 
 
 
 
 Aloea . 
 
 • 
 
 5ij-Sj 
 
 
 
 Tardy 
 and un- 
 certain. 
 
 Alum . . 
 
 
 grs. XX— 5iij 
 
 
 
 
 Liq. Amm. Fori 
 
 
 f3j 
 
 
 
 
 Amm. Carb. . 
 
 
 grs. XXX 
 
 
 
 
 Liq. Amm. Acel 
 
 
 fgss 
 
 
 
 
 Ammoniacum 
 
 
 3j 
 
 
 
 
 Amyl Nitrite 
 
 
 mxv 
 
 
 
 
 Anise, Coriander, 
 
 
 
 
 
 &c. . 
 
 
 5>J— Sss 
 
 
 
 
 Liq. Antim. Terch. 
 
 
 — 
 
 Useful in foot- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rot, diluted 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with an equal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 quantity of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tinct.Myrrhae 
 
 
 Tartar Emetic 
 
 
 
 Effects nil in 
 medicinal doses. 
 
 Pour drachms 
 
 has been known 
 
 to kill 
 
 
 
 Areca Nut . 
 
 , 
 
 5i 
 
 
 
 
 Tinct. ArnicsB 
 
 
 f5ij 
 
 "" 
 
 Useful for 
 bruises 
 
 
 White Arsenic 
 
 '. 
 
 gi-s. j— ij; Liq., 
 fjj— f3jss 
 
 5 — lOgrs.caused 
 poisoning 
 
 
 
LIST OP MEDICINES. 
 
 347 
 
 
 
 Actions, special on sheep. 
 
 
 Agent. 
 
 Dose to adult. 
 
 
 T} ji m *i i>1 ' □ 
 
 Internally, 
 
 ExteiniiUy. 
 
 iVcItlill KS. 
 
 Asafoetida 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 Bellad. Ext. 
 
 3j 
 
 Munch says 
 sheep and goats 
 eat the bella- 
 donna plant 
 with apparent 
 satisfaction and 
 no evident harm 
 
 
 
 Atropiae Sulph. 
 
 gr- t'o 
 
 
 
 
 Calabar Bean 
 
 Pulv., gr. i 
 
 
 
 
 Physoetigmine 
 
 g""- A 
 
 
 
 
 Liquor Calcis 
 
 f5ij-f3'j 
 
 Antacid to lambs 
 
 
 
 Chalk . 
 
 oM— 5iv 
 
 
 
 
 Calcii Phos. . 
 
 grs. vj 
 
 
 „ 
 
 
 Calumba Root 
 
 ■ 3ii 
 
 
 
 
 Calx Chlorata 
 
 3j 
 
 In hoven 
 
 In foot cases 
 
 
 ^ Camphor 
 
 9j 
 
 
 
 
 Cannabis Ind. Ext. 
 
 grs. XX 
 
 
 
 
 Canth. Pnlv. 
 
 grs. ij 
 
 
 
 
 Capsicum Fruit . 
 
 grs. V 
 
 
 
 
 Acid. Carbol. 
 
 mv— X 
 
 
 
 
 Cardamoms . 
 
 313 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Cascarillse Cortex . 
 
 ■ 33 
 
 
 
 
 01. Ricini . 
 
 f3i>3 
 
 To lambs,in milk 
 
 
 
 Catechu 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 ChamomileFlowers 
 
 S3 
 
 
 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 3ij 
 
 Useful in vege- 
 table poisoning 
 
 
 
 Chloral 
 
 3iss 
 
 
 
 
 Chlorine Vapour . 
 
 fjj, anaesthetic; 
 
 Inhalations for 
 lung worms 
 
 
 
 Chloroform . ■ 
 
 mxx, internally, 
 through stomach 
 
 
 
 
 Chloric Ether 
 
 .fSij 
 
 
 
 
 Cinchona Bark 
 
 5>3 
 
 
 
 
 Quinae Sulph. 
 
 gr^. vii] 
 
 
 
 
 Cod-liver Oil 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Colchlcnm Corm. . 
 
 Sj 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 Cupri Snlph. 
 
 9j 
 
 
 Useful for 
 foot-rot com- 
 bined with 
 equal parts ol 
 gunpowder 
 and lard 
 (Dun). 
 
 
 Cu. Amm. Sulph. 
 
 3iss 
 
 
 
 
 Verdigris 
 
 — 
 
 Seldom used 
 internally 
 
 
 
 Creasote 
 
 inx — XX 
 
 
 
 
 Croton Seeds 
 
 3^^ seeds 
 = grs. X 
 
 
 
 
348 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 
 
 Actions, special on sheep. 
 
 
 . i 
 
 llAdA iri Ti/liiit' 
 
 
 K own a Tp\i a 
 
 
 IJUaC vO UUlllL. 
 
 Internally. 
 
 Externally, 
 
 licUldrliSi 
 
 Croton Oil . 
 
 mv 
 
 
 
 
 Cumin Fruit 
 
 5.i 
 
 
 
 
 Digitalis Pol. 
 
 grs. viij 
 
 
 
 
 Ergot of Rye 
 
 3j 
 
 Twenty sheep 
 
 ate together foi 
 
 four weeks 9 lbs. 
 
 with impunity 
 
 (Phoebus and 
 
 Pereira) 
 
 
 
 Ether Sulph. 
 
 f3"j 
 
 
 
 
 Tilic. Mar. Rad. . 
 
 Siv 
 
 
 
 
 Gall* . 
 
 3sa 
 
 
 
 
 Acid, Tannic 
 
 3SS 
 
 
 
 
 Gamboge 
 
 9.) 
 
 
 
 
 Gentian 
 
 3ij 
 
 
 
 
 Ginger 
 
 3.i 
 
 
 
 
 Glycerinnm . 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 Gum acacia . 
 
 S.i 
 
 
 
 
 Helleb. Nig. . 
 
 
 3i to giij induces 
 fatal colic 
 (Hertwig) 
 
 
 
 Hemlock 
 
 r 
 
 Succus, f5ss; 
 Tinct., f^ 
 Succus, fjiss ; 
 
 
 
 
 Henbane 
 
 Tinct., f5iij; 
 Ext., grs. vij ; 
 Alk., gr. i 
 
 
 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid 
 
 nix — XX 
 
 
 
 
 Cannab. Ind. 
 
 — 
 
 Effects doubtful 
 
 
 
 Iodine . 
 
 grs. XX 
 
 
 
 
 Ipecacuanha . 
 
 grs. XXX 
 
 
 
 
 Dun's tonic drench. 
 
 
 
 Gruenp. 
 or Ale/ "J- 
 Sulphate of iron Jij. 
 
 
 Ferri Sulph. . 
 
 9j— Sij . 
 
 
 
 
 GeXn}°**''«''Sss. 
 
 
 
 
 Mix and give as a tonic drench 
 
 
 Ferri lodid. . 
 
 9j 
 
 (3 doses) 
 
 
 
 
 Ferri Perehl. Liq. 
 
 f5ss 
 
 
 
 
 Iodine . 
 
 gr. V 
 
 
 
 
 Jaborandi . 
 
 3SS 
 
 
 
 
 Pilocarpine . 
 
 gr. i 
 
 
 
 
 Juniper Berries . 
 
 3'j 
 
 
 
 
 Plumbi Acet. 
 
 grs. XT 
 
 
 
 
 Linseed Oil . 
 
 fSvj 
 
 Gentle and safe 
 for lambs (Dun) 
 
 
 
 Mag. Carb. . 
 
 5iv 
 
 
 
 
UST OF MEDICINES. 
 
 349 
 
 
 
 Actions, special on sheep. 
 
 
 Agent. 
 
 Dose to adult. 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Internally. 
 
 Externally. 
 
 Mag. Sulph. 
 
 5iv 
 
 
 
 
 Calomel 
 
 grs. X 
 
 
 
 
 CoiT. Subl. . 
 
 g-^-j 
 
 
 
 
 Methyl. Spirit 
 
 f3J 
 
 
 
 
 Myrrha 
 
 5iv 
 
 
 
 
 Acid. Nitric. 
 
 inx— XX 
 
 
 
 
 Acid. Nitro-bydro- 
 
 
 
 
 
 chlor. 
 
 rax — XX 
 
 
 
 
 N'ux Vomica fieauE 
 
 grs. X 
 
 
 
 
 Strychnia . 
 
 gr.i-i 
 
 
 
 
 01. OUvae . 
 
 fSiij 
 
 
 
 
 Opium, Crude 
 
 grs. XX 
 
 
 
 
 Laudanum . 
 
 f5"j 
 
 
 
 
 Morph. Hydr. v. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Acet. 
 
 gr-j 
 
 
 
 
 01. Menthee . 
 
 mv— X 
 
 
 
 
 Black Pepper 
 
 9j 
 
 
 
 
 Podophyllum 
 
 grs. vj 
 
 
 
 
 Pot. Bicarb. 
 
 3J 
 
 
 
 
 Pot. lodid. . 
 
 grs. XXX 
 
 
 
 
 Pot. Brom. . 
 
 39S— 3j 
 
 
 
 
 Nitre . 
 
 3J 
 
 
 
 
 Pot. Chlor. . 
 
 3j 
 
 
 
 
 Hydrocyanic Acid 
 
 nx (P.B.) 
 
 
 
 
 Quassise Liq. 
 
 5J 
 
 
 
 
 Quercus Cortex . 
 
 3j 
 
 
 
 
 Rhei Bad. . 
 
 3j 
 
 
 
 
 Acid., Salicyl. 
 
 grs. XV 
 
 Useful in rheu- 
 matic arthritis 
 (Gresswell) 
 
 
 
 Nitrate of Silver 
 
 grs. ij 
 
 
 
 
 Sapo (mollis et du- 
 
 
 
 
 
 rus) . 
 
 3iv 
 
 
 
 
 Sodse Benzoaa 
 
 
 Useful in rheu- 
 matic arthritis 
 
 
 
 Sodaj Carb. . 
 
 5J 
 
 
 
 
 Sodse Boras . 
 
 5.i 
 
 
 
 
 Sodae Sulphas 
 
 Siij 
 
 
 
 
 Sodae Sulphis 
 
 1 3j 
 
 
 
 
 Sodse Hyposulplii.- 
 
 
 
 
 Sodffi Chlorid. 
 
 ^\ . 
 
 
 
 
 Soda! Chlorata 
 
 Sul„ fsj 
 
 
 
 
 Sugar, Treacle, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 Liquorice . 
 Sulphur 
 
 
 Aperient 
 
 
 
 Acid. Sulphuricun 
 
 1 fjss (uied. acid, 
 
 
 
 
 Acid. Sulphurosun 
 
 f3ss (mod. acid^ 
 
 
 
 
 Spt. ^th. Nit. 
 
 f3i3 
 
 
 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 grs. X— XX 
 
 
 
 
 Turpentine . 
 
