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Cornell University Library 
 UF153 .T55 1891 
 
 Manual of heavy artillery service : 
 
 3 1924 030 759 181 
 
B Cornell University 
 M Library 
 
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 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
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 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030759181 
 
[ BY AUTHORITY.] 
 
 MANUAL ■ 
 
 HEAVY ARTILLERY SERVICE 
 
 FOR THE USE OF THE 
 
 ARMY AND MILITIA OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 JOHN C. TiDBALIv, 
 
 Brevet Brigadier General, Colonel Retired, United States Army. 
 
 Late Colonel First Regiment of Artillery and Commandant United States 
 
 Artillery School. 
 
 FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 JAMBS J. CHAPMAN, Agent, 
 1891. 
 
 <P 
 
COI 
 
 MNfVERSJTY 
 llBRARV 
 
 >«*• 
 
 -mV 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, ttj 
 
 James J. Chapman, 
 
 In the Office of the Iiibrarian of Congress, at Washington, D. O 
 
 Psni or TBOuii UoOill k Ot^ 
 wAflnnimo!!, D. a< 
 
■^PREFAGE.-«* 
 
 The basis of this work, so far as the Skrvicb op thb Piece 
 and the Mechanical Manceuvres are concerned, has been the 
 "Circulars of the TJ. S. Artillery School," supplemented by the 
 unwritten customs and practices of that institution. 
 
 In IFiELD Intrenchments, "Mahan's Field Fortifications" 
 was used as a reference, supplemented by the methods intro- 
 duced during the American civil war of 1861-65, and adopted 
 and practiced during the Franco- German and Eusso- Turkish 
 wars. 
 
 In Submarine Mines, the works of Stotherd and of Sleemau 
 have been taken as authority. 
 
 In other parts of the work, Benton's "Ordnance and Gun- 
 nery," Koberts' "Hand -Book of Artillery," "Ordnance Notes 
 and Memoranda," "Ordnance Instruction TJ. S. Navy," "Ord- 
 nance Manual U. S. Army," together with many other author- 
 ities, have been consulted. 
 
 In the labor of arranging and preparing the plates, and in 
 various other matters, I am indebted to Lieut. C. Chase, 3d artil- 
 lery; and to Lieut. L. V. Caziarcj 2d artillery, for the admirably- 
 arranged Index. 
 
 J. O. T. 
 
 Fort Monroe, Va., Jvme, 1880. 
 (HI) 
 
iv PREFACE, 
 
 Report of the Staff of the U. S. Artillery School on a system of 
 instruction for heavy -artillery troops, submitted by Major 
 J. C. Tidball, 2d artillery, Brevet Brigadier- General, U. S. A. 
 
 Huasquahtbrs U. S. Artih,kby SchooI/, 
 
 FOBT MONBOH, Va., November 17, 1879. 
 
 The ADJTJTANT-Q-BiraBAI. OF THB Armt, 
 
 Washington, D. O. 
 
 Sm : The MSS. for a system of instruction for heavy-artillery troops, pre- 
 pared by Major John O. Tidball, 2d artillery. Brevet Brigadiei^General, 
 U. S. A., having, in accordance with the instructions of the Qeneral of the 
 Army contained in indorsement dated Headquarters of the Army, May 16, 
 1879, on Major TidbaU's letter of March 29, 1879, been referred to the Staff 
 of the U. S. Artillery School for examination, the Staff respectfully sub- 
 mits the following as its report thereon. 
 
 The work has evidently been designed to supply a want long felt in the 
 artillery service, and which has been pointed out in General Orders No. 3 of 
 1876, Headquarters of the Army, as being a regular and more oomprehenBlve 
 system of instruction or manual for heavy-artillery troops. 
 
 Its general divisions are: 
 
 1. Preliminary Instruction. 
 
 2. Service of the Piece. 
 
 3. Mechanical Manoeuvres. 
 
 4. Oare and Preservation of Artillery Material. 
 
 5. Transportation of Artillery. 
 
 6. Orgamzation and Command of Artillery. 
 
 7. Employment of Artillery in Campaign. 
 
 8. Employment of Artillery against Armored Vessels and in Har- 
 
 bor Defense. 
 
 9. Field Intrenchments. 
 
 10. Attack upon Intrenchments. 
 
 11. Submarine Mines. 
 
 To which it is intended to add a short chapter on Artillery Salutes and 
 Ceremonies and Courtesies between land and naval forces, which has al- 
 ready been submitted to the General, of date October 18, 1879. 
 
 The Staff has the honor to report upon the various divisions of the work 
 as follows : 
 
 1. Pbeliminahy Iksteuction. This embraces: 1st. Definitions of the 
 various kinds of artillery, and a tabular statement of the U. S. system fox 
 land service; 2d. The formation and marching drill of heavy-artillery 
 troops,— being "battery," " platoon," and "detachment movements," and 
 " subdivision movements," or those common to all three of such tactical 
 sub-units. 
 
 This section of the MSS. has met with critical trial, (vrith troops on the 
 drill-ground,) close scrutiny, and lengthy discussion, with a view to deter- 
 mining what may be best calculated to insure to the service the best means 
 for the performance of duty devolving upon artillery troops. 
 
 It is found that the proposed marching drill is based upon that laid down 
 in the already-accepted foot drill for field artillery, and that the latter has 
 been modified only so far as the peculiarities of the heavy-artillery service 
 render necessary or desirable ; such, for example, as emancipation from 
 the " lock step"; the omission of " section " movements as only essential for 
 field artillery; the assimilation of the movements of the guides to those of 
 
PKEl'ACE, V 
 
 th.e infantry, and a discontiiiuance of the requirement from detachment 
 chiefs to repeat all commands, as tending toward confusion and being 
 entirely unnecessary. 
 
 The few additional movements are essentially adapted from the infantry 
 tactics, and render the proposed marching: drill complete. 
 
 It is the judgment of the Staff, that while the proposed drill is essential 
 for the service of heavy artillery, and also fully suited for all tlie duties of 
 artillery troops in garrison or elsewhere in the presence of guns, it is at the 
 same time so closely assimilated to the tactics of infantry in its principles 
 as to render the transition of heavy-artillery troops into infantry formations 
 a thing of quick and easy accomplishment. The same, moreover, may be 
 said in reference to its adaptation for the service of field guns, although its 
 ■departures from the authorized foot drill for field artillery are but slight, 
 and always in the direction of assimilation with the infantry tactics, which 
 is understood to be the published policy of the G-eneral of the Army in such 
 ■questions. 
 
 The Staff is therefore of the opinion that the adoption of this section of 
 the MSS. under consideration will in no way impair the efficiency of the 
 artillery regiments in the infantry duties which they may be called upon to 
 perform, while it will, on the other hand, facilitate the duties pertaining to 
 their special arm, because its tendency as a means of discipline and esprit 
 du corps is to strengthen and confirm habits of thought in that direction by 
 continually reminding the men of their weapon as artillerymen. 
 
 2. Service of the Piece ; 3. Mechanical Manojuvres. These sections 
 embrace the drill for all classes of pieces known as heavy artillery, and the 
 MSS. are the result of several years' experience at the Artillery School, of 
 daily study, experiment, and observation. 
 
 The Staff has carefully examined, revised, and tested tliis section at the 
 ^uns. and is of the opinion that it meets the requirements for handling 
 the ordnance now in use. 
 
 4. Care and Preservation of Artillery Material ; 5. Transporta- 
 tion OF Artillery. These sections embrace the care and preservation of 
 all classes of guns and their belongings, together with the care of stores 
 and of magazines ; also the transportation of artillery under all circum- 
 stances of service, including railroad and water transportation for artillery 
 material and animals. The MSS. are the result of a life-time's extended 
 experience in the U. S. artillery service in peace and war. Much of the 
 matter is derived from actual experience in the war of 1861-65, and has 
 never been published in any book or report. The Staff is confident that it 
 supplies a vacancy in American military literature. 
 
 6. Organization and Command of Artillery; 7. Employment of 
 Artillery in Campaign. These sections embrace all of a subject of great 
 magnitude, which is indicated by their titles, that there seems room ror in 
 a hook of the kind under consideration. It cannot be doubted that there is 
 1 be found in the artillery of modem war the points of support with which 
 to counteract the effect of the open nature of infantry fighting consequent 
 upon the breech-loader, and that it is the stable element of battle of to-day 
 4n the hands of a General, because the dispersed order of the infantry for 
 action renders command of that arm at all times difficult, and quite im- 
 possible as the fighting progresses. .There can be no doubt, furthermore, 
 that the object which artillery has to attain must be comprehended from 
 the beginning of its action, and must not be left to chance. It is therefore 
 advantageous, to say the least, that there should be one command ; for the 
 reason that everything becomes simpler and the carrying out of the fight 
 more certain, because more unity of will pervades it. 
 
 To support this view, it is not deemed necessary here to expatiate upon 
 the advantages of the employment of artillery in large masses, because the 
 -object is self-evident and is accepted by most officers of experience and cul- 
 ture as an established fact. These sections of the MSS. are the result of 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 thp war experiences of the American artillery, and have followed closely 
 the system pursued at the close of the war of 1861-65 in points of orf^aniza- 
 tion and command, although the modified conditions of the battle of to-day 
 have presented a few corresponding modifications in the employment of artil- 
 lery which have been fully treated in addition. Although we have passed 
 through one of the most sanguinary conflicts of modem times, in which the 
 genius of the American soldier was severely tested, and the nature ot the 
 °' terrain " entirely different from any which is treated of in the text-boolc& 
 heretofore used by our officers in study, and althongh vre have been at pro- 
 found peace with the world for fourteen years, with ample leisure for such 
 undertakings, it is a singular fact that no American work is extant which i& 
 based upon our experiences, giving authoritative instruction in the applica- 
 tion of our arms, beyond what is laid down in, the drill-books. 
 
 Now, the necessity for such works is self-evident ; for although we are not 
 a warlike people, we possess an inherent military spirit which requires 
 direction to be available in the public defense, and such text-books tend t* 
 imbue our armies with character and military intelligence when action is 
 required of them. This is especially so in the case of auxiliary troops, such 
 as volunteers and militia. 
 
 The Staff is of opinion that these sections of the MSS. constitute a step in 
 the right direction; and while tbe subject-matter pertains largely to field 
 artillery, it is not considered as tenable as against its publication in this 
 work, because it is germane to the artillery service in general and impor- 
 tant to be preserved. Moreover, there is no just reason in favor of such a 
 divorce between the light and heavy artillery service, any more than "there- 
 lias been found one in favor of such a separation of the light and heavy 
 infantry of the past. 
 
 The proposed composition of an artillery force in regard to pieces of long, 
 range, or for the development of curved fire in the field, is remembered by 
 the Staff as identical with our practice in the war of 1861-65, and the princi- 
 ple involved is confirmed and strengthened by the more recent experiences^ 
 of European nations, notably in the Franco-Q-ennan and Busso - Turkish 
 wars. 
 
 The increased zone of effective infantry fire calls Imperatively for long- 
 range artillery of great accuracy and quick manipulation, so far as guns are- 
 concerned ; while the universal use of field intrenchments, already rendered 
 necessary by a murderous infantry, demands with equal obstinacy the full 
 use and development of cui-ved fire from mortars on the part of artillery, 
 both in the attack and defense. 
 
 The provision in the MSS. for the use of such pieces as we now have in 
 service is therefore regarded by the Staff as an advance toward meeting 
 these new questions as far as possible with economy, while it reserves for 
 future settlement the question of improved artillery material in view of 
 these demands. "With these views, the Staff cannot too strongly recom- 
 mend these sections of the MSS. for favorable consideration and. publica- 
 tion. 
 
 8. Employment of Autillery against Armored Vessels and in Har- 
 bor Defense. This section embraces as much of this important subject a& 
 will admit of a proper limit in size of the book under consideration. It is a 
 subject upon which little or nothing has been written, and the expressed 
 desire of the General of the Army that it should be included, is regarded as 
 sufllcient reason for presenting it. 
 
 9. Field Intrenchments; 10. Attack on Field Intrenciiments. The- 
 MSS. embrace in these sections as much of the subject-matter indicated by 
 their titles as is deemed essential. 
 
 It is necessarily a compilation upon a subject which is older than the- 
 service itself, and the Staff is informed that it is inserted upon the sugges- 
 tion of the General of the Army. Further comment, therefore, seems: uu- 
 cnlli'd for. 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 11. SCTBMARiNB MiNBS. TMs Subject is not only important, but liiffiily 
 ■essential to be understood by artillery troops, upon whom such service will 
 most lilcely devolve in war ; and wliile secrecy in tlie matter of particular 
 inventions may be desirable, sucli secrecy is easily witliin tlie control of tlie 
 ■government. 
 
 Tbe StafT finds no reason against a publication of hO much of the subject 
 of submarine mines as tliese MSS. embrace. 
 
 In conclusion, tbe Staff is of the opinion that, as a whole, Major Tidball's 
 work is full and complete for the present use oi the artillery service ; that it 
 is in liarmony with the experience of tile Army in war as well as with the 
 spirit of its organization and instruction in peace ; and that it is calculated 
 and is probably invaluable for the instruction of volunteer and militia artil- 
 lery, upon whom much of the service of heavy artillery will devolve in any 
 war, and whose attention should undoubtedly be directed to such instruc- 
 tion in peace, rather than toward fleld-artillery driU merely, as is now the 
 custom. 
 
 In" this latter connection the StafF respectfully invites attention to the fact 
 that the maintenance of militia field batteries in peace is expensive, and 
 never attended with warrantable success from the very nature of things, 
 and that this branch of artillery can only be liept up in efficiency by the 
 ^government. 
 
 With these views, tlie Staff of the U. S. Artillery School feels warranted 
 in submitting Major Tidball's work for the favorable consideration of proper 
 -authority, recommending its immediate publication. 
 
 It is also respectfully recommended that the work be adopted for the 
 Army and for the Militia. 
 
 We have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servants. 
 
 Hbadqcaktebs ot the Armt, 
 
 Washington, D. C., J>ecemberlO, 1879. 
 Hon. G-EO. W. McCbabt, 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 
 Sir: I have carefully examined the manuscript copy of the proposed 
 Heavy Artillery Tactics prepared by General Tidball, and the reports and 
 papers relating thereto, and find — 
 
 1st. That the manuscript of tbe Tactics (a better designation would be 
 "Manual") oonsists of twelve parts. 
 
 # ■■*##»** 
 
 As already intjicated, it would seem that a modification of the title of the 
 work Is desirable, and I would suggest the following, viz. : 
 
 "A Manual for the Heavy Artillery Service, prepared for the use of the 
 Army and Militia of the United States, by Major J. O. Tidball, 2d artillery. 
 Brevet Brigadier-General, U. S. A., 1879." 
 
 With the title thus modified, the work will consist of parts numbered I, 
 n, in, IV, V, Tm, IX, X, XI, XII, or ten out o€ the twelve parts prepared, 
 and I therefore recommend that it be published accordingly, as modified. 
 
 The degree of authority to be given it might be based upon that given 
 January 24, 1876, toEoberts' "Hand-Book," or thus: 
 
 "The Manual for Heavy Artillery Servioe prepared by Major J. C. Tid- 
 ball is hereby approved, and will be adopted as a text-book at the Artillery 
 School at Fort Monroe, and used by the artillery companies ( batteries) 
 ftarrisoning the sea-coast forts of the United States. (Signed ) G. W. Mc- 
 Cbaky, Secretary of War." 
 
 I have the honor to be, your obedient servant, 
 
 (Signed) W. T. SHERMAN, General. 
 
 Approved: (Signed) GEORGE W. MoCRART, 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 
Preface to the Fourth Edition. 
 
 Since the publication of the Second Edition of this Manual, 
 in 1882, important changes have been made in some of the gun- 
 carriages, requiring corresponding changes in the drill. 
 
 These have been introduced, together with some additional 
 matter as proposed by Capt. S. M. Mills, 5th Artillery, Instructor 
 U. S. Artillery School, Port Monroe, Va. 
 
 The " Tactical Board," now preparing tactics for the Infantry 
 
 of the Army, having adopted, the essential features of the 
 
 " Marching Manoeuvers " (pp. 5 to 34) of this Manual, no change 
 
 is required or desirable in this part of the work. 
 
 J. C. T. 
 
 Washington, D. C, May, iSgi. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE, 
 
 Marching Manoeavrea B 
 
 Definitions 34 
 
 Ammunition 41 
 
 Implements 53 
 
 Aiming and Motion of Projectiles 56 
 
 Carriages and Platforms 65 
 
 Service of the Piece. (General Eulea.) 19 
 
 Service of Siege Gun; Siege Howitzer; 10-iuch Gun; 100- 
 pounder Parrott; 15-inch Gun; Flank-casemate How- 
 itzer; 8-inch Rifle (converted); 10-inch Siege Mortkr; 
 8-inch Siege Mortar ; Ooehorn Mortar ; 13-inch Mortar ; 
 
 10-inch Sea-Coast Mortar ; Gatling Guns 83 
 
 Target Practice 183 
 
 Telemeters and Pressure Plug 192 
 
 Mechanical Manoeuvres. (General Directions.) 199 
 
 Mechanical Manoeuvres with Siege Gun ; Siege Howitzer ; Siege 
 
 Mortars; 13-iuch Mortar 204 
 
 Cordage; Blocks and Tackles 231 
 
 Machines and Appliances for Moving Heavy Artillery 242 
 
 Mount and Dismount the Flank-casemate Howitzer; 15-inch 
 
 Gun; 10-inch Gun 271 
 
 Gun-lift; Shears; Derricks 279 
 
 Preservation of Artillery Material 293 
 
 Inspection of Cannon 301 
 
 Magazines and Store-houses 312 
 
 Transportation of Artillery .- 321 
 
 Harbor Defenses ; Strength and Composition of Batteries ; Artil- 
 lery against Armor 343 
 
 Field Intrenchments 351 
 
 Attack and Defense of Positions 403 
 
 Sieges; Defiles; Rivers; Demolition iOl 
 
 Submarine Mines 425 
 
 Permanent Fortifications. (Outlines of) 458a 
 
 Salutes. Ceremonie_3, and Official Courtesies 459 
 
 Modifications in Part Fourth 466a 
 
 Modifications in Part Eleventh 466b 
 
 Appendix 2 4'78a 
 
 Appendix 3 480 
 
 Inilex 479 
 
 Illustrations Plate 1 to 11 
 
 (viii) 
 
HEAVY ARTILLERY, 
 
 U. S. Army, 1879. 
 
 1. By the term Artillery, is understood all flre-arms discharged 
 from carriages, In contradistinction to small arms, which are dis- 
 <:liarged from the hand. It also denotes the particular troops 
 employed in the service of such fire-arms. 
 
 2. AETlLliEBY is known as lAgM Artillery and Heavy Aiiil- 
 lery. Liglii Artillery is formed into batteries and equipped for 
 field evolutions; Heavy Artillery embraces all artillery not so 
 formed and equipped. 
 
 3. In the land service of the United States there are three 
 liinds of pieces of Heaey Artillery, viz. : tlie GUN, the HowiT- 
 ZEB, and tlie Mortab. 
 
 4. Tliey are distinguished, according to tlieir principal use, 
 as Siege and as Sea^Coast Artillery. 
 
 5. Siege Artillery is used in the attack of places, and, as it 
 accompanies armies in tlieir field operations, is mounted upon 
 carriages, which serve for its transportation. 
 
 It is also employed in the defense of field works. It is then 
 sometimes called Garrison Artillery. 
 
 6. Sea-Coast Artillery consists of the heaviest calibres, and is 
 used for the armament of permanent works, chiefly on the sea- 
 coast. Their carriages do not subserve the purpose of transpor- 
 tation. 
 
 T. For the seiTice of Heavy Artillery there are four distinct 
 liiiids of carriages required, viz. : tlie Siege, the Caskmate, 
 thi; Barbette, and tlie Moetab. 
 
 S. The following are the kinds and calibres of Heavy Aiiillei-;/ 
 belonging to the present system of artillery for the land service 
 of tli(! United States. 
 
 Koie. — The term "system," as here used, refers to the char- 
 acter and arrangements of tlie material of artillery, as adopted 
 bj' a nation at any particular epoch. 
 
 (1) 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 PIECES. 
 
 KlHD. 
 
 Calibkb. 
 
 BOEB. 
 
 Wbioht. 
 
 Desiquatioit. 
 
 
 20-in 
 
 
 
 116,000 
 49,000 
 37,000 
 52,000 
 40,681 
 3,570 
 2,600 
 
 1,476 
 
 Sea-co.aRt. 
 
 i( .( 
 (1 it 
 (( (( 
 Siege. 
 
 Sea-coast. 
 
 41 it 
 
 Siege. 
 
 
 15-in 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 13-in 
 
 i( 
 
 
 
 12-in 
 
 
 Bifled- 
 
 (1 
 
 
 lO-in 
 
 
 
 4.5.in 
 
 
 Howitzer... 
 Mortar 
 
 8-in 
 
 
 5.8-in.— (flank 
 casemate).... 
 15-in 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 
 13-in 
 
 t( 
 
 
 17,120 
 
 3,700 
 
 1,900 
 
 1,010 
 
 164 
 
 10-in 
 
 (1 
 
 
 10-in 
 
 (1 
 
 
 
 g-in 
 
 ti 
 
 
 5.8-in, (Ooeh cm) 
 
 u 1 
 
 i 
 
 In service, but not of the system. 
 
 
 10-in 
 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 Sea-ooast. 
 Siege. 
 
 
 B-in 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 8-in. (converted) 
 10-in. 300-pdr.' 
 8-in. 200-pdr. 
 6.4-in. 100-pdr. ' 
 4.2-in. 30-pdr. 
 
 
 Rifled.. 
 
 16,160 
 26,000 
 16,300 
 9,700 
 4,200 
 
 (( 
 
 
 ii 
 
 Parrott... 
 
 
 
 
 Note. — The 20-inch and 13-hich sraooth-borp, and the 10 and 
 12 hich rifle gans, as likewise tlie 15-inch mortar, maybe regard- 
 ed as experimental pieces, not more than two or three of each 
 kind liaving been cast. Carriages for them have not yet been 
 determined; consequently Instructions for their service must 
 be omitted. 
 
 The 4.5-inch siege gun, 8-inoh siege howitzer, 5.8-incli (flank- 
 casemate) howitzer, tlie 5.8-inch (Coehorn) mortar, and the 4.2- 
 inch (Parrott) siege gun are mounted on wooden carriages ; all 
 other pieces on iron carriages. 
 
 It is intended that the 15-inch smooth-bore and 12-inch rifle 
 ginis shall have the same carriage ; the 10-uioh smooth-bore and 
 8-inch rifle the same carriage. 
 
 Tlie 10-inch smooth-bore and the 200-pounder (Parrott) have 
 th(' .«anie carriage, and the 8-inch smooth-bore and lOO-poundcr 
 
INTRODUCTION. 8 
 
 (Parvott) have the same carriage. The 20-iach smooth-bore has 
 a separate carriage. 
 
 . 9. Instruction in Heavy Artillery is divided Into ten parts, 
 viz. : 
 
 I. Pbeliminary Instetjction. 
 II. Seevioe op the Piece. 
 
 III. ItlEOHANIOAIi MaNCEUVEES. 
 
 IV. Caee and Peeseevation of Aetilleey Mate- 
 
 EIAl. 
 
 V. Teanspobtation op Aetilleey. 
 
 VI. Employment op Aetilleey against Akmoeed 
 
 Vessels and in Haeboe Defenses. 
 
 VII. Field Inteenchments. 
 
 VIII. Attack and Defense op Inteenched Positions. 
 
 IX. SuBMAEiNB Mines. 
 
 X. Outlines op the Genebal Pbopebties op Peb- 
 
 MANENT WOEKS. 
 
 XI. Salutes and Cebemonies. 
 
iavt im. 
 
 PRELDHNAEy INSTRUCTION. 
 
 10. The officers and men for Heavy ArtiUery duties should 
 be thoroughly instructed in the " School of the sJoldier," Light 
 Artillery and Infantry Todies. The preliminary instructions 
 herein given are only such as are, in addition, necessary for the 
 more genei-al duties of artillerymen. 
 
 11. The term piece, as herein used, applies to cannon, wheth- 
 er gun, howitzer, or mortar. As a matter of convenience, it is 
 also used to designate both cannon and carriage when the can- 
 non is mounted. 
 
 Detachment. 
 
 12. The men employed in the service of artillei-y are called 
 artillerymen. 
 
 The artilleiymen for a single piece constitute a gun detach- 
 ment, and vary in number with the size and kind of piece. 
 
 13. The detachment (Fig. 1, Plate I) is cojnposed of two 
 non-commissioned officers, and from two to ten privates. Tlie 
 senior non-commissioned officer is called chief -of -detachmerU ; 
 the other, gunner. The privates are called cannoneers. 
 
 14. The detachment is formed in double rank, and told off 
 from the right as follows : No. 1 is on the right of the rear rank; 
 STo. 2 in front of No. 1 ; No. 3 on the left of No. 1 ; No. 4 on 
 the left of No. 2 ; the other numbers follow in the same order, 
 even numbers in the front, odd fn the rear rank. When, by 
 facing about, the front becomes the rear rank, the numbers of 
 the cannoneers do not change. 
 
 15. The chief-of-detachment, when in line, is on the riglit of 
 the front rank of his detachment. When, by facing about, the 
 front becomes the rear rank, he does not change to the otlier 
 flank, but steps forward into the rear (now become the front) 
 rank. When in column of flies, he is as if he had faced with his 
 detachment from line. 
 
 16. The gunner, in line, and in colunvn of platoons, is two 
 yards iu rear of the centre of his detachment, except when be- 
 longing to the left detachment of the battery in line, or of platoon 
 when fn column of platoons, — ^in either of which cases he places 
 himself on the left of the front rank of his detachment, and is 
 
 (5) 
 
6 PRELIMINAKT INSTRUCTION. 
 
 the guide of that flank of the battery or platoon ; in column of 
 detachments, he is on a line with tlie front rank of his detach- 
 ment, on the flank towards which the wheel was made, and one 
 yard from it; in column of files, he is as if he had faced with his 
 detachment from line. When he is the left guide of the battery 
 or platoon, and by facing about the front becomes the "rear rank, 
 he does not quit his position on the flank of his detachment, but 
 steps forward into the rear (now become the front) rank, 
 
 1 1, When, by wheeling about, the right subdivision becomes 
 the left, the gunner who was tlie left guide resumes his place in 
 rear of his detachment, and the gunner of the detachment which 
 has now become the left places himself on its left flank as guide 
 of the -battery or platoon. 
 
 Platoon. 
 
 18. Two or more detachments form a platoon, commanded 
 by a lieutenant ; and, if circumstances will permit, the battery 
 will be divided Into as many platoons as there are lieutenants 
 to command them. 
 
 Batterj/. 
 
 19. The term battery is now applied to what was formerly 
 called a company. It is also used to designate a number of 
 pieces of artillery in position for service ; likewise the place in 
 a work where tliey may be located ; and it further denotes cer- , 
 tain positions in the manoeuvres with individual pieces. When- 
 ever this term is used, its meaning must be determined from the 
 context. 
 
 20. The battery is assigned to specified pieces in the work, 
 the number depending on the strength of the battery; the lat- 
 ter is divided into a like number of detachments, and these are 
 assigned to the individual pieces. Although thus assigned to the 
 service of specified pieces, tlie several detachments should be 
 instructed for the service of any piece in the command. Tiie 
 men of each detachment should be selected for their individual 
 fitness for the particular piece. 
 
 21. The detachments receive permanent numbers, from right 
 to left, the first detachment being on the right. 
 
 Platoons are in like manner permanently designated. 
 
 22. During the manoeuvres, platoons temporarily change 
 their numbers, when, by wheeling, or by facing, the original 
 right becomes the left. In column, they are numbered from 
 the head, the leading one being always tiie jUrst. 
 
 23. The men of each detachment fall in according to height, 
 the tallest men on the right; thus bringing, as a gtneral rule, 
 the strongest men to the duties reqjiiring greatest strength. 
 
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Posts of officers, non-commissioned officers, SfC. 
 
 34. {Figs. 2 and 3, Plate I.) The captain, in line, is four yards 
 in front of the centre of the battery; in column, on the side of 
 the guide, or on the side towards which the subdivisions are 
 dressed, four yards from the flank and opposite the centre of the 
 column ; as instructor, he goes wherever his presence is neces- 
 sary. 
 
 33. The senior lieutenant takes post with the right platoon ; 
 the next in rank with the left platoon ; the third with the sec- 
 ond from the right, and the fourth with the second from the 
 left. 
 
 Each lieutenant is chief ol the platoon with which he is posted ; 
 and in line, and in column of platoons, is two yards in front of 
 the centre of his platoon ; in column of detachments, each is on 
 the side of the guide, or on the side towards which the subdivis- 
 ions are dressed, two yards from the flank of the column, and 
 opposite the centre of the platoon; (they are always on the side 
 opposite that of the gunners : par. 23 ; ) in column of flies, each 
 as if he had faced with the battery from line, except the chief of 
 the leading platoon, who takes post by the side of the leading 
 guide. 
 
 36. The first-sergeant, in line, is on the right of the battery, 
 aligned on tlie front rank and one yard from it ; in column of 
 platoons and of detachments, he is on the same side as the cliief- 
 of-platoon, aligned on the front rank of the nearest subdivision 
 and one yard from it; in column of files, he is as if he had 
 faced with the battery from line. When two or more batteries 
 are united in line, he is as explained in (see Battalion). 
 
 fiTl. Each chief - of - detachment is on the right of the front 
 rank of his detachment, as in par. l.j. 
 
 35. Each gunner is two yards in rear of the centre of his de- 
 tachment, except as provided in par. 16. 
 
 39. The trumpeters, in line, are in one rank on the right of 
 the flrst-sergeant, and two yards from him ; in column of pla- 
 toons and of detachments, they wheel to the side indicated, and 
 are either four yards in front of the centre of the leading subdi- 
 vision, or four yards in rear of the last subdivision, according as 
 the column lias been formed towards their flank of the battery, 
 or the opposite ; in column of files, they are as if they had faced 
 witli the battery from line, and the one in rear stepped to the 
 right, or left, of the other, according as they faced to the right 
 or left. 
 
 30. The guides of a battery or platoon are the non-commis- 
 sioned ofiicers posted on its right and left ; the guides of a de- 
 
8 PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTION. 
 
 tachment are the chief-of-detachment and the front-rank man 
 on the opposite ilank. 
 
 31. The chiefs-of-cletachments and platoons give or repeat 
 commands only when it is prescribed. This rule is general.* 
 
 32. For the purpose o£ instruction in marching drill, the de- 
 tachments are equalized, and should not consist of more than 
 eight cannoneers. 
 
 33. When the battery faces about in line, the first-sergeant 
 and the trumpeters face about, but do not change to the other 
 flank. 
 
 34. When the number of platoons and detachments are so 
 reduced as to make surplus oflSoers or non-commissioned officers, 
 these take their places two yards behind the rear rank, and, with 
 the gunners, act as file -closers; the officers, and likewise the 
 non-commissioned officers, distribute ttiemselves at equal dis- 
 tances from right to left, according to rank. 
 
 35. It is the duty of file -closers to rectify mistakes, and in- 
 sure steadiness and promptness in the ranks. 
 
 36. In all changes of formation, as soon as the movement 
 permits, the officers and non-commissioned officers, whose posts 
 are changed, hasten by the shortest routes to their posts in the 
 new formation; except, when in column of detachments, the 
 detachments are wheeled about, they do not change, unless 
 directed to do so by the instructor. 
 
 To form the battery. 
 
 37. At the sounding of the assembly, the first-sergeant, facing 
 the battery and six yards in front of its centre, commands : 
 
 1. Fall in, 2. Left, 3. Face, 4. Call rolls, 5. Report. 
 
 The battery being divided into permanent detachments, as 
 prescribed in par. 28, at the command fall in the chiefs-of- 
 detachment place themselves on the line facing to the right, 
 and at sufficient distance from each other for the formation of 
 the detachments; the men of each detachment fall in, facing 
 to the right, the front-rank men covering their chief; the sig- 
 nal having ceased, the first-sergeant causes, if necessary, the 
 detachment to close up. 
 
 At the command face, all face to the left. 
 
 At the command call rolls, the chief s-of-detachment step out 
 two yards in front of the centres of their detachments, face 
 towards them, call their rolls, and resume their places in the 
 ranks. 
 
 At the command report, the chiefs-of-detachment, standing 
 fast, report to the first-sergeant, in succession from riglit to left, 
 
 * See (e), Appendix 2. 
 
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTION. 9 
 
 the results of their roll-calls ; the flrst-sergeant then commands : 
 Call off, when each chief-of-detachment steps promptly hi 
 front of his detachment and faces toward it to see that the men 
 call off properly; each man in turn calls ont distinctly his numr 
 ber — one, two, three, and so on ; the gunner calls last — giinner. 
 
 38. If the front and rear rank contain an unequal number 
 of cannoneers, tlie odd file is tiie left front-ranli man, and che 
 vacant space is in rear of him until after calling off; the left 
 man of tlie rear rank then steps to his left and covers the left 
 front-rank man ; he, however, retains his number, and at the 
 piece takes the position belonging to it. 
 
 The first-sergeant then faces about, salutes tlie captain, or 
 other officer acting in his place, reports the result of the roll- 
 calls, and takes his position in line. 
 
 39. If, for marching drill, or any other special purpose, tlie de- 
 tachments are required of equal size, this is effected by transfer- 
 ring men from the stronger to tlie weaker detachments ; but for 
 ordinary service, sueh as inarching to and from the place of exer- 
 cise with the pieces, the detachments need not be of equal size.* 
 
 40. When a battery is to form for ordinary garrison pur- 
 poses, such as fatigue duties, or for roll-calls when the battery 
 is smallin numbers, the first-sergeant places himself six yards 
 in front of the centre, facing towards tlie battery, and com- 
 mands : Fall in. 
 
 At the command fall in, the senior duty-sergeant places him- 
 self, facing towards the right, at the point where the right of the 
 battery is to rest ; the privates fall in, in two ranks, facing to 
 the rigiit, the front-rank men covering the senior duty-sergeant. 
 
 The second duty-sergeant takes liis place in rear of the last 
 front-rank man, and tlie other non-commissioned officers place 
 themselves, facing in the same direction as the rest, in such 
 positions as, when they face to the left, will bring them equally 
 distributed along tlie line ; the first-sergeant commands : 1. 
 Left, 2. Face, when the men face to the left; he then calls 
 the roll, reports, as in par. 38, and fakes his post in line ; at 
 the same time tlie officers take posts. 
 
 41. If the battery is to exercise at marching drill, after being 
 thus formed, the first-sergeant, before reporting, divides it into 
 the desired number of detachments of equal size, and assigns 
 the chiefs-of-detachment and gunners to their respective detach- 
 ments, who take their posts accordingly. The detachments call 
 off as before. 
 
 If the exercise is to be at the pieces, the detachments are told 
 off in sizes to suit the particular pieces, and the chiefs and gun- 
 ners are assigned as before. 
 
 See (i.). Appendix 2. 
 
10 MARCHING MANCETTVRBS. 
 
 42. The manoaiivres of a separate platoon are identical with 
 those of a battery, the cominaiul platoon being substituted for 
 battery. 
 
 43. The raanoenvres of a separate detachment are analogous 
 to those of a batterv, the command detachment replacing that 
 of battery. The ohlef-of-detachment acts as instructor, and is 
 replaced on the right flank of the detachment by the gunner. 
 
 44. The captain, or in his absence the next oflScer in rank, 
 acts as instructor. 
 
 45. All movements not specially excepted may be exeented 
 in double time. If the movement be from a halt, or when march- 
 ing in quick time, the command double time precedes the com- 
 mand march; if marching, this command is omitted. 
 
 46. Officers, when on duty with men, will habitually wear 
 their swords ; when in ranks, or when giving commands, the 
 sword must be drawn. Instruction in the use of the sword is 
 given in Light Artillery Tactics. 
 
 4'y. The trumpet signals and rules for using them are those 
 prescribed in Light Artillery Tactics. 
 
 48. When artillery is armed, equipped, and serving as either 
 cavalry or infantry, and organized into commands of these 
 arms, it will conform to the formation and tactics prescribed, 
 respectively, for these branches of service. 
 
 Maeching Mancettvees. 
 
 The following manoeuvres are those most essential, and gen- 
 erally used by Heavy Artillery troops. The principles embraced 
 in them will serve for more extended exercises. 
 
 To open ranks. 
 
 49. Being in line, at a halt, the Instructor commands : 
 
 1. Bear open order, 2. Makoh, 3. Feont. 
 
 At the first command, the chiefs-of-detacliment, and gunner 
 acting as left guide, step briskly three yards to the rear to mark 
 the new alignment of the rear rank ; the instructor goes to the 
 right flank and sees that these non-commissioned officers are on 
 a hue parallel to the front rank. 
 
 50. When the battery is not divided into detachments, the 
 non-commissioned officer on the right and left flanks, respect- 
 ively, steps back to mark the line. 
 
 At the command march, the chiefs-of-platoon step forward 
 one yard, thus bringing tiiemselves three yards in front of the 
 battery. Should there be officers in the line of file-closers, they 
 
MARCiriNa MANOBUVEES. 11 
 
 pass around the nearest flank and place themselves in the line 
 of oflScers opposite their former positions. The front-rank men 
 dress to the right ; the rear-rank men cast their eyes to the right, 
 step backwards, halt a little in rear of alignment, and then dress 
 to the line established by the non-commissioned officers wlio 
 have stepped back; the flle-closers step back at the same time, 
 taking a distance of three yards from the rear rank. 
 
 The instructor superintends the alignment of the chiefs-of- 
 platoon and of the front rank, and the first-sergeant, or iu his 
 absence the chief of the right detachment, that of the rear rank ; 
 the instructor verifies the alignment of the rear rank and of the 
 flle-closers ; the chiefs-of-platoon and flle-closers cast their eyes 
 to the front as soon as their alignment is verified. 
 
 At the command yVorai, the non-commissionod oflicerswho 
 have stepped back to mark the line for the rear rank resume 
 their places in the front rank, and the men cast their eyes to the 
 front ; the flrst-sergeant returns to his post, and the instructor 
 places himself six yards hi front of the centre of the battery, 
 facing to the front.* 
 
 To close ranks. 
 
 53. Being at a halt, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Close order, 2. Mabch. 
 
 At the command march, the chiefs-of-platoon face about and 
 resume their posts in line ; the rear rank closes to facing dis- 
 tance, each man covering his front-rank man; the flle-closers 
 move forward with the rear rank and take their posts in line ; 
 the instructor resumes his post in line. 
 
 53. Being in line, at a halt, with the ranks open, the in- 
 structor establishes two or four men as a basis for each rank, at 
 first in parallel and afterward in oblique directions to the front 
 of the battery. He then commands : 
 
 1. By file, 2. RigM (or left), 3. Debss, 4. Fkont; or, 1. By 
 file, 2. BigM (or left) backward, 3. Dbess, 4. Front; or, 
 1. Bight (or left), 2. Dress, 3. Front; or, 1, Bight (or 
 left) backward, 2. Dress, 3. Front. 
 
 Each rank is aligned as explained in the School of the Soldier, 
 the rear rank remaining parallel to the front rank. The ranks 
 being closed, the alignments are repeated in the same manner. 
 
 In all alignments, the file-closers preserve their distances from 
 the rear rank. 
 
 * Seo (a), (c), (d). Apijcadix 2. 
 
12 MARCHING MAN(EUVKES. 
 
 To rest. 
 
 54. Being at a halt, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Battery, 2. Kest; or, 1. In place, 2. BbST. 
 To resume attention, the instructor commands: 
 1. Battery, 2. Attention. 
 To dismiss the battery. 
 
 55. Being in line, at a halt, the instructor commands : Dis- 
 miss THE BATTERY. 
 
 Tlie officers return their swords and fall out ; tlie first-sergeant 
 then commands : 
 
 1. Break ranks, 2. Mabch. 
 To march in line. 
 
 56. The battery being at a halt, and correctly aligned, the 
 instructor commands : 
 
 1. Fcyrward,%. Guide {right or left), 3. Mabch. 
 
 At the command forward, the guide selects two points on a 
 line passing through him and perpendicular to the front of tlie 
 batter}' ; at tlie command march, the men step off with life ; the 
 guide observes with the greatest care tlie length and cadence of 
 the step, marches on the two points he has ciiosen, and selects 
 others in advance on the same line before reaching the first ; the 
 file-closers keep at their proper distances from the rear rank. 
 
 To halt the battery and to align it. 
 
 57. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Battery, 2. Halt, 3. Bight (or left), 4. Dress, 5. Front. 
 
 To march in the short step ; to mark time ; to change- step ; to 
 side step ; to march backward ; to oblique in line ; to pass 
 from quick time to double time, and the reverse. 
 
 Executed as explained in the School of the Soldier, substi- 
 tuting, iu the commands, battery for squad, wherever the latter 
 occurs. 
 
 58. In the oblique march, the ranks remain parallel to their 
 former position. 
 
 59. In marching in double time the left hand, instead of be- 
 ing raised, steadies the scabbard ; the sword, ii drawn, is held 
 in a vertical position in the right hand. 
 
MARCHING MANCEUVEES. 13 
 
 To wheel the battery. 
 
 60. Being in line, at a halt, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Right (or left) wheel, 2. March, 3. Battery, 4. HALT, 5. Left 
 (or right), 6. Drkss, 7. Front. 
 
 At the command march, the battery wheels to the right on a 
 fixed pivot; the left guide conducts the marching flank; the 
 right guide stands fast, so that the breast of the pivot-man may 
 rest against his left arm at the completion of the wheel ; the 
 chiefs -of -platoon face about at the first command, step back- 
 ward at the second, and superintend the movements of their 
 platoons, resuming their positions at the command front; the 
 instructor hastens by the shortest line to place himself directly 
 in front of the pivot-guide, and at a distance from liim equal to 
 the length of the battery front, and faces to the late rear. 
 
 At the command halt, given when the left guide is three yards 
 from the perpendicular, the battery halts ; the left guide of the 
 battery advances quickly, places his left elbow lightly against the 
 breast of the instructor, who establishes him on the line. 
 
 At the command dress, the men dress up to the line of the 
 guides; at the command /ront, the right guide places himself on 
 the right of the pivot-man. 
 
 61. To continue the march upon the completion of the wheel, 
 the instructor, without placing himself in front of the pivot- 
 guide, commands : 3. Forward, 4. March, 5. Guide right (or 
 left). The third command is given when the guide on the march- 
 ing flank is three yards from the perpendicular to the original 
 front ; the fourth, the instant the wheel is completed ; and the 
 fifth immediately after. The guide on the pivot places himself 
 by the side of the pivot-man at the com.ma,i-\d forward. 
 
 63. Marching in line, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Right (or left) wheel, 2. March, 3. Forward, 4. March. 
 
 At the second command, the battery wheels to the right on a 
 movable pivot ; the command forward is given when the guide 
 is three yards from the perpendicular, and the fourth command 
 at the instant the change of direction is completed. 
 
 In wheeling on a movable pivot, the command forward is given 
 in suflScient time to add march the instant the wheel is comple- 
 ted. This rule is general. 
 
 63. Marching in line, to eflfect a slight change of direction, 
 the instructor commands : 
 
 Incline to the right (or left). 
 
 The guide advances gradually the left shoulder, and marches 
 
14 MARCHING MAN(EUVBES. 
 
 in the new direction ; all the flies advance the left shoulder and 
 conform to the movements of the guide, lengthening or shorten- 
 ing the step according as the change is towards the side of the 
 guide, or the opposite. 
 
 To march hy the flank. 
 
 64. Being in line, at a halt, the instructor: commands : 
 1. Right (or left), 2. Face, 3. Forward, 4. Maboh. 
 
 It marching, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. By the right (or left) flank, 2. March. 
 
 The march in column of files is usually in quick time ; if nec- 
 essary to march in double-time, the distance between files is 
 increased to thirty-two inches, and, upon halting, the files close 
 to facing distance. 
 
 65. To halt the battery, and form it in line, the instructor 
 commands: 1. Battery, 2. Halt, 3. Left (or right), 4. rAOB; 
 or, to form line and continue the march : 1. By the left (or right) 
 flank, 2. Makoh, 3. Guide {right or left). 
 
 To oblique and to change direction in column of files. Exe- 
 cuted by the commands and means prescribed in the School of 
 the Soldier. 
 
 To form column of platoons to the right or left. 
 
 66. Being in line, at a halt, the instructor commands : 
 
 Platoons right (or left) wheel, 2. March. 
 
 At the first command, each chief-of-platoon, facing it, cautions 
 It : Right wheel. 
 
 At the command march, each platoon whe^ls.to the right on a 
 fixed pivot, as explained for the wheel Of a battery. Each chief, 
 superintending the wheel of his platoon, hastens to the point 
 where the left of his platoon is to rest on the completion of the 
 wheel; faces to the late rear, and when the marching flank 
 approaches him, commands : 1. Platoon, 2. Hai/T, 3. Left, 4. 
 Deess, 5. Front. 
 
 At the command halt, the guide on the marching flank places 
 his left arm against the breast of his chief, who then aligns the 
 platoon and takes his post in front of its centre, after command- 
 ing /rore<. If marehing, the movement is executed as just ex- 
 plained, the pivot-guides halting at the command march, mark 
 time in their places, and conform to the movements of the front 
 of the platoon. 
 
 67. Iri every' case where a line is broken in platoons, the 
 
MARCHING MANffiUVRES. 15 
 
 gunner of the left detachment of each platoon, if not already 
 there, hastens to place himself on the left flank of his detach- 
 ment as soon as the movement will permit ; he then becomes 
 the left guide of his platoon. Wlien the line is reformed, he 
 hastens to resume his former position. 
 
 68. To form column of platoons to the right or left and con- 
 tinue the march instead of halting, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. ConUnue the march, 2. Platoons right (or left) wheel, 3. 
 Maech, 4. Forward, 5. March, 6. Gidde {right or left). 
 
 The movement is executed as before, except that each chief 
 remains in front of the centre of his platoon, and the platoons 
 move straight forward at the fifth command. The leading guide 
 prolongs accurately his line of march by choosing successively 
 points in advance ; the other guides preserve with care the trace, 
 the step, and wheeling distance. 
 
 To put the column of platoons in march, and to halt the column. 
 
 69. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Forward, 2. Guide (right or left), 3. Maech, and 1. Bat- 
 tery, 2. Halt. 
 
 To form line to the right or left from column of platoons. 
 
 TO. Being at a halt, the instructor commands : 
 1. Bight (or left) into line wheel, 2. Maech, 3. Battery, 4. 
 
 Halt, 5. Left (or right), 6. Deess, 7. Feont, 8. Guides, 
 
 9. Posts. 
 
 At the first command, each ohief-of-platoon, facing it, cautions 
 it : Bight wheel. 
 
 At the command march, the pivot-guides stand fast in their 
 places and tlie platoons wlieel to the right on a fixed pivot. At 
 the command halt, given wlien the marching flanks arrive near 
 the line, the subdivisions halt ; the instructor places himself, fac- 
 ing to the right, on tlie prolongation of the line of the pivot-guides 
 at the point where the marching flank of the leading subdivision 
 is to rest. At the command dress, the battery dresses up to the 
 line established by the pivot-guides and instructor, the left guide 
 of the leading subdivision touching the breast of the instructor 
 with the left arm; the instructor superintends the alignment, 
 and gives the command _/roni upon its completion. At the com- 
 mand guides posts, the guides return to their places in line. 
 
 If marching, the movement is executed as just explained, 
 except that, at the command march, tlie guides and pivot-men 
 
16 MARCHING MANCEUVRES. 
 
 halt ; the pivot-men mark time and turn in their places, so as to 
 conform to the movement of the marching flank. 
 
 T'l. To form line and continue the march, the instructor 
 commands : 3. Forward, 4. Maech, 5. Ouide (right or left). At 
 the commund forward, the pivot-guides take their places in line. 
 
 To form line to the front column of platoons. 
 
 ' 72. Being at a halt, the instructor commands : 1. Eight (or 
 left) front into line, 2. Maech, 3. Feont. 
 
 At ttie first command, the chief of the leading platoon com- 
 mands : 1. Forward, 2. Guide left; the other chiefs command : 
 Right oblique. At the command march, repeated by all the 
 chiefs, the leading platoon advances eigliteen yards, when its 
 chief commands : 1 . Platoon, 2. Hai/t, 3. Left, 4. Deess ; the 
 other platoons oblique to the right until opposite their places in 
 line, when their chiefs command : 1. Forward, 2. Maeoh, 3. 
 Guide left, adding, as they arrive near the line : 3. Platoon, 4. 
 Hai/t, 5. Left, 6. Bbess; the instructor superintends the align- 
 ment from the left flank, and gives the command front upon its 
 completion. 
 
 If marching" in quick time, the movement is executed as just 
 explained, the cliief of the leading platoon commanding guide 
 left, if the guide be not already there. 
 
 If marching in quick time and the command be double time, 
 the instructor commands : Guide left immediately after the com- 
 mand march; the chief of the leading platoon does not halt it, 
 but cautions it to advance in quick time, and repeats the com- 
 mand for the guide ; each of the other chiefs repeats the com- 
 mand double time, and, when his platoon is about to arrive in 
 line, commands : 1. Quick time, in time to add : 2. Maech, the 
 instant it arrives abreast of the leading platoon. 
 
 If marching in double time, tlie chief of the leading platoon 
 commands : Quick time at the first command, and repeats the 
 other commands; the other subdivisions complete the movement 
 as before. 
 
 To form column of platoons from column affiles. 
 
 73. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Platoons, 2. Right (or left) front into line, 3. Mabch, 4. Bat- 
 tery, 5. Halt. 
 
 At the command march, the leading guide of each platoon 
 moves straight to the front; all the files oblique to the right 
 until opposite their places in line, when each marches to the 
 front. 
 
MARCHING MANffiUVRES. 17 
 
 The leiuling guide of each platoon moves forward until the 
 command halt, wliicla is given when he lias advanced Ave yards; 
 the other men halt on arriving in line ; each guide in rear places 
 himself on the right of tlie front rank upon tlie arrival of the last 
 file ; the leading guide having halteil, each chief dresses his 
 platoon to tlie left, and commands : Fkont when the last file 
 is aligned. 
 
 If the command be double time, the instructor commands : 
 Cfuide left (or right) immediately after the command march ; the 
 leading guide of each platoon moves forward in quick time ; the 
 other men oblique in double time, each taking the quick step 
 and dressing to the left upon arriving in line ; the rear-rank 
 men then close to facing distance. 
 
 This movement is not executed when marching in double 
 time. 
 
 The instructor's command is right (or left) front into line, 
 according as the column of files is left, or right, in front. 
 
 '74. Tlie column of files is right in front when the front-rank 
 men are on the left of their rear-rank men ; it is left in front 
 when the front-rank men are on tlie right of the rear-rank men. 
 
 To change direction in column of platoons. 
 
 75. Being in march, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Column right (or left), 2. March. 
 
 At the first command, the chief of the leading platoon com- 
 mands : Right wheel; at the command march, which he repeats, 
 his platoon wheels to the right on a movable pivot, the chief 
 adding : 1. Forward, 2. March, upon tlie completion of the 
 wlieel ; the other platoons march squarely up to the wheeling 
 point, and cliange direction by command of their chiefs as ex- 
 plained for the first. 
 
 '?6. In wheeling on a movable pivot, as the dress is always 
 toward the marching flank without command, whenever awheel 
 is executed toward the side of the guide, each chief, upon its 
 completion, cautions his platoon, guide right, or guide left, ac- 
 cording as tlie guide was right or left before the wheel. 
 
 'Y'V. In changing direction, each chief-of-platoon faces his 
 platoon while wheeling, and sees that the guide takes steps of 
 twenty-eight or thirty-three inches, and the pivot, steps of nine 
 or eleven inches, according to the gait. 
 
 Column half right (or lialf left) is similarly executed, each 
 chief giving the preparatory command right (or left) half wheel. 
 
 To make a small change of direction, the instructor cautions: 
 Incline to the right (or left). 
 2 
 
IS MARCHING MANCEUVRES. 
 
 'L'lie leading guide advances liis left slioiildei- ami takes two 
 pt'ints a little to tlie right of those upon whieli he vvas marching, 
 tlie men conforming to the new direction of the guide. 
 
 78. To put the column of platoons in march and change 
 direction at the same time, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Forward, 2. Guide (rigJit or left), 3. Column rigU (or left), 
 4. March. 
 
 To face the column of platoons to the rear, and to march to 
 the rear. 
 
 79. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Platoons right (or left) about, 2. March, 3. Battery, 4. 
 Halt. 
 
 ^t the command march, the platoons execute an about on a 
 fixed pivot ; at the command halt, each chief-of-platoon dresses 
 his platoon to the left, commands : Front, and then takes his 
 post. 
 
 To march to the rear after wlieeling about, the instructor com- 
 mands : 
 
 3. Forward, 4. March, 5. Guide {left or rigid). 
 
 To form column of detachments to the right or left. 
 
 SO. Being in line, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Detachments right (or left), 2. March. 
 
 At the first command, the gunner, acting as left guide of the 
 batterj', falls out and takes his place in rear of his detachment ; 
 at the command march, each detachment wheels to the right on 
 a fixed pivot ; upon the completion of the wheel, the front rank 
 of each take the full step (28 inches) ; the rear rank sliouteus the 
 step till it gains the distance of thirty-two inches from the front 
 rank ; the guide and dress of each detachment is, without fur- 
 ther command, tovvards the side opposite the gunners, i. e., to- 
 ward the wheeling flank; the leading guide prolongs accurately 
 his line of march by choosing successively points in advance ; the 
 other guides preserve with care the trace, the step, and wheel- 
 ing distance. 
 
 The gunners march one yard from the flank of their respective 
 detachments, and see that the ranks maintain accurately their 
 alignments and distances. 
 
 The positions of the ofiioers, first -sergeant, gunners, and 
 trumpeters are as prescribed in pars. 26 to 33. 
 
MARCHING MAN(BUVRES. 19 
 
 To form column of detachments and halt. 
 81. The instructor commands : 
 .1. Detachments right {or left), 2. Makch, 3. Battery, 4. Halt. 
 
 The fourth command is given the instant the front ranli com- 
 plete the wheel ; the rear ranks fall back to thirty-two Indies, 
 and all the ranks dress, without further command, toward the 
 marching flank. 
 
 S3. In all wheelings by detachments, the forward march is 
 taken npon the completion of the movement, unless the com- 
 mand halt be given. This rule is general. 
 
 53. In column of detachments, the ranks dress toward the 
 flank opposite the gunners. This rule is general. 
 
 To march in column of detachments to the front from either flank. 
 
 54. Being in line, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Right (or left) forward, 2. Detachments right (or left), 3. 
 Mabch. 
 
 At the command march, the right detachment moves straight 
 to the front, with the guide to the left ; its rear rank, shortening 
 the step, falls back to thirty-two inches; the other detachments 
 wheel to the right on a fixed pivot; the second detachment, 
 when its wheel is nearly completed, wheels to the left on a 
 movable pivot, and follows the first detachment ; the other de- 
 tachments having wheeled to the right, move forward and wheel 
 to the left on a movable pivot on the same ground as the second. 
 
 Being in column of detcbchments, at a halt or marching, to change 
 the chief s-of -platoons and gunners from one flank of the col- 
 umn to the other. 
 
 55. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Officers and gunners change flank, 2. Mabch. 
 
 At the first command, the ofl3cers and gunners close into the 
 flanks of the column; and, at the command march, pass quickly 
 through the column between the detachments. 
 
 To put the column of detachment in march, and to hall the 
 column. 
 
 56. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Forward, 2. Mabch, and 1. Battery, 2. Halt. 
 
20 MARCHING MANOEUVRES. 
 
 To change direction in column of detachments. 
 Being in march, tlie instructor commands : 
 
 1. Column right (or left), 2. MabOH. 
 
 At tlie command march, the leading rani; wheels on a movable 
 pivot; the wheel being completed, this rank retakes the step of 
 twenty-eight inches ; tlie otiier ranks move forward and wheel 
 on the same ground. 
 
 Column half right (or left) is similarly executed. 
 
 ST. To put the column of detachments in march, and change 
 direction at the same time, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Forward^ 2. Column right (or left), 3. l^lARCH. 
 
 To march the column of detachments to the rear. 
 
 88. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Detachments right (or left) about, 2. March. 
 
 Tlie detaclmients wliecl about on a fixed pivot; the man on 
 the marching flank of tlie rear rank of each detacliment pre- 
 serves tlie distance of thirty-two inches from his front-rank man ; 
 tlie man on the pivot flank closes up to liis front-rank man, 
 covering him during the wheel, and on its completion falls back 
 to thirty-two inches; the chiefs -of -platoon and the gunners 
 oblique to the riglit or left in turning about, so as to preserve 
 their proper positions with reference to tlie column. 
 
 To form line from column of detachments. 
 
 89. To the riglit or left. The battery being at a Iialt, or march- 
 ing, the instructor comniiinds : 
 
 1. Detachment right (or left), 2. March, 3. Guide (right or 
 left); or, 3. Batlery, 4. Halt, 5. Left (or right), 6. Dress, 
 7. Front. 
 
 At tlie command march, tlie detaclimonts wheel to the right 
 on a fixed pivot. Tlie rear rank of eacli detachment closes to 
 facing distance during the wheel, except when executed in double 
 time, and the line advances on the completion of the wheel. 
 
 If the line be formed towards tlie side from the chiefs-of -pla- 
 toon, they close to the flank of the column at the first command, 
 and, at tlie command march, pass quickly through the column 
 between their detachments; the gunners, at the same time, in 
 lilce manner, pass to tlie other side of tlio column. 
 
 When the command lialt is given, the instructor, before dress- 
 ing the battery, places the leading guide on the line Of the pivot- 
 
MARCHING MANCBUVKBS. 21 
 
 men, and at a distance from the leading pivot-man sufiicient to 
 admit tlie leading detacliment ; tiie battery is tlien dressed on 
 tiiis guide and tlie pivot-men of tlie detaeliments. 
 
 90. On the right or left. Tlie instructor commands ; 
 
 1. On the right (or left) into line, 2. Maboh, 3. Fbont. 
 
 At the command march, the leading detachment wheels to the 
 right on a movable pivot, and moves foi-vvard, dressing to the 
 right ; the other detachments march a distance equal to their 
 front, beyond the wheeling point of the detachment next pre- 
 ceding, wheel to the riglit, and advance as explained for the 
 first. Tlie leading detachment, having wheeled, advances five 
 yards and Is halted by the command : 1. First detachment, 2. 
 Halt, 3. Right (or left), 4. Dbiss, from the chief of its pla- 
 toon ; at the fonrth command it dresses to the right ; the other 
 detachments halt and dress successively upon arriving in line ; 
 the rear rank of each detachment, upon halting, closes to facing 
 distance. The instructor places himself on the right to superin- 
 tend the movement, and after the last detachment dresses gives 
 the command /roni. 
 
 At the commandyroB^, given when the last detachment com- 
 pletes dressing, all cast their eyes to the front. 
 
 The chiefs-of-platoon and gunners follow up the movements 
 and take their positions in line as the detachments successively 
 come up to it. If the movement be executed on the side opposite 
 the gunners, each takes his place beliind the detachment by 
 passing in front of the one next succeeding it. 
 
 91. To the front. The battery being at a halt, the instructor 
 commands : 
 
 1. Right (or left) front into line, 2. Mabch, 3. Fbont. 
 
 At the command march, the first detachment moves straight 
 to the front, dressing to the left ; the other detacliments oblique 
 to the right until opposite their places in line, when each marches 
 to the front. As soon as the leading detachment has advanced 
 five yards, the chief of its platoon commands: 1. First detacli- 
 ment, 2. Halt, 3. Left (or right), 4. Dbess; at the fourth 
 command it dresses to the left ; the other detachments halt, and 
 dress to the left upon arriving in line ; the rear ranks close to 
 facing distance upon halting. The gunner who is the left guide 
 of the battery in line places himself on the flank of liis detach- 
 ment as soon as it halts upon reaching the line. The instructor 
 places himself on the left to superintend the movement, and 
 aftei' the last detachment dresses gives the command front. 
 
 93. Asa rule, this movement is made towards the side of 
 
22 MARCHING MANCEUVRBS. 
 
 the chiefs-of-platoon ; should it be made towai-ds the opposite 
 side, the chiefs of the leading and last platoon take their posts 
 in line by jiassiiig around the flanks of the battery ; the chiefs of 
 the other jilatoons pass tln-oiigh the column as the oblique com- 
 mences; at the same time all the gunners pass through to the 
 opposite flank. 
 
 If marching in quick time, the leading detachment continues 
 to advance until halted, as before, and the other detachments 
 oblique, at the command march. 
 
 If marching in double time, or in quick time, and the com- 
 mand be double time, tlie instructor commands : Guide left im- 
 mediately after the command march; the leading detachment 
 moves to the front and continues the march in quick time, its 
 rear rank closing to facing distance ; the other detAchraents 
 oblique in double time, each taking the quick time and dressing 
 to tlie left upon arriving in line ; the rear rank, on arriving in 
 line, closes to facing distance. 
 
 To march the column of subdivisions by the flank. 
 
 93. If at a lialt, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Bight (or left), 2. Face, 3. Forward, 4. March, 5. Guide 
 {right or left). 
 
 94. If marching: 
 
 1. By the (right or left) flank, 2. March, 3. Guide (left or 
 right). 
 
 The guides of the subdivisions preserve proper intervals, and 
 dress on the guide who conducts the guiding subdivision. 
 
 95. To resume the original direction, the instructor com- 
 mands : 
 
 1. By the left (or right) flank, 2. March; and for platoons, 3. 
 Guide (right or left). 
 
 To halt and resume the original front, the instructor com- 
 mands : 
 
 1. Battery, 2. Halt, 3. Left (or right), 4. Face. 
 To oblique in column of subdivisions. 
 
 96. The instructor commands: 
 
 1. Eight (or left) oblique, 2. March. 
 
 During the oblique, the subdivisions preserve their parallel- 
 ism; the guide of each subdivision on the side towards which 
 
MARCHING MANCEUVRES. 23 
 
 the oblique is made is tlie guide of the subdivision ; the guide of 
 the l-eading subdivision is the guide of the column. The guides 
 Iveep on a line parallel to the original direction. 
 OT. To resume the direct march, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Forward, 2. Maeoh. 
 
 The guide is, without indication, on the side it was in'evious to 
 the oblique. 
 
 If the oblique be executed from a halt, the guide is announced 
 upon taking the direct march. 
 
 9S. The battery being at a halt, in line, or in column of 
 subdivisions, to march it a short distance to tlie rear, the in- 
 structor commands: 1. Battery, 2. About, 3. Face; the chiefs- 
 of-detachment and the gunner acting as guide step into the rear, 
 now become the front, rank; the chief s-of-platoon, now in rear, 
 remain there. 
 
 The original direction is resumed by again passing to the flank 
 march, or at once by the commands : \. To the rear, 2. Mabch ; 
 or, if at a halt, 1. Battery, 2. About, 3. Face; the guides and 
 chiefs-of-detachment in either case return to the front rank. 
 
 To form column of files from column of subdivisions. 
 
 99. Being at a halt, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Right (or left), 2. Face, 3. Platoons (or detachments), 4. 
 Column left (or Column right), 5. MARCH. 
 
 At the command face, all face to the right; at the command 
 march, each subdivision column changes direction, and joins 
 upon the one which precedes it. 
 
 If marching, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. By the right (or left) flank, 2. Platoons (or detachments), 3. 
 Column left (or Column right), 4. March. 
 
 At the command rriarch, each subdivision faces to the right in 
 marching, changes direction, and joins upon the one which pre- 
 cedes it. 
 
 In both cases, if tlie movement is executed from column of 
 detachments the rear rank close In elbow to elbow, with the 
 front rank. 
 
 The route step. 
 
 100. When it is desired to give freedom and ease to the men 
 in marching, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Route step, 2. March. 
 If in line or column of platoons, the rear rank falls back to 
 
24 MARCHING MANCBUVEBS. 
 
 thirty-two inches from the front rank ; the men are not required 
 to keep silence, nor Iteep the step, but each man covers tlie file 
 in his front, and, if armed, cari-ies liis piece at will. 
 
 To resume the attention, the instructor commands : 1. Battery, 
 2. Attention. At the second command, the rear rank, if in 
 line or column of platoons, closes to facing distance, and all the 
 men take the step. 
 
 The battery may also be marched at rout step in column of 
 files, the distance between files being increased to thirty-two 
 inches. On resuming the attention, the leading file takes the 
 short step until the Dther files close to facing distance. 
 
 The battery in rout step changes direction by the same com- 
 mands as when in cadence step. 
 
 To form single rank from double rank. 
 
 101. For special purposes it may be desired to make this 
 formation. 
 
 Being in line, at a halt, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Form single rank, 2. Detachments {right ov left), 3. MakCH. 
 
 At the command march, all the detachments wheel to the 
 right; the front rank of the right detachment, upon completing 
 the wheel, continues the march with its guide on the wheeling 
 flank; the other raiiks halt, and successively resume the march 
 when at wheeling distance from the rank preceding it ; the rear- 
 most rank having its distance, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Detachment left (or right), 2. March, 3. Battery, 4. Halt, 
 5. Left (or right), G. Dkess, 7. Feont ; or, 3. Guide {right 
 or left). 
 
 102. Marching in column of detachments, to form single 
 rank, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Form single rank, 2. Mabch. 
 
 At the second command, the front rank of the leading detach- 
 ment continues the march ; the other ranks halt, and successively 
 resume the march when at wheeling distance; the rearmost 
 rank having its distance, line is formed as before. 
 
 103. In single rank, the relative positions of the officers and 
 non-commissioned officers are the same as wlien in double rank, 
 and the battery performs, by the same commands and means, 
 all the movements of a double rank. The cannoneers retain 
 their original numbers. 
 
 In executing the rear open order, the gunners step back to the 
 line marked by the guides for a supposed rear rank. 
 
MARCHING MANCEUVKES. 25 
 
 To form double rank from single rank. 
 
 104. Being in line, at a liait, tlie instructor commands : 
 
 ' 1. Form double rank, 2. Detachments right (or left), 3. MakCH. 
 
 At tlie coniirmnil march, tlie front and rear rank of eacli de- 
 taelniient wheels sepai-ately to the riolit; the leading rank halts 
 the instant the wheel is completed ; the other ranks continue the 
 march and halt successivelj', each rear rank upon closing to 
 facing distance from its front rank, and each front rank when 
 at wheeling distance from the rear rank of the preceding detach- 
 ment. When the column is put in march, the rear rank of each 
 detachment falls back to thiity-two inches from the front rank. 
 
 In forming from single to double rank, the instructor wheels 
 the detachments to the rigid or left, accoi-ding as the front-rank 
 men are on tlie riglit or left of their rear-rank men. 
 
 105. Marching in column of detachments at single-rank dis- 
 tance, the front-rank men of each detachment in front of their 
 rear-rank men, to form double rank, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Form double rank, 2. Maech. 
 At the command march, the leading rank of tlie first detach- 
 ment lialts ; the othei- ranks continue the mai'ch, each halting in 
 the manner just explained. 
 
 To march to the pieces, or other place of exercise. 
 
 106. The front, in connection with a piece of artillery, is the 
 direction in which the mnzzle points, except when the piece is 
 mounted on a traveling carriage and the carriage is limbered 
 up; in which case the front is in the direction in which the pole 
 points. The right or left is the right or left when looking towards 
 the front. 
 
 The battery being formed for drill, as prescribed in par. 37, 
 the instructor wheels it into column of detachment, or faces it 
 into column of files ; to the right if he Is to approach the bat- 
 tery on the left, and to the left if he is to approach it on the 
 right. The column is directed so as to bring the detachments as 
 nearly as practicable four yards jn the rear of the platforms of 
 the pieces. When the liead of column arrives at a distance of 
 four 3'ards from the left or right of the battery, the instructor 
 commands : Detachments opposite your pieces. 
 
 1st. Column affiles. As each detachment arrives opposite its 
 piece, it is halted by the chief-of-detachment, who tlien com- 
 mands : 
 1. Left (or right), 2. Face, 3. Eight, 4. Dbess, 5. Feont. 
 