 3J 
 
 
 
 
350 
 
 DISEASES OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 
 
 Aciiona, special oil sheep. 
 
 
 igent. 
 
 Dose to adult. 
 
 
 K 0m fiF vO 
 
 Internally. 
 
 Externally. 
 
 jAClUariLBa 
 
 
 
 ' Drenches for 
 
 amb disease. 
 
 
 
 
 Takeof— 
 
 
 
 
 I. Epsom salt Jvj. 
 
 
 
 
 Nitre 5iv. 
 
 
 
 
 Boiling water Oiij. 
 
 
 
 
 Add when milkwarm; 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Oil of turpentine Jiv. 
 
 
 
 
 Bol. armin. ^ss. 
 
 
 
 
 Mix well, and give 3 or 4 
 
 
 
 
 tablespoonfuls every otLer 
 
 
 Oil of Turpentine . 
 
 f3j— iv - 
 
 day (Crisp). 
 
 11. Common salt 3 lbs. 
 
 Powdered ginger "1 of each 
 Powder nitre / J ft. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dissolve in water 3 galls. 
 
 
 
 
 Add when nearly cold : 
 
 
 
 
 Oil of turpentine gxxiv. 
 
 
 
 
 Give to a lamb 4 to 6 months 
 
 
 
 
 old two ounces as a dbse 
 
 
 Resin . 
 
 9j 
 
 (Crisp) 
 
 
 
 
 Tar . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vaseline 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 Veratrum 
 
 grs. XX 
 
 
 
 
 Zinc Oxide . 
 
 gra. V 
 
 
 
 
 Zinc Sulphate 
 
 grs. X 
 
 
 
 
 Zinc Chloride 
 
 
 
 Useful in foot- 
 rot, as Bur- 
 nett's fluid 
 
 ! 
 1 
 
 t 
 1 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abdominal tumour . . . 132 
 Abomasitis . . . . 121 
 Abomasum, impaction . . 121 
 
 — rupture . . . . 121 
 Abortion . . . . 211, 339 
 Abscesses, fluke .... 148 
 Absence of external ear . . 278 
 Absorption of virus . . .41 
 Acari, detection of . . . 307 
 Acariasis oyls .... 293 
 
 Aconite 336 
 
 Acorn fruit, effects of . . 340 
 Actinomycosis . . .68, 114 
 Action of skin suppressed . . 328 
 " Acute dropsy " . . .22 
 
 — pruritus .... 290 
 Adherent eyelid . . . 277 
 Administration of medicines . 12 
 
 Adrenals 80 
 
 After-pains . . . 215, 221 
 
 Age of sheep 107 
 
 Algerian sheep in anthrax 
 Alvitis 
 
 Amaurosis . . 
 Amputation . 
 
 — of womb 
 
 — of " worm " . 
 Anaemia 
 Aneestbetics 
 Andromeda 
 
 Ante-partuiii rupluie of vagina 
 Antbracoid 
 
 — erysipelas 
 Anthrax . 
 
 — fever . 
 
 — intoxication . 
 
 — prophylaxis . 
 
 — vaccination . 
 Anus, imperforiite 
 Aphtha 
 
 Apoplexy, cerebral 
 Apparatus, genital, female 
 ' male 
 
 50 
 
 119 
 
 277 
 
 191 
 
 212 
 
 178 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 342 
 
 212 
 
 45 
 
 53 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 64 
 
 131 
 
 109, 110, 111 
 
 231 
 
 204 
 
 197 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Arsenical poisoning . 
 
 . 332 
 
 Ascites 
 
 . 173 
 
 — sanguineous . 
 
 . 22 
 
 Asthenic sheep-pox . 
 
 . 31 
 
 Atony of bladder 
 
 . 180 
 
 Auscultation . 
 
 8,83 
 
 Bacillus anthracis 
 
 . 45 
 
 — choreseovis . 
 
 . 250 
 
 — ettiphysema inf ectuosuu 
 
 a . 59 
 
 — tuberculosis . 
 
 . 92 
 
 Bane. 
 
 . 132 
 
 Barren, inflammation of 
 
 . 222 
 
 Bathurst burr . 
 
 . 286 
 
 Bayoor 
 
 . 72 
 
 Bearing 
 
 . 211 
 
 — pains . 
 
 . 221 
 
 Bell wethers 
 
 . 17 
 
 Benign epulis . 
 
 . 114 
 
 Bezoars 
 
 . 120 
 
 Bile .... 
 
 . 133 
 
 Biliary calculus . 
 
 . 133 
 
 Binding lands . 
 
 . 24 
 
 Biscuiola . 
 
 . 145 
 
 Bistournage 
 
 . 202 
 
 Black leg . 
 
 . 58 
 
 — muzzle . 
 
 . 293 
 
 — spauld . 
 
 . 46 
 
 Bladder, atony of 
 
 . 180 
 
 — rupture of . 
 
 . 180 
 
 Blain . . . . 
 
 . 52 
 
 Bleeding 
 
 
 . 13 
 
 Blindness 
 
 
 . 275 
 
 -Blinds" 
 
 
 . 275 
 
 Blisters 
 
 
 . 15 
 
 Blobwhirl 
 
 
 . 233 
 
 "Blood" 
 
 
 . 10 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 . 18 
 
 — disorder 
 
 s, simple . 
 
 . 18 
 
 — — specific . 
 
 . 25 
 
 "Blood-rot" . 
 
 . 22 
 
 Blood-vascular glands 
 
 . 79 
 
 Bloody flus 
 
 . 
 
 . UU 
 
352 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PA&E 
 
 Blossom . 
 
 . 226 
 
 Clapping . 
 
 . 7 
 
 Bots . 
 
 
 . . 87 
 
 Clatting . 
 
 . 206 
 
 Bowel sickness 
 
 
 . . 46 
 
 Clavelee . 
 
 . 25 
 
 Brain 
 
 
 . 228 
 
 Clavelisation 
 
 . 38 
 
 Braxy 
 
 
 . 45, 46 
 
 Claviceps purpurea 
 
 . 338 
 
 Breeding ewes 
 
 
 . 17 
 
 Claws, loose 
 
 . 259 
 
 — rams 
 
 
 . 17 
 
 Clees. 
 
 . 268 
 
 — stock . 
 
 
 . 225 
 
 Cleft-sore . 
 
 . 259 
 
 Bridling . 
 
 
 . 324 
 
 Cling 
 
 . 129 
 
 Brisket . 
 
 
 . 82 
 
 Coast disease . 
 
 . 16 
 
 Broken teeth 
 
 
 . 107 
 
 Coathe 
 
 . 138 
 
 Broken-mouthec 
 
 I bheep 
 
 . 109 
 
 "Cod" . 
 
 . 202 
 
 Bronchitis . 
 
 
 . 91 
 
 Ccelosomian 
 
 . 208 
 
 — parasitica 
 
 
 . 93 
 
 Coenurus cerebralis 
 
 . 237 
 
 — simplex 
 
 
 . 93 
 
 Colic. 
 
 . 122 
 
 Braised feet 
 
 
 . 259 
 
 Conferva poisoning 
 
 . 340 
 
 Bruises 
 
 
 . 327 
 
 Conium . 
 
 . 335 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 
 . 342 
 
 Conjunctiva, dermato 
 
 id . . 277 
 
 Burning (castration) . 
 
 . 201 
 
 Constipation 
 
 . 131 
 
 Burr. 
 
 . 286 
 
 Consumption 
 
 . 65 
 
 Bursting of eyeball . 
 
 . 277 
 
 — pulmonary . 
 
 . 91 
 
 
 
 Contagious diseases, r 
 
 epression . 43 
 
 Cachexia aquosa verminoss 
 
 . 135 
 
 — ecthyma 
 
 . 109, 111 
 
 Csesarian operation . 
 
 . 210 
 
 — foot-rot 
 
 . 73 
 
 CalcuU ... 
 
 . 120 
 
 — mammitis . 
 
 . 224 
 
 — gall-bladder . 
 
 . 172 
 
 — plenro-pncumonia 
 
 . 72 
 
 — renal . 
 
 . 176 
 
 Cordial . 
 
 . 125 
 
 — urethral 
 
 . 177 
 
 Corrosive sublimate 
 
 . 331 
 
 Canal of foot . 
 
 . 256 
 
 Cotting 
 
 . 282 
 
 Cancer of eye . 
 
 . 277 
 
 Covered operation (ca 
 
 stration) . 201 
 
 Cantharides 
 
 . 343 
 
 Cranial circulation 
 
 . 230 
 
 Capacity for resisting dise 
 
 ise . 10 
 
 Cranium, fracture of 
 
 . 245 
 
 Carbolic poisoning 
 
 . 333 
 
 Crapaud . 
 
 . . 73 
 
 Carbuncular fever . 
 
 . 53 
 
 Crawlers . 
 
 . 318 
 
 Castration 
 
 . 198 
 
 Crusta labialis . 
 
 . 291 
 
 Cataract . 
 
 . 277 
 
 Cuckoo lambs . 
 
 . 207 
 
 Catarrh, gastro-parasitic 
 
 . 128 
 
 Cud dropping . 
 
 . 116 
 
 — nasal . . . . 
 
 84,85 
 
 — loss of . 
 
 . 116 
 
 Catarrhal epizootic . 
 
 70,71 
 
 Cumberland disease . 
 
 . 45 
 
 Catching a sheep 
 
 . 6 
 
 Cutaneous action sup] 
 
 ressed . 328 
 
 Cathartics. 
 
 . 12 
 
 — asphyxia 
 
 287, 329, 330 
 
 Causes of disease 
 
 . 9 
 
 Cutting (castration) . 
 
 . 201 
 
 Cerebral apoplexy 
 
 . 231 
 
 Cyclopean . 
 
 . 208 
 
 Cervicis uteri torsi o . 
 
 . 213 
 
 Cysticercus tenuicolli 
 
 ! . .173 
 
 Chapped lips . 
 
 . 292 
 
 Cystitis 
 
 . 179 
 
 — teats . . . . 
 
 . 292 
 
 Cysts in mutton 
 
 . 195 
 
 Chaps . . . . 
 
 . 292 
 
 
 
 Charges . 
 
 . 15 
 
 Datre 
 
 . 296 
 
 " Checkered" . 
 
 20, 138 
 
 Dead fleece 
 
 . 281 
 
 Choking . 
 
 . 115 
 
 — lambs . 
 
 . 208 
 
 Cholocystic calcnli . 
 
 . 172 
 
 Deaf and dumb sheep 
 
 . 278 
 
 Chorea . . . . 
 
 . 255 
 
 Deformity of horns . 
 
 . 195 
 
 — paralytica ovis 
 
 . 246 
 
 Demodex . 
 
 . 327 
 
 Chrones . . . . 
 
 . 107 
 
 Dermatodectic scab . 
 
 . 299 
 
 Circulation, intracranial . 
 
 . 230 
 
 Dermatoid cornea 
 
 . 277 
 
 Circulatory system . 
 
 . 77 
 
 Detaining sheep 
 
 . 4 
 
 Clap of udder . 
 
 . 113 
 
 Detection of acari 
 
 . 307 
 
 Clapped wool . 
 
 • • 
 
 . 29 
 
 Dew scald . 
 
 . . 110 
 
INDEX. 
 
 353 
 
 Diagnosis . 
 Diarrboea . . 
 
 — parasitic 
 Digestive system 
 Digitalis . 
 Dipping . 
 Dips . 
 
 Discrete pox 
 Disease-resisting capacity 
 Diseases of man 
 Dislocations 
 Distomum 
 Diuresis, simple 
 Docking . . 
 Douve 
 " Drawing " a flock 
 
 — the testes 
 Drenches . 
 Dressing feet 
 " Dropping" the cud 
 
 — with water " 
 Dropsy of the brain 
 Dry braxy . 
 Drying up ewes . 
 Ductless glands . 
 Dumb and deaf sheep 
 Duties of lamber 
 Dysentery . 
 
 Ear . 
 
 — amputation . 
 
 — inflammation 
 Echinococcus in liver 
 Ecthyma contagiosa 
 Eczema 
 
 — epizootica 
 Egelseuche 
 Embryotomy 
 Emphysema infectuosum 
 Emphysematous sheep-pox 
 Encephalitis 
 Enemas 
 Enteritis . 
 Enteromycosis . 
 Enzootic pleurisy 
 
 — pneumonia . 
 Epilepsy . 
 Epizootics . 
 Epulis, benign . 
 Ergot of rye 
 Ergotism . 
 Erysipelas . 
 Erysipelatous scab 
 Erythema . 
 
 — chronicum mammillarum 
 
 — intertrigo 
 Evil . 
 
 — joint 
 
 PA&E 
 
 . 8 
 . 124 
 . 125 
 . 104 
 . 335 
 . 310 
 . 310 
 . 31 
 . 10 
 . 17 
 . 191 
 145, 172 
 . 175 
 . 191 
 . 145 
 . 151 
 . 201 
 . 12 
 . 270 
 . 116 
 . 179 
 . 232 
 . 46 
 . 226 
 . 79 
 . 278 
 . 206 
 . 129 
 
 . 278 
 . 191 
 . 279 
 . 134 
 . 109 
 , 290 
 . 61 
 . 138 
 . 210 
 . 58 
 27,32 
 . 229 
 . 13 
 . 123 
 . 53 
 . 71 
 . 71 
 . 231 
 . 69 
 . 114 
 . 337 
 . 339 
 . 290 
 . 290 
 . 292 
 . 223 
 . 292 
 . 65 
 . 183 
 
 
 PAaE 
 
 Ewes, fatality in 
 
 . .215 
 
 Examination of sheep 
 
 . 5 
 
 Exhaustion after labour 
 
 . 210 
 
 External anthrax 
 
 . 63 
 
 — ear, absence of 
 
 . 278 
 
 Extirpation of spleen 
 
 . 80 
 
 Eye . 
 
 . 275 
 
 Eyeball, bursting of . 
 
 . 277 
 
 Eyelid, adhesion of . 
 
 . 277 
 
 — warts on 
 
 . 278 
 
 Pseces, state of . 
 
 . 9 
 
 Fags. . . 
 
 . 322 
 
 Faik, impaction of . 
 
 . 119 
 
 Fallen fleeces . . 
 
 . 50 
 
 False presentations . 
 
 . 207 
 
 Fardel bound . 
 
 . 119 
 
 Fasciola 
 
 . 145 
 
 Fascioliasis 
 
 135, 140 
 
 Fatty degeneration, heart 
 
 . 77 
 
 — liver 
 
 . 133 
 
 Faule 
 
 . 138 
 
 Feet, galled 
 
 . 259 
 
 — minor diseases of . 
 
 . 258 
 
 — worn . 
 
 . 259 
 
 Felting . 
 
 . 282 
 
 Fever 
 
 . 18 
 
 — parturient . 
 
 . 213 
 
 malignant 
 
 . 279 
 
 — parturition . 
 
 . 221 
 
 Firing, castration 
 
 200, 201 
 
 Flat variola 
 
 . 29 
 
 Flax seed, effects of . 
 
 . 342 
 
 Flock, management of 
 
 . 6 
 
 Flowering of the fleece 
 
 . 299 
 
 Fluke . . . . 
 
 135, 145 
 
 — abscesses 
 
 . 148 
 
 — life history . 
 
 . 153 
 
 Flux, bloody . i 
 
 . 129 
 
 Fly . . . 
 
 . 324 
 
 — oils . . • 
 
 . 325 
 
 — tsetze . 
 
 . 344 
 
 " Plying stock " 
 
 . 225 
 
 Fodder plants, poisonous 
 
 . 333 
 
 Fomenta . 
 
 . 15 
 
 Foot .... 
 
 . 256 
 
 — and mouth disease 
 
 . 61 
 
 — dressing 
 
 . 270 
 
 — mange . 
 
 . 301 
 
 — rot 
 
 . 259 
 
 contagious 
 
 . 73 
 
 Forms of sheep-pox . 
 
 . 25 
 
 Four-horned sheep . 
 
 . 194 
 
 Fracture . 
 
 . 190 
 
 — cranium . . 
 
 . 245 
 
 — horn . 
 
 . 195 
 
 — orbit . 
 
 . 277 
 
 Pragilitas ossium 
 
 . 188 
 
 23 
 
354 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 FAOE 
 
 Free martin 
 
 . 208 
 
 Husk 
 
 . 93 
 
 Frenzy 
 
 . 229 
 
 Hydatido-cephalus . 
 
 . 233 
 
 
 
 Hydatids . 
 
 . 134 
 
 Gad-fly . 
 
 . 86 
 
 — in lungs 
 
 . 93 
 
 Gall-bladder calculi 
 
 . 172 
 
 ~ in spleen 
 
 . 79 
 
 Gall-lamb . 
 
 . 218 
 
 — on the brain . 
 
 . 233 
 
 Galled feet 
 
 . 259 
 
 Hydrocephalus . 
 
 . 233 
 
 Gangrenous stomatitis . . 68 
 
 Hydrorachitis . 
 
 . 247 
 
 Garget 
 
 . 224 
 
 Hydrothorax 
 
 . 91 
 
 Gastric catarrh, parasitic . . 128 
 
 Hysteritis . 
 
 . 214 
 
 Gastrorrhcea parasitica . . 129 
 
 
 
 General symptoms 
 
 . . 7 
 
 lies .... 
 
 . 138 
 
 Generative apparatus 
 
 female . 204 
 
 Ill, joint . 
 
 . 183 
 
 male 
 
 . 197 
 
 Impaction of abdomen 
 
 . 121 
 
 Gestation . 
 
 . 279 
 
 — of faik . 
 
 . 119 
 
 Giddiness . 
 
 . 233 
 
 — of rumen 
 
 . 118 
 
 Glands, salivary 
 
 . 114 
 
 Imperforate anus 
 
 . 131 
 
 Gleet, nasal 
 
 . 85 
 
 Impervious teats 
 
 . 226 
 
 Gloss-anthrax . 
 
 . 45, 52 
 
 Impetigo larvalis 
 
 . 291 
 
 Goat-pox . 
 
 . 45 
 
 Imports, inspection of 
 
 . 431 
 
 Goggles . 
 
 . 233 
 
 Indigestion 
 
 . 116 
 
 Goitre 
 
 . 80 
 
 Infectious aphtha 
 
 . 61 
 
 Grass staggers . 
 
 . 119 
 
 — mammitis 
 
 . 224 
 
 Gravelling 
 
 . 259 
 
 Infiltration, fatty, of bean 
 
 . 78 
 
 Great head 
 
 . 45—47, 292 
 
 Inflammation of intestinal canal 254 
 
 Green skit 
 
 . 124 
 
 — of larynx 
 
 . 90 
 
 Guide sheep 
 
 . . 17 
 
 — of spleen 
 
 . 79 
 
 
 
 — of womb 
 
 . 213 
 
 Hsematosepsis . 
 
 . 58 
 
 Inflammatory fever . 
 
 . 45 
 
 Hsematomyosis . 
 
 . 222 
 
 Injured feet 
 
 . 259 
 
 Hsematuria 
 
 . 180 
 
 Inoculated sheep-pox . 
 
 . 41 
 
 Hsemorrhagic sheep-] 
 
 ox . . 187 
 
 Inoculation 
 
 . 39 
 
 Hsemorrhoids . 
 
 . 132 
 
 Inspection of imported she 
 
 ep . 43 
 
 Hsemostasis 
 
 . 45 
 
 Instruments and appliauc 
 
 es of 
 
 Hair balls . 
 
 . 120 
 
 lamher 
 
 . 206 
 
 Handling sheep 
 
 . 5 
 
 Interdigital paronychia 
 
 . 259 
 
 Hard 
 
 . 22 
 
 Internal temperature 
 
 . 8 
 
 Harderian gland 
 
 . 299 
 
 Interrelation of human 
 
 and 
 
 Head sore . 
 
 . 327 
 
 ovine disorders . 
 
 . 17 
 
 Heart 
 
 . 77 
 
 Interungulate canal . 
 
 . 256 
 
 — water . 
 
 . 70 
 
 Intestinal anthrax 
 
 . 53 
 
 Heat. 
 
 . 204 
 
 Intestines .... 
 
 . 122 
 
 Heath 
 
 . 335 
 
 Intoxication by anthrax . 
 
 . 55 
 
 Hellebore poisoning . 
 
 . 333 
 
 Intra-venous blood-injectio 
 
 1 . 59 
 
 Hemlock . 
 
 . 335 
 
 Inversed uteri . 
 
 . 212 
 
 Henbane . 
 
 . 335 
 
 Iritis .... 
 
 . 278 
 
 Hepatitis . 
 
 . 134 
 
 
 
 Hermaphroditism 
 
 . 208 
 
 Jack-rot . 
 
 . 136 
 
 Hernise 
 
 . 123 
 
 Jacobson'a organ 
 
 . 81 
 
 Hog-jawed sheep 
 
 . 144 
 
 Jar . 
 
 . 282 
 
 " Holding " by ewes . 
 
 . 207 
 
 Jaundice . 
 
 19, 133 
 
 — sheep, methods of 
 
 . 5 
 
 Joint evil . 
 
 . 183 
 
 Hoose 
 
 . 93 
 
 — ill 
 
 . 183 
 
 Horns, injuries anc 
 
 diseases 
 
 
 
 of . 
 