26 MARCHING AIAN(EUVKES. 
 
 The cletachment faces to the piece, and immediately the gun- 
 ner places himself by the side of tlie left front-rank cannoneer; 
 this is his place at all times when the detachment is in this posi- 
 tion at the piece. ' 
 
 2d. Column of detachments. As each detacliment arrives oppo- 
 site its piece, the chief-of-detachment halts it, and commands, 
 according as the battery has been approached on its left or right : 
 1. Left (or right) wheel, 2. March, 3. Detachment, 4. Halt, 5. 
 Eight, G. Dkess, 7. Front; he then takes liis post on the 
 riglit of the front rank. 
 
 As the detachment wheels, tlie gunner takes his post by the 
 side of the left front-rank cannoneer. 
 
 icy. The centre' of tlio detachment is four yards in rear of 
 the piece or centre of the platform. 
 
 Each cliief-of-platoon places himself one yard in rear of the 
 centre of his jjlatoon, or at sncli otlicr place as lie can best 
 observe liis detaclimeiits. 
 
 To take posts. 
 (Figure 4, Plate 11.) 
 10§. Tlie instructor commands : 
 
 1. Cannoneers to your posts, 2. MakOH. 
 
 At the first coniinaiiil, the chief of each detachment, stepping 
 two yards to the fiont and facing his detachment, commands : 
 1. Eight, 2. Face, 3. To youb posts; the detachment having 
 faced at the command of Its chief, the gunner steps to one side, 
 and at the command march by the instructor, repeated by the 
 chiefs-of-detachment, it files to the left, the two ranks separat- 
 ing, the rear rank marching to the right of the piece, and the 
 front rank to the left of it. As each man arrives at his post, he 
 halts and faces the piece, Nos. 1 and 2 one yard from the 
 epanlment, parapet, or scarp; their breasts eighteen inches out- 
 side of the carriage; the remaining numbers and the gunner 
 dressing respectively on Nos. 1 and 2, at uitervals of one yard, 
 except that between Nos. 4 and G and 3 and 5 there is an inter- 
 val of two yards; the gunner places himself in the interval 
 between Nos. 4 and 6. 
 
 AVitli mortars, Nos. 1 and 2 are on a line with the muzzle, the 
 remaining number and the gunner being as before. 
 
 The chief-of-detachment is facing the piece, and two yards 
 in rear of the platform or rearmost part of the carriage ; while 
 superintending the exercises, he goes wherever his presence is 
 most required. 
 
MAKCHING MANCEUVRES. 27 
 
 109. As soon as the cannoneers are at their posts, the in- 
 structor commands : 
 
 Take equipments. 
 
 This is executed as hereinafter prescribed for eacli kind of 
 piece. 
 
 At the conclusion of tlie exercises he causes the implements 
 and equipments to be replaced as hereinafter prescribed for eaoli 
 case. 
 
 To rest. 
 HO. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. In place, 2. Rest; or, 1. Best. 
 
 The cannoneers lay down their handspilces, as explained in 
 par. 23G. 
 
 In the first case, the men j-emain at their posts ; in the second, 
 tliey may leave their posts, but must remain near the piece. 
 
 To resume the exercise. 
 
 111. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Battery; 2. Attention. 
 
 All resume their posts and handspikes. 
 
 To change posts. 
 
 113. The Instructor commands : 
 
 1. Change posts, 2. Makch, 3. Call off. 
 
 At the first command, the cannoneers lay down their hand- 
 spikes, place their equipments on the parts of the carriage near- 
 est them, or on the platform, and face to their left. At the 
 command march, each cannoneer advances one post ; No. 2, pass- 
 ing in rear of the piece, takes the place of Ko. 1 ; No. 1 of No. 
 3; No. 3 of No. 5, and so on. On arriving at their new posts 
 they face the piece and, without further command, t.ake the 
 handspikes and equipments belonging to them ; at the tliird 
 command, they call off according to their new numbers. 
 
 To leave the battery. 
 
 113. The instructor first causes the equipments to be re- 
 placed, as hereafter prescribed for each case, and then com- 
 mands : 
 
 1. Detachments rear, 2. Maech. 
 
 At the first command, repeated by the chiefs-of-detachment, 
 
28 MARCHING MANCEUVRES. 
 
 the cannoneers upon tlie riojht of the piece face to then- left, and 
 those upon the left to thfi right; at the comraanrl march, repeat- 
 ed by the chiefs-of-detachraent, they march to the reai-, the rank 
 with even numbei's closing on that with odd numbers, chanofe 
 direction to the right at the command : 1. Column right, 2. 
 March, from the ehief-of-detachment, are halted, faced to the 
 front, and dressed to the right by him, so as to bring the centre 
 of the detachment on a line with the axis of the piece, or oppo- 
 site the middle of the platform, and four yards in rear of it. Tlie 
 gimner takes his place on the left of the front rank. 
 
 To reform the battery and leave the pieces. 
 
 1st. Into column affiles. 
 
 114. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Detachments right (or left), 2. Face, 3. Close, 4. March. 
 
 At the command face, the detachments face to the right, the 
 gunners taking then- places in the rank of file-closers, and at the 
 command march, repeated by all the chiefs-of-detachment, (ex- 
 cept the leading one,) all the detachments close on the leading 
 one, which stands fast. As each detachment closes up to the one 
 in front of it, it is halted, by its chief, who then takes his post in 
 front of the leading file of the front rank. 
 
 2d. Into column of detachments. 
 
 115. To form column of detachments, the instructor com- 
 mands: 1. Detachments right (or left) wheel, 2. March, 3. 
 Close to wheeling distance, 4. Cfuide {right or left), 5. March. 
 
 At the second command, each detachment wheels to the right 
 and is halted and dressed to the left by its chief; at the third 
 command, the chief of the leading detachment cautions it to 
 stand fast; at the fifth command, all the detachments in rear of 
 the first step oflT, and each is halted by its chief when at wheel- 
 ing distance from the preceding detachment. 
 
 The column is then marched from the battery by the com- 
 mands and means heretofore explained. 
 
 Formation of a Battalion. 
 {Figure 5, Plate II.) 
 
 116. When two or more batteries form together in line, the 
 flrst-sergeants take post beside and on the right of the front-rank 
 cannoneer of their batteries ; the chiefs of the riglit detachments, 
 stepping back for that purpose, take post in line of gunners in 
 rear of the right file of their detacliments; the first-sergeants 
 
MARCHING MANffiUVRES. 
 
 29 
 
 retain htibitually this position during all battalion manoenvres, 
 and are the guides of that flanlf of their batteries. 
 
 117. Gunners acting as left guides of batteries, except the 
 battery on the left flanlj, fall back and occupy their posts in 
 rear of their detachments. 
 
 118. Batteries form without intervals; the first-sergeant of 
 each, except tlie right, touching the left front-rank cannoneer 
 of the battery on I lis right. 
 
 119. Tlie trumpeters of all the batteries are united and take 
 post on the riglit of the battalion In two ranks, the loft of the 
 front rank twelve yards to tlie right of the flrst-sergeant of the 
 right battery; when there is a band, tliey ai-e as provided in 
 par. 125. 
 
 In all other respects the several batteries have the formation 
 given \npars. 24 to 36. 
 
 130. A battalion is composed of two or more batteries, not 
 exceeding twelve. When there are more than twelve batteries, 
 they are formed into two or more battalions, tlie batteries of 
 each regiment being kept, as far as practicable, together. 
 
 121. In forming the line, the batteries are posted from right 
 to left according to the following table ; the numbers indicate 
 the relative rank of the battery commanders, the senior, or No. 
 1, being on the right of the line : 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 .4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 (5 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 e 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 12S. Batteries whose captains are absent are posted in line 
 according to the relative i-ank of the officers present in command 
 of them. At the discretion of tlie commanding officer, a battery 
 whose captain is absent for a few days only may retain its place 
 according to his rank. 
 
 123. Batteries are designated numerically from right to left 
 when in line, and from front to rear when in colnmn, first bat- 
 tery, second battery,, and so on. 
 
30 MARCHING MANCEUVKES. 
 
 The designations of batteries change when, by facing in tlie 
 opposite direction, the left becomes the riglit of tlie line, and the 
 rear the head of the column. 
 
 134. When a battalion is provided with colors there will be 
 a color-guard, composed of a color-sergeant and seven corporals, 
 which is posted as the left detachment of the right centre battery. 
 ( Nnmber 3 of the table.) 
 
 The front rank is composed of the color-sergeant and the three 
 senior corporals, one posted on his right and two on his left ; the 
 rear rank is composed of the four remaining corporals, placed 
 in order of rank from right to left. 
 
 The color-sergeant carries the national color. A regimental 
 color (when present) is carried by a sergeant, who takes the 
 place of the corporal on the left of the color-sergeant. 
 
 The color is to be carried only when the battalion is under 
 arms with muskets. 
 
 At the sounding of the assemblj' the color-guard forms at the 
 appointed place, and is marched, by commands of the color- 
 sergeant, to the place where the color Is kept. The color- 
 sergeant receives the color and faces towards the guard; the 
 senior corporal commands : 1. Freseni, 2. Abms, at which the 
 guard salutes the color ; the corporal then commands : 1. Carry, 
 2. Aems, after which the sergeant takes his position in the 
 guard; the guard is then, by commands from the sergeant, 
 marched to the color-battery on its parade-ground. 
 
 On returning the color the same ceremonies are observed. 
 
 The color-bearer carries the heel of the color-lance in its 
 socket, supported at the right hip ; the right hand grasps the 
 staff" at the height of the shoulder, to hold it steady. The color- 
 bearer salutes with the color as follows : 
 
 {One.) Slip the right hand along the staff to the height of the 
 eye; lower the staff by straightening the arm to its full extent, 
 the heel of the lance remaining at the hip. 
 
 (Two.) Bring back the lance to ihe habitual position. 
 
 At all occasions of ceremony the color is without its case. 
 
 When marching in double time, the color-bearer grasps the 
 color to the lance, raises the heel from the socket, and allows 
 the color, the lance sloping to the rear, to rest on the right 
 shoulder.* 
 
 Posts of field and staff officers. 
 125. The following is for a full regiment of twelve batteries ; 
 for a less number the same principles are observed : 
 {Figure 5, Plate II.) 
 The colonel is thirty yards in front of the line of captains. 
 
 See (f), Appendix 2. 
 
MARCHING MANCEUVEES. 31 
 
 opposite the centre of the battalion. This distance, as also that 
 for the otlier field officers, is reduced as the front of the battalion 
 is diminished. 
 
 The lieutenant-colonel Is twelve yards in front of the line of 
 captains, and opposite the centre of the three batteries on the 
 right ; the first major occnpies a like position with reference to 
 the three left batteries of the battalion ; tlie second major a like 
 position with reference to the three right centre batteries ; the 
 iJiird major a like position with reference to tlie three left centre 
 batteries. 
 
 The adjutant is in line with the chiefs-of-platoon, and three 
 yards outside the right flank of the battalion. 
 
 Other staff officers, in the order of rank from right to left, are 
 on the right of the adjutant, with one yard interval between 
 each. 
 
 The sergeant-major is three j'ards to the left of the front rank 
 of the battalion. 
 
 Other non-commissioned staff officers, when present, are on 
 the left of the sergeant-major, with one yard interval between 
 each. 
 
 The hand is formed in two or more ranks, with intervals be- 
 tween flies, and distances between the ranks sufficient to permit 
 a free use of their instruments. 
 
 The trumpeters form the rear ranks of the band. 
 
 The band is posted on the right of the battalion, the left of its 
 front rank twelve yards from the right of the front i-ank of tlie 
 battalion. 
 
 The field and staff officers are mounted or on foot, as the com- 
 manding officer may direct. 
 
 126. When ttie battalion is in column on the march, in cam- 
 paign, the colonel, lieutenant -colonel, second major, and staff 
 officers march at the head of the column ; the other two majors 
 and the non-commissioned staff at the rear ; the band at the 
 head or rear, as the commanding officer may direct. In all other 
 cases, when the line is broken into column, whetlier of batteries, 
 platoons, or detachments, the field officers, adjutant, and ser- 
 geant-major take post on the flank of the column on the side 
 next to the wheeling flank of the subdivision ; tlie colonel about 
 thirty yards from the centre of the column ; tlie lieutenant-col- 
 onel and majors six yards from the flank, each in line with the 
 subdivision in front of which he was posted in line; the adju- 
 tant and sergeant-major in their own wings abreast of and three 
 yards from the flank of the leading and rear subdivisions oi the 
 column. 
 
 The staff officers (excepting the adjutant) wheel to the right 
 
32 MARCHING MANffiUVRES. 
 
 (or left) and place themselves, with intervals of one yard, oppo- 
 site the centre of the leading subdivision, and six yards in front 
 of the leading captain, or six yards in rear of tlie gnnners of the 
 last subdivision, according as the line has been broken to tlie 
 right or left. 
 
 Tlie non-commissioned staff (excepting tlie sergeant-major) 
 occupy a similar position with reference to the other extremity 
 of the column. 
 
 The band wheels to the right (or left), and takes post in front 
 or rear of the colnmn, as the colonel may direct. 
 
 In colnmn of files, the field, staff, and non-commissioned staff 
 oflBcers, and the band, are as if each had faced witli the battal- 
 ion. 
 
 To form the battalion. 
 
 137. The batteries being formed on their parade-grounds, 
 adjutanfs call is sounded, at which the adjutant and sergeant- 
 major, the latter on the left, each followed by a marker, march 
 to the battalion parade-ground, wliere they post the markers, 
 facing each other at a distance apart a little less than the front 
 of a battery ; the adjutant posts the marker nearest the right of 
 the line, the sergeant-major tlie one nearest the left ; each 
 marker liolds his staff in front of him ; tlie adjutant and sergeant- 
 major draw swords, face about, and eacli proceeds battery dis- 
 tance towards his flan Ij of the line; they then face abont and 
 cover the markers. 
 
 The color-battery is the first established, and is conducted by 
 its captain so as to arrive from the rear, parallel "to the line of 
 markers. When it arrives at three yards from the line, the cap- 
 tain halts it; dresses it to the left, against the markers; com- 
 m!iiu\s front, and takes his post in front. 
 
 Tlie batteries of the right wing form successively from left to 
 right, each being bronglit upon the line and dressed to the left, 
 as explained for the color-ljattery ; tlie gunner of each battery, 
 acting as left guide, at the command halt, returns to his post in 
 rear of his detachment; at the same time tlie right guide places 
 himself, facing tlie markers, and aligns himself on them, at bat- 
 tery distance from the right marker, or guide in front of him. 
 The first-sergeant takes tlie place of the chief-of-detachment who 
 lias stepped out to mark the line. Tlie adjutant assures the 
 l>osition of the right guides, placing himself in their rear as they 
 successively arrive. The guides retain their positions on the line 
 untij the command guides posts is given. 
 
 The batteries of the left wing form successively from right to 
 left, in a similar manner, and are dressed to tlie right; the left 
 
MARCHING MANCEUVRES. 33 
 
 instead of the riglit guides place themselves on the Hue, and are 
 ussiuvd in position by the sergeant-major. At tlie command 
 halt, the first-sergeant and tlie cliief of the riglit detaclnnent talie 
 their places, as per joa;-. 116. 
 
 Both wings are formed simultaneously. 
 
 To enable the captains to dress tlieir batteries, the first-sergeants 
 step into tlie rear rank, eacli resuming his place in the front rank 
 as soon as the captain, after dressing liis battery, takes liis post 
 In front. 
 
 . The field and staff' and non-commissioned staff officers take 
 their posts as the battalion is formed. The colonel faces towards 
 the line. 
 
 12S. Before sounding adjutant's call, the band takes a posi- 
 tion designated by the adjutant, and marches at the same time 
 as the batteries to its position in line. 
 
 Eacli Ciiptain commands : 1. Support, 2. Aems, as soon as tlie 
 captain next succeeding him in liis own wing commands front; 
 the flank batteries support arms as soon as dressed. 
 
 The sergeant-major having assured the position of the left 
 guide of tlie left batteiy, takes his post on tlie left of the lino. 
 
 1S9. Tlie adjutant having assured the position of the right 
 guide of the right battery, places himself, facing towards the left 
 of the line, three yards in front of his post, and wlien the last 
 battery arriving on the line is brought to support arms, com- 
 mands : 1. Guides, 2. POSTS. At this command, the guides and 
 markers take their posts in line, the latter stationing themselves 
 in the line of gunners on the right and left flanks of the battal- 
 ion ; the first-sergeants step a pace to the rear to permit the 
 guides and markers to pass through their intervals, after which 
 they return to the front rank. The adjutant then passes along 
 the front in rear of the chief s-of-platoon, to the centre of the 
 line, turns to the right, halts midway between the captains and 
 the colonel, faces about, brings the battalion to a carry, and a 
 present arms, resumes his front, salutes the colonel, and reports : 
 Sir ! The battalion is formed. 
 
 The colonel returns the salute witli the right hand, directs the 
 adjutant : Take your post. Sir ! draws his sword, and commands : 
 1. Carry, 2. AfeMS. 
 
 Tlie adjutant faces about, and returns to his post on the right, 
 passing in rear of the chief s-of-platoon of the right wing. 
 
 ISO. The foregoing is the habitual formation of an artillery 
 battalion when serving as artillery, and will be used for occa- 
 sions of drill and ceremonies. Where battalion movements 
 become necessary or desirable, those embraced in the "School 
 OF THE Battalion" [Infantry Tactics,] are prescribed, and 
 3 
 
34 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 will be executed on the principles therein given, substituting 
 the commands detachments and battery tor '■'■fours'''' and '■'■corrv- 
 pany" wherever they occur. 
 
 Other diffei'ences of detail will suggest themselves from the 
 marching drill heretofore given in this work, which, it is under- 
 stood, is the basis of movements for heavy artillery troops. 
 
 The skirmishing manoeuvres are those prescribed in Infantry 
 Tactics, substituting commands as above. 
 
 Chlefs-of-detachment and gunners remain with their detach- 
 ments in all deployments, exercising over the men such control 
 as will insure the maximum of efficiency. 
 
 Definitions. 
 {Figure 1, Plate III.) 
 
 131. Cannon. The term careraojj is applied to all heavy fire- 
 arms discharged from carriages, in contradistinction to small 
 arms., which are discliarged from the hand. The genei-al form 
 of cannon is that of a truncated cone, the largest part being at 
 the breech, around the seat of the charge ; in those of i-ecent 
 model, the exterior elements are curves, and there are neither 
 mouldings nor ornaments on the piece. 
 
 All heavy cannon in the U. S. land service are made of cast- 
 iron ; those pieces having greater calibres than that of the siege 
 gun are cast hollow, being cooled from the inside upon the prin- 
 ciple introduced by Eodman. 
 
 The want of ductility in cast-iron is unfavorable to its endu- 
 rance under high vibratory strains ; and as the ballistic power 
 demanded of ordnance has gi'catly increased of late years, cast- 
 iron is no longer much used for forming the parts immediately 
 about the bore of heavy rifled guns, some other metal being sub- 
 stituted, the molecules of which accommodate themselves moi'e 
 readily to new positions when under strain. 
 
 It lias been found that cast-iron guns are greatly improved by 
 tubing them with some ductile and strong metal, as low steel or 
 wrought-iron. A large part of the energy that the powder gas 
 exerts on the surface of the bore is absorbed in expanding tlie 
 tube, and that which finally reaches the cast-iron being much 
 reduced in amount, and also spread over a surface relatively 
 much gi'eater than that of the bore, is lai-gely within tlie limits 
 of safety for the comparatively brittle envelope. Tlie ductile 
 metal of the tube also cushions the cast-iron against the eflFects 
 of severe vibration and shock. 
 
 Giuis thus constructed have great power of endurance, and 
 
DEFINITIONS. 35 
 
 when put to extreme test it has been found that the cast-iron 
 casing does not burst explosively, but cracks and gives way 
 without violence. 
 
 The 10-inch smooth-bore is converted into an 8-inch rifle, and 
 the lo-inch smooth-bore into a 12-inch rifle, by this method. 
 (See 8-inch rifle, ^ar. 319.) 
 
 133. The hore is the interior portion of the cannon, intended 
 to receive the charge and projectile. It is bored out with the 
 gi'eatest accuracy as to straiglitness, diameter, and smoothness. 
 
 133. The muzzle is the mouth of the bore. The face is the 
 terminating plane at the muzzle, perpendicular to the axis of 
 the bore. 
 
 134. The axis of a cannon, or of the bore, is the central line 
 of the bore. 
 
 135. The trunnions are two solid cylindrical arms project- 
 ing from the sides of the cannon for the purpose of supporting it 
 on its carriage. They are placed at or near the centre of grav- 
 ity, on opposite sides of the piece, with their axes in the same 
 line, at right angles to the axis of the piece, and in the same 
 plane witli that axis. 
 
 136. The rimhases are the shoulders forming the junction 
 between the trunnions and the piece. They serve to strengthen 
 the trunnions, and, being terminated by planes at right angles 
 to the axes of tlie trunnions, prevent the piece from moving 
 sideways on the carriage. 
 
 137. The hreech is the solid mass of metal behind the bot- 
 tom of the bore. 
 
 138. Tlie base of the hreecli is the rear surface of the breech. 
 
 139. The cascable is the projection in rear of the breech. It 
 is composed of tlie knob and the neck; the latter unites the 
 knob to the base of the breech. 
 
 In heavy guns of recent model the cascable is quite rudiment- 
 ary, while in mortars it is entirely wanting. 
 
 The object of the cascable is to facilitate handling the piece 
 when mounting, dismounting, and transporting it. 
 
 140. The body of the piece is that part in rear of the trun- 
 nions. 
 
 141. The chase is that part ol the piece in front of tlie trun- 
 nions. 
 
 142. The vent is the channel through which fire is commu- 
 nicated to the charge in the bore. Its diameter is two-tenths of 
 an inch, and it is generally situated in the plane passing through 
 the axis of the bore, perpendicular to the axis of the trunnions. 
 
 It is at right angles to the axis of the bore, and enters the lat- 
 ter at a distance from the bottom of one-fourth of the diameter 
 
36 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 of the bore. In mortars and sea-coast guns there are two vents, 
 each situated hi a plane perpendicular to the axis of the trun- 
 nions, at equal distances on eacli side of the axis of the piece, 
 and distant therefrom one-fourtli of the diameter of the bore. 
 The one on tlie loft is bored entirely through ; the other stops 
 short an incli from tlie bore. When the open vent becomes too 
 much enlarged by wear for farther use, it is closed with melted 
 zinc and the other bored out. Each one sliould endure at least 
 five hundred service rounds. 
 
 In some pieces, a vent-piece, usually of pure soft copper, 
 through which the vent has been bored, is screwed into the 
 breech. This is called bushing the vent. 
 
 143. The bottom of the bore is the interior termination of the 
 bore, and is a semi-ellipsoid. 
 
 144. The chamber, or powder-chamber, of a piece is that part 
 of the bottom of the bore in which the powder is lodged at the 
 time of firing. Formerly all mortars, howitzers, and shell guns 
 throwing projectiles of comparatively large size with small 
 charges, were provided with chambers smaller than the bore, 
 for the purpose of confining the powder into a small space. 
 In the present system the chamber is omitted from all pieces 
 except the flank casemate howitzer and the Coehorn mortar, 
 which are pieces of old pattern still retained in service. 
 
 It has been found experimentally that it is advantageous^ 
 especially with rifles, to have the bore enlarged, instead of di- 
 minished, at the seat of the cliarge. Tliis gives an air space 
 which diminishes the pressure upon the walls of the piece with- 
 out diminishing the velocity of the projectile. 
 
 Tlie object sought for in the construction of modern artillery 
 is to secure great ballistic energy for the purpose of destroying 
 heavy ai-raor. This is secured by using lieavy projectiles pro- 
 pelled with great velocity. But to obtain this result without 
 undue pressure on the piece, the character, as to density, shape, 
 and size of the grain, of the powder introduced is such as to 
 cause it to burn progressively, with an increasing volume of gas, 
 thus keeping up the pressure against the projectile as it moves 
 along the bore, without causing an undue pressure upon the 
 bore at any point. This gives a total effect against the project- 
 ile greater than was obtained from any of the older and more 
 violent powders. 
 
 The charge of powder is much greater than formerly; this 
 requires an increased length of bore, but it has been found 
 that an enlarged chamber, with suitable charge, is equivalent to 
 increase of length of bore, and that by these means the desired 
 velocity is obtained without unduly increasing the length of the 
 
DEFINITIONS. 37 
 
 piece, or of producing a strain which it is not capable o£ stand- 
 ing. 
 
 145. The dispart is tlie difference between the semi-diameter 
 of tlie piece at the muzzle and at tlie thiclcest part, usually near 
 tlie vent. 
 
 1 46. A g^m is a cannon intended to throw projectiles, eitlier 
 solid or hollow, with large charges of powder, for the purpose 
 of attaining great range, accuracy, and penetration. It is dis- 
 tinguished from other cannon by greater length and weiglit. 
 
 14'!'. A howitzer is a cannon employed to throw hollow pro- 
 jectiles with comparatively small charges of powder. It is 
 shorter and lighter than guns of the same calibre. The small- 
 ness of the charge and the great size of the projectile adapt it 
 advantageously to ricochet firing. 
 
 14§. A mortar is a short and comparatively light cannon, 
 employed to throw hollow projectiles at great angles of eleva- 
 tion. It is intended to produce effect by the force with which 
 the projectiles descend upon tlie object, and by the force witli 
 which these explode. The great curvature of their fire gives 
 them power of reaching objects behind works which would be 
 secure from direct fire. 
 
 149. Cannon are classified as smooth-bore and rifles. In the 
 former, spherical projectiles are used ; in the latter, elongated. 
 
 150. A rifle is a gun having a number of spiral grooves, 
 called "rifles," cut into the surface of the bore. Tliese grooves 
 are for the purpose of giving to the projectile a rotary motion 
 around its longitudinal axis. The portions of the bore between 
 the grooves are called "lands"; tliese, in tlie United States 
 service, are generally of about the same widtli as the grooves or 
 "rifles." 
 
 The object of the rotary or "rifle" motion is to increase the 
 range of tlie projectile by causing it to move througii the air in 
 the direction of its length, or least resistance, and to give in- 
 creased accuracy bj' distributing the principal causes of devia- 
 tion around Its axis of rotation. 
 
 The projectiles for rifle-cannon are generally made of cast- 
 iron, with a ring or cup around tlie base, made of bronze, or 
 some other metal capable of expansion. Tlie projectile enters 
 the bore freely when loading, but the pressure of the discharge 
 expands the ring or cup and forces the latter into the grooves, 
 causing the projectile in its outward motion to follow the grooves,, 
 thus imparting to it the desired rotary motion. 
 
 151. Twist is a term denoting tlie inclination of the- 
 grooves to tlie axis of the boi-e. It the angh; of inclination btt 
 equal at all poinis, the twist is said to be uniform. 
 
38 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 If the angle increases from the breech to the muzzle, the 
 twist is called increasing; if the reverse, decreasing. 
 
 The twist is measured by the length of bore corresponding to 
 a single revolution of tlie spiral. In practice, it means the dis- 
 tance passed over by the projectile while making one revolution 
 about its axis, and is expressed in feet. 
 
 152. Windage is the space left between the bore of the piece 
 and its projectile. It is measured by the diflfference of their 
 diameters, and is expressed in hundredths of an inch. Windage 
 is necessary in order to make allowance for the bore becoming 
 foul from firing ; for the mechanical impossibility of having all 
 projectiles of the exact size ; and when sabots are used, to give 
 room for the tin straps securing them. It facilitates loading, 
 and diminishes the danger of the piece bursting. - Windage 
 increases slightly with the calibre ; it is much less for rifle than 
 for smooth-bore guns. 
 
 153. Calibre is the diameter of the bore. It is expressed in 
 inches, except for pieces of old pattern, wlien it is expressed in 
 terms of the weight of a solid cast-iron ball of the diameter of 
 the bore. 
 
 154. Preponderance is the excess of weight of the part of the 
 piece in rear of the trunnions over that in front. It is expressed 
 by the lifting force, in pounds, which must be applied at the 
 cascable to balance the piece upon the trunnions. 
 
 It is useful only for pieces mounted on travelling carriages, to 
 keep them steady in transportation. For all other pieces of re- 
 cent model the axis of the trunnions intersects the axis of the 
 piece at the centre of gravity, thus enabling the piece to be ele- 
 vated and depressed with greater ease. The discharge does not 
 sensibly change the position of the piece before the projectile 
 leaves the bore. 
 
 The life of a piece is the number of rounds that it will stand 
 before becoming unserviceable. Cast-iron guns become unsafe 
 after 1,000 rounds. 
 
 155. Direct or horizontal Jire is where the piece is discharged, 
 having but a small angle of elevation, and the projectile strikes 
 the object without touching the intermediate ground. 
 
 156. Curved or vertical fire is where the piece is discharged, 
 having a great angle of elevation, as are mortars, and the pro- 
 jectile effects its work chiefly by the force of its fall. 
 
 157. Ricochet fire is where the projectile strikes the ground 
 or water and rebounds. Projectiles will ricochet upon ground 
 of ordinary firmness when the angle of fall does not exceed 10°; 
 or upon water, at 4° or 5°. 
 
 158. Rolling fire is where the axis of the piece is parallel, or 
 
DEFINITIONS. 39 
 
 nearly so, with the ground or water, and the projectile rebounds 
 over the surface in a succession of ricochets. 
 
 159. Plunging fire is where the object fired at. is situated 
 below the piece. 
 
 160. The point of fall Is the point first struck by the pro- 
 jectile. 
 
 161. The angle of fall is tlie angle made, at the point of fall, 
 by the tangent to the trajectory with a horizontal line in the 
 plane of fire. It is always greater than the angle of elevation of 
 the piece. 
 
 162. The elevation of a piece is the inclination of its axis 
 above the horizon. It is measured by the angle Included be- 
 tween tl)e axis of the bore and the horizontal line in the plane 
 of fire at the muzzle. It is expressed in degrees. 
 
 163. The depression of a piece is the reverse of its elevation. 
 
 164. Range is the horizontal distance from the muzzle of a 
 piece to tlie point where the projectile first strilvcs. 
 
 165. Extreme range is the distance from the piece to the pouit 
 at which the projectile is brought to a state of rest. 
 
 Greatest range of a piece is the farthest distance to which it 
 will tlu'ow a projectile, the piece being mounted on its appropri- 
 ate carriage. All ranges are expressed in yards. In air, the 
 maximum range, under ordinary circumstances, is obtained from 
 an angle not far from 34°. 
 
 166. Velocity is the rate of motion of a projectile. It is ex- 
 pressed in feet for the space which the projectile would pass over 
 in one second of time, supposing it to have a uniform rate of 
 motion during tliis second. 
 
 Initial velocity, or, more properly, muzzle velocity, is the velocity 
 at the muzzle of the piece. 
 
 Remaining velocity is the velocity at any other point of its flight. 
 
 Terminal velocity is the velocity with which it strikes the ob- 
 ject. 
 
 16T. Energy. This term, when used in connection with a 
 projectile, means the resistance it is capable of overcoming at 
 the time of striking an object. The resistance overcome is the 
 worlc performed, and is made manifest by the crusliing efTect of 
 the blow, or by the penetration of the projectile. It implies 
 both pressure and motion, and is expressed in foot pounds, 
 which, for convenience, are reduced to tons of 2,240 pounds 
 each. It is tlie living force of mechanics, expressed mathemat- 
 ically \)y wv^ . , . , . , . , . , ., . , 
 — g ; m which jo=weight of projectile in pounds; 
 
 B=velocity of projectile in feet ; 
 fir==gravity, which, in the latitude of 
 New York, is equal 32.16. 
 
40 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 To apply this formula, suppose a projectile weighing 300 
 pounds strikes the side of an ironclad witli a velocity of 1,000 
 
 feet, we have ■^^?F=7773631.8 foot pounds; by dividing 
 2240, gives 3470.35 foot tons as the force or energy of the blow. 
 
 It has been ascertained by experiment that the resistance of- 
 fered by armor plates to penetration by a given weight of pro- 
 jectile, the energy of which is constant, varies directly as the 
 diameter or circumference of the projectile ; hence, in order to 
 find the penetrative power of a shot, it is customary to divide its 
 energy by the number of inches in its circumference, and when 
 projectiles are compared in this way they can be classed as re- 
 gards their power of penetration. It will be seen that because 
 a shot has great energy it does not necessarily have great pene- 
 trative power, the latter depending so largely on its diameter. 
 
 For obtaining the penetration in wrought-iron, Captain No- 
 ble's formula is used ; which is — 
 
 w v' 
 ^~ 452617 xd in which 
 
 3=number of foot tons per inch of the projectile's circum- 
 ference, 
 d==diameter of projectile in inches, 
 a=1.384, 
 
 a;=deptli of penetration. 
 
 16$. The line of metal is the profile cut from the upper sur- 
 face of the piece by a vertical plane passing through the axis of 
 the boi-e. 
 
 {Fig. 1, Plate IV.) 
 
 169. The natural line of sight is the right line passing 
 thi'ough the highest point of the line of metal at the muzzle, 
 and tiie highest point of the same line in rear of the trunnions. 
 
 170. An artificial line of sight is tlie riglit line containing 
 the guiding points of the sights. 
 
 ITl. The line of fire is the axis of the bore prolonged in the 
 dii-ection of the muzzle. 
 
 1T2. The plane of fire is the vertical plane containing the 
 line of fires. 
 
 173. Tlie angle of fire is the angle included between tlie 
 line of fire and horizon. 
 
 1 '5'4. The plane of sight is the vertical plane containing the 
 line of sight. It may'be, but is not necessarily, either coincident 
 or parallel with the plane of fires. 
 
 1^5. The trajectortj is the curved line traced by the project- 
 ile in its passage through the air; it lies wholly below the line 
 
GUNPOWDER. 41 
 
 of fire. In nearly all pieces, the natural line of sight cuts the 
 trajectwy at two points; the first point is near the muzzle, and 
 the second farther to the front. 
 
 I've. Point-blank and point-blanJe range are terms formerly 
 supposed to possess great importance in gunnery. 
 
 The point-blank is the point at which the line of sight inter- 
 sects the trajectorj' the second time ; or, more practically speak- 
 ing, it is that point which, being aimed at, is struck by tlie pro- 
 jectile. 
 
 The natural point-blank corresponds to the natural line of 
 sight when this line is horizontal, and the distance of this point 
 from the muzzle is called the point-blank range. 
 
 An artificial point-blank is one corresponding to an artificial 
 line of sight. 
 
 ITT. Beviatioi} is when the projectile does not move strictly 
 in the plane of fire, but inclines to the right or left of it. Wind 
 blowing across the line of fire is one great cause of deviation. 
 
 ] TS. Drift, or derivation, is the deviation peculiar to rifle 
 projectiles, the divergence being on the side towards which the 
 grooves twist. It is a constantly increasing divergence from the 
 plane of fire, and is allowed for, in aiming, by means of a lateral 
 motion given to the rear sight. (See par. 319.) 
 
 XTI9. Recoil is the running bade of the carriage after dis- 
 charge. The space passed over after the gun is fired is also 
 termed the recoil ; it is expressed in feet. 
 
 The directrix is tlie centre line in the plane of fire of an em- 
 brasure or platform. 
 
 AMMUNITION. 
 
 GUNPOWDEB. 
 
 1§0. Gunpowder is the agent employed in modern warfare 
 to propel projectiles from cannon and small arms, and gener- 
 ally as the bursting-cliarge of projectiles ; for the explosion of 
 mines ; blasting purposes, &c. It is a mechanical mixture giv- 
 ing light, heat, and gas in the combustion or chemical union of 
 its ingredients. 
 
 Explosion is a phenomenon arising from tlie sudden enlarge- 
 ment of the volume of a body; as, in the case of gunpowder, a 
 solid body is rapidly converted into a gas many times its volume. 
 If the body is confined in a limited space and exploded, great 
 heat is developed and a vast expansion or propelling force pro- 
 duced, the volume of gas being many times greater than that of 
 tlie powder. 
 
42 GUNPOWDER. 
 
 In the United States service, gunpowder is obtained from 
 private manufacturers. It is distinguished by granulation ; irreg- 
 ular, as mushet, mortar, cannon, and mammoth; regular, as cubic- 
 al, and the molded powders, i. e., pellet, hexagonal, awA prismatic 
 (perforated hexagonal prisms). In all of these, the proportion of 
 the ingredients are the same ; they dififer only in the size and 
 shape of grain, density, and details of manufacture. 
 
 Musket powder is used for small arms ; mortar for field guns ; 
 cannon for light siege guns, and the larger-grained and special 
 powders for heavy sea-coast guns. 
 
 Note. — Special powders are now being experimented with for 
 both field and siege guns. 
 
 Materials. 
 
 The materials required are potassium nitrate {nitre), charcoal, 
 and sulphur. They should be of the greatest possible purity to 
 insure excellence of quality and guard against accidents in 
 manufacture. The proportions by weight of the ingredients 
 used in the United States service "powder are: {ff nitre; {J} 
 charcoal ; 10 sulphur. 
 
 It is essential to the successful and uniform manufacture of 
 powder that the ingredients should be procured in their rough 
 state, and be refined and prepared for use at the factory. This is 
 also necessary as a security against accidents at the mills. All 
 foreign matter must be carefully excluded, and every precaution 
 taken against their introduction in handling and 'moving the 
 refined materials. 
 
 General qualities. 
 
 Gunpowder should be of an even-sized grain, angular and 
 irregular in form, without sharp corners, and very hard. When 
 new, it should leave no trace of dust when poured on the back 
 of the hand, and when flashed in quantities of ten grains on a 
 clean plate it should leave no bead or foulness. It should give 
 the required initial velocity to the ball, and not more than the 
 maximum pressure on the gun, and should absorb but little 
 moisture from the air. 
 
 A compact shape of grain, approaching the cube or sphere, is 
 desirable. Elongated fiat scales are objectionable. The number 
 of grains in several weighed samples should be counted. 
 
 Size of grain. 
 The size of the grain is tested by standard sieves made of sheet 
 brass pierced with round holes. Two sieves are used for each 
 kind of powder: Nos. 1 and 2 for musket, 3 and 4 for mortar, 5 
 and 6 for cannon, and 7 and 8 for mammoth powder. (Figs. 2 
 and 3, Plate IV.) 
 
GUNPOWDER. 43 
 
 Diameter of holes for mnsket powder, No. 1, 0.03 in.; No. 2, 
 0.06 In. 
 
 Diameter of holes' for mortar powder, No. 3, 0.10 in.; No. 4, 
 0.25 in. 
 
 Diameter of holes for cannon powder, No. 5, 0.25 in.; No. 6, 
 0.5 in. 
 
 Diameter of holes for mammoth powder, No. 7, 0.75 in.; No. 
 8, 0.9 in. 
 
 Hexagonal, l Dimensions of these powders vary with the calibre 
 Cubical, |- of the gun in which they are used, and have not as 
 Prismatic. J yet been definitely determined upon in our service. 
 
 Specific gravity. 
 
 The specific gravity of gunpowder varies from 1.65 to 1.8. It 
 is important that it should be determined with accuracy. Alco- 
 hol, and water saturated with saltpetre, have been used for this 
 purpose; but they do not furnish accurate results. Mercury 
 only is to be relied upon. 
 
 Hardness is tested by breaking the grains between the fingers, 
 and is judged of only by experience. 
 
 Muzzle, or initial velocity. 
 
 This is determined by any of the electro-ballistic machines 
 available ; the Boulong^ chronograph is one of the simplest and 
 most generally used for proof of powder. For a full description 
 and use of the instrument, see Ordnance Memoranda, No. 25. 
 
 Strain upon the gun. 
 
 This is determined by the Rodman pressure-gauge. For de- 
 scription and use of the instrument, see Ordnance Memoranda, 
 No. 25. 
 
 Determination of moisture and resistance to moisture. 
 
 Tlie amount of moisture in powder is determined by drying 
 samples in an oven with a water bottom. 
 
 The powder is subjected to heat as lon'g as it loses weight, the 
 loss indicating the percentage of moisture driven off. On being 
 removed from the oven it should be transferred at once to per- 
 fectly clean, dry, air-tight weighing bottles. 
 
 Tlie ability to resist moisture is determined by subjecting 
 samples which have been dried to exposure, first in open air, 
 then in a hygroscope containing a solution of nitre at 100° cooled 
 to 80° Fahr. 
 
 Tlie hygroscope is an air-tight box in which the powder is 
 
44 GUNPOWDER. 
 
 subjected to a damp atmosphere at a'uniform temperature for 
 24 hours. 
 
 The powder to be tested is placed in circular cups of copper 
 with fine wire-gauze bottoms, affording free access of moisture 
 to all parts of the sample under test. Tlie percentage of gain 
 is determined by weighing the powder in carefully-prepared 
 bottles on opening the hygroscope. A careful record is kept of 
 the barometer, hygrometer, external, and maximum and mini- 
 mum internal thermometers. 
 
 Incorporation. 
 
 On brealiing the grains, a flue uniform ashen-gray color 
 throughout should appear; the grain texture should be close, 
 without white specks even when magnified. For "flashing" on 
 glass or porcelain plates, the powder should be in small conical 
 heaps. Small copper measures for fine-grain powders, inverted 
 on the plates, keeps the heap nearly the same at each trial. If . 
 the incorporation is good, only smoke marks remain on the " 
 plate after flashing ; if bad, specks of undecomposed nitre and 
 sulpluir will form a dirty residue. The test requires experience 
 to insure success. 
 
 Inspection report. 
 
 The report of inspection should show the place and date of 
 fabrication and of proof, the kind of powder and its general 
 qualities, as tlie number of grains in 100 grs. ; its specific grav- 
 ity ; whether hard or soft, round or angular, of uniform or irreg- 
 ular size; whether free from dust or not; the initial velocities 
 and pressures per square inch obtained in each fire ; the amount 
 of moisture absorbed ; and, finally, the height of the barometer 
 and hygrometer at tlie time of proof. 
 
 Marks on the barrels. 
 
 Each barrel is marked on botli heads (in white oil-colors, the 
 head painted black) with the numlier of tlie barrel, the name of 
 the manufacturer, year of fabrication, and the kind of powder, 
 cannon, mortar, or musket, &c., the moan initial velocity, the 
 pressure per square inch on the pressure-piston, and densicy. 
 Bach time the powder is proved, tlie initial velocity is marked 
 below the former proofs, and the date of the trial opposite it. 
 Each barrel contains 100 pounds. 
 
 SPECIAL POWDEKS. 
 
 181. For some years it has been a recognized fact that tlie 
 ignition, combustion, and explosive effect of gunpowder depend, 
 
GUNPOWDER. 45 
 
 ill a great degree, on the size, shape, and density of the grain, 
 and that guns ol dififerent calibres require for their most efficient 
 service powders differing in these features, in order to secure the 
 best results. The rapid increase in weight of projectiles with 
 the increase in calibre of guns, and the comparatively smaller 
 power of resistance of the guns, renders it necessary that the 
 rate of combustion of the charge be regulated so as to reduce 
 the strains on the guns as much as possible, while at the same 
 time preserving high initial velocity to the projectile, thus ren- 
 dering practicable the use of the heaviest guns, projectiles, and 
 charges. 
 
 The amount of gas evolved at the first instant of inflammation 
 and combustion is measurablj' controlled by the size and form of 
 grains, offering a lesser surface of ignition, and the increased 
 density, offering greater resistance to the penetration of the hot 
 gases through the grains, graduates its rapidity of burning. The 
 form of grain affecting the amount of surface exposed to com- 
 bustion — that shape which offers a comparatively small surface 
 at the first instant of ignition, increasing progressively — is theo- 
 retically the best. 
 
 Experiments have settled the important part plaj'ed by pow- 
 ders suited in the above qualities to the guns in which they are 
 to be used, and have led to the adoption of large-grain powders 
 in heavy guns, resulting in the production, among the best, of 
 mammoth, pebble, cubical, hexagonal, and perforated pristnatic 
 powders. {Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, Plate IV.) 
 
 Hexagonal powder. 
 
 This powder has been found to give the best results when 
 used in pieces of heavy calibre. The uniform size of grain, and 
 their polyhedral shape, insure great uniformitj' in position and 
 size of the interstices in the malse-up of the cartridge ; this In- 
 sures, with a uniform density of grain, a high degree of uniform- 
 ity in pressures and velocities from given charges of powder and 
 weights of projectiles. The powder used is composed of United 
 States standard proportions of the ingredients, with a specific 
 gravity of 1.7511. Its shape and dimensions are given on Plate 
 IV, Figs. 8, 9. 
 
 The proportions of the ingredients of hexagonal powder con- 
 form to the United States standard, and up to the completion of 
 the incorporation in the wheel mill, its manufacture is like that 
 of ordinary powder. 
 
 Mealing. The wheel mill cake is revolved in a cylinder of wire- 
 wove cloth, with wooden balls, until it is mealed. 
 
 Pressing. The mealed powder is then carefully pressed be- 
 
46 GUNPOWDER. 
 
 tvveen horizontal metallic plates or dies. The powder comes 
 out ill a sheet or cake of polyhedral granules united along their 
 vertical edges, the dies being nearly perfect dodecahedrons. 
 
 Graining. The press-cake is passed between rollers armed 
 with brass cutting teeth at an angle of from 60° and 120° to the 
 axis, whicli cut the cake into granules, their cross-section being 
 almost hexagonal, whence the powder derives its name. 
 
 The powder is then sent to the glazing-mill and glazed ; after 
 which it is brushed and dried. The powder is now minutely 
 examined, its specific gravity taken, and a count made of the 
 granulation ; a variation of two granules to the pound is enough 
 to condemn the powder, the granulation being 72 to the pound. 
 It is packed in barrels in the usual manner, and is flred in car- 
 tridge-bags as other powder. 
 
 Mammoth powder. 
 
 This powder is formed by breaking up mill cake. Exact uni- 
 formity of size and shape of grains does not therefore exist. The 
 average granulation is 85 to the pound. (Fig. 3, Plate IV.) 
 
 Prismatic powder. 
 
 This variety is formed by pressing mealed powder into prisms. 
 The hexagon is usually adopted, as it offers a good shape for 
 piling, and the angles are sufficiently obtuse to prevent spawl- 
 ing at the edges. In order to insure uniform and progressive 
 combustion, each prism is perforated with a small hole through 
 its axis; formerly several holes were pierced. 
 
 Cubical powder. 
 
 Tills powder is of a regular cubical grain, being formed by 
 cutting press-calie in two directions at right angles to each other. 
 Each graiii is 0.75 inch in size. The granulation is about 72 to 
 the pound. {Fig. 4, Plate IV.) 
 
 It is important to observe that the proper kind of powder is 
 used in the guns for which intended. 
 
 183. The system of classification in use in the Navy differs 
 somewhat from that employed in the Army. The hexagonal, 
 cubical, and mammoth are about the same; but Navy rifle cor-r 
 responds nearly to Army cannon, and the Navy cannon is the 
 nearest equivalent to Army nwrtar. 
 
 In exchanging powder with the Navy, it is necessary to ob- 
 serve these distinctions. 
 
 Powder barrels should never be opened, except when required 
 for use, as grains of powder falling between the staves would 
 
PROJECTILES. 47 
 
 prevent their being tightened. Samples must be talsen from 
 the bung. 
 
 1S3. For ordinary examination, tlie flashing test, heretofore 
 mentioned, is a ready way of ascertaining whether the powder 
 is of good quality and in good condition. 
 
 If powder has been mucli damaged by damp it will be caked, 
 and a close inspection will generally detect a white appearance 
 on the grains, due to nitre having been dissolved and deposited 
 in crystals on the surface. 
 
 Powder sometimes becomes caked by being tightly packed in 
 cartridges, or for want of being rolled when in barrels. It will 
 then readily crumble into its original grains by being pressed in 
 the hand ; but if the grains break or appear friable, the powder 
 is unfit for service. 
 
 This latter characteristic indicates that the caking has resulted 
 from dampness, and is to be carefuUj' distinguished from the 
 former. 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 1 84. The pressure of gunpowder, when fired in its own space, 
 is placed at about 95,000 pounds to the square inch. When, how- 
 ever, the powder gas expands in the bore of the gun, though the 
 proportion of the products of combustion are the same, the ten- 
 sion is greatly less. 
 
 185. Cartridge-hags are sacks for containing charges of pow- 
 der when put into the piece. They should be made entirely from 
 either woolen or silken stuff; the fabric should be soft, and 
 closely woven, to prevent the powder from sifting through. 
 The seams should be sewed with woolen yarn or silk. 
 
 Projectiles. 
 
 1S6. Projectiles for the U. S. artillery service are made of 
 cast-iron, a material combining in a greater degree than any 
 other the essential qualities of hardness, strength, density, and 
 cheapness. 
 
 Projectiles are classified as spherical and elongated. The first 
 are used exclusively in smooth-bore guns ; the second in rifles. . 
 
 They are further classified, according to their structure and 
 mode of operation, as solid, hollow, and case-shot. 
 
 IST. Solid projectiles produce their effect from impact alone, 
 and as they can be fired with the greatest, charge that the piece 
 will bear, are used when great range, accuracy, and penetration 
 are required. They are the only projectiles that can be used 
 with effect against very strong walls, or armor-plated vessels. 
 
48 PROJECTILES. 
 
 Under the head of thoUow projectiles are included shells for 
 guns, howitzers, and mortars. 
 
 18§. Shells have less strength to resist shock from the dis- 
 charge of the piece and from impact ; they are therefore gen- 
 erally fired with smaller charges of powder than solid shot. 
 The weight of a shell is generally about two-thirds that of a 
 solid shot of the same calibre. They are charged with mortar 
 ipowdcr, which, exploding with violence, produces great destruc- 
 tion to both animate and ii^nimate objects. 
 
 The principal pai-ts of a sliell are : 
 
 First. The cavity, used to hold the bursting charge ; or burst- 
 ing charge and incendiaiy composition, when the intention is to 
 destroy by setting flre to objects. 
 
 Second. The fuse-hole, which is used for inserting the charge, 
 and to hold the fuse which communicates flre to it. 
 
 Spherical shells have two small shallow holes, one on each side 
 of the fuse-hole, into which are inserted the shell-hooks when 
 loading. These holes are called ears. 
 
 Shells for mortars, being flred with lighter charges than those 
 for guns, have less thickness of metal. 
 
 Spherical shells for guns are reinforced on the inside, around 
 the fuse-hole, to prevent the fuse-plug from being driven in by 
 the force of the discharge. This reinforce serves, in some meas- 
 ure, to compensate for the loss of weight on that side of the shell 
 caused by the fuse-hole, thus rendering the shell more accurate 
 in flight. 
 
 1S9. Case-shot is a projectile similar to a sliell, but with 
 mucli less thickness of metal. It is filled with leaden bullets, 
 which are secured against moving loosely about by having their 
 interstices filled with melted sulphur. Through the fuse-hole, 
 a liole is bored into this mass of bullets and sulphur sufficient to 
 contain a bursting charge. This projectile Is intended only for 
 use against troops. The fuse is so regulated as to burst the shell 
 a short distance in front of the object, wlien the bullets and 
 fragments, separating, move forward in a sheaf form, and pro- 
 duce effect as from musketry. 
 
 The charge for case-shot should be only sufficient to rupture 
 the case. 
 
 190. Elongated projectiles are used exclusively for rifle guns, 
 and, like the spherical, may be either solid or hollow. There 
 are in service various patterns, each known, generally, by the 
 name of the inventor. They all, however, have a general re- 
 seinblance to each ot'her, and consist of a cylindrical body sur- 
 mounted by a conoidal liead. To the base is attached a ring or 
 cup of some softer metal, which, expanding from the force of 
 
PROJECTILES. 49 
 
 till! discharge, enters the grooves of the piece and causes tlie pro- 
 ji'Ctile to take a rotary motion about its axis. 
 
 The fuse-hole, which is hi the pointed end, is coincident witli 
 the axis. The fuse-plug Is screwed Into the fuse-hole. 
 
 The most approved pattern is known as the Butler projectile, , 
 [Fig. 1, Plate V,) the sabot of which consists of a bronze ring 
 screwed upon the base. In this ring an annular groove Is cut ; 
 the gas from the charge acting on this channeleur forces tlie 
 exterior lip into the grooves of the bore, while tlie interior la 
 forced still tighter upon the body of tlie projectile, thus prevent- 
 ing it from stripping. 
 
 191. A cored shot Is an elongated projectile liaving a cavity 
 in the body of it. This cavity is for the purpose of throwing the 
 centre of gravity towards the front end of the projectile, thus 
 insuring greater steadiness of flight. 
 
 The hollow projectiles are either shells or case-shot, both of 
 which, in their construction and use, are similar to those hereto- 
 fore described for smooth-bore guns. 
 
 Rifle projectiles have a length of two to three times their 
 diameter, depending upon the pattern, and whether solid or 
 lioUow, the latter being generally the longest. 
 
 193. A canister is a projectile consisting of a hollow tin cyl- 
 inder filled with cast-iron or leaden balls, wliioh vary in size 
 and number with the kind and calibre of piece. The cylinder is 
 closed at tlie bottom with a thick cast-iron plate, and at the top 
 by one of sheet iron. The balls are pacljed in witii dry sawdust. 
 Canister is not effective at a greater distance than 400 yards, 
 and, mth the exception of flank howitzers, is but little used for 
 heavy artillery. 
 
 193. Grape-shot. A stand of grape is composed of nine cast- 
 iron balls, disposed in three layers of three balls each. They 
 are held together by two circular iron plates, united by a bolt 
 passing through their centres. Around this bolt the balls are 
 held by two iron rings. The plates have a diameter correspond- 
 ing to the calibres of the gun in which the grape is to be used. 
 The size of the balls depends, likewise, upon the calibre of the 
 gun. 
 
 Grape is not fired from rifle guns, and has but limited use for 
 those of smooth-bore; the modern musket and Gatling being 
 mucli more effective than either canister or grape. 
 
 194. A carcass is a spherical shell, having three additional 
 holes, of the same dimensions as the fuse-hole, pierced at equal 
 distances apart in the upper hemisphere of the shell. The shell 
 is filled with a composition which burns, with intense power, 
 from eia-ht to ten minutes, and the flame, issuing from the lioles, 
 
 "4 
 
50 FUSES. 
 
 fires whatever is combustible within reach. It is used iu bom- 
 bardments for setting fire to shipping, magazines, camps, &c. 
 
 When the prepared carcass is not to be had, a common shell, 
 eitlier spherical or elongated, may be substituted by placing in 
 the bottom of it a bursting charge contained in a bag ; over this, 
 carcass composition is driven until the shell is nearly filled ; four 
 or five strands of quick-match are then inserted, and secured by 
 driving more composition upon them. These shells, after burn- 
 ing as a carcass, explode. 
 
 Port-fire composition is suitable for filling them. 
 
 195. Afire-hall is a projectile of an oval shape, formed of a 
 sack of canvas filled with combustible composition, which, in 
 burning, emits a bright flame. It contains a loaded shell, and 
 is used for lighting up the enemy's works. It is fired from a 
 mortar. 
 
 Fuses. 
 
 196. A /use is tlie contrivance for igniting the charge of a 
 hollow projectile, after it has left the piece, upon being fired. 
 
 They are divided into four classes, viz.: the time-fuse, the 
 percussion-fuse, the concussion-fuse, and the combination-fuse. 
 
 197. The time-fuse, now used for heavy artillery, is com- 
 posed of a paper case inclosing a column of compact composi- 
 tion, which is Ignited by the flame from the cliarge in the piece. 
 It burns for a certain time, at the end of which it communicates 
 tlie flame to the cliarge in tlie projectile. The paper case is made 
 slightly conical to insure a close fit and to prevent it from being 
 driven through and into the projectile. It is inserted, at the 
 time of loading the piece, into a metal or wooden fuse-plug pre- 
 viously driven or screwed into tlie fuse-hole of the projectile. 
 The composition lias the same ingredients as gunpowder, the 
 proportions being varied to suit the required rate of combustion. 
 To insure ignition, it is primed at the larger end with rifle pow- 
 der. They are furnished from arsenals in water-proof packages, 
 each package being marked with the number of seconds required 
 for the burning of the fuse ; this time varies from two to twenty 
 seconds per inch. Tlie paper case is graduated Into seconds, 
 which enables the fuse to be cut to a length corresponding to 
 any intermediate time. All fuses of this kind are of the same 
 diameter and are two inches in length. 
 
 When it is to be used for ricochet firing, especially over water, 
 a plug, known as the water-cap fuse-plug, is used. This is con- 
 structed to prevent the burning composition from being extin- 
 guislied when the projectile strikes, and consists of a hrass plug 
 
PRIMERS. 51 
 
 firmly driven or screwed into the fuse-hole of the projectile; the 
 paper fuse is inserted at the time of loading the piece, alter 
 which a water-cap is screwed into the plug. 
 
 The water-cap is of brass, and is perforated with a crooked 
 channel, filled witli mealed powder; the mealed powder com- 
 municates fire to the paper fuse, and the angles of the channel 
 brealv the force of the water or dirt. The top of the cap has a 
 recess filled with a priming of mealed powder, covered by a pro- 
 tecting disk of lead or paper, which is pulled off immediately 
 before inserting the projectile into the piece. For security 
 against accidental ignition, a small leaden plug is placed in the 
 inner end of the fuse-plug, wliere it remains until it is driven 
 out by the shock from the discharge of the piece. 
 
 Fuse-plugs for mortar shells are generally turned from some 
 hard wood ; these are made to fit closely by rasping them off to 
 the exact size. 
 
 The paper time-fuse is used for either smooth-bore or rifle 
 pieces. 
 
 19S. The percussion-fuse Is used only for rifle projectiles, 
 and is Ignited by the striking of the point of the shell against an 
 object. There are many varieties of thLs fuse, all consisting, 
 essentially, of a brass or pewter fuse-plug containing a plunger. 
 This plunger does not move in its place until the sudden arrest- 
 ing of the shell, by striking, causes it to break its fastening, and, 
 by its inertia, is driven against a priming of fulminate, which, 
 exploding, communicates flame to the charge of the shell. 
 
 199. Tlie concussion-fvse is made to operate by the shock 
 of the discharge of the piece. Tliere are also many varieties of 
 this kind of fuse, all of which are composed essentially of a 
 plunger, which, by its inertia, when the shell starts to move in 
 the bore, breaks its fastenings, and, strilcing against a priming 
 of fulminate, explodes it and communicates flre to a time-fuse 
 indosed in the same fuse-plug. The time-fuse is cut or set to 
 burn the re(iuired time; it then communicates flame to the 
 charge in the shell. 
 
 Concussion-fuses are seldom used except for rifle projectiles. 
 
 The combination-fuse is one combining the principle of action 
 of the three former. There are, also, a great variety of this kind 
 of fuse, all of which are more or less complicated. 
 
 Pbimees. 
 
 300. The friction-primer is a device for communicating flre 
 through the vent to the cliarge in the piece. It is composed of 
 two brass tubes soldered together at right angles. The shorter 
 
52 SABOTS. 
 
 tube contains a small (jnantity of fi-iction composition, in contact 
 with whicli, and contained also in the short tube, is a serrated 
 wire, whicli wire is doubled at its other extremity into a loo]) 
 forming an ej'e for the hook of the lanyard ; the long tube is 
 filled with rifle powder, and has its lower extremity closed with 
 wax. {Fig. 2, PUte V.) 
 
 The long tube is inserted in the vent ; a pull upon the lanyard 
 disengages the serrated wire, which, by Its friction tipon tlie 
 composition, causes the latter to Ignite, and thus communicating 
 fii-e to the rifle powder in the long tube, explodes the cartridge 
 in the piece. 
 
 The charge of rifle powder has suflScient force to pass the 
 flame through the longest vent and penetrate several thicknesses 
 of cartridge-cloth. 
 
 (Fig. 3, Plate V.) 
 
 201. The electric-primer is an invention for firing cannon by 
 means of electricity. It consists of the long tube of the friction- 
 primer split at one end to receive a short but larger piece of brass 
 tube, to which it is soldered. The larger piece incloses a cylin- 
 drical piece of hard wood, slotted midway of its length and per- 
 forated at each end to receive short pieces of copper wire, wliich 
 are connected across the slot by a coiled piece of fine platinum 
 wire. The outei- ends of tlie copper wires project a few inches 
 to connect the wires of the primer with the terminal wires of 
 tlie battery. When thus connected, tlie battery current heats 
 the platinum sufficiently to ignite a small piece of loose gun- 
 cotton, which, together with the platinum wire, occupies the 
 slotted portion of the wooden cylinder. The ignited gun-cotton 
 coninimiicates flame to the powder in the long tube. 
 
 30S. Sabots are circular blocks of wood, fastened with tin 
 straps to hollow projectiles for smooth-bore guns. Tlieir object 
 is to prevent tlie projectile from turning in the bore and bring- 
 ing the fuse in contact with the charge of the pieca. The diam- 
 eter of the sabot corresponds to that of the projectile ; it lias a 
 shallow dish-shaped cavity for the projectile to rest in, and is 
 always attached to the side opposite the fuse-hole. 
 
 When the piece is fired, the fi'agments of the sabot fly a short 
 distance from the muzzle ; consequently it Is dangerous to use 
 this kind of ammunition when firing over the heads of our own 
 troops. Owing to the liability of premature explosione, the same 
 objection applies to hollow projectiles of every variety. 
 
 The metallic ring, or cup, attached to the base of rifled project- 
 iles for the purpose of expanding into the grooves of the piece 
 and giving rotary motion to the projectile, is also called a sabot. 
 
IMPLEMENTS. 53 
 
 IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 303. Implements for artillery are those instruments employed 
 in loading, pointing, and firing cannon, a"nd in mechanical ma- 
 noeuvres therewith. 
 
 Equipments are those things used for the same object, but 
 wliich are carried by tlie individual men. 
 
 304. Gunner's quadrant {Fig. 10, Plate IV) is an instrument 
 for giving elevation or depression to a piece. It consists of a 
 graduated quarter of a circle of sheet brass, of six inches radius, 
 attached to a straight brass bar twentj'-two inches long. It has 
 an arm carrying a spirit-level at its middle, and a vernier and 
 clamp screw at its movable end. The are is graduated to half 
 degrees, and the vernier reads to five minutes. To get a required 
 elevation, the vernier is set at the indicated degree ; the brass bar 
 is next inserted in the bore parallel to the axis; the piece is tlien 
 elevated or depressed until the level is horizontal. The elevation 
 may likewise be obtained by applying the bar to the face of the 
 piece, care being taken to have it in a plane parallel to the plane 
 of fire. The latter is the mode of using it with mortars. 
 
 The difficulty of applying the quadri^nt to tlie muzzle of guns, 
 especially to those in embrasure, has suggested that a metallic 
 ledge be attached to the end of a trunnion ; upon tliis ledge the 
 bar of the quadrant is applied when the elevation is to be given. 
 The top of the ledge is parallel with the axis of the bore. 
 
 305. Gunner''s level is an instrument for marking the line of 
 metal on a piece. Until within a very recent period it was re- 
 quired with all pieces, but since the application of sights to guns 
 Ids use is confined solely to mortars ; and owing to the fact that 
 tliese pieces are left rough and unturned on the exterior, the line 
 of metal marked, in the usual manner, with the gunner's level 
 and a clialk-line, is, at best, but a crnde and imperfect metliod of 
 obtaining a line of sight. (Fig. 11, Plate IV.) 
 
 The method of using this instrument is readily understood by 
 an inspection of it. 
 
 Sponge. This is a woolen brush, attached to a staff', used in 
 cleaning the bore of cannon, and for extiiiguisliing any burning 
 fragments of cartridge that may remain after firing. For field 
 pieces the sponge and rammer-heads are on the opposite ends of 
 tlie same staff; for siege and sea-coast pieces they are attached 
 to separate staves. 
 
 With pieces of less than eight inches calibre the sponge-head 
 consists of a cylindrical block of wood about three calibres in 
 length ; upon tliis is tacked the woolen stuff forming the sponge. 
 For pieces of lai-ger calibre a spring-head {Fig. 4, Plate V) \^ 
 used. This consists of tlu'ee pieces of sheet iron, so fashioned as 
 
51 IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 to form, when put together, a semi-ellipsoid corresponding to tlie 
 bottom of the bore of tlie piece for which intended. To tliese 
 plates is attached the sponge material, which is secured by pack- 
 thread stitching through holes in the iron. Each plate is at- 
 taelied to the staff by a. steel strap ; these by their spring allow 
 the plates to close together and enter the bore with a tight lit. 
 The necessary size is thus secured without the greater weight of 
 solid wooden heads. 
 
 Sponges are protected from the weather by canvas covers, 
 whicli are painted. They are preserved from moths by the same 
 means used for cartridge-bags. {Par. 568.) 
 
 The rammer. This is used for shoving the cartridge and pro- 
 jectile to their place in the bore of the piece. For small calibres 
 the head of the rammer is a short cylindrical piece of tough wood, 
 fixed to the end of a staft'; for the larger calibres it consists of a 
 wooden ring bound with iron or copper and attached to the staff 
 by three iron prongs or straps. {Fig. 5., Plate V.) This secures 
 lightness with the necessary size. 
 
 The ladle is a copper scoop {Fig. 6, Plate V) attached to a 
 staff. It is used for scooping out the powder of a cartridge 
 which may have become broken when withdrawing it from the 
 bore. 
 
 The worm {Fig. 7, Plate F) is a species of double cork-screw 
 attached to a staff, and is used for withdrawing cartridges from 
 pieces. 
 
 The pass-box is a wooden or metallic box with a lid and han- 
 dles, used for carrying cartridges from the service magazine to 
 the piece. The boxes are of varioivs sizes to suit the calibre of 
 the piece, one cartridge being carried at a time. 
 
 The budge-barrel is a barrel, to the top of which is attached 
 a leather cover, which is gathered with a draw-string like the 
 mouth of a satchel. It is used with pieces requiring small-sized 
 cartridges, to carry them from the magazine to near the pieces 
 to be served. 
 
 The priming-wire is used to clear the vent and prick a hole in 
 the cartridge. This latter is not, however, an absolute essential, 
 as the explosion of the primer, as now made, will, with ordinary 
 cartridges, carry flame to the powder. 
 
 The vent-gimlet is a long gimlet for removing obstructions 
 from the vent. 
 
 The vent-punch is an instrument for the same purpose. As 
 these instruments are made of hardened steel, great care must 
 be observed in using them, that they do not break in the vent 
 and spike the piece. 
 
 The fuse-setter is a brass drift for driving wooden fuse-plugs 
 into shells. 
 
IMPLEMENTS. Oii 
 
 Fuse-wrencJi is a three-pronged wrench used for settino; fuse- 
 plugs that are to be screwed" into the shell. One prong con- 
 tains forks for the fuse-plug, and another one smaller forks for 
 the water-cap. 
 
 Fuse-block, sometimes called fuse-gauge, {Fig. 8, Plate V,) is 
 a simple contrivance for holding paper time-fuses when being 
 cut. It consists of two blocks of wood hinged together so as to 
 open and shut after the manner of a book. In each end is a 
 recess into which the fuse is placed, and where it is securely 
 held by pressing the blocks tightly together. The fuse is put in 
 witii the small end extending out of the end of the block, the 
 point at which it is to be cut being even with the end of the 
 block. 
 
 Along one side of the recess is attached a brass scale. This 
 was intended for fuses of obsolete pattern. As now made, each 
 fuse is divided into as many equal parts as the number of sec- 
 onds for which its entire length (two inches) is intended to burn. 
 These parts are marked, and are the guides in cutting the fuse ; 
 the latter operation being performed with the fuse-lcnife, which 
 is a sharp tliin-bladed knife, (preferably a shoe-knife,) or a 
 fine saw. (See Fuses, ^ar. 196.) 
 
 Fuse-plug extractor. This is an instrument for extracting 
 fuse-plugs after they have been driven. It is a stout screw, 
 whicli may be screwed into the fuse-liole of the plug, which is 
 then pulled out by means of a screw operating after the manner 
 of certain kinds of cork-screws. 
 
 Fuse-reamer is used to enlarge the hole in a fuse-plug so as to 
 make it of proper size for the paper fuse. 
 
 Powder-measures are made of copper, of cylindrical form and 
 of various sizes, for the purpose of determining the charges for 
 shells and cannon by measurement. Each measure is marked 
 with the weight of mortar powder which it holds. They come 
 in sets, liolding from one ounce up to several pounds, and fit 
 together in a nest. 
 
 Lanyard is a strong cord, one end of whicli has a small iron 
 hook and the other a wooden liandle. It is used for exploding 
 the friction-primer when a piece is to be fired. 
 
 Shell-hoo!cs is an implement constructed to fasten into the 
 ears of a shell for the purpose of lifting it to the muzzle of the 
 piece. 
 
 Ounner^s pouch and primer-poucTi are made of leather, and are 
 attached to the person by a strap buckling around the waist. 
 