 . 193—195 
 
 Kalmia poison . 
 
 . 341 
 
 Hot iron (castration) 
 
 . 200, 201 
 
 Keds. 
 
 . 322 
 
 — winds, effects of . 
 
 . 10 
 
 Kemps 
 
 . 282 
 
 Hoveu 
 
 . 116 
 
 Kidneys, inflammation of 
 
 . 175 
 
INDEX. 
 
 355 
 
 Labour, prolonged . 
 Lacerated ears and limbs 
 Laid wood 
 Laml) disease '. 
 Lamber, his duties 
 
 — his instruments, &c, 
 Lammergrind . 
 Lanoline . 
 "Lark-spurred" 
 Larmier . 
 Laryngeal inflammation 
 Lashing (castration) 
 Lead poisoning . 
 
 — smelting furnace 
 Leberkrankheit . 
 Leg evil . 
 Leptus autumnalis 
 Lesions of surface 
 Lice . 
 
 Life history of fluke 
 Lift a sheep, to . 
 Lightning stroke 
 Limb amputations 
 Ling . 
 Liver 
 
 — degeneration 
 
 — rot 
 Locked jaw 
 Loose claws 
 Loss of cud 
 
 — of wool. 
 Louping-iU 
 Lucilia serieata . 
 Lumbar prurigo 
 Lupine poisoning 
 Lymph preparation 
 Lymphatic system 
 
 Mad staggers . 
 Maggot disease . 
 Maggots . 
 Mai d'aragin^e . 
 Maladie de Sologne 
 
 — tremblante . 
 Malignant apUuha 
 
 — carbuncle 
 
 — parturient fever 
 
 — sheep-pox 
 Malposition of horns 
 Mammillary erythema 
 Mammitis . 
 Man, derangements of 
 Management of a flock 
 Manyplies . 
 Mast of acorn . 
 Materia medica 
 Measures, preventive 
 Meat inspection 
 
 109, 
 
 PAGE 
 . 210 
 . 327 
 . 314 
 . 93 
 . 206 
 . 206 
 . 291 
 , 281 
 . 276 
 . 277 
 . 90 
 . 201 
 . 344 
 . 344 
 . 138 
 . 88 
 . 322 
 . 327 
 . 323 
 . 153 
 . 6 
 . 25 
 . 191 
 . 335 
 . 133 
 . 133 
 . 135 
 . 253 
 . 259 
 . 116 
 . 9 
 . 246 
 . 326 
 . 67 
 . 341 
 . 40 
 . 78 
 
 . 246 
 
 . 326 
 
 . 89 
 
 . 225 
 
 . 45 
 
 . 246 
 
 111 
 
 50 
 
 219 
 
 31 
 
 194 
 
 226 
 
 224 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 119 
 
 340 
 
 345 
 
 15 
 
 195 
 
 Melophagus . 
 Mensuration 
 Mercurial poisoning 
 Mesenteric disorder 
 Metro- peritonitis 
 Micrococci Of sheep-pox 
 Middle turbinated 
 Milk, analysis of 
 
 — sickness 
 
 — uterine 
 Mineral poisons . 
 Misdirection of horns 
 MoUities ossium 
 Monstrosities . 
 Mouldy forage, effecs of 
 Mudballing 
 Multiparity 
 Muscular system 
 Museau, noir 
 Mutton hams . 
 
 Names of sheep , 
 Nasal catarrh . 
 
 — gleet 
 Navel-ill . . . 180, 
 Necrsemia . 
 Nephritis . 
 Nervous system 
 Nestor mirabilis 
 New Zealand parrot 
 Nitre 
 
 Nodularia poisoning 
 Noir museau 
 Nux vomica 
 
 (Kdema 
 
 (Estrum . . 
 CEstrus 
 Oil poke . 
 Oily dips . 
 Onychia . 
 Operation, Caesarian 
 
 — covered castration 
 Ophthalmia 
 
 — simple . 
 Orbit, fracture of 
 Oregon disease . 
 Organs of special sense 
 Os uteri, scirrhous 
 Osteoporosis 
 Otitis 
 
 Otter breed 
 Outbreaks of disease . 
 Ovariotomy 
 Overcrowding, effects of 
 Overstocking, effects of 
 OvidsB 
 
 PAOE 
 . 322 
 . 83 
 . 331 
 . 98 
 . 213 
 . 34 
 . 81 
 . 226 
 . 67 
 . 223 
 . 344 
 . 195 
 . 188 
 . 208 
 . 336 
 . 258 
 . 205 
 . 181—195 
 . 296 
 . 51 
 
 108 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 5-217 
 
 25 
 
 175 
 
 228 
 
 326 
 
 326 
 
 344 
 
 340 
 
 296 
 
 336 
 
 21 
 
 . 204 
 . 86 
 . 175 
 . 315 
 . 259 
 . 201 
 . 210 
 . 275 
 . 277 
 . 277 
 . 21 
 . 256 
 . 212 
 .189 
 . 279 
 . 2 
 . 11 
 . 226 
 . 10 
 . 261 
 . 1 
 
356 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ovination . 
 
 . 39 
 
 Proctatresia 
 
 . 131 
 
 Ozaena 
 
 . 85 
 
 Prolonged labour 
 
 , 211 
 
 
 
 Prophylaxis of anthrax 
 
 . 58 
 
 Pains, parturient 
 
 . 221 
 
 Pruritus, acute . 
 
 . 290 
 
 Palsy 
 
 . 252 
 
 Psoriasis . 
 
 . 291 
 
 Pancreas . 
 
 . 133 
 
 Psoroptes . 
 
 . 304 
 
 Paralysis, simple 
 
 . 252 
 
 Pudenda, infl.imiiiatioii of 
 
 . 222 
 
 Parasites . 
 
 . 11 
 
 Pulex penetrans 
 
 . 270 
 
 — in rumen 
 
 . 122 
 
 Pulmonary consumption 
 
 . 91 
 
 Parasitic diarrhoea . 
 
 . 125 
 
 Pulse 
 
 7,18 
 
 — gastric catarrh 
 
 . 128 
 
 Puncture of rumen . 
 
 . . 117 
 
 Paronychia . . 
 
 . 259 
 
 Punt .... 
 
 . 233 
 
 Parotiditis 
 
 . 115 
 
 Pustular fever 
 
 
 Parturient fever 
 
 . 230 
 
 
 
 malignant 
 
 . 219 
 
 Quarter-ill 
 
 . 58 
 
 Parturition fever 
 
 . 221 
 
 
 
 Pathological anatomy 
 
 of sheep . 34 
 
 Rabies 
 
 . 61 
 
 Paucity of specific dis 
 
 ease . . 16 
 
 Raddling . 
 
 . 197 
 
 Pelt ... 
 
 . 280 
 
 Earn fights 
 
 . 3 
 
 Pentastomes 
 
 . 85 
 
 Ranula 
 
 . 114 
 
 Percussion 
 
 8, 83 
 
 Ranunculus 
 
 . 334 
 
 Pericarditis, traumati 
 
 c . . 77 
 
 Rat-tails . 
 
 . 291 
 
 Peritoneum 
 
 . 172 
 
 Red water . . 25 
 
 !, ISO, 290 
 
 Peritonitis 
 
 . 173 
 
 Renal calculi 
 
 . 176 
 
 Pervious urachus 
 
 . 180 
 
 Repression of contagious d 
 
 isease 43 
 
 Phlebitis, umbilical 
 
 .180 
 
 Respirations 
 
 . 8 
 
 Phlebotomy 
 
 . 14 
 
 Respiratory system . 
 
 . 81 
 
 Phthisical tubercles 
 
 . 94 
 
 Retinitis . . . 
 
 . 278 
 
 Phthisis . 
 
 . 91 
 
 Retroversio uteri 
 
 . 212 
 
 Pietiu 
 
 . 73 
 
 Rheumatism 
 
 . 66 
 
 Piles . 
 
 . 132 
 
 Rhododendron . ' . 
 
 . 335 
 
 Pinding . 
 
 . 129 
 
 Rickets . . . 
 
 . 187 
 
 Pining 
 
 24, 45, 65 
 
 Rinderpest . . 
 
 . 59 
 
 Pits . 
 
 . 30 
 
 Ringworm 
 
 . 292 
 
 Plants, poisonous 
 
 . 333 
 
 " Ripe " sheep . 
 
 . 109 
 
 Plenalvia . 
 
 . 118 
 
 " Rippling " 
 
 . 151 
 
 Plethora . 
 
 .19 
 
 Roseola . . . . 
 
 . 29 
 
 Pleurisy . . 
 
 .91 
 
 Rot .... 
 
 . 135 
 
 — epizootic 
 
 .73 
 
 — of foot . . . 
 
 . 259 
 
 Pleuro-pneumonia CDi 
 
 itagiosa . 72 
 
 — of the lights . • . 
 
 . 92 
 
 Pneumonia 
 
 . 91 
 
 Rough diagnosis 
 
 . 8 
 
 — epizootic 
 
 . 70 
 
 Rowing . . . . 
 
 . 283 
 
 — sporadic 
 
 . 91 
 
 Rumen, parasites of , 
 
 . 122 
 
 Poisonous fodder plai 
 
 is . . 333 
 
 Rupture of abomasuin 
 
 . 121 
 
 Poisons . 
 
 . 328 
 
 — of bladder . 
 
 . 179 
 
 Poke oil . 
 
 . . 175 
 
 — of vagina ante-partum 
 
 . 212 
 
 Poked 
 
 . 20 
 
 Rye-grass . 
 
 . 336 
 
 Pollards . 
 
 . 193 
 
 
 
 Polled sheep 
 
 . 193 
 
 Salivary . 
 
 . 114 
 
 Polygonum 
 
 . 342 
 
 Salves 
 
 . 321 
 
 Poultices . 
 
 . 15 
 
 Salving 
 
 . 320 
 
 Pouring . 
 
 . . .318 
 
 Salzfluss . 
 
 . 299 
 
 Pox . 
 
 . 25 
 
 Sanguineous ascites . 
 
 . 22 
 
 Pregnancy 
 
 . 205 
 
 Saracen corn . 
 
 . 342 
 
 Presentations, false 
 
 . 207 
 
 Sarcoptic scabies 
 
 . 372 
 
 Preventive measures 
 
 . 15 
 
 Savin 
 
 . 335 
 
 Prickly fruits on woo 
 
 1 . .286 
 
 Scab .... 
 
 . 293 
 
 Probang, use of 
 
 . 150 
 
 Scabies . . , 
 
 . 293 
 
INDEX. 
 
 357 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PA&B 
 
 Scald , . . . 
 
 . 267 
 
 Specific disorders 
 
 . 25 
 
 — dew 
 
 . 110 
 
 Spleen, diseases of . 
 
 . 79 
 
 Scale. 
 
 . 187 
 
 — extirpation of 
 
 . 80 
 
 Scoliasia . . , , 
 
 66, 184 
 
 Splenic apoplexy 
 
 . 45 
 
 Scorpion-bite 
 
 . 344 
 
 Sporadic pneumonia . 
 
 . "91 
 
 Scouring lands , 
 
 . 124 
 
 Spotting . 
 
 . 380 
 
 Scraping (caetration) 
 
 . 201 
 
 Sprains 
 
 . 195 
 
 Scrofula . 
 
 . 65 
 
 Staggers . 
 
 . 47, 246 
 
 Scudda 
 
 . 283 
 
 Staphyloma, simple . 
 
 . 277 
 
 Seizing sheep . 
 
 . 4 
 
 Staple 
 
 . 283 
 
 Senility, diseases of . 
 
 . 16 
 
 Sterility . 
 
 . 203 
 
 Septicsemia 
 
 . 72 
 
 Sternum of sheep 
 
 . 82 
 
 Serpent-bite 
 
 . 344 
 
 Stomatitis . . . 
 
 . 110 
 
 Setons 
 
 . 15 
 
 — gangrenous . 
 
 . 68 
 
 Setting fractures 
 
 . 190 
 
 Stoppage of the water 
 
 . 177 
 
 Sewage contamination 
 
 . 344 
 
 Straining . 
 
 . 215 
 
 — poisoning 
 
 . 72 
 
 Strangles . 
 
 . 68 
 
 Shab. 
 
 . 293 
 
 Stranguillon , . 
 
 . 78 
 
 Shafpockeu .... 
 
 . 25 
 
 Strangulation . 
 
 . 123 
 
 Shape . . . . 
 
 . 211 
 
 Stretches . 
 
 . 122 
 
 Shearing . 
 
 . 283 
 
 Sturdy - . 
 
 . 233 
 
 Sheep-pox . 
 
 . 25 
 
 Substitute lambs 
 
 . 209 
 
 Shell sickness . 
 
 . 175 
 
 Succussiou 
 
 . 83 
 
 " Shot of blood " 
 
 . 58 
 
 Superfoetation . 
 
 . 212 
 
 Shuttle-gobbed sheep 
 
 . 144 
 
 Suppressed cutaneous actio 
 
 n . 328 
 
 Sickness, shell . 
 
 . 175 
 
 Surface lesions . 
 
 . 327 
 
 — signs of 
 
 . 7 
 
 Swelled head 
 
 . 292 
 
 Signs of age ... 
 
 . 109 
 
 Swelling of joints 
 
 . 184 
 
 Silence of sheep 
 
 . 81 
 
 Symbiotic scabies 
 
 . 298 
 
 Simple aphtha . 
 
 . 110 
 
 Symptoms, general . 
 
 . 7 
 
 — blood disorders 
 
 . . 18 
 
 System, circulatory . 
 
 . 77 
 
 — bronchitis 
 
 . 93 
 
 — digestive 
 
 . 104 
 
 — diarrhoea 
 
 . 124 
 
 — generative . 
 
 . 197 
 
 — diuresis 
 
 . 175 
 
 — lymphatic . 
 
 . 78 
 
 — ophthalmia . 
 
 . 276 
 
 — muscular 
 
 181—195 
 
 — paralysis 
 
 . 252 
 
 — nervous 
 
 . 228 
 
 — pneumonia . 
 
 . 92 
 
 — respiratory . 
 
 . 81 
 
 — staphyloma . 
 
 . 272 
 
 — urinary 
 
 . 174 
 
 — stomatitis 
 
 . 110 
 
 
 
 Skeleton . 
 
 . 181 
 
 Tabes mesenterlca . 
 
 . 78 
 
 Skin . 
 
 . 280 
 
 Tail amputations 
 
 . 191 
 
 Skull 
 
 . 181 
 
 Tapeworm disease 
 
 . 125 
 
 Smallpox . 
 
 37,38 
 
 Tapping the belly 
 
 173, 213 
 
 Smearing . 
 
 . 320 
 
 Tart lands 
 
 . 124 
 
 Smell 
 
 . 279 
 
 Tearing 
 
 . 283 
 
 Smut 
 
 . 339 
 
 Tear pit . . . . 
 
 . 277 
 
 Snake-bite 
 
 . 344 
 
 Teats, diseases of 
 
 . 226 
 
 Snots 
 
 . 93 
 
 — impervious . 
 
 . 226 
 
 Snuffles . 
 
 . 84 
 
 Teeth 
 
 . 104 
 
 Soot as top dressing, effect 
 
 s of . 333 
 
 Temperature, internal 
 
 . 8 
 
 Sore cleft . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Tetanus 
 
 . 253 
 
 — head . 
 
 . 327 
 
 Therapeutics, ovine . 
 
 . 345 
 
 Soreness of feet 
 
 . 259 
 
 Thermometry . 
 
 . 8 
 
 South African poison plaul 
 
 s . 373 
 
 Thorter-ill 
 
 . 246 
 
 Spauld 
 
 . 465 
 
 Throwing, sheep 
 
 . 4 
 
 Spaying . 
 
 . 226 
 
 Thrush in the mouth 
 
 . 109 
 
 Special sense, organs of 
 
 . 256 
 
 Thwarter-ill 
 
 . 246 
 
 Specific diseases, paucity o 
 
 E . 16 
 
 Thymus , 
 
 . 80 
 
358 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Thyroid bodies . 
 Ticks 
 
 — in louping-ill 
 Tobacco poisoning 
 Tongue, condition of 
 Torsio cervicis uteri 
 Traber Krankheit 
 Tracheotomy 
 Trapping (castratii)ii 
 Traumatic erythema 
 
 — pericarditis . 
 Travel sore 
 Trembles . 
 Trembling disease 
 Tremblings 
 Trephining for gid 
 Tricocephalus . 
 True scar , 
 Tsetze fly . 
 Tubercles in pancreas 
 Tuberculosis 
 Tufts 
 Tumour, abdominal 
 
 — mouth . 
 Tupping . 
 Twin 
 
 Twin-sick . 
 
 Twisted neck of womb 
 Tying (castration) 
 Tympany of rumen 
 Typhus 
 
 Udder clap 
 Umbilical phlebitis 
 " Unsound pastures ' 
 Urachus, pervious 
 Urethral calculi 
 Urethritis . 
 Urinary system . 
 Urine 
 
 — poisoning 
 Usnal method of castration 
 Uterine inversion 
 
 — milk 
 
 Vaccination, anthrax 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 80 
 . 322 
 . 250 
 . 333 
 . 9 
 . 213 
 . 246 
 . 90 
 . 201 
 . 292 
 . 79 
 . 259 
 . 67 
 . 67 
 . 246 
 . 244 
 . 127 
 . 299 
 . 344 
 . 133 
 . 65 
 . 282 
 . 132 
 . 114 
 . 197 
 . 233 
 . 233 
 . 213 
 . 201 
 . 116 
 . 45 
 
 . 113 
 . 180 
 . 143 
 . 180 
 . 177 
 . 198 
 . 174 
 . 174 
 . 344 
 . 198 
 . 212 
 . 223 
 
 . 54 
 
 Vaccine disease of sheep 
 
 . 38 
 
 Vaginitis . 
 
 . 221 
 
 Varicella ovium 
 
 . 45 
 
 Variola caprina . 
 
 . 45 
 
 — ovina . 
 
 . 25 
 
 Variolous disorders . 
 
 . 37 
 
 Vegetation influenced by 
 
 lieep- 
 
 farming 
 
 . 343 
 
 Vehicles . 
 
 . 12 
 
 Venom of snakes 
 
 . 344 
 
 Vinquish . 
 
 . 24 
 
 Virus, absorption of . 
 
 . 41 
 
 Vomition . 
 
 . 116 
 
 Warts on eyelids 
 
 . 278 
 
 Washing . 
 
 . 287 
 
 Water-bellied . 
 
 . 214 
 
 — betony . 
 
 . 343 
 
 — braxy . 
 
 . 179 
 
 — red 
 
 . 22 
 
 — rot 
 
 . 142 
 
 Watery cachexia 
 
 . 138 
 
 — poke 
 
 . 138 
 
 Whirquibus 
 
 . 175 
 
 White skit 
 
 . 124 
 
 — tar 
 
 . 314 
 
 — wool 
 
 . 322 
 
 Wholesale treatment. 
 
 . 11 
 
 Wildfire . 
 
 . 290 
 
 Wiring for gid . 
 
 . 242 
 
 Wool 
 
 . 283 
 
 — eating . 
 
 . 116 
 
 — loss of . 
 
 . 9 
 
 Woolsorter's disease . 
 
 . 50 
 
 Womb, amputation of 
 
 . 212 
 
 — inflammation of . 
 
 . 213 
 
 Worm, amputation of 
 
 . 178 
 
 — in foot . 
 
 . 258 
 
 Worn feet 
 
 . 259 
 
 Wounds . . . . 
 
 . 327 
 
 Wry neck . . , . 
 
 . 191 
 
 Yew leaves 
 
 , 334 
 
 Yolk .... 
 
 . 281 
 
INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aitken 50 
 
 American Veterinary Journal . 125 
 
 Review .... 210 
 
 Andral . . . .19,21 
 Annales dea Sc. Nat. . . .77 
 Archiv f. Exp. Path. ... 66 
 
 pathol. Anat. a. Phys. . 329 
 
 Arloing 59 
 
 Armatage 291 
 
 Arnulphus .... 138 
 
 Aveling, Dr 217 
 
 Axe . . . 110, 118, 221, 270 
 
 Baillarger 80 
 
 Bakewell 150 
 
 Bancroft 127 
 
 Banham 25 
 
 Barthelemy . . . . 50 
 
 Barnes 212 
 
 Bath Society's Papers . . 141 
 Beattie .... 151, 152 
 
 Beck 216 
 
 Belliol 33 
 
 Bibra 174 
 
 Black 269 
 
 Bland, Dr 217 
 
 Bollinger . . 16, 19, 66, 68, 114 
 Bourguinon .... 304 
 
 Boutet 50 
 
 Bowler and Bros. . . . 167 
 
 Bremond ..... 37 
 
 Brotherton . . . .249 
 
 Brown 8, 46, 72, 109, 110, 167, 246, 
 
 248, 256, 263, 264, 266, 267, 269, 
 
 273, 291, 300, 301, 304, 315, 332, 
 
 340 
 
 Bruce . . . 300,310,313 
 
 Brugnon 334 
 
 Brydon .... 250,252 
 
 Carlees 72 
 
 Ceely ..... 38 
 Chabert 128 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chalmers 134 
 
 Chauveau- . 32, 33, 50, 55, 57, 278 
 
 Chemist 344 
 
 Clark, Bracy . . 85, 87, 88, 90 
 
 Clay worth 69 
 
 Clement 316 
 
 Coates 333 
 
 Cobbold 89, 96, 98, 100, 126, 127, 138, 
 164, 169, 195, 234 
 
 Cohn 34 
 
 Colin 18 
 
 Columella 109 
 
 Cornerin 59 
 
 Coventry 137 
 
 Cox 125, 212 
 
 Crisp 79, 350 
 
 Cross .... 126, 128 
 
 CuUey 205 
 
 Curtice 126 
 
 Czokor 327 
 
 Dammaum .... 342 
 D'Arboval, Hurtrel . 27, 31, 57, 253 
 
 Darwin 10 
 
 Daubenton . . . 227, 334 
 
 Davaine 237 
 
 Degive 80 
 
 Delafond 10, 19, 21, 146, 273, 299, 
 304, 336 
 
 Dferenden 273 
 
 Dick 52, 91, 114, 116, 132, 133, 134, 
 137, 214, 229, 237, 246, 249, 252, 
 261, 263, 267, 269, 270, 274, 290 
 
 Dickens 180 
 
 Dickenson .... 331 
 
 Dowdeswell . . . .59 
 
 Drew 234 
 
 Dun 66, 167, 169, 315, 346, 347, 348 
 Dykes 102 
 
 Edgar .... 188, 291 
 Edinburgh Veterinary Review 224, 
 310 
 
360 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 Edis, Dr. 
 Eichler 
 Ercolani 
 Etienne 
 
 Pabregow . 
 