 Cartridge-pouch is made of leather, and is carried suspended 
 from the shoulder to the opposite side. It is used when small 
 cartridges are required, for carrying them from the magazine or 
 budge-ljarrel to the piece. 
 
50 MOTION OF PROJECTILES. 
 
 Sight-pouch is a long, sleiifler case, uswl sometimes for carrj'- 
 ing the breech sight. It is suspended from the shoulder. 
 
 Handspikes. "With siege guns and mortars, wooden hand- 
 spikes are used for raanoeuvering tliem. Those for mortars are 
 shod with iron, wliich is turned up in a way to prevent slipping 
 on the platform. 
 
 Guns with iron carriages have ii-on handspikes, made to fit 
 into the mortises of the truck-wheels. 
 
 Elevating-bar is a stout bar of iron with one end squared and 
 made to fit into the ratchets on the breech of the piece for the 
 purpose of giving elevation. It is operated as a lever, tlie fulcrum 
 being the ratchet-posts of the carriage. 
 
 The implements and machines used for mechanical manoeu- 
 vres, for the inspection, and for the aiming of cannon, are de- 
 scribed under those heads respectively. 
 
 MOTION OP PROJECTILES AND DEVIATING 
 
 CAUSES. 
 
 306. A projectile fired from a cannon is acted on by four 
 distinct forces, viz. : First, the projectile force ; second, the force 
 of gravity; third, the resistance of the air; fourth, the friction 
 against tlie surface of the bore. 
 
 Witli the exception of gravity, none of these forces are con- 
 stant, varying not only for different pieces, but for different shots 
 from the same piece. 
 
 The projectile force is that produced by the combustion of the 
 powder in tlie piece, causijig sudden development of gas, the 
 expanding force of which, acting on tliu projectile, impels it 
 forwai'd and out of tlie piece. It is pliysically impossililo to ob- 
 tain exact uniformity in the charges. In practice tliere will 
 always be a difference In weiglit and shape in the cartridge?, 
 and in pushing tliem liome, greater pressure will be applied at 
 one time than at anotlier, thus causing want of uniformity in 
 combustion. The temperature of tlie piece, arising from pre- 
 vious discharges and from the temperature of the air or rays of 
 the sun ; the nature of the projectile and its movement in the 
 bore; the condition of tlie bore with respect to humidity and 
 foulness, — all have more or less influence on tlie combustion of 
 the powder, and consequently on the velocity and range. Above 
 all, however, is the want of iiiiifonnity in the qualitxj of powder. 
 In this respect considerable latitude must be allowed in the size 
 and density of grain or pallet, in the manipulation of the ingre- 
 dients, and in its condition resulting from age, moisture, and 
 handling. With small charges, especially with fine-grained 
 
MOTION OF PROJECTILES. 
 
 57 
 
 powder, It is possible to so mix the contents of different barrels 
 for any series of shots as to secure a fair degree of uniformity for 
 that particular occasion ; but with charges requiring large quanti- 
 ties of powder, this, except to a limited degree, is impracticable. 
 
 The force of gravity. As soon as the projectile leaves the muz- 
 zle of the piece this force has free power to act, and draws the 
 projectile downwards, causing it to describe a curve. 
 
 The resistance of the air. Tlie projectile, in passing through the 
 air. meets from it a resistance depending in intensity upon the 
 velocity, the shape of the projectile, and density of the air. This 
 resistance consumes a portion of the projectile force, which, being 
 gradually diminished, causes the projectile to pass over unequal 
 spaces in equal intervals of time. These spaces gradually diminish- 
 ing, give to tlie trajectory unequal curvatures in its two branches, 
 that of the last part being much more curved than the first. 
 
 Atmospheric resistance increases as the square of the velocitj', 
 and with the cross-section of the projectile exposed to the action 
 of the resistance. 
 
 It is manifest that the resistance due to the atmosphere varies 
 with thp density of the latter, and this depends upon and varies 
 with the temperature, tlie humiditj', and the barometric press- 
 ure. The retarding effect of rain is evident. 
 
 The foregoing influences operate principally in a vertical di- 
 rection, and therefore affect only the range. Other influences 
 affect lateral accuracy, among which may be mentioned wind, 
 the velocity and force of which are classified as follows : 
 
 Telocity. 
 
 Pressure on 
 
 Common designations of the force 
 
 
 
 1 square 
 
 
 In 1 hour. 
 
 In 1 seo'd. 
 
 foot. 
 
 of the wind. 
 
 SUles. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 I 
 
 1.47 
 
 0.005 
 
 Hardly perceptible. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 2.93 
 4.40 
 
 .020? 
 .044? 
 
 Just perceptible. 
 
 i 
 5 
 
 5.87 
 7.33 
 
 .079? 
 .123 5 
 
 Gentle, pleasant Trind. 
 
 10 
 15 
 
 14.67 
 22.00 
 
 .492? 
 1.107 5 
 
 Pleasant, brisk breeze. 
 
 20 
 25 
 
 29.34 
 36.67 
 
 1.968 ? 
 3.075 J 
 
 Very brisk. 
 
 30 
 35 
 
 44.01 
 51.34 
 
 4.429? 
 6.027 5 
 
 High wind. 
 
 40 
 45 
 
 58.68 
 66.01 
 
 7.873? 
 9.963 5 
 
 Very high. 
 
 50 
 
 73.35 
 
 12.300 
 
 A storm or tempest. 
 
 60 
 
 88.02 
 
 17.715 
 
 A great storm. 
 
 80 
 
 117.36 
 
 31.490 
 
 A hurricane. 
 
 100 
 
 146.70 
 
 49.200 
 
 A hurricane that tears up trees, 
 carries buildings before It, &c. 
 
58 MOTION OF PROJECTILES. 
 
 It is evident from the foregoing tliat the efifect of wind, ou so 
 large a body as a cannon projectile, is consideiuble. This effect 
 is in direct proportion to the strength of the wind and the time 
 of flight of the projectile. 
 
 "When the wind crosses the plane of fire, the deviation of 
 spherical projectiles is on the side towards which the wind is 
 moving; with elongated projectiles, especially shells and cored 
 shot, the wind has a slight tendency to cause them to go in the 
 opposite direction. Wind coming from the left tends, therefore, 
 to correct the drift of rifle projectiles, the latter being always 
 to the right ; when coming from the right it augments the drift. 
 A front wind diminishes the range; when coming from the rear 
 it increases, but to a very slight degree, the range. 
 
 When the range is great the projectile may have to traverse 
 several currents of air of diflferent directions and velocities. This 
 would have the effect of giving a waving motion to the pro- 
 jectile. 
 
 The condition of the atmosphere with reference to mirage has 
 a marked influence upon accuracy of aiming ; for it is evident 
 that a projectile will not strike tlie object it the piece is directed 
 only at the reflected image of it. 
 
 Aberrations arising from atmospheric influences are so nu- 
 merous and subtle as to make it impracticable to formulate tliem 
 into tables useful for practical gunnery. Practice at small-arm 
 firing, as now conducted at rifle-ranges, leads to habits of obser- 
 vation and exercise of sound judgment highly advantageous to 
 the artillerist. 
 
 Friction against the bore. Tlie projectile, in passing along the 
 bore, experiences more or less friction ; this has a retarding 
 effect, varying the velocity and consequently tlie range. The 
 unequal degree of friction at different parts of the bore may 
 cause the projectile to leave the muzzle with a greater pressure 
 on one side than on the other, forcing it to deviate from the 
 true line of fire. This is more particularly the case with spher- 
 ical projectiles, in which there is considerable windage and bal- 
 loting, than with rifle projectiles. 
 
 Resistance from rifling. The cup or sabot of an elongated 
 projectile, expanding from the pressure of tlie gas, fills the 
 grooves, which, being inclined to the axis of the bore, offer 
 resistance to the forward motion of the projectile. That side of 
 each groove towards the muzzle is the one against wliich the 
 expanded sabot constantly impinges, and is called the driving 
 side. 
 
 Owing to the mechanical impossibility of constructing guns 
 and projectiles of exact uniformitj', a certain departure from 
 
AIMING. 59 
 
 the true dimensions is allowed In receiving tliera from the 
 manufacturer. This, to a certain degree, prevents uniformity 
 in firing. Roughness of the bore and projectile, especially with 
 rifles, influences velocity, accuracy, and I'ange. The bore be- 
 comes foul from firing, and this foulness is hard and rougli or 
 soft and nuctious, depending on the humidity of the atmosphei'e, 
 or whether the sponge is moist or dry. With rifle projectiles, 
 lubrication, or the want ;of it, has a marked effect upon their 
 range and accuracy. 
 
 Want of uniformity in the density, weight, figure, and centre 
 of gravity of projectiles, are otlier sources of error in firing. 
 
 In many instances these various sources of aberration may 
 combine in such manner as to partly neutralize each other. On 
 the other hand, they may so fall together as to produce the 
 maximum degree of inaccuracy. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, there are other sources of error 
 in firing, which, although exceedingly minute, nevertheless exist. 
 Among these may be mentioned the influence of the axial rota- 
 tion of the earth ; the spring of the carriage ; the dip of the muz- 
 zle ; the effect of the rays of the sun In heating one side of the 
 piece more than the opposite side, and a like effect on the pro- 
 jectile. 
 
 Fi'ora the foregoing, it must be evident that exact uniformity 
 of flring with any piece is an impossibility. It is by practice 
 alone'that the artillerist can be brought to distinguish between 
 inherent defects and faults of gnnnery which he may correct. 
 
 Aiming. 
 
 aOT. To aim a piece of artillery is to give it such a direction 
 and elevation as will cause the projectile to strike the object, 
 and the rule is : flrst give the direction, and then the elevation. 
 
 With the exception of mortars, all modern pieces are furnished 
 with two sights : a front one and a rear one. These are situated 
 either on the line of metal, or slightly to the right of it in a plane 
 parallel to the plane of fire. 
 
 The front sight is securely attached to the piece by means of 
 a screw, and for the heavier class of guns is over the axis of tlie 
 trunnions. 
 
 The rear sight is on the breech, fitting into a socket attached 
 to the piece with screws, and when the gun is to be discharged 
 is removed from the socket. 
 
 For the 10 and 15 inch guns the breech sight is without grad- 
 uation, and serves merely to give direction to the piece, the ele- 
 
60 AIMING. 
 
 vation being given by means of tlie elevating- arc, or, when prac- 
 ticable, with the quadrant applied in the muzzle. 
 
 20S. For siege and Pai-rott guns the breech sights are grad- 
 uated to correspond to degrees and parts of degrees of elevation 
 of tlie axis of tlie bore, and have a slide to move up or down. 
 This slide has a screw tliread cut on one end of it, upon which 
 works a nut with four short arms ; througli each of these arms 
 Is a small hole for sighting. The screw upon tlie slide is for 
 the purpose of giving lateral motion, wlien allowing for drift. 
 
 Each kind of gun has its particular breech sight, but, as there 
 are in service many of old or experimental pattern, they should 
 be verified for the particular pieces upon which they are to be 
 used. This is done by directing the piece at some well-defined 
 point at a distance of 1000 yards or more, and on the same hori- 
 zontal plane with the axis of the trunnions. A straight-edge 
 and spirit-level applied to the face of a trunnion suffices for this 
 operation. Place the slide of the breech sight at any degree of 
 tlie graduation, and, sighting through it at the object, give the 
 piece the corresponding elevation. Insert the gunner's quad- 
 rant into the bore, and ascertain from it the inclination of the 
 axis of the piece. If the reading on the breech sight corre- 
 sponds to tliat of the qnadi'ant, the former is correct. The line 
 of sight passing through the zero of the breech sight is parallel 
 to the line of fire. 
 
 S09. For 10 and 15 inch guns an elevating-arc is used.- This 
 consists of a strip of brass attached to the base of the breech 
 parallel to the ratcliets. It is graduated into degrees and parts 
 of degrees, and a pointer, attaclifid to the i-atchet-post, indicates 
 the elevation or depression of the piece. When the pointer is at 
 zero, the axis of the piece is horizontal. Besides the graduation 
 on the arc, the ranges in yards for the ordinary charges for shot 
 and shell are given. 
 
 In batteries for garrison and sea-coast defense, where the 
 platforms are fixed, the line of metal may be considered as per- 
 manent; but witli siege guns, mounted on traveling carriages, 
 the wheels are liable to vary in position from uneveniioss of 
 ground, or unequal settling "in newly-constructed platforms. 
 This line is constantly changing, and approximates the higher 
 wheel in proportion to the difierence of level between the wheels ; 
 hence, to secure accuracy of fire, allowance must be made by 
 observing where the shots strike and correcting the aim accord- 
 ingly. Deviation from this cause is always towards the side of 
 the lowest wheel. 
 
 310. All range tables are made out with reference to the 
 horizontal plane passing through the axis of the trunnions; 
 
AIMING. 
 
 61 
 
 when the object to be flred at is situated on a plane lower than 
 this, an allowance must be tnade for this difference of level by 
 deducting from the elevation laid down in the table of ranges. 
 
 The following table is calculated for cases in which the piece 
 is above the object; it will also serve with sufficient degree of 
 approximation for cases in which the piece is helow the object, 
 by simply reversing the method of application ; i. e., by adding, 
 instead of subtracting, the quantity due to the height and dis- 
 tance. 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 HKIGHT. 
 
 IFt 
 
 2 Ft. 
 
 4 Ft. 
 
 8 Ft. 
 
 16 Ft. 
 
 32 Ft. 
 
 64 Ft. 
 
 96 Ft. 
 
 Tards. 
 
 » 
 
 o / 
 
 '0 / 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 1000 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 4.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 18.3 
 
 36.7 
 
 113.3 
 
 150. 
 
 1100 
 
 1. 
 
 a.i 
 
 4.2 
 
 8.3 
 
 16.7 
 
 33.3 
 
 1 6.7 
 
 140. 
 
 1200 
 
 .9 
 
 1.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 7.6 
 
 15.3 
 
 30.6 
 
 1 1.1 
 
 131.7 
 
 1300 
 
 .9 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.5 
 
 7. 
 
 14.1 
 
 28.2 
 
 56.4 
 
 124.6 
 
 1400 
 
 .8 
 
 1.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 6.5 
 
 13.1 
 
 26.2 
 
 52.4 
 
 1 18.6 
 
 1500 
 
 .8 
 
 1.5 
 
 3. 
 
 6.1 
 
 12.2 
 
 24.4 
 
 48.9 
 
 113.3 
 
 1600 
 
 .7 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 5.7 
 
 11.4 
 
 22.9 
 
 45.8 
 
 1 8.7 
 
 1700 
 
 .7 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.7 
 
 5.4 
 
 10.8 
 
 21.6 
 
 43.1 
 
 1 4.7 
 
 1800 
 
 .6 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 10.2 
 
 20.4 
 
 40.7 
 
 1 1.1 
 
 1900 
 
 .6 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 9.6 
 
 19.3 
 
 38.6 
 
 57.9 
 
 2000 
 
 .6 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.3 
 
 4.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 18.3 
 
 36.7 
 
 55. 
 
 2100 
 
 .5 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.2 
 
 4.3 
 
 8.7 
 
 17.5 
 
 34.9 
 
 52.4 
 
 2200 
 
 .5 
 
 
 2.1 
 
 4.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 16.7 
 
 33.3 
 
 50. 
 
 2300 
 
 .5 
 
 
 - 2. 
 
 4. 
 
 7.9 
 
 15.9 
 
 31.9 
 
 47.8 
 
 2400 
 
 .5 
 
 
 1.9 
 
 3.3 
 
 7.6 
 
 15.3 
 
 30.6 
 
 45.8 
 
 2500 
 
 .4 
 
 .'9 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.6 
 
 7.B 
 
 14.7 
 
 29.3 
 
 44. 
 
 3000 
 
 .4 
 
 .8 
 
 1.5 
 
 3. 
 
 6.1 
 
 12.2 
 
 24.4 
 
 36.7 
 
 3500 
 
 .3 
 
 .7 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.6 
 
 5.2 
 
 10.4 
 
 21. 
 
 31.4 
 
 4000 
 
 .3 
 
 .6 
 
 , 1-1 
 
 ■2.3 
 
 4.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 18.3 
 
 27.5 
 
 4500 
 
 .3 
 
 .5 
 
 
 2. 
 
 4.1 
 
 8.1' 
 
 16.3 
 
 24.4 
 
 BOOO 
 
 .2 
 
 .5 
 
 '.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.7 
 
 7.3 
 
 14.7 
 
 22. 
 
 When the height of the piece above the water or horizontal 
 plane is known, the angle of depression for different distances 
 can be found thus : Find the angle for any height not given in 
 the table, as follows : divide the given height into parts, which 
 are found in the table, using the largest numbers possible; and 
 add the angles corresponding to those parts, for the required 
 distance. Example : Required the angle for distance 1000 yards 
 and height 130 feet. 130 feet gives the parts 96', 32', and 2'; 
 the sum of the angles for these heights is 1° 50'+ 36.7'+ 2.3'= 
 2° 29'; f he amount to be deducted from the elevation as given 
 ill the table of ranges for the particular piece used. 
 
62 AIMING. 
 
 311. Owing to the gi'eat range at which rifled guns are used, 
 and of the accuracy of fire demanded of them, it is important 
 that they should be provided with aiming apparatus more per- 
 fect than the coarse and clumsy sights heretofore supposed to 
 be sufficient for artillery purposes. 
 
 The Lorain sight, {Plate VI,) of which the following is a brief 
 description, combines the properties most desirable In a sight 
 for heavy rifled guns. 
 
 This instrument is essentially a transit with a vertical and 
 horizontal limb, the former to give the required elevation or 
 depression, and the latter to give proper allowance for drift. 
 
 The telescope (A) has a top, a front and rear open sight (a a'), 
 used to bring the object aimed at within the field of view. 
 
 The vertical limb (B) is graduated to degrees. The least count 
 of the vernier (6) is six minutes. 
 
 The tangent screw (C) elevates or depresses the telescope. 
 
 The horizontal limb (D) has a scale of 20° on each side of the 
 zero, which is graduated to degrees. 
 
 The standards (E E') are supported by the horizontal limb. 
 
 The tangent screw (F) moves the horizontal limb to right or 
 left. 
 
 The base of the instrument (G) has on it the vernier (^) of hori- 
 zontal limb, the least count of which is six minutes. 
 
 When in use, this instrument sits in a seat (H) which is screwed 
 on to the right trunnion of the gun. 
 
 This seat is so placed that the plane of its top is parallel to the 
 horizontal plane through the axis of the bore. When the verti- 
 cal limb is at zero, the axis of the telescope will be parallel to 
 the axis of the bore, if the zero of the horizontal limb coincides 
 witli the mark (I) on the seat. 
 
 This mark (I) is on a movable piece (K) attached to seat, and 
 its position is easily determined. 
 
 The elevations given with this sight and with a quadrant do 
 not agree, the latter beii^g measured from the horizontal and 
 the former from the line from sight to object. In firing from 
 above an object, the telescopic sight requires more elevation 
 than the quadrant. If from below an object, id requires less 
 elevation than the quadrant. 
 
 When the piece is to be fired, the instrument is lifted out of 
 its seat. One instrument suffices for three or four guns, it being 
 carried from piece to piece as they are prepared for firing. For 
 short range and rapid firing, the pieces should, in addition, have 
 the ordinary sighting arrangements. 
 
 Note. — The proper place for the sight is on the left trunnion ; 
 but as, with carriages now constructed, it would be interfered 
 with by the crane, it is placed on the right trunnion. 
 
AIMING MORTARS. 63 
 
 Aiming mortars. 
 
 312. Mortars, like other cannon, are aimed by first giving 
 the direction and then the elevation. 
 
 The elevation, which is usually that of the greatest range of 
 projectiles in vacuo, viz., 45°, is determined by applying the 
 quadrant to the face of the piece, and raising or lowering the 
 breech until that number of degrees is indicated. 
 
 The chai'ge of powder is varied to suit the requii-ed range. 
 
 To give the shell, for the same range, a greater velocity in the 
 descending branch of its trajectory, the mortar is sometimes 
 fired at an angle of 60°, in which case the charge of powder must 
 be increased accordingly. 
 
 As mortars are usually masked from the object to be bom- 
 barded by an epaulment or parapet, different means from those 
 used with guns become necessary for giving them their direction. 
 
 There are several processes employed, all of which, however, 
 are reduced to determining practically two fixed points which 
 shall be in line with the piece and the object, and sufficiently 
 near to be readily distinguished by the person pointing tlie 
 mortar. Tliese points determine a vertical plane which, wlien 
 including the line of metal, becomes the plane of fire. 
 
 The various methods are explained in pars. 342 and 343. 
 
 213. The following is a description of Dyer's pointing appa- 
 ratus, and instructions for its use. 
 
 This method is easy of application, and is especially adapted 
 for use with mortars' mounted on centre-pintle carriages; it is 
 also readily adapted for use with mortars mounted on ordinary 
 and temporary platforms. Practically it is independent of tlie 
 distance from the crest of the parapet to the platform. Tlie 
 method is as follows : 
 
 rind the point where tlie vertical plane containing the directrix 
 of the platform cuts the interior crest of the parapet. At this 
 point establish a level plate containing an arc graduated both 
 ways from the point where the vertical plane cuts it, the centre 
 being the point first established on tlie interior crest. An arm 
 with two vertical sights revolves about this point as a centre, 
 and determines, by means of an indicator attached to the front of 
 the arm, the angle made by any object with the vertical plane 
 tlirough the centre, called the plane of the zeros. The mortar 
 being given the same angle with the plane of the zeros, the plane 
 of fire will practically intersect the object. 
 
 To apply this method to a mortar mounted on a centre-pintle 
 carriage : On the rear of the platform, with the centre of the 
 pintle as a centre, describe an arc. Find the point where the 
 
64 RICOCHET FIRING. 
 
 plane of the feeros cuts this are, and mark the point zero. Divide 
 the arc both ways from the point into degrees and parts of de- 
 grees. An indicator attached to the centre of the rear transom 
 (in the vertical plane containing the axis of the piece) will always 
 mark the degrees to the riglit or left of the plane of the zeros. 
 
 (Plate ril.) 
 
 Description of the pointing instrument. 
 
 A horizontal ii-on plate is permanently established on the par- 
 apet, the rear edge being on the crest and the centre in the 
 plane of the zeros. 
 
 In order tliat the same instrument may be used at different 
 ^places in a work, or be removed when not in use, a detachable 
 plate containing the graduation and sights is adjusted to the 
 permanent plate, as shown in Fig. 1. P is a pintle on the de- 
 tached plate which fits into a socket in the permanent one. L L 
 are levels on the detached plate J inch below the upper surface 
 of tlie plate. S S are leveling screws. By the use of this plate 
 the index arm will always be made to move in a horizontal plane. 
 
 Application of the method. 
 
 1st. Place the plate containing the graduated arc on its bed, 
 and level it by means of the tangent screws ; then place tlie arm, 
 to whicli the sights are attached, on the plate. Traverse the 
 chassis until the index on the rear transom indicates the required 
 number of degrees as indicated by the instrument. 
 
 If the arm of the instrument be to the right of the zero, traverse 
 the chassis to tlie left; and vice versa. 
 
 For the successful operation of this method with the centre- 
 pintle mortar carriage, it is essential that the guides of the top- 
 carriage should fit true and snug to the chassis rails. 
 
 Ricochet Febing. 
 
 214. The angle of fall of projectiles in vacuo is equal to the 
 angle of elevation; but in air the angle of fall is somewhat 
 greater. 
 
 It is known from experience that a projectile falling upon 
 ground of ordinary firmness, at an angle not greater than tcii 
 degrees, or upon water at four or five degrees, will generally 
 make one or more bounds. In this case the projectile is said to 
 ricochet. 
 
 The purpose to be sought in ricochet firing is to cause the 
 projectile to bound along near the surface of the ground or water. 
 
CARRIAGES. G5 
 
 and thus increase the chances of hittUig the object to Se destroyed. 
 It is chiefly advantageous against troops in tiie field, and against 
 lioats and unarraored vessels. With the exception, liowever, of 
 occasional use against the latter objects, it is generally but inci- 
 dental to direct firing. Owing to the Inequalities of ground, it is 
 uncertain of efl'ect when employed ag-.iinst objects on land. 
 
 Spherical projectiles are more certain of ricooliet than those of 
 elongated form ; with the latter the first graze usually causes 
 tliem to tumble, after which tlieir motion is both feeble and 
 erratic. 
 
 The pieces principally employed for ricochet firing are the 
 3-lnch howitzer and the 8 and 10 inch siege mortars. The first 
 two may be used when the angle of fall is less than ten degrees, 
 and the latter when the angle of fall is less than fifteen degrees. 
 With the howitzer, a range of 2000 yards may be obtained ; with 
 the mortars, the limit of ricochet is about 1000 yards. 
 
 Witli the 1.5-inch gun, the most effective ricochet upon smooth 
 water is obtained from two degrees elevation; this, witli the 
 piece fifteen feet above tlie water, will cause the first graze to 
 take place at a distance of about 1500 yards, giving a rebound 
 of about 800 yards in length and 100 feet in height. The next 
 rebound will be about 500 yards in length, after which tliey rap- 
 idly diminish until towards the last, when the projectile appears 
 to almost roll upon the surface of the water. The extreme range 
 at this elevation is about 4000 yards, and the number of distinct 
 ricochets about thirty-five. 
 
 The slightest roughness of the water has a decided effect upon 
 ricochet, diminishing both accuracy and range. 
 
 With elongated projectiles, after the first strike, the course is 
 quite erratic, and they are, therefore, entirely unsuited for accu- 
 rate ricochet firing. 
 
 CAERIAGES. 
 
 SI 5. Can-iages for artillery are classified as traveling and 
 stationary. The former are for artillery that is to be moved from 
 place to place; the latter, for that occupying fixed positions. 
 
 Strength, durability, and facility in serving the pieces are the 
 chief requisites for all carriages. 
 
 Stationai-y carriages consist of two parts : the carriage — or, as 
 it is usually called, the top-carriage — and the chassis, and, with 
 the exception of that for the fiank-casemate howitzer, are all 
 constructed of wrought-iron. 
 
 216. The top-carriage {Fig. 1, Plate VIII) is composed of two 
 5 
 
66 CARRIAGES. 
 
 cheeks, heM together by two plates of boiler iron, called the 
 fi'ont and rear transoms. Each cheek is formed of two plates 
 of boiler iron cut to a triangular shape, separated by interposing 
 at the edges the vertical portion of a T-shaped bar. The hor- 
 izontal branches project over each side to form a double flange, 
 giving stiffness to the cheeks. Flat bars of Iron are placed 
 between the plates at suitable intervals to stiffen the cheeks in 
 the direction in which the weight and recoil of the piece bear 
 upon them. All these parts are held together by screw bolts. 
 
 The piece rests between the cheeks, and is supported on them 
 by the trunnions, which work in circular cavities called trunnion- 
 beds. This permits the piece to have free play for purposes of 
 elevation and depression. 
 
 For most pieces, the motion of the top-carriage to and from 
 battery is regulated by a pair of truck-wheels, one on each side, 
 which work on an eccentric axle placed underneath and a little 
 in fi'ont of the axis of the trunnions. 
 
 The wheels are thrown into gear by means of handspikes in- 
 serted into sockets upon the ends of the eccentric axle ; the 
 wheels then rest upon the top of the chassis rails, and only the 
 rear part of the soles of the top-carriage rest on the chassis raUs 
 and have sliding friction. The wheels are thrown out of gear in 
 the same manner ; the entire soles then have sliding friction upon 
 the chassis rails, thus checking recoil. • 
 
 In the 15-inch gun carriage there are two pairs of truck-wheels, 
 one pair being placed in front, as just described, and the other 
 pah- near the rear end of the carriage; the rear wheels only are 
 on eccentric axles, and when these are out of gear the soles of 
 the top-carriage rest fairly on the chassis rails, and the motion 
 is on sliding friction. When the rear wheels are in gear the 
 front wheels also touch the chassis rails, and the top-carriage 
 moves on rolling friction. To prevent the rear wheels from 
 working out of gear while the gun is being run from battery, or 
 jumping ill gear when the piece is fired, pawls are provided for 
 locking the rear axle. 
 
 "When the rear wheels are in gear, motion is communicated 
 to the carriage by means of a handspike on each end of the 
 front axle. This handspike carries a double pawl, which works 
 in ratchets or cogs on the truck-wheels. The handspike is 
 arranged with a counterpoise, consisting of a heavy piece of 
 iron on the short arm of the lever. 
 
 In the 10 and 15 inch guns, as also in mortars, the elevation 
 and depression are given by means of a lever, called the elevat- 
 ing-bar. The point of this bar works in ratchets cut in the 
 breech of the piece. The fulcmm — usually called the ratchet- 
 
CARRIAGES. 67 
 
 post — rests on the rear transom of the gun carriage. It is of 
 cast-iron, and has several notches for adjusting the position of 
 the elevating-bar. 
 
 Carriages for the 8-inch rifle (converted) have an improved 
 elevating apparatus. This is described in par. 320. 
 
 Guns of the Parrott pattern have an elevating screw. This is 
 attached to the rear transom of the carriage at its lower end, 
 while the nut is connected to tlie cascable of the gun. The 
 screw is worked by a handle passing through it above the nut. 
 Both screw and nut admit of movements by which the screw can 
 take any position required in tlic various degrees of elevation. 
 
 3 If. Chassis. The chassis is the movable railway on which 
 the top-carriage moves to and from battery. It is composed of 
 two \vrought-iron rails inclined three degrees to the horizon, and 
 united by transoms, as in the top-carriage. In addition to the 
 transoms, there are several diagonal braces, to give stiffness to 
 the chassis. {Fig. 1, Plate VIII.) 
 
 For the 10-inch gun and all smaller carriages, the chassis rails 
 are single beams of rolled iron, 15 inches deep ; for all calibres 
 above, the rails are built up of long rectangular pieces of boiler 
 plate and T-iron, in a manner similar to that of the dieeks of 
 the top-carriage. 
 
 Traverse-wheels. The chassis is supported by wheels, which 
 allow of its having a horizontal motion, for the purpose of giv- 
 ing the piece a proper direction when aiming. 
 
 Traverse circles. The traverse-wheels roll on circular bars 
 of iron resting on a bed of masonry or wood. 
 
 Pintle. This is an upright journal, around which the chassis 
 traverses. It is a stout cylinder of wrought-iron, inserted in and 
 firmly fastened to a block of stone called the pintle bloalc. When 
 wooden platforms are used it is fastened as described in ^ar. 
 635. 
 
 The centre-pintle carriage is one in which the chassis is attach- 
 ed to the pintle at its middle, and i-evolves around it through the 
 entire circumference of the circle. The traverse circles are con- 
 sequently continuous. By this arrangement a much greater 
 horizontal field of fire is secured. 
 
 The front-pintle carriage is one in which the chassis is attached 
 to the pintle by its front transom ; the traverse circles are seg- 
 ments of circles. 
 
 The pintle key is a stout key of iron passing through the pintle, 
 to prevent the chassis from jumping off when the piece is dis- 
 charged. The pintle is surrounded by a plate firmly bolted to 
 the block ; this plate is called the pintle plate, or friction plate. 
 
68 CARRIAGES. 
 
 Hurters and counter-huriers. These are flat pieces of iron bolt- 
 ed, — the first to the front and the latter to the rear part of the 
 chassis rails, to cheek the motion of the top-carriage wlieii the 
 piece is riui in battery, and wlien it recoils upon being fired. 
 
 In carriages of Improved model the hurters and counter-hurt- 
 ers are stout buffers of gntta-percha, which, absorbing the shock, 
 prevent racking of the carriage. 
 
 Ouides are stout claws of Iron bolted to the cheeks of the top- 
 carriage, and, catcliing under the flanges of the chassis rails, pre- 
 vent the carriage from slipping or-jumping olf. 
 
 Through the chassis, immediately over the pintle, runs an 
 eccentric axle, carrying upon each end a truck-wheel. This axle 
 and wheels are for the purpose of throwing the chassis in gear, 
 tlius raising the pintle transom from the friction plate aad allow- 
 ing tlie carriage to be traversed with freedom. 
 
 It is prescribed that the chassis sliall be out of gear when the 
 piece is fired. This, however, is not necessary, and the omission 
 of it when firing saves much time and labor. The lighter class 
 of carriages are without the arrangement just described. 
 
 In the improved pattern of cari-iages the axle and truck-wheels 
 above mentioned are replaced by two stout rollers attached to 
 bolsters on the front end of the cliassis. These rollers move upon 
 the friction plate, and give firm support and easy motion to the 
 chassis. 
 
 Casemate carriages differ from barbette carriages in being 
 much lower, but their mode of construction is essentially the 
 same. Tlie pintle is placed immediately under the throat of the 
 embrasure, and tlie chassis is connected to it by a bar of iron 
 called the tongue. 
 
 Recoil checks. For the 10-inch smooth-bore and all below that 
 calibre, recoil is checked simply by the inclination of the cliassis 
 rails and the sliding friction thereon of the top-carriage. To 
 increase this friction, the rails should be sanded with sand free 
 from pebbles. 
 
 31 S. Pneumatic buffers or air-cylinders are devices for check- 
 ing recoil through the agency of atmospheric air. At present, 
 oiily the 15-inch gun is thus provided. 
 
 Between tlie front ends of the chassis rails are attached two 
 . cast-iron cylinders each 110 inches long, with an interior diame- 
 ter of 14.25 inches. The ends of the cylinders are closed with 
 tight-fitting heads secured with screw bolts. A piston works in 
 each cylinder. The rods of the pistons pass out through the rear 
 cylinder heads and are attached, by nuts, to a heavy transom on 
 the rear end of the top-carriage. The cj'linders have the same 
 
CARRIAGES. 69 
 
 inclination as tlie chassis rails, and are secured to tlie latter by 
 three cylinder transoms. 
 
 When tlie piece recoils the piston-rod is withdrawn, and the 
 air contained in tlie cylinder compressed between the piston and 
 the rear head of the cylinder, A small hole in the front head 
 admits air to supply the vacuum infront of the piston. 
 
 Tlie air in rear of the piston thus forms an elastic cushion, 
 offering but slight resistance to the first movement of recoil, but 
 gradually increasing in resisting force as. the carriage moves 
 back, until finally the force of recoil is overcome and the top- 
 carriage is brought to a state of rest. The shock of reqoil is to 
 a great extent absorbed without sudden strain to the carriage. 
 
 The top-carriage must be out of gear when the piece is dis- 
 charged ; it then moves on the chassis with sliding friction. This, 
 together with the inclination of the chassis rails, assists in check- 
 ing the recoil. When the carriage is in good running order, it 
 generally rnns forward a short distance by the reaction of the 
 compressed air after recoil. 
 
 To run the piece in battery, the top-carriage is thrown intoi 
 gear ; it then moves forward, the air is compressed in front of 
 the pistons, and, escaping gradually through the small holes in' 
 tlie lieads of the cylinders, allows the carriage to move forward 
 with a gentle motion. 
 
 The weight of the air-cylinders with attachments is about 
 5000 pounds. 
 
 219. Hydraulic buffer. This is a recoil clieck, in construction 
 very similar to the air-cylinder. A liquid is used instead of air, 
 but the principles of operation are similar. 
 
 At present these buffers are furnished only with the (convert- 
 ed) 8-inch rifle, and are described in connection therewith. 
 (See par. 320.) Water or any other free-flowing liquid answers 
 for filling the cylinder. In cold weather a non-freezing liquid, 
 as a mixture of glycerine and water, methyl and water, or some 
 of the non-freezing oils, must be used. The greatest care must 
 be observed to have in the cylinder the exact amount required. 
 The difficulty of properly regulating all of these matters makes 
 the iiydraulic buffer greatly inferior to the air-cylinders. 
 
 320. Friction bars. This device for absorbing recoil is sup- 
 plied only with the experimental 8-inch rifle (converted). It is 
 described \npar. 320. 
 
 221. Depressing carriages. These are carriages that permit 
 the gun to tire over a parapet in the usual manner, and, upon 
 recoil, allow the piece to descend behind the parapet, where it 
 can be reloaded in safety. 
 
70 CARRIAGES. 
 
 Various plans for effecting this have been proposed, but none 
 actually adopted, in the U. S. service. The King can-iage, 
 mounting a 15-ineh gun, has, however, been tested and found 
 to work eflSciently. This consists in lowering tlie rear end of . 
 the chassis until it nearly touclies the ground, thus forming an 
 inclined plane at an angle of about 30° to the horizon. Tlie top- 
 carriage is attached to a counterpoise by a band composed of 
 wire ropes. This counterpoise is a heavy mass of metal descend- 
 ing into a well in front of the pintle. 
 
 The carriage that has been adopted, and hereafter to be fur- 
 nished for barbette service, has an increase of 15 Inches in 
 height over those of old pattern. This modification is effected by 
 inserting sections, similar in construction to the chassis rail, be- 
 tween the rails and feet, props, and fork of the low chassis. The 
 increase of height thus gained admits of a corresponding depres- 
 sion of the terre-plein, and consequently greater protection be- 
 hind the parapet for the cannoneers. The gun, nevertheless, is 
 exposed as before. Depressin;i^ carriages are intended to protect 
 the piece and carriage as well as the cannoneers. 
 
 The accuracy of modern ai-tillery fire increases the danger to 
 the guns with which a work is armed ; and the disabling of a 
 piece by the enemy's fire is of greater moment now than for- 
 merly, when works were garnished with a greater number, and 
 of such small size as to be readily replaced when injured. 
 
 323. Mortar carnages. These are constructed and put to- 
 gether in a manner similar to the top-carriages for guns. At 
 the ends of each cheek are projections, called front and rear 
 notches, underneath which the cannoneers embar with their 
 handspikes to move the carriage. On those for siege mortars 
 there are also two front and two rear manoeuvering bolts for the 
 same purpose. The bottom part of each cheek, resting on the 
 platform, is called the shoe ; the front and rear ends being desig- 
 nated the toe and heel, respectively. 
 
 Carriages for siege mortars are without truck-wheels, and rest 
 directly on the platform. Sea-coast mortars have two truck- 
 wheels on an eccentric axle, for manoeuvering the carriage on 
 the platform, and mancBUvering bolts are omitted. (Fiqs. 1, 2, 
 3, 4, Plate IX.) 
 
 The centre-pintle mortar carriage is described in par. 370. 
 
 323. The flanlc-casemate carriage ( Fig. 2, Plate VIII) con- 
 sists of two cheeks of wood united by two iron transoms. The 
 chassis consist of two wooden rails three inches apart, and joined 
 by four transoms and assembling bolts. 
 
 To the rear end of the top-carriage Is attached an eccentric 
 
PLATFORMS. 71 
 
 roller, and. to each cheek, iu front, a roller which, when the 
 eccentric roller is in gear, rests on the chassis rails, giving to 
 the carriage rolling friction. The piece Is then easily rnn in and 
 out of battery, the cannoneers applying themselves to rings and 
 handles on the sides of the cheeks. 
 
 The front end of the diassis rests on the sole of the embrasure, 
 and is provided with a lunette, through which a pintle drops into 
 the masonry beneath. The rear of the chassis is supported by 
 an iron fork, to the lower extremity of each prong of which is 
 attached a small traverse-wheel. 
 
 For description of traveling gun carriages, see Siege Gun, 
 par. 231, et seq. 
 
 PLATFOEMS. 
 
 234. To Insure accuracy of fire with heavy guns and mortars, 
 it is absolutely necessary to iiave solid and substantial platforms. 
 
 For casemate and barbette batteries in fortifications, fl^ed 
 platforms are constructed with the works. 
 
 The barbette platform consists essentially of the pintle block, 
 which is of granite firmly Imbedded in concrete ; in the block is 
 inserted the plnjle, of iron, and around tliis is the friction plate 
 for the pintle transom of the chassis to rest upon. Traverse 
 circles, of iron, form level and smooth tracks, upon which the 
 traverse-wheels run. 
 
 The pintle of a casemate carriage is inserted in a hole in the 
 sole of the embrasure, and is lifted out when the chassis is to be 
 removed. The chassis is attaclied to it by a tongue, and is pro- 
 vided with a front set of traverse-wheels. 
 
 Platforms for siege pieces are supplied by the Ordnance De- 
 partment, and, as they accompany troops in the field, it is 
 desirable to have them as light as is compatible with sufficient 
 strength to endure the shock of firing. Those hereafter describ- 
 ed combine, in a high degree, the essential (qualities of strength 
 and portability. AU the pieces composing them are of the same 
 dimensions, and, as the weight of each piece is only fifty pounds, 
 a soldier can carry one from the depot to the batteries, or any 
 moderate distance, in addition to his arms and equipments. 
 
 Another platform for mortars is described, which is very sim- 
 ple, strong, and well suited to positions where trees or timber 
 can be easily procured. This is designated the rail platform. 
 
72 
 
 PLATFORMS FOR SIEGE GUNS. 
 
 Pl/ATFOBM FOR A SlEGB GUN OB HOWITZBaS. 
 (Fig. 1, Plate X) 
 S35. Dimensions, &c., of siege platforms. 
 Guns and howitzers. 
 
 Naubs of Fibcbs. 
 
 Hurter. 
 
 Sleepers • 
 
 Deck-planks... , 
 
 Stakes (secunng)... . 
 Stakes (implement). 
 
 Stakes (pointing) 
 
 Eye-bolts (iron) 
 
 Total weight.. 
 
 Oft 
 
 Incli. 
 
 108 
 108 
 108 
 
 14 
 
 Inch, 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3.5 
 
 2 
 
 0.75 
 
 Inch. 
 
 3.5 
 3.6 
 3.5 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 r'pd 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 61 
 
 612 
 
 1836 
 
 70 
 
 10 
 
 2579 
 
 Kind OF Tj 
 
 Used, 
 
 •Yellow pine. 
 
 When the piece is to be fired constantly in one direction, it is 
 best to give the platform an inclination to the rear. This pre- 
 vents excessive recoil, and also serves to carry off water from 
 rain. The degree of inclination is not absolute. In the follow- 
 ing it is given as one and a half inches to the yard. 
 
 When the piece is to be traversed over a wide field of fire, the 
 platform should be perfectly level ; the recoil is then checked 
 by placing a bag of earth or a pile of sods at a proper distance 
 (about five feet) behind each wheel. 
 
 The following is the method of laying the platform when it 
 has an inclination. To lay it horizontally, simply omit what is 
 said with reference to the slope : 
 
 The direction in which the piece is to fire is established by 
 stretching a cord over the centre of the place where the plat- 
 form is to be laid. This line is the directrix of the platform. 
 
 Prepare a bed for the platform by excavating the eaith so 
 that it will have the proper inclination to the rear and be per- 
 fectly level across. The earth, if not ali-cady firm, should be 
 well rammed. 
 
 Lay the outside sleepers parallel to the directrix, their outside 
 edges beiTig fifty-four inches distant from it. The four other 
 sleepers are laid parallel to these, the edge of each fifteen and a 
 
PLATFORMS FOR SIEGE GUNS. 73 
 
 half inches from the edge of tlie next. The upper surface of 
 the front ends of these sleepers is fifty inches below the sole of 
 the embrasure, and they are laid with an elevation to the rear 
 of one and a half inches to the yard, or four and a half inches 
 in their whole length. This elevation is determined by placing 
 a block four and a half inches high on the front end of the 
 sleeper, and laying a straight-edge, with a level on it, from this 
 block to the rear end ; the earth is then arranged so as to bring 
 the level true in this position. 
 
 The next set of sleepers are laid against and inside of the first, 
 overlapping them three feet, having the rear ends inclined out- 
 wards, so that the outer edges of the exterior ones shall each be 
 fifty-four inches from thu dh'ectrix, and the space between the 
 rear edges of the others the same as in the first set, viz., fifteen 
 and a half inches from tlie edge of one to the edge of the next : 
 all having an elevation to the rear of one and a half inches to 
 the yard, and perfectly level across. Tlie earth is then rammed 
 firmly around the sleepers and made even with their upper 
 surface. The first deck-plank, with a hole through each end for 
 the eye-bolts, is laid in place, perpendicular, to the directrix, its 
 holes corresponding with those in the sleepers. Tlie hurter is 
 placed on it, and the bolts driven through the corresponding 
 holes in these pieces. The hurter should be so placed as to pre- 
 vent the wheels from striking against the epaulment when the 
 piece is in battery. 
 
 If the interior slope has a base of two-sevenths of its height, 
 the inner edge of the hurter should be two and a lialf inches! 
 from the foot of the slope. The other planks are laid, each be- 
 ing forced against the preceding, with the dowels fitting into 
 their respective holes ; the last plank has holes for the eye-bolts. 
 By drawing out or driving in the outside sleepers, titie holes 
 through their rear ends arc made to correspond with those in 
 the last dcck-plank. The holts are then driven. 
 
 Drive stakes in rear of each sleeper, leaving their tops level 
 with the upper surface of the platform. Raise, ram, and level 
 the earth in rear of the platform, so as to have a plain hard sur- 
 face to support the trail when the recoil is great. 
 
 The earth should lie raised nearly as high as the platform at 
 the sides, and well rammed, giving it a slight inclination out- 
 ward to allow water to run off. The platform is fifteen feet 
 long and nine feet wide. 
 
 Instead of twelve sleepers, each nine feet long, it is preferable 
 to use six, each fifteen feet long. 
 
74 
 
 FIELD PLATFOKM. 
 
 236. 
 
 Field Platform. 
 Dimensions, SfC. 
 
 Nambh or 
 
 PiBCKS. 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 ■3 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 Knn> OF TtUBEB 
 
 TTSED. 
 
 Harter 
 
 Wheel-planks 
 
 1 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 9 
 8 
 
 Inch. 
 
 96 
 108 
 120 
 
 84 
 
 14 
 
 48 
 
 Inch. 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 0.75 
 1.25 
 
 Inch. 
 
 3.5 
 
 3.5 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.25 
 
 r'nd 
 
 1.25 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 44 
 204 
 160 
 
 60 
 
 Yellow pine. 
 
 Yellow pine. 
 
 Beech, yel. pine or oak. 
 
 Beech, yel. pine or oak. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Hickory or oak. 
 
 Eve-bolts 
 
 Secnring stakes. 
 Total weight... 
 
 500 
 
 {Fig. 2, Plate X) 
 
 This platform is for siege guns and liowitzers when serving 
 with an army in the field, and the method of constructing it 
 indicates the way in which platforms may be extemporized from 
 sucli material as may be at hand. 
 
 To lay this platform, level off the ground and mark the di- 
 rectrix; dig trendies for the sleepers; place the latter in the 
 trenches so that the holes for the eye-bolts will correspond in 
 place to those in tiie wheel-planlis ; place the wheel-planlis in 
 position, and drive in the eye-bolts. The front eye-bolts pass 
 through and secure the hurter; apply the level and make the 
 structure perfectly level ; secure the front sleeper with stakes ; 
 it is well to secure also the rear ends of the wheel-planks witli 
 stakes; lay on the trail-plank and secure it with an eye-bolt to 
 the third sleeper; ram the dirt well in around the sleepers. 
 
 To check recoil, place sacks of earth or piles of sods over the 
 eye-bolts of the third sleeper, or a stick of timber, similar to a 
 sleeper, laid across will effect the same object. 
 
 This platform admits a change of direction of about ten de- 
 gi-ees on each side of the directrix, thus covering as much of a 
 field of fire as is ordinarily required. To make this change of 
 direction, slightly loosen or remove the earth about the three rear 
 sleepers, and heave the rear ends of the wheel-planks over with 
 handspikes. The platform then has the position indicated by 
 the dotted lines in the figure. 
 
SIEGE MORTAR PLATFORM. 
 
 75 
 
 aa'T. 
 
 Siege Mobtab Platfobm. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 Kind of Timbbb 
 
 Names op PracBS. 
 
 "S 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Used. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inoli. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 105 
 
 5 
 
 s.a 
 
 252 
 
 1 
 
 
 21 
 6 
 
 103 
 48 
 
 5 
 3.5 
 
 3.5 
 2 
 
 lOTO 
 70 
 
 •Yellow pino. 
 
 Stakes (securing).... 
 Stakes (pointing) — 
 
 4 
 
 48 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 .••..»•• 
 
 
 Eye-bolts (iron) 
 
 n 
 
 11 
 
 .75 
 
 r'nd 
 
 
 
 (Fig. 3, Plate X) 
 
 This platform is composed of six sleepers and twenty-one 
 deck-planks. It is laid level, and the front and rear deck-planks 
 are connected by eye-bolts to each sleeper. A bed for the plat- 
 form is first prepared by leveling off the ground, and, if not 
 already solid, the earth should be well rammed. This bed 
 should be sunk only so deep as to allow tlie upper surface of the 
 platform to be slightly above the surrounding ground, for drain- 
 age. The sleepers are laid parallel to the directrix or plane of 
 fire, three on each side of it, at equal distances apart, so that the 
 holes in their ends shall correspond to the holes in tlie front and 
 rear deck-planks. The front deck-plaak is laid first, and the 
 eye-bolts driven to secure it; the remaining planks are driven 
 up against it, and the last secured, like the first, with eye-bolts. 
 At the rear end of each sleeper a securing stake is driven. 
 
 The earth, on all sides, should be raised nearly as high as the 
 platform, and well rammed, giving it a slight inclination out- 
 wards, to allow the water to run off. 
 
 It is of the first importance that the upper surface of the plat- 
 form should be level and true. 
 
76 
 
 RAIL PLATFOKJI. 
 
 BaHj Platform foe Sieoe HosTAits. 
 (Fig. 4, Plate X) 
 228. Dimensions, &c., of the rail platjEorm. 
 
 Namks op Pdects. 
 
 SlEOB MOBIABS. 
 
 USBD. 
 
 i 
 
 ■3 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 Inch. 
 
 1 
 
 libs. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 2 
 i 
 14 
 
 60 
 108 
 48 
 
 11.5 
 10 
 3.5 
 
 8.6 
 10 
 3 
 
 ■44 ■■•■■• 
 
 ■ •■•••Ml 
 
 825 
 
 Tellowpine. 
 
 Rails 
 
 stakes (securing:).... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 This platform consists of three sleepers and two rails for the 
 shoes of the mortar to rest on. It is very strong, and easily 
 constructed and laid. 
 
 Tlie rails and sleepers are notched and fitted together as rep- 
 resented in the figure. Tlie distance between the centre lines of 
 the rails is equal to that between tlio centre lines of the cheeks 
 of the mortar carriage. The pieces are put together at the bat- 
 tery, and the earth is excavated oiglit iiicfies in depth, and of 
 suitable length and width to receive the platform. The bottom 
 of this excavation is made perfectly level. Tlie directrix being 
 accurately marked by stakes, the platform is placed in position, 
 its centre line coinciding with a cord stretched between the 
 stakes marking the directrix. The eartli is filled in as liigh as tlie 
 upper surface of the sleepers and lirnily rammed; stakes are 
 driven in the rear angles formed by the sleepers and the rails, 
 and one at the rear end of each rail. 
 
PLATFORMS FOR SEA-COAST MORTARS. 
 
 77 
 
 PiiAtp6bms"fob Sea-coast Moetars. 
 
 13-inch mortars. 
 
 329. The size of the platform is 15 feet by 15 feet by 2 feet 
 2 inches. 
 
 
 Dimensions of parts 
 
 
 KA3IB8 OF FmcES. 
 
 1 
 
 ■s-a 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 'i 
 
 1 
 
 Bbmabes. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Ineh. 
 
 Incb. 
 
 
 Deck-timbers........ 
 
 Sleepers- m« 
 
 15 
 15 
 56 
 66 
 
 601 
 2 
 
 or 3 
 15 
 
 180 
 
 180 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 180 
 
 180 
 
 180 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 5.16 
 64 
 36 
 12 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 r'nd 
 2 
 r'nd 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 2 
 
 The timber for 
 these platforms to 
 be of oak, or heart 
 yellow pine. 
 
 Bolto » 
 
 Nnts _. 
 
 Wood screws.- 
 
 Iron plates 
 
 Flanking....- ....... 
 
 JVb/e.-T-The above is the thiclsness of the iron plates furnished ; 
 but they are entirely too tl)in, curling up with the weight of the 
 mortar. They should be at least 0.75 inch thick. 
 
 To lay the platform, a pit is dug 2 feet deep and about 18 feet 
 square on the bottom. The earth on the bottom is well rammed 
 and levelled. The two-inch planking is laid level on the rammed 
 earth, perpendicular to the directrix. The cylindrical bolts are 
 put in the sleepers, and the sleepers, with bolt-heads down, are 
 liiid compactly on, and perpendicular to the planking and par- 
 allel to the directrix. As the deck-timbers are laid the bolts pass 
 through the boles in them. These timbers are laid compactly 
 upon the sleepers, perpendicular to the directrix. The nuts are 
 put on the bolts and screwed down. Both the nut and bolt- 
 heads are countersunk. The iron plates are laid parallel to the 
 directrix, and secured firmly with screws to the deck-timbers, 
 covering nine feet in the centre of the platform and leaving three 
 feet on each side uncovered. The earth is then filled in, and 
 rammed compactly around the platform, with a sliglit inclina- 
 tion outwards, so as to shed water. The platform for the cen- 
 tre-pintle chassis is 17 feet square ; the bottom of the pit must 
 therefore be 20 feet square. 
 
78 
 
 PLATFORMS FOE SEA-COAST MOKTAKS. 
 
 10-incA sea-coast mortar. 
 
 The size of this platform is 12 feet by 12 feet by 1 foot 8 
 inches. 
 
 Dimensions of parts. 
 
 TXMSsa or PiBCss. 
 
 DecIptiiuljeTSc 
 
 Sleepers 
 
 Bolts ..., 
 
 NTLtS.....~._.... 
 
 Wood screws. 
 Iron plates.... 
 FlanMng....... 
 
 Oft 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 12 
 44 
 44 
 204 
 2 
 12 
 
 Incli. 
 
 144 
 
 144 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 144 
 
 144 
 
 Incli. 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 5.16 
 48 
 12 
 
 Incli. 
 
 r-na 
 
 r'nd 
 O.B 
 
 Reuabks. 
 
 The timber for 
 tbese platforms to 
 be of oa.k, or heart 
 yellow pine. 
 
 To lay the platform, a pit is dugl foot 6 inches deep by 15 feet 
 square ; the remainder of the operation is similar to that for the 
 13-inch mortar. 
 
 For descriptions of wooden platforms for sea-coast guns, see 
 por. 635, 
 
SERVICE OF THE PIECE. 
 
 The service of the piece consists o{ all the operations required 
 in loading, pointing, and discharging it. 
 
 General Rules. 
 
 330. To avoid repetitions, and to secure easy reference, the 
 following general rules are inserted collectively. The para/- 
 graphs referred to belong to some particular piece — ^generally 
 the siege gun — and illustrate the application of tlie rule. 
 
 I. The implements and equipments required for a piece are 
 taken to it by the detachment when going to the exercises, or 
 they may be placed there previous to that time. 
 
 They are removed, at the conclusion bf the exercises, by the 
 same means, and returned to their proper places in the store- 
 house. 
 
 It is the especial duty of the chief-of-detachment to see that 
 all that appertains to liis piece is complete and in good order. 
 
 n. At the conclusion of the exei'cises, and previous to leaving 
 a battery, the oflScer in charge will dress it, giving the pieces, on 
 the same line, a uniform alignment, direction, and depression. 
 Pieces must never be left loaded. 
 
 m. The detachments are marched to the battery, and the 
 cannoneers posted at their pieces as prescribed in par. 106. 
 
 IV. When the equipments are distributed, the gunner buckles 
 the strap of his pouch ai'ound his waist, wearing the pouch in 
 such position as to interfere as little as possible with liis move- 
 ments. 
 
 Tlie cannoneer who wears it, buckles on the primer-pouch in 
 like manner. 
 
 The gunner removes the vent-cover, and clears the vent with 
 the priming-wire. 
 
 Cartridge-pouches are carried suspended from the left shoulder 
 to the right side. {Par. 256.) 
 
 V. In loading, the gunner closes the vent by applying the 
 second finger of the left hand tightly upon it, and holding it 
 there from the moment the sponge is "introduced in the muzzle 
 until the rammer is withdrawn after the projectile is home. 
 (Par. 238.) 
 
 VI. Whan, in loading, the sponge or the rammer is found to 
 
 (79) 
 
80 GENERAL RULES. 
 
 be home at the fourth motion, then what is prescribed for the 
 sixth will be executed at \Me: fourth. (Par. 239.) 
 
 VII. In sponging or in ramming, the knee on the side toward 
 which the effort is made is alwas's bent, the other straiglitened. 
 The weight of the body is added, as mucli as possible, to the 
 effort exerted by the arms. {Par. 239,) 
 
 VIII. When the sponge fits so tiglitly as to be difficult to 
 move in the bore, Nos. 1 and 2 may use both hands in inserting 
 and withdrawing it. (Par. 240.) 
 
 IX. Cartridges are inserted into the bore, bottom foremost 
 and seams to the sides. (Par. 240.) 
 
 X. All projectiles having fuses are inserted in the bore so that 
 the fuse shall be towards the muzzle. (Par. 241.) 
 
 XI. A primer is prepared for insertion in the vent b}' holding 
 it between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand ; the lan- 
 yard, wound upon its handle, is held in the right hand, the hook 
 by the thumb and forefinger; the hook is attached by passing 
 it upward through the eye of the primer; the hook and primer, 
 thus attached, are held by the thumb and forefinger of the right 
 hand ; the primer is pushed into the vent by the thumb. 
 
 After the primer has been inserted in the vent, the cannoneer 
 who fires the piece drops the liandle, allowing the lanyard to 
 uncoil as he steps back to the position from which he is to fire ; 
 holds the liandle, witli the cord slightly stretched, passing be- 
 tween the middle fingers of his right hand, back up, and breaks 
 to Ills left and rear a full pace with the left foot, tlie left hand 
 hanging naturally by his side. (Par. 243.) 
 
 XII. In aiming guns and howitzers, the gunner places the 
 breech sight in its seat or socket, and aims through it ; gives the 
 proper direction by causing the trail to be moved, commanding 
 left or right, tapping, at the same time, on the right side of 
 the breech for the trail to be moved to the left, and on the left 
 side for it to be moved to the right. The cannoneers at the trail 
 will closely observe the motions of the gunner. (Par. 243.) 
 
 With mortars, the gunner signals, with his liands, the direc- 
 tion in which he wishes the carriage moved. (Par. 347.) 
 
 When the piece is pointed, tlie gunner raises both hands as a 
 signal ; the cannoneers moving the piece then unbar and resume 
 their posts. 
 
 XIII. At the command fire, the cannoneer who discharges 
 the piece turns his face from it, pulls the lanyard quickly, but 
 steadily, and fires. Immediately after the discharge he resumes 
 the erect position, rewinds the lanyard upon its handle, returns 
 it to his pouch, and resumes his post. (Par. 244.) 
 
 XIV. The gunner, after pointing, goes where he can best 
 observe the effect of the shot ; after which he resufties his post. 
 (Par. 243.) 
 
GENERAL RULES. 81 
 
 XV. Ammunition is not used wlien exercising by the num- 
 bers. {Par. 244.) 
 
 XVI. At the command cease firing, pieces tliat are loaded 
 remain so until further orders ; those tiiat are partly loaded — if 
 with the cartridge only — the cartridge is rammed home ; if the 
 projectile has been inserted, it likewise is rammed home. In 
 both cases the priming-wire is left in the vent, as an indication 
 that the piece is loaded. 
 
 If the piece is not loaded, it is sponged out. All the cannon- 
 eers r^ume their posts. {Par: 247.) 
 
 XVil. When ammunition is used, the instructor, before giv- 
 ing the command load, will specify : with blank cariridges — 
 with solid shot — with shell — with case-shot. {Par. 248.) 
 
 XVIII. To secure piece, the gunner puts on the vent-cover, 
 and No. 2 replaces the tompion in the muzzle. (Par. 249.) 
 
 XIX. Sponge and rammer staves are permanently marked 
 with a white ring, to show — with the sponge, when it is at the 
 bottom of the bore; with the rammer, when the projectile is 
 home. {Par. 233.) 
 
 XX. Eifle projectiles are always to be lubricated previous to 
 loading. They are then easily pushed home, and their range and- 
 accuracy are increased. {Par. 254.) 
 
 XXI. After each twentieth discharge (or thereabouts) with a 
 rifled piece, the bore is washed out and sponged dry. 
 
 XX TT . When an implement is taken up for any pui-pose it is 
 returned to its prescribed place by the person using it, at the 
 completion of the duty, unless otherwise specified. 
 
 XXIII. Cannoneers and the gunner resume their proper posts 
 after the completion of any duty, unless otherwise especially 
 directed. 
 
 XXrV. With all pieces having traversing carriages, pinch- 
 bars are used for making delicate adjustments in pointing, and 
 iron wheel-chocks for holding the traverse-wheels securely in 
 position. {Par. 340.) 
 
 XXV. Gunners, chiefs-of-detachment, and chief s-of-platoon, 
 give or repeat commands only when it is so prescribed. 
 
 XXVI. The habitual post of the chief-of-detachment is as 
 specified in par. 106. He has, under the instructor, or oflicer 
 immediately over him, general supervision of all duties perform- 
 ed by his detachment. During firings he looks after the supply 
 of ammunition, and sees that those engaged in preparing and 
 serxing it to the piece perform their duties properly. 
 
 XXVU. All ammunition must be prepared for firing at the 
 service magazine. Projectiles will be carefully cleaned of all 
 rust, dirt, or protuberances liable to cause them to stick, or injure 
 the bore. 
 6 
 
82 GENERAL KULES. 
 
 XXVIII. In the service of a battery of several pieces, the 
 pieces are designated Nos. 1, 2, 3, &c., from right to left ; these 
 numbers are independent of the permanent numbers assigned to 
 pieces in a vvforlc. 
 
 In directing the pieces to be fired, they are always designated 
 by their battery numbers ; as, Number one^-FlEE ; Number two — 
 Pike, &c. 
 
 When the wind comes from the right, the firing should com- 
 mence on the left, and reciprocalljr. 
 
 XXIX. . Under the fire of the enemy, the men will be direct- 
 ed to cover themselves by the parapet or traverses as much as 
 may be consistent with the execution of their duties. 
 
 XXX. Previous to proceeding with any exercise with the 
 pieces, and frequently at other times during the exercises, the 
 instructor, assisted by the other officers, will explain to the men 
 tlie nomenclature of everything appertaining thereto ; the appli- 
 cation and use of the various parts, machines, and implements 
 used ; the names and use of the different parts of the work ad- 
 jacent to tlie piece; the kinds of ammunition used; charges of 
 powder ; kinds of fire ; and, generally, all matters that assist in 
 
 . making the men efficient artillerists. 
 
 XXXI. In time of actual service, in front of an enemy, two 
 or more detachments, for each piece, are necessary, and all 
 should be instructed. These detachments will be designated 
 First relief, Second relief, &c. ; and in all battery formations, as 
 roll-calls, parades, &c., will fall in together in the order of their 
 numbers from right to left. 
 
 XXXn. In aiming, first get a clear view of the object, and 
 see that the piece is approximately in the line of fire before look- 
 ing through the sights ; tlien look over or through the sights, and 
 if the object be not in the line, instantly give the command to 
 move the trail to the right or left. 
 
 Always aim quickly, as the eye will not then become wearied. 
 
 XXXIII. The prop upon which the sponge and rammer are 
 supported is a low trestle, or simply a block of wood sufficiently 
 higli to prevent the sponge taking up dirt from the ground. The 
 rammer is always laid on the side nearest the piece. (Par. 233.) 
 
 XXXIV. To prevent the projectile from starting forward, 
 guns should be given at least five degrees elevation previous to 
 being run into battery, and running into battery should be done 
 so as to prevent sudden jar against the hurters. (Par. 242.) 
 
 XXXV. In case the friction-primer explodes without discharg- 
 ing the piece, care must be taken not to approach the piece too 
 soon — not less tlian five seconds — as it may only hang fire, and 
 the recoil would injure any one in the way of it. {Par. 252.) 
 
 XXXVI. Sponges, after the first fire, should always be moist- 
 
SERVICE OP SIEGE GUN. 
 
 83 
 
 ened. This not only assists in extinguishing any fragments of 
 cartridge that might remain huming in the bore, but it prevents 
 the residuum of Durnt powder from hardening on the surface of 
 the bore. Fi'esh water is preferable to salt for moistening the 
 sponge. 
 
 XXXVII. In all exercises for instruction, duties should be 
 performed as nearly as possible as in actual service, and not by 
 pretense only. To do this, in the service of the piece a dummy 
 cartridge should be used, together with actual projectiles. The 
 cartridge may be made of canvas or stout gunny-sacking, filled 
 to the proper weight with coal broken to the size of the powder 
 used for file piece. A worm serves for withdrawing the car- 
 tridge. 
 
 A steong lanyard attached to the fuse-plug will serve to with- 
 draw the projectile. The free end of the lanyard remains out 
 of the muzzle as the projectile is pushed home. 
 
 SERVICE OP SIEaE GUN. 
 
 (Fig. 1, Plate XL) 
 
 Desceiption of Piece. 
 
 331. Gun, cast-iron; muzzle-loading rifle; twist, uniform, 
 one turn in 15 feet. 
 
 Number, weigMa, and dimensions. 
 
 DSSIOKATIOH. 
 
 No. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 OaUbre ~ 
 
 sssVs 
 
 9. 
 
 mo 
 
 10. 
 
 "s"25 
 
 35.5 
 
 26. 
 3570 
 
 300 
 3650 
 7100 
 
 4.5 
 133. 
 15.6 
 9. 
 
 'o.'97 
 0.6 
 0.075 
 0.05 
 
 Mazimnm diameter. « 
 
 Miniin^im rtifiTTiptPT,r..ri-"i 
 
 
 
 Width of grooves _.. 
 
 Width of lands 
 
 Depth of grooves „.. 
 
 Initial velocity (feet) 
 
 Charsre fcannoii uowderl 
 
 sShS!:?°°™.f.™^rr.";::::::""::.:::;:zr 
 
 Shell (nnfllled) 
 
 Weight of piece. _ 
 
 Freponderance _ 
 
 Carriage and liiiil)er...» «« 
 
 Piece, carriage, limber, and implemt^nts 
 
 Horses to transport (good roads)........._....««. 
 
 "^ (inferior roads) 
 
84 
 
 SERVICE OF SIEGE GUN. 
 
 The nomenclature of the carriage for the siege gun and siege 
 howitzer is similar to that for light field pieces as laid down in 
 "Light Artillery Tactics" ; it is therefore omitted in this book. 
 
 Ranges in yabds. 
 
 Elbvatioit. 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Shbll. 
 
 Turn OP 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flight. 
 
 1° 
 
 0' 
 
 540 
 
 533 
 
 1.37 
 
 1° 
 
 30' 
 
 790 
 
 781 
 
 2.05 
 
 2° 
 
 0' 
 
 1017 
 
 1005 
 
 2.69 
 
 2° 
 
 30' 
 
 1240 
 
 1224 
 
 3.32 
 
 3° 
 
 0' 
 
 1445 
 
 1414 
 
 3.94 
 
 3° 
 
 30' 
 
 1639 
 
 1593 
 
 4.54 
 
 4° 
 
 
 1823 
 
 1762 
 
 5.14 
 
 5° 
 
 
 2170 
 
 2071 
 
 6.3 
 
 6° 
 
 
 2485 
 
 2354 
 
 7.42 
 
 70 
 
 
 2780 
 
 2610 
 
 8.51 
 
 8° 
 
 
 3056 
 
 2844 
 
 9.57 
 
 90 
 
 
 3313 
 
 3061 
 
 10.6 
 
 10° 
 
 
 3556 
 
 3265 
 
 11.59 
 
 The gun, on its platform, admits of 9° 30' elevation and 10° 
 30' depression. On level ground it admits of 12° elevation and 
 10° depression. By digging a trench for the trail to run in, a 
 still greater elevation may be obtained. 
 
 In works, it is fired from a wooden platform. {Par. 223.) In 
 the field, It may be fired without a platform, when the gvonnd 
 is level and firm ; or a temporary platform may be extemporized 
 from such beams, planks, or logs as may be at hand. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 asa. Eight men are required : one chief-of-detachment, one 
 gunner, and six cannoneers. 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 
 1 Three on each side of the piece; 
 
 Handspikes |- leaning against the parapet, in 
 
 J line with cannoneers. 
 
 Sponge.. ., 
 Rammer., 
 
 One yard behind, and parallel to 
 the cannoneers of the right; sup- 
 ported on a prop, heads turned 
 from the epaulment. 
 