 Pair . 
 
 Parmers' Magazine 
 
 Paure 
 
 Peinberg . . 
 
 Peser 
 
 Pitzherbert 
 
 Pleming 5, 8, 10, 15, 21, 
 
 FAOE 
 
 . 218 
 
 . 241 
 
 98, 257, 280 
 
 . 272 
 
 . 335 
 
 . 246,247 
 
 . 43 
 
 . 263 
 
 . 329 
 
 . 50, 172 
 
 . 258 
 
 9, 36, 37, 
 
 40, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 63, 67, 74, 
 
 138, 193, 195, 204, 224, 273, 
 
 290, 296 
 
 Praneis 340 
 
 Priedberger , . . 148, 152 
 Prominent .... 336 
 
 Purstenburg . . 176, 299, 304 
 
 Gamgee 8, 11, 18, 32, 33, 45, 46, 49, 
 51, 53, 58, 59, 83, 93, 100, 101, 
 114, 126, 132, 174, 176, 177, 179, 
 221, 224, 226, 247, 257, 286, 290, 
 
 291, 319, 327, 332, 333, 334, 336, 
 346 
 
 — Dr. Arthur . . . .223 
 Gasparin . . . 262, 331, 335 
 Gavard ..... 342 
 Gavarret . . . . 19, 21 
 
 Gemelin 335 
 
 Gentleman's Magazine . . 194 
 Gerlaoh 37, 128, 151, 152, 157, 164, 
 172, 304, 305, 306, 307, 316 
 
 Gervais 
 Giornale di An., 
 
 Animali 
 Girard 
 Gohier 
 Goodsir 
 Googe . 
 Gordon 
 Graham . 
 Graves, W. 
 Grennel . 
 Gresswell . 
 Grey 
 Gurlt 
 Guttridge . 
 
 Hallier 
 Hamilton, Dr. 
 Hamont . 
 Hardy 
 Hartenstein 
 Harvey 
 Haubner . 
 
 299 
 Pis., e Pat. degli 
 
 . 224 
 
 31, 36 
 
 . 254, 262, 263 
 
 . 249 
 
 . 194 
 
 . 286 
 
 . 321 
 
 . 23 
 
 . 341 
 
 . 66,349 
 
 .95,97,98,102 
 
 . 107 
 
 . 120 
 
 . 34 
 , 46, 246, 248, 249 
 . 135 
 . 68 
 . 242 
 . 217 
 . 33, 87, 63, 67 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Hawes 118 
 
 Heissler 19 
 
 Hering . . . .37, 291 
 
 Herpater 344 
 
 Hertwig 31, 37, 45, 304, 307, 331, 
 
 348 
 Hewitt, Dr. Graily . . .217 
 
 Hicks, Dr 218 
 
 Hippocrates .... 137 
 
 Hjaltelin 135 
 
 Hogg 24, 46, 47, 49, 53, 239, 242, 
 
 243, 244, 262, 268, 274, 292, 321 
 
 Hutcheon 72 
 
 Hutchinson . . . 214, 218 
 Huzzard 237 
 
 Intellectual Observer 
 
 Johanni 
 
 Journal Agric. Soc. of India 
 
 — Anat. and Phys. . 
 
 — Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 
 
 — Comp. Path, and Ther. 
 
 — de Med. Vet. 
 
 — de Med. Vet. Theor. 
 
 — Linnsean Soc, 
 
 — Royal Agric. Soc. 
 
 Kirk 
 
 Kloin 
 
 Kluge 
 
 Koch- 
 
 Kochj Alois 
 
 Korner 
 
 Krabbe 
 
 Krenzer . 
 
 Kiichenmeister 
 
 La Clinica Vet. 
 
 Lancet 
 
 Landerer 
 
 Lassaigne 
 
 Laulanie 
 
 Law . . 67, 73, 263 
 
 Lawes 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Leicester, Earl of 
 
 Leuckart . 103, 147, 148, 
 
 Levie 
 
 Lewis 
 
 Liebrich 
 
 Linnaius 
 
 Lipp. 
 
 Lisle . 
 
 Litt . 
 
 Live Stock Journal 
 
 Lockhart . 
 
 . 323 
 
 . 164 
 . 342 
 
 188, 238 
 . 194 
 . 102 
 . 342 
 . 238 
 . 343 
 
 177, 213 
 
 . 195 
 34,57 
 . 337 
 92, 94 
 . 98 
 . 37 
 . 8 
 . 107 
 , 37 
 
 . 126 
 15, 244 
 . 133 
 . 83 
 . 103 
 
 322, 339 
 . 122 
 
 231, 276 
 . 325 
 
 157, 241 
 
 175, 176 
 . 213 
 . 281 
 . 333 
 . 334 
 . 27a 
 
 174, 177 
 . 138 
 . 340 
 
INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 861 
 
 PAGE 
 MacDougall .... 310 
 MacFadyeaii .... 223 
 MacGillivray . . ,68, 212 
 M'GilliTray . . . .185 
 Mackeuzie, Sir G. S. . . .58 
 
 Manson 37 
 
 Mark Lane Express . . . 198 
 
 Martin 343 
 
 Mathewson .... 247 
 
 Matthien 316 
 
 Memoires de I'Acad. de Dijon . 77 
 
 Moflfat 97 
 
 Morel 74 
 
 Morrel . . . 291, 341 
 
 Morton . . . 133, 346 
 
 National Live Stock Journal . 80 
 
 Naunyn 37 
 
 Negretti 299 
 
 New York Herald ... 5 
 Nocard .... 113, 224 
 Nunu . . . \ .255 
 
 Oest. Viert. f. wiss. vet. . . 342 
 
 Olver 119 
 
 Osborne, Dr 217 
 
 Oschatz 327 
 
 Paget 203 
 
 Pallas 10 
 
 Pappe, Dr 343 
 
 Parkinson .... 125, 242 
 Pasteur . . .54, 56, 57, 63 
 
 Paulet 109 
 
 Peele 64 
 
 Pereira ..... 348 
 
 Perselius 348 
 
 Peuch 37 
 
 Pipin . . . . .38 
 
 Playfair 216 
 
 Poggiale 18 
 
 Practical Parmer . . . 198 
 Price .... 239,325 
 
 Priestley 217 
 
 Pritchard ..... 59 
 Pye-Smith . . . .175 
 
 Quart. Journ. Agriculture . 289 
 Vet. So. in India . . 55 
 
 Eabl 128 
 
 RaiUet 103 
 
 Eanciman 343 
 
 Randall 6, 64, 69, 74, 80, 84, 88, 106, 
 
 109, 115, 122, 130, 131, 195, 254, 
 
 270, 282, 286, 292, 341 
 Read. . . • 270,292,335 
 Rec. de med. vet, . . .116 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Renault . 
 
 . 50, 65 
 
 Reynal 
 Reynault . 
 Richthofer 
 
 . 263,293 
 . 112 
 
 . 247 
 
 Riley 
 Ritzema Bos 
 
 . 87 
 . 326 
 
 Rivolta 
 
 . 126, 224. 225 
 
 Robertson 20, 21, 22, 184, 187,' 188, 
 249, 250 
 
 Roche Lubin 
 
 . 50, 70 
 
 Roll . . .31, 
 
 36,37,41,247 
 
 RolofB 
 
 . 172 
 
 Rose, Dr. . 
 
 . 215 
 
 Roy . 
 
 . . 57 
 
 Sacco 
 
 . . 37 
 
 Schutt 
 
 . 342 
 
 Scientific News 
 
 . 326 
 
 Scottish Parmer 
 
 . 313 
 
 Seamen 
 
 . 213 
 
 Sebault 
 
 . 272 
 
 Semmer . 
 
 . 60 
 
 Seron 
 
 . 71 
 
 Seyard 
 Shand, Dr. 
 
 . 110 
 . 343 
 
 Sibbold . 
 
 . 214 
 
 Siedamgrotzsky . 
 
 . 8 
 
 Simonds, Prof. 27, 29, 30, 34, 37, 39, 
 43, 46, 63, 69, 80, 107, 109. 110, 
 111,113, 127, 128, 139, 141, 151, 
 152, 154, 155, 171, 184, 222, 234, 
 304, 315, 324, 340 
 
 Sinclair 336 
 
 Singleton . 
 Smith, J. . 
 Smith, Robert 
 Spallanzani 
 
 . 8 
 
 . 184 
 
 125, 130 
 
 . 116 
 
 Spooner, W. C. 11, 24, 65, 74, 90, 
 174, 179, 190, 193, 200, 201, 223, 
 263, 315, 321, 325, 327, 334 
 
 Stephen 100 
 
 Stephens, Dr 244 
 
 Stevens .... 177, 178 
 
 Stoddart 337 
 
 Strangeways .... 250 
 
 Strecker 133 
 
 Sutton, Bland . . . .188 
 
 Tabourin 336 
 
 Tait 229 
 
 Tessier . . . 205, 231, 316 
 
 Thomas 59 
 
 Thomas, Dr. 144, 148, 151, 154, 156, 
 
 157, 164, 170 
 Thompson . . .99, 144, 335 
 Tiedemann .... 116 
 
 Tindal 179 
 
 Tocheliu 79 
 
 24 
 
362 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 Tornwaldt 
 
 . 187 
 
 Toussant . 
 
 . 57, 58 
 
 Trans, of Highland Agric 
 
 Soc. . 151 
 
 — of Linnsean Soc. . 
 