SBRVICB OF SIEGE GUN. 85 
 
 Pass-box Behind and near No. 4. 
 
 and lan- 
 cascable. 
 
 In fllling-room of service magazine. 
 
 P-^-P-^'^ } "^S'sSSde^i: 
 
 G-ner's pouch } ^^f tlll^l^^S--''^ ' ^"^P™-^" 
 
 Sifflit-Douch \ Containing breech sight; suspended 
 
 " *^ / from cascable. 
 
 wneei cnocKs j- ^^^^ ^^ ^j.^ hurter. 
 
 Vent-cover Covering the vent. 
 
 ToDipion In the muzzle. 
 
 •g 1 Leaning against the parapet near 
 
 ■Ruflcrp barrel \ Containing cartridges ; at a safe and 
 
 = ""*'=' / convenient place near the piece. 
 
 Sponge-buolset Near sponge and rammer. 
 
 Fuse-gauge , 
 
 Fuse-knife , 
 
 Fuse-wrench 
 
 Fuse-reamer. 
 
 One lanyard (extra).., 
 
 233. To each two pieces there should be 
 
 One worm 
 
 One hammer-wrench 
 
 One gunner's quadrant... 
 
 One veut-punch 
 
 One vent-gimlet 
 
 One gunner's level 
 
 One gunner's pincers 
 
 When there is no parapet, the handspilsies are placed, three on 
 each side, standing between the cheeks and wheels of the car- 
 riage, in front of and resting against the axle-tree. 
 
 The solid shot are piled on the left of the piece against the par- 
 apet ; the other projectiles are in the filling-room of the service 
 magazine ; the fuses, cartridges, and primers are In the service 
 magazine. 
 
 To distribute the equipments. 
 
 234. The instructor commands : 1. Take equipments. 
 The gunner steps to the cascable ; takes off the vent-cover, 
 
 handing it to No. 2 to place against the parapet outside of his 
 
 • In fllling-room of service magazine. 
 
86 SBSVICE OF SIEGE GUN. 
 
 post; gives the primer-pouch to No. 3; equips himself witli the 
 sight-pouch and his own pouch ; clears the vent ; levels the piece, 
 and resumes his post. 
 
 No. 3 equips himself with the primer-pouch. These rules are 
 general for all guns. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2, after passing two handspikes each to Nos. 3 and 
 4, take one each, for himself. Kos. 5 and 6 receive theirs from 
 Nos. 3 and 4. 
 
 235. The handspike is held in both hands, diagonally across 
 the body; the hand nearest the parapet grasping it near the 
 small end and at the height of the shoulder, back of the hand 
 down, elbow touching the body ; the other hand back up, the 
 arm extended naturally ; the butt of the handspike resting on 
 the ground, on the side of the cannoneer farthest from the para- 
 pet, and in line with his toes. 
 
 336. When a cannoneer lays down his handspike, he places 
 it directly before him, about six inches in front, and parallel to 
 the alignment, the small end toward the parapet ; and whenever 
 he thus lays it down for the discliarge of any particular duty, he 
 takes it np after having completed the duty. 
 
 aST. The service of the piece is executed as follows: The 
 piece being in battery, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Fkombatteby. 
 
 The gunner moves two yards to his right. 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, all facing from the parapet, embar 
 with their handspikes; Nos. 1 and 2 under the front of the 
 wheels; Nos. 8 and 4 through the rear spokes of the wheels, 
 near the felly, under and perpendicular to the cheeks ; Nos. 5 
 and 6 under and perpendicular to the manoeuvering bolts. 
 
 When all are ready, the gunner gives the command : Heave, 
 which will be repeated as often as may be necessary, and sees 
 that Nos. 5 and 6 guide the trail in prolongation of the directrix 
 of the embrasure, and as soon as the face of the piece is about 
 one yard from the parapet, commands : HaIiT, at which all un- 
 bar and resume their posts. If the platform has a slope, Nos. 1 
 and 2 chock the wheels in front. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. LoAD. 
 
 23S. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 lay down their handspiltes ; No. 2 
 takes out the tompion, and places it near the vent-cover. 
 
 No. 1 turns to his left, steps over the sponge and rammer; 
 faces to the piece ; takes, the sponge with both hands, the backs 
 down, tlie right hand three feet from the sponge-head, the left 
 
SERVICE OF SIEGE GUN. 8/ 
 
 hand eighteen inches nearer to it; returns to the piece, entering 
 the staff in the embrasure ; places tiie left foot hi line with the 
 face of the piece, half-way between it and the wheel ; breaks to 
 the right with the right foot, the lieels on a line parallel to the 
 piece, the left leg straightened, the right knee bent, the body 
 erect upon the hips, and inserts the sponge-head in the muzzle ; 
 the staff in prolongation of the bore, supported by the right hand, 
 the right arm extended, the left hand hanging naturally by the 
 side. 
 
 1^0. 2 steps to the muzzle, and occupies a position on the left 
 of tlie piece corresponding to that of No. 1 on the right. He 
 seizes the staff with the left hand, back down, near to and out- 
 side the hand of No. 1. 
 
 Ko. 3 faces about, steps over the rammer, and seizes the staff 
 with both hands, as prescribed for No. 1 with the sponge, and 
 stands ready to exchange staves with No. 1. 
 
 No. 4, taking the pass-box, goes for a cartridge and projectile ; 
 returns, and places himself, facing the piece, about eighteen 
 inches to the rear and right of No. 2. 
 
 The gunner places himself near the stock, his left foot ad- 
 vanced ; closes the vent with the second finger of the left hand, 
 bending well forward to cover himself by the breech, and with 
 the elevating screw adjusts the piece conveniently for loading. 
 
 This rule for closing the vent is general for all guns and how- 
 itzers. 
 
 339. In the meantime, Nos. 1 and 2 insert the sponge by 
 the following motions, at the commands Two — Three; — Fotje — 
 Five— Srx : 
 
 Two. They insert the sponge as far as the hand of No. 1, 
 bodies erect, shoulders square. 
 
 Three. They slide their hands along the staff" and seize it at 
 arm's-length. 
 
 Four. They force the sponge down as prescribed for two. 
 
 Five. They repeat three. 
 
 Six. They push the sponge to the bottom of the bore. No. 1 
 replaces the left hand on the staff, back up, six inches nearer 
 the muzzle than the riglit; No. 2 places the right hand, back 
 up, between the hands of No. 1, and both then quickly change 
 their other hands so as to seize the staff with the back of the 
 hand up. 
 
 If, ill executing these motions, or the corresponding ones with 
 the rammer, it be found that the sponge or rammer is at home 
 at the fourth motion, then what is prescribed for the sixth mo- 
 tion will be performed at tlie fourth. This rule is general. 
 
 The knee on the side toward wliich the effort is made is ahvaj's 
 
88 SERVICE OF SIEGE GUN. 
 
 bent, the other straightened, and the weight of the body added, 
 as mnch as possible, to the effort exerted by the arms. This rule 
 is general. 
 
 1. Sponge. 
 
 S40. Nos. 1 and 2, pressing the sponge firmly against the bot- 
 tom of the bore, turn it three times from right to left, and three 
 times from left to right ; replace the hands by their sides, and 
 withdraw the sponge by the same commands, but by motions 
 contrary to tliose prescribed for inserting it. When the sponge 
 fits so tightly that it is hard to move in the bore, Nos. 1 and 2 
 may use both hands. This rule is general. 
 
 No. 2 quits the staff, and turning towards No. 4, receives from 
 him the cartridge, which he takes in botli hands, and introduces 
 it into the bore, bottom foremost, seams to the side; he then 
 grasps tlie rammer in tiie way prescribed for the sponge. 
 
 This rule, with reference to the bottom and seams of the car- 
 tridge, is general. 
 
 No. 1, meanwhile, rising upon both legs, turns towards his 
 left ; passes the sponge above the rammer with tlie left hand to 
 No. 3, and, receiving the i-aramer with his right, presents it as 
 prescribed for the sponge, except that he rests the rammer-head 
 against the right side of the face of the piece. 
 
 No. 3, as soon as the sponge is withdrawn, passes the rammer 
 under tlie sponge into the embrasure with the right hand ; re- 
 ceives the sponge from No. 1 with the left ; replaces it upon tlie 
 prop, and resumes his post. 
 
 No. 4, setting down the projectile and pass-box, takes out the 
 cartridge and hands it to No. 2, the choice to the front ; returns 
 the pass-box to its place, and takes up tlie projectile. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2 force home the cartridge by the same commands 
 and motions as for the sponge. 
 
 1. Kam. 
 
 241. Nos. 1 and 2 slide their hands along the staff to the full 
 extent of their arms ; grasp it firmly ; throw the weight of their 
 bodies upon the staflf and press the cartridge home. No. 2 quits 
 the stafl", and turning towards No. 4, receives from liim the pro- 
 jectile. No. 1, meanwhile, throws out the rammer, and holds it 
 with both hands, the head against the right side of the face of 
 tne piece. 
 
 No. 2, receiving the projectile, introduces it into the bore, base 
 foremost, and reseizes the staff with the left hand. No, 4 re- 
 sumes his post. 
 
SERVICE OF SIEGE GUN. 89 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2 force home the projectile by the same commands 
 and motions as prescribed for the cartridge. At the command 
 ram It is pressed tightly down against the cartridge. No. 2 
 quits the rammer; sweeps, if necessary, the platform on Iiis own 
 side ; passes the broom to No. 1, and resumes his post. No. 1 
 throws out the rammer, and places it on the prop below the 
 sponge ; sweeps, if necessary, his side of the platform ; returns 
 tile broom to No. 2, and resumes his post. 
 
 The gunner pricks, leaving the priming-wire in the vent ; re- 
 sumes his post, and adjusts the breech sight to the distance of 
 the object to be fired at. 
 
 1. In battbby. 
 
 243. Nos. 1 and 2 unchoclv tlie wheels, (if they have been 
 chocked,) and with Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6, all facing towards tlie 
 epaulment, embar; Nos. 1 and 2 through the front spokes of the 
 wheels, near the fellies, under and perpendicular to the cheeks ; 
 Nos. 3 and 4 under the rear of the wheels, and Nos. 5 and 6 
 under and perpendicular to the stock, near the trail. All being 
 ready, the gunner commands : Hbave, and the piece is run into 
 battery, Nos. 5 and 6 being careful to guide the muzzle into the 
 middle of the embrasure. As soon as the wheels touch the hurt- 
 er, he commands : Hai/t. All unbar, and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 
 resume their posts. 
 
 1. Am. 
 
 343. No. 3 lays down his handspike ; passes the hook of the 
 lanyard through the eye of a primer from below upward, and 
 holds the handle of the lanyard in the right hand, the hook be- 
 tween the thumb and forefinger. This rule for preparing the 
 primer and holding the lanyard is general, 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6, facing towards the epaulment, embar under and 
 perpendicular to the stock near the mancEuvering bolts. 
 
 The gunner, placing liimself at the stock, as at the command 
 load, withdraws the priming-wire ; places the breecli siglit in 
 its socket ; sights through it, and, aided by Nos. 5 and 6, gives 
 the direction, causing the trail to be moved by commanding 
 Left, or Eight, tapping, at tlie same time, on the right side of 
 the breech for No. 5 to move the trail to the left, or on the left 
 side for No. 6 to move it to tlie right; and by the elevating 
 screw gives the proper elevation, rectifying, if necessary, the 
 direction. 
 
 The moment the piece is correctly aimed, he rises on the left 
 leg and gives the command Ready', making a signal with both 
 
90 SERVICE OF SIEGE GUN. 
 
 hands, at which Nos. 5 and 6 unbar and resume their posts. 
 The gunner, taking the breecli siglit, goes to the windward to 
 observe the effect ol tlie shot. 
 
 These rules, as to the method of aiming, are genial. 
 
 No. 3 inserts the primer In the vent ; drops the handle, allow- 
 ing the lanyard to uncoil as he steps back to his post, holding it 
 slightly stretched with the riglit hand, the cord passing between 
 the middle fingers, back of the hand up, and breaks to his left 
 and rear a full pace with his left foot, the left liand hanging 
 naturally by his side. 
 
 These rules for holding the lanyard and breaking off by the 
 cannoneer who fires the piece are general. 
 
 At the command Ready, Nos. ] and 2, laying down their 
 handspikes, take, each, a chock in the hand nearest the epaul- 
 ment, and breaking off sideways with the foot farthest from 
 tlie epaulment, stand ready to chock the wheels after the 
 recoil. 
 
 1. Number one (or the like), 2. Fibe. 
 
 344. No. 3, turning his face from the piece, pulls the lanyard 
 quickly, but steadily, and fires the piece. 
 
 Immediately after the recoil of the piece, N"os. 1 and 2 chock 
 the wheels and resume the erect position ; No. 3 resumes the erect 
 position, rewinds the lanyard upon its handle, returns it to his 
 pouch, and resumes his post. The gunner having observed the 
 effect of the shot, returns to his post. 
 
 These rules, as far asthey relate to the cannoneer who discharges 
 the piece, and to the gunner, are general. 
 
 Ammunition is not used when exercising by the numbers. 
 This rule is general. 
 
 To load without the numbers. 
 
 245. The instructor commands : Load. 
 
 At this command the piece is run from battery, loaded, run 
 into battery, and prepared for firing by the following commands 
 from the gunner: From battery— Load — Is BATTEBY — 
 Aim — Ready. 
 
 The instructor commands : / 
 
 1. Number one (or the like), 2. Fibe. 
 
 At which the piece is discharged. All of these operations are 
 executed as before explained, except that Nos. 1 and 2 sponge 
 and ram without the numbers. 
 
SERVICE OF SIEGE GUN. 91 
 
 To load and Jire continuously. 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Commence, 2. FlElNQ. 
 
 246. The gunner gives the same command as in the preced- 
 ing paragraph, with the additional one of Fibe, and continues 
 to load and Are until the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Cease, 2. Firing. 
 
 34'Y< The firing then ceases ; pieces that are loaded remain 
 so until further orders ; those that are partly loaded — if with the 
 cartridge only, liave the cartridge rammed home; if with the 
 projectile, it liliewise is rammed home. In both cases the prim- 
 ing-wire is left in the vent. If the piece has no load in it, it is 
 sponged out ; all the cannoneers then resume their posts. 
 
 If it is intended to discontinue the firing, the instructor directs 
 the chiefs-of-detachment to have the cliarges withdrawn and 
 the pieces run into battery. 
 
 These rules are general. 
 
 The projectile may be withdrawn by depressing the muzzle 
 and raising the trail until the muzzle knocl£S against the ground. 
 Should it not then slide out, allow the piece to stand until (if 
 the atmosphere is moist) the residuum of burnt powder in the 
 bore becomes unotious; then depress the muzzle and raise the 
 trail as before. If the projectile still refuses to slide out, t.ho 
 piece will liave to be discharged ; or if it is not desirable to dis- 
 charge it, the charge may be drowned out by pouring water in 
 at the muzzle, afterwards draining it out and pouring a small 
 quantity of fine-grain powder in at the vent and firing it. 
 
 Cartridges are vvithdrawn by means of the worm. 
 
 348. Before giving the command load, or commence firing, 
 the Instructor, wlien ammunition is used, will specify : with blank 
 cartridges — with solid shot — with shell — or, with case-shot. This 
 rule is general. 
 
 To change posts. As explained in^ar. 112. 
 
 To secure piece. 
 The piece being in battery, the instructor commands : 
 Secube piece. 
 
 349. Ifo. 2 replaces the tompion in the muzzle. The gunner 
 puts on the vent-cover, which he receives from No. 2, and de- 
 presses the muzzle. This rule is general. 
 
92 ORGANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 
 
 To replace equipments. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 KePLACE EQUIPirBNTS. 
 
 350. Nos. 1 and 2 replace the handspikes against the para- 
 pet, those of Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 being passed to them by Nos. 3 
 and 4. The gunner hangs the pouches on the cascable. 
 
 To serve the piece with reduced numbers. 
 
 251. The smallest number of men with which a siege gun 
 can be served with facility is five — one gunner and four can- 
 noneers. 
 
 In this case Nos. 5 and 6 are dispensed with, and the piece is 
 run to and from battery as explained for the siege howitzer. 
 [Pars. 264 and 268.) 
 
 With four men — one gunner and three cannoneers — Nos. 1, 2, 
 and 3. in running the piece to and from battery, perform duties 
 as before, and the gunner that of No. 4. In loading. No. 2, in 
 addition to his own duties, performs those of No. 4. 
 
 With three men — one gunner and two cannoneers — ^Nos. 1, 2, 
 and the gunner perform duties as above. In loading, No. 1 per- 
 forms the duties of No. 3 as well as his own. No. 2 performs 
 those of No. 4, as in the preceding ease. 
 
 When No. 2 serves ammunition, he goes for the cartridge, 
 and places the pass-box behind his post before assisting No. 1 
 to sponge. 
 
 253. In all firings, when a primer fails, the gunner, after 
 waiting a few moments to see that the piece is not hanging .fire, 
 steps in front of the left wheel and, reaeliing over, pricks ; No. 
 3, reaching over tlie right wheel, gives him a fresh primer to 
 which he has hooked liis lanyard. 
 
 253. Sponge and rammer staves are marked with a white 
 ring painted around them, to sliow — with the sponge, when it 
 is at the bottom of the bore ; with tlie rammer, when tlie pro- 
 jectile is home. This rule is general. 
 
 254. Rifle projectiles are always to be lubricated previous 
 to loading; they are then easily pushed home, and their range 
 and accuracy of fliglit increased. This rule is general. 
 
 Service of a lO-mcn Siege Mortae. 
 
 (Fig. 1, Plate 9.) 
 
 Description of Piece. 
 341. Mortar, cast-iron ; smooth-bore, without chamber. 
 
ORGANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 93 
 
 field with almost the same facility as the 12-poiinder. Its great 
 range, power, and accuracy endow It with many advantages 
 when nsed as a heavy fleld-plece, and it should form a portion 
 of the artillery of every army organized for campaign purposes. 
 
 For this service the pieces are organized into batteries of four 
 or six guns each, and equipped after the manner of light field 
 batteries. 
 
 Each piece is furnished with two caissons of the usual pattern, 
 having, however, only two partitions in each half-chest ; these 
 are parallel to and 4.5 Indies from each side — tlie outer spaces 
 for projectiles, the inner for cartridges. Tliis arrangement 
 allows 16 rounds for each chest, 48 per caisson and 96 per gun. 
 A tray in eacli chest serves to carry pouches, primers, and fuses. 
 One spare wheel is carried for the caissons of each two pieces. 
 Caissons not carrying spare wheels, carry piclvet-ropes and 
 forage. Tiie piclcet-rope should be in sections; each section 
 long enough to accommodate the horses of one piece and its two 
 caissons, together witli a proportional share of spare and other 
 liorses. This requires each section to be 35 yards long. The 
 ends of tlie ropes should be provided with hooks ; these, besides 
 enabling them to be used more conveniently as piclcet-ropes, 
 allow of their being used as drag-ropes for extricating carriages 
 from difficult places on the march. 
 
 Light-artillery harness is used, but, owing to the weight of the 
 pole, breast-hooks of extra strength are provided for tlie wheel- 
 horses. The swing team being attached to lead-bars, wlieel- 
 traces are required for it. 
 
 The implements for the piece are as follows : 
 
 356. Six handspikes; small ends under sweep-bar, resting 
 on axle, large ends resting on splinter-bar, and secured by a 
 leather strap passing from the hounds, through loops on the 
 handspiltes, to bucldes on the fork ; or by a rope passed through 
 rings on the handspikes and around through staples on the 
 hounds and fork. 
 
 One short roller ; on the stock between the lunette bolts; 
 secured by a rope passing through a hole in the axis of the roller 
 and fastened to the stooS. 
 
 One trace-rope; two half-hitclies in the middle around the 
 cascable ; ends turned around the manoeuvering bolts, and cross- 
 ing to take up the slack. This secures the piece from sliding on 
 its carriage. 
 
 The sponge and rammer heads are upon the same staff, which 
 is cut to the shortest practicable length. Two sponges and ram- 
 mers are allowed to each piece, and, together with one worm for 
 each two pieces, are carried upon the sides of the piece, secured 
 
94 ORGANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 
 
 by two stout leather straps buckled arouiid the chase and the 
 body of the gun. 
 
 The service of the piece, so far as sponging and ramming are 
 concerned, is similar to that for light field-pieces. 
 
 The sponge-bucliet is carried in the same manner as for light 
 flekl-pieces. One fuse-wrench, one fuse-gauge, one fuse-knife, 
 one fuse-reamer, and one pair of gunner's pincers for eacli piece 
 are carried in the trays of the limber chests of the caisson. 
 
 A cartridge-pouch is used instead of pass-box, and is carried 
 by No. 4 suspended from the left shoulder to the right side. 
 
 Large and heavy horses, particularly for wheel-teams, are 
 selected for the guns. Except where the roads are unusually 
 good, ten are allowed to each piece. Each horse, botli for piece 
 and caissons, is provided witli a nose-bag, carried as for a light 
 field battery, and one watering-bucket is allowed for each pair 
 of horses, carried — those for the pieces on hooks attached to the 
 rear axle ; those for caissons as in light artillery. 
 
 One lifting-jack for each two pieces is carried on one of the 
 caissons belonging to these pieces. The lifting-jack weighs 160 
 pounds, and is carried on a caisson having no spare wheel. 
 
 Each caisson is supplied with axes, shovels, picks, paulines, 
 &c., as for a light field battery. 
 
 Two hundred rounds of ammunition are allowed for each piece ; 
 that not contained in the caissons is carried in transportation- 
 wagons. 
 
 One spare gun carriage, with limber complete, drawn by six 
 horses, accompanies each battery. 
 
 Three spare poles for the limber of the piece, ironed and fitted 
 ready for insertion, are carried on the spare carriage. 
 
 Each battery is furnished with a battery-wagon and forge. 
 These contain supplies as hereinafter prescribed. 
 
 The spare carriage, battery-wagon, forge, ammunition, and 
 baggage-wagons form a train, and, on the march, usually accom- 
 pany the light-artillery train. 
 
 The cannoneers carry their equipments and march by the side 
 of the piece, as in a light field battery. 
 
 In place of the shoe (which is entirely useless) a stout rope, 
 attached to the ring-bolt of the loclt-chain, is substituted. This 
 rope, passed around the felly with two or tliree turns, is held by 
 a cannoneer walking by the side of the piece. In this manner 
 lie is enabled to let the wheel go as it approaches the bottom of 
 a descent. 
 
OKGANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 
 
 95 
 
 Composition of a siege battery of six pieces organized and 
 equipped for campaign service. 
 
 Captains. ...... 
 
 Llentenants-. 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Artmceis 
 
 Trumpeters.... 
 
 G-uidon 
 
 Drivers 
 
 Cannoneers.... 
 Spare liorses... 
 
 Total.... 
 
 183 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 n 
 
 
 « 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 75 
 
 IRO 
 
 78 
 
 
 18 
 
 191 
 
 ( Including first-sergeant, 
 
 < quartermaster, stable, 
 ( and reterln'y sergeants. 
 
 < 3 blacksmiths, 2 saddlers, 
 i 1 wheelwright. 
 
 ' For 6 pieces, 12 caissons, 1 
 spare carriage, 1 battery 
 , wagon, and 1 forge. 
 
 357. On dry and firm ground the siege gun may be flred as 
 an ordinary field-piece ; under all other circumstances it requires 
 a platform. When time permits, a good {>latform may be im- 
 provised from material found in the vicinity; but to provide 
 against every emergency, a platform for each piece should be 
 carried with the battery, or at least with the train, when easily 
 accessible. 
 
 The platform is the one described in par, 226. These are 
 carried in transportation-wagons, each wagon carrying three 
 platforms. 
 
 The supply of projectiles should be about equally divided be- 
 tween solid shot, time, and percussion shells; i, e., one-third 
 solid shot, one-third time-fuse shells, and the remaining third 
 percussion shells. It is unnecessary to have either case-shot or 
 canister. 
 
 Each piece is provided with a fleld-glass and telemeter. 
 
ORGANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 
 
 35S. The following are the supplies carried in the battery- 
 wagon and forge for a battery of six guns : 
 
 Forge A. 
 
 OONTBHTS OF LlMBBB-CHBST. 
 
 (Smith's tools and stores.) 
 
 Horseshoes, Nos. i and 3 ~.lbs, 
 
 Horseshoes, Nos. 2 and 3.....™11)S, 
 Horseshoe nails, Nos. 2 and 3..lb8. 
 
 Washers and nuts. No. 2 
 
 Washers and nnts. No. 3 
 
 Washers and nnts. No. i 
 
 Nails, No. 1, O lbs. 
 
 Nails, No. 2, O _....,„„..Ibs, 
 
 Tire-bolts 
 
 Keys for ammunition chests ». 
 
 Linch-washers (caisson) 
 
 liinch-pins (caisson) « 
 
 Linch-pins (for piece) 
 
 Chains, Nos. 1 and 2 feet. 
 
 Cold-shut Slinks, No. 3 - 
 
 Cold-shut Slinks, No. 5 
 
 Hand cold-chisels 
 
 Hardie 
 
 Files, assorted, with handles 
 
 Buttress 
 
 Hand-punches, round and square« 
 
 Screw-wrench 
 
 Hand screw-driver 
 
 Hand vise 
 
 Smith's calipers, pair 
 
 Df£!pata^:}]^''«-1.2.3'a»'i4 
 
 Wood screws, 1 in.. No. 14.. ..gross.. 
 
 Q.uart can of sperm oil »« 
 
 Borax lbs.. 
 
 Fire-shovel 
 
 Poker _., 
 
 Split broom „ 
 
 Ifend-hammers 
 
 Eiveting-hammer 
 
 Naillngrhammer 
 
 Sledge-hammer „„ 
 
 Chisels for hot iron 
 
 Chisels for cold iron 
 
 Smith's tongs _ 
 
 Fore-punch 
 
 Creaser „ _ 
 
 Fuller 
 
 Nail-claw 
 
 Round-punch 
 
 Tap- wrench 
 
 Die-stock. 
 
 Nave-bands, developed 
 
 Tire-bands, developed 
 
 No. 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 § 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 100.00 
 100.00 
 60.00 
 5.25 
 3.20 
 2.16 
 1.00 
 1.00 
 5.00 
 1.80 
 7.30 
 8.37 
 
 1.54 
 2.50 
 2.00 
 2.00 
 0.76 
 10.00 
 1.60 
 2.00 
 2.42 
 0.32 
 1.00 
 0.40 
 1.60 
 1.83 
 2.10 
 2.70 
 
 Place. 
 
 Box A 1. 
 Box A 3. 
 
 Box A 2, large divis- 
 ■* £lon. 
 
 'InboxA2, 91.UIbs. 
 
 In box A 4,28.52 lbs. 
 
 'InboxAS,80.0SIbs. 
 
 - In Box A 6, 80.05 lbs. 
 
ORGANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 
 
 97 
 
 Forge A. — (continued.) 
 
 Contents of Loibee-chbst. 
 (Smith's tools and stores.) 
 
 Sboeing^hammer. 
 Pincers, palT....». 
 Hasps (13 inches) 
 
 Shoeing-knife 
 
 Toe-knife 
 
 Pritoliel 
 
 Nail-punch , 
 
 Clinching-pin 
 
 Oil-stone 
 
 T^eather aprons... 
 Horse-tail brush.. 
 
 Iron square 
 
 Padlock 
 
 Tar-bucket 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Tow for packing.. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 «>■ 
 
 
 *1 
 
 No. 
 
 if 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 0.82 
 
 1 
 
 2.00 
 
 2 
 
 2.15 
 
 1 
 
 0.33 
 
 1 
 
 O.SO 
 
 1 
 
 0.85 
 
 1 
 
 0.80 
 
 2 
 
 1.00 
 
 1 
 
 1.60 
 
 2 
 
 3.00 
 
 1 
 
 1.00 
 
 1 
 
 2.00 
 
 1 
 
 O.BO 
 
 1 
 
 7.00 
 
 6 
 
 53.45 
 
 
 5.00 
 
 484.38 
 
 Place. 
 
 In shoeing-box, 12.75 
 lbs. 
 
 Fastened on Inside 
 of the chest-cover 
 ■with two copper 
 clamps. 
 
 On the chest. 
 
 On its'hook. 
 
 One pound of horseshoe nails, No. 3, contains 140 nails; one 
 pound of horseshoe nails, No. 2, contains 112 nails; one hun- 
 dred pounds of horseshoes, contain 90 shoes. 
 
 Contents of forge-body. 
 
 Tools and Stores. 
 
 Square iron, H in. and 1 in 
 
 Flat iron, 151 in. x 5«, 1 in. x }« , \M, 
 
 in. ^Lia^cM in 
 
 Hound iron, % in 
 
 Oast-steel, M in, square 
 
 English blistered-steel 
 
 Boxes 5 and 6, containing : 
 
 Horseshoes, Nos. 2 and 3 
 
 Horseshoe nails, Nos, 2 and 3 
 
 Water-bucket 
 
 Watering-bucket (leather) 
 
 Anvil 
 
 Vise ' 
 
 Bituminous coal 
 
 Coal-shovel 
 
 Padlock 
 
 Tow • 
 
 Total.. 
 
 No. 
 
 Welg't 
 Lbs. 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 200 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 100 
 
 29 
 
 250 
 
 5 
 
 842 
 
 Place. 
 
 In the iron-room. 
 Bars not more than 
 3 feet long. Square 
 iron in two bun- 
 dles. 
 
 \ In iron-room. 
 
 On its hook. 
 On the vise. 
 On the fireplace. 
 On stock of forge. 
 
 I In the coal-box. 
 
 On coal-box. 
 
08 
 
 ORSANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 
 
 1 . Anvil-block, carried on the hearth of the forge, and secured 
 by having a hole through its axis, through which is passed a 
 lashing-rope. 
 
 Contents of Umber-ohest, Battery-wagon C. 
 
 Tools ahd Stores. 
 
 Carriago-mdker^s tools: 
 
 Hand-saw 
 
 Tenon-saw (14 in.) 
 
 Jack-plane 
 
 Smoo thing-plane 
 
 Brace, with 24 bits 
 
 Spokeshave 
 
 Gfaage 
 
 Plane-irons'. 
 
 Saw-set 
 
 Rule (3 feet).; 
 
 Gimlets ; 
 
 Compasses, pair 
 
 Clialk-llne 
 
 Erad-awls 
 
 Scriber 
 
 Saw-ffles (4)4 in.) 
 
 Wood-files (10 in.) 
 
 Wood-rasp (10 in.) 
 
 Trying-square (8 in.) 
 
 Hand screw-driver .'. 
 
 Oil-stone 
 
 IBro.ad-axe 
 
 Hand-axe 
 
 Claw-Iiatchet 
 
 Claw-hammer 
 
 Pincers (small), pair 
 
 Table vise , 
 
 Eraming-cliisels (1 in. and 2 in.).... 
 Firmer-chisels {% in. and XH in.)... 
 Framing-gouges (1 in. and llbi in.) 
 Augers and handles (!4 in., H in., 
 
 54 in., 1 in., 2 in.) 
 
 Screw-wrench 
 
 Felling-axe.. > 
 
 Adze $ 
 
 Fr.ame-saw , 
 
 Cluart can of sperm oil 
 
 Compass-saw 
 
 Tacks (carpenters'), M. 
 
 Measuring-tape 
 
 Chalk 
 
 with handles.. 
 
 No. 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 libs. 
 
 ' 4.00 
 1.50 
 4.15 
 1.80 
 4.35 
 0.80 
 0.30 
 1.05 
 0.25 
 0.14 
 0.95 
 0.18 
 0.10 
 0.17 
 0.15 
 0.87 
 
 i.ia 
 
 0.40 
 0.60 
 0.32 
 1.50 
 6.00 
 5.00 
 2.00 
 1.50 
 1.06 
 3.80 
 3.00 
 1.00 
 2.60 
 
 4.50 
 2.42 
 6.00 
 '3.30 
 4.50 
 2.70 
 
 6.00 
 
 "i".m 
 
 J*lace. 
 
 ? Fastened to the in' 
 S side of chest cover. 
 
 In box a 1,17.20 lbs, 
 
 In box O 2, 32.23 lbs. 
 
 ■In box C 3,23.25 lbs. 
 
ORGANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 
 
 99 
 
 Contents of limber-chest, Battery-wagon C. — (continued.) 
 
 Tools asd Stokes. 
 
 Saddler*e tools and stores. 
 
 Mallet 
 
 Clam 
 
 Hammer , 
 
 Shoe-kniyes 
 
 Half-ronnd knife , 
 
 Shears, pair , 
 
 Sandstones 
 
 Rale (2 feet) 
 
 Needles, assorted 
 
 Collar-needles 
 
 TWmbles 
 
 Awls < 
 
 Awl-handles 
 
 Punclies, assorted 
 
 Pincers, pairs 
 
 Pliers, pairs 
 
 Claw-tools 
 
 Creasers ^ 
 
 Gauge-loiife 
 
 Scissors, pair 
 
 Compass, pair 
 
 Strap-awls 
 
 Saddler's mallet 
 
 Saddler's clam 
 
 Bristles 
 
 Saddler's thread 
 
 Bees-wnx 
 
 Black-wax 
 
 Patent thread 
 
 Shoe thread lbs... 
 
 Buckles, assorted (0.75 in. to 1.5 
 
 in.) doz... 
 
 Taclis (iron and copper), assorted. 
 
 Hand-saws 
 
 Tenon-sa'ws 
 
 Blades for frame-saws 
 
 Total., 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 , 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 100 
 5 
 4 
 
 36 
 6 
 6 
 3 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1.75 
 5.00 
 0.65 
 0.20 
 0.28 
 0.47 
 0.30 
 
 0.50 
 0.75 
 1.00 
 6.75 
 
 0.75 
 "6.25 
 
 1.75 
 5.00 
 2.00 
 2.00 
 3.00 
 5.00 
 5.00 
 2.00 
 
 1.00 
 10.00 
 2J)0 
 
 173.00 
 
 Place. 
 
 In box 4. 
 
100 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 
 
 Contents of wagon-body. 
 
 Tools akd Stoebs. 
 
 No. 
 
 G-rindstone, 14-Ja. x 4 in... 
 Arbor and crank for do.... 
 
 Pintles (for piece) 
 
 Jlorse-collars (assorted)... 
 
 Girths 
 
 Lead-traces 
 
 'Wliips (artillery) 
 
 Wlieel-traces 
 
 Currycombs 
 
 Horse-brushes 
 
 Nose-bags , 
 
 Saddle-blanicets... 
 
 Spurs and straps..,..pairs.. 
 
 Halters and straps , 
 
 "Watering-bridles -.... 
 
 Bridles (artillery) , 
 
 Hame-straps 
 
 Harness-leather sides 
 
 Bridle-leather ,sides 
 
 Sash-cord pieces... 
 
 Pole-yoke.... 
 
 Elevating screw 
 
 Saw, cross-out (6 feet) 
 Rope-trace, feet... * 
 Block (treble) for 
 
 above 
 
 Block (double) for 
 
 above 
 
 Watering-buckets. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 40 
 
 Tools and Stokes. 
 
 Fnse-wrenches 
 
 Pnse-ganges 
 
 Fuse-knives 
 
 Fuse-reamers 
 
 Gunner's pincers 
 
 Yent-punches 
 
 Breech sights 
 
 Priming- wires 
 
 Gunner's gimlets 
 
 Pruner-pouches 
 
 Oastile-soap 
 
 Handspikes 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Staves— sponge and ram- 
 mer (lashed to body of 
 
 wagon outside) 
 
 *Neat's-foot oil .gal. 
 
 *Grease, wheel (1-lb cans). 
 
 Nails, (4, 6, 8, and 10-pen- 
 ny) 
 
 Claw-hatchet 
 
 Spirit-level (carpenter's). 
 
 Sperm or wax candles 
 
 Rammer-heads 
 
 Sponge-heads 
 
 Sponges 
 
 Sponge-covers 
 
 Lanyards for friction- 
 primers 
 
 Dark lanterns 
 
 Common lanterns.- 
 
 Total.. 
 
 No. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 3 
 
 4.60 
 
 1100 
 
 »IuBox0 5. 
 
 The battery-wagon here mentioned i.5 that furnished from the 
 arsenals; but, being cumbersome and quite unsuitable for field 
 service, it is better to utilize its body and limber-chest by plac- 
 ing tliem on the running gear of the army transportation-wagon . 
 The limber-chest can be attached to the front part of the wagon- 
 body by strong iron bracliets, and serves as a seat for the driver. 
 A similar chest can be placed, in like manner, on the rear end 
 in place of the forage-racli. In the front chest is carried the 
 carriage-maker's outfit, and in -the rear one tliat of the saddler. 
 
 On the middle of each side of the body may be attached a 
 
ORGANIZATION OF SIEGE GUN BATTERY. 
 
 101 
 
 small chest for horse niediciiies, or such other small articles as 
 may be required of easy access. 
 
 When the wagon is thus arranged it is as easily drawn by four 
 horses as the otlier by six, and one driver, using double lines, is 
 sufficient. 
 
 Tlie an-angement for attaching the draught-horses to siefje- 
 gun carriages being similar to that for the army transportation- 
 wagon, the harness used with the latter will answer for the for- 
 mer. A driver is required for each pair of horses, as in light field 
 artillery. 
 
 The oflicers, first-sergeant, and chiefs -of -detachment are 
 mounted and equipped as for light artillery. 
 
 When in the presence of the enemy, the ammunition-wagons 
 are kept out of range of his fire, but always near enough to be 
 easilj'' reached by the caissons for replenishing ammunition 
 chests. 
 
 The battery should be repainted once a year, usually in the 
 spring. To do this, a battery complete, of six pieces, requires : 
 120 lbs. olive paint; 15 lbs. black paint; 10 galls, linseed oil; 3 
 gallSi spirits turpentine; 12 paint brushes (assorted). 
 
 Harness, when exposed constantly to the weather, should be 
 oiled once in four months, requiring each time 6 gallons ueat's- 
 toot oil and 30 lbs. tallow. 
 
 The tallow is melted and mixed with the oil. The harness 
 should be well soaked and washed, and the mixture applied 
 warm and tliorougiily rubbed in while the leather is still damp. 
 
 S59. The following list contains a fair supply of horse medi- 
 cines for a battery of six pieces : 
 
 Assafetida % pounds. 
 
 Aloes ..„ Z ponnds. 
 
 Adhesive plaster 1 yard. 
 
 Aqua ammonia 1 quart. 
 
 Alum 1 pound. 
 
 Bluestone 1 pound. 
 
 Borax 1 pound. 
 
 British oil 12 bottles. 
 
 Blister liquid H quart. 
 
 Calomel ^ pound. 
 
 Condition powders 2 pounds. 
 
 Cerate, simple 2 pounds. 
 
 Glauber salts 10 pounds. 
 
 I'lax-seed, ground 8 pounds. 
 
 Laudanum 1 quart. 
 
 Lard 5 pounds. 
 
 Lunar caustic M ounce. 
 
 Mercurial ointment «.. 1 pound. 
 
 Mustang Unlment 6 bottles. 
 
 Nitre 1 pound. 
 
 Olive oil 2 quarts. 
 
 Opodeldoc 6 bottles. 
 
 Hosin 1 pound. 
 
 Spirits turpentine 2 quarts. 
 
 Spirits nitre 1 quart. 
 
 Flour of sulphur M pound. 
 
 Sugar of lead 2 pounds. 
 
 Tai*tar emetic ^ pound. 
 
 Tar 1 quart. 
 
 Wliisky 2 gallons. 
 
 Farrier's needles 4 
 
 Farrier's scissors* 1 
 
 Horse-fleam 1 
 
 Lancet 1 
 
 Syringe 1 
 
 T'hese should be put up, as far as practicable, in metallic cans 
 and in strong bottles. When the battery-wagon is arranged as 
 
102 
 
 SIEGE HOWITZER — SERVICB. 
 
 before described, they will be packed and earned in the boxes 
 attached to the sides of the body; otherwise they will be earned 
 ill boxes inside of the body. 
 
 Quaetebmastee's Stobes. 
 
 260. In addition to the wagons, horses, harness, &c., here- 
 tofore mentioned, there will be required for the battery the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 3 wall tents. 
 
 3 wall-tent flies. 
 
 3 sets wall-tent poles and pins. 
 75 shelter tents (double)^ 
 10 camp-kettles. 
 10 mess-pans. 
 
 2 trumpets, cords and tassels. 
 
 1 company clothing-book. 
 
 ] company order-book. 
 
 1 company descriptive-book. 
 
 1 company morning report-book. 
 
 These articles, excepting the trumpets, are carried in a trans- 
 portation-wagon ; the same wagon will, in addition, carry two 
 days' full rations for the men of the battery. 
 The forage is carried in transportation-wagons. 
 
 Seevice of Siege Howitzee. 
 
 {Plate 12.) 
 
 Desceiption of Piece. 
 
 261. Howitzer, cast-iron ; smooth-bore; muzzle-loader. 
 
 Number, weights, and dimensions'. 
 
 Desionation. 
 
 Oalltee .....~ 
 
 Weight 
 
 licngth 
 
 Diameter (mnximom) , 
 
 Diameter (minimum) 
 
 Liengtliof i>ore (calibres.) 
 
 Windage ; 
 
 Charlie (cannon powder) 
 
 Sliell (empty) 
 
 Preponderance 
 
 Weight of piece, carriage, limber, and imple'ts. 
 Horses to transport 
 
 No. 
 
 LiBS. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 2600." 
 
 8. 
 
 60."" 
 17.5 
 15. 
 
 5.81 
 
 ...„. 
 
 45. 
 380. 
 6S60. 
 
 o'.ii 
 
 8. 
 
 
 
SIEGE HOWITZEE — SERVICE. 
 
 108 
 
 Ranges in yards. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Shri.t,. 
 
 Range. 
 
 Toni OP 
 Flight. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 12.5 
 15 
 
 Lbs. 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 
 Yds. 
 
 435 
 
 618 
 
 720 
 
 992 
 
 1150 
 
 2280 
 
 2300 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 1.33 
 
 2. 
 
 3 
 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 Bursting charge of shell, 1 lb. ; charge to blow out fuse-plug, 
 4 oz. 
 
 The howitzer on its platform admits of 13 degrees elevation 
 and 10 degrees depression. 
 
 In works, it is flred from a wooden platform ; or when the 
 ground is level and firm, it may be flred without. It is used 
 chiefly in field works for flank defense. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 262. Six men are required : one chief-of-detaohment, one 
 gunner, and four cannoneers. 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 
 }T\vo on each side of piece ; leaning 
 against parapet, in line with can- 
 noneers. 
 IOne yard behind, and parallel to 
 the cannoneers of the right ; sup- 
 ported on a prop, head towards 
 the parapet. 
 Cartridge-pouch Suspended from cascable. 
 
 Primer noueh \ Containing friction primers and lan- 
 
 ^ / yard; suspended from cascable. 
 
 Gunner's pouch } ^^/rolSlSre'---^^ ' ^"'^P-"^" 
 
 Stght-pouch } ^Cmtfcabr'"^''' """'"''' 
 
 ^^^'-el-ehocks } «rend of tKrtl'r! ^^"°' "''^'' 
 
lUi rilCGE UoVVITZEll— SERVICE. 
 
 Vent-covei- Covering the vent. 
 
 Tompion In the muzzle. 
 
 Leaning against the parapet, near 
 
 _ 1 Leanina 
 
 B™om I No. 2 
 
 Jontain ^^ _ 
 
 convenient place near the piece. 
 
 „ . . , 1 Containing cartridges ; at a safe and 
 
 In filling-room of service magazine. 
 
 Pair of sleeves V 
 
 Sliell-hoolis I In a baslsefc or on a siielf, against the 
 
 Plummet J parapet, near No. 2. 
 
 Splints ..J 
 
 Sponge-bncliet Near sponge and rammer. 
 
 Grnramet-wad On end of huvter, near No. 2. 
 
 Fiise-gange ' 
 
 Fuse-knife 
 
 Fuse-wrtncli 'In filling-room of service magazine. 
 
 Fuse-reamer 
 
 One lanyard (extra) _ 
 
 To oiicli two pieces there slioukl be 
 
 One worm 
 
 One liammer-wrench 
 
 One gunner'.s quadrant... 
 
 One veiit-puncli 
 
 One vent-giralet 
 
 One gunner's level 
 
 One gunner's pincers 
 
 If the piece is without elevating screw, a wooden quoin is nec- 
 essary, and this is under the breech. 
 
 For the purpose of instruction, a cartridge-bag filled witli saw- 
 dust, and a priming-wii-e bent into a Iioolt, for withdrawing it, 
 are provided, and are in the basket. 
 
 When there is no parapet the liandspikes are placed, three on 
 each side, standing between llie cheeks and wheels of the car- 
 riage, in front of and i-estiug against the axle-tree. 
 
 Tiie proiectiles are in the filling-room of tlie service magazine ; 
 the fuses, cartridges, and primers are in the service magazine. 
 
 To distribute the equipments. 
 
 363. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Take equipments. 
 
 The gunner steps to tlie breecli; takes off the vent-covet 
 handing it to No. 2 to place against the parapet, outside of his 
 
SIEGE HOWITZER — SERVICE. 10') 
 
 post ; gives the primer-ponoh to No. 3, and the cartrulge-poiioli 
 to No. 4; equips himself with the siglit-pouch anil his own 
 pouch ;^ clears the vent, levels the piece, and resumes his post. 
 No. 3 e'qnips liimself with the primer-pouch. 
 
 No. 4, after equipping himself with the cartri'dge-poiich, assists 
 No. 2 to put on the sleeves. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2, after passing a handspike each to Nos. 3 and 4, 
 take one each, for himself. Tlie handspikes are held and laid 
 down as prescribed in pars. 235 and 236. The gunner directs 
 No. 3 to enibar under and raise the breech to enable him to level 
 the piece; applies his level to ascertain the highest point of 
 metal at the base, which he marks with chalk. In case there Is 
 no sight upon the muzzle, he does the same at the latter placi;, 
 and snaps a challc-line between to mai'k the line of metal. 
 
 'ZG4:. The service of the piece is executed as follows: The 
 piece being in battery, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. From battery. 
 
 The gunner moves two yards to his riglit; Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, 
 all facing from tlie epauhnent, erabar ; Nos. 1 and 2 through the 
 rear spokes of the wheels, near the felly, under and perpendicu- 
 lar to the cheeks ; Nos. 3 and 4 under and perpendicular to thd 
 mancenvering bolts. All being ready, the giuiner commands: 
 IIeA-VE, wliicli is repeated as often as may be necessary. He 
 sees tliat Nos. 3 and 4 guide the trail in prolongation of the direc- 
 trix of the embrasure, and as soon as the wheels are about one 
 yard from the parapet commands: Halt. If the platform has 
 an incluiation, Nos. 1 and 2 chock the wheels in front. All re- 
 sume their posts. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. Load. 
 
 '.265. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 lay down their handspikes; No. 2 takes 
 out the tompion and places it near the vent-cover, and resumes 
 his post ; No. 1 faces to his right, and seizes the sponge-staft' at its 
 middle with the right liand, back up; places himself at the nuiz- 
 zle, forces the sponge to the bottom of the bore, and. grasps the 
 staff witli botli hands, the back of the right up and that of the 
 left down. 
 
 No. 3, facing towards the parapet, embars under the breccli 
 or knob of the cascable, and assists the gunner in adjusting the 
 piece conveniently for loading. 
 
 No. 4 goes for a cartridge and sliell ; puts the cartridge in his 
 pouch; takes the shell in' botli hands; returns and places it on 
 the grummet-wad, and stands, facing tlie piece, about eighteen 
 inches to the rear and left of No. 2. ' 
 
106 SIEGE HOWITZER SERVICE. 
 
 The gunner places himself neai- the stock, as in par. 238, and 
 closes the vent ; ailjnsts the piece to about one degree elevation, 
 and makes a signal for No. 3 to luibar. , 
 
 1. Sponge. 
 
 266. No. 1, pressing the sponge firmly against the bottom of 
 the bore, turns it three times from right to left, and three times 
 from left to right ; draws it out, turns the sponge-head over to- 
 wards the front, and places the rammer-head against the light 
 side of the face of the piece, holding the staff in both hands, the 
 back of the right down and that of the left np ; as soon as the 
 cartridge is inserted, he enters the rammer and pushes the car- 
 tridge Iiome. 
 
 No. 4 gives the cartridge to No. 2, who, having placed him- 
 self between the wheel and piece, inserts it into the muzzle. 
 As soon as No. 4 has given tlie cartridge to No. 2, he takes the 
 shell-hooks and engages them in the ears of the sliell in readi- 
 ness for No. 2, who, making a face and a half to his left, takes 
 hold of the shell-hooks, raises the siiell and, making a face and 
 a half to his right, stands in readiness to insert it into the bore 
 as soon as No. 1 has pushed home the cartridge. 
 
 1. Kam. 
 
 36'?'. No. 1 sets the cartridge home by pressing firmly upon 
 it ; throws out the rammer, replaces it on the prop, and re- 
 sumes Iiis post. 
 
 No. 2 introduces the shell into the bore, keeping the ai-ms of 
 the shell-hook in a vertical plane, and sets the shell carefully 
 against the cartridge, taking care that the fuse is in the axis of 
 the piece. Canister is shoved home by hand. 
 
 Double cliarges of canister may be fired. 
 
 If the piece is to be fired horizontally, or at an angle of de- 
 pression, No. 4 hands a splint to No. 2, who presses it under the 
 shell ; replaces tlie tongs and, if necessary, sweeps his side of 
 the platform ; passes the broom to No. 1 , and resumes his post. 
 
 No. 1 sweeps his side of the platform, passes the broom back 
 to No. 2, and resumes his post. 
 
 No. 4, after passing the shell to No. 2, resumes his post. 
 
 The gunner pricks, leaves the priming-wire in the vent, and, 
 i-esuming his post, adjusts the breech sight to the distance. 
 
 I. In battery. 
 
 268. Nos. I and 2 imchock the wheels, and Nos. 3 and 4, 
 all facing towards tlie epauhuent, embar; Nos. 1 and 2 tliroun-h 
 the front spokes of the wheels, near the felly, under and perpen- 
 
SIEGE HOWITZER— SERVICE. 107 
 
 tTicvilar to the cheeks; Nos. 3 and 4 iiuder and perpendicular to 
 the stock, guidhig the muzzle of the piece into the middle Of tlie 
 embvasui-e. The gunner commands: Heave, and, as soon as 
 tlie wlieels touch the hui'ter, Halt, when all unbai- and resume 
 their posts. 
 
 1. Aim. 
 
 269. No. 3 lays down his handspike and prepares a primer. 
 
 N'os. 1 and 4, dicing towards the parapet, embar under and 
 perpendicular to the stock, near the raanoeuvering bolts ; No. 2, 
 facing ill the same direction, embars under the breech or knob 
 of the cascable. 
 
 The gunner, placing himself at the stock, as at the command 
 load, withdraws the priming-wire, places the centre point of the 
 breech sight accurately upon the chalk-mark on the breech, and, 
 sighting through it, gives the direction. Nos. 1 and 4 move the 
 trail to the left or right at the command Left or Eight from 
 tlie gunner. 
 
 The moment the piece is correctly aimed, the gunner rises, 
 and commands : Beasdy, making a signal with both hands, at 
 which Nos. 1, 2, and 4 unbar and resume their posts. 
 
 The gunner, taking with him the bi-eech sight, goes to a good 
 place to observe the effect of the shot. 
 
 At the command Ready, No. 3 inserts the primer in the vent ; 
 Nos. 1 and 2, laying down their handspikes, take each a chock 
 in the hand nearest the parapet, and, breaking off with the foot 
 farthest fi-om the parapet, stand ready to chock the wheel after 
 the recoil. 
 
 The breech sight at present used with the howitzer is one of 
 obsolete pattern. 
 
 When sights similar tD those used for siege guns are supplied, 
 the method of aiming will be the same as for the gun. 
 
 When the piece is masked, by an epaulment, from the object, 
 the direction is given as explained for mortars. (Par. 343.) 
 
 1 . Number one (or the like), 2. Fire. 
 2VO. Executed as in par. 244. 
 
 To load without the numbers, and to fire. 
 3'?'1. Executed as in ^ar. 245. 
 
 To unload. 
 373. The piece having been run from battery, the instructor 
 directs No. 2 to take out the shell and cartridge. No. 4 cariying 
 them to their place in rear of the piece ; No. 3, v/ith his hand- 
 spike, raises the breech until the shell rolls to the muzzle, where 
 it is caught by No. 2, who hands it to No. 4. 
 
108 
 
 10-I\01I GUN SERVICK. 
 
 To load and fire continuously. 
 
 a73. Executed as in par. 246. 
 
 To cease firing. 
 
 3'Y4. Executed as in par. 247. 
 
 To secure piece and. to replace equipments. 
 
 Executed as in pars. 249 and 250. 
 
 Tlie Iiowitzer is prepared for campaign service as explained 
 for the siege gun, witli such modifications as i-eadily suggest 
 themselves. 
 
 aTf.^. For transportation, the shells are carried uncharged. 
 To charge them, two men and the following implements, in ad- 
 dition, are required, viz.: One set of powder-measures, ona fun- 
 nel, one fuse-mallet, one fuse-setter, one rasp, two grummet-wads, 
 two wipers, one bridge-barrel, together with a supply of fuse- 
 pliims and tow. 
 
 The fuse-plugs are of wood, and tlie tow is to stop the fuse- 
 holes until the sliells are to be taken to the piece. The sliells 
 sliiiikl be well cleansed on tlie outside from rust and dirt. This 
 is done at the filling-room of tlie service magazine. 
 
 Note. — Tlie shells for the howitzer slioiild be strapped to sa- 
 bots, ill wliich case the loading would be greatly facilitated. 
 
 Tlie foregoing exercise Is for ammunition as now furnished. 
 
 For the service of the siege howitzei-, when used as a mortar, 
 see par. 45S. 
 
 Service of a 10-inch Smooth-bore Gun in baebette. 
 (Fig. 1, Plate 8.) 
 Description op Piece. 
 3T6. Gun, cast-iron ; muzzle-loader. 
 
 Number, weights, and dimensions. 
 
 DESieSATION. 
 
 No. Lbs. Inch. 
 
 Calibre 
 
 Length of piece 
 
 Maximum diameter 
 
 Minimum diameter 
 
 Length of bore (calibres).. 
 
 Windage 
 
 Initial velocity (feet) 
 
 Charge (cannon powder).. 
 
 Solid shot 
 
 Shell (anfiUed) 
 
 Weight of piece 
 
 Preponderance 
 
 10.6 
 
 1273. 
 
 10. 
 136.6 
 
 16.2 
 "6'.13 
 
 25 
 128 
 
 ira 
 
 15,000 
 
10-INCH GUN — SERVICE. 
 
 109 
 
 Carriage, wrought -iron; front pintle, without air-oj'linders 
 or other recoil checks. The new-pattern carriage will be pro- 
 vided with pneumatic buffers. The top -carriage will weigh 
 2500 pounds, and the chassis 3500 pounds, 
 
 Ranqes in yards. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Shell 
 
 TOIE.' 
 
 Chabob, 
 
 
 
 
 SuondB. 
 
 ■ 
 
 1° 00" 
 
 511 
 
 504 
 
 1.33 
 
 
 1° 30" 
 
 724 
 
 708 
 
 1.95 
 
 -a ' 
 
 2° 00" 
 
 916 
 
 886 
 
 2.56 
 
 
 2° 30" 
 
 1090 
 
 1048 
 
 3.15 
 
 a 
 
 3° 00" 
 
 1251 
 
 1195 
 
 7.71 
 
 
 
 3° 30" 
 
 1401 
 
 1330 
 
 4.25 
 
 
 40 00" 
 
 1539 
 
 1455 
 
 4.79 
 
 2^3 
 
 50 00" 
 
 1793 
 
 1680 
 
 5.83 
 
 ■S'S 
 
 6° 00" 
 
 2019 
 
 1879 
 
 6.82 
 
 S 
 
 70 00" 
 
 2255 
 
 2057 
 
 7.78 
 
 ■2^ 
 
 8° 00" 
 
 2414 
 
 2217 
 
 8.71 
 
 ■a 
 
 90 00" 
 
 2587 
 
 2363 
 
 9.60 
 
 
 10° 00" 
 
 2749 
 
 2498 
 
 10.46 
 
 
 
 15° 00" 
 
 3429 
 
 
 
 «5 
 
 20° 00" 
 
 3976 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 Truck handspikes (iron)... |- 
 
 The piece admits of 30 degrees elevation and 6 degrees depres- 
 sion. Its platform is a permanent portion of the fortification. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 Z'Wm Eight men are necessary : one chief-of-detachment, one 
 gunner, and six cannoneers. 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 
 Two on each side of the carriage, 
 
 on hooks. 
 Laid on the carriage over the rear 
 notches, and perpendicular to the 
 piece ; handle to the left. 
 One yard behind the cannoneers of 
 the right ; supported upon a prop, 
 the sponge and rammer -heads 
 turned from the parapet and in- 
 clined slightly from the piece. 
 Pass-box One yard hi rear of No. 4. 
 
 Elevating-bar (iron)., 
 
 Sponge.. 
 Rammer 
 
 1 
 
110 10-INCH GUN — SERVICE. 
 
 ■) Containing friction-primers and lan- 
 Primer-poucii [• yard; suspended from ratcliet- 
 
 J post. 
 
 "l Containing breech sight and prlm- 
 Gnnner's pouch V ing-wire"; suspended from ratchet- 
 
 J post. 
 
 Choclcs (iron) One on each hurter. 
 
 Vent-cover Covering vent. 
 
 Tompion In the muzzle. 
 
 Shell-hooks Behind and near No. 5. 
 
 Sponge-bucket Near sponge. 
 
 T, , , , \ Containing cartridges; at a safe and 
 
 isuuge-oarrei j- convenient place near the piece. 
 
 When several pieces are served together, there will be one 
 quadrant, one worm, one ladle, one hammer-vyreneh, two vent- 
 punches, one gunner''s pincers, two lanyards (extra), and two 
 vent-gimlets to each battery of not exceeding six pieces. These, 
 together with the pruners and fuses, are kept in the filluig-room 
 of the service magazine, where the shells ai-e prepared for firing 
 and brought to the piece as required. 
 
 Tlie powder is kept in the service magazine. 
 
 The sliells ai-e strapped to sabots. Tlie fuse-plug is of metal, 
 and at the time of inserting the shell into the piece the paper or 
 lead cap is pulled from tlie top of the wnter-cap. The solid shot 
 are kept piled convenient to the piece. All the projectiles should 
 be carefully cleansed of dirt, lumps of rust, or other protuber- 
 ances before inserting in the gun. Stands of grape are also 
 provided for occasional use, and are kept convenient to the 
 piece. 
 
 To distribute the equipments. 
 
 2TS. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Take BQtnPMENTS. 
 
 The gunner mounts upon the chassis; takes oflf the vent- 
 cover, hands it to No. 2 to place against the parapet in rear of 
 Ills post ; gives the primer-pouch to Ko. 3, equips himself with 
 his own pouch, and clears the vent. No. 4 mounts upon the 
 chassis, takes the elevating-bar, and, under the direction of the 
 gunner, adjusts the piece conveniently tor loading and resumes 
 his post, taking with him the bar, which he lays on tlie ground 
 in rear of him. perpendicular to tlie piece. No. 3 equips himself 
 with the primer-pouch. The handspikes, when not In use, re- 
 main on the hooks. 
 
10-INCH GUN — SERVICE. Ill 
 
 The instructor causes the service to be executed by the follow- 
 ing commands : 
 
 1. From battery. 
 
 379. The gunner places himself two paces in rear of the 
 chassis and cflmraands: In-Geae. Nos. 3 and 4 take hand- 
 spikes from the hooks, embar in the eccentric sockets of the top- 
 carriage, and, aissisted byNos. 5 and 6, throw the wheels in gear 
 at the command Heave by the gunner. The gunner then r^oin- 
 mands: Embar. Nos. 3 and 4 withdraw their handspikes and 
 insert them in the rear and uppermost mortises of the truck- 
 wheels ; Nos. .5 and 6 seize tlie handspikes with botli hands above 
 the hands of Kos. 3 and 4, all breaking to the rear witli the foot 
 nearest the carriage. The gunner then commands: Heave. 
 Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6, acting together, bear down upon the hand- 
 spikes and move the carriage to the reai"Y Nos. 1 and 2 follow 
 up with the chocks. The gunner commands: Embar. Nos. 
 5 and 6 let go the handspikes; Nos. 3 and 4 witlidraw them, and 
 em{)ar as before. The gnnner commands : Heave, whicli will 
 be executed as before. The commands emhar and heave will be 
 repeated by the gnnner until the face of the piece is about one 
 yard from the parapet, when tlie gunner commands : 1. Halt, 
 2. OuT-OF-QEAR. Nos. 1 and 2 chock the wheels ; Nos. 3 and 
 4 witlidraw their handspilces, insert them in the eccentric socliots, 
 and at the command Heave by the gunner tln-ow the wheels 
 out of gear, leaving the handspikes in the sockets. All resume 
 their posts. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. Load. 
 
 2SO. No. 2 takes out the tompion, and places it by tlie para- 
 pet in rear of his post. The gunner mounts npon the chassis 
 and closes the vent. 
 
 No. 1 tnrns to his left, steps over the sponge and rammer, 
 faces the piece, takes the sponge-staff with both liands. backs 
 down, the right hand three feet from the sponge-head, the left 
 hand eighteen inclies from it; returns to the piece, raising the 
 sponge-staff over the crest of the parapet ; places tlie left foot 
 on the rail of the cliassis, and the right foot upon the parapet, or 
 upon a step placed for the purpose against it ;, inserts the sponge- 
 head into the muzzle, tlie staff in prolongation of the bore, sup- 
 ported by the right hand, the right arm extended, the left hand 
 hanging naturally by his side. 
 
 No. 2 takes a position on the left of the piece corresponding 
 to that of No. 1 on the right, and seizes the staff with the left 
 hand, back down, near to'and outside the hand of No. 1. 
 
 No.. 3 faces to his rear, steps over the rammer, and, facing 
 
112 10-INCH GUN SERVICE. 
 
 about, seizes the staflf with both hands, as prescribed for !N"o. 1 
 with the sponge; he then stands ready to exchange staves witli 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 4, taking the pass-box, goes for a cartridge ; returns and 
 places liimself, facing the piece, to the right and rear of No. 2. 
 
 No. 6, taking a handspike, goes for the shell, followed by 
 No. 5 witli the shell-hooks; No. 5 attaches the slieil-hooks to the 
 ^pi-ojectile, and No. 6 passes the handspike through the ring, or, 
 if tlie shell is provided with a rope handle, through tlie loop of 
 the liandle; both seize the handspike. No. 5 in front, and, bring- 
 ing the shell up on the left of the piece, place themselves parallel 
 to tlie parapet. No. 5 behind and near No. 2. 
 
 In the meanwhile, Nos. 1 and 2 insert the sponge in the bore 
 by the following motions, at the commands two — three— four — 
 five — six : 
 
 Two. They insert .the sponge as far as the hand of No. 1, 
 bodies erect, shoulders square. 
 
 Three. They slide their hands along the staff and seize it 
 at arm's-length. 
 
 Four. They force the sponge down as prescribed for two. 
 
 Five. They repeat what is prescribed for thi^ee. 
 
 Six. They push the sponge to the bottom of the bore. No. 1 
 replaces the left liand on the staff, back up, six inches nearer the 
 muzzle tlian the right : No. 2 places the right hand, back up, 
 between the hands of No. 1 ; both numbers then oliange the 
 other hand so as to seize the staff back up. 
 
 ]. SPONaE. 
 
 281. Nos. 1 and 2, pressing the sponge firmly against the 
 bottom of the bore, turn it three times from right to left, and 
 three times from left to right; drop the hands farthest from the 
 parapet by their sides, and withdraw the sponge by similar 
 commands, but by motions contrary to those prescribed for in- 
 serting it. 
 
 No. 2 quits the staff, and, turning to No. 4, receives from him 
 the cartridge, which he introduces into the bore ; he then grasps 
 tlie rammer in the way prescribed for the sponge. 
 
 Ill the meanwhile, No. 1, turning to his left, passes the sponge 
 above the rammer to No. 3, and, receiving the rammer from 
 No. 3, presents it as prescribed for the sponge, except that, re- 
 taining hold with his left hand, he rests tlie rammer-head against 
 the right side of the face of the piece. 
 
 No. 3, as soon as the sponge is withdrawn, passes the rammer 
 in front of No. 1 onto the parapet, receives the sponge from 
 No. 1, replaces it upon the prop, and resumes his post. 
 
 No. 4 takes the cartridge from the pass-box and liands it to 
 
10-INCn GUN — SERVICE. 113 
 
 \o. 2, the choke to tlie front; returns the pass-box to its place, 
 :ii]i1 resumes his post. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2 force the cartridge home by the same commands 
 and motions as in sponging. 
 
 1. Kam. 
 
 3S3. Kos. 1 and 2 slide their hands along the stafT to the 
 full extent of their arms, and, grasping it firmly, throw the 
 weight of their bodies upon tlie staflf to force the cartridge 
 lightly home ; No. 2 then quits the rammer, which No. 1 throws 
 out and lays upon the parapet. 
 
 In the meantime, Nos. 5 and 6, carrying the shell as befoi-e 
 prescribed, step between the parapet and the face of the piece ; 
 No. 6 gives his end of the handspilco to No. 2 ; No. 5 gives his 
 end to No. 1, and then places himself on the platform in front 
 of the shell ; Nos. 1 and 2 raise the shell until it is opposite the 
 muzzle; No. 5, applying his hands under it, raises the sabot 
 and inserts it into the muzzle; No. 5 then resumes his post; 
 No. 2 withdraws the handspike and passes it to No. 6, who 
 replaces it on the hooks and resumes his post ; No. 2 passes the 
 sliell-hooks to No. 5, who replaces them. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2, taking up the rammer, apply its head and force 
 the shell down by commands and motions similar to those pre- 
 scribed for the cartridge; at the command Eam it is pressed 
 tightly down against the cartridge ; No. 2 quits the rammer and 
 resumes his post ; No. 1 throws out the I'ammer, replaces it on 
 the prop, and resumes his post. 
 
 As soon as No. 4 has delivered the cartridge, he mounts upon 
 the chassis, embars through the ratchet-post with the elevating- 
 bar, and, wlien the projectile is liome, gives the piece an eleva- 
 tion of about 5 degrees, — this for the purpose of preventing the 
 displacement of the projectile when the piece is run into batteiy ; 
 No. 4 replaces the elevating-bar and resumes his post ; the gun- 
 ner pricks, leaving the priming-wire in the vent. 
 
 1. In battery. 
 
 2S3. Tlie gunner commands : In-geab. Nos. 1 and 2 un- 
 chock the wheels and place the chocks on the barters ; Nos. 3 
 and 4 seize the liandspike and, at the command Heave by the 
 gunner, bear down slowly until the piece is in motion, regulat- 
 ing it by alternately throwing the wheels in and out of gear, or 
 parti.ally so. As soon as the carriage strikes the hiirters, the 
 gunner commands : 1. Oxjt-OF-GEAB, 2. Heave. Nos. 3 and 
 4 throw the wheels out of gear, withdraw their handspikes, re- 
 place them on the hooks, and resume their posts. If the car- 
 riage does not move when in gear, the gunner directs No. 3 to 
 
114 10-INCH GTJN — SEKVICB. 
 
 slightly engage a handspike In a rear mortise of the truck-wheel 
 and gently urge the carriage forward. Care mast be exercised 
 in tliis operation that the handspike does not fly forward with 
 violence. 
 
 As soon as the carriage strikes the hurters, Nos. 1 and 2 lock 
 the wheels with the toggles. 
 
 1. Aim. 
 
 284. The gunner commands: 1. CHASSIS IN-gbab, 2. 
 Heave. At the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 embar in the 
 sockets of the eccentrics, and at the second command, assisted 
 by Nos. 1 and 2, throw the chassis-wheels in gear, and, leaving 
 the handspikes in the sockets, resume their posts ; Nos. 5 and 6 
 ombar in the traverse-wheels. The gunner withdraws the prim- 
 ing-wire, places the breech sight in the socket, and, sighting 
 through it, gives the direction ; Nos. 5 and 6 move tlie trail to 
 the left or right at the command left or right from the gunner. 
 
 When tlie direction has been given, the gunner commands : 
 1. Chassis OUT-OF-GEAE, 2. Heave. At the first command, 
 Nos. 1 and 2 .seize the handspikes, and at the second throw the 
 wheels out of gear, return the handspikes to their hooks, and 
 resume their posts. Ifos. 5 and 6 unbar, return their hand- 
 spikes to tlie hooks, and resume their posts. 
 
 No. 3 passes the hook of the lanyard through the eye of a 
 primer, holds the liandle of the lanyard witli the right hand, 
 the Iiook between the thumb and forefinger, and stands ready 
 to hand it to the gunner. No. 4 mounts upon the chassis and, 
 embarring through the ratchet-post with the elevating-bai-, raises 
 or lowers the breed) as directed by the gunner. 
 
 When the piece is correctly aimed, tlie gunner commands : 
 Ready, makes a signal with both hands, removes the breech 
 sight with his left Iiand, and, receiving the primer from No. 3 in 
 his right, inserts it in tlie vent, dismounts from the chassis, and 
 goes where he can best observe the elfect of the shot; Nos. 1 and 
 2 break off sideways with the foot farthest from the parapet ; 
 No. 3 drops the handle, allowing the lanyard to pass through his 
 fingci's. steps back obliquely three yards to the rear, and breaks 
 off to his left and rear with the left foot, left hand hanging nat- 
 urally by the side ; No. 4 resumes his post, taking with him the 
 eleviiting-bar, which he lays on the ground as before. 
 
 1. Number one (or the like), 2. FiBB. 
 285. No. 3, turning his face fi'om the piece, pulls the lan- 
 yard quickly, but steadily, and lires. Immediately after the dis- 
 charge, Nos. l,-2, and 3 resume the erect position ; No. 3 rewinds 
 the lanyard and replaces it in the poucli. The gunner, having 
 observed the effect of the shot, returns to his post. 
 
100-POUNDER PARROTT — SERVICE. 115 
 
 To load without the numbers, and to fire. 
 As explained in par. 245. 
 
 To load and fire continuously, and to cease firing. 
 As explained mpars. 246 and 247. 
 
 To secure the piece. 
 As explained in par. 249. 
 
 To replace equipments. 
 
 3S6. Executed as in par, 250, except that the gunner re- 
 places the pouches on the ratchet-post, instead of the knoh of 
 the cascahle. 
 
 Note l.^Tlie piece may be fired with safety when the chassis 
 is in gear. This part of the prescribed service may, therefore, 
 be omitted. 
 
 2. The flooring-planUs extend over but a portion of the chassis, 
 making it exceedingly inconvenient to load the piece when in 
 its proper position. To remedy this defect, cut boards to the 
 proper length and fit them in crossways between the rails of the 
 chassis, resting on the lower flanges of the rails. 
 
 3. Solid shot for tliis piece are without ears ; they cannot, there- 
 fore, be carried by means of shell-hooks. The ladle for hot shot 
 (sometimes to be found at posts) answers for carrying and lifting 
 the shot to the muzzle. 
 
 Service of the 100-poundee Paeeott. 
 
 28 "y. The 100-ponnder Parrott lifle is mounted on a carriage 
 of similar construction to that of the 10-inch smooth-bore, and the 
 service of it is nearly identical with the foregoing, except that, 
 in bringing up the projectile, a rope strap is used instead of shell- 
 hooks ; and excepting, also, that In pointing, No. 4, instead of 
 using an elevating-bar, assists the gunner in giving the elevation 
 by means of the elevating screw. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 288. All guns of the Parrott system are of cast-iron, i-ciii- 
 forced at the seat of the charge by a wrought-iron jacket, which 
 is shrunk on. The one, two, and three hundred pounders have 
 no preponderance. The depth of grooves in all of them is 0.10 
 inch, with increasing twist. 
 
 Tlie 300-pounder weighs 26,000 pounds ; has 15 grooves. The 
 200-pounder weighs 16,300 pounds ; has 11 grooves. The 100- 
 poiuider weighs 9,700 pounds ; has 9 grooves. The charge for 
 
116 100-POUNDER PARROTT SERVICE. 
 
 the first is 25 pounds, for the second 16 pounds hexagonal, and 
 for the third 10 pounds cannon powder. 
 
 Ranges: IQQ-poundcr. 
 
 Charge : 10 pounds cannon powder. Projectile : Parrott shell, 
 fllled, 100 pounds. Initial velocity : 1.080 feet. 
 
 •illOOT 
 
 rt.-secs. 
 
 923 
 916 
 914 
 910 
 903 
 897 
 893 
 891 
 886 
 879 
 875 
 873 
 867 
 861 
 857 
 856 
 850 
 844 
 841 
 839 
 
 •TiTj JO aiosv 
 
 o iaiaiaia«o«o«oc0r-r-r-cocoeac»oso»ooo 
 
 "XHani Ao aiai 
 
 ^ lOOBosM-^i-t^r-iiooseocriooeottiooeooooo^ 
 g r-J-qiiflOOrH-<jJcooOi-J-^r;00.-J»CJ-;OOffiiOs^o> 
 
 m 
 
 •KOIITAata 
 
 o ^■^ioiaio»oeoo«i«or-i-r-r-oooooo<30oao* 
 
 •aasva 
 
 >§ OOlAOOOcOOOOOOOOr-OOOCDO 
 
 ■iiiooa 
 
 S; coia^oJtNrH^oososoo t~^eoioia^cceoo3 
 
 ■•riv J 3.0 inativ 
 
 O ©OOrHi-liHiHiH0«fi90»Cqe0C00Q03'^^^^ 
 
 •iHonj ao BHij, 
 
 1 §Sg3S5Eg§g5SSS5lS£2!3SS 
 
 •KOUVAHia 
 
 
 •aoJira 
 
 .| sii|i§iiiii§igi|§g§| 
 
10-INCH GUN — CASEMATE — SERVICE. 117 
 
 3S9. When a gun, mounted on an iron carriage, is loaded, 
 and it is not desired to Are it, tlie jfrojectile may be wittidrawn 
 by running tlie piece from battery, depressing tlie muzzle as far 
 as possible, and tlien allowing it to run into battery against the 
 hurtcrs, thus jarring the projectile forward. 
 
 Tlie cartridge is withdrawn with the worm; should it burst, 
 the powder is scooped out with the ladle. 
 
 390. In all carriages for heavy guns, when no means for 
 cheeking the recoil are provided, the rails should be sanded, but 
 the sand should be free from gravel. 
 
 Sebvicb of a 10-inch Smooth-boek Gun in casemate. 
 
 Description of piece. 
 
 Identical with the same gun in barbette, as given in par. 276. 
 
 Carriage, wrought-iron (chassis and top) ; front pintle ; with- 
 out air-cylinders or other recoil check. Weight of top-carriage, 
 1500 pounds ; weight of chassis, 3000 pounds. 
 
 The piece, when in battery, in the ordinary casemate embra- 
 sure, admits of 7 degrees elevation and 6 degrees depression. 
 
 The new-pattern carriage and chassis w^ill be provided with 
 air-cylinders. The former will weigh 1459 pounds ; the latter, 
 5310 pounds. 
 
 The ranges are identical with the same gun in barbette. {Par. 
 276.) The ammunition is the same, and is kept and served in 
 the same manner. {Par. 277.) 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 391. Eight men are necessary : one chief-of-detachment, one 
 gunner, and six cannoneers. The implements and equipments 
 are arranged as specified in par. 277. 
 
 To distribute the equipments, 
 292. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Take equipments. 
 
 The gunner steps to the side of the chassis, takes off the vent- 
 cover, hands it to No. 2 to place against the scarp in rear of 
 his post, gives the primer-pouch to No. 3, equips himself with 
 his own pouch, and clears the vent. No. 4 mounts upon the 
 chassis, takes the elevating-bar and, under the direction of the 
 
118 10-INCH GUN — CASEMATE — SERVICE. 
 
 giinnor, acljiists the piece conveniently for loading, and resumes 
 his post, taking with liim^ the bar, which he lays on the pave- 
 ment in rear of his post, perpendicular to the piece. 
 
 No. 3 equips himself with the primer-pouch. The handspikes, 
 when not in use, remain on the hooks. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Fbom battery. 
 
 Executed as in par. 279. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. LOAD. 
 
 Ezecuted as in par. 280, except that Kos. 1 and 3 pass the 
 sponge and rammer staves into the embrasure, instead of over 
 the crest of the parapet. 
 
 1. Sponge. 
 
 Executed as in par. 281. 
 
 1. Bam. 
 
 Executed as in par. 282, except that No. 1 lays the rammer- 
 staff upon the sole of the embrasure, instead of on the parapet, 
 
 1. In battery. 
 
 Executed as in par. 283. 
 
 1. Aim. 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6 embar in the rear traverse-wheels. The gunner, 
 mounting upon the chassis, withdraws the priming-wire, places 
 the breech sight in the socket, and gives the direction. Nos. 5 
 and 6 will, when necessary, be assisted by Nos. 1 and 2. 
 
 The remaining operations of pointing are as explained in par, 
 284. 
 
 1. Number one (or the like), 2. Fire. 
 
 Executed as in par. 285. 
 
 To load without the numbers, and to fire. 
 
 To load and fire continuously, and to cease firing, and to. »e- 
 
 cure the piece. 
 
 All executed as in pars. 245, 246, 247, and 286. 
 
15-INCH GUN — CENTRE PINTLE — SERVICE. 119 
 
 Seevick of a 15-mcH Gun mounted on a centee- 
 
 PINTLE CAEEIAGE. 
 Description of piece. 
 393. Grun, cast-iron ; muzzle-loader ; smooth-bore. 
 
 Designation. 
 
 No. Lbs. Inch. 
 
 Calibre ; ,. 
 
 Weight „ , 
 
 Preponderance 
 
 Length of piece 
 
 Length of bore (calibres) 
 
 Maximum diameter , 
 
 Minimnm diameter 
 
 Windage 
 
 Charge (mammoth or hexagonal powder) for 
 
 shot^ 
 
 " for shell 
 
 Solid shot , 
 
 Shell (unfilled) 
 
 Initiiil velocity (feet) 
 
 Weight of top-carriage 
 
 Weight of chassis , 
 
 Carriage — ^wronght-iron (chassis with two air- 
 cylinders to check recoil) 
 
 49,000 
 00 
 
 15 
 
 "lilO 
 
 ""& 
 
 25 
 0.13 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 450 
 
 330 
 
 5,800 
 15,450 
 
 Ranges in yaeds. 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Shell. 
 
 6 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1l" 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 «ti 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 & 
 
 a 
 
 »3 
 
 03 
 
 COASSB. 
 
 W 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 
 Deg's. 
 
 Y'rds. 
 
 Deg's. 
 
 Y'rds. 
 
 Sees. 
 
 100 pounds of mammoth 
 
 I 
 
 769 
 
 1 
 
 600 
 
 1.44 
 
 powder for solid shot, and 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 1332 
 1819 
 2235 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1073 
 1467 
 1800 
 
 2.79 
 
 4.1 
 
 5.28 
 
 60 pounds for shell. 
 
 To flU sheU: 12 pounds of 
 
 6 
 
 2601 
 
 5 
 
 2094 
 
 6.44 
 
 mortar powder. 
 
 6 
 
 2926 
 
 6 
 
 2355 
 
 7.58 
 
 
 7 
 
 3221 
 
 7 
 
 2590 
 
 8.67 
 
 Pressure per square inch, ay 
 
 8 
 
 3491 
 
 8 
 
 2804 
 
 9.68 
 
 erage, 19,500 pounds. 
 
 9 
 
 3735 
 
 9 
 
 3000 
 
 10.69 
 
 
 10 
 
 3959 
 
 10 
 
 3171 
 
 11.63 
 
 Length of cartridge : 
 
 15 
 
 4890 
 
 15 
 
 3916 
 
 16.30 
 
 100 pounds=30 inches. 
 
 20 
 
 5579 
 
 20 
 
 4458 
 
 20.52 
 
 60 poands=18 inches. 
 
Couaterpoise handspikes 
 (iron) 
 
 120 15-INCII GUX CENTRE PINTLE — SEEVICE. 
 
 The piece admits of 25 degrees elevation and 6 degrees depres- 
 sion. Tlie platlorm is a permanent portion o£ the worlj. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 394. Twelve men are required : one chief-of-detachment, one 
 gunner, and ten cannoneers. 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 
 One on each side of piece, attaclied 
 to socket on front axle by a set- 
 screw. A rope is attached to the 
 small end of these handspikes for 
 [leaving on when running the 
 piece from battery. When not 
 in use, the free end of the rope is 
 Iiung by an eye to a hook on the 
 cheek of the carriage. 
 
 Truck handsDikes fironi \ '^^^° °" ^^'^'^ ^'"^^ °* P'®°^ ' "'^ ^^°^ 
 ±rucK nanaspiKes (iron;... j. ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^.^j^^ ^j ^^^ chassis. 
 
 ") Lying on the carriage, upon the 
 Elevating-bar (iron) |- rear notches, and perpendicular 
 
 J to the piece, handle to the left. 
 One yard beliind the cannoneers of 
 
 Sponge the right; the sponge and ram- 
 
 Baramer f mer-heads turned from the para- 
 pet, inclined slightly from the 
 piece, and supported on a prop. 
 Pass-box Two yards in rear of No. 7. 
 
 "j Containing friction - primers and 
 Primer-pouch \ lanj'ard; liung on step of tlie 
 
 J ratchet-post. 
 
 1 Containing breech siglit and prim- 
 Gunner's pouch |- ing-wire; hungonstepof ratchet- 
 
 j post. 
 
 Cliocks (iron) One on each Inn-ter. 
 
 Vent-cover Covering vent. 
 
 Tompion In muzzle. 
 
 Carrying-bar (wood) Two yards in rear of No. 10. 
 
 Shell-hooks Two yards in rear of No. 4. 
 
 Sponge-bucket Near sponge. 
 
 DiBferential pulley, — or 1 ^^^„ i ,4. 4., 
 blocks and tackle | Attached to the crane. 
 
 There not being sufficient space for them when the carriage 
 
15-INCH GUN — CENTRE PINTLE — SERVICE. 121 
 
 runs from battery, neither handspikes, elevating-bar, iioi- au}'- 
 equipments will be placed on the floor-boards of the chassis. 
 
 Wlien several pieces are served togetlier, there will be one 
 quadrant, one worm, one ladle, one kammer-wrencli, two vent- 
 punches, one gunner^s pincers, two lanyards (extraji, and two 
 vent-givilets to each battery of not exceeding six pieces. These 
 will be kept in the flUing-room of the service magazine. 
 
 The cartridges are in the service magazine, and are brought 
 to the piece as wanted. Tlie shells are in the flUing-room of the 
 service magazine, and are likewise brought up when required. 
 The shells are strapped to sabots. The fuse-plugs are of metal, 
 and at the time of inserting the shell into the piece the paper cap 
 siiould be pulled from the top of the fuse-primer. The solid shot 
 are kept convenient to the piece. The projectiles should be 
 carefully freed from dirt, lumps of rust, or any other prtiuber- 
 ances that might prevent their easy insertion into the bore of 
 the piece. 
 
 To distribute the equipments. 
 
 395. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Take equipments. 
 
 Tlie gunner mounts upon the chassis, takes off the vent- 
 cover, hands it to No. 2, who places it against the parapet, near 
 his post ; gives the primer-pouch to Ko. 3, equips himself witli 
 his own pouch, and clears the vent; Nos. 1 and 2 remove the 
 plugs from the front ends of the air-cylinders. 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6 hook the ropes to tlie counterpoise handspikes, 
 and, securing the free end to the hoolcs on the cheeks, mount 
 upon tlie cliassis. Under the direction of the gunner. No. 6 
 takes the elevating -bar, embars witii it through the ratchet- 
 post, and, assisted by No. 5, gives the piece an elevation of about 
 one degree ; replaces the elevating-bar, and, together with No. 
 5 and the gunner, resumes his post. 
 
 The service of the piece is executed as follows. The instructor 
 commands: 
 
 1. Fkom batteey. 
 
 396. The gunner mounts upon the chassis, and commands: 
 
 IN-GBAE. 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4 adjust the pawls of the counterpoise handspikes 
 so that they will clear the ratchets of the truck-wheels ; Nos. 5 
 and 6 take down the ropes and raise the handspikes until Nos. 8 
 and 4 engage the pawls in the ratchets. 
 
 In the meanwhile, Nos. 9 and 10 insert each a handspike into 
 the sockets of the rear truck-wheels, and, mounting upon the 
 
122 15-INCH GUN — CENTRE PINTLE SERVICE. 
 
 Steps of the chassis, unlock the rear axle, and at the conimantl 
 Heave fi-om the gunner, assisted by STos. 7 and 8, throw the 
 rear truck-wheels in gear. 
 
 Nos. 9 and 10 relock the axle, and return the handspiltes to 
 the hooks. 
 
 The gunner then commands : Embab. 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6 raise the counterpoise handspikes until nearly- 
 vertical, when No?. 3 and 4 engage the pawls into the ratchets. 
 
 Nos. 3 and 5 seize the counterpoise handspikes, and Nos. 7 
 and 9 the ropes on the right of the piece ; and Nos. 4, 6. 8, and 
 10 apply themselves, in like manner, upon the left. All take 
 hold from front to rear in the ascending order of their numbers. 
 
 At the command Heave from the gunner, the handspikes are 
 forced down, and the top-carriage moves a short distance to the 
 rear. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2 follow up the movement and keep the wheel- 
 chocks closely applied to the wheels. The gunner gives alter- 
 nately the commands emhar and heave, until the muzzle of the 
 piece is over the front part of the chassis ; he then commands : 
 HaLiT. At this command, Nos. 3 and 4 clear the pawls from tlie 
 ratchets, and Nos. 5 and 6 raise the handspikes and secure the 
 ropes to the hooks. 
 
 Tlie gunner then commands : Out-OF-GEAE. Nos. 9 and 10 
 mount upon the steps of the chassis, unlock the axle, and, at the 
 command Heave from the gunner, throw the wheels out of gear, 
 and, leaving the handspikes in the sockets, resume their posts. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. Load. 
 
 29T. Nos. 1 and 2 mount upon the front of the chassis and 
 upon the steps of the parapet wall ; No. 2 removes the tompion 
 and hands it to No. 4, who places it against the parapet, in rear 
 of the post of No. 2. 
 
 No. 3 brings up the sponge, passes it to No. 1, and mounts 
 upon the steps of the parapet wall, outside of No. 1, to assist 
 Nos. 1 and 2 in sponging and ramming. The sponge-head is 
 inserted in the muzzle. 
 
 No. 5, bringhig up the rammer behind No. 1, stands ready to 
 hand it to No. 3, and to take the sponge from No. 3 after the 
 sponging is completed. 
 
 Nos. 7 and 9, taking the pass-box, go for the cartridge ; Nos. 
 4, 6, 8, and 10 go for the projectile. No. 4 carrying the sliell- 
 hooks and No. 10 the carrying-bar. In returning, the projectile 
 is brought up on the left of the piece, No. 4 in advance and the 
 other numbers in their order in rear. The cartridge, in the 
 pass-box, is brought up on the right of the piece. 
 
15-INCII GUN — CENTRE PINTLE — SERVICE. 123 
 
 The projectile is placed under the cnme; the carryiiig-bai- re- 
 Inriied to its place by No. 10, who then resumes his post; the 
 pulley is attached to the shell-hooks by ISTo. 4; Nos. G and S run 
 up the projectile, No. 4 steadying it. In the moiinwliilp — the 
 gunner stopping the vent — the sponging is executed by Nos. 1 
 and 2, assisted by No. 3, at commands from the instructor of 
 two — three— four, &c. 
 
 Two. Insert the sponge as far as the hand of No. 1, bodies 
 erect, shoulders square. 
 
 Thbee. Slide the hand along the staff and seize it at arm's- 
 length. 
 
 FOUE. Force the sponge down as prescribed for two. 
 
 Five. Repeat what was done at three. 
 
 Six. Push the sponge to the bottom of the bore. No. 1 seizes 
 the staff with the left hand, back up, six inches nearer the muz- 
 zle than the right ; No. 2 places the right hand, back up, between 
 the hands of No. 1 ; both then change their other hands so as to 
 grasp the staff with backs up. 
 
 1. Sponge. 
 
 29S. Nos. 1, 2, and 3, pressing the sponge firmly against the 
 bottom of the bore, turn it three times from right to left, and 
 three times from left to right. The sponge is withdrawn at the 
 commands two — three— four— jive, &c., bj' motions contrary to 
 those prescribed for inserting it. As soon as tlie sponge is with- 
 drawn, No. 3, turning towards the left, passes the sponge, with 
 both hands, behind No. 1 to No. 5, and receives from liim the 
 rammer; Nos. 1 and 2 take the cartridge from Nos. 7 and 9, 
 and insert it in the bore; Nos. 7 and 9 replace the pass-box and 
 i-esume their posts ; No. 5 replaces the sponge on the prop and 
 resumes his post ; as soon as the cartridge is inserted. No. 3 places 
 the rammer-head against it in the bore. The cartridge is forced 
 down by Nos. 1, 2, and 3, at the commands and by the motions 
 prescribed for the sponge. 
 
 1. Bam. 
 
 299. The cartridge is set home by strong pressure, not by a 
 blow ; Nos. 1 and 3 throw out the rammer; No. 2, quitting the 
 staff, assists No. 4 in swinging the crane round to bring the 
 projectile in front of the nmzzle ; the rammer-head is placed 
 against the projectile, which is pushed into the hore by Nos. 1, 
 2, 3, and 4; No. 4 withdraws the shell-hooks, and resimics his 
 post; Nos. 1, 2, and 3 force the projectile home by motions and 
 commands as explained for tlie cartridge ; Nos. 6 and 8 swing 
 the crane back; secure it and the pulley against the cheel<; No. 
 
124 15- INCH GUN CENTRE PINTLE SERVICE. 
 
 8 resumes his post, and No. 6 mounts upon the chassis. Tlio 
 rammer is thrown out and passed by No. 3 to No. 5, who places 
 it on the prop ; Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5 then resume their posts. The 
 gunner, assisted by No. 6, gives the piece an elevation of about 
 five degrees, after which he pricks the cartridge, leaving the 
 priming-wire in the vent. No. 6 resumes liis post. 
 
 1. In batteky. 
 
 300. The gunner commands: In-geae. Nos. 1 and 2 un- 
 chock the wheels; Nos. 3 and 4 see that the handspike pawls 
 are clear of the ratchets; Nos. 9 and 10 mount upon the steps, 
 unlock the axle, seize the rear handspikes, and, at the command 
 Heave by the gunner, bear down slowly (assisted if necessary 
 by 7 and 8) until the piece is in motion, and regulate it by alter- 
 nately throwing the wl'.eels in and out of gear sufficiently for 
 that purpose. The front wheels are not chocked by Nos. 1 and 
 2 unless the gunner so directs. As soon as the carriage strikes 
 the Imrter, tlie gunner commands : 1. Out-OF-geab, 2. Heave. 
 Nos. 9 and 10 throw the wheels out of gear, secure the axle with 
 the pawl, and, returning the handspikes to the hooks on the 
 chassis, resume their posts. 
 
 Should the carriage not move when the wheels are thrown in 
 geiir, the gunner directs Nos. 3, 4, 5, and .6 to lower the hand- 
 spilci^s and engage the upper arm of the handspike pawl in the 
 ratchet, and by raising the handspike urge the piece forward. 
 
 1. Aim. 
 
 301. The gunner commands: 1. Chassis in-gear, 2. 
 Heave. Nos. 7 and 8 take the handspikes, embar in the sock- 
 ets of the eccentrics of the chassis, and, assisted by Nos. 9 and 
 10, throw the wheels in gear; they then embar with the sam3 
 handspikes in the mortises of the rear set of the front traverse- 
 wheels ; Nos. 1 and 2 embar in the front set ; Nos. 5 and 6 
 nioiuit on the chassis to assist the gunner in giving the eleva- 
 tion ; No. 3 passes the hook of the lanyard through the eye of a 
 primer, and stands ready to hand it to the gunner. 
 
 The gunner places the breech sight in the socket, and, sight- 
 ing through it, gives the direction, commanding : Muzzle 
 EIGHT, or Muzzle left, for Nos. 1, 2, 7, and 8 to travei-se the 
 chassis to the right or to the left. 
 
 The direction being given, the gunner commands : 1. CHAS- 
 SIS OUT-OF-GEAK, 2. Heave. At the first command, Nos. 1 
 and 2 return their handspikes to their hooks and resume tlieir 
 posts ; Nos. 7 and 8 embar in the sockets of the eccentrics of 
 the chassis, and, assisted by Nos. 9 and 10, at the command 
 
15-INCH GUN — CENTRE PINTLE — SERVICE. 125 
 
 heave throw the chassis out of gear; Nos. 7 and 8 then replace 
 their handspikes, and, with Nos. 9 and 10, resume their posts. 
 
 N'ote. — The piece can be fired with safety when the chassis is 
 in gear. The omission of this part of the exercise saves much 
 time and labor. 
 
 The gunner next causes No. 6, assisted by No. 5, to give tlie 
 required elevation to the piece, and commands : Ready. Nos. 
 5 and 6 resume their posts. No. 6 tailing with him the olevating- 
 bar, which he places in rear of him on the ground, perpendicMli\r 
 to the piece. The gunner withdraws tlie priming-wire, receives 
 the primer from No. 3, inserts it in the vent, takes the breecli- 
 sight with him, and goes where he can best observe the effect of 
 the shot. 
 
 The chief-of-detaohment, or in his absence the gunner, then 
 commands: 1. Detachment eeab, 2. March. At the first 
 command, the cannoneers, except No. 3, face from the epaul- 
 ment, and, at the command march, they march to the rear as 
 explained in par. 113 ; No. 3 drops the handle, allowing the 
 lanyard to pass through his fingers, and steps back three yards 
 obliquely from the piece, breaks off with his left foot to his left 
 and rear, the left hand by the side. 
 
 1. Number one (or the like), 2. Fieb. 
 
 303. No. 3, turning his face from the piece, pulls the lan- 
 yard quickly, but steadily, and fires; immediately after the dis- 
 charge he resumes the erect position ; rewinding his lanyard, 
 returns it to his pouch and joins his detachment. The gunner, 
 having observed the effect of the shot, returns to his post. 
 
 As soon as the piece is discharged, unless otherwise directed, 
 the cannoneers resume their posts by command of the chief-of- 
 detachment, or in his absence the gunner : 1. Cannoneers to your 
 posts, 2. Bight, 3. Face, 4. Mabch. Executed as explained in 
 par. 108. 
 
 To load without the numbers, and to fire. 
 
 303. Executed as prescribed mpar. 245. 
 
 To load and fire continuously, and to cease firing. 
 
 304. Executed as explained in ^ars. 246 and 247. 
 
 When the piece is loaded, and it is not desired to fire it, the 
 charge is withdrawn as explained in par. 289. 
 
 To secure the piece. 
 
 305. Executed as explained \npar, 286, adding: 
 
 The gunner hangs the pouches on the ratchet-post, Nos. 1 and 
 
126 15-INCH GUN — FRONT PINTLE — SERVICE. 
 
 2 replace the plugs in the front ends of the air-cylinders, and 
 Nos. and 6 detach the ropes from the handspikes. 
 
 Service of a 15-inch Gttjn mounted on a feont- 
 pintle cabbiaq-b. 
 
 Description of piece. 
 
 306. This piece is identical with the same gun mounted on 
 a centre-pintle carriage. {Par. 293.) 
 
 The top-carriage is the same in both oases ; the chassis alone 
 differs. 
 
 Weight of front-pintle chassis, including geared traverse- 
 wheels, 17,000 pounds. 
 
 There are two kinds of geared traverse-wheels, ditFerlng, how- 
 ever, only in height and weight. The axis of the trunnions of 
 the gun mounted on the highest is 8 feet 5.25 inches above the 
 IDintle-block, and lOfeet 11.25 inches above the terre-plein. Upon 
 the other carriage it is 7 feet 2.25 inches above the pintle-block, 
 and 9 feet 5.25 inches above the terre-plein. 
 
 The piece admits of 25 degrees elevation and 6 degrees de- 
 pression. 
 
 Tlie platform is a permanent part of the work. 
 
 The ranges are as given in par. 293. 
 
 The same number of men are required as for the gun mounted 
 on a centre-pintle carriage. The implements and equipments 
 are likewise the same. 
 
 Service of the piece. 
 
 30?. Executed as for the centre-pintle carriage (pars. 295 
 to 305), except as follows : 
 
 1st. After what is prescribed under the head ram has been 
 completed, and before tlie piece is run into battery, the gunner 
 commands : 1. Chassis in-gbae, 2. Heave. At the first com- 
 mand, Nos. 3 and 4 embar with the handspikes in the sockets 
 of the chassis eccentrics, and aj^he second command, assisted 
 by Nos. 1, 2, 7, and 8, throw the wheels in gear. 
 
 2d. At the command aim, the direction is given (under the 
 direction of the gunner) by Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10, who man the 
 cranks of the geared traverse-wheels. At the command Chassis 
 OUT-OP-GBAK, Heave, the chassis is thrown out of gear by Kos. 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 8, Nos. 3 and 4 embarring with the handspikes. 
 
 The piece is then run into battery as explained in par. 800 ; 
 
15-INCH GUN — FRONT PINTLE — SERVICE. 127 
 
 after which the elevation is siven as explained in same para- 
 graph. 
 
 Note. — Tlie piece can be flrecl with safety when the chassis is 
 in gear. The omission of this part of the exercise saves much 
 time and labor. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 SOS. The foregoing Instructions, for both tlie front and the 
 centre pintle carriages, are for those of the most recent model. 
 There are, however, in service, various patterns, — steps in im- 
 provement, — the chief difference between them being in tlie 
 arrangement of the means for running the piece from and into 
 battery. Only slight modifications in the foregoing instructions 
 are necessary to adapt them to any of the patterns, and these 
 will readily suggest themselves to the instructor. 
 
 The front axle of the top-carriage is not eccentric ; the rear 
 one is. The front part of the sole of each shoe is cut away to a 
 point a few inches in rear of the front axle, and to a depth of 
 about half an inch. When the rear wheels are out of gear, the 
 frovit wheels do not touch the chassis rails ; but when the rear 
 wheels are thrown into gear, the rear part of the carriage is 
 slightly raised, and the front part of the carriage is, in conse- 
 quence of the soles being cut away, lowered; the front wheels 
 then touch the chassis rails and support the weight of the front 
 part of the carriage, and the whole moves with rolling friction 
 upon the front and rear truck-wheels. The wheels are out of 
 gear when the gun is fired ; the recoil is then on sliding fric- 
 tion. 
 
 The front axle is furnished, at each end, with a brass sleeve, 
 to which the counterpoise handspike is firmly attached. A pawl 
 is attached to the handspike, and engages into ratchets in the 
 truck-wheels. Bearing down upon the handspikes forces the 
 wheels to tni-u, and communicates motion to the carriage. 
 
 The handspike pawls are engaged in the ratchet of the truck- 
 wheels only when it is desired to give motion to the carriage ; 
 at all other times they must be kept clear of the ratchets. This 
 is accomplished by a spring catch attached to each one, and ma- 
 nipulated by Nos. 3 and 4 on their respective sides. To prevent 
 the rear truck-wheels of the carriage from working out of gear 
 while the gun is being run from battery, or jumping in gear 
 when the gun is fired, pawls are provided for locking the rear 
 axle. The elevation is given by means of the elevating arc. 
 
 With a well-instructed detachment, the 15-inch gun can be 
 fired twelve times in an hour, allowing time for deliberate point- 
 ing. 
 
128 
 
 FLANK-CASEMATE HOWITZER — SERVICE. 
 
 The carriage and chassis for the front and centre pintle have 
 the same dimensions, viz.: 
 
 Length of chassis 19 feet 7 inches. 
 
 Width of chassis 5 feet 2 inches. 
 
 Depth of chassis rail 1 foot 8 inches. 
 
 Length of carriage.. 8 feet 8 inches. 
 
 Inclination of chassis rails 3 degrees. 
 
 Service of a 24-poxjndee Howitzer mounted on a 
 
 FliANK-CASEMATE CARRIAGE. 
 
 {Fig. 2, Plate 8.) 
 
 Description op Piece. 
 
 309. Howitzer, cast-iron ; smooth-bore ; chambered ; muz- 
 zle-loader. 
 
 Dbsignatios. 
 
 Gali'bre 
 
 Weight 
 
 Preponderance 
 
 Length of piece 
 
 Length of hore (in calibres) 
 
 Length of chamber. 
 
 Diameter of chamber. 
 
 Windage 
 
 Charge (cannon powder) 
 
 Shell (empty) 
 
 Weight of canister-. 
 
 Carriage (top and chassis), wooden ; without re- 
 coil checks -...^. 
 
 No. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 5.8 
 
 ...... 
 
 1475 
 
 
 
 
 . 70 
 
 W 
 
 9.15 
 ...... 
 
 ...„. 
 
 16 
 20.5 
 
 
 
 "i.i5 
 iM 
 0.14 
 
 Eanoes in yards. 
 
 
 
 Cagb 
 
 
 
 Elbvatiox. 
 
 Shkll. 
 
 Shot. 
 
 TrMffi. 
 
 CEULBOB 2 liBS. 
 
 OO C 
 
 295 
 
 
 
 Canister is used for sweeping 
 
 1° W 
 
 516 
 
 
 
 
 the ditch in front of the cur- 
 
 2o (f 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 2< 
 
 tain ; and for this the piece 
 
 3» W 
 
 
 
 880 
 
 3> 
 
 should be depressed 1 to 2 
 
 5» 0' 
 
 1322 
 
 
 
 
 degrees. 
 
 B» SC 
 
 
 lOSO 
 
 4< 
 
 
 The piece admits of 7 degrees elevation and 9 degrees depres- 
 sion. The platform is a permanent part of the work. 
 
FLiNK-CASEMATE HOWITZER — SERVICE. 129 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 Four men are necessary : one ohief-of-detaohment, one gunner, 
 and two cannoneers. 
 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 
 Koller handspike (iron)... } I^eaning^against the scarp wall, be- 
 
 Leaning against the scarp wall, be- 
 
 Sponge and rammer }■ hind No. 1; the rammer-head 
 
 upon the pavement. 
 
 "I Containing breech sight, chalk and 
 Gunner's pouch V chalk-line, and priming-wire; sus- 
 
 J pended from knob of cascable. 
 Cartridge-pouch Suspended from knob of cascable. 
 
 1 Containing primers and two lan- 
 Prlmer-poiich >• yards; suspended from knob of 
 
 J cascable. 
 
 Sponge-bucket Behind and near No. 1. 
 
 Vent-cover Covering the vent. 
 
 Tonipion In tlie mnzzle. 
 
 J Containing cartridges; at the safest 
 and most convenient place near 
 the piece. 
 When several pieces are served together, there will be one 
 worm, one ladle, one hammer-wrench, two vent-punches, two 
 vent-gimlets, and one gunner^s pincers to each battery of not 
 exceeding six pieces. These will be kept in the filling-room of 
 the service magazine. 
 
 The rounds of canister are arranged against the scarp wall, 
 behind No. 2. The shells are at the filling-room of service mag- 
 azine, or other safe position, and are brought as required to the 
 place prescribed for the bndge-barrel. They are strapped to 
 sabots. The fuse-plug is of vvood. 
 
 To cause the equipments to be distributed. 
 
 310. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Take equipments. 
 
 The gunner equips himself with his own pouch; gives the 
 primer-pouch to No. 1 and the cartridge-pouch to No. 2 ; takes 
 off the vent-cover, and places it against the scarp wall beside 
 the canister; applies his level to ascertain the highest point at 
 the breech and muzzle, and, with the assistance of No. 2, snaps 
 9 
 
130 FLANK-CASEMATE HOWITZER — SERVICE. 
 
 the ulialk-line to mark the line of metal; clears the vent; takes 
 the roller handspike In the right hand, and resumes his post, 
 holding the handspike vertically by the right side, its lower end 
 on the pavement, the arm extended naturally. 
 
 No. 1 equips himself with the primer-ponch. No. 2 equips 
 himself with the cartridge-pouch, which he wears from the left 
 shoulder to the right side. 
 
 The service of the piece is executed by the following commands 
 from the instructor : 
 
 1. From battery. 
 
 311. The gunner, embarring In the left mortise, presses the 
 roller under the rear transom, and, holding down the handspike 
 with his right hand, seizes the left handle with tlie left ; Nos. 1 
 and 2 lay hold of the manoeuvering rings and handles. 
 
 All being ready, tlie gunner commands : HEAVE, and the car- 
 riage is run to tlie rear until the face of the piece is about one 
 yard from the wall, when, disengaging the roller, he commands 
 Halt, leaving the handspike in the socket. All resume their 
 posts. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. LOAD. 
 
 313. The gunner places himself at the breech; breaks to 
 the rear with the right foot ; closes the vent with the second 
 finger of the right hand, and manages tlie elevating screw with 
 the left. 
 
 No. 2 removes the tompion and places it against the scarp, near 
 his post. 
 
 No. 1 seizes the sponge-staif at its middle, brings it across his 
 body, plants the left foot opposite the muzzle, close to the 
 carriage, and breaks off with the right foot ; at the same time 
 throwing tlie sponge-staff into the left hand, back down, and 
 extending botli hands towards the ends of the staff, enters the 
 rammer-head into the embrasure, introduces the sponge into 
 the muzzle, and drops the left hand by the side. He then forces 
 the sponge to the bottom of the chamber with three motions, at 
 the commands two — thbee — four. 
 
 No. 2 goes for a cartridge and returns to his post. If shells 
 are used, he brings a sliell at the same time. 
 
 1. Sponge. 
 
 313. No. 1, using both liands, backs up. sponges the cham- 
 ber carefully, withdraws the sponge, pressing it against the lower 
 surface of the bore ; turns it over, stepping to his left for this pur- 
 pose, and rests tlie rammer-head against the right side of the 
 
FLANK-CASEMATE HOWITZER — SERVICE. 131 
 
 face of the piece, back of the right hand down, that of the left 
 up. No. 2 introduces the cartridge. No. 1 sets it home by the 
 same commands and motions as for sponging. 
 
 1. Bam. 
 
 314. No. 1, throwing the weight of his body on the staff, 
 forces the cartridge tightly home and throws out the rammer, 
 holding it as before, the rammer-head against the right side of 
 the face of the piece. 
 
 No. 2 introduces the canister or shell, and resumes his post. 
 
 No. 1 sets the canister or shell home with care ; throws out 
 the rammer, replaces it, and resumes his post. 
 
 The gunner, rising up, priclcs, leaving the priming-wire in the 
 vent, and resumes his post. 
 
 1. In battery. 
 
 315. All apply themselves to the carriage as prescribed in 
 par. 311, and ease" the piece into battery. As soon as it touches 
 the hurters, the gunner commands : Halt, and all resume their 
 posts. 
 
 1. Aim. 
 
 316. No. 1 makes ready a primer; No. 2 goes to the rear of 
 the chassis, and takes hold of it to traverse it. The gunner with- 
 draws the priming-wire ; aims the piece, directing No. 2 to tra- 
 verse it to the riglit or left; gives the command Eeady, making 
 a signal with both hands, at which No. 2 resumes his post ; takes 
 with him the roller handspike and resume's Iiis post. No. 1 in- 
 serts the primer in the vent and steps back obliquely three yards 
 to the rear, and breaks off with the left foot to his left and rear. 
 
 1. Number one (or the like), 2. Fieb. 
 
 317. No. 1, turning his face from the piece, pulls the lanyard 
 and flres it ; he then resumes his post. 
 
 To load without the numbers, and to fire. 
 
 To load and fire continuously, and to cease firing. 
 
 To secure the piece. 
 
 Executed as explained for the siege gun, in pars. 245, 246, 
 and 247. 
 
 Semarks. 
 
 3 IS. Ill repelling assaults, double charges of canister are 
 used ; the charge of powder remaining the same. 
 The effective range of canister is not over four hundred yards. 
 
132 8-iNcn rjFLE — service. 
 
 Service of an 8-inch Rifle (converted). 
 
 Description of gun. 
 
 {Fig. 2, Plate 3.) 
 
 319. This piece is composed, essentially, of two parts ; the 
 case, f, which is the 10-inch smooth-bore (described in par, 276) 
 bored up to a diameter of 13.5 inches, and a lining-tube of coiled 
 vvronght-iron. 
 
 The tube consists of two parts, called, respectively, the A and 
 B tubes. The former extends the entire length of the bore, and 
 contains the rifling; the latter, or B tube, is shrunk upon the 
 inner, or A tube, which has its exterior portion cut away for that 
 purpose. A double tube is thus formed, extending 32.75 inches 
 from the rear end. The two tubes, united in this manner, have 
 the same exterior diameter throughout the entire length, and 
 are made to fit accurately the bore of the cast-iron casing. 
 
 The bottom of the tube is closed with a wrought-iron cup- 
 shaped ping, p, screwed into the A tube. The tube is inserted 
 into the casing from the muzzle, and is secured from working 
 out b3' a muzzle-collar, s, screwed in at the face of the piece ; 
 and from turning in the casing by a steel pin, t, tapped througli 
 the casing and into the tube. 
 
 A shallow and narrow gas-channel is cut spirally around the 
 exterior of tlie I'educed portion of the A tube, communicating 
 with star-grooves cut in the end of the barrel, and with the gas- 
 escape, or indicator, bored obliquely through the breech of the 
 casing opposite the vent. 
 
 Should the inner tube split, under the action of firing, the fact 
 would be indicated by the escape of gas through this hole, and 
 timely warning thus be given of the injury sustained by the gun. 
 
 The rifling consists of fifteen lands and grooves, each of equal 
 width, viz.: 0.8377 inches. Depth of grooves: 0.075 inches. 
 Twist : uniform, one turn in 40 feet. 
 
 There is no chamber proper to the gun. The rifling stops 
 at a point 10 inches from the bottom of the bore, the diameter 
 of the unrifled portion being equal to that of the rifled portion 
 across lands. 
 
 The old vent of the case is closed by a wrought-iron screw- 
 plug, and 2.75 inches nearer the muzzle a new one is bored par- 
 allel to the vertical plane through the axis of the bore, and dis- 
 tant therefrom 2.5 inches. The axis of the vent enters the bore 
 at 3.5 inches from the bottom. 
 
 Length of bore 117.25 inches. 
 
 Weight of piece 16,160 pounds. 
 
 Counter-preponderance 630 pounds. 
 
8-INCH EIFLE — SEEVICE. 
 
 133 
 
 The counter-pi'epondei'aiice is collected by an eccentric ring 
 of bronze attached to each trunnion. 
 
 Weight oJ projectile (average) 180 pounds. 
 
 Weight of cliarge (hexagonal powder) 35 pounds. 
 
 Initial velocity 1.430 feet. 
 
 Pressure upon square incli of bore 33,000 pounds. 
 
 Penetration against armor at 1000 yards.... 7.42 inches. 
 Penetration against armor at 1800 yards.... 6.75 inches. 
 
 Ranges. 
 
 Charge : 35 pounds hexagonal powder. 
 
 'i^ua 
 
 ■H ^ i-l iH 1-1 iH iH rH 1-4 i-t <-! F-t rW iH 04 C4 ok C» C4 IM C4 
 
 •AiiooiaA 
 oxisrvTiaa 
 
 Ft. sec. 
 
 1025 
 1016 
 1008 
 1007 
 1000 
 
 992 
 
 985 
 
 978 
 
 974 
 
 971 
 
 964 
 
 957 
 
 951 
 
 948 
 
 944 
 
 938 
 
 932 
 
 926 
 
 925 
 
 920 
 
 914 
 
 909 
 
 904 
 
 903 
 
 898 
 
 892 
 
 887 
 
 886 
 
 •lira. 
 
 6 40 
 6 59 
 6 18 
 6 21 
 6 37 
 
 6 56 
 
 7 17 
 7 38 
 7 46 
 
 7 59 
 
 8 20 
 
 8 41 
 
 9 02 
 9 11 
 9 23 
 9 46 
 
 10 09 
 10 32 
 10 36 
 
 10 55 
 
 11 18 
 1141 
 
 12 01 
 12 04 
 12 29 
 
 12 64 
 
 13 19 
 13 26 
 
 
 S SSSS5!S£l^!3SgS!5gegSgSSSS«g§!S5SS^ 
 
 02 vot6t^t^t^i^QOQoa^Qoo^ci<^<:ac^<^ai<::^^iATArA(^cic^eim9ii 
 
 •HOiiTAaTa 
 
 - S51SgSSSigSSS§!gSSgSgS3gSS3S§Sg 
 
 o Ti4 -^ TMa la lo in les CO CO CO CO CO r- 1^ !:« t- ^- oo 00 c» CO OS cb o o 03 o 
 
 •iisNva 
 
 ^ G* Ol 04 04 04 W CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO Tit tH 5l ?R T)< Tfi ^ !§ ^ ^ Tjl 
 
 •liiaa 
 
 ^ OOOOOOOOCiOOrHrH.-<iHiHrHC40«(?103P3CCTl4^^»01«l£a 
 
 •AiiooiaA 
 
 Ft. sec. 
 
 1428 
 1406 
 1386 
 1364 
 1343 
 1323 
 1304 
 1302 
 1285 
 1266 
 1248 
 1230 
 1213 
 1197 
 1195 
 1181 
 1165 
 1149 
 1134 
 1120 
 
 nil 
 
 1106 
 1093 
 1080 
 1067 
 1056 
 1049 
 1045 
 1035 
 
 •ITfS. 
 
 so aiaiiv 
 
 ^ oo «o in 'fl CQ <Nt ec CO Tii ifl CO r- o CO TiH «o rH eo iH <o TO w «o c« o r- l™ TT r^ 
 
 Or-ii?ie0TlH0OC)i-l«C0Tl*OiHr^C*^tni-(C40:i".*l«.-<CQ'<tt»£iOC4 
 O O O O O O O iH rH .-( rH tH .-I {N « (M 04 04 <M CO CO CO CO CO ^ -.P -^ ^ i£3 
 
 
 ^ OOOOi-JrHi-irHrH iH-D* M«(»eOCOCOeOT]iTl5'*J<"*T|i»niOtOlO»aeD 
 
 •uoiiTAsna 
 
 ^ OOCDTflcMf-tOOSOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOSO'— lff»COOT)<COOOO«O^CO 
 *■ OrHCiCOTPlOlOOOrHfl^CO'^lOOOC^CQ-^lOOOi-lOJTjiuSOOrH 
 O OOOOOOOrH.-(rHi-(rHWiH{M«C40404e5COCQCOCCCOCO-^Tfl^ 
 
 •aOKva 
 
 «J ooooooooooooooi-ioooooeooooooiftoo 
 
 ^ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHOOOOOCOOOOOOCgOO 
 
 
134 
 
 8-INCH RIFLE SERVIOH 
 
 It has been found that the 10-inch carriage, upon whicli this 
 piece is monnted, is not sufficiently stout to stand many dis- 
 charges with a charge of 35 ponnds. . ,.. ^ 
 
 Charges of 25 pounds will penetrate any wooden ship at or- 
 dinary ranges, but are of no effect against irou-olads. Ihe enc- 
 riages will stand this charge without serious damage. 
 
 Ranges. 
 Charge : 25 pounds hexagonal powder. 
 
 •iaiaa 
 
 4 gSggS8SSSSSSS5SSSSSSSS 
 
 ^ ^* «3- m* so O CD 1^^00 00 03 cJOr-jrHNW^^JOfflt^e^ 
 
 ■iiiooiaA- 
 
 ONINIVKaH 
 
 FU sec. 
 
 979 
 972 
 966 
 962 
 • 969 
 952 
 946 
 939 
 938 
 933 
 927 
 921 
 917 
 916 
 910 
 904 
 899 
 899 
 893 
 883 
 883 
 881 
 
 no aTOKV 
 
 O -^lO lOlO lO (D O !D t- t-t-0000 00 00 Ci Cltt C*P Og 
 
 
 Sees. 
 
 5.33 
 5.64 
 5.95 
 6.12 
 6.26 
 6.67 
 6.89 
 7.21 
 7.29 
 7.53 
 7.85 
 8.17 
 8.40 
 8.60 
 8.83 
 9.16 
 9.49 
 9.49 
 9.83 
 10.17 
 10.61 
 10.68 
 
 •HOIirAHTJ. 
 
 O -^ -i* -^ U5 lO lO lO lO <0 CO <D CD t- *- t- t- CO OO 00 00 OD CS 
 
 •aasva 
 
 [fl- 000>OC=)OCO.-tOOOt-OOOOSOOOO^ 
 
 -iinaa 
 
 •yds. 
 
 1.04 
 0.07 
 0.12 
 0.19 
 0.28 
 0.28 
 0.40 
 0.65 
 0.73 
 0.94 
 1.06 
 1.18 
 1.44 
 1.73 
 2.05 
 2.30 
 2.60 
 2.78 
 3.19 
 3.62 
 3.96 
 4.08 
 
 •AIIOOTIA 
 
 OKuavHaH 
 
 Q) T|4 00 C^ CO -^ CO O) CD Cq O ^ OO t- t- t- i-< 00 O Cq .* 00 CD 
 (0 oOCD lOCOfNfNOgOO^CDggOTggggOCTMM 
 
 ■IIYA. 
 
 jio wionY 
 
 o ooooi-ti-Ht-i-fi-isqN^iKMMcceoMcoeoTjHTftTjf 
 
 
 8 SS?:gg5S,SgS;q^.S.Sg^.S5^,SgS^eE3S 
 
 02 O O O rH -H rH i-I rH (M* N (N «' (N* CO W TO M •*' ■* rH ■*' -^ 
 
 •KOiiTAaia; 
 
 o ooootHr-trHiHi-i^(M<Neq(M(M«e<:comeo-<j<T}i 
 
 -aojnra 
 
 60 ooooiaoooooeiooooeoooco-iito 
 
 Length of cartridge : 35 lbs. = 24 inches ; 25 lbs. = 18 inches. 
 
8-INCH RIFLE — SERVICE. 135 
 
 Note. — ^The carriages upon which these pieces are mounted 
 i.re those altered from the 10-inch barbette-gun carriage, and 
 Jius far are only experimental. 
 
 Description op Cabeiaob. 
 
 {Plaies 13, 14.) 
 
 Distinguishing features. 
 
 330. Carriages Nos. 1 and 2 have friction-bars for checking 
 recoil. Nos. 3 and 4 have hydraulic cylinders for the same ot^ 
 jfect. Nos. 3 and 4 have a geared vpindlass, with cranks and 
 handles, attached to the rear part of the chassis. Nos. 1 and 2 
 are without windlass. No. 1 is distinguished from No. 2 by the 
 absence of tlie ratchet-post, and by having, instead, for elevat- 
 ing, a circular toothed arc operated by a hand-wheel and pin- 
 ions upon the left cheek of the carriage. No. 2 has the ratchet- 
 post, but no toothed arc. 
 
 Carriage No. 3 is distinguished from No. 4 by having a wedge- 
 shaped incline bolted to the top of each rail of the chassis, near 
 the rear end, and by having a liand-lever on the outside of each 
 chassis rail, for the purpose of uncoupling tlie top-carriage from 
 the chassis. 
 
 Specific features. 
 
 Carriages Nos. 1, 2, and 4 have, on the rear part of the top- 
 carriage, an eccentric axle, with truck-wheels. No. 3 has, in- 
 stead, two wheels or rollers, eacli having its own eccentric axle. 
 In none are the front axles eccentric. 
 
 For checking recoil in carriages Nos. 1 and 2, the top-carriage 
 is supplied with a box-clamp having two friction-plates, which 
 act upon a broad wrought-iron rail, one-sixteenth of an inch 
 thicker at its rear than at its front end. This rail is attached to 
 the chassis in front by a transom which takes the place of the 
 hurters ; and in rear, by a rod and rubber spring which permits 
 a slight play to prevent buckling. Rubber counter-hurters ai'e 
 secui-ed to each top-rail of the chassis. When the gun is run 
 from battery, it is retained in that position by means of the 
 clany) ; by relieving the pressure, the gun runs into battery, a 
 slight movement of the compressor-bar stopping it when desired. 
 
 (The piece is run from battery in the same manner as the 10- 
 inch smooth-bore, except that with carriage No. 1 the position 
 of the elevating-wheel renders it necessary to insert the left 
 handspike into the front mortises of the truck- wheel. 
 
 ■To check recoil in carriages Nos. 3 and 4, an hydraulic buffer 
 is securely placed in the front portion of the chassis. It consists 
 
136 8-INCH RIFLE — SERVICE. 
 
 of a oast-iron cyliiicler 78 inches long, with an interior diameter 
 of 8 inches, closed at either end by a cast-iron cap. 
 
 Jfear the rear end of the top of the cylinder is a hole for the 
 purpose of lilliiig it witli water, or some non-freezing liquid. A 
 hole in the front end, closed with a screw-plug, permits the fluid 
 to be withdrawn. 
 
 Nine and one-lialf gallons (precisely) of fluid are required. 
 
 A wrought-iron piston-rod passes through the rear cap, and is 
 secured to the rear of the top-carriage by a wrought-iron cross- 
 head. 
 
 The piston-liead, of wrought-iron, 0.25 inches thick, is pierced 
 near its circumference, en opposite sides of the rod, with two 
 holes seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. These holes flare 
 out both ways 0.25 inches, allowing free passage to the fluid from 
 the rear to the front of the piston, permitting the top-carriage 
 to run bacli without strain. 
 
 Upon the top of the rear end of each rail of the chassis of No. 
 3, is bolted a wedge or incline, having a rise of 2.5 inches in 64 
 inclies; near the rear end of this, is attached a brass angle- 
 plate, to whicli are secured three rubber counter-hnrters. A 
 similar angle-plate with hurters is attached to the front part of 
 the chassis. 
 
 Carriage No. 4 is likewise provided with hurters and counter- 
 hurters of rubber. 
 
 The top-carriage of No. 3 is provided virith two sets of wheels 
 or rollers, those in rear ha\1ng eccentric axles. In recoiling, 
 the carriage starts on sliding friction, which becomes rolling fric- 
 tion when it accomplishes part of tlie rise, the ascent absorbing 
 a considerable portion of the recoil. To prevent the carriage 
 running into battery after striking the oonnter-hurters, couplings 
 are attached to tlie bottom transom of the top-carriage and to 
 the sides of the chassis rails; the top-carriage is released, and 
 permitted to run into battery, b}' means of levers on the outside 
 of the chassis rails. 
 
 Attached to the rear end of the chassis, in carriages Nos. 3 
 and 4. is a geared windlass, for the purpose of drawing the gun 
 from battery. 
 
 In carriages Nos. 1, 3, and 4 the gun is elevated and depressed 
 by means of circular tootlied arcs, to whicli motion is transmitted 
 by simple multiplied gearing and a hand-wheel on the left side 
 of the carriage. Carriage No. 2 has the ordinary ratchet-post. 
 
 The chassis of carriage No. 3 is provided with rollers, resting 
 on the pintle-plate, instead of the truck-wheels, with eccentric 
 axle of the ordinary barbette carriage. The rollers are without 
 eccentric axles. 
 
8-INCH RIFLE — SERVICE. 137 
 
 Flooring-boards are dispensed with in ean-iaues Nos. 3 and 4. 
 A step is placed across the rear notches for tlie accommodation 
 of the gunner when serving vent or sighting. 
 
 The carriage admits of 28° 45' elevation and 12° 50' depres- 
 sion. 
 
 Service of 8-inch Rifle. 
 {Carriage No. 1.) 
 
 331. Eight men are necessary: one chief-of-detachment, 
 one gunner, and six cannoneers. 
 
 The implements and equipments are the same, and are ar- 
 ranged in the same manner, as for the 10-incli smooth-bore {par. 
 277), omitting the wheel-chocks and elevating-bar, and adding 
 two small handspikes (iron), which are laid on the steps of tlie 
 chassis, one on each side ; one compressor-bar, standing against 
 the parapet near No. 1 ; and blocks and fall attached to crane. 
 
 The pouches are hanging on the left eccentric socket of top- 
 carriage. 
 
 The powder, primers, and fuses are in the service magazine. 
 
 The shells are in the lilling-room of the service magazine, and, 
 prepared for firing, are brought up to the piece as required. 
 
 The solid projectiles are Irept piled convenient to the piece. 
 
 To distribute the implements and equipments. 
 
 333. Executed as in par. 278, except that No. 4, instead of 
 mounting upon the chassis, talres hold of the handles of the 
 hand-wheel and, by direction of the gunner, adjusts the piece 
 conveniently for loading, and resumes his post. 
 
 The service of tlie piece is executed by the following com- 
 mands : 
 
 1. Feom battbey. 
 
 333. The gunner places himself two paces in i-ear of the 
 chassis, and commands : 1. In-Gbab, 2. Heave. Nos. 3 and 
 4, at the first command, insert the small handspike in the ec- 
 centric sockets of the rear wheels of the top-can-iage ; No. 4 
 unkeys the axle, and at the second they throw the wheels in 
 gear; No. 4 keys the axle; Nos. 3 and 4 replace the handspikes 
 upon the steps, and, taking the truck handspikes, insert them in 
 the sockets of the truck-wheels ; No. 1, meanwhile, inserts the 
 compressor-bar in one of the lioles of the compressor-screw, and 
 unclamps the friction-plates, leaving the compressor-bar in tlie 
 hole ; Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 seize the truck liandspikes with both 
 hands in the manner prescribed in par. 279, and tiie piece is 
 
138 8-INCH IIIFLE SERVICE. 
 
 moved from battery by the commands and means specified in 
 the same paragraph, except that Xos. 1 and 2 do not follow up 
 with tlie cliocks, but, instead, No. 1, by alternately tightening 
 and slacking the compressor-screw, retains the carriage in posi- 
 tion as it is run back. 
 
 When the muzzle of the piece is about one yard from the par- 
 apet, tlie gunner commands : 1. Hai/t, 2. Out-OF-GEAE, 3. 
 Heave. At the first command, Kos. 3 and 4 withdraw their hand- 
 .spikes and replace them on the hooks ; at the second, they insert 
 the small handspikes in the eccentric sockets ; and at the third, 
 throw the wheels out of gear, leaving the handspikes in the 
 sockets. All resume their posts. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. LOAD. 
 
 324. The gunner mounts upon the chassis and closes the vent. 
 
 TSo. 2 talies out the tompiou and places it by the parapet near 
 I lis post. 
 
 No. 1 turns to his left, steps over the sponge and rammer; 
 faces tlie pieces; takes the sponge-staff in both hands, the "backs 
 down, tlie right hand three feet from the sponge-head, the left 
 eighteen Inches from it; returns to the piece, raising the staff 
 over the crest of the parapet ; places the left foot on the rail of 
 the chassis, the other in the most convenient position on the 
 parapet, or on a step placed against it for the purpose, and in- 
 serts the sponge-head into the muzzle; the staff in prolonga- 
 tion of the bore, supported by the right hand, the right arm 
 extended, the left hand hanging natnrally by the side. 
 
 No. 2 takes a position on the left of the piece corresponding 
 to that of No. 1 on the right, and seizes the staff with the left 
 hand, back down, near to and outside of the hand of No. 1. 
 
 No. 3 faces to his rear, steps over the rammer and, facing 
 about, seizes the staff with both hands, as prescribed for No. 1 
 with the sponge, and stands ready to exchange staves with 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 4 unkeys the crane, takes the pass-box to the rear for a 
 cartridge, and, returning, stations himself to the right and rear 
 of No. 2. 
 
 No. 5, taking the shell-hooks, and No. 6 the carrying-bar, go 
 for the projectile ; No. 5 engages the shell-hooks and steadies 
 tViem while No. 6 passes the bar through the ring. They then 
 cai-ry the projectile, No. 5 in front and No. 6 in rear, and place 
 it under the crane conveniently for hoisting. 
 
 No. 6 withdraws the bar and places it on the ground; No. 5 
 hooks the fall into the ring of the shell-hooks; Nos. 5 and 6, 
 working upon the fall, hoist the projectile. 
 
0-INCII RIFLE — SERVICE. 139 
 
 In the meanwhile, Nos. 1 and 2 hisert the sponge in the bore 
 by the following motions, at tlie commands two — three— four — 
 fioe — six : 
 
 Two. They insert the sponge as far as the hand of No. 1, 
 bodies erect, shoulders square. 
 
 Thbbpj. They slide their hands along the staff and seize it 
 at arm's-length. 
 
 Four. They force down the sponge as presoi-ibed for two. 
 
 Five. Tliey repeat what is prescribed for three. 
 
 Six. They push the sponge to the bottom of the bore. No. 
 1 replaces the left hand on tlie stafl', back up, six inches nearer 
 the muzzle than the right ; No. 2 places the right hand, back 
 up, between the hands of No. 1 ; both then change the other 
 hand so as to seize the staff, back up. 
 
 1. Sponge. 
 
 335. Nos. 1 and 2, pressing the sponge firmly against the 
 bottom of the bore, turn it three times from right to left and 
 three times from left to right, replace the hands by the side, and 
 withdraw tlie sponge by similar commands, but by motions con- 
 trary to those for inserting it. 
 
 No. 2 quits the staff and, turning to No. 4, receives from him 
 tlie cartridge, and introduces it into the bore ; he then grasps 
 the rammer in the manner prescribed for the sponge. 
 
 In the meanwiiile. No. 1, turning to his left, passes the sponge 
 •above the rammer to No. 3, and, receiving the rammer from No. 
 3, presents it as prescribed for ttie sponge, except that, retaining 
 hold with his left hand, he rests the rammer-head against the 
 right side of the face of the piece. No. 3, as soon as the sponge 
 is withdrawn, passes the rammer in front of No. 1 onto the par- 
 apet ; receives tlie sponge from No. 1, replaces it upon the prop, 
 and resumes his post. 
 
 No. 4, setting down the pass-box, takes out the cartridge and 
 hands it to No. 2, choke to the front; replaces the pass-box, and 
 goes to the assistance of Nos. 5 and 6, who are working upon 
 the fall hoisting the projectile ; No. 4 steadies it ; Nos. 1 and 2 
 force the cartridge home by the same commands and motions as 
 for the sponge. 
 
 1. Eam. 
 
 326. Nos. 1 and 2 slide their hands along the staff to the 
 full extent of their arms, and press the cartridge firmly home ; 
 No. 2 quits the staff and steps slightly to one side ; No. 1 throws 
 out the rammer and lays it upon the parapet ; No. 4, as soon as 
 No. 2 steps aside, swings the crane so as to bring the projectile 
 
140 8-INCII RIFLE SERVICE. 
 
 diroctly ill front of the muzzle ; Nos. 1 and 2 insert it, base fore- 
 moist, into the bore; No. 1 holds it while Ifo. 2 disengafjes the 
 shell-liooks, which he hands to No. 5, who replaces them and 
 resumes his post. 
 
 Kos. 4 and 6 overhaul the fall ; No. 6 replaces the bar ; No. 4 
 secures the crane and fall, and both resume their posts ; Nos. 1 
 and 2 force the projectile homo by commands and motions simi- 
 lar to those prescribed for the cartridge, pressing it firmly home 
 at the command Bam; No. 2 quits the staff and resumes his 
 post ; No. 1 throws out the rammer, replaces it on the prop, 
 anrl resumes his post. 
 
 The gunner pricks the cartridge, leaving the priming-wire in 
 the vent, and directs No. 4 to give the piece an elevation of 
 about five degrees. 
 
 1. In battery. 
 
 337. The gunner commands: 1. In-QEAB, 2. Heave. At 
 the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 seize the small handspilces and 
 No. 1 the compressor-bar; No. 4 unkeys the axle, and, at the 
 second command, Nos. 3 and 4 thi-ow the wheels in gear and 
 withdraw their liandspikes ; No. 1, by slacking up on the com- 
 pressor-screw, then pc^ruiits the piece to run gently into battery. 
 As soon as the carriage is against the hurters, the gunner ooni- 
 niaiids : 1. Out-of-GEAR, 2. Heave. Nos. 3 and 4 replace the 
 handspikes in the sockets, and at the command heave throw the 
 wheels out of gear; No. 4 keys the axle ; both replace their 
 handspikes on the steps; No. 1 tightens the compressor by giv- 
 ing tlie bar a moderate pull (a pull of about 20 lbs.); withdraws 
 tlu! bar, returns it to its place against the parapet, and all the 
 cannoneers resume their posts. 
 
 1. Aim. 
 
 328. The gunner commands: 1. Chassis in-gear, 2. 
 Heave. At the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 embar In the 
 eccentric sockets of the chassis -wheels; at the second com- 
 mand, assisted by Nos. 1 and 2, they throw the wheels in gear, 
 and, leaving the handspikes in the sockets, resume their posts. 
 The gunner withdraws the primingTwire, adjusts the breech 
 sight, and gives the direction. 
 
 In the meanwhile, Nos. 5 and G embar in the mortises of the 
 rear traverse-wheels, and move the trail to the left or right at 
 the eommand Left or Right by the gunner. Nos. 1 and 2 
 assist Nos. 5 and 6. 
 
 The proper direction being given, the gunner commands : 1. 
 Chassis ottt-of-geab, 2. Heave. At the first command. 
 
8-INCH RIFLE — SERVICE. 141 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2 seize the handspikes ; at tlie second, they tlirow 
 the wheels out of gear, replace the handspikes upon the hooks, 
 and resume their posts ; Nos. 5 and C unbar, replace their hand- 
 spikes upon tlie hooks, and resume their posts; No. 3 passes the 
 hook of the lanyard through the eye of a primer, holds the han- 
 dle of the lanyard with the right hand, the hook between the 
 thumb and forefinger, and stands ready to hand it to th6 gun- 
 ner; ICo. i seizes the handle of the elevating-wheel and, b}' 
 direction of the gunner, elevates or depresses the piece, turning 
 the wheel to tiie rear to elevate, and to the front to depress. 
 When the piece is correctly aimed, the gunner commanils ; 
 Kbady, makes a signal with both hands, removes the sight, 
 and, receiving the primer from No. 3 with his right hand, in- 
 serts it into the vent, dismounts from the chassis, and goes 
 where he can best observe the effect of the shot; Nos. 1 and 2 
 break off sideways with the foot farthest from the parapet ; No. 
 3 steps back obliquely three yards to the rear, and breaks off to 
 his left and rear witli the left foot, the left liand hanging natu- 
 rally by the side, the lanyard stretched ; No. 4 resumes his post. 
 
 1. Number one (or the like), 2. FlEB. 
 
 339. No. 3,''turning his face from the piece, puljs the lanyard 
 quickly, but steadily, and fires. Immediately after the discharge, 
 Nos. 1, 2, and 3 resume the erect position ; No. 3 rewinds the 
 lanyard and replaces it in the pouch. Tlie gunner, having ob- 
 served the effect of the shot, returns to his post. 
 
 To load wiiJiout the numbers, and to Jire. 
 As explained in par. 245. 
 
 To load and jire continuously, and to cease firing. 
 As explained in pars. 246 and 247. 
 
 To secure the piece. 
 As explained in par. 249. 
 
 To replace equipments. 
 
 330. As explained in par. 250, except that the gunner re- 
 places the pouches on the left eccentric socket of the top-carriage, 
 instead of on the knob of the cascable. 
 
 Seevice of the 8-inch Rifle. 
 {Carriage No. 2.) 
 
 331. Carriage No. 2 differs from No. 1 only in having the 
 ordinary ratchet-post, instead of the toothed arc and liand-wheel. 
 
142 8-INCH RIFLE — SERVICE. 
 
 for elevating purposes. The service of the piece with it differs 
 from that of No. 1 only in the operation of elevating. For this 
 purpose an elevating-bar is required, and is used as explained in 
 pars. 278 and 284. (Service of the 10-inch smooth-bore gun.) 
 
 Servicb of the 8-rNCH Rifle. 
 
 {Carriage No. 3.) 
 
 333. Eight men are necessary: one chief -of -detachment 
 one gunner, and six cannoneers. 
 Tlie implements and equipments are arranged as follovirs : 
 
 Four truck handspikes.... 1 Two on the hooks, and two on the 
 (iron) / steps of the chassis. 
 
 Two small handspikes.... 1 On the steps of chassis; one on each 
 (iron) J side. 
 
 (One yard behind the cannoneers of 
 the right ; supported upon a prop ; 
 heads turned from the parapet and 
 inclined slightly from the piece. 
 Pass-box , One yard in rear of No. 4. 
 
 ] Containing friction-primers and lau- 
 
 Primer-pouch |. yard; saspended upon the left ec- 
 
 J centric socket of the top-carriage. 
 
 (Containing breech sight and prim- 
 ing-wire ; suspended upon the left 
 eccentric socket of the top -car- 
 riage. 
 
 Vent-cover Covering the vent. 
 