 . 85 
 
 Tnson 
 
 . 310, 346 
 
 Varnell 
 
 . 59, 114 
 
 Vatel 
 
 . 63 
 
 Veterinarian 25, 43, 57, 64, 71, 87, 
 89, 101, 119, 120, 125, 135, 136, 
 177, 179, 212, 213, 229, 233, 246, 
 269, 278, 333, 336, 337, 340, 341 
 Veterinary Journal 6, 19, 22, 34, 37, 58, 
 63, 66, 72, 73, 80, 99, 109, 185, 
 187, 203, 207, 219, 255, 276, 330, 
 335, 340, 343 
 — Record .... 175, 184 
 
 Vierordt 77 
 
 Voigt's Magazine . . .25 
 Von Bibra . . . .174 
 
 Wakley, jun 15 
 
 Waldie 251 
 
 Walley 66, 98, 101, 109, 110, 111, 
 112, 114, 132, 185, 219, 220, 250 
 Walter . 117, 211, 223, 326, 337 
 Walters . . . .36, 195 
 Walz 306 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Watson 278 
 
 Wentworth .... 89 
 
 Western, Lord . . . .283 
 
 Williams, Prof. 20, 21, 22, 62, 94, 
 
 95, 107, 114, 128, 133, 176, 184, 
 
 234, 238, 239, 249, 251, 252, 264, 
 
 273, 274, 298, 316 
 
 Williams, Eoger . . . 175 
 
 Wilson, Erasmus . . .15 
 
 Wiltshire 70 
 
 Wiltshire, Dr. . . . 204,217 
 Woch. f. T. und Thierzucht . 38 
 
 Youatt 9, 11, 15, 
 52, 61, 65, 66, 
 80, 84, 88, 90, 
 109, 110, 114, 
 129, 132, 133, 
 141, 144, 146, 
 193, 194, 202, 
 238, 243, 244, 
 270, 275, 279, 
 296, 315, 321, 
 
 22, 37, 38, 46, 47, 
 , 67, 68, 69, 70, 78, 
 91, 92, 96, 98, 106, 
 117, 120, 121, 123, 
 135, 138, 139, 140, 
 147, 148, 150, 184, 
 205, 206, 227, 229, 
 253, 258, 262, 269, 
 284, 286, 290, 293, 
 325, 326, 333 
 
 Zenker 195 
 
 Zundel . . .37, 167, 316 
 Zurn 34, 128, 157, 164, 172, 224, 299 
 
 rEINTEn HI ABI./IRB AH6 SON, SABTBOLOMEW ClOaK. 
 
H Classifieb Catalogue 
 
 OF WORKS IN 
 
 GENERAL LITERATURE 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 
 
 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, E.G. 
 
 91 AND 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, and 32 HORNBY ROAD, BOMBAY. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 10 
 
 BADMINTON LIBRARY (THE). - 
 
 BIOGRAPHY, PERSONAL ME- 
 MOIRS, &c. 
 
 CHILDREN'S BOOKS 
 
 CLASSICAL LITERATURE TRANS- 
 LATIONS, ETC 
 
 COOKERY, DOMESTIC MANAGE- 
 MENT, &c. 
 
 EVOLUTION, ANTHROPOLOGY, 
 &c. 
 
 FICTION, HUMOUR, &c. - 
 
 FUR AND FEATHER SERIES 
 
 HISTORY, POLITICS, POLITY, 
 POLITICAL MEMOIRS, &c. - - 3 
 
 LANGUAGE, HISTORY AND 
 SCIENCE OF 16 
 
 LONGMANS' SERIES OF BOOKS 
 FOR GIRLS ----- 26 
 
 PAGE 
 
 MANUALS OF CATHOLIC PHIL- 
 
 OSOPHY 16 
 
 MENTAL, MORAL, AND POLITICAL 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 14 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS AND CRITICAL 
 
 WORKS 29 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS THEOLOGICAL 
 
 WORKS 31 
 
 POETRY AND THE DRAMA - - 18 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY AND ECO- 
 
 NOMICS 16 
 
 POPULAR SCIENCE - 
 SILVER LIBRARY (THE) 
 SPORT AND PASTIME - 
 TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE 
 
 COLONIES, &c. . - . . 8 
 VETERINARY MEDICINE, &c. - 9 
 
 WORKS OF REFERENCE- - - 25 
 
 24 
 27 
 10 
 
 THE 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORS AND EDITORS. 
 
 Page 
 
 - 3.18 
 
 - 14, 15 
 14 
 
 Abbott (Evelyn) 
 
 (T. K.) - 
 
 (E. A.) - 
 
 Acland (A. H. D.) - 3 
 
 Acton (Eliza) - - 28 
 
 Acworth (H. A.) - 18 
 
 jEschylus - - 18 
 
 Ainger (A. C.) - - 12 
 
 Albemarle (Earl. of) - 10 
 
 Alden (W. L.) - - 21 
 
 Allen (Grant) - - 24 
 
 Allingham (W.) - 18, 29 
 
 Anstey (F.) - - 21 
 
 Aristophanes - - 18 
 
 Aristotle - - - 14 
 
 Armstrong (E.) - 3 
 
 (G. F. Savage) - ig 
 
 (E.J.) - 7.19.29 
 
 Arnold (Sir Edwin) - 8, ig 
 
 - (Dr. T.) 
 Ashley (W. J.) - 
 Astor (]. J.) - - 
 Atelier du Lys (A uthor 
 of)- - - - 
 
 26 
 
 Babington (W. D.) 
 Bacon 
 
 Bagehot (W.) - 7 
 Bagwell (R.) - 
 Bain (Alexander) 
 Baiter (James) - 
 Baker (Sir S. W.) ■ 
 Balfour (A. J.) 
 Ball (J. T.) 
 Baring-Gould (Rev, 
 
 S.) - - - 27, 29 
 Barnett (Rev. S. A. & 
 
 Mrs.) - - - 16 
 Baynes (T. S.) - - 29 
 Beaconsfield (Earl of) 21 
 Beaufort (Duke of) - 10. 11 
 Becker (Prof.) - 
 Beesly (A. H.) - 
 Bell (Mrs. Hugh) - 
 Bent (J. Theodore) - 
 Besant (Sir Walter)- 
 Bickerdyke(J.) 
 Bicknell (A. C.) 
 Bird (R.) - - - 31 
 
 17 
 
 7. 14 
 
 16. 29 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 II. 31 
 3 
 
 18 
 19 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 II, 13 
 
 Page 
 
 Page 
 
 Blackivell (Elizabeth) 
 
 7 
 
 Carmichael (J.) - ig 
 
 Boase (Rev. C. W.) - 
 
 4 
 
 Chesney (Sir G.) - 3 
 
 Boedder (B.) - 
 
 16 
 
 Chisholm (G. G.) - 25 
 
 Bolland (W. E.) - 
 
 14 
 
 Cholmondeley-Pennell 
 
 Bosanquet (B.) 
 
 14 
 
 (H.) - - - ij 
 
 Boyd (Rev.A. K. H.)7, 29, 31 
 
 Christie (Nimmo) - 19 
 
 Brassey (Lady) 
 
 8 
 
 Cicero - - - 18 
 
 (Lord) 3, 8, 12 
 
 , Id 
 
 Clarke (Rev. R. F.) - 16 
 
 Bray (C. and Mrs.) - 
 
 14 
 
 Clodd (Edward) - 17 
 
 Bright (J. F.) - - 
 
 1 
 
 Clutterbuck (W. J.) - 9 
 
 Broadfoot (Major W.) 
 
 10 
 
 Cochrane (A.) - - 19 
 
 Brogger (W. C.) - 
 
 7 
 
 Comyn (L. N.) - 26 
 
 Brown (J. Moray) - 
 
 II 
 
 Conington (John) - 18 
 Conybeare(Rev.W.J.) 
 
 Browning (H. Ellen) 
 
 8 
 
 Buck (H. A.) - - 
 
 12 
 
 & Howson (Dean) 27 
 
 Buckle (H. T.) - 
 
 S 
 
 Coventry (A.) - - 11 
 
 Bull(T.) - - - 
 
 28 
 
 Cox (Harding) - 10 
 
 Burke (U. R.) - 
 
 1 
 
 Crake (Rev. A. D.) - 26 
 
 Burrows (Montagu) 
 
 4 
 
 Creiffhton (Bishop) - 3, 4 
 
 Butler (E. A.) - 
 
 24 
 
 Cuningham (G. C.) - 3 
 
 (Samuel) - 
 
 29 
 
 Curzon (Hon. G. N.) 3 
 Cutts (Rev. E. L.) - 4 
 
 Cameron of Lochiel 
 
 12 
 
 
 Cannan (E.) 
 
 17 
 
 Davidson (W. L.) - 14, 16 
 
INDEX OF AUTHORS AND EDITORS— continued. 
 
 Page 
 
 Davies (J. F.) - - i8 
 
 De la Saussaye (C.)- 32 
 
 Deland (Mrs.) - - 26 
 
 Dent (C. T.) - - 11 
 
 Deploige - - - 17 
 
 De Salis (Mrs.) - 28, 29 
 
 De Tocqueville (A.) - 3 
 
 Devas (C. S.) - - 16 
 
 Dickinson (G. L.) - 3 
 
 DougalUL.) - - 21 
 
 Dowell (S.) - - 16 
 
 Doyle (A. Conan) - 21 
 
 Dufferin (Marquis of) 12 
 
 Dunbar (Mary F.) - 20 
 
 Ebrington (Lord) - 
 
 12 
 
 Ellis (J. H.) - - 
 
 13 
 
 Ewald (H.) - - 
 
 3 
 
 Falkener (E.) - 
 
 13 
 
 Farnell (G. S.) - 
 
 18 
 
 Farrar (Dean) - - 16 
 
 21 
 
 Fitzwygram (Sir F.) 
 
 9 
 
 Florian - 
 
 19 
 
 Follett (M. P.) - 
 
 4 
 
 Ford (H.) - - - 
 
 13 
 
 Fowler (Edith H.) - 
 
 21 
 
 Francis (Francis) - 
 
 13 
 
 Freeman (Edward A.) 
 
 4 
 
 Froude (James A.) 4, 7, 8, 21 
 
 Furneaux (W.) 
 
 24 
 
 Gallon (W. F.) - 17 
 Gardiner (Samuel R.) 4 
 Gerard (D.) - - 26 
 Gibbons (J. S.) - 11, 12 
 
 Gibson (Hon. H.) 
 
 Gill (H.J.) 
 
 Gleig (Rev. G. R.) - 
 
 Goethe 
 
 Graham (P. A.) 
 