 Muzzle-cover On tlie muzzle. 
 
 1 Containing cartridges; at a safe 
 
 Budge-barrel >■ and. convenient place in rear of 
 
 J the piece. 
 
 Windlass-rope \ ^o""'' upo" the barrel of the wind- 
 
 Sponge-bncket Near sponge. 
 
 Shell-hooks Near and in rear of No. 5. 
 
 Carrying-bar Near and in rear of No. 6. 
 
 Blocks and falls Attached to the loading crane. 
 
 When several pieces are served together, there will be one 
 quadrant, one worm, one ladle, one hammer-wrench, two vent- 
 punches, one gunner's pincers, two lanyards {extrn.), and two 
 
8-INCH RIFLE — SERVICE. 143 
 
 veni-gimlets to each battery of not exceeding six pieces. Tliese 
 are Ijept in the filling-room of the seiTice magazine. 
 
 The shells are in the filling-room of the service magazine, and 
 are brought up to the piece, prepared for firing, as they are re- 
 quired. The powder is kept in the service magazine. The solid 
 projectiles are Isept piled convenient to the piece. 
 
 To distribute the equipments. 
 
 333. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Take equipments. 
 
 The gunner mounts upon the step of the top-carriage ; takes 
 off the vent cover, liands it to No. 2 to place against the parapet 
 in rear of his post; gives the primer-ponch to No. 3; equips 
 himself with his own pouch ; clears tlie vent ; directs No. 4 to 
 adjust the piece conveniently for loading, and resumes liis post. 
 No. 4 adjusts the piece by means of the hand-wheel. 
 
 The service of the piece is executed hy the following commands : 
 
 1. From batteby. 
 
 334. Nos. 5 and 6, facing to the front, seize the crank- 
 handles with botli hands (the liaiid farthest from the chassis at 
 the end of the handle; the otlier about five inches from it), and 
 unwind the rope; the gunner attaches the hoolc of tlie rope to 
 the rear of the carriage, commands: 1. In-GEAk, 2. Heave, 
 and places himself in rear of the chassis. At the first command, 
 Nos. 3 and 4 insert the small liandspikes in tlie eccentric sockets 
 of the rear wheels of the top-carriage, and unkey the axles ; at 
 the second, throw the wheels in gear, key the axles, replace the 
 handspikes upon the steps, and, facing to the reai-, grasp the 
 crank -handles with both hands, the hand fartiiest from the 
 chassis between the hands of Kos. 5 and 6. 
 
 The gunner then commands : Heave. Nos. 3, 4, 5, and C, 
 turning the crank, run the gun from battery until the couplings 
 catch ; Nos. 3 and 4 quit the crank-liandles ; Nos. 5 and 6 slightly 
 unwind the rope until the gunner can unhook it. The gunner 
 then commands : 1. Out-of-geae, 2. Heave. Nos. 3 and 4 in- 
 sert the small handspikes in the eccentric sockets and throw the 
 wheels out of gear, and, leaving tlie handspikes in the sockets, 
 all resume their posts. 
 
 Load— Sponge— Kam. 
 
 335. All executed identically as just explained for carriage 
 No. 1. 
 
144 8-inch eifle — service. 
 
 1. In battery. 
 
 336. The gunner commands: 1. In-gbar, 2. Heave. At 
 the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 unkey the axles, and at the 
 second command throw the wheels in gear, leaving the hand- 
 spikes in the sockets ; at the same time, ITos. 5 and 6 grasp the 
 coupling-levers with both hands, and at the command Uncouple, 
 iby the gunner, let the piece run into battery. 
 
 The gunner then commands: 1. Out-of-gear, 2. Heave; 
 at which Nos. 3 and 4 throw the wheels out of gear, rekey tlie 
 axles, replace their handspikes on tlie steps, and all the cannon- 
 eers resume their posts. 
 
 1. Am. 
 
 327. The gunner withdraws the priming-wire, adjusts the 
 breech-sight, and gives the direction. 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6, assisted by Ifos. 1 and 2, erabarring in the mor- 
 tises of the rear traverse-wheels, move the trail to the left or 
 right at the command Left or Bight by the gunner. At the 
 signal from the gunner, Kos. 5 and 6 unbar, replace their hand- 
 spikes on the steps, and resume their posts. 
 
 No. 3 prepares the primer; No. 4, worlnng at the hand-wheel, 
 elevates the piece ; tlie gunner commands : Beady ; Nos. 1, 2, 
 and 3 break off, — all as just explained for the same operation 
 with carriage No. 1. 
 
 1. Number one (or the like), 2. Fire. 
 Executed as explained for carriage No. 1. 
 
 To load without the numbers, and to fire. 
 As explained in par. 245. 
 
 To load and fire continuously, and to cease firing. 
 As explained in pars. 246 and 247. 
 
 To secure the piece. 
 As explained in par. 249. 
 
 To replace equipments. 
 As explained in par. 250, except that the gunner replaces 
 the pouches on the carriage, instead of on the knob of the cas- 
 cable. 
 
 Service of 8-iNcn Rifle. 
 {Carriage No. 4.) 
 338. The implements and equipments for this carriage are 
 
10-lNCH SIEGE MORTAR — SERVICE. 145 
 
 the same as for carriage No. 3, and are disposed of in the same 
 manner. The number of men is likewise the same. 
 
 1. From battery. 
 
 339. Nos. 6 and 6 apply themselves to the crank-handles ; 
 the gunner attaches the hook of the rope, and commands: 1. 
 In-gear, 2. Hbavb, — all as prescribed for carriage No. 3. 
 
 At the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 insert the small hand- 
 spikes in the eccentric sockets of the rear wheels of the top- 
 carriage ; No. 4 unkeys the axle. At the second command, Nos. 
 3 and 4 throw the wheels in gear j No. 4 keys the axle ; both 
 replace their handspikes on the steps of the chassis, and, facing 
 to the rear, grasp the crank-handles as for carriage No. 3. 
 
 The gunner then commands: Heaye. Nos. 3, 4, 6, and 6, 
 turning the cranks, run the gun from battery until the muzzle 
 is one yard from the epaulment. The gunner commands : 1. 
 Halt, 2. Out-of-qear. 
 
 Nos. 8 and 4 insert the small handspikes as before ; No. 4 un- 
 keys the axle, and at the second command the wheels are thrown 
 out of gear ; the handspikes are left in the sockets. Nos. 6 and 
 6 then unwind the rope until the gunner can unhook it, and all 
 resume their posts. 
 
 All of the remaining operations are executed as prescribed 
 for carriage No. 1, except so much as, in No. 1, relates to the 
 compressor. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 34:0> Ist. Owing to the fact that, in all of the foregoing car- 
 riages, the steps of the chassis interfere with the handspikes when 
 traversing the carriage, each piece should, in addition, be pro- 
 vided with two pinch-bars ; and/ for the purpose of holding the 
 traverse-wheels securely in position when delicate adjustments 
 in pointing are required, two wheel-chocks (iron) should also be 
 furnished. This rule is general for all pieces having traversing 
 carriages. 
 
 2d. The projectiles, as now supplied, are not furnished with 
 holes for the shell-hooks. To remedy this defect, a rope strap 
 is used, instead of shell-hooks. 
 
 Service of a IO-inch Siege Mortar. 
 {Fig. 1, Plate 9.) 
 Description of Piece. 
 341. Mortar, cast-iron ; smooth-bore, without chambor. 
 10 
 
146 10-INCH SIEGE MORTAR SERVICE. 
 
 Number, weigJUs, and dimensions. 
 
 Desisnation. 
 
 No. liBS. ISCH. 
 
 Oalibre ., 
 
 Weight 
 
 Freponderance J 
 
 Length of piece 
 
 Length of bore 
 
 Windage 
 
 Charge (maximum), mortar powder < 
 
 Weight of shell (empty) , 
 
 Charge to fill the shell (musket powder) , 
 
 Charge to burst the shell (musket powder).... 
 
 Charge to blow out fuse (musket powder) 
 
 Weight of carriage 
 
 Weight of mortar-wagon 
 
 Total weight of mortar, carriage, mortar- wagon, 
 
 and Implements , 
 
 Horses to transport 
 
 1900 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 0.3 
 1313 
 3185 
 
 6600 
 
 aa.5 
 
 0.13 
 
 The mortar is fired from a wooden platform. (Par. 225.) The 
 carriage is of wronsht-iron, and, being without chassis, restl 
 directly upon the platform. 
 
 Banges, 
 
 Charge. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Banoe, Yabds. 
 
 Time op Flight. 
 Seconds. 
 
 Lbs, 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Shell, 102 lbs. 
 
 Shell, 92 lbs. 
 
 Shell, 102 lbs. 
 
 Shell, 92 lbs. 
 
 0.5 
 
 45 
 
 217 
 
 193 
 
 6.92 
 
 6.33 
 
 1.0 
 
 45 
 
 582 
 
 554 
 
 10.83 
 
 10.75 
 
 1.5 
 
 45 
 
 1056 
 
 922 
 
 15.00 
 
 14.9 
 
 a.o 
 
 45 
 
 1366 
 
 1268 
 
 17.2 
 
 16.7 
 
 2.5 
 
 45 
 
 1740 
 
 1613 
 
 19.2 
 
 18.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 45 
 
 19*3 
 
 1848 
 
 22.33 
 
 not taken. 
 
 3.5 
 
 45 
 
 2188 
 
 .....M.. 
 
 22.00 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.0 
 
 45 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 
 2235 
 140 
 237 
 545 
 789 
 939 
 1072 
 1189 
 
 
 24.00 
 7.16 
 9.5 
 15.0 
 19.0 
 19.0 
 20.0 
 20.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ......... 
 
 
 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.75 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.25 
 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 
 1337 
 
 1459 
 1582 
 1667 
 1732 
 
 
 21.6 
 23.5 
 24.4 
 25.4 
 20.5 
 
 
 
 ......... 
 
 ....... 
 
 
 
 3.5 
 
 60 
 
 1780 
 
 .■...».. 
 
 27.2 
 
 • 
 
 3.75 
 
 60 
 
 1935 
 
 .....H.. 
 
 28.0 
 
 * 
 
 4.0 
 
 60 
 
 2085 
 
 r BhiU, DO Ibk 
 
 I 1530 
 
 29.0 
 
 C SheU, « Ibi. 
 
 } 19.6 
 
 2.5 
 
 45 
 
 
 
10-INCH SIEGE MORTAR — SERVICE. 147 
 
 Maximum pressure with cliarge of four pounds : 27,000 pounds 
 per square inch. 
 
 To serve the piece, 
 
 34S. Six men are necessary : one chicf-of-detachment, one 
 gunner, and four cannoneers. 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 
 (Two on each side, lying on the ma- 
 noeuvering bolts ; the small ends 
 to the front and even with the 
 L'ont of the cheeks. 
 
 Cartridge-pouch \ ^^ ^^^ ''.^^''«*! between the cheeks 
 
 ^ iiwuwi j- p| carriage, m rear. 
 
 ■J Containing the priming-wire, fric- 
 
 Primer-pouch , y tion-primers, and lanyard; in the 
 
 j basket. 
 
 r, ,„ „i, 1 Containing the gnnner's level, chalk- 
 
 Gunner's pouch | j.^^^ and chalk; in the basket. 
 
 Wiper ' 
 
 Quadrant 
 
 Plummets (3) • In the basket. 
 
 Shell-hooks.. 
 
 SlceVes(2 pair) 
 
 Tompion In the muzzle. 
 
 Sponge-bucket 
 
 Wiper-stake. 
 Maul ... 
 Broom . 
 
 With the basket. 
 
 ■PI t!„„ v„„ /:,.„„\ 1 Lying on the carriage, over rear 
 
 Elevatmg-bar (n-on) | ^nof^heg. handle to the left. 
 
 Trestles (3) \ ^?^^' ''''^ epaulment, in front of the 
 
 y piGCCa 
 
 To each battery of not more than six pieces there should be 
 one hammer-wrench, two vent-punches, one gunner's pincers, two 
 vent-gimlets, and two lanyards (extra). 
 
 Tlie powder, primers, and fuses are kept in tlie service m:ig- 
 azine, and the shells, when filled, in the fiUing-room of tlie 
 magazine. To prepare the ammunition, there will be required, 
 at the magazine, the implements specified in par. 275. 
 
 The charge of powder is varied to suit the required distance, 
 and should be carefully weighed. The elevation is usually con- 
 stant, and 45 degrees. 
 
148 10-INCH SIEGE MORTAR SERVICE. 
 
 The plane of sight is established by plummets : one suspended 
 in front and anotlier in rear of the mortar. 
 
 A convenient method of suspending the plummets is by means 
 of trestles, made light and easy to handle. The one in rear of 
 the mortar should be about six feet high, to permit the gunner 
 to sight without stooping. The one in front, being on the par- 
 apet, need not be more than eighteen inches high. They should 
 have their upper edges scored with fine saw-onts, close together, 
 to secure the plummets when adjusted in position. 
 
 The plummet-cord should be of fine thread or silk, and if affect- 
 ed by wind when suspended, the bob should swing in a bucket 
 of water. 
 
 A third trestle and plummet is requu-ed temporarily for plac- 
 ing the first two in position. 
 
 To establish the plummets in position, the instructor com- 
 mands : 
 
 1. PliACE THE PLUMMETS. 
 
 {Fig. 6, Plate 16.) 
 
 343. The gunner, assisted by No. 2, places a trestle upon 
 the parapet near the interior crest, and suspends from it a plum- 
 met in such position that it will be approximately in the line 
 passing through the centre of the platform and the object to be 
 fired at. No. 3 brings up another trestle, which the gimner 
 causes him to place a few feet in advance of the fii-st, and in line 
 with it and the object ; sighting by the plummet first establish- 
 ed, he causes the second plummet to be accurately adjusted ou 
 the line to the object ; then, going to the front plummet and 
 sighting back, he causes No. 4 to place in position the trestle in 
 rear of the mortar, and suspend from it the plummet, being 
 careful to have it in exact line with the two on the parapet. The 
 front trestle is then removed by No. 3. 
 
 The trestle in rear of the mortar should be about three yards 
 from the platform. 
 
 No. 1, meanwhile, taking the maul and wiper-stake, plants the 
 latter in the ground one yard in rear of his post, and leaves the 
 maul on the ground near it. All restjme their posts. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Should the fire from the enemy endanger the plummet on the 
 parapet, a priming-wire may be stuck there in its place to mark 
 the line. 
 
 When, owing to the interposition of an intermediate obstacle, 
 the object to be fired at cannot be seen from the mortar, a point 
 must be interpolated on the required line in such position that 
 
10-INCH SIEGE MORTAR — SERVICE. 149 
 
 it can be seen from the mortar. This is most readily effected by 
 using Paddocli's interpolator, a simple and convenient instru- 
 ment, consisting of two small miri-ors attached to a metallic 
 frame. One of these, termed the upper mirror, revolves on a 
 horizontal axis; the other is called the lower mirror, and to it is 
 attached a small spirit-level, a. (Fig. 4, Plate 15.) Hair-lhies 
 are marked on these mirrors, representing' the trace of a plane 
 normal to the axis of the level at its centre, and also to the axis 
 of the upper mirror. 
 
 To use the instrument, the observer places himself approxi- 
 mately on the line from the mortar to the object to be fired at. 
 Keeping the bubble in the centre of the level, he turns the in- 
 strument so that the mortar will be reflected from the upper 
 mirror onto the hair-line of the lower-mirror. He then revolves 
 the upper mirror, and, catching the reflection of the object, ob- 
 serves on which side of the hair-line of the lower mirror it falls. 
 He moves in that direction until both images — that of the mortar 
 and of the object — fall upon the lower hair-line, the two hair- 
 lines being coincident. A pin or plummet is placed in prolonga- 
 tion of this line to mark the required point. 
 
 To make the last part of the observation with accuracy, the 
 instrument should be rested on some convenient object. 
 
 When the foregoing instrument is not to be had, a point may 
 be interpolated by two persons, each using a light slender stake. 
 
 They place themselves as near as practicable on the required 
 line, one facing towards the mortar, where he can see it, and the 
 other towards the object, where he can see it, and both within 
 view of each other. 
 
 Holding their stakes vertical, they sight and move them alter- 
 nately, until finally they have them in such position that they 
 range botli upon the mortar and the object. The stakes or, bet- 
 ter, plummets are then adjusted at these points, and sighting by 
 them back to the mortar, a plummet is suspended in the usual 
 miinner behind the platform. The plummets thus established 
 mark the desired plane of sight. 
 
 This operation is more conveniently performed bj"^ using a strip 
 of board, ten or twelve feet long, in which is set at each end 
 a priming-wire. The board is placed at the intermediate point 
 in a position approximately in the plane of sight, and where the 
 mortar can be seen by sighting past both wires back upon it, and 
 the object can be seen by sighting foi'ward in the same manner. 
 Two persons, one at each end, by alternately sighting and mov- 
 ing the board, readily establish the wires in the required line. 
 A plummet is then suspended, at some convenient point in front 
 of the mortar, in line with the two wires on the board. The 
 
150 10-INCH SIEGE MORTA.R-— SEKVICE. 
 
 plummet in rear ot the moftar is suispended on the same Hue. 
 Tlie two plummets thus established determine the plane of sight. 
 
 To distribute the implements and equipments. 
 
 344. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Take equipments. 
 
 The gunner goes to the basket ; gives to No. 1 the broom, the 
 sponge-bucket, the wiper, and a pair of sleeves ; to No. 3, the 
 primer pouch ; to No. 4, the cartridge-pouch ; takes himself the 
 gunner's pouch and a pair of sleeves, and gives to No. 2 the bas- 
 ket. The gunner equips himself with his pouch, and, assisted 
 by No. 4, puts on his sleeves. 
 
 No. 1 liangs the wiper npon the stake, places the broom and 
 sponge-bucket on the ground by the side of it, and, assisted by 
 No. 3, puts on his sleeves. 
 
 No. 2 places the basket one yard in rear of his post, and lays 
 the shell-hooks on the ground near it. 
 
 No. 3 equips himself with the primer-pouch, assists No. 1 in 
 putting on the sleeves, and clears the vent. 
 
 No. 4 equips himself with the cartridge-pouch, which he carries 
 slung from the left shoulder to the right side, adjusts the piece 
 to about 45 degrees elevation, and places the elevating-bar on 
 the ground, one yard in rear of his post and perpendicular to 
 the platform. 
 
 As soon as the gunner has put on his sleeves, he applies his 
 level and marks the highest point of metal at the muzzle and 
 near the vent ; between these points, assisted by No. 4, he snaps 
 tlie chalk-line, thus marking the line of metal. The cannoneers 
 then take tlieir handspikes, and all resume their posts. The 
 handspikes are held, laid down, and resumed as explained in 
 pars. 235 and 236. 
 
 The mortar being from battery, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. In battery. 
 
 345. The gunner places himself two yards in rear of the 
 platform, facing the piece ; Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, facing towards 
 the epaulraent, embar; Nos. 1 and 2 under the front manoeuver- 
 ing bolts, and Nos. 8 and 4 under those in rear, engaging the 
 butts of their handspikes about three inches ; Nos. 1 and 3 hold 
 tile small end of their handspikes in the left liand, Nos. 2 and 4 
 tlieii'S in their right. 
 
 All being ready, tlie gunner commands : Heave, and repeats 
 it as often as may be necessary. As soon as the piece is on the 
 middle of the platform, he commands : Halt. All unbar, and 
 resnino their posts. 
 
10-INOH SIEGE MOETAE — SERVICE. 161 
 
 The mortar ia moved to the rear hy the command : 
 
 1. From battery. 
 Executed by inverse means. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. Load. 
 
 346. The gunner places himself one yard in front of and 
 facing the muzzle. 
 
 No. 2 takes out the tompion, and places it by the epaulment 
 in rear of his post. 
 
 Nos. 1, 3, and 4 lay down their handspikes. 
 
 TSo. 1, turning to his right, takes the wiper with his right hand, 
 turns to his left, and, placing himself in front of the piece, wipes 
 out the bore, sweeps, if necessary, the platform, and resumes his 
 post. 
 
 No. 3, as soon as the piece is wiped, clears the vent with the 
 priming-wire, and resumes his post and handspike. 
 
 Nos. 2 and 4 go for the cartridge and shell. 
 
 No. 2 takes with him his handspike and the shell-hooks, and 
 while No. 4 is getting the cartridge inserts the shell-hooks into 
 the ears of the shell, and passes the handspike through the ring. 
 In carrying the shell, they hold the handspike in their right 
 hands. No. 4 in advance and at the small end. 
 
 Nos. 2 and 4, passing by the left side of the piece and between 
 the muzzle and the gunner, rest the shell on the platform against 
 the front transom of the carriage. 
 
 The gunner receives the cartridge from No. 4, and, stepping 
 up to the piece, introduces it into the bore, and carefully pours 
 out the powder, which he distributes evenly over the bottom of 
 the bore ; he returns the cartridge-bag to No. 4, who places it 
 in the cartridge-pouch. 
 
 Nos. 2 and 4 lift the shell into the muzzle ; the gunner steps 
 forward, and, taking hold of the shell-hooks, assists in lowering 
 it gently into its place. No. 2 then withdraws his handspike 
 from the ring, and Nos. 2 and 4 resume their posts. The gunner 
 adjusts the shell so that the fuse is in the axis of the piece, dis- 
 engages the shell-hooks, which he throws to their place behind 
 No. 2, and resumes his post. 
 
 1. Aim. 
 
 317. The gunner places himself behind the rear plummet to 
 give the direction, and commands : Mortar right ; Mor> 
 TAR left; Mttzzli eight; Muzzle left; Trail right; 
 Trail left, as may be required. 
 
152 10-INCH SIEGE MOBTAE — SEEVICE. 
 
 To throw the mortar to the right. 
 
 No. 1 embars under the right front manceuvering bolt, from 
 the front ; No. 2 embars under the left front notch ; No. 4 em- 
 bars under the right rear notch, from the inside ; both of these 
 numbers perpendicular to the cheeks of the carriage. "When all 
 are ready, the gunner commands : Hbave ; Steady. The can- 
 noneers remain embarred until he gives some other command, 
 or makes a signal to unbar. 
 
 To throw the mortar to the left. 
 
 No. 2 embars under the left front manceuvering bolt, from the 
 front ; No. 1 under the right front notch ; So. 8 under the left 
 rear notch, from the inside. 
 
 To throw the m,uzzle to the right. 
 
 No. 1 embars under the right front manceuvering bolt, from 
 the front ; No. 2 embars under the left front notch, perpendicu. 
 larly to the cheek. 
 
 To throw the muzzle to the left. 
 
 No. 2 embars under the left front manceuvering bolt, from 
 the front ; No. 1 under the right front notch, perpendicularly to 
 the cheek. 
 
 To throw the trail to the right. 
 
 No. 4 embars perpendicularly to the cheek under the right 
 rear notch, from the inside. 
 
 To throw the trail to the left. 
 
 No. 3 embars perpendicularly to the cheek under the left rear 
 notch, from the inside. 
 
 In all of these operations the cannoneers face towards the 
 gunner and observe his signals. 
 
 The direction having been given, No. 4 embars with the ele- 
 vating-bar through the ratchet-post, and raises or depresses the 
 breech at the command of the gunner. The gunner applies the 
 quadrant to the face of the piece, giving to No. 4 the command 
 Kaise, or Lower, until the piece is at the required elevation — 
 usually 45 degrees — makes a signal to No. 4, who then unbars, 
 replaces the elevating-bar on the ground, and resumes his post. 
 The gunner, giving the command Ebady, makes a signal with 
 both hands, returns the quadrant to the basket, and goes where 
 he can best observe the flight of the shell. 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, and 4, taking their handspikes with them, go four 
 
10-INCH SIEGE MOETAE — SERVICE. 153 
 
 yards in rear of the platform and face to the front; No. 4 be- 
 tween Nos. 1 and 2, their handspikes held erect by the right side, 
 the right arm extended naturally. 
 
 No. 3, while the elevation is being given, pricks the vent, 
 makes ready a primer, inserts it in tho vent, moves three yards 
 obliquely to his left and rear, holds the lanyard with the right 
 hand, the cord slightly stretched, back of the hand up, and 
 breaks to the left and rear a full pace with the left foot, the left 
 hand hanging naturally by the side. 
 
 The lanyard, to keep the primer from pulling out of the vent, 
 should be passed under the pipe of the carriage. 
 
 i. Nuniber one (or the like), 2. Fibs. 
 
 348. No. 3, turning his face from the piece, pulls the lanyard 
 quickly, but steadily, and fires. 
 
 On the discharge of the piece, all except the gunner return, 
 without command, to their posts. As soon as the shell strikes, 
 the gunner returns to his post. 
 
 Previous to firing the piece, any mortar near the one to be 
 fired, if loaded or partly loaded, should have the muzzle closed 
 with the tompion, or with a cloth laid over the face. This rule is 
 general. 
 
 349. When exercising for instruction only, the instructor 
 continues it by causing the piece to be moved toward the rear of 
 the platform by the command Frou Batteby. He then com- 
 mands : 
 
 1. Unload. 
 
 350; The gunner, receiving the shell-hooks from No. 2, at- 
 taches them to the shell. No. 2 passes his handspike through 
 the ring of the hooks and, assisted by No. 4, raises the shell from 
 the bore of the piece and carries it to its former place ; all in the 
 inverse Order in wiich it was brought up. The gunner and Nos. 
 3 and 4 resume their posts. 
 
 351. The instructor continues the series of exercises, begin- 
 ning with in battery. 
 
 In changing posts. No. 2 passes by the front of the piece. This 
 rule is general for all mortars. 
 
 To load without the numbers, and to fire. 
 To load and fire eontiniumsh/. 
 
 352. Executed as in pars. 245 and 246. 
 
 To cease firing. 
 
 Executed as in par. 247. 
 
164 10-INCH SIEGE MOKTAK — BEKVICE. 
 
 2b secure piece and replace equipments. 
 
 353. The instructor causes the piece to he placed on the 
 centre of the platform, and commands : 
 
 1. Kkplacb Equipments. 
 
 All replace their handspikes on the manoBuvering holts; No, 
 2 puts in the tompion and replaces the basket between the 
 cheeks, in rear; No. 1 and the gunner take off their sleeves; 
 the gunner receives the equipments from the cannoneers and 
 replaces them in the basket; Nos. 3 and 4 replace the trestles 
 and plummets. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 354. The time of flight, in seconds, for siege-mortar shells, 
 at an elevation of 45 degrees, with ordinary charges, is approxi- 
 mately equal to one-fourth the square root of the range in feet. 
 
 The range in feet is approximately equal to sixteen times the 
 square of the time of flight. The experimental weight of charge 
 and length of fuse required may be obtained from these rules. 
 
 The Boulongi talemeter is used in determining the distance at 
 which a shell bursts; or this distance may be ascertained by 
 multiplying the number of seconds which elapse between see- 
 ing the flash and hearing the report of the shell by 1100; the 
 product will be approximately the distance in feet. 
 
 Fire and light balls, according to their size, are flred from 
 mortars of corresponding calibres. With a charge of one twen- 
 ty-flfth of its weight, the ball is thrown from six hundred to 
 seven hundred yards. Shells for mortars are fired without 
 sabots. 
 
 Siege mortars can be flred conveniently at the rate of twelve 
 rounds an hour, but in case of need they may be flred with 
 greater rapidity. 
 
 To prepare the mortar for transportation, see par. 466. 
 
 It is preferable to weigh the powder instead of measuring it, 
 as by so doing more uniform results are obtained. For this 
 purpose a pair of brass counter-scales are required at the maga- 
 zine, in place of the prescribed set of powder-measures. The 
 quantity of powder which a measure will contain is consider- 
 ably increased by tapping and settling it; therefore, to obtain 
 uniform results when the powder is measured, all the charges 
 for any series of flrings should be either settled or unsettled. 
 
 Every mortar should have the line of metal permanently 
 marked on it ; in which case all, in the foregoing and following, 
 that relates to marking the line of metal with chalk will be 
 omitted. 
 
8-INCn SIEGE MOETAE — SERVICE. 
 
 155 
 
 35S 
 
 Servick of an 8-inch Siege Moetar. 
 
 Descbiption op Piece. 
 Mortar, cast-iron ; smooth-bore, without cliamber. 
 Number, weights, and dimensions. 
 
 Dbsignatioit. 
 
 No. liBS. Inch. 
 
 Oallbro 
 
 Weighi 
 
 I'reporS eranoe 
 
 Xien^hof piece 
 
 Length ijf bore (calibres) 
 
 "Wlndagr 
 
 Charge (tnaximtmi), mortar powder 
 
 Weight t'f shell (empty) 
 
 Charge to fill shell, musket powder 
 
 Charge to blow out fuse-plug 
 
 "Weight of carriage 
 
 Weight of carriage, mortar, and implements. 
 
 (One m ^rtar- wagon will carry three mortars, 
 
 with th eir carriages.) 
 Horses required for above m......m*. 
 
 1010 
 00 
 
 2.25 
 
 48 
 
 2.6 
 
 0.25 
 
 900 
 
 1965 
 
 0.12 
 
 Ranges. 
 
 CHAItQE. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Range, Yabds. 
 
 Time op Flight. 
 Seconds. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Shell, 62 lbs. 
 
 Shell, 46 lbs. 
 
 Shell, 62 lbs. 
 
 Shell, 46 lbs. 
 
 8 
 
 45 
 
 399 
 
 433 
 
 9.50 
 
 9.65 
 
 12 
 
 45 
 
 717 
 
 727 
 
 12.45 
 
 12.50 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 955 
 
 1029 
 
 14.85 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 45 
 
 1265 
 
 1275 
 
 16.50 
 
 16.80 
 
 The piece is fired from a wooden platform. {Par. 225.) 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 Four men are necessary : one chief-of-detacliment, one gun- 
 ner, and two cannoneers. 
 
 The implements and equipments — omitting two handspikes 
 and adding a grummet-wad — are the same as for the 10-inch 
 siege mortar, and are arranged in the same manner. Tiie 
 grummet-wad is in the basket. 
 
 356. The service of the piece is the same as that prescribed 
 tor tlie 10-inch siege mortar, witli the following modifications : 
 
156 8-INCII SIEGE MORTAR SERVICE. 
 
 At the command take equipments^ No. 1 performs the duti •• 
 of No. 3, and No. 2 those of No. 4, in addition to their ow^. 
 No. 2 places the grnmmet-wad on the platform in front of tl.^ 
 carriage, near the transom, and assists No. 1 to put on h'.s 
 sleeves. 
 
 At the command in battery, Nos. 1 and 2 embar under tlie 
 front manceuvering bolts, facing to the front. 
 
 At the command from battery. No. 1 embars under the right 
 front manceuvering bolt, and No. 2 under the left rear bolt, 
 both facing from the parapet. If the carriage has no rear 
 manceuvering bolts. No. 2 embars under the left rear notcli, 
 nearly pei-pendicular to the cheek. 
 
 In loading, No. 1, having wiped out the piece, clears the vent 
 and, if necessary, swreeps the platform. 
 
 No. 2, laying down his handspilfe and talking with him the 
 sliell-hooks, goes for a cartridge and shell, returns by the left of 
 the piece, passes between the gunner and the muzzle, and, rest- , 
 ing tlie shell upon the wad, gives the cartridge to the gunner.. 
 
 The gunner, having poured in the powder, returns the car- 
 tridge-bag to No. 2, and distributes the powder evenly over the 
 bottom of the bore ; takes from No. 2 the shell-hooks, raises the 
 sliell and lowers it into its place in the bore. All resume their 
 posts. 
 
 At the command Aim, the gunner performs the same duties 
 and gives the same commands as with tlie 10-lnoh mortar. (Par. 
 347.) 
 
 For moHar rigid : No. 1 embars perpendicularly to the cheek 
 under the right front notch, from within, and No. 2 similarly 
 under the left rear notch, from without. 
 
 VoT mortar left : No. 2 embars perpendicularly to the cheek 
 under the left front notch, from within, and No. 1 similarly un- 
 der the right rear notch, from without. 
 
 For muzzle right: The same as for the 10-inch mortar. (Par. 
 347.) 
 
 For muzzle left: The same as for the 10-inoh mortar. (Par. 
 347.) 
 
 For trail right: No. 2 embars perpendicularly to the cheek 
 under the right rear notch, from the inside. 
 
 For trail left: No. I embars perpendicularly to the cheek un- 
 der the left rear notch, from the inside. 
 
 In all of these operations Nos. 1 and 2 face towards the gunner 
 and observe his signals. 
 
 The direction being given, the elevation is given as prescril)cd 
 for the 10-inch mortar (par. 347), except that No. 2 perfoi-ins the 
 duties therein prescribed for No. 4, and No. 1 those for No. 3. 
 
COEHOEN MORTAR — SERVICE. 
 
 157 
 
 At the signal from the gunner, No. 1 prepares to fire as pre- 
 scribed for No. 3 in the exercises for the 10-inch mortar. (Par, 
 347.) 
 
 Service of a Coehoen Moetab. 
 
 (Fig. 2, Plate 9.) 
 
 I>esceiption op Piece. 
 
 SSf. Mortar, bronze; bore, smooth, with chamber; calibre, 
 5.8 Inches ; weight of piece, 164 lbs. ; extreme length, 16.32 inches ; 
 maximum charge, 12 oz. '■^mortar powder" ; weight of shell, 
 empty, 16.8 lbs. ; charge to fUl the shell, 1 lb. ; to blow out fuse, 
 2 oz. 
 
 The carriage Is simply a block of wood, weighing 132 lbs. ; 
 total weight of piece, equipments, and carriage, 311 lbs. 
 
 Ranges. 
 
 CSAItGE. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Peojbctilb 
 ■weiqhing 
 
 17,5 LBS. 
 
 Tnra OP 
 Flight. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 2.0 
 
 45 
 
 84 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 45 
 
 261 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 45 
 
 425 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 45 
 
 54S 
 
 
 6.5 
 
 43 
 
 666 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 45 
 
 840 
 
 
 7.6 
 
 45 
 
 980 
 
 
 8.0 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 8.5 
 
 45 
 
 1074 
 
 
 9.0 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 9.5 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 45 
 
 1262 
 
 
 10.5 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 11.0 
 
 45 
 
 1316 
 
 
 12.0 
 
 45 
 
 1385 
 
 
 The carriage or block upon which the Coehorn mortar is 
 mounted, is provided with two handles on each side, by means 
 of which the mortar is readily carried by four men from one part 
 
158 COEHORN MOETAR — SERVICE. 
 
 of the work to another. They accompany troops in the field for 
 use against an enemy covered by intrenchments. 
 
 The ground, when firm, is sufficient for the carriage to rest 
 upon ; if it is not firm, a platform can readily be extemporized 
 from such material as may be at hand. The carriage should be 
 level when the mortar is fired. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 35 S. Four men are necessary : one chief-of-detachment, one 
 gunner, and two cannoneers. 
 
 The implements and equipments are carried in a basket, which 
 is near and in rear of tlie mortar. They are as follows : Primer- 
 pouch, containing priming-wire, primers, and lanyard; gunner's 
 pouch, containing gunner's level and a pair of small pincers ; one 
 quadrant, one sponge, one plummet, and one maUet. A small 
 wedge is used as a quoin. 
 
 The mortar should have a permanent line of metal marked 
 upon it ; otherwise tliis must be marked as for the 10-inch siege 
 mortar. (Par. 344.) 
 
 The shells should be strapped with tin, and be provided witli 
 cord handle. Tliey, together with the powder and fuses, are 
 kept in tlie service magazine. 
 
 The implements for preparing ammunition are tlie same as 
 prescribed in par. 275. 
 
 The service of the piece is analogous to that for the 10-inch 
 siege mortar. (Par. 342 and following.) 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 359. When Coehorn mortars accompany troops in cam- 
 paign, they may be carried on ordinary field caissons ; eacli cais- 
 son carrying one mortar, together with sixty rounds of ammuni- 
 tion. 
 
 Tlie mortar is carried on the caisson body, the front chest being 
 removed for this purpose. The piece is securely lashed with 
 ropes through the handles. The remaining ammunition chests 
 are arranged to carry thirty shells each. The powder is in cans^ 
 and a set of measures (from one to six ounces) should be pro- 
 vided. The shells should be charged and the fuse-plugs driven, 
 ready for the insertion of the fuses. 
 
 A caisson with chests similarly arranged should accompany 
 each piece. 
 
 The mortars may also be carried in ordinary army transporta- 
 tion-wagons. Each wagon wUl csxrry one Coehorn and its 
 equipments (weighing 311 pounds), and sixteen boxes, each 
 containing eight shells and weighing 168=2688 pounds — total, 
 2999 pounds ; a fair load, on good roads, for four horses or six 
 mules. 
 
13-INCH MORTAE — SERVICE. 
 
 159 
 
 Battery of Six Coehokns. 
 
 One captain, three lieutenants, six sergeants, six corporals, 
 eight drivers, thirty cannoneers, and thirty-two horses. 
 
 When ordinary wagons are used instead of caissons, two one-, 
 horse carts are allowed as tenders in bringing up ammunition, &c. 
 
 An army operating in the field should be abundantly supplied 
 with this handy and useful weapon. 
 
 Servicb of a 13-inch Mortae (eccentric axle). 
 {Fig. 4, Plate 9.) 
 Descbiption op Piece. 
 360. Mortar, cast-iron ; smootli-bore, without chamber. 
 
 Dbsignatios. 
 
 Weight of piece 
 
 Preponderance 
 
 Extreme length 
 
 Length of bore 
 
 Windage 
 
 Charge (maximum), mortar powder.. 
 
 Weight of shell (emptyj 
 
 Charge to fill shell 
 
 Charge to blow out fuse-plug 
 
 Weight of carriage 
 
 Lbs. Inch. 
 
 17,120 
 00 
 
 20 
 216 
 
 11 
 
 0.3 
 
 4,140 
 
 54.5 
 35.1 
 0.13 
 
 The mortar is fired from a wooden platform. (Par. 227.) The 
 carriage is of wroiiglit-iron, and, being without chassis, rests di- 
 rectly upon tlio platform. 
 
 An axle, carrying at each extremity a truck-wheel, passes 
 through the carriage near the front end ; this axle is eccentric, 
 and when thrown in gear the truck-wheels rest upon tlie plat- 
 form ; only the rear part of the shoe then rests on the platform 
 and moves with sliding friction. Two steps are placed on the 
 front part of tlie carriage for convenience in loading. 
 Ranges. 
 
 Ohabge. 
 
 'Fr.F.TATIOII. 
 
 Eangb. 
 
 Time OP 
 Flight. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 2875 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 3187 
 
 25.8 
 
 15 
 
 45 
 
 3759 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 45 
 
 4636 
 
 31.75 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 2852 
 
 32.75 
 
 IS 
 
 60 
 
 3378 
 
 36.75 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 3893 
 
 39.16 
 
160 13-INCH MOKTAR — SERVICE. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 361. Eight men are necessary : one chlef-of-detachment, one 
 gunner, and six cannoneers. 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 
 „,,,., ,■ \ \ One on each side, hanging by hooks 
 Truck handspikes (u-on).. I on the cheeks. 
 
 ^ ■] One on each side, lying on plat- 
 
 Manoeuvering handspikes. I form against tlie cheelcs, small 
 (wood.) f ends to the front and resting on 
 
 J the truck-wheels. 
 
 _,, ^. , ,. , "1 Lying on the carriage, over rear 
 
 Elevatmg-bar (iron) | ^..ofches, handle to the left. 
 
 „,, ,,,,.> 1 One on each side, on the upper'step 
 
 Wheel-chocks (iron) .| of carriage. 
 
 ") On prop, one yaVd in rear of No. 1 ; 
 Sponge \ sponge-liead towards t-he epaul- 
 
 ) ment. 
 
 Pass-box 'One yard behind No. 4. 
 
 Quadrant 
 
 Spatula 
 
 Plummets (three) , 
 
 Sleeves (two pair) 
 
 Shell-hooks 
 
 Tompion In the muzzle. 
 
 } Containing the priming-wire, fric- 
 tion-primers, and lanyard ; in bas- 
 ket. 
 
 Runner's Douch \ Containing gunner's level, chalk 
 
 irunnei s poucn j- ^^^^ chalk-line; in basket. 
 
 Sponge-buclcet ") 
 
 Broom >■ With basket. 
 
 Carrying-bar (iron) J 
 
 Trestles (three) Near epaulmeut, hi front of piece. 
 
 To each battery not exceeding six pieces there will be one 
 hammer^wrench, two vent -punches, one gunner's pincers, two 
 lanyards (extra), and two vent-gimlets: These are kept in the 
 flUing-room of the service magazine. 
 
 The powder, primers, and fuses are kept in the service maga- 
 zine, and the shells in the flUlng-room of the magasine. 
 
 The implements for preparing the ammunition are those speci- 
 fied in par. 275. 
 
 In basket, between the cheeks of 
 the carriage, in rear. 
 
13-INCH MORTAE — SERVICE. 101 
 
 To egtablisli the pluminets in the plane of sight, the mstructcf 
 commands : Plage the plummets. Executed as for the 10- 
 incli siege mortar. (Par. 343.) 
 
 To distribute the implements and equipments. 
 
 362. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Take equipments. 
 
 The gunner goes to the basliet ; gives to No. 1 the broom, th(! 
 sponge-bucket, and a pair of sleeves ; to No. 3, the primer-pouch, 
 and to No. 2 the carrying-bar and basket. No. 1 places tliu 
 broom and bucket on the ground in liis rear, and, assisted by 
 No. 3, puts on a pair of sleeves. 
 
 The gunner equips himself with his pouch and, assisted by 
 No. 4, puts on a pair of sleeves ; then, applying his level, ascei- 
 tains and marks the highest points of metal at the muzzle and 
 near the vent. Between these points, assisted by No. 4, ho 
 snaps the chalk-line, thus marking the line of metal ; he then 
 resumes his post. 
 
 No. 2 places the basket one yard behind him, and lays the 
 carrying-bar and shell-hooks on the ground near it; No. 3 
 equips liimself with tlie primer-pouch and clears the vent ; No. 
 4 places the elevating-bar behind him and perpendicular to the 
 carriage ; Nos. 5 and 6 place each a manoeuvering handspike on 
 the ground perpendicnlar to the carriage, the small end resting 
 on the edge of the platform and on the side of them next the 
 epaulment. 
 
 The truck handspikes, wiien not in use, remain on the hooks. 
 
 The mortar being from battery, 
 
 363. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. In battery. 
 
 The gunner places himself two yards in rear of the platform, 
 facing to the piece, and commands : In-gbab. Nos. 3 and 4 
 take the truck handspikes from the hooks and embar in tlie 
 eccentric sockets ; Nos. 5 and 6 seize the handspiltes above the 
 hands of Nos. 3 and 4. The gunner commands : Heave and, 
 as soon as the wheels are in gear, Embab, when the handspikes 
 are placed in the most convenient rear mortises of the truck- 
 wheels. The mortar is moved to the front as far as required by 
 the alternate commands heave and emfiar from the gunner; he 
 then commands : Halt and Out-of-qeae, and the handspikes 
 are again inserted in the eccentric sockets. The gunner com- 
 11 
 
162 13-INCH MORTAR — SERVICE. 
 
 mands : Heave, the wheels are thrown out of gear, -and the 
 handspikes returned to their hoolss, Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 then re- 
 sume their posts. 
 
 1. Feom batteby. 
 
 Executed as abqve, except that the truck handspikes are in- 
 serted in the raost convenient front mortises of the truck-wheels 
 at the command embar. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. Load. 
 
 364. No. 2 takes out the tompion and places it by the epaul- 
 ment in rear of his post. The gunner places himself one yard 
 in front of the piece, facing the muzzle. 
 
 No. 1, facing to his right, takes the sponge-staflf in his right 
 hand, mounts upon the step, and passes the sponge to the bottom 
 of the bore; sponges with both hands, withdraws the sponge, 
 replaces it on the prop, and resumes his post ; No. 3 clears the 
 vent; No. 4, taking the pass-box, goes for a cartridge ; Nos. 2, 
 3, 5, and 6 go for the sliell ; No. 2 takes with him the carrying- 
 bar and shell-liooks, engages the shell-hooks in the ears of the 
 siiell, and passes the carrying-bar through tlie ring. 
 
 In carrying the shell, Nos. 3 and 5 are in advance, and Nos. 2 
 and 6 in rear; Nos. 2 and 3 are at the ends of the bar, using 
 their right hands ; Nos. 5 and 6 use their left hands. The shell 
 is bi'ought up by the left side of the piece, and those canying it, 
 passing between the gunner and the muzzle, rest it on the step ; 
 No. 4 hands the cartridge to the gunner, who pours the powder 
 into the piece, and, using the spatula, distributes it evenly over 
 the bottom of the bore ; he then returns the cartridge-bag to 
 No. 4, who, putting it in the pass-box, resumes his post. 
 
 The shell is raised by the numbers at the carrying-bar, and 
 lowered into the bore until the bar rests against the face of tlie 
 piece. The gunner seizes the shell-hooks, and, after No. 2 with- 
 draws the bar, lowers the shell into its place, adjusting it so 
 that the fuse will be in the axis of the piece; disengages the 
 shell-hooks, which he throws behind No. 2, and then resumes 
 his post. No. 2 replaces the carrying-bar on the ground, and 
 resumes his post. 
 
 When necessary, the platform wUl be swept by No. 1. 
 
 1. Aim. 
 
 365. The gunner places himself behind the rear plummet to 
 give the direction, and commands: In-geab — ^EteAVE— Em- 
 BAB. All executed as prescribed in ^ar. 363. 
 
 The gunner then, sighting by the plummets, gives the dlrec- 
 
13-INCH MORTAR — SERVICE. 163 
 
 tion, com man ding : Muzzle right ; Muzzle IjBFT ; Mobtas 
 eight; Moetab left, according as desired. 
 
 For muzzle right : Ifois. 3 and 5 heave to tiie rear, and Nos. 4 
 and 6 to tlie front, at the command Heave from the gunner, 
 wlio repeats the alternate commands heave and erribar as often 
 as may be necessary. 
 
 For muzzle left : Same as above, except that Nos. 3 and 5 heave 
 to the front and Nos. 4 and 6 to the rear. 
 
 Mortar right (or left) is executed by giving the muzzle the 
 proper direction and running the mortar in battery, or by giv- 
 ing the muzzle the opposite direction and running the mortar 
 from battery. In either case the manoeuvre is completed by 
 throwing the muzzle In the proper direction on its platform by 
 the commands already given. 
 
 Tlie direction having been given, the gunner commands : 
 Halt, and tlie eccentrics are tin-own out of gear as described in 
 par. 363. To prevent the carriage from moving out of line when 
 the eccentrics are thrown out of gear, the wheels should be firmly 
 chocked in front. This is done by Nos. 1 and 2 at the command 
 halt. 
 
 If necessary to rectify the direction of the piece after the eccen- 
 trics are out of gear, the gunner causes Nos. 5 and 6, assisted by 
 all the other cannoneers, to embar under the rear notclies with 
 the manoeuvering liandspikes and move the trail to the right or 
 left. No. 3 pricks the vent and then prepares tlie lanyard and 
 primer ; No. 4 embars with the elevating-bar through the ratchet- 
 post, and, assisted by No. 5, raises or depresses the breech at tlie 
 command of the gunner. The gunner applies the quadrant to 
 the face of the piece, giving the commands to No. 4, Eaise or 
 Lower, until the piece is at the required elevation, usually 
 forty-five degrees, makes a signal to No. 4, who then nnbars, 
 places the elevating-bar in its place on the ground, and resumes 
 his post. The gunner commands: Eeady, returns the quad- 
 rant to the basket, receives the primer from No. 3, and, passing 
 the lanyard under the pipe. Inserts the primer in the vent, and 
 goes where he can best observe the shot. 
 
 The cannoneers, except No. 3, go at the command ready to 
 the rear of the platform and form detachment as in detachment 
 rear, leaving No. 4 uncovered; No. 3, holding the handle of tlie 
 lanyard in his right hand, back of the hand up, moves tliree 
 yards obliquely to his left and rear, and breaks oft' to his left and 
 rear a full pace with his left foot, his left hand hanging naturally 
 by his side. 
 
 I. Number one (or the like), 2. Fibe. 
 
 366. No. 3, turning his face from the piece, pulls the Ian- 
 
16J: 13-INCH MORTAR SERVICE. 
 
 yard quickly, but steadily, and fires. On the discharge of the 
 pit'ce, all except the gunner return— without command— to then- 
 posts; as soon as the shell strikes, the gunner returns to his 
 
 post- , . 
 
 When exercising for instruction only, the instructor contmues 
 
 it by causing the piece to be moved toward the rear of the plat- 
 form by the command From battbky. He then commands : 
 
 1. UNIiOAD. 
 
 36 1. The gunner, receiving the shell-hooks from No. 2, 
 mounts upon the step of the carriage and attaches them to the 
 shell ; No. 2 puts the carrying-bar through the ring of the hooks, 
 anil, assisted by Nos. 3, 5, and 6, raiSes the shell from the bore 
 of the piece and carries it to its former place. 
 
 In doing this, the cannoneers apply themselves as in bringing 
 up the shell, but move in the reverse order. All then resume 
 their posts. 
 
 The instructor continues the series of commands, beginnmg 
 with In battbky. 
 
 In changing posts. No. 2 passes by the front of the piece. 
 
 To load without the numbers, and to fire. 
 
 To load and fire continuously, and to cease firing. 
 
 Executed as in pars. 246 and 247. 
 
 To secure piece and replace equipments. 
 
 The instructor causes the piece to be placed on the centre of 
 the platform, and commands : 
 
 Ebplacb equipments. 
 
 368. Nos. 5 and 6 replace tlie handspikes on the truck-v\rheels ; 
 No. 2 puts in the tompion and replaces the basket between the 
 cheeks, in rear; No. 4 assists the gunner to take off his sleeves; 
 No. 3, in like manner, assists No. 1 ; the gunner receives the 
 equipments from the cannoneers and replaces them in the basket ; 
 Nos. 8 and 4 replace the trestles and plummets. 
 
 Remarlcs. 
 
 If, in securing the mortar, the muzzle has been so far depressed 
 that the elevating-bar cannot be engaged in the ratchets, a trace 
 chain may be doubled over the ratchet and the bar engaged in 
 the bight of the chain ; or the elevating-bar may be placed in the 
 ratchets perpendicular to the axis of the piece, and a wooden 
 handspike engaged over the bar and under the nuts or T-plates 
 of the cheeks, and the mortar thus elevated. 
 
10-INCH SEA-COAST MORTAR — SERVICE. 
 
 165 
 
 A bar known as Piper's loading bar is a far more conven- 
 ient implement than the shell-hooks for carrying and loading 
 the shell. It is simply a bar of round iron about two feet long, 
 fashioned into a ring at one end for a handle, and having a screw 
 cut on the other end, which screws into a shallow hole tapped in 
 the shell at a short distance from the fuse-hole. When the shell 
 is lowered into the bore and adjusted, the bar is unscrewed and 
 removed. 
 
 To insure the ignition of the fuse of mortar shells, the end of 
 the fuse-plug and the shell around it should be smeared with 
 treacle, varnish, mucilage, or any other sticky substance, and 
 after the shell is in the bore a little fine-grain powder thrown 
 on it. 
 
 In rainy weather, great care must be observed to keep the 
 charge dry during the operation of loading. This may be ef- 
 fected by covering the piece with a paulin, the front part of 
 which can be raised while the loading is going on. 
 
 Servicb of a 10-ihch Sea -coast Moetab (eccentbio 
 axle). 
 
 Desceiption op Piece. 
 369. Mortar, cast-iron ; smooth-bore, without chamber. 
 
 Desisnation. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 IKCH. 
 
 CaUbre ». _ „ 
 
 Weight „ „ 
 
 "7306" 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 "47!05 
 32.S 
 0.13 
 
 Jjengih of piece « 
 
 Lenglli of bore 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 5 
 2 
 
 0.5 
 2921 
 
 Charge to fill sheU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The carriage is of wrought-iron, and is provided with an eccen- 
 tric axle and truck-wheels similar to the can-iage for the 13-inoh 
 mortar. {Par. 360.) The mortar is fired from a wooden plat- 
 form. (_Par. 228.) 
 
 With .heavy charges, the shell used in the 10-inch gun may be 
 used for this mortar. The 10-inoh siege-mortar shell may be 
 used with moderate' charges. 
 
166 
 
 10-INCH SEA-COAST MOKTAR — SERVICE. 
 
 Banges. 
 With 10-inch siege-mortar shells, filled with sand (weight 96.5 
 pounds). 
 
 Ohaboe. 
 
 F,T.-BVATIOir. 
 
 Eangb. 
 
 TmBOr 
 Flioht. 
 
 Lbs. oz. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 5 
 
 45 
 
 2720 
 
 25.20 
 
 6 8 
 
 45 
 
 2983 
 
 26.33 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 3005 
 
 26.50 
 
 6 8 
 
 45 
 
 3254 
 
 26.75 
 
 7 
 
 45 
 
 3325 
 
 27.50 
 
 With 10-inch gun shells, filled with sand (weight 104 pounds). 
 
 Ghabgb. 
 
 Elbtation. 
 
 RiNOB. 
 
 Tool OP 
 Flight. 
 
 Libs. oz. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 7 8 
 
 45 
 
 3471 
 
 28.10 
 
 8 
 
 45 
 
 3638 
 
 29.60 
 
 8 8 
 
 45 
 
 3648 
 
 29.75 
 
 9 
 
 45 
 
 3677 
 
 30.75 
 
 9 8 
 
 45 
 
 4096 
 
 30.40 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 4301 
 
 31.25 
 
 10 8 
 
 45 
 
 4345 
 
 32.00 
 
 11 
 
 45 
 
 4458 
 
 33.50 
 
 11 8 
 
 45 
 
 4465 
 
 34.00 
 
 12 
 
 45 
 
 4536 
 
 not taken. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 Six men are necessary : one chief-o£-detachment, one gCinner, 
 and four cannoneers. 
 
 The implements and equipments are the same as for the 13- 
 hich mortar [par. 301), omitting the sponge and adding a wiper, 
 a wiper-stake, and ajnaul, and are distributed as in the service 
 of the 10-inch siege mortar (par. 344), except that when there 
 are uo hooks on the cheeks for the truck handspikes, these are 
 laid on the platform in front of Nos. 1 and 2, parallel" to the 
 cheeks, small ends to the front, and are returned to this posi- 
 tion whenever not actually in use. 
 
13-INCn MORTAR — CENTRE PINTLE — SERVICE. 1G7 
 
 Tlie mortal- is mauoeuverecl on its platfonu as presciibcil for 
 tlie 13-iiicii mortar, and by tlie same commands. (Par. 363.) 
 
 The loading and firing are executed as prescribed for the serv- 
 ice of the lO-inuh siege mortar. (Por. 346 et seq.) 
 
 Service of a 13-inch Mortar (centre-pintle carbiaqe). 
 
 (Fig. 8, Plate 9.) 
 
 Descbiption op Piece. 
 
 SYO. This piece differs from the one described in par. 360 
 only in tlic method of mounting. Both liave the same carriage, 
 but instead of the carriage resting directly on the platform, as 
 in tlie first, the carriage for the centre pintle is mounted on a 
 cliassis itself resting on the platform. 
 
 The chassis is attached at its centre to the platform by a pin- 
 tle, and traverses upon iron circles in tlie manner usual for this 
 class of carriages. 
 
 In addition to the eccentric axle at tlie middle of tlie chassis, 
 for throwing it in and out of gear, there is another axle, also 
 eccentric, carrying a traverse-wheel which works between the 
 parts of a double transom on the front end of the ctiassis. This 
 wheel communicates motion to the chassis. 
 
 A crane is attached to the left cheek for hoisting the shell to 
 the muzzle. 
 
 The chassis has an inclination to the rear of three degrees ; it 
 is of wrought-iron, and weighs 55G0 pounds. 
 
 The ranges are as given in par. 360. 
 
 To serve file piece. 
 
 STfl. Eight men are necessary: one ohief-of-detachment, 
 one gunner, and six cannoneers. 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 
 Truck handspikes (iron)...} '^^^^^y.^^^' '"^^' "" *^ ''°°''' °* 
 
 Wheel-chocks (iron) One on each side, on the hurters. 
 
 Blocks and fall Attached to the crane. 
 
 The other implements (omitting the wooden handspikes) are 
 the same, and are arranged in the same manner as in par, 3G0. 
 
 To prepare far pointing the mortar. 
 
 372. In every position of the piece, the plane of fire passes 
 through and Includes the axis of the pintle. The position of 
 this axis is determined by suspending over the centre of the pin- 
 
1G8 13-INCIl MORTAR — CENTRE PINTLE — SERVICE. 
 
 tie a plummet ; this is most readily (lone by using a light trestle, 
 about six feet high, with legs far enough apart to reach across 
 the chassis, allowing it to be traversed about a foot In either 
 direction. 
 
 The highest point of metal at the muzzle is determined in the 
 usual manner. This being marked, serves the same purpose 
 that a front sight does on a gun — the rear sight being the plum- 
 met over the pintle, or one placed in rear of the platform in the 
 plane including the highest point of metal and the object. 
 
 If tiie object can be seen from the mortar, establish a plummet 
 in rear of the platform, in line with the one over the pintle and 
 the object. The trestle over the pintle is then removed. The 
 aiming is accomplished by sighting on the object from the plum- 
 met in rear, and traversing the chassis until the highest point of 
 metal falls on this line. 
 
 If, as is generally the case, the object is cut oflE" from view by 
 an epaulmcnt, a point must be interpolated on the line from the 
 object to the plummet over the pintle. This is accomplished as 
 explained in par. 343. On the line thus determined, a plummet 
 is suspended in rear of the platform, as before, and the trestle 
 over the pintle removed. 
 
 The Lorain sight may be used on this mortar. 
 
 When Dyer's apparatus is used, the direction is given as ex- 
 plained in par. 210. 
 
 Remark. 
 
 Owing to the fact that the top-carriage has some lateral play 
 on the chassis, it is well to have the line of metal marked in the 
 usual waj', and then, in aiming, bring this line in the plane of 
 sight. 
 
 To disstribiite the implements and equipments. 
 
 373. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Take equipments. 
 Executed as in par. 362. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 374. The piece will, liabitually, be in battery while being 
 loaded. It is in battery when the soles of the cheeks are against 
 the hurters. 
 
 375. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. In-batteey. 
 
 Executed as in par. 363, adding, Nos. 1 and 2 will iinchook 
 the wheels of the top-carriage. 
 
13-INCH MOEIAR — CENTRE PINTLE — SERVICE. 169 
 
 1. Pkom battery. 
 
 SVe. Executed as in' par. 363, except that Nos. 1 aad 2 fol- 
 low up the movement and keep the wheel-chocks closely ap- 
 plied to the wheels. 
 
 1. By the numbers, 2. Load. 
 
 STT. Executed as laid down in par. 364, with the following 
 exceptions : "When the shell is brought up it is placed under the 
 crane, the carrying-bar withdrawn, and tlie pulley attached to 
 the slioll-hooks by No. 4 ; Nos. 5 and 6 run up the shell, No. 4 
 steadying it. When sufficiently raised, it is swung over the 
 muzzle, and lowered to its place in the bore as explained in par. 
 264 ; No. 4 swings back the crane and keys it to the cheek. All 
 resume their posts. 
 
 1. Am. 
 
 378. The gunner places himself in rear of the chassis, and 
 commands : 
 
 1. Chassis in-gear, 2. Heave. 
 
 At the first command. No. 1 unlocks the eccentric of the front 
 wheel ; No. 2 embars with his handspike in the eccentric socket 
 of this wheel, and is assisted by No. 1 ; Nos. 5 and 6 embar in 
 the eccentric sockets of the truck-wheels upon the sides of the 
 chassis. At the second command, the chassis is thrown in gear ; 
 No. 1 locks the eccentric of the front wheel, and No. 2 inserts 
 his handspike in the uppermost mortise of tliis wheel, No. 1 
 still assisting him. 
 
 Tlie gininer then, sigiiting by the plummet, commands : Muz- 
 zle RIGHT, or Muzzle left. Nos. 1 and 2, applying them- 
 selves to the handspike in the front wheel, give the piece the 
 riglit direction. If tlie cliassis traverses witli difficulty, Nos. I 
 and 2 embar separately, each with a handspike in a mortise on 
 his own side. 
 
 The direction being given, tlie gunner commands : 1. Chassis 
 out-of-gear, 2.' Heave. 
 
 Executed in a manner similar to that of throwing it into gear. 
 
 All tlie cannoneers then resume their posts. 
 
 No. 3 pricks the vent, and then prepares tlie primer and lan- 
 yard. The elevation is given as explained in par. 365. The 
 gunner commands : READY, receives the primer from No. 3, 
 inserts it in the vent, and goes where he can best observe the 
 effect of the shot. 
 
 The cannoneers go to the rear as explained in par. 365. 
 
170 GATLING GUN. 
 
 1. Number one (or the like), 2. FlKE. 
 
 Exucutecl as iii^a?-. 366. 
 
 The remaining exercises are executed as explained in pars. 
 367 and 368. 
 
 When Dyer's pointing apparatus is used, the gunner, after the 
 chassis is thrown in gear, goes to the instrument on the parapet, 
 sights through it upon the object, notes the degree, returns and 
 causes the piece to be traversed until the pointer on the chassis 
 is at the same degree on the arc of tlie platform. 
 
 Gatling Gun. 
 (,Fig. 1, Plate 17.) 
 
 379. The Gatling is a machine gun of small calibre, throw- 
 ing lead projectiles. It is used for field service, and also as an 
 auxiliary In the armament of fortifications. For both purposes, 
 it is mounted on a traveling carriage. 
 
 Two calibres have been adopted, viz.: the 1-inch, which, in 
 addition to solid projectiles, throws also canister ; and the 0.45- 
 incli, which uses the same cartridge as the regulation rifle-mus- 
 ket. 
 
 The general features of the mechanism are the same for both, 
 consisting of a number of breech-loading i-ifled barrels, grouped 
 around and revolving about a common axis, with which they 
 are parallel. The bore of each barrel extends entirely through 
 it, and the breech is chambered to receive a flange, centre-flre, 
 metallic-case cartridge. The barrels are rigidly attached to a 
 central sliaft extending to their rear, and supporting a cylindri- 
 cal breech- casing, which carries within it all the machinery by 
 which the barrels are loaded and flred. A crank upon the right 
 side of this casing is used for operating tlie machinery. The 
 barrels are discharged successively as they revolve with the 
 sliaft. 
 
 Each revolution of the crank gives one discharge with the 
 1-inch gun ; with the 0.45-inch, three discharges are made by 
 each revolution. The former is capable of firing 150 shots per 
 minute ; the latter, 600 shots. 
 
1-INCH 6ATL1NG — SERVICE. 
 
 171 
 
 Seevice of the 1-mcH Gatlinq. 
 Description op Piece. 
 
 Designation. 
 
 No. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Extreme lengtli of piece ~ ; 
 
 "li 
 
 472 
 2592 
 
 ■■"6 
 C 
 
 '""i 
 
 6 
 
 'Sis 
 ioo8 
 
 8263 
 "iiii 
 
 63.15 
 33. 
 21.5 
 14.6 
 
 '6"6i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gun (weiglit) „ 
 
 Total weiglit of gun, implements, carriage and 
 limber.,. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of horses for eacli caisson «., 
 
 The piece is mounted on the 3-inoh field-gun carriage. 
 For field service, each piece is accompanied by one caisson. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 3SO. Ten men are necessary : one chief-of-detachment, one 
 gunner, and eight cannoneers. 
 
 The equipments consist of three cartridge-pouches, which are 
 hung on the knob of the cascable. 
 
 At the command of the instructor: Take equipments, the 
 gunner steps to the piece and distributes them to Nos. 4, 5, and 
 7, who can-}' them slung from the left shoulder to the right side. 
 Nos. 1 and 2, passing around in front of the axle, assist the gun- 
 ner in removing the cover, which is folded and placed on the 
 limber chest. It should never be laid on the ground, as it would 
 be liable to pick up sand and dirt, injurious to the working of 
 the parts. 
 
 When the piece is unlimbered, the end of the pole, or if with 
 horses the heads of the lead horses, are six yards from the small 
 end of the trail handspike, the pole pointing in the direction of 
 the piece. 
 
 Post of cannoneers, piece unlimbered. 
 
 {Fig. 2, Plate 17.) 
 
 3S1. The gunner is on the left of the trail handspike, nearly 
 
172 1-IXCU QATLING SERVICE. 
 
 toiiohiiig it, heels on a line witli the end ; Nos. 1 and 2 are eight 
 oeii inches outside of the wlieels, No. 1 on the right and No. 
 2 on the left, in line with the reai- part of the wheels; Nos. 3 
 and 4 arc opposite the trail handles, in line with Nos. 1 and 2, 
 No. 3 on the right. No. 4 on the left ; No. 5 is five yards to the 
 right of No. 4, in line with Nos. 2 and 4 ; No. 6 direetly hehind 
 the limber chest, and No. 7 two feet behind the left liraber- 
 wheel. All face toward the piece. No. 8 attends to the snpply 
 of ammunition, and is with the caisson or at the magazine. 
 
 352. The commands of the instructor are: 1st. Load; 2d. 
 Commence firing ; 3d. Cease fibinu ; 4th. Seoueb piece. 
 These are repeated by the gunner. 
 
 The duties of the gunner are to direct the piece ; observe that 
 the shots are striking at the proper point ; see that the supply of 
 ammimition is kept up ; throw the oscillating apparatus in apd 
 ont of gear ; remove disabled locks ; see that No. 1 is relieved by 
 No. 3 when fatigued by rapid firing ; and have general super- 
 vision of the gun. 
 
 The duties of No. 1 are to turn the crank; see that the car- 
 tridges are feeding properly from the case ; and use the ejecting 
 rod when necessary. 
 
 ■ The duties of No. 2 are to supply the piece with ammunition 
 by inserting the feed-cases into the hopper, and to see that the 
 cartridges are feeding properly. 
 
 The duties of No. 3 are to assist the gunner in giving the di- 
 rection. 
 
 The duties of No. 6 are to give out ammunition from the lim- 
 ber chest to Nos. 5 and 7, who alternate in bringing it up to 
 No. 2. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 353. The instructor commands: Load. 
 
 The gunner, repeating the command, takes hold of the trail 
 handspike at the end with the right liand and at the centre with 
 his left ; looks over the top of the piece and gives the general 
 direction. He then steps to tlie breech and adjusts the rear 
 sight to the required distance ; sights through the notch of the 
 rear sight; seizes the handles of the elevating screw and gives 
 the proper elevation, and, assisted by No. 3 at the trail liand- 
 spike, gives the exact du'ection. The piece being pointed, he 
 stations himself where he can best observe the effect of the shots. 
 
 When the shots are not striking properly, the gunner phices 
 himself at the elevating screw as before, and, with the assistance 
 of No. 3 at the trail handspike, readjusts the pointing. 
 
 No. 1 places himself rapidly between the piece and the wheel, 
 
1-INCH GATLING — SERVICE. 173 
 
 in rear of the axle, facing to the front ; breaks to the rear with 
 the left foot ; frees the oranli from its catcli, and seizes the 
 crank handle with his right hand, taking care not to turn it until 
 the command commence firing is given. Nos. 1 and 3 exchange 
 duties and numbers when so ordered by the gunner. 
 
 No. 2 stations himself at the hopper in a position similar and 
 opposite to that of No. 1, but facing to the riglit ; I'eceives the 
 full feed-cases, one at a time, from No. 5, and Introduces them 
 into the hopper, the hole to the right and projectiles to the front. 
 He calls case as the last cartridge passes the hole ; receives a full 
 feed-case with his right hand from No. 5, and inserts it in the 
 liopper as the empty case is removed by No. 4, thus Iceeping a 
 continuous stream of cartridges fed to the gun. Nos. 2 and 4 
 'excliange duties and numbers wlien ordered by the gunnei', but 
 without interrupting the liring. 
 
 No. 3 goes to the end of the trail handspike ; seizes it with 
 both hands as soon as the gunner goes to the elevating screw, 
 and prepares to move it to the right or left at a signal from the 
 gunner. He remains at the end of the trail handspike, and as- 
 sists the gunner to point the piece. 
 
 No. 4 places liimself in front of the axle, between the left 
 wheel and piece, facing to the rear. When No. 2 calls ease^ he 
 removes tho empty case from the hopper, puts on Its cover wliich 
 he lias received from No. 5, and deposits tlie empty case in his 
 pouch until called for by No. 5. 
 
 No. 5 runs to the ammunition chest ; receives in liis pouch 
 four full cases from No. 6; takes them to the piece, and places 
 himself to tlie right and rear of No. 2, facing to the riglit. He 
 then removes the cover from a case and hands it to No. 4; the 
 case to No. 2. This he continues until liis pouch is empty, wlien 
 he makes a signal to No. 7 to take liis place ; gets tlie empty 
 feed-cases from No. 4; returns them to the limber; receives full 
 cases from No. 6, and resumes his post ; meanwhile, No. 7 as- 
 sumes the place and duties of No. 5 beside No. 2. When the 
 piece is limbered up, he returns all the cases to No. 6, wlio re- 
 places them in the ammunitloi> chest. 
 
 Nos. 6 and 8 attend to the supply of ammunition. The empty 
 feed-cases are filled at the limber or caisson, care being taken to 
 place the projectile to the left. To fill a feed-case, rest it on 
 the left fore-arm, inclining downwards towards the elbow, tlie 
 side containing the hole uppermost, the open end supported in 
 the palm of the left hand, the other end in the bend of the 
 elbow. The first cartridge is introduced (point to the left) and 
 gradually pushed to the bottom of the case by those succeecling 
 
174 1-INCH 6ATLING SERVICE. 
 
 it. When not otherwise engaged, the numbers from 5 to 8, in- 
 elusive, are employed filling cases. 
 
 As soon as No. 5 is supplied with full cases. No. 7 gets four 
 full cases in his pouch and, upon the signal from No. 5, as- 
 sumes the place and duties of tlie latter beside No. 2. As 
 soon as lie has passed all of his cases to No. 2, he signals No. 5 
 to take his place, gets the empty cases from No. 4, returns them 
 to the limber, and gets full cases in his pouch ready again to 
 relieve No. 5. 
 
 1. Commence firing. 
 
 384. This command is repeated by the gunner. No. 1 turns 
 the crank witli a moderate uniform motion, avoiding all sudden 
 movements op lateral wrenching, and allowing ample time fot* 
 the cartridges to drop from the feed-case into the carrier. He 
 watches the hopper to see that the cartridges are feeding prop- 
 ei'ly. 
 
 Should any of the shells not be thrown out after firing, or the 
 piece become jammed in any manner, he will at once notify 
 the gunner, who will see that the proper means are taken to 
 remove the obstruction. 
 
 If the giui jams, remove the feed-case at once, open the hop- 
 per, and reverse the crank until all the cartridges are taken out. 
 This will be found to save time, unless the cause of the jamming 
 is evident and in the immediate vicinity of the hopper. 
 
 When it is necessary to use the ejecting rod. No. 1 steps to 
 the front, uiikej's it, and, under the direction of the gunner, 
 i-emoves the obstruction by forcing it backwards. 
 
 1. Cease firing. 
 
 3S5. At this command from the instructor, repeated by the 
 gunner. No. 1 ceases to turn the crank ; No. 4 removes the case, 
 and No. 2 opens the hopper; the gunner directs No. 1 to slowly 
 reverse the crank, while No. 2 removes the cartridges, passing 
 them to No. 4, who restores them to the feed-case, which he 
 gives to No. 5 to return to tiio chest ; No. 1 secures the crank 
 by the latch, and all resume their posts. 
 
 A partially-flUed feed-case should not be put back into the 
 ammnnition chest without being filled up, as the cartridges may 
 become inverted and jam the gun. 
 
 If, for any purpose, it is desired to temporarily arrest the fir- 
 ing, the instructor, or the gunner, commands : Hai/t. No. 3 
 stops turning the crank, and all remain at their positions until 
 the instructor, or the gunner, commands : Commence firing, 
 or Cease firing. 
 
1-INCH GATLINS — SERVICE. 
 
 175 
 
 1. Secure piece. 
 
 386. The gunner steps to the rear of the piece as at the 
 command load, runs down the elevating screw, turns down 
 the front and lowers the rear sight, and, with tlie assistance of 
 Nos. 1 and 2, who step to the front for that pui-pose, places and 
 fastens the canvas cover upon the piece ; all then resume their 
 posts. 
 
 Service of piece with reduced numbers. 
 
 SS?. Wlien the number of cannoneers is reduced, the respect- 
 ive duties are performed as indicated by the following table : 
 
 NmiBEEs Eb- 
 
 TAINED. 
 
 DlSTHIBDTIOS OP Ddtiks. 
 
 Gunner. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 G- 1 
 
 G. 1 
 
 G. 1 
 
 G. 
 
 G. 
 
 G. 
 
 G. 
 
 23456 7 
 35 6 7 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 35 67 
 
 356 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 4 
 
 56 
 6 
 
 67 
 
 Q. 1 2 
 
 a. 1, 2, 3 
 
 G. 1,2,3,4 
 
 G. 1,2,3,4,5 
 
 G. 1,2,3,4,5,6.. 
 
 NOMENCLATtmE OF THE 1-INCH GUN. 
 In view. 
 
 Main sliaft, around whicli the 
 
 barrels are clustered. 
 Front plate, which supports 
 
 the front of the barrels. 
 Rear plate, which supports the 
 
 rear end of tlie barrels. 
 Barrels. 
 Gun frame. 
 Trunnions. 
 Gun face. 
 Front sight. 
 Rear sight. 
 Breech-casing. 
 Breech-easing screws. 
 C:iscable plate. 
 Hopper. 
 
 Within the hreech-casing. 
 
 Lock cylinder. Diaphragm. 
 
 Rear-guide nut. Diaphragm plug. 
 
 Coclting ring. G«ar-wheel. 
 
 Cocking-ring clamps. Pinion. 
 f ■ " screw. 
 
 Ejector. 
 
 Cartridge carrier. 
 
 Crank. 
 
 Elevating screw. 
 
 Elevating-screw box. 
 
 Elevating-screw bed. 
 
 Elevating-screw handle. 
 
 Wiping rod (brass). 
 
 Ejecting rod (iron). 
 
 Lock. 
 
 liock tube. 
 
 Lock hammer. 
 
 Lock spring. 
 
 Firing-pin. 
 
 Extractor. 
 
176 1-INCH GATLING — SEKVIOB. 
 
 To take the gun apart. 
 
 388. The piece is first dismounted and placed with its casing 
 resthis on blocks. Mounting and dismounting are best accom- 
 plished by means of a gin. In case of necessity, it may be 
 mounted and dismounted as a field-piece, care being taken to 
 place blocks of wood to receive the gun frame and to prevent 
 Injin-y to the front sight, or to the barrels. 
 
 ■^ The operations of taking apart are executed in the following 
 order : 
 
 1st. Block up the frame and barrels, 
 
 2d. Remove the hopper. 
 
 3d. Remove the cascable plate. 
 
 4th. Take out the steady-pin ; then turn the crank downwards 
 and remove the crank shaft in that position. 
 
 oth. Remove the rear sight, and take out the large gear-wheel. 
 
 6th. Take out the rear plug in the diaphragm, and then gen- 
 tly revolve the gun until a lock presents itself on a line with the 
 • hole in the diaphragm, through which one lock after another is 
 talcen out. 
 
 7th. Take out the breech-casing screws, and remove the cas- 
 ing by drawing it off to the rear. Care is taken in this operation 
 to have the lock cylinder and gun supported, so as to keep 
 the axis of the main shaft parallel to the top of the frame. This 
 is necessary to prevent the rear end of the gun from dropping 
 when the casing is removed. 
 
 8th. Remove the pin from the large nut on the main shaft in 
 rear of the locks, and take this nut oflf by turning it to the right; 
 then remove the lock cylinder and carrier from the main shaft. 
 
 The spiral cam need not be taken out of the casing in order 
 to take the gun apart. 
 
 To assemble the gun. 
 
 389. 1st. Put the main shaft in its place through the plates 
 which hold the barrels, and then put in their proper places the 
 carrier, lock cylinder, and large rear nut. The latter should be 
 screwed up tight and have the taper-pin put through the nut 
 and shaft. 
 
 •id. Place the gun within the frame, and let the front end of 
 the main shaft rest in the hole designed for it in the front of 
 the frame. When the gun is in this position, the cocking ring 
 should be shoved over the lock cylinder and left for the time 
 loosely around the carrier. 
 
 3d. Let the breech of the gun be slightly raised, when the 
 breech-casing can be shoved over the lock cylinder to its place ; 
 
0.45-INCH GATLING — SERVICE. 
 
 177 
 
 then screw the casing to the frame, puttmg,-in the meantime, 
 the cocking ring in its proper place. Kevolve the gun to the 
 right or left so that the places for the locks will come on a line 
 with the whole in the diaphragm, through which one lock at a 
 time can he inserted in its proper position ; afterwards the screw 
 plug should Tae inserted to close the hole. 
 
 4th. Put on the cog-wheels, replace the crank shaft, pinion, 
 and- steady-pin. Put on the rear sight, and screw on the cas- 
 cable plate and hopper, and the gun is ready to be mounted. 
 The piece is mounted on a 3-inch gun carriage widened between 
 the cheeks to receive it. The ammunition chests are arranged 
 for twelve trays. 
 
 Service of the 0.45-inch Gatling Gun, mounted on 
 A cavalry cart. 
 
 390. 
 
 (Mg. 3, Plate 17.) 
 Description op Piece. 
 
 Dimensions. 
 
 No. Lbs. Inch. 
 
 Extreme length of piece - - 
 
 Length of barrel - 
 
 Length of breech-casing _ .>..... 
 
 Length of feed-case 
 
 Cartridges In each case 
 
 Cartridges in each chest 
 
 Gun (weight) * 
 
 Total weight of gun, carriage & implements. 
 
 Number of barrels 
 
 Number of horses to draw (good roads) 
 
 " " " " " (bad roads)..- 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 1 
 
 144 
 925 
 
 35.S 
 18 
 8.5 
 20.25 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 391. Five men are necessary : one chief-of-detachment, one 
 gunner, and three cannoneers. 
 
 With a greater number of cannoneers a more rapid and con- 
 tinuous fire can be sustained, (the additional men refilling feed- 
 cases and bringing up ammunition,) but it is not advisable to 
 expose more men than are absolutely necessary. 
 
 The animal being unhitched, the muzzle is pointed in the 
 desired direction, by the gunner and Hos. 1 and 2, working — 
 ihe former a,t the shafts and the latter two at the wheels ; the 
 shafts and prop are then allowed to rest upon the ground. 
 12 
 
178 0.45-INCH GATLING SERVICE. 
 
 Posts of cannoneers, piece unhitched. 
 
 393. The gunner is in rear of tlie piece, covering it, and at 
 the end of the shaft; No. 1 is eighteen inches outside and 
 opposite the rear part of the right wheel ; No. 2, two feet out- 
 side and opposite the rear part of the left wheel ;_ No, 3, five 
 yards in rear of and covering No. 1, all fiicing the piece. 
 
 The cover is removed from the piece by the gunner, assisted 
 in front by No. 1, who folds and places it in the tool box, and 
 resumes his post. 
 
 The commands of the instructor are : 1. Load; 2. Commence 
 firing; 3. Cease firing ; 4. Secure piece; and are repeated by 
 the gunner. 
 
 The duties of the gunner and No. 1 are as prescribed for the 
 1-inch gun. 
 
 The duties of No, 2 are to supply the piece with ammunition, 
 by taking the feed-cases from the ammunition chest and insert- 
 ing them into the hopper, and to see that the cartridges are 
 feeding properly. 
 
 Sermce. 
 
 393. The instructor commands: Load. The gunner, repeat- 
 ing the command, steps to the rear of the piece, throws his right 
 leg over the shaft, reaches forward, turns up the front sight, 
 and adjusts the rear sight for the required distance. He then 
 gives the piece the proper elevation by means of the elevating 
 screw, correcting the direction with the traversing screw : should 
 any considerable change be required, he loosens both clamp 
 Eorews and shifts the bed-plate, being ve^y careful to refasten the 
 clamp screws. He then resumes his post. 
 
 No. 1, as the gunner resumes his post, springs in by a side 
 step tohis left, close to the shaft, frees the crank from its latch, 
 and seizes the handle with his right hand, being careful not to 
 turn it until the command commence firing is given. 
 
 No. 2, stepping to his right arid over the one nearest to him, 
 takes his place between the shafts in rear of the left ammunition 
 chest, opens it, takes a feed-case with his left hand, withdraws 
 it from the chest and seizes it at the middle with the right hand, 
 back of the hand up, turns it until the spring shall be down, the 
 slot to the right, and inserts it into the hopper; he then takes 
 another feed-case, seizing it as before and stands ready to re- 
 move the empty case with his left hand, and insert the niU one 
 into the hopper with his right. 
 
 1. Commence fikino. 
 
 394. The gunner steps to the side from which he can best 
 observe the effect of the shot. 
 
0.45-INCH GATLIKG — SERVICE. 179 
 
 No. 1 turns the crank with, a moderate uniform motion, tak- 
 ing care not to derange the position of the gun by sudden jerks 
 or lateral ■wrenching ; should any of the shells not be thrown 
 out after firing, or the piece become jammed in any manner, he 
 ■will at once notify the gunner, who will see that the proper 
 means are taken to remove the obstruction. 
 
 No. 2, as soon as the feed-case is empty, seizes it, and, after 
 replacing it by a full one, returns the empty case to the chest, 
 taking care that the spring enters first and is on the under side, 
 and then proceeds as before. 
 
 The ammunition in the left chest being "nearly exhausted, I^o. 
 2 notifies the gunner, who calls up No. 3, who takes his post in 
 rear of and opens the right chest, and stands ready to pass the 
 full cases to No. 2, in rear of No. 1. In taking the feed-case 
 from the chest, No. 3 seizes it first at the end, afterwards just 
 above the middle ■with the left hand, and hands it to No. 2, so 
 that when the latter seizes it, which he does with his right hand 
 at the middle, the spring shall be down and the slot to his 
 right ; No. 2 passes the empty ease ■with his left hand to No. 3, 
 who receives it with his right and places it in the chest. 
 
 1. Cease firing. 
 
 395. No. 1 ceases to turn the crank ; No. 2 removes the case 
 from the hopper ; the gunner steps to the rear of the piece, opens 
 the hopper, and directs No. 1 to slowly reverse the crank, when 
 he removes the cartridges which have not been fired, passing 
 them to No. 2, who restores them to the feed-case and replaces 
 it in the chest, or hands it to No. 3 if the right chest is being 
 used ; No. 1 secures the crank by the latch, and all resume their 
 posts. 
 
 1. Secueb piece. 
 
 396. The gunner steps to the rear of the piece as at the com- 
 mand load, runs down the elevating screw, turns down the front 
 and lowers the rear sight, and, with the assistance of No. 1, who 
 steps to the front for that purpose, places and fastens the canvas 
 cover upon the piece ; both then resume their posts. 
 
 Precautions to be observed. 
 
 39 'Y. (a) Never lay the cover upon the ground, as it is liable 
 to pick up sand and dirt, which may derange the working of the 
 parts. 
 
 (6) A partially-filled feed-case should not be put back into the 
 Smmunition chest without being filled up, as the cartridges may 
 become inverted and jam the gun. 
 
180 
 
 0.45-INCH GATLING SERVICE. 
 
 (c) If the gun jams, remove the feed-case at once, open the 
 hopper, and reverse the crank until all the cartridges are taker 
 out. This will be found to save time, unless the cause of the jam- 
 ming is evident and in the immediate vicinity of the hopper. 
 
 {a) See that all the parts are kept well oiled to prevent Mc 
 tion and scouring. 
 
 Nomenclature of the 0.45-inch Gun. 
 
 39S. 
 
 Components. 
 
 'Adjustable-screw nut 
 Barrels (10). 
 Breech-casing. 
 Breech-casing screws (6). 
 Bushings (10). 
 Cartridge carrier. 
 Cartridge-shell ejector. 
 Cartridge-shell ejector screws 
 
 (3). 
 Cartridge- shell extractor 
 
 block. 
 Cartridge -shell extractor 
 
 block screws (2). 
 Cascable plate. 
 Cocking device. 
 Crank. 
 Crank latch. 
 Crank shaft. 
 Diaphragm. 
 Dowell-pins. 
 Extractor-hooks (10). 
 Firing-pins (10). 
 Front cap. 
 Main shaft. 
 Oscillating thread nut and 
 
 washer. 
 Rear-guide nut. 
 Bear plate for barrels 
 Bear sight. 
 
 Eear-sight screws. 
 Front plate for barrels. 
 Front sight. 
 Front-sight screws, 
 Gas collar. 
 Gun frame. 
 Hopper. 
 Hopper hinge. 
 Hopper-hinge pin. 
 Hopper-hinge screws (2). 
 Hopper latch. 
 Hopper-latch screws. 
 Lock cylinder. 
 Lock-cylinder screws (2). 
 Lock extractor. 
 Lock-extractor screws. 
 Lock-extractor sleeve. 
 Lock -extractor sleeve screws 
 
 (2). 
 Lock main-springs (10). 
 Lock mits (10). 
 Lock tubes (10). 
 Spiral cam. 
 Spiral-cam screws (2). 
 Trunnions (2). 
 Washer for front end of main 
 
 shaft. 
 Worm. 
 Worm gear. 
 
 Appendages, 
 
 Adjusting screw-wrench. Pin-wrench. 
 Brass wiping-rod. . 
 Clamp for worm-gear. 
 Feed-cases, straight (48). 
 Lock screw-driver. 
 
 pear-guide nut wrench. 
 Shell driver. 
 Small screw-driver. 
 T screw-driver. 
 
0.45-INCH QATLING SERVICE. 181 
 
 The carriage. 
 
 Shafts. Ammunition chests (2). 
 
 Eye-bolts and straps (6)- Chest handles (2). 
 
 Splinter-bar. • Lid. 
 
 Step. Lid latch (2). 
 
 Hounds. Corner plates. 
 
 Assembling bolts. Angle irons. 
 
 Prop. Tool box. 
 
 Foot-board. Tool-box latch. 
 
 Floor. Tool-box straps and hinges. 
 
 Bed. Guard plate. 
 
 Bed-plate. Linch-pins (2). 
 
 Clamp screws (2). Washers (2). 
 
 To take the gun apart. 
 
 399. 1st. Bemove the locks. 
 
 2d. Remove the screws and take off the cascable plate. 
 
 3d. Eemove the screw from the end of the crank shaft and 
 take oflf the oscillating screw, drive out the steady-pin, and take 
 out crank shaft, worm, and sleeve. 
 
 4th. Eemove screw from rear end of main shaft and take oflf 
 worm gear, using clamp for that purpose. 
 
 5th. Take oflf brass traversing apparatus, and block up gun 
 under front of rear plates. 
 
 6th. Take out screws and remove hopper and breech-casing. 
 
 7th. Unscrew screw from lock cylinder, back out steady-pin 
 which holds the rear guide nut, and remove the nut. (The nut 
 works on a left-hand thread.) 
 
 8th. Take oflf lock cylinder and carrier block. 
 
 To remove the barrels singly, stand the cluster muzzles up, 
 and let the rear end of the main shaft strike gently on a block ; 
 the shaft and front plate will be forced oflf, after which the bar- 
 rels may be unscrewed with a socket-wrench. 
 
 To take the breech-casing apart, remove the screws which 
 hold the double cam to the diaphragm and slide it out to the 
 front. 
 
 To assemble the gun. 
 
 400. 1st. Put the breech-casing together ; screw the barrels 
 into the rear plate ; replace the front plate and shaft ; insert the 
 front end of the shaft into the socket in the front of the frame, 
 and rest the front and rear plates upon blocks. 
 
 2d. Eeplace the carrier blocks and lock cylinder. 
 3d. Put on the rear guide nut and put in steady-pin and 
 screw. 
 
182 HOTCIIKISS IlEVOLVING GUN. 
 
 4th. Put on breech-casing and hopper and replace the screws. 
 
 5th. Put on the brass traversing apparatus. 
 
 6th. Replace worm gear. 
 
 7th. Eeplace worm and sleeve and insert crank shaft, fasten- 
 ing the worm in its place with the steady-pin. 
 
 8th. Replace oscillating nut and set screw. 
 
 9th. Replace cascable plate and screws. 
 
 10th. Replace locks. 
 
 In taking the gun apart, it will be found much more conven- 
 ient and expeditious to first remove the cascable plate, and then 
 the locks by hand, and in assembling it they can be inserted in 
 the same manner before replacing the cascable plate. 
 
 When the lock extractor is used, the breech plug is turned 
 horizontally ; the crank handle is turned until the mark upon 
 the rear barrel plate and the arrow on the hopper coincide, when 
 the lock is withdrawn. 
 
 HoTCHKiss Revolving Gun. 
 
 The Hotchkiss revolving gun is a machine gun resembling 
 in exterior aspect the Gatling gun. It fires explosive shells, 
 and has a ixinge equal to modem field artillery. 
 
 The gun consists of five barrels, grouped around a common 
 a'xis, which are revolved in front of a solid immovable breech 
 block. This has in one part an opening to introduce the car- 
 tridges, and another opening through which to extract the empty 
 shells. The cartridges are discharged singly as they present 
 themselves by the rotary motion to the blow of the firing-pin, 
 and while motionless in front of the solid portion of the breech. 
 
 The barrels are of steel ; the breech block is of cast-iron, weigh- 
 ing about 385 pounds. This absorbs the greater part of the re- 
 coil. 
 
 The turning of a crank causes the automatic loading, firing, 
 and extraction of the empty cartridge-cases, all these operations 
 being performed continuously during the movement of the 
 crank, the peculiar feature being that the barrels remain sta- 
 tionary during the discharge, thus insuring accuracy of fire. 
 
 The cartridges are fed through a trough similar to the case of 
 the Gatling. The piece can be accurately aimed and fired at the 
 rate of twenty shots per minute ; when great rapidity is required, 
 this may be increased to sixty or eighty. 
 
 The piece is served by the same number of men and in a 
 similar manner to the 1-inch Gatling. 
 
 The ammunition consists of a centre-fire metallic cartridge of 
 
TARGET PEACTICE. 183 
 
 Bpecial construction, holding in each one the powder, the i)ro- 
 jectile, and the lubricating wad, arranged like the ammunition 
 generally used for small-arms. Both solid shot and shell are 
 used. Solid shot ma,de of steel are capable of penetrating iron 
 plating of one inch thickness at a range of 1000 yards. The 
 shell is of cast-iron, and is generally fired with a percussion fuse. 
 
 Calibre 1.457 inches. 
 
 Length of bore 4.2 feet. 
 
 Eifling, one turn in 4 feet. 
 
 (Twist and depths of groove uniform.) 
 
 Number of grooves 12 
 
 Length of shell with fuse 3.66 inches. 
 
 Weight of shell with fuse 16.05 ounces. 
 
 Charge of powder 4.3 ounces. 
 
 Weight of complete cartridge 25.04 ounces. 
 
 Length of complete cartridge 6.58 inches. 
 
 Weight of piece 1047 pounds. 
 
 Weight of carriage complete 1092 pounds. 
 
 Weight of limber 661 pounds. 
 
 Weight of 460 rounds of ammunition 720 pounds. 
 
 Total weight..., 3561 pounds. 
 
 The carriage, made principally of steel,_ is of peculiar construc- 
 tion, and is well adapted both for traveling and as a stable sup- 
 port for the piece when firing. 
 
 Attached to the frame supporting the breech block and bar- 
 rels is a turn-table, which connects the cannon to a trunnion- 
 saddle, arranged in such manner that, without displacing the 
 carriage, a certain amount of lateral motion as well as of eleva- 
 tion may be given to the piece. Thus the gun is made to sweep 
 horizontally along a line by adjustment between each shot, or 
 during rapid discharge. 
 
 In addition to the great value of this gun for light field ser- 
 vice, it is peculiarly well adapted to field intrenchments and 
 permanent fortifications, and is intended, when fully introduced 
 into service, to replace howitzers for flank defenses. 
 
 TARGET PRACTICE. 
 
 4:01. Owing to the great expense attending target practice 
 with artillery, and consequently the very limited quantity of am- 
 munition allowed for it, every possible means should be taken to 
 secure the greatest amount of instruction that can be had from 
 such practice. 
 
184 TARGET PEACTICE. 
 
 The purpose should be to test, from actual observation, the 
 effective power of the piece, and to acquire skill in utilizing this 
 power. The object for wliicli a piece is placed in a work should 
 be studied, and practice with it made to conform, as far as pos- 
 sible, to this object. 
 
 Siege guns. 
 
 403. Siege artillery is generally used against fixed objects on 
 land; the target should therefore be placed on land. 
 
 The range for the 4.5" gun should be about 2000 yards, and 
 for this distance a target 12 feet square would be suitable. It is 
 made of canvas, or of light boards nailed to uprights planted in 
 the ground, and is whitewashed. A circular bull's-eye 4 feet in 
 diameter is painted in black in the centre of the target. About 
 100 feet diagonally in front of the target, a pit of suitable size 
 for the marker is dug, the earth being thrown upon the side to- 
 wards the piece. It adds greatly to the security of the marker 
 to have splinter-proof covering for the pit. The marker is pro- 
 vided with a disk, about a foot in diameter, made of sheet-iron 
 or thin board, one side of which is painted black, the other white, 
 and provided with a staff suflBciently long to enable him to point 
 the disk to any part of the target. The marker should be accom- 
 panied by a flagman skilled in signaling, and provided with a 
 white or red flag, such as are supplied by the Signal Bureau. 
 At the piece is another flagman similarly provided. Where it is 
 possible, a hill, situated two or three hundred yards beyond the 
 target, is advantageous for arresting the projectiles. Cleared 
 space beyond the target is preferable to woods. 
 
 Firm ground is selected for tlie gun platform, which is laid 
 with care and precision. The distance to the target is ascer- 
 tained either by direct measurement, witli the telemeter, or by 
 triangulation. Previous to going out to fire, the instructor 
 should prepare a memorandum table of elevations for each kind 
 of projectile to be used, and the time to which fuses are to be cut 
 for shells. The time of flight is determined by means of a stop- 
 watch, and the distance at which shells burst by the Boulong6 
 telemeter. Care and deliberation is exercised in loading and 
 pointing. When the piece is ready to be fired, a signal is made 
 by the flagman at tlie piece to the marker and flagman at the 
 target, who then screen themselves in tlie pit. As soon as the 
 projectile strikes, the flagman at the pit raises his flag and the 
 marker proceeds, in case it has struck the target, to cover the 
 hole with his disk ; when a shell has been fired, the flagman sig- 
 nals whether it has bui-st short of or beyond the target. An 
 observer at the piece, with a glass, or even witli the naked eye. 
 
TARGET PRACTICE. 185- 
 
 can see upon which side of the target the projectile passes, and 
 can form an approximate estimate of the distance to the right or 
 left. 
 
 From the data thus obtained, errors of pointing and of cutting 
 the fuse may be corrected for succeeding sliots. A complete rec- 
 ord of each fire is kept and entered on a blank form furnished 
 by the Ordnance Department. Tliis record, besides giving a de- 
 scription of the piece, contains the kind and weight of the pro- 
 jectile, the kind of powder and the weiglit of charge, tlie eleva- 
 tion and the time of flight, the kind and length of fuse, and the 
 positiofi of the piece, whether above or below tlie level of the 
 target. In the column of remarks is entered whether the pro- 
 jectile struck the target, and if so, where; or if it missed, to 
 which side, and how far; whether it fell short or went beyond ; 
 whether the shell exploded short, beyond, or did not explode. 
 The direction of tlie wind, with reference to the line of fire, and 
 its strength are noted. 
 
 Those engaged in the firing, particularly the oflScers, should 
 examine and study the ground about the target, observing the 
 effect produced by the striking of the shot ; whether they pene- 
 trated or ricocheted ; the deptli of penetration, the character of 
 the craters formed by bursting shells, and of the furrows made 
 by glancing projectiles. This information is useful wlien con- 
 structing works of shelter against an enemy, and in the attack 
 upon and demolition of his works. 
 
 When the allowance of ammunition that may be expended 
 admits of it, firing at a horizontal target should be practiced. 
 The object of this kind of firing is to group the shots as closely 
 as possible on the ground about the target. The rectangular 
 space inclosed by the shots is called the polygon of fire. In 
 actual service, the purpose of such fire is to reach an enemy shel- 
 tered behind works or some intervening object, as hills or woods. 
 This is accomplished by the drop of projectiles fired at long 
 range, or at short range by reducing the charge and giving high 
 elevation. Skill in this, the most difficult kind of firing, can be 
 acquired only by practlee. 
 
 At the close of the firing the piece and carriage should be 
 thoroughly inspected, and every crack or breakage noted on the 
 firing report. For the method of inspection, see subject of In- 
 spection. This repdrt of target practice is general for all artil- 
 lery.. 
 
 To obtain the centre of impact, the target, if an upright one, 
 is divided into four parts by a horizontal and a vertical line pass- 
 ing through the centre of tlie bull's-eye ; if the target is horizon- 
 tal, as for mortar firing, one line is drawn as the trace of the 
 
186 
 
 TARGET PRACTICE. 
 
 ylaue of fire, and the other through the centre of the target at 
 right angles to it. 
 
 The distance in feet of each shot is measured from these lines 
 as co-ordinates, and i-ecorded in a table ; as, above or below the 
 horizontal line, and to the right or left of the vertical line. 
 
 The table is of the following form : 
 
 1 
 
 "S 
 
 i 
 
 DiSTANOB TEOM CO-OBDINATES. 
 
 Distance pkom cestkb op 
 
 IMPACT. 
 
 Vertical. 
 
 Horizontal. 
 
 Vertical. 
 
 Horizontal. 
 
 Above. 
 
 Below. 
 
 Right. 
 
 Left. 
 
 Above. 
 
 Below. 
 
 Eight. 
 
 Left. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 ■ 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 4 
 C 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 4 
 3 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 l.G 
 3.6 
 2.6 
 
 5.4 
 2.4 
 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 7.8 
 
 7.8 
 
 - 
 
 5-7-5=1 
 
 2-^5=0.4 
 
 18-5-5=3.6 
 
 15.6-i-5=3.12 
 
 The algebraic sum of the distances in each direction, divided 
 by the number of shots, gives the position of the centre of im- 
 pact in this direction. In the above example,the position of the 
 centre of impact is 1 foot below and 0.4 of a foot to the right of 
 the centre of the target. 
 
 To obtain the mean deviation, it is necessary to refer each shot- 
 hole to the centre of impact as a new origin of co-ordinates ; and 
 this is done by subtracting the tabular distance from the distance 
 of the centre of impact, if both be on the same side of the centre 
 of the target, and adding them, if on different sides. The sum 
 of all the distances thus obtained in one direction, divided by the 
 number of shots, gives the mean deviation in that direction ; 
 which in the present case is 3.6 feet vertically, and 3.15 feet hori- 
 zontally. 
 
 The foregoing affords a measure for the accuracy of fire of the 
 
TARGET PRACTICE. 187 
 
 piece and projectile, but it does not afford so good a test of niarlis- 
 mansliip as the string, or sum of the distances of the sliots from 
 the point aimed at. 
 
 When practicable, cpanlraents are constructed for siege guns, 
 howitzers, and mortars. 
 
 Siege howitzer. 
 
 403. Target practice with the 8-inch siege howitzer is con- 
 ducted iu the same manner as for siege guns, but tlie distance 
 should not exceed 1200 yards, and the target need not be over 
 10 feet square. 
 
 Direct, ricochet, and rolling tire should each be practiced with 
 this piece. To observe the flight of canister, it is best to fire it 
 over smooth water, with an elevation not exceeding two degrees. 
 
 10-inch siege mortar. 
 
 404. The target for the 10-inch siege mortar should be about 
 1500 yards from tlie piece. 'J'he best form for the target is that 
 of a square, inclosing the general trace of a flekl-work. The 
 sides of tlie square should be about 100 yards, and the trace 
 marked by stakes driven at distances of about 10 feet apart. 
 
 A large empty cask or box, placed upon a post in the centre 
 of the figure, and whitewashed, serves as a point to aim at. 
 
 At a distance of not less than 150 yards to the right or left of 
 the target, is constructed a strong bomb-proof for the marker 
 and flagman. 
 
 The marker is provided witli a number of small stakes, which, 
 to make them more conspicuous, Iiave attached to tliem a piece 
 of white or red stuff. When a sliell strikes the ground, the 
 marker notes tlie place with a stake, marking it with a number 
 corresponding to the number of the shot. The rules governing 
 the flagman at the bomb-proof and at the piece are tlie same as 
 those already given for the siege gun. 
 
 A convenient method of notifying those at the mortar as to the 
 points at which tlie shells strilre, is to describe around the centre 
 of the target a circle witli a radius of about twenty-flve yards. 
 Divide this circle into twelve equal parts, which mark conspicu- 
 ously with stakes, being careful to place one of the divisions on 
 the prolongation of the line passing through the mortar and the 
 centre of the target. Call this point XII, and number the others 
 around to the right similar to the dial of a clock. 
 
 Suppose the shell falls at the point C, (Fig. 1, Plate 15,) on 
 the line passing through the centre B and I, and at a distance of 
 say twenty yards from the centre. The marker steps, or otlier- 
 «ise measures this distance, and signals to tiie piece " One"— 
 
188 TARGET PKACTICE. 
 
 " 20." Those at the piece, referring to a similar diagram made 
 upon diagram paper, ascertain at a glance the approximate 
 point at which the shell struck the ground. 
 
 Firm ground is selected for tlje platform, and the distance to 
 the target is determined as for siege guns, as is likewise the time 
 of flight of shells and the distance at which they explode. 
 
 In order to economize shells, charges sufficient only to blow 
 out the fuse are used, and tlie shells are afterwards collected. 
 
 After the firing is completed, the distance from each point 
 where a shell fell to the centre of the target is measured, and, if 
 desirable, a diagram made of the target, showing the position of 
 each shot. 
 
 Previous to going out to fire, the instructor should prepare a 
 memorandum range table, so that the first shots may be approx- 
 imately accurate. Subsequent shots should be rectified with 
 care ; the tendency is always to overdo the correction ; as, for 
 instance, when the sliell falls short, the addition given to the 
 charge will most lilcely send it far beyond; or, should it fall to 
 one side, the correction given to the direction will probably be 
 so great as to cause it to fall a still greater distance to the other 
 side. Under the most favorable circumstances, mortar firing, as 
 compared with firing from other kinds of cannon, possesses, in- 
 herently, a considerable degree of inaccuracy, and in making 
 corrections care should be observed to discriminate between this 
 and faulty gunnery. 
 
 When practicable, the charges of powder should be weighed ; 
 if measured, uniformity should be observed as to the manner of 
 doing it, so that all shall be shaken down in the measure, or all 
 measured loosely. 
 
 The platform should be tested frequently, to see that it does 
 not settle unevenly. The shells should be weighed and market) 
 with chalk, and in firing them care sliould be observed to com- 
 mence with the lightest and go up to the heaviest, or vice versa. 
 Tills enables the corresponding variation of the charge to be made 
 with a greater degree of certainty. In all cases of target prac- 
 tice a complete record is kept for each shot, and a report, as 
 heretofore explained for siege guns, is made. 
 
 8-inch mortar. 
 
 405. Target practice with the 8-inoh mortar is conducted as 
 just explained for the 10-inch. 
 
 Coehom mortar. 
 
 406. Target practice with this piece is similar to the fore- 
 going; but tlic distance to the target should not exceed lOOO 
 
•TARGET PRACTICE. 189 
 
 yards, and the target may be smaller. As this piece can be 
 moved from place to place with ease, and requires nothing more 
 than level and firm ground for a platform, the distance to the 
 target should be varied, thus affording practice such as fre- 
 quently occurs in war service. 
 
 Sea-coast mortars. 
 
 (13-inch.) 
 
 407. These mortars are chiefly used agahist shipping, in tlie 
 defense of harbors; a floating target should therefore be used. 
 Any floating object, as an empty cask or a spar, anchored to 
 mark the spot, snflSces. 
 
 The distance to the target should be about 3000 j'ards. The 
 practice is conducted in the same manner as for the 10-incli siege 
 mortar, except that for the purpose of determining tiie poiftts of 
 fall, or of explosion of the shells, plane-tables are employed in 
 the manner hereafter explained. As the shells arc not recov- 
 ered after being fired, bursting charges may be used. 
 
 (lO-inch.) 
 
 40§. Target practice with this piece is identical with that for 
 the 13-inch mortar. 
 
 Sea-coast guns. 
 
 409. As this class of guns are chiefly used against ships, and 
 are flred over water, the target should be floating. 
 
 For the 15-inch smooth-bore and tlie 8-incli and Parrott rifles, 
 it should be moored at a distance of about 3000 yards ; for the 
 10-inch smooth-bore, the distance should be about 2000 yards. 
 
 Plane-tables {Fig. 2, Plate 15) are employed for the purpose 
 of recording the striking points of shots, or the bursting distance 
 of shells. Tlie tables are stationed, one at each extremity of a 
 lino, the length of whicli is accurately determined either by act- 
 ual measurement or by triangulation from a base-line, the niuas- 
 urement of wliich has been made with care and precision. 
 
 At every post mounting heavy artillery a base-line should be 
 so determined and permanentlj"^ marked, to be used for the vari- 
 ous requirements of artillery firing. About lOOO yards is a suit- 
 able length for it. 
 
 The plane-tables are placed so as to have a clear view of tlie 
 target, of each other, and of the guns. They should, furtlier- 
 more, be so placed that the lines joining them with tlie target 
 will intersect at as near a right angle as possible. This enables 
 the position of the shot to be deterniined and plotted with greater 
 
190 TARGET PRACTICE. 
 
 accuracy than would be the case did the linos intersect with a 
 very acute angle. 
 
 Floating Target. {Fig. 3, Plate 13.) The best and most 
 readily constructed target is composed of three stout boards 
 twelve fuel long and a foot broad, forming a triangle. A fourth 
 board extends from one of the angles to the middle of the oppo- 
 site sido. The whole is fastened togetlier with spikes, or, better, 
 witli screw bolts. • 
 
 At the centre of the triangle, a hole is cut in the last-mentioned 
 board; tliis hole is about four inches in diameter; through it 
 passes a polo projecting about twelve feet above and tliree feet 
 below. 
 
 A 10-inch sliot, or equivalent weight, is secured to the lower 
 end of the pole, and rope gu3's are led from the top to the angles 
 of tlie platform to keep the pole upright. To these ropes are 
 fastened triangular pieces of canvas. A bull's-eye fonr feet in 
 diameter is painted on tlio middle of this screen, upon eacii side. 
 On each side of tlie pole, underneatli the platform, an empty 
 water-tight barrel is lashed to the athwart-board, and a small 
 red flag is placed on the top of tlie pole. 
 
 This target is suitable for even the roughest water. To hold 
 it, under sucli circumstances, requires an anchor weighing not 
 less tlian 200 pounds. This is attached to the target by a chain 
 or licavy rope, secui-ed to one angle of the base by an eye on the 
 inider end of the bolt holding the planks together. 
 
 When a single anchor is used, the chain or rope is liable to 
 wind itself around and trip the anchor, causing it to drag. To 
 obviate tills, it is advisable to moor the target with two anchors, 
 placed in the direction of the current. The distance of the 
 ancliors apart must depend upon the depth of the water, and 
 should be sucli as to form, with the mooring-chaius, about an 
 equilateral triangle. 
 
 Figure 4, Plate 15, shows the construction of a target fre- 
 quently used in smooth water. 
 
 An empty water-tight cask, painted some dark color, forms a 
 good target or point at which to aim. The cask is secured in 
 position by means of a small anchor or kedge attached to it by' 
 a stout rope fastened to secure lashings on the cask. Instead of 
 an anclior, any heavy body, such as a stone or bars of iron, may 
 be used. If the current is swift, the weight should not be less 
 than tlie flotation of the cask. Tliis latter is obtained by multi- 
 plying the number of gallons contained in the cask by ten— the 
 approximate weight of a gallon of water. 
 
 A spar, similar to the spar buoys to be seen about harbors, 
 forms a good target and one of easy construction. When a spat 
 
TARGET PRACTICE. 191 
 
 or cask is used, a small flag of some bright-colored stuflF, attached 
 to the target, makes It more conspicuous and easy to aim at. 
 
 The target is moored in position at the commencement of tlie 
 season's firing, and is left out until the firing is completed. Its 
 distance from the two stations and from the gun is determined 
 by ordinary trigonometrical methods, or by plotting from plane- 
 table observations. 
 
 The plane-tables are the ordinary instruments described in 
 works on surveying. 
 
 After tlie table is set up at its station and adjusted, the officer 
 in charge marks upon it the line to tlie target, to the gim, and 
 to the other station. Tliese lines form the basis for the subse- 
 quent plotting of the shots. 
 
 The officer at each station is accompanied by a flagman to 
 signal to the piece whether the shots are sJiort, or over. By this 
 means tlie error, for subsequent shots, is approximately corrected. 
 
 The officer in cliarge of the firing attends to the loading and 
 aiming, sees that the charges and projectiles are weighed, and 
 that tlie pressure plug (when used) is properly attached to the 
 carti'idge ; also that the fuses for tlie shells are of tlie proper 
 length. Wlien everything is in readiness, he directs his signal 
 flag to be raised to inform the observers at the stations that he 
 is about to flre. The piece is then discharged. The other of- 
 ficers at the battery attend to the stop-watch and telemeter. 
 
 When the gun is fired, the officer at each station, sighling 
 tlirough the alidade, catclies the point on the water where the 
 shot strikes, or, in case of a shell, tlie point in the air where it 
 explodes. He then draws a fine line to mark the direction, and 
 gives it a number corresponding with the number of the sliot. 
 
 The observations thus obtained are plotted. A suitable scale 
 is assumed, (one of one inch to 100 yards is convenient,) and the 
 line joining the two stations is laid off" on the plotting slieet ac- 
 cording to the scale. From this all the other lines are laid oft", 
 usually by the method of chords. The intersection of the lines 
 to the target establishes its position, and those to the gun its 
 position also. Tlie distance from the gun to the target is ascer- 
 tained from the scale. The lines of observation to eacli sliot 
 having been carefully numbered by the observers at the plane- 
 tables, the intersection of corresponding numbers on the plot 
 give the striking points of the shots, or bursting points of the 
 shells. 
 
 When plane-tables are not to be had, any instruments gradu- 
 ated foi- measuring angles and provided with sights tlirough 
 Which the shots can be observed, may be used, and tlie work 
 accomplished as just described. An observer at the piece takes 
 
192 TELEMETERS. 
 
 the time of flight with a stop-watch, and another observer ob- 
 tains the bursting distance of shells with the Boulongi telemeter. 
 
 The direction of the wind is determined by a vane at the piece. 
 The most convenient and reliable method of noting it is by refer- 
 ring it to the dial of a watch held in snch a position that the line 
 passing throngh VI and Xn will be parallel to the line of Are 
 with the xn towards the target. The direction is that li-ora 
 which the wind comes. When coming directly from the front, 
 It Ls noted as '■'■twelve o^clock^'; when from the rear, as "six 
 ■o^clock" ; when from the right, as "three o'clock" ; when from 
 the left, as "nine o''clock" ; and when from Intermediate points, 
 in a similar manner. 
 
 The velocity of the wind is determined by an anemometer ; 
 but as this instrument is seldom to be found at military posts, 
 the best that can be done is to estimate the velocity, and record 
 it as explained in par. 204. 
 
 When it is practicable to establish telegraphic communication, 
 iill of the foregoing operations, so far as signaling is concerned, 
 jire greatly facilitated. 
 
 Gatling gvn, 
 
 410. The target for this gun is made of light canvas or ordi- 
 nary muslin, and is in four or more sections, each section being 
 8 feet long by 6 feet high. The canvas is nailed to a strong 
 light frame, the uprights of which extencl about 12 inches below 
 the canvas, in order that they may be set in the ground. 
 
 Practice should commence at 200 yards and the distance be 
 increased up to 1000 yards, or more. At the first distance a single 
 section of the target is sufScient, and, as the distance increases, 
 -other sections will- be added. Smooth, level, and firm ground 
 should be selected for the gun to stand upon. 
 
 Telemeters. 
 
 411. The Boulongi telemeter is an instrument devised for as- 
 •certaining the distance to a point by means of sound proceeding 
 from the point to the place of observation. The one nsed for 
 artillery purposes consists of a glass tube about six inches in 
 length, filled with a transparent liquid that does not freeze ex- 
 cept with intense cold. {Fig. 1, Plate 16.) 
 
 In the liquid is a metallic disk, which moves freely from one 
 -end of the tube to the other. It is so adjusted that the motion 
 will be uniform and comparatively slow. The tube is inclosed 
 in a brass case, to which is attached a scale, after the fashion of 
 
TELEMETERS. 193 
 
 a iliormometer. This scale is marked for each liundred yards 
 11]) ro 4000. 
 
 'J'lio divisions on tlie scale show the distance, in yards, tliroush 
 ulhcli sound will travel in air, during the time required for tlie 
 <lisk to descend over the space on the scale marked by the corre- 
 sponding number of yards. If, for instance, the disl< passes 
 fioiM zero to the 500 mark, it indicates that sound would have 
 traveled 500 yards through the air during that time. 
 
 Tlie instrument must be held vertically, or as nearly so as ijos- 
 sible. To arrest the motion of the disk at any point, the instru- 
 ment is quickly turned to a horizontal position. 
 
 To use it for determining tlie time of flight of shells, it is held 
 ui ilio right hand, back of the hand up, with the zero of the in- 
 slnunent to the left; a turn of the wrist to the right brings the 
 iustrnment vertical, with the zero end uppermost ; the disk then 
 descends, and a turn of the ■wi'ist to the left arrests its motion. 
 Tlie observer, holding the instrument as described, watclies for 
 the flash of the sliell, and upon seeing it, instantly brings tlie 
 Instrument to a vertical position ; upon hearing the report from 
 the shell, lie instantly turns it back again. The position of the 
 disk indicates the number of yards from the observer to where 
 tlie shell exploded. 
 
 To ascertain the distance to an enemy's battery, the instru- 
 ment is held and turned in the same manner. The observer 
 watches for the flasli of a gun ; observing which, he turns the 
 instrument, and, when lie hears the report, turns it back and 
 reads off the distance. Each hundred yards on the scale is sub- 
 divided into quarters. 
 
 413. The telemeter invented by Captain A. Gautiei', of the 
 French army, is an instrument for measuring, with a great degree 
 of approximation, any difference, not exceeding three degrees, 
 which maybe exliibitcd in the bearing of a distant object by 
 viewing it from different points of a base-line transverse to its 
 general direction from the observer. 
 
 The instrument, in its simplicity, accuracy, and portability, 
 rceoumends itself in all cases where a knowledge of distances is 
 desired at any moment and with the least possible delay ; such, 
 for instance, as range-finding, river-crossing, reconnoitering, and 
 tlio like. A slight acquaintance with its use on sucli occasions 
 enables the observer to estimate, with more than ordinary 
 promptitude and precision, the distance which it might be all 
 important to obtain. 
 
 The principles of this instrument are explained mathematically 
 In Ordnance Memoranda No. 12. 
 
 Tlie instrument (Fig. 2, Plate 16) resembles in shape and size 
 13 
 
194 TELEMETERS. 
 
 one barrel of an ordinary reconnoitering or fleld-glass. The ease 
 ill wiiicli it is carried is fashioned so as to answer as a handle for 
 holding the instrument when making observations. (Fig. 3, 
 Plate IG.) 
 
 Within the barrel of the instrnment are placed two mirrors at 
 an angle of about 45 degrees with each other; this angle can 
 be varied within certain limits by means of a milled-headed 
 screw acting on one of them. Tlie mirrors are thus made to 
 operate upon the principle of the sextant. A slqt on one side of 
 the barrel permits tiie rays of light from an object to fall upon 
 one of the mirrors, from wlience they are reflected upon the otiiei 
 mirror, and the image is seen through the eye-glass at the small 
 end of the instrument. 
 
 At the front or large end is fixed, in a ring surrounding the 
 barrel, a prism, whose displacement modifies the direction of an 
 object seen tiirongh it. 
 
 At the rear of the instrument is a small eye-glass, by means of 
 which the observer sees, over the mirrors and through the prism, 
 tlie object which is before him, and by double reflection in the 
 mirrors the object to the side of him. 
 
 Tlie serai-revolution of the movable ring containing the prism 
 corresponds to a displacement of the object toward the left of 
 about three degrees. The ring is provided with a graduated scale 
 containing numbers, the use of which will be explained. 
 
 Method of using the instrument. 
 
 Suppose C (Fig. 4, Plate 16) to be the object and A the point 
 from which the distance A C is to be determined. 
 
 Select some distant object, as M, for a signal, the direction A 
 M to it making with the line A C an angle a little greater than 
 90 degrees. From the point A measure a base, A B, in prolon- 
 gation of the line to the signal. 
 
 After having adjusted tlie telemeter upon the case, which 
 serves as a vci-tical handle, turn the ring until the word "infin- 
 ity" is brouglit opposite the fixed index or arrow. This brings 
 the prism to its initial position. 
 
 A small opening In the under part of the instrument, exhibit- 
 ing the mirror index, enables the observer to assure himself that 
 the movable mirror is at its mean position, which is indicated by 
 a fixed mark. 
 
 The telemeter is then ready for operation, and the observer 
 places himself at A, so that the object C will be on his rio'ht. 
 (The right is here chosen merely for purpose of illustratTon! 
 The observation can be as easilv made with the object on the 
 left.) 
 
TELEMETERS. 195 
 
 The instrument is held in the left hand, the flnfjers of which 
 clasp the barrel firmly to the handle (the case). The observer, 
 faoins the signal M and sighting tlirough the eye-glass upon tlio 
 signal, turns, with the right hand, the milled screw until tlie 
 image of the object C coincides with the signal M. Leaving the 
 screw in this position, ho retires to the other end, B, of the base- 
 line, whei-e, holding the instrument as before, he sights upon 
 the signal, and tur-ning the graduated ring on the front end, 
 makes the Images again coincide. This done, there will bo 
 found on the ring opposite the fixed index a number, whicli, 
 being multiplied by the number of units in the base-line, will 
 give the required distance A C in terms of the unit used in 
 measuring the base. 
 
 This is the method of & fixed base. Another method is by 
 means of a proportional base, which is, instead of measuring a 
 base as just described, a certain factor is selected on the ring • 
 and tlie histrument set to it; then by moving back in tlie direc- 
 tion A B until the images coincide, the distance tlms moved over 
 will be the base, which is then measured and multiplied by tlie 
 selected factor. This method has tlie advantage of elimin:iting 
 the errors of reading the movable ring. 
 
 A base of y^ of the distance suffices in general for obtaining 
 the exactness of measurement required in military operations. 
 It is necessary always tliat the object and the signal be well de- 
 fined and of a convenient form and size, and tliat the observer 
 be sutBciently skilled with the instrument to make with precis- 
 ion tlie necessary sightings, and to make tlie proper alignment 
 of the two stations upon the signal. In a case where a good 
 natural signal is found, distances up to 2000 meters can be read- 
 ily measured in less than two minutes. If tlie conditions are 
 less favorable, tlie measurements may be effected by employing 
 bases of -^ or of j^j. Whatever be the motliod employed, the 
 immediate result of the operation is the knowledge of the ri'Ia- 
 tion between tlie distance souglit and tlie base. The base may 
 be expressed according to any unit of measurement, and the dis- 
 tance will be correspondingly expressed. If the base is measured 
 in yards, the distance will be yards, &c. 
 
 A good natural signal is one whidi best satisfies the following 
 conditions, viz. : Perfectly visible ; form well defined an-d sym- 
 metiical, with reference to a vertical axis; distance very great 
 in proportion to the length of base we wish to use; Iieight at 
 least jj^ of its distance from us; direction, making with tliat of 
 the object, an angle a little greater than 90 degrees. In case no 
 convenient natural signal can be found, its place may be aiti- 
 
196 TELEMETERS. 
 
 ficially supplied by an aid placing himself at 200 or 300 meters 
 distant and liolding liimself immovable. 
 
 Ad operator who thoroughly comprehends the principle of 
 tlie telemeter will in a short time acquire sufficient skill to use 
 it to the best advantage. He will discover that the choice of the 
 signal has a great influence on the accuracy of the operation ; 
 lie will judge of the amount of care neoessai-y in securing align- 
 ment of the stations ; and, in fine, he will be able to modify or 
 pi'rfect, according to circnrastaaces, tlie processes lieretofore 
 indicated. 
 
 The choice of the signal is a point very important to the pre- 
 cision of sighting. If the object and the signal are each sym- 
 metrical with reference to a vertical axis, and of a height at 
 liast i^ of their distance from the observer, and upon nearly 
 Uvel ground, the sighting can be made to within 2" or 3"; 
 ■ while if the signal is but barely visible, or of little height, or of 
 \ ;igue form, eri-ors up to 2' may be committed. It is seen, 
 therefore, tliat of 'two natural signals unequally distant from 
 tlie observer, tlie nearest maybe the more advantageous; but 
 of tills, experience will be tlie best guide of the observer. 
 
 The alignment of the two stations can be made iu several 
 different manners, according to requirements. The operator 
 can take before him two natural objects, the first near and the 
 second sufficiently far off, very distinct, and high enough not 
 to be maslvcd by the first. It is always of advantage to use a 
 s-ialce at tlie first station not high enough to obscure the signal; 
 ami this precaution is the more necessary if the signal is but a 
 sliiirt distance off. 
 
 Tlie instrument gives a very simple means of knowing whether 
 tlio position of the second station is well chosen. After having 
 established the coincidence between the reflected object and the 
 signal at the second station, the front of the instrument should 
 be lowered jierpendicularlj', so as to take in the point of first 
 observation. Tliis point should, if the second station is correct, 
 appear in coincidence with the refiected object. 
 
 The operation can be performed by either facing the signal or 
 facing the object. The first method is always preferable, as 
 the latter necessitates the taking of the base to the side, which 
 renders alignment more difficult. Nevertheless, if the objec: 
 be indistinct or difficult to distinguish from its surroundings, i: 
 may be regarded by the second method, care being taken at tne 
 second station that the instrument is turned a little on its ow^ 
 axis, so as to take in the point of first observation, and thav 
 
PRESSURE PLUG. 197 
 
 point be found to lie in the same vertical plane with the natural 
 signal. 
 
 Pkessuee Plug. 
 
 413. Bodman^s pressure plug (Fig. 5, Plate 16) is used when 
 it is desired to ascertain the pressure per square incli exerted by 
 the powder on the surface of the bore of a piece. To apply tliis 
 instrument, it is first taken apart by unscrewing the cap and 
 removing the piston and disk containing the knife. The whole 
 is tlien thoroughly oiled with sperm oil. This done, place a cop- 
 per disk in the plug, and after it the disk containing the knife, 
 the latter being sKa down so as not to cut the copper disk. Next 
 pass the piston into the hole in the stem of the cap, and screw 
 the cap into its place. For this operation the plug is held hori- 
 zontally in a vise. A small copper gas-check is tlien inserted 
 into the holo on top of the piston ; a wooden drift is used to 
 set the gas-check iirmly in its place, and a small wad of cotton- 
 waste is inserted over the gas-check ; the plug is now put into 
 the empty cartridge-bag, with its grooved end at the bottom and 
 centre of the bag, and the bag tied firmly to it from the outside, 
 with twine passing around the grooves on the bottom of the 
 plu^. The powder is next put in, care being taken to distrib- 
 ute it evenly around the plug. The bag is tied close to the pow- 
 der so as to make the cartridge firm and compact. 
 
 When inserting the cartridge into the gun, care is taken that 
 the plug, when at the bottom of the bore, is, as nearly as possi- 
 ble, in the axis of the piece. 
 
 After the discharge, the plug is removed from the bore by a 
 rake made for the purpose ; the cap is unscrewed, the copper 
 disk removed, and, after being wiped, the cut made upon it by 
 the knife is measured, from end to end, with a pair of dividers. 
 The dividers are then applied to the scale and passed down the 
 two long lines until they intersect a cross line the length of 
 which corresponds to the" width of the dividers ; the figures at 
 this point indicate the number of pounds pressure to the square 
 inch. 
 
 Pressure plugs are of tliree sizes: one for the 12-incli rille 
 and 13-inch and 15-inch smooth-bores ; cue for the 100-pounder 
 Parrott rifie and 8-inch and 10-iach smooth-bores ; and one for 
 smaller calibres. 
 
iai-t mm. 
 
 MECHANICAL MANCEUVEES. 
 
 General Directions. 
 
 414. The mechanical mancBuvres are the application of ma- 
 chines and of meclianical powers for mounting, dismounting, 
 moving, and transporting artillery. 
 
 415. Tlie detachment for mechanical manoeuvres consists of 
 one chief-of-detachraent, one gunner, and ten cannoneers. It is 
 formed as in par. 14 ; marched to the place of exercise as in par. 
 106, and takes post as in par. 107, except that the cannoneers arc 
 posted two yards from the axis of the piece or carriage ; Nos. 1 
 and 2 opposite the muzzle or front part of the carriage, the other 
 numbers and the gunner dressing on Nos. 1 and 2, respectively, 
 at intervals of one yard, except between Nos. 3 and 5, wliere 
 there is an interval of two yards. All face towards the piece or 
 carriage. 
 
 The cannoneers change posts as in^ar. 112. 
 
 The chief-of-detachment is posted two yards in rear of the 
 breech, chassis, or trail, or on the left of the pole, two yards 
 from and opposite its end, according as the piece is dismounted, 
 uulimbered, or limbered. During the execution of the manoeu- 
 vres he goes wlierever his presence may be necessary ; but, in 
 rendering assistance, will generally place liimself opposite the 
 gunner, between Jfos. 3 and o. 
 
 416. The implements and machines required for the various 
 operations depend upon the kind and weight of the piece and 
 tlie nature of the manoeuvre to be performed. For eacli exer- 
 cise, those specially required are given. 
 
 In evei-y case the minimum number of each is given. Wlien 
 much work is to be done, due allowance must be made for wear 
 and teai-, which, with heavy material, is very considerable. 
 Sound discretion sliould be exercised not to allow the wearing 
 to go beyond the limit of safety. 
 
 Those now used for siege-pieces are such as can be found in 
 most localities ; the rollers, chocks, and, if necessary, the hand- 
 spikes being readily sliaped from sections of trees. 
 
 (199) 
 
200 
 
 MECHANICAL MANCEUVRES. 
 
 The following table contains Implements used foi* siege-pieces t 
 {^Plate 18,) 
 
 iMPLHMBirTS. 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 H 
 
 
 Bbuabks. 
 
 Handspike 
 
 Inch. 
 
 84 
 42 
 12 
 3.6 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 67 
 
 360 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Lb. Oz. 
 
 12 
 25 
 12 
 
 6 
 2 4 
 
 1 
 48 
 
 8 8 
 
 2 4 
 
 £5 
 
 1 Grooved Ji In. deep in 
 ; the middle. 
 ■Wedge-shape. 
 {Section a trianele. Top 
 
 \ rounded ii of an inch. 
 
 Ends beveled on oppo- 
 
 ' Bite sides. 
 
 Sometimes called mon- 
 Icey-wrench. 
 
 Made of round iron 0.75 
 
 in. in diameter, with a 
 'stout hook at each end; ■ 
 
 length of links, 5 lus. 
 
 6 
 7 
 2.75 
 6 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 r'nd 
 
 r'na 
 r'nd 
 3.5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2.25 
 1.25 
 
 Short roller 
 
 Wheel-chock 
 
 Koller-chock 
 
 Shifting-plank 
 
 
 
 Sling-chain 
 
 156 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The machines and their uses will be described with the ma- 
 noeuvres for sea-coast pieces. 
 
 417. In every case the wooden handspike is required, and to- 
 avoid repetition the following general directions for its use are 
 given. Six are the number generally used, and they are in 
 charge of Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 
 
 When men on opposite sides of a piece apply themselves to a 
 handspike, the liandspil^e used is that of one of the even num- 
 bers ; the man to whom it belongs is at the smaller end, the 
 corresponding odd number at the butt end; those who assist 
 place themselves inside of these two numbers; the lowest num- 
 bers nearest the ends. 
 
 When two or more men work at the same end of a handspike, 
 the man to whom it belongs is at the end, and the other men in 
 the ascending order of their numbers from him. 
 
 When several liandspikes are crossed at the mnzzle in order 
 to raise or lower it, they are applied in the order of the numbers 
 of the men to whom they belong, those of the highest numbers 
 nearest to the trunnions. 
 
 Tlie liandspikes used in the mechanical manoeuvres are beveled 
 on one side, as these will enter into places or under bodies where 
 square handspilies could not be used. 
 
 Wlien a liandspike rests on a fulcrum, and the weight on one 
 
GENERAL DIEECTIONS. 201 
 
 end Is to be raised by bearing down on tlie other, tiie weiglit. 
 should never rest on the beveled side, as the handspike would 
 not then give a good hold, and would be liable to split. In this 
 case the beveled side should be down. But if used for lifting, as 
 when two handspikes are ci'ossed under the breech or chase of a 
 gun to heave it upward, their ends resting on the ground or plat- 
 form, the beveled side should be up. 
 
 Wlien two or more men haul together on a rope, the lowest 
 number is next the object of resistance, and the remainder next 
 Iiim in ascending order of their numbers. 
 
 418. At the completion ol each movement of a manoeuvre, 
 the men retain the places they are in at its conclusion, ready to 
 proceed to the next movement, resuming their posts only at llie 
 command To YOXJK POSTS, which is given by the instructor at 
 the end of each manoeuvre. 
 
 419. The front, when a piece is unlirabered or dismounted, 
 is tlie direction in whicli its muzzle points; when limbered, it 
 is the direction in which the pole points. In the execution of 
 the following manoeuvres, when a piece is put in motion upon 
 rollers, the terms back and forward are applied to tlie direction 
 of the breech and muzzle respectively. 
 
 A body moving upon a roller gains twice the distance passed 
 over by the roller. 
 
 Tlie ground should be level and firm and the implements in 
 good order. 
 
 Preparatory to manoeuvering, the implements and machines 
 required are taken to the place of exercise. Tlie instructor ex- 
 plains to the detachment their names, uses, and mode of appli- 
 catioil. He then commands : 
 
 1. Peepaeb to manceuveb. 
 
 420. The men take the implements, repair to their posts, 
 and place tliem upon the ground in their rear ; the handspikes 
 behind Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 perpendicularly to tlie axis of 
 the piece, on that side of the cannoneer toward tlie muzzle, the 
 small ends on a line with their toes ; the ciiocks equally divided, 
 beliind and near Nos. 3 and 4 ; the long rollers near and behind 
 No. 4, and the short rollers, shifting-plank, trace-rope, sling- 
 chain, and liaramer-wrencli in rear of the gunner. 
 
 Whenever, in the course of a manoeuvre, an implement is not 
 in immediate use, it is returned by tlie person using it to its des- 
 ignated place. 
 
 431. The instructor gives the commands and has a general 
 supervision of the manoeuvres. He sees that eacii man performs 
 the duties assigned him ; that everything is in a proper state of 
 
202 MECHANICAL MAKCEUVRES. 
 
 reatliiiess before giving tlie command of execution; and that par- 
 ticnlar eavp. is taken to avoid all shocks and sudden movements. 
 
 422. The cliief-of-detachraent attends directly to tlie execu- 
 tion of tlie movements, and particuhirly assists and directs the 
 gunner in all his duties. 
 
 423. Tlie gunner gives commands when specified; places 
 the shifting-plank; attaches and takes otf the trace-rope; re- 
 moves and replaces the elevating screw; places and removes 
 chocks and the short rollers; superintends the righting of the 
 piece ; directs the pole of the limber, &c. 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 have charge of the handspikes ; Nos. 
 7 and 8 I'ig and work the windlass, Nos. 1 and 2 holding on to 
 the rope ; Nos. 3 and 4 chock and unchock the wheels, the gun. 
 and the long rollers ; take off and replace the cap-squares, and 
 place and remove the long rollers. 
 
 Nos. 5 and '6, with Iheir handspikes, steady and right the 
 piece, haul on the ropes, &c. Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 assist the 
 others. Nos. 7 and 8 generally assist Nos. 1 and 2, or 3 and 4. 
 Nos. 9 and 10 assist Nos. 3 and 4, or 5 and 6 ; they assist in plac- 
 ing the implements preparatory to nianoeuvering; haul upon the 
 ropes, and apply themselves by hand to move the carriage. 
 
 424. Two or more men, lifting or hauling together, must 
 wait for the command before exerting their strength. The gun- 
 ner sees that all are ready before giving the comiTiand heave. 
 Then all move with a prompt but steady effort, and applj' their 
 power increasingly until the weight responds to tlieir effort. 
 The gunner will repeat the command heave as often as it may 
 be necessar}^. When the movement has been sufficiently made, 
 the gunner commands : Ease away. Those making the effort 
 will then desist ; but in doing so will be careful to avoid all sud- 
 den shocks or strains. 
 
 The command ease away will be omitted in the text, for the 
 reason that its application will, in most cases, depend upon cir- 
 cumstances, to be judged of by the gunner. 
 
 Every operation should be done with spirit and animation, 
 but without bustle or confusion. Vigilance should be constantly 
 exercised to have the piece or rollers securely chocked. 
 
 425. The limber of a siege-piece maizes a powerful lever, 
 and may be advantageously used in many cases. The pole is 
 raised and the pintle engaged in a sling around the weight to be 
 raised. The pole is hauled down by a trace-rope attached to 
 the ej'e. 
 
 426. Parbuckling. {Fig. 1, Plate 19.) A rope used as a par- 
 buckle is the best method of rolling a gun. To do this, place 
 the gun on skids, and attach the rope by a bowline to one'of the 
 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 203 
 
 trunnions, passino; It nnder and aroiuul up over the gun, and 
 hauling on the end. 
 
 If tlie gun is to be rolled up a slope, two ropes, of size suitable 
 to the weight of the gun, are used. An end of eacli rope is made 
 fast to some fixed object at the upper part of the slope. ; tlic other 
 ends are carried under tlie chase and body respectively, and up 
 over the . gun ; tliesc ends are hauled upon by means of a cap- 
 sta"!!, or by attaching to them a fall and taclsle. The muzzle is 
 slued forward by pinching witli bars, or by means of a rope 
 and tackle attached to a roller or skid thrust into the muzzle. 
 The piece is lowered by inverse means. 
 
 43'y. To cross-lift a piece or other object {Fig. 2, Plate 19) 
 is to cross handspikes under it from opposite sides ; the butt end 
 of the handspike is on the ground, and the power is applied by 
 lifting at the other end. 
 
 428. To slue the trunnions is to turn tlie piece on its axis so 
 as to bring the trunnions into any required position. This is 
 done by first placing tlie piece on skids perpendicular to its axis. 
 A fulcrum is placed near the trunnion to be raised ; upon this a 
 handspike or other lever is used, the piece meanwhile being 
 chocked on the opposite side. Or a trunnion-loop maybe passed 
 around the trunnion to be raised, and a handspike or lever pass- 
 ed througli it, with the butt end resting on the top of the piece ; 
 the power is applied by lifting at the other end, tlie piece being 
 chocked as before. Or, by passing the bight of a rope once or 
 twice around the piece, and placing the butt of a handspike or 
 lever through the biglit, and bearing down or lifting up, using 
 tlie piece as a fulcrum, the ends of the rope being held to pre- 
 vent them from slipping. All tlirec of these methods may be 
 used at the same time. 
 
 The skids should be well greased under the piece, as likewise 
 should be the chocks. 
 
 When the piece is of great weight, the hydraulic-jack or gin 
 is advantageously used, provided the axes of the trunnions are 
 not vertical. Tlie former is placed under and the latter over the 
 trunnion to be raised. When the axes of tlie trunnions are ver- 
 tical, or nearly so, a rope is passed around the upper one and 
 hauled upon by means of tackle. 
 
 429. To pinch a gun or other object is to move it by small 
 heaves with a pinch- bar or handspike, without allowing it to 
 turn on its axis. A piece is pinched one end at a time, the other 
 being chocked. The bar or liandspilce is placed as a lever, with 
 the beveled side down, and the power applied at tlie other end 
 by bearing down. 
 
 430. To launch a piece or other object forward or backward 
 
20-1 MECUANICAL MANCBUVRES. 
 
 is to move it in the tlirection of its axis. If tlie weiglit is such as., 
 to require levers or handspilces, tliey are placed, usually, on op- 
 posite sides, and the power applied by bearing down, at the same 
 time carrying the free end of the lever in a direction contrary to 
 that ill which the object is to be moved. 
 
 To slue a piece or other object, end for end. Is to turn it 
 round, not allowing it to revolve on its longer axis. 
 
 To cut is to move the object horizontally, without rolling, by- 
 moving each end alternately in the required direction, 
 
 MaNCEUVEES TVITn THE SlEQE GuNS. 
 
 431. The implements required are those habitually accom- 
 panying each piece, viz. : Six handspikes, two traee-ropes, six 
 wheel-chocks, one hammer-wrench, one short roller, one sling~ 
 chain, and four roller-chocks. 
 
 432. The following manojuvres are arranged on the sup- 
 position that no other implements are available. When two or 
 more pieces are togetlier, or planks or sltids are available, as- 
 would generally be tlie case in the field, the manoeuvres may be 
 often simplified, as will be indicated. 
 
 The directions laid down in par. 417 and following will be 
 observed. This is essential for the prevention of confusion and' 
 accidents, since directions to particular numbers are in most 
 cases omitted. 
 
 Ordinary manoeuvres. 
 
 1. To limber and to nnlimber. 
 
 2. To move tlie carriage when limbered, with and without it& 
 piece, by liand to tlie front and rear. 
 
 3. To place the short roller under tlie chase and to remove it. 
 
 4. To place the short roller under the body of thegun and to- 
 remove it. 
 
 5. To shift the gnn from its traveling bed to its firing bed. 
 
 6. To shift tlie gun from its firing bed to its traveling bed, 
 
 7. To side-lift the carriage. 
 
 All the other manoeuvres are exceptional, and are rai-ely re- 
 quired in actual service with the guns now mounted on travel- 
 ing carriages. They are, therefore, prescribed for exercise only 
 to such an extent as may be necessary to enable officers and men 
 to become familiar with the operations. 
 
 To limber. 
 {Fig. 3, Plate 19.) 
 
 433. AVhcn these guns are used for field service, they may 
 
SIEGE GUNS. 205 
 
 <be limbered to the rear, front, right, or left. In every case the 
 f)iece is in its firing bed. 
 
 To the rear. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Limber up. 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4 chock the wheels front and rear; No. 2 inserts 
 his handspike in the bore, and is assisted to bear down by No. 
 1 ; No. 6 crosses his handspike under the stock, as near the 
 trail as pi-acticable, and is assisted by Nos. 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8, all 
 facing in the direction of the trail. If the limber is not liorsed, 
 it is brought up by the chief-of-detachment, gunner, and Nos. 9 
 -and 10. The stock is raised at the command Heave from tlie 
 _guuner until the pintle can be caught under the trail and the 
 pole used as a lever to sustain it. The handspike is then shifted 
 in rear of the lunette ; Nos. 9 and 10 take hold of the limber- 
 -ivlieels; the gunner gives the necessary instructions to cause 
 the pintle to enter the lunette, and when it is in, hooks the 
 lashing-chain. 
 
 The instructor then commands : 1. To YOUK POSTS ; at wliich 
 nil take their posts as explained in par. 415. 
 
 To the rigid, or to the left. The instructor first causes the trail 
 to be moved around to tlie right or to the left, so as to bring the 
 -axis of the piece perpendicular to its former position. The lim- 
 ber is moved to its place corresponding to the new position of- 
 the piece. 
 
 In moving the trail around, Nos. 1 and 3 at the right wheel, 
 and Nos. 2 and 4 at the left, apply themselves as in in battery of 
 Jrom battery, but in contrary directions, as the case may require. 
 Nos. 5 and 6 both embar under and perpendicular to the stock 
 on the side opposite that to which tlie trail is to be moved. The 
 gunner commands : Heave, and repeats it as often as may be 
 necessaiy. The piece is then limbered up as before. 
 
 To the front. The instructor causes the trail to be brought 
 around so tliat the piece will point in the opposite direction. 
 This may be done either to the right or left, as best suited to tlie 
 ground, and is executed as in tlie preceding paragraph. Tlie 
 limber is moved to its place corresponding to the new position 
 of the piece, and passes the piece either to the right or left, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the ground. The piece is then limbered 
 up as in the preceding cases. 
 
 To unlimber. 
 434. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Unlimbeb. 
 The gunner unhoolcs the lashing-chain ; Nos. 3 and 4 chock 
 
206 MECHANICAL MAN(EUVRES. 
 
 the wlieels front and rear, anrl all apply themselves as in limber- 
 ing up. At the commaiitl Heave from the gunner, the trail is 
 raised to disengage it from tlie pintle, the limber is moved for- 
 ward, and the trail lowered to the ground. All resume tlieir 
 posts at the command To YOUR POSTS. 
 
 When tlie piece is unlimbered, tlie habitual position of the 
 limber is six yards in rear of the piece, measui-ecl from its axle 
 to tlie trail, the pole pointing to the rear. In bringing it up for 
 limbering, it is hacked to its place at the trail. If the carriage is 
 without its piece, Nos. 1 and 2 embar through the wheels and 
 under the rear part of the cheeks, instead of as prescribed in 
 par. 433. 
 
 In limbei'ing and unlimbering a siege howitser, Nos. 1 and 2 
 both insert handspikes in the bore. 
 
 To move a piece, or its carriage, to the front or rear. 
 
 435. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Forward (or backward), 2. Maech, 3. TTat/ t. 
 
 The piece being limbered, Nos. 1 and 2 embar obliquely under 
 the rear of the wheels of the carriage ; Nos. 5 and 6, in like 
 manner, under the limber-wheels; Nos. 3 and 4 through the 
 spokes and under the cheeks; Nos. 7 and 8 apply themselves to 
 the limber-wheels by hand ; Nos. 9 and 10 at the splinter-bar, 
 and the gunner and chief-of-detachment at the end of the pole; 
 all facing to the front. The gunner commands : Heave, and 
 repeats it as often as may be necessary. 
 
 In moving to the rear, Nos. 1 and 2 embar through the spokes 
 and under tlie cheeks; Nos. 3 and 4 under the front of the 
 wheels of the carriage; Nos. 5 and G under the front of the lim- 
 ber-wheels ; Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, and tlie gunner apply themselves 
 as in moving to the fi'ont ; all facing to the rear. 
 
 The carriage being limbei-ed, but without its piece, at the com- 
 mand forward the numbei-s applv themselves by hand as fol- 
 lows : Nos. 1 and 2 at the head of the cheeks ; Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 
 6 at the wheels of the carriage ; Nos. 7 and 8 at the wheels of 
 the limber; Nos. 9 and 10, and the gunner, as with the piece 
 mounted. At the command march, tlie carriage is moved for- 
 ward . 
 
 To move to the rear, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 apply themselves by 
 hand to the wheels of the carriage; Nos. 5 and G to the rear end 
 of the cheeks; Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, and the gunner, as with the 
 piece mounted. At the command march, the carriage is moved 
 to the rear. 
 
 Ill the foregoing movements, at the command halt, all resume 
 their posts. 
 
.SIEGE GUNS. 207 
 
 To place the short roller under the chase. 
 
 436. The piece being limbered and ia its traveling bed, 
 the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Place eoliLee dndee the chase. 
 
 {Fiff. 4, Plate 19.) At this command, the cap-squares are 
 i-emoved and the wheels chocked by Nos. 3 and 4 ; the hand- 
 spike of No. 2 is placed in the bore ; that of No. 6 is crossed un- 
 der the handspike of No. 2 ; No. 1 assists No. 2, and Nos. 3, 4, 
 5, 7, and 8 assist No. 6. The gunner stands at the liead of the 
 right cheek with the roller, and when all is in readiness gives 
 the command Heave. The chase being raised high enough, the 
 roller is rolled forward on the stock until its axis is within six 
 or eight inches of the axis of the trunnions, and chocked In rear; 
 the piece is then allowed to rest on it. 
 
 Note. — The roller Is placed under the chase only when the 
 piece is in its traveling bed, and for the purpose of shifting it. 
 
 To remove the short roller from under the chase. 
 
 43'7. The piece being limbered, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Remove the eollee. 
 
 Executed as in the foregoing paragraph, except that when the 
 chase is raised the shoit roller is rested on the head of the stock 
 by the gunner, to enable the men at the handspikes to take a 
 new hold. The chase being raised again, the roller is with- 
 drawn and the piece lowered into its bed. 
 
 Eitlier of these operations can be performed, though more 
 time is required, by successive purchases with the handspikes 
 over the heads of the cheeks and under the chase. 
 
 To place the short roller under the body. 
 
 438. The piece being either limbered or unlimbered, the in- 
 structor commands : 
 
 1. Place bollee undee the body. 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4 chock the wheels and remove the cap-squares ; 
 No. 2 inserts his handspike In the bore, and is assisted by No. 1 
 to bear down ; Nos. 5 and 6 embar over the cheeks and under 
 the gun in rear of the trunnions, and raise the breech at the 
 command Heave from the gunner until he can place the short 
 roller- under the body of the piece, as near to tlie trunnions as 
 can be effected readily. The gunner chocks the roller on the 
 side toward the muzzle when tlie piece is limbered, and in rear 
 
208 MECHANICAL MANCEUVRES. 
 
 when imlimbered ; lemoves the elevating screw and places it in 
 real- of his post, resting it upon its handles. 
 
 JSTote. — The roller is placed under the body of the piece only 
 wlien it is In its firing bed, and for the purpose of dismounting 
 it, oi- of shifting it to its traveling bed, to a mortar-wagon, or to 
 anotlier carriage. 
 
 \ To remove the sliort roller from under the body of the piece. 
 
 439. The piece being either limbered or unlimbered, the 
 Justruotor commands : 
 
 1. EEMOVB the EOLIiER. 
 
 Tlie gunner replaces the elevating screw, and the roller Is re- 
 moved as prescribed in the preceding paragraph. 
 
 Note.— AW. that is prescribed In the foregoing paragraphs ap- 
 plies likewise to the siege howitzer. 
 
 To shift the piece from its traveling to its firing bed, 
 
 (Fig. 5, Plate 19.) 
 
 440. The piece being limbered, the instructor causes a loller 
 to be placed under tlie chase as explained in par. 436, and tlien 
 commands : 
 
 1. Shift the piece. 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4 remove the cap-squares ; No. 2 inserts his Iiand- 
 ^pilse in the bore, and is assisted by No. 1 ; No. 6 crosses his 
 handspike over that of No. 2, and is assisted by Nos. 3, 4, and 5. 
 The gunner attaches the trace-rope at its middle by a double 
 hitch to the knob of the cascable, and passes tlie ends over the 
 limber to Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10, who take a turn with each part 
 around the manoeuvering bolts. At the command Heave from 
 the gunner, the muzzle is borne down and the piece allowed to 
 run slowly on the roller until the trunnions are over their firing 
 beds, when they are borne down into place and the short roller 
 removed from the rear. 
 
 Before executing this or any similar manoeuvre, the manosii- 
 vering bolts should be set tight to the stock with the wrench, to 
 prevent accident from turning. The precaution should be taken, 
 also, of putting a chock near the head of the stock to stop the 
 roller, should the men at the traoe-rope fail to control the piece 
 after the trunnions have been lifted over the chin bolts. 
 
 The gunner must observe that the lashing-chain is hooked. 
 
 To shift the piece from its firing to its traveling bed. 
 
 441. The piece being limbered, the instructor causes the 
 
SIEGE GUNS. 209 
 
 /oiler to be placed under the body of the piece as explained in 
 ]iar. 438, and then commands : 
 
 1. Shift the piece. 
 
 At this command, No. 2 inserts his handspike in the bore; the 
 handspike of No. 4 is crossed under that of No. 2, and manupd 
 by Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 ; the gunner attaches the trace-rope at its 
 middle to the knob of the cascable by a double hitch, and passes 
 its ends over the limber to Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8,-0, and 10. At the 
 command Heave by the gunner, the piece is pushed and hauled 
 MUtil the trunnions are over their traveling beds, when the 
 breech is allowed to rest on the bolster. The roller is removed 
 from the front by raising the muzzle as described in par. 437. 
 
 443. Kote. — In any of the preceding manoeuvres with the 
 S-inch howitzer, when the handspilce of No. 2 is inserted in the 
 muzzle it slionld be chocked about 18 inches in tlie bore, and 
 again at the muzzle. AVhen the howitzei- is transported on its 
 traveling bed, a temporary bolster should be constructed to sup- 
 port the breech. The short roller, resting on a piece of plank 
 two or three inches thick and supporting tlie knob of the casca- 
 ble, will answer for this purpose. 
 
 To side-lift u, carriage. 
 
 443. For the purpose of moving a carriage a short distance tc 
 the right or left, it being unlimbered, the instructor commands ; 
 
 1. Side-lift to the eight (or left). 
 
 To the right. Nos. 2 and 4 embar under and perpendicular 
 to the left wheel, from the outside ; Nos. 1 and 3 under the 
 right wheel, from the inside, and No. G under and perpendicu- 
 lar to the traU. Tlie gunner commands : Heave, and the car- 
 riage is lifted, short distances at a time, to the right. 
 
 To the left. Executed in the same manner, but by inverse 
 means. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 444. Tlie short roller is carried as explained in par. 250. 
 When the piece is on its traveling bed, the elevating screw is 
 
 run in on the lower side of the stock, and held in its place by a 
 lashing-strap. 
 
 Tlie sponge and rammer are lashed upon the piece, their 
 heads projecting beyond the baSe of the breech. A convenient 
 way of transporting them is by two iron collars, containing 
 hooks, buckled upon the breech and chase. 
 
 The handspikes are carried as explained in par. 256. 
 14 
 
210 MECHANICAL MANGBUVEES. 
 
 Two trace-ropes should accompany each -piece of siege artil- 
 lery. They are useful not only in shifting tlie piece, but in lash- 
 ing' and in extricating the carriage or mortar-wagon from diffi- 
 culties. 
 
 Tlie sling-chain is carried wound around the stock. It may 
 be used for a lock-chain, the one provided with a shoe being dis- 
 pensed with. 
 
 The shifting-plank is carried on the stock, between the cheeks. 
 A hole is bored in it, through which a rope passes, securing it to 
 the stoclv. 
 
 Tlie chocks and hammer-wrench are best carried in a bag 
 slung to some part of the carriage. 
 
 445. To prepare a piece for traveling, the instructor causes 
 the implements to be placed as above indicated. To do this, 
 after shifting the piece to its traveling bed he commands : 
 
 1. Put on the implbmbnts. 
 
 The gunner places the vent-cover, short roller, elevating screw, 
 and water-bucket ; if it is necessary to lash the piece to its bed, 
 lie is assisted by Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. No. 2 secures the tom- 
 pion in the muzzle ; Nos. 1 and 2 fasten on the sponge and ram- 
 mer, and, assisted by Nos. 3 and 4, put on the handspikes. The 
 piece is lashed as explained in par. 256. 
 
 To prepare Hie piece for action, the instructor, before shifting 
 it to its firing bed, commands : 
 
 1. Remove the implements. 
 
 Tlie same numbers that put on the implements remove them. 
 
 446. The object of carrying the piece in tlie traveling bed is 
 to equalize the load, by throwing more of the weight upon tlie 
 limber, and thus relieving tlie rear wheels. For short distances, 
 over smooth roads, the piece may, however, be carried in its 
 firing bed. 
 
 Other Manceuvbes which mat be required in Service. 
 To mount the siege gun on its carriage. 
 
 44?. The piece is lying on the ground, vent uppermost ; the 
 Ciirriage unliinbered; the elevating screw, bolster, and cap- 
 squares removed ; the trail about two yards from the muzzle ; 
 the stock squarely in prolongation with the gun. The instruct- 
 or commands : 
 
 1. Baise the chase. 
 
 (Fig. 1, Plate 20.) The gunner extends the sling-chain on 
 
SIEGE GUNS. 211 
 
 the groimil perpendicularly to the axis of the piece, with its 
 rairtcUc imiler the neck of the cascable ; No. 2 inserts liis hand- 
 spike in the bore, and is assisted to lift by No. 1 ; Nos. 3 and 4, 
 witli their handspikes, cross-lift under that of No. 2 ; Nos. 5 
 and C stand readj' with their liandspikes to thrust thorn under 
 the piece as soon as it is raised. At the command Heave from 
 the gunner, it is raised by Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, and tlic gunner 
 places the roller under the muzzle ; Nos. 5 and C thrust tlieir 
 handspikes under the chase, in the position for cross-lifting; 
 Nos. 3 and 4 take fresh holds under the chase ; the gunner com- 
 mands : HEA.VE, and the piece is raised until the gunner can 
 place the roller under it a short distance in rear of tlie tnni- 
 nions. The carriage is then run back, as from, battery (par. 
 237), until the muzzle catclies on a i-oller placed on the stock. 
 (Fig. 2, Plate 20.) By cross-lifting the piece as before, tlie 
 I'olier on the ground is removed and the piece allowed to I'cst 
 on the roller on tlie stock. 
 
 The stock serves as an inclined plane, up which the piece 
 moves on tlie roller. The carriage is now worked back, asyVo/n 
 batter;/, as far as the trail, under tlie gun, will allow it to go. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Sling the piece. 
 
 Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 run back the limber until the pintle is 
 sliglitly in rear of the knob of the cascable, and the wheels arc 
 cliocUed front and rear. The wheels of tlic gun carriage, are 
 cliocked in front. 
 
 The gunner attaches one end of a trace-rope to the eye of the 
 limber pole, and Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 stand ready and raise it at 
 tlie command Jieave from the gunner. (Fig. 2, Plate 20.) 
 
 No. 10 holds on to tlie rope to prevent the pole from going 
 over too far. The polo having been raised, the gunner draws 
 the slinVchain up tightly over the pintle and hooks it. Nos. 7, 
 8, and 9 go to tlie assistance of No. 10 at the rope, and, at the 
 command Heave from the gunuor, draw the pole down to the 
 ground. The pole is held down and the carriage is run back, as 
 jwm battery, until the trunnions nearly or quite toncli the tiav- 
 eling trunnion bolts. The roller is cliocked in j'ea.\', and the 
 piece secured in this position by laying the middle of a trace- 
 rope over it just in rear of the trunnions, carrying the ends to 
 the front under them and making fast to the axle-tree. 
 
 The sling-chain is then unhooked and cast off from the piiitli". 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. SlilNQ THE STOCK. 
 
 The gunner doubles the sling-chain at the middle and, passing 
 
212 MECHANICAL MANOSUVRES. 
 
 the bight under the stock from left to right, places it over the 
 right raanoeuvering bolt. Nbs. 7, 8, 0, and 10 back the limber 
 so that the end of tlie fork will have full play on the left of llie 
 stock when the pole is raised; chock the limber-wheels, front 
 and rear; raise the pole as prescribed in the preceding para- 
 grapli. 
 
 The pintle should then be over and slightly to the rear of the 
 left manoeuvering bolt. Bring up both ends of the sling-chain 
 behind the lefD manceuvering bolt, pass one end around the pin- 
 tle, taking in all the slack, and fasten the hook in a convenient 
 link of the ocher end. The wheels of the limber are now un- 
 choeked, and, at the command Heave from the gunner, the 
 pole is hauled down to the ground as In the preceding para- 
 grapli. The stock should now be nearly horizontal ; If it is not, 
 support the trail with a roller, or any other convenient method, 
 and, shortening the sling-chain, take a new lift. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Shift the holler. 
 
 [Fig. 3, Plate 20.) No. 2 places his handspike in the bore, 
 and is assisted by No. 1 ; No. 4 crosses his under that of No. 2, 
 and is assisted by Nos. 3, 5, 6, 7, and S ; Nos. 9 and 10 hold 
 down the pole. At the command Heave fi-om the gunner, the 
 gun is raised and the roller is shifted to just in front of the 
 trunnions. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Shift the piece. 
 
 {Fig. 4, Plate 20.) The trace-rope is cast off from the piece ; 
 the gunner attaches it at the middle to the knob of the cascable, 
 and passes the ends over the axle of the carriage to Nos. 3, 4, 5, 
 and G; No. 2, with his handspike in the bore, is assisted to lift 
 and bear down by No. 1. At the command Heave from the 
 gunner, the piece is hauled forward until the truiniions clear 
 the chin bolts, when the muzzle will at once be borne down, 
 causing the tnninions to drop into their firing beds. As the 
 muzzle approaches the ground the handspike must be shoved 
 into the bore. The pole is raised and the trail allowed to rest 
 on the ground, the sling-chain disengaged, and the roller re- 
 moved by the rear. 
 
 To dismount the siege gun from its carriage. 
 {Fig. 5, Plate 19.) 
 448. The piece being limbered and the wheels chocked, the 
 Instructor causes a roller to be placed under the body of the piece 
 
SIEGE GUNS. 213 
 
 as explained in par. 438. The roller is ohooked on the side to- 
 wards the trail. The instructor then commands : 
 
 1. Dismount the piece. 
 
 (Fig. 5, Plate 20.) The gunner attaches the trace-rope by- 
 its middle with a double hitch to the knob of the cascable, and 
 passes the ends to Nos. and 10, who take two turns with them 
 around the manoeuvering bolts and, hauling taut, stand ready to 
 ease off when directed ; Nos. 3 and 4 remove the cap-squares ; 
 No. 2 places his handspike in the bore, and is assisted to lift by 
 No. 1 ; No. 4 crosses his handspike under tliat of No. 2, and is 
 assisted to lift by Nos. 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8. 
 
 At tlie command Heave from the gunner, the muzzle is raised ; 
 the rope is carefully slacked off; the trunnions arc eased over 
 the eye-bolts and allowed to rest on the cheeks ; Nos. 9 and 10 
 ease off the rope, and allow the piece to run forward until tl|,e 
 trunnions clear the cheeks, when the muzzle is depressed and 
 allowed to rest on the ground, No. 2 pushing his handspilve up 
 the bore for tliis purpose. The rope is cast off and the wheels 
 unohocked. 
 
 The carriage is then run forward as explained in par. 435, and 
 the piece allowed to drop to the ground. 
 
 In performing this manoeuvre with a single roller, the breech 
 is sometimes jammed between the cheeks, or the head of the 
 stock bruised by the knob of the cascable. Both of these diflS- 
 culties are obviated by using two short rollers, the second one 
 being rolled down the stock against the ftrst before running the 
 carriage out. 
 
 If the piece is dismounted in this manner on hard, stony soil, 
 some material, as liay, brush, &c., should be placed to receive it 
 in its fall. 
 
 Note. — In the above or other similar manoeuvres, should no 
 limber be available, the stock may be temporarily supported in 
 a horizontal position by any means most convenient. 
 
 To sliift the siege gun from one carriage to another. 
 (Fig. 1, Plate 21.) 
 
 449. The piece is unlimbercd ; the spare carriage, limbered, 
 witli cap-squares and elevating screw removed, is placeil with its 
 pole pointing in tlie same direction as the trail of the piece, and 
 two or three yards distant therefrom. 
 
 'J'he roller is placed under the body of the piece as in par. 
 438. 
 
 'I'he instructor commands : 1. Raise the chase. At this 
 
214 MBCnANICAL MAN(BUVKES. 
 
 command, No. 2 inserts his liandspilce In the bore, and is assisted 
 bj' No. 1 ; No. 4 crosses his under that of No. 2, and is assisted 
 by Nos. 3, 5, and 6 ; tlie gunner gives tlie command Heave, and 
 tiie chase is raised until a wheel-ohoelf, base up, or tlie butt end 
 of a handspilve, can be placed by Nos. 7 and 8 under eacli trun- 
 nion. 
 
 The instructor causes the trace-rope to be attached by its mid- 
 dle, with a double liitch, to the knob of the cascable; tlie spare 
 carriage is then backed accurately, wheel to wheel, against tlie 
 carriage of the piece, and the wheels chocked ; the ends of the 
 trace-ropes are passed over the spare carriage to Nos. 9 and 10. 
 The gunner then places the shifting-plank, witli one end on the 
 head of the stock of the spare carriage, and the other end, beveled 
 side down, on the stock under the gun. The gunner commands : 
 Beab down the muzzle, wliicli is done by Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, 
 while the gunner places the roller on tlie plank about eight inches 
 in rear of the trunnions. The instructor commands: 1. Shift 
 THE PIECE. Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 go to the ropes to haul with 
 Nos. 9 and 10. Those at the muzzle prepare to lift. The gun- 
 ner commands : Heave, and the piece is moved back until the 
 trunnions are over the beds on the spare carriage; another roll- 
 er is then placed on the stock of the carriage, under the body of 
 the gun. 
 
 The instructor commands : 1. Remove the plank. Nos. 1 
 and 2 embar with their handspikes over the cheeks of the now 
 free carriage and under the chase, and are assisted to bear down 
 by Nos. 3 and 4. The gunner commands: Heave; the chase 
 is raised ; the plank and roller are removed ; the roller is placed 
 on the head of the stock of the free carriage, and the muzzle 
 rested on it. 
 
 The instructor commands : Run out the cakriaqb. Ex- 
 ecuted as in in battery. (Par. 242.) The piece drops into the trun- 
 nion beds, after which the roller under the body is removed by 
 tlie rear as in par. 439. The cap-squares and elevating screw 
 are replaced. 
 
 To mount the siege gun on the mortar-wagtm. 
 {Fig. 2, Plate 21.) 
 
 450. The gun is lying on the ground; the mortar-wagon, 
 unlimbered, its stakes and bolster removed, is in the prolon- 
 gation of tlie piece ; its trail on the ground about two yards from 
 the breech. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
siege guns. 215 
 
 1. Kaise the chase. 
 
 Executed as in par. 447, except that the sling-chain is not 
 placcil under the neclc of tlie cascable. After tlie roller is placed 
 under the trunnions, tip the muzzle down, and back the mortar- 
 wagon until the breech catches on another roller placed on the 
 stock; the wheels are then chocked. 
 
 Note. — A limber may be used to sling the piece until the 
 breech rests on the roller placed on the stock, and subsequently 
 to sling the muzzle clear of tlie ground to prevent its dragging. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. ElG THE WINDLASS. 
 
 (Fig. 3, Plate 21.) The gunner lays the middle of the trace- 
 rope over the piece in rear of the trunnions ; brings the ends 
 under and around over the trunnions ; talces two turns with each 
 end around the middle of tlie windlass, the standing parts to- 
 ward the ends ; Nos. 1 and 2 take hold of the ends of tlie rope 
 to hold on and take up the slack ; Nos. 7 and 8 insert the hand- 
 spilces into the ratchet-sockets, and are assisted by Nos. 9 and 
 10; Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6, with their handspikes, steady the piece. 
 At the command Heave from the gunner, tiie piece is drawn 
 up the stock. When the roller under the chase becomes free, it 
 is placed under the breech. 
 
 Draw the piece back on the wagon until the trunnions are 
 about eighteen inches in front of the axle-tree ; the gunner re- 
 places the bolster, and Nos. 3 and 4 chock the rollers front and 
 rear, and likewise the wheels of the wagon. 
 
 Note. — It the wheels are unchecked, the stock will work itself 
 under the piece and considerably relieve the strain on the ropes. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Limber up. 
 
 Executed as in par. 483, except that Nos. 1 and 2 hold on to 
 the ropes and prevent them from slipping on the windlass. 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Stow the piece. 
 
 (Fig. 4, Plate 21.) Nos. 1 and 2 cast off the rope from the 
 windlass and carry the ends to the front. The gunner changes 
 the middle of it so that it will cross the gun in front of the trun- 
 nions. Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 assist Nos. 1 and 2 to haul upon the 
 ropes; Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6, with their handspikes, steady the 
 piece; the rollers are unchocked. At the command Heavb 
 from the gunner, the piece is hauled forward until tlie breech is 
 
216 MECHANICAL MAN(EUVEES. 
 
 over its seat in the wagon ; the front r-oller is chocked and the 
 muzzle borne down lintil the I'ear roller can be removed; the 
 breech Ls then allowed to rest in its seat. The front roller is 
 removed by raising the chase as explained in par. 436, and the 
 chase is allowed to rest on the bolster. The stakes of the wagott 
 arc replaced in their sockets. 
 
 To dismount the siege gun from the mortar-wagon. 
 
 451. The wagon being limbered and the stakes removed, the 
 instrnctor commands : 
 
 1. Place the bollek undee the chase. 
 
 Executed in a manner similar to that explained in par. 436. 
 The roller is chocked front and rear. The numbers who lifted 
 at the muzzle now bear it down, and another roller is placed 
 under the body of the piece, about eighteen inches in rear of the 
 trunnions. U'he bolster is removed, and the instructor com- 
 mands : EiG THE WINDLASS. Executed as in par. 450. At 
 the command Heave from the gunner, the piece is hauled back 
 until the trunnions are about eighteen inches in front of the 
 axle-tree; both rollers are chocked front and rear. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Unlimbee. 
 
 Executed as in par. 434, except that Nos. 1 and 2 hold on to 
 the ends of the ropes and prevent them from slipping on the 
 windlass. 
 
 Note. — In this operation care must be taken that the gun ia 
 not too far to the rear, thus endangering the tipping over back- 
 wards of the wagon. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Lower the piece. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2 ease off the ropes and allow the piece to descend 
 on the stock. As the rollers become disengaged in rear they are 
 placed under the piece in front. When the muzzle strikes the 
 ground, the wheels may be uncliocked and the cari-iage moved 
 to the lear, thus permitting the piece to descend to the ground. 
 To shift the siege gun from its carriage to the mortar-wagon. 
 
 452. The piece and mortar-wagon are both limbered ; the 
 latter is pl.aced in rear of the former, but faced in the oppo- 
 site direction ; the windlass two or three yards from the muzzle 
 of the piece. The instructor causes the roller to be placed under 
 tlie body of the piece as explained in par. 438. 
 
SIEGE GUNS. 217 
 
 He tliea commands : 
 
 1. Haul back the piece. 
 
 The gunner attaches the trace-rope, by its middle, to the knob 
 »I the cascable, and passes the ends to Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 apply themselves as in par. 441. The gunner 
 commands Heave, and the piece is moved bade until the trun- 
 nions rest on the clieelis just behind the chin bolts. 
 
 The roller Is removed by the rear as explained in par. 439, 
 and the wagon is backed up to the carriage, wheel to wheel, and 
 chocked. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Shift the piece. 
 
 The gunner places the shifting-plank from the head of the 
 stock to the mortar-wagon, and places the roller on It under the 
 chase, working it back as far toward the trunnions as practica- 
 ble, tlie piece being raised by successive purchases oyer the 
 cheeks and under tlie chase. Remove the bolster (which is nse- 
 ful as a fulcrum); a turn is taken around each manoeuvering 
 bolt with the trace-rope, which Is held by Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 
 10. At the command HEAVE from the gunner, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 
 anil i bear down on the muzzle and permit the piece to run 
 forward onto the wagon, where the chase is received on a roller. 
 
 The roller is removed and the piece stowed as explained in 
 par. 450. 
 
 Note. — The gun may be shifted to the raortar-wagon, (the 
 piece being limbered,) without a sliifting-plauk, by the use of a 
 second roller to receive the body of the gun on the mortar-wagon. 
 The preliminaries are the same as before; the trunnions being 
 lield on the cheeks, the roller is placed well up, just in rear 
 of them ; the trace-rope taut and around the manoeuvering 
 bolts ; the muzzle is raised, the wagon backed wheel to wheel, 
 and the chase rested on a roller which is placed on the rear 
 cross-bar plate, and receives the body of the gun as the first 
 roller runs off the head of the stock. 
 
 To shift the siege gun from the mortar-wagon to its carriage. 
 
 453i This operation is executed by means the inverse of 
 those explained in the preceding paragraphs. 
 
 When the trunnions are over their beds, the shifting-plank 
 and roller are extricated by cross-lifts under the chase, and 
 the chase allowed to rest on a roller so placed that when the 
 mortar-wagon is run to the front the muzzle will clear the wagon 
 as it drops from the roller; thus permitting the trunnions to fall 
 
218 MECHANICAL MANCEUVEES. 
 
 into their beds. Meanwhile tlie piece is lielcl fast by taking one 
 or two turns of the traoe-rope round the manoeuveiing bolts. 
 
 To stand the siege howitzer on its muzzle, 
 
 454. The piece is lying on the ground. The instructor 
 commands : 
 
 1. Raise the chase. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2 insert their handspilces in the muzzle and choclc 
 them on top; No. 4 crosses liis handspilse under those in the 
 muzzle, and is assisted to lift by Nos. 3, 5, and 6; Nos. 7 and 8 
 assist Nos. 1 and 2. At tlie command Heave from the gunner, 
 the piece is raised and a shifting-plank run under it parallel to 
 the axis ; a short roller is placed on the plank under the trun- 
 nions perpendicular to the axis of the piece. The roller is chocked 
 front and rear. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Baise the bebech. 
 
 (Fig. 1, Plate 22.) Nos. 1 and 2 withdraw their handspikes; 
 No. 2 crosses his over the muzzle, r.nd is assisted to bear down 
 .by Nos. 1, 3, and 4 ; No. 6 crosses his under the neck of the 
 cascable, and is assisted to lift by Nos. 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10. At 
 the command Heave by the gunner, the breech is i-aised until 
 tiie muzzle rests upon the ground. The men at the muzzle 
 hold it in this position while the gunner attaches the middle of 
 a trace-rope by two half hitches to the middle of a handspike', 
 and places it under the neck of the cascable ; the ends of the rope 
 are brought up, one on each side of the cascable, and crossed on 
 the breech ; Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, the gunner, and chief-of-detachment 
 man the ropes and hold taut, while Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 man 
 the handspike. 
 
 The gunner then commands : Heave ; and all lift and haul 
 until the piece stands on the muzzle. 
 
 To dismount the siege howitzer. 
 
 (Fig. 2, Plate 22.) 
 
 455. The piece being unlimbered, the instructor commands: 
 
 1. Dismount the piece. 
 
 The gunner attaches one end of a trace-rope to one of the 
 manoeuvering bolts; Nos. 3 and 4 chock the wheels front and 
 rear ;• Nos. 1 and 2 lay their handspikes on the ground parallel 
 to the axis of the piece, in such position that the muzzle, when 
 it comes over, will rest squarely on their largest part,— or if a 
 
SIEGE HOWITZERS. 219 
 
 shifting-plank is used, they jilace it insteaii of the handspilies ; 
 No. 10 liolds on to the rope; all the other numbers lift by hand 
 at the stock; Nos. 1 and 2 being nearest the axle-tree, and the 
 other numbers arranged in their order towards the trail. At the 
 command Heave from the gunner, the trail is i-aised until a 
 handspike, butt end on the ground, can be placed under it by 
 No. 9,who, following up the movement, supports the stock. The 
 gunner repeats the command Heave until the mnzzle rests 
 squarely on the handspikes or shifting-plank ; the numbers at 
 tlie stock quit it as the weight passes to the front, and go to the 
 assistance of No. 10 at the rope. 
 
 As soon as the piece rests on the muzzle, Nos. 3 and 4 remove 
 the cap-squares. 
 
 The gunner cautions those at the rope to keep a slight strain 
 on it, and directs Nos. 3 and 4 to move the wheel-chocks to the 
 rear, an inch or two at a time ; Nos. 5 and 6, at the wheels, 
 move the carriage back ; Nos. 1 and 2 steady the piece ; Nos. 3 
 and 4 follow up the movement of the wheels with the front 
 chocks. The movement is repeated, under the direction of the 
 gunner, until the carriage is backed sufficiently far for the checks 
 to clear the trunnions; No. 9, regulating the position of the 
 handspike, supporting it at each movement of the wheels, so as 
 to keep its preponderance to the rear without lowering it so 
 nuich as to cause the key bolts to interfere with the piece. The 
 trail is then lowered by means similar to those for raising it. 
 
 A turn with the rope around some secure object will prevent 
 tile danger of the trail falling over. 
 
 To mount a siege howitzer. 
 
 456. The piece is standing with its muzzle on a shifting- 
 plank, or on handspikes ; the carriage, unlimbored, is as close to 
 the piece as practicable and have the heads of the cheeks clear 
 the trunnions when the trail is raised ; the wheels arc chocked 
 front and rear. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Mount the piece. 
 
 The gunner attaches the trace-rope to one of the manoeuver- 
 ing bolts ; Nos. 3 and 4 remove the cap-squares. The trail is 
 raised as explained in the preceding paragraph untU it is nearly 
 vertical, Nos. 7 and 8 passing to the rope after tlie trail is sup- 
 ported by the handspike. The trail is raised slowly, No. 10 
 being careful that it does not pass the perpendicular, and No. 9 
 that the supporting handspike is properly placed. Nos. 3 and 
 4, at the direction of the gunner, move tlie wheel-chocks to the 
 
220 MECHANICAL MANCEUVKES. 
 
 front, an inch or two at a time, and Nos. 1, 2, 5, and 6, at tli* 
 wheels, move forward the carriage, Nos. 3 and 4 following np- 
 the wheels with tlie rear chocks. The trail is kept nearly per- 
 pendicular, and the handspike adjusted by No. 9. These move^ 
 ments are repeated until the trunnions rest in their beds, when 
 the cap-squares are secured by Nos. 3 and 4 and the trail lower- 
 ed to the ground. Nos. 1 and 2 assist by lifting with their 
 liandspikes under the heads of the cheeks until they can embar " 
 under the muzzle. All the remaining numbers, except No. 9, 
 haul on the rope. As the weight comes on the stock, the men, 
 in succession, leave the trace-rope and take liold of the stoclc, 
 and lower it by hand to the ground. 
 
 Note. — ^If the piece is standing on the ground, instead of on a 
 plunk or handspikes, raise the trail as before until the trun- 
 nions rest against the cheeks, near and, if possible, above the 
 kej' bolts; put tlie sling-chain {^Fig. 3, Plate 22) around the 
 piece from beliind, the ends brought to the front imder the 
 trunnions; thence up around tliem and through the trunnion 
 beds, whei'e tliey are hooked together ; or, if the linlvS are lai-ge 
 enough, catch two of them on tlie chin bolts, the chain being in 
 either case hauled taut. Lower the trail to the ground in the 
 inverse mannei- of raising it, as just explained. 
 
 If tlie piece has been well slung the trunnions will rest on the 
 cheeks, in front of their beds. To get tliem into their beds, lim- 
 ber up ; place the roller under the body ; attach the trace-rope by 
 its middle to the neck of the cascable, and take a turn with the 
 ends around the axle-tree ; raise the muzzle and slacken care- 
 fully on the rope until the trunnions are in place ; after which 
 the roller is removed. 
 
 To mount the siege howitzer on its carriage as a mortar. 
 
 45'?. The piece is lying on the ground, vent up; the car- 
 riage, pointing in the opposite direction, is placed so that the 
 heads of the cheeks are about two yards from the face of the 
 piece, and then dismounted. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Mount the piEcfe as a moktab. 
 
 The muzzle is raised and a roller placed under the piece, as 
 explained in par. 454. On soft ground, it will be necessary to 
 place a shifting-plank under the roller. 
 
 The body of the carriage is then moved up by erabarring with 
 handspikes under the manoenveTing bolts and axle, and cross- 
 lifting under the heads of the cheeks, until a shifting-plank can 
 be placed, (by lifting at the muzzle,) one end on the head of the 
 
SIEGE HOWITZERS. 221 
 
 «toclc, beveled side up, and the other about six inches in rear of 
 tlie trunnions. At the time of placing the planlc, tlie roller is 
 shifted to a point about sixteen inches in front Of the trunnions 
 And cliocked. The plank is shored up witli the bntt end of a 
 liandspike. The gunner lays the middle of the trace-rope over 
 the piece and takes a round turn from the I'oar upon each trun- 
 nion with the ends of it. (Fig. 4. Plate 22.) Through tlie loop 
 -of these turns, No. 2 passes a handspike, and is assisted at the 
 •other end by No. 1 in keeping the piece from rolling while it is 
 being hauled up the plank. The ends of the rope are drawn 
 taut, crossed over the chase, and manned by Nos. 5 to 10 upon 
 their respective sides. Nos. 3 and 4 embar with handspikes 
 under the trunnions until the piece is started, and then shift, as 
 the pieco ascends, to a handspike placed crosswise under the 
 cascable. 
 
 The gi nner commands : Heave, and the piece is hauled and 
 pushed ratil its trunnions rest over their beds, when the roller 
 Is chock id and the rope removed ; the breech is raised, the 
 roller an i plank removed, and the trunnions lowered into their 
 beds; tte cap-squares are replaced. By raising the trail and 
 sustain' tig it in that position with blocking or by a bank of earth, 
 an elcT-ition of about 40 degrees can be obtained, and by exca- 
 vating nnder the breech a still higher degree. The trail may 
 "be us'jii as a lever in pointing. 
 
 Tho service of the piece is almost the same as when it is 
 raoui ted in the usual manner. It is found in practice that the 
 recoli is very slight, the centre of gravity being nearly over the 
 axle. 
 
 To dismount the howitzer. 
 
 458. Let down the trail and raise the muzzle until a wheel- 
 c^ 'i''k, base up, can be placed in each trunnion bed ; raise tlie 
 br;ech and place the shifting-plank and roller on the head of 
 the stock ; the roller should be just within the cheeks and chocked 
 in rear ; raise the trail by cross-lifting until the trunnions are 
 •free from the key bolts. The chock of the roller is then knocked 
 -out by the gunner, and the piece allowed to run down the plank 
 upon the ground. The plank should be shored up as before, and 
 'those near the piece must stand clear. 
 
222 MECHANICAL MANCEUVEES. 
 
 Ranges of tlie 8-inch /wwitzer mounted as a mortar. 
 
 CnABGIS. 
 
 Pkojectilb. 
 
 Elbvation. 
 
 BA17GE. 
 
 TntE OF 
 Fliobt. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Shell— Lbs. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Tarda. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 4 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 330 
 
 
 8 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 620 
 
 
 12 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 1080 
 
 14.75 
 
 14 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 1135 
 
 15.37 
 
 16 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 1440 
 
 16.42 
 
 20 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 1925 
 
 
 Spherical case can be used with great effect against troops in 
 trenches it made to burst fifty or one hundred feet before reacli- 
 ing the ground. 
 
 The charge should not exceed one-half of the service charge 
 of the piece. 
 
 To dismount a siege carriage and its limber. 
 
 459. The carriage being without its piece, and unlimbered, 
 the wheels are removed in succession. 
 To remove the right wheel, the iustructor commands : 
 
 1. DlSMOinST THE BIGHT WHEEL. 
 
 No. 1 crosses his handspike from the front, under the axle- 
 tree, as near the wheel as possible, and is assisted to lift by Nos. 
 2, 3, and 4; Nos. 5, G, 7, and 8 lift at the other end; Nos. 9 
 and 10 remove the linch-pins, and apply themselves to the wheel. 
 Tlie gunner commands : Heave ; the wheel is removed and the 
 axle-tree lowered to the ground, or on a block. 
 
 The left wheel is taken off in a corresponding manner. 
 
 The carriage may be mounted in a similar manner. 
 
 It may sometimes be advantageous to raise the carriage to the 
 necessary height by successive purcliases, with handspikes as 
 levers, and support it on props. The limber may also be used 
 to lift tlie carriage, but it will generally be found more expedi- 
 tions to mount it as above described. 
 
 The limber is readily dismounted and mounted by passing the 
 long handspikes between the sweep-bar and axle-tree, the butt 
 ends resting on the splinter-bar ; six men lift on the handspikes 
 and two at each wheel. 
 
 The mortar-wagon may be dismounted in like manner, the 
 
SIEGE MORTARS. 223 
 
 men taking hold of the rails and handspikes passed under the 
 windlass and over the axle-tree. 
 
 To change or grease a wheel. The lifting-jack is applied under 
 the axle-tree near the wheel to be removed, or the wheel may 
 be removed by using handspikes as levers and blocks as ful- 
 crums, under the axle-tree ; the axle may be temporarily sup- 
 ported by a prop. 
 
 By using the trail as a lever, a wheel may be changed, when 
 the piece is unlimbered, as follows : Eaise the trail as in limber- 
 ing, and place a prop, about thirty inches in length, under the 
 cheek close in the rear of the axle-tree on the side on which the 
 wheel is to be changed. Bear down on the trail and tiie wheel 
 will clear the ground. 
 
 Mechanical Manceuvhes with IO-inch Siege Moetae. 
 
 460. The implements required are those habitually accom- 
 panying eacli piece and the mortar-wagon, viz.: Fonr liand- 
 spi'/ces, (mortar), two handspikes (manoeuvering), one trace-rope, 
 one hammer -wrench, two long rollers, four roller-chocks, six 
 wheel-chocks, two handspikes (windlass). 
 
 To stand the mortar on one of its trunnions. 
 
 {Fig. 5, Plate 22.) 
 
 4611. The mortar is lying on the ground or on its platform. 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Stand the moktak on the eight (or left) teunnion. 
 
 The gnnner passes the middle of tlie trace-rope around one of 
 the trunnions from underneath; the ends are carried over the 
 mortar and manned by all the cannoneers. The gunner then 
 commands : Heave, and the piece is pulled over on Its trun- 
 nion. 
 
 To stand the mortar on its muzzle. 
 
 {Fig. 6, Plate 22.) 
 
 462. The piece Is standing on oiie of its trunnions. The 
 instructor commands : 
 
 1. Stand the moetae on its muzzle. 
 
 Tlie gunner passes the middle of the trace-rope under tlie 
 mortar in front of the trunnion ; carries the ends back, crosses 
 them over the breech and passes them to the front, one on each 
 side of the upper trunnion. He then commands : Heave, and 
 
224 MECHANICAL MANfflUVRES. 
 
 the piece is hauled over on its muzzle by the rest of the detach- 
 ment at the trace-rope. 
 
 To slue the mortar. 
 
 463. The mortar being on its muzzle, the iKStructor indi- 
 cates the direction in which it is to be slued, and commands : 
 
 1. Slue the moetak. 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6 embar against the trunnions on opposite sides, 
 lid, at the command Heave by the gunner, turn the piece about 
 its axis. To shift the piece when in this position, Nos, 5 and 6 
 embar on the same side. 
 
 To dismount the mortar. 
 
 464. The mortar is on its carriage, which is on the platform 
 or on the ground. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Dismount the mobtah. 
 
 The gunner, assisted by STo. 4, gives the mortar an elevation 
 of twenty-one degrees, or, if no quadrant is at hand, brings the 
 plane of the face of the piece tangent to the front ends of the 
 clujeks; he then throws the bight of the trace-rope over the 
 middle of the pipe, and, drawing the ends througli the loop, 
 passes them to the rear to Ifos. 7, 8, 9, and 10, who haul on them 
 with sufBoicnt force, when the carriage has been raised, to keep 
 it from falling to the front; No. 2 passes a handspike under the 
 rear notclies and over the rope; the cannoneers man the hand- 
 spilce in tlie following order from right to left : Nos. 1, 3, 5, 6, 
 4, 2, all facing to the front. The gunner commands : Heave; 
 tlie cannoneers at the handspike lift on it until tln^ face of tlie 
 piece rests upon the platform or ground. (Fig. 7, Plate 22.) 
 The cap-squares are removed by Nos. 3 and 4, assisted by Nos. 
 1 and 2, and placed in rear of their posts, tlie nuts on the cap- 
 squares. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Lower the caebiage. 
 
 The cannoneers man the handspike and rope as before. The 
 gunner commands : Heave. The cannoneers haul upon the 
 rope, and the four nearest the mortar leave it in succession, ap- 
 plying tliemselves to the handspikes as the weight comes npoii 
 it, to prevent any unnecessary shock. The cap-squares are re- 
 placed by Nos. 3 and 4; No. 2 removes the handspike, and the 
 gunner the trace-rope. 
 
SIEGE MORTARS. 225 
 
 To mount the mortar, 
 
 465. The mortar is standing upon its muzzle; the front of 
 the carriage eighteen inches from it, on the side opposite the 
 vent. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Mount the mobtab. 
 
 The cap-squares are removed by Ifos. 3 and 4 and placed, with 
 their nuts, in rear of their posts. The gunner attaches the trace- 
 rope to the pipe, and the cannoneers apply themselves to the 
 lope and handspike as described in the preceding paragrapli. 
 Tlie gnnner commands: Heave; and vvlien tlic weight of tlie 
 carriage is fairlj' supported by the rope, Nos. 3 and 4 take their 
 liandspilves and, embarring against tlie manoeuvei-ing bolts, move 
 the bed as may be necessaiy until the trunnions are in their beds. 
 Assisted by Ifos. 1 and 2, they put on the cap-squares. 
 
 The instructor then commands : 
 
 1. Lower the mobtab. 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4, facing to the rear, embar with their handspilces 
 under tlie cap-squares, and subsequently under the front notches ; 
 the other cannoneers apply themselves at the rope and hand- 
 spike, and the mortar is lowered as described in par. 404. 
 
 To mount the mortar upon the mortar-wagon. 
 
 466. The mortar is on its carriage ; the carriage, on the plat- 
 form or on tlie ground ; the trail of the mortar-wagon, its stakes 
 and bolster i-emoved, is about two yards from the pipe and per- 
 pendicular thereto. 
 
 The instructor coYnmands: 
 
 1. Kaise the mobtab. 
 
 Executed as prescribed in par. 464, except that the mortar 
 need not be given any particular elevation, and, instead of 
 allowing it to go over until the muzzle strikes the ground, the 
 carriage is poised in nearly a vertical position by Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 5, and G, while Nos. 7 and 8, embarring with handspikes uiiilpr 
 the stock of tlie vvagon, guide it under the mortar carriage mid- 
 way between and parallel to the cheeks ; Nos. and 10 working 
 at the wheels. The stock is run under the carriage as far as 
 practicable and the wheels chocked front and rear; the long 
 roller is placed on it by the gunner in such position tliat wlien 
 the carriage is lowered its point of contact with the roller will 
 be twenty inches from the toes of the shoes ; the moitar is then 
 lowered upon tlie roller. 
 15 
 
226 MECHANICAL MANCBUVRES. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. KiCt THE -wrNDLASS. 
 
 The gnnner lays the middle of tlie trace-rope across the rear 
 notches; Nos. 1 and 2 pass the ends underneath and around the 
 rear manoeuverins; bolts, and, carrying them to the rear, take two 
 turns witli them around the windlass. The windlass is manned 
 as explained in par. 450, and is worked at the command Heave 
 from the gunner. 
 
 As soon as the mortar is in motion, tlie second long roller is 
 engaged undei- the shoe, by Nos. 3 and 4, twenty inches from 
 the lower roller, measuring from axis to axis. The lower roller 
 will then disengage just as the mortar is balanced on the upper 
 roller. Nos. 5 and 6 steady the mortar with handspikes. 
 
 As soon as the lower I'oiler is disengaged, it is taken out by 
 Nos. 3 and 4, who again engage it twenty inches above the other 
 roller. The mortar is drawn back on the last roller until the 
 heels of the shoes abut against the hurtere on the rear cross-bar 
 plate. The roller is now cliocked in front, and particularly in 
 rear, by Nos. 3 and 4. 
 
 Th<j instructor commands : 
 
 1. LiMBEB UP. 
 
 Executed as in par. 450. 
 
 The gunner then secures the lashing-chain. 
 
 In raising tlie stock, in limbering and unlimbering, great care 
 must be taken not to raise it so high as to endanger the over- 
 turning of the wagon to the rear. 
 
 The ii;struetor commands : 
 
 1. Stow the mortab. 
 
 No. 4 removes the front roUer^mhock, and satisfies himself that 
 the rear roller-chock Is in place ; Nos. 5 and G embar over the 
 side rails and under the shoes, near the rear notches, to cant 
 the carriage to the front; Nos. 1 and 2 ease away gently, and 
 permit the carriage to move forward on the roller until the 
 fKont notches are over the front cross-bar plate. If the car- 
 riage does not move far enough forward on the roller after 
 canting, Nos. 5 and G embar over the side rails and under the 
 front notches, and pinch the carriage forward to its place. The 
 roller is then removed from the rear, and the ctrriage lowered 
 onto the wagon by repeated purchases, the disengaged roller- 
 chocks and bolster being placed by the gunner as fulcrums on 
 the rear of the wagon. If the mortar is to travel, its carrian-c is 
 securely lashed to the wagon, " 
 
SIEGE MOKTARS. 227 
 
 467. The most convenient way of caiTying the hnplemeuts, 
 is to lit a bed to the mortar-wagon. The bei.1 is raatlo o£ stout 
 boards about a foot wide ; those for tlie sides are Iield in place 
 by rope becliots passed througli. auger lioles in tlie boards and 
 around the stalies of ihe wagon; the end boards fit between 
 cleats nailed to the ends of the side boards; the whole forminj? 
 a box about seven feet long, with a vi^idtli equal to the width of 
 tlie wagon. Slots are cut in the side boards for the raancEnver- ' 
 ing bolts, whicli project slightly beyond the side rails of the 
 wagon. 
 
 To dismount the mortar Jrom the wagon. 
 
 46S. Tlie mortar is unlashed ; the implements, bolster, and 
 stakes of the wagon are removed. 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Dismount the mobtab. 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6 embar over the side rails and under the rear 
 notches, using ohoclvs and bolster as fulcrums, and by repeated 
 purchases raise the mortar carriage until a long roller can be 
 placed under it with the points of contact two feet from the toes 
 of the shoes. 
 
 The instructor then commands : 
 
 1. Rio the windlass. 
 
 The gunner attaches the trace-rope, and the windlass is rigged 
 as explained in par. 450. At tlio command Heave from the 
 gunner, tlie mortar is drawn back against the hurters, Nos. 5 
 and embarring imdor the shoes and over the side rails, to ease 
 tlie carriage when it cants to the rear; Nos. 3 and 4 cliock the 
 roller front and (especially) rear. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Unlimbee. 
 
 Executed as explained in par. 451. 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Lower the moktab. 
 
 Jfos. 1 and 2 slack off on the rope, and tlie mortar is eased- 
 down the stock. The second long roller is engaged under the 
 front of the carriage as soon as the mortar cants to the front, 
 so that the distance between the rollers, measuring from axis to 
 axis, shall be twenty iyches; the rollers are shitted in this iiiaii- 
 ni'r by Nos. 3 and 4 until llio carriage rests on the ground ; 
 Nos. 5 and C" with tlicir handspikes, steady the mortar wliilu 
 
228 MECHANICAL MANCEUVRES. 
 
 being eased down the stock; Nos. 3 and 4 iincliook the wlieels, 
 and the wagon is run back by Nos. 5 and 6 at tlie stock, and 
 Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 at the wheels. The rope is removed by Nos. 
 1 and 2 and the gunner. The lonar roller is removed as it was 
 placed under the carriage. {Par. 465.) 
 
 2'o mount and dismount the &-inch mortar on mortar-wagon. 
 
 Executed in a manner similar to that explained for the 10- 
 inch mortar. 
 
 For transportation, three 8-inch mortars can be carried on the 
 mortar-wagon. They are stowed transversely to the wagon, one 
 pointing to the right and two to the left, or vice versa, and 
 securely lashed in this position. 
 
 To dismount the li-inch mortar, and to mount it, 
 
 469. Implements : Eight wJiole hlochs, eight half blocks, four 
 quarter blocks, four handspikes (manceuvering), one sledge-ham^ 
 mer, four chocks (roller), one quadrant, one hammer-wrench, one 
 nut-wrench (large), two nut-wrenches (small), one two-foot rule. 
 
 Tlie instructor commands : 
 
 1. Pbepabe to dismount the mortar. 
 
 Remove all implements, and place them outside the platform ; 
 take off tlie steps, diagonal braces, eccentricsockets, wheels, axle, 
 and cap-squiires ; give the mortar an elevation of five degrees, 
 in order tliat it will rest level when on the blocks. 
 
 1. Dismount the moetak. 
 
 (Figs. 1 and 2, Plate 23.) Embar with the long handspilces 
 under the rear notclies, using blocks as f ulcrums, and by succes- 
 sive purchases raise the carriage until a whole block can be 
 placed under tlie shoes, its front directly beneath the rear tran- 
 som ; place two whole and one quarter block under the mortar, 
 ui rear, and the same in front of tlie trunnions; lower the car- 
 riage gently onto tlie platform, being careful to chock the mor- 
 tar as soon as it touches the blocks ; remove the rear transom 
 and pipe, and lay the cheeks down upon the ground. 
 
 1. Pbepaee to mount the moktab. 
 
 Raise the cheeks and place them with the trunnion beds under 
 the trunnions ; put in the rear transom and pipe. 
 
 1. Mount the mortae. 
 
 Embar as before under the rear notches, raising the carriage 
 until the mortar is lifted clear of the blocks ; remove the blocks, 
 
13-INCn MORTAR. 22'J 
 
 ami lower the can-iage gently to the platform. Give the mortar 
 an elevation of 45 degrees, and replace tlie (jross-braccs, axlo, 
 wlioels, eccentric sockets, steps, cap-squares, and implements. 
 
 Ill tills raancBiivre care must be taken to raise the rear part of 
 the cheeks equally, so that the great weigiit of tlie mortar may 
 not sway the cheeks sideways and warp tlie carriage out of true 
 sliape. 
 
 470. Wlien a garrison gin is available, the best method is 
 to make use of it. The block is hoolved into a clevis attached to 
 the clevis lug. When tliere is no clevis lug a bail must be used. 
 It is necessary to remove the upper step or transom of tlie car- 
 riage, and level the mortar, before hoisting. 
 
 Ill the absence of a gin, the mortars may be dismounted with 
 the liydraulic-jack and blocks. The steps, diagonal braces, and 
 transoms, excepting the pipe, are removed, and the muzzle de- 
 pressed two degrees, the breech resting on the scaffolding and 
 chocked on each side. The jack is placed under the muzzle, and 
 tlie mortar is raised until ifs weight is off the trunnion beds. A 
 scaffolding under the muzzle sustains the mortar in this position, 
 and the cheeks are taken apart and removed. 
 
 To place the IZ-incli mortar and carriage on rollers. 
 
 471. The following implements are necessaiy: "Four rollers 
 (78 inches long), four whole blocks, iovkr half blocks, two quarter 
 blocks, and four chocks (roller). 
 
 Embar under the rear notches perpendicular to the cheeks, 
 and raise the rear of the carriage until a quarter block can be 
 inserted under each shoe. These quarter blocks are worked to 
 the front by successive purchases until half blocks can be in- 
 serted in place of tlie quarter blocks. The half blocks are worked 
 to the front as before until a roller can be inserted under the 
 slioes. 
 
 Tills roller is worked to the front until it is nearly under the 
 I'cceiitric axle, and another roller is placed behind it near tlic 
 heels of the shoes. The rollers are chocked front and rear. 
 Embar under the front notches and cant the mortar to the rear 
 on both rollers. 
 
 The mortar may then be moved short distances by attaching 
 blocks and tackle to it. Way-planks arc placed on tlie ground 
 for the rollers to run on. 
 
 To raise a \Z-inch mortgr from the ground and place it on blocks. 
 {Fig. 3, Plate 23.) 
 
 472. Build a scaffolding of blocks, about a yard from the 
 Ijiece, on each side of it; lay a stout skid across the mortar on 
 
230 ■ MACHINES AND APPLIANCES 
 
 tliese scaffolds, and lash the mortar, by means of sliiig-chaiiis, 
 to this skid. If there is no clevis lug on the mortar, truimioii 
 rings or a bail must be used. Apply the jack alternately under 
 the ends of the skid, and raise tliem a few inches at a time, each 
 time blocking up on the scaffolds. 
 
 By this means the mortar can be raised and blocks placed 
 under it. If a jack is not available, a stout lever will answer to 
 raise the ends of the skid. 
 
 To transport a 13-inch mortar on sling-carts. 
 {Fig. 4, Plate 23.) 
 
 4'V3. The piece is raised, as just explained, on blocks about 
 fifteen inches from the ground. Two sling- carts (large) are 
 placed, one in front and the other in rear, with their poles point- 
 ing in opposite directions and their wlieels about eighteen inches 
 apart. Upon the sling-carts place two heavy skids, with a space 
 of about six inches between them. Across tlie skids place a 
 stout beam, around which suspend tlie mortar by means of sling- 
 chains passing down between the skids to the clevis lug, bail, or 
 trunnion-chains. The blocks underneath the mortar are re- 
 moved either with a jack or by means of a lever. 
 
 The pole of one of tlio cirts is attached to a field limber, to 
 wliich horses are liitched. When the ground is soft, way-planks 
 should be placed under the cart-wheels. 
 
 To obtain greater freedom of motion for turning, a temporary 
 bolster sliould be placed on the front cart. A liole is made 
 through the bolster for the screw of the cart to pass through, 
 and to hold the bolster to the axle-tree. Notches should be 
 made in the skids to fit the bolsters of the carts, to keep them 
 from slipping. 
 
 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES POR MOVING 
 HEAVY ARTILLERY. 
 
 474. The machines and appliances usually employed for 
 moving heavy artillery are : 
 
 Ropes, blocks, and Railway truck. Hand-cart 
 
 taclde. Cradle. Blocks (whole, half, 
 
 tl'""- ,. . , Gun-hft. and quarter), 
 
 llydrauhc-jaoks. Capstan. Way-planks 
 
 Sling-carts. Derrick. ' Pinch-bars." 
 
 Casemate truck. Shears. Mortar-wagon, 
 
 i iiick-wagon. Blocks and skids. CoUar. 
 
FOR MOVING HEAVY ARTILLERY. 231 
 
 Tliese, with the implements used in the mechanical manceii- 
 vres with siege pieces, are siifHoieut to manage the heaviest pieces 
 of artillery ill all cases which ordinarily present themselves in 
 service. 
 
 475. All implements and machines, before being used, should 
 be most carefully examined in every detail, to see that they ai-e 
 serviceable and suitable for the operation to be pei-formed. 
 None should be put to uses for which they are not intended, 
 nor subjected to strains they are not constructed to bear. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the giving way of one part 
 breaks and destroys other parts, frequently to an extent not 
 readily repaired, and, furthermore, endangers those working 
 at the manoeuvre. Heavy weights must never be allowed to 
 drop, even for the sliortest distances ; they must be lowci'ed to 
 rest with a gentle motion, and at the same time chocked to pre- 
 vent rolling or sliding. In hoisting, thej' must, when practica- 
 ble, be closely followed up with blocks and chocks to guard 
 against any possible giving way. All motions with heavy bodies 
 must be slow, so as not to generate momentum. 
 
 Supports must have a firm base, and scaffoldUig a level foun- 
 dation, and be built up vertically. All holdfasts must be secure 
 beyond possibility of giving way. 
 
 Cordage. 
 {Plaies 24, 25, 2G, 27, 28.) 
 
 dVG. A rope is composed of threads of hemp or other fibrous 
 material. These threads are called yarns. A number of these 
 yarns twisted together form a strand, and three or more strands 
 twisted together form a rope. 
 
 The ropes in ordinary use are composed of three strands laid 
 righi-lianded, or, as it is called, with the sun. Occasionally a 
 large rope will be found laid up in four sti-ands, also with the sun. 
 This is generally used for stationar}' rigging, sucli as shrouds, 
 guys, heavy gun-slings, &c., and is sometimes culled shroud laid. 
 Small halyards are sometimes laid with four strands and a core; 
 this l<ind of rope runs more sraootiily and wears longer. 
 
 Cable-laid rope is composed of nine strands, and is made by 
 first laying up tlu-ee ropes of three strands each, with the sun, 
 and then laying the three ropes np together into one, against 
 the sun. 
 
 Kight-hand rope must be coiled with the sun, and cable-laid 
 rope against the sun. 
 
 The size of rope is always given in inches and fractions, and 
 is measured on the circumference, for the reason that it is seldom 
 
232 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 possible to g:et a squarely-cnt end in order to measure the diam- 
 eter. In making requisitions for rope, it should be clearly indi- 
 cated that this measure is the one considered. 
 
 Spun-yarn is made by twisting together very loosely two or 
 more well-tarred yarns, and is designated by the number of 
 jarns ; as, two-j'arn. three-yarn, &c. It is used for serving, seiz- 
 ings, stops,' &e., and is very pliable. 
 
 Marline is also made of tarred yarns, but is tightly twisted, 
 and is much harder and smoother than spuii-yarn. It is not iit 
 for serving when the rope served is to be bent up, as it is not 
 pliable enough to cover the rope in such cases. 
 
 4'?"Y. The bight of a rope is any part not an end. 
 
 A bight is formed by bending or doubling the rope so as to 
 form a loop. 
 
 This distinction should be particularly noted, and the two 
 terms should not be confounded. 
 
 The interstices between the strands of a rope are called theyaro, 
 and rope is called long or short jawed as it is loosely or tightly 
 laid up together. 
 
 Those ropes which are Ptationar3' are called standing rigging ; 
 as, guys for a gin. gun-slings, &c. Those which run through 
 blocks or pullej's, such as gin-falls, trace-ropes, &c., are running 
 rigging. 
 
 ATS. Worming a rope is filling up the divisions between the 
 strands by passing spun-yarn along them, to render the surface 
 smooth for parceling and serving. 
 
 Parceling a rope is wrapping narrow strips of canvas .abont it, 
 well tarred, in order to secure it from being injured by rain 
 water lodging between the parts of the service when worn. The 
 parceling is put on with the lay of the rope. Parceling is also 
 used to prevent chafing or cutting of a rope when a strain is 
 brought against a rough surface or sharp edge. For this pur- 
 pose old rope or canvas wound around is suflicient. 
 
 Serving is the laying on of spun-yarn or other small stuffin turns 
 i-ound tlie rope, close together, and hove taut by the use of a 
 serving board for small rope and serving mallet for largo rope. 
 Small ropes are sometimes served without being wormed, as the 
 crevices between the strands are not large enough to make the 
 sinface very uneven; but a large rope is always woi-med and 
 parceled before being seiTed. The service is put on against the 
 lay of the rope. 
 
 Whipping is securing the end of a rope with twine to prevent 
 it from fraying out. For temporary use it may be done by wind- 
 ing twine about the end of the rope and securing the end of the 
 twine by passing it under two or more turns of the twine and 
 
CORDAGE. 233 
 
 pulling it tight. It Is better, however, to secure the cuds by sew- 
 ing them throngli the rope, so that each stitch lies in the division 
 between two strands. This is called a sewed whipping. 
 
 4'S'9. Splicing is putting the ends of ropes together by open- 
 ing the strands and placing them into one another, or by putting 
 the strands of the ends of a rope between those of the bight. 
 
 A short splice. Unlay the strands for a convenient length ; 
 then take an end in each hand, place them one within the other, 
 and di'aw them close. Hold the end of one rope and the three 
 strands which come from the opposite rope fast in the left hand, 
 or if the rope be large, stop them down to it with a rope-yarn. 
 Take the miUOle strand, wliicU is free, pass it over the strand 
 which is first next to it, then through under the second and out 
 between the second and third from It, then haul it taut. Pass 
 each of the six strands in the same manner; first those of one 
 end and then those of the other. The same operation may be 
 repeated with each strand, passing eaoli over the third strand 
 from it, under the fourth, and through ; or, as is more usual, 
 after the ends have been stuck once, untwist each strand, di- 
 vide the yarns, pass one-half as above described, and cut off the 
 other half. Tliis tapers tlie splice. 
 
 A long splice. Unlay the ends of two ropes to a distance three 
 or four times greater than for a short splice, and place them 
 within one anotlier as for a short splice. Unlay one strand for 
 a considerable distance and fill up the interval wliich it-leaves 
 with the opposite strand from the other rope. Twist the ends 
 of these two together, then do the same with two more strands. 
 The two remaining strands are twisted together in the place 
 where they were first crossed. Open the two last-named sti-ands, 
 divide in two, take an overhand knot with the opposite halves, 
 and lead the ends over tlie next sti-and and through the second 
 as the whole strands weie passed for the short splice. Cut off 
 the other two halves. Do the same with the others that ar(! 
 placed together, dividing, knotting, and passing them in the 
 same manner. Before cutting off any of the half strands., the 
 rope should be got well upon a stretch. Sometimes the wliolc 
 strands are knotted, then divided, and the half strands passed 
 as above described. Tliis splice does not increase the diameter 
 of the rope, and is used for splicing a fall or other rope that runs 
 through blocks or pulleys. 
 
 An eye-splice. Unlay the end of a rope for a short distance 
 and lay the three strands upon the standing part, so as to form 
 an eye. Put tlie first end tln-ough the strand next to it. Put 
 the second end over that strand and througli the second, and put 
 (he remaining end through the third strand on the other side of 
 
234 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 till! rope. Taper them, as in the short pplice, by dividing the 
 strands and sticlcino; them again. This is used to form a perma- 
 nent loop in the end of a rope. 
 
 A grommet. Take a strand jnst nnlaid from a rope, with all 
 its turns in it, and form a ring of the size you wish by putting 
 the end over the standing part. Then take the long end and 
 carry it twice round the ring in the crevices, following the lay 
 until the ring is complete ; then take an overhand knot with the 
 two ends, divide the yarns, and stick them as in a long splice. 
 Used for a trunnion loop for rolling or sluing a gun. 
 
 4 SO. Two half hitches. Pass the end of a rope round the 
 standing part and bring