 (G. F.) - - 
 
 Grant (Sir A.) - 
 Granville (Countess) 
 Graves (R. P.) - 
 Green (T. Hill) 
 GreviUe (C. C. F.) - 
 Grey (Maria) 
 Grose (T. H.) - 
 Grove (F. C.) - 
 
 (Mrs. Lilly) 
 
 Gurney (Rev. A.) 
 Gwilt (J.) - 
 
 Haggard (H. Rider) 21 
 
 Hake (O.) - - - 12 
 
 Halliwell-Phillipps (J.) 7 
 
 Hamlin (A. D. F.) - 30 
 
 Hart (Albert B.) - 4 
 
 Harte (Bret) - - 22 
 
 Hartwig (G.) - - 24 
 
 Hassall (A.) - - 6 
 Haweis (Rev. H. R.) 7, 30 
 
 Hayward (Jane M.) - 24 
 
 Hearn (W. E.) - - 4 
 Heathcote (J. M. and 
 
 C. G.) - - 12 
 Helmholtz (Hermann 
 
 von) - - - 24 
 
 Henry (W.) - - 12 
 
 Herbert (Col. Kenney) 12 
 
 Hewins (W. A. S.) - 17 
 
 Hillier (G. Lacy) - 10 
 Hodgson (ShadworthH.) 14 
 
 Holroyd (Maria J.) - 7 
 
 Hope (Anthony) - 22 
 
 Hornung (E. W.) - 22 
 
 Howell (G.) - - 16 
 
 Howitt (W.) - - g 
 
 Hudson (W. H.) - 24 
 
 Hueffer (F. M.) - 7 
 
 Page 
 Hume (David) - - 14 
 Hunt (Rev. W.) - 4 
 Hutchinson (Horace G.) 11 
 Ingelow (Jean) - 19, 26 
 
 Jefferies (Richard) - 
 [ones (H. Bence) 
 [ohnson (J. & J. H.) 
 Jowett (Dr. B.) 
 Joyce (P. W.) - 
 Justinian - - - 
 
 Kalisch (M. M.) - 32 
 Kant (l.) - - - 14, 15 
 Kaye (Sir J. W.) - 4 
 
 Kerr (Rev. I.) - - 12 
 Killick (Rev. A. H.) - 15 
 Kitchin (Dr. G. W.) 4 
 
 Knight (E. F.) - 5, 9, 12 
 Kostlin (J.) - - 7 
 
 Ladd (G. T.) - - 15 
 Lang (Andrew) 5, 10, rr, 13, 
 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 26, 30 
 Lascelles (Hon. G.) - 10, 12 
 Laurie (S. S.) - - 5 
 
 Leaf (Walter) - - 31 
 Lear (H. L. Sidney) - 29 
 Lecky (W. E. H.) - 5, 19 
 Lees (J. A.) - - 9 
 
 Lewes (G. H.) - - 15 
 Lindley(J.) - - 25 
 Lindsay (Lady) - ig 
 
 Lodge (H. C.) - - 4 
 Loftie (Rev. W. J.) - 4 
 
 Longman (C. J.) 10, 13, 30 
 
 (F. W.) - - 13 
 
 (G. H.) - - II, 12 
 
 Lubbock (Sir John) - 17 
 Lucan - - - 18 
 Lyall (Edna) - - 22 
 Lyttelton (Hon. R. H.) 10 
 Lytton (Earl of) - ig 
 
 MacArthur (Miss E. A.) 17 
 Macaulay (Lord) - 5, 20 
 Macdonald JGeorge) 20, 32 
 30 
 
 Macfarren (Sir G. A.) 
 Magruder (Julia) 
 Mackail (J. W.) 
 Mackinnon (J.) 
 Macleod (H. D.) 
 
 Macpherson (Rev. H. A.)i2 
 
 Maher (M.) 
 Malleson (Col. G. B.) 
 Mandello (J.) - 
 Marbot (Baron de) - 
 Marshman (J. C.) - 
 Martineau (Dr. James) 
 Maskelyne (J. N.) - 
 Matthews (Brander) 
 Maunder (S.) - - 25 
 Max Miiller (F.) 
 
 15, 16, 30. 32 
 May (Sir T. Erskine) 5 
 
 Meade (L. T.) - - 26 
 Melville(G.J.Whyte) 22 
 Merivale (Dean) - 5 
 
 Merriman (H. S.) - 22 
 Mill (James) - - 15 
 - (John Stuart) - 15, 17 
 30 
 26 
 26 
 6 
 25 
 14 
 
 Milner (G.) 
 Miss Molly {A tithor of) 
 Molesworth (Mrs.) - 
 Montague (F. C.) - 
 Moore (T.) 
 (Rev. Ed.) 
 
 Morris (W.) 
 
 (Mowbray) 
 
 Mosso (A.) 
 Munk (W.) 
 
 20, 22, 31 
 
 Murdoch (W. G. 
 
 Burn)- 
 Murray (R. F.) 
 Nansen (F.) 
 Nesbit (E.) 
 Newman (Cardinal) - 
 
 O'Brien (W.) - 
 Oliphanl (Mrs.) 
 Onslow (Earl of) 
 Orchard (T. N.) 
 Osbourne (L) - 
 
 Page 
 
 Palmer (A. H.) - 8 
 Park (W.) - - 13 
 
 Parr (Mrs. Louisa) - 26 
 Payne-Gallwey (Sir 
 
 R.) - - - II, 13 
 Peary (Mrs. Josephine) 9 
 Peek (H.) - - - 20 
 Pembroke (Earl of) - 12 
 Perring (Sir P.) - 19 
 Phillips (M.) - - 32 
 Phillipps-WoUey (C.) 10, 22 
 Piatt (S.& J.J.) - 20 
 Pleydell-Bouverie (E. 0.) 12 
 Pole (W.) - - . 13 
 Pollock (W. H.) - II 
 Poole (W. H. and 
 
 Mrs.) - - - 29 
 Poore (G. V.) - - 31 
 Potter (J.) - - 16 
 Prevost (C.) - - ll 
 Pritchelt (R. T.) - 12 
 Proctor (R. A.) - 13, 24, 31 
 
 Raine (Rev. James) - 4 
 
 Ransome (Cyril) - 3 
 
 Rhoades (J.)_ - - 18, 20 
 
 Rhoscomyl (O.) 
 Rich (A.) ■- 
 Richardson (Sir B.W.) 
 
 (C.) - - - 
 
 Richman (I. B.) 
 Rickaby (John) 
 
 (Joseph) - 
 
 Ridley (Annie E.) - 
 Ridley (E.) 
 Riley (J. W.) - 
 Robertson (A.)- 
 Roget (Peter M.) 
 Rokeby (C.) - 
 Rolfsen (N.) - 
 Romanes (G. J.) 
 
 (Mrs.) 
 
 Ronalds (A.) - 
 Roosevelt (T.) - 
 Rossetti (M. F.) 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 - 16, 25 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 15, 17, 32 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 Soulsby (Lucy H.) - 
 Spedding(J.) - - 
 Stanley (Bishop) 
 Steel (A. G.) - 
 Steel (J. H.) - 
 Stephen (Sir James) 
 
 (Leslie) 
 
 Stephens (H. Morse) 
 
 (W. W.) - 
 
 Stevens (R. W.) 
 Stevenson (R. L.) - 
 Stock (St. George) - 
 ' Stonehenge ' - 
 Storr (F.) - 
 Stuart-Wortley(A.J.) 
 Stubbs (J. W.) - 
 Sturdy (E. T.) - 
 Sturgis (J.) 
 Suffolk & Berkshire 
 
 (Earl of) - 
 Sullivan (Sir E.) 
 Sully (James) - 
 Sutherland (A, and G.) 
 Suttner (B. von) 
 Swinburne (A. J.) - 
 Symes (J. E.) - 
 
 26 
 7. 14 
 24 
 10 
 9 
 7 
 9 
 6 
 8 
 
 31 
 23, 26 
 15 
 9 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 Saintsbury (G.) - 12 
 
 Sandars (T. C.) - 14 
 Scott-Montagu (Hon. J.) 12 
 
 Seebohm (F.) - - 6, 7 
 
 Selous (F. C.) - - 10 
 
 Selss (A. M.) - - 19 
 
 Sewell (Elizabeth M.) 23 
 
 Shakespeare - - 20 
 
 Shand (A. L) - - 12 
 
 Sharpe (R. R.) - - 6 
 
 Shearman (M.) - 10 
 
 Sheppard (Rev. Edgar) 6 
 
 Sinclair (A.) - - 12 
 
 Smith (R. Bosworth) 6 
 
 (W. P. Haskett) 9 
 
 Solovyoff(V, S.) - 31 
 
 Sophocles - - 18 
 
 Tacitus - - - 18 
 
 Tavlor (Meadows) - 6 
 
 Tebbutt (C. G.) - 12 
 
 Thornhill (W. J.) - 18 
 
 Todd (A.) - - - 6 
 
 Toynbee (A.) - - 17 
 
 Trevelyan (Sir G. O.) 7 
 
 (C. P.) - - 17 
 
 Trollope (Anthony) - 23 
 
 Tyndall (J.) - - 9 
 
 Tyrrell (R. Y.) - - 18 
 
 Upton (F, K. and 
 
 Bertha) - - 26 
 
 Verney (Frances P. 
 
 and Margaret M.) 8 
 
 Vincent (J. E.)- - 6 
 
 Virgil - - - 18 
 
 Vivekananda (Swami) 32 
 
 Wakeman (H. O.) - 6 
 
 Walford (Mrs.) - 23 
 
 Walker (Jane H.) - 29 
 
 Walpole (Spencer) - 6 
 
 Walrond (Col. H.) - 10 
 
 Walsingham (Lord) - 11 
 
 Walter (J.) - - 7 
 Watson (A. E. T.) - II, 13 
 
 Waylen (H. S. H.) - 30 
 Webb (Mr. and Mrs. 
 
 Sidney) - - 17 
 
 (T. E.) - - 19 
 
 Weber (A.) - - 15 
 
 Weir (Capt. R.) - 11 
 West (B. B.) - - 23, 31 
 
 Weyman (Stanley) - 23 
 
 Whately(Archbishop) 14, 15 
 
 (E. Jane) - - 16 
 
 ! Whishaw (F. J.) - 9, 23 
 
 ' Whitelaw (R.) - - 18 
 
 Wilcocks (J. C.) - 13 
 
 Wilkins (G.) - - 18 
 
 Willich (C. M.) - 25 
 
 Witham (T. M.) - 12 
 
 Wolff(H. W.)- - 6 
 
 Wood (Rev. J. G.) - 25 
 
 Woodgate (W. B.) - 10 
 
 Wood-Martin (W.G.) 6 
 
 Wordsworth (Eliz.) - 26 
 
 Wylie (J. H.) - - 6 
 
 Youatt (W.) 
 Zeller (E.) 
 
 9 
 15 
 
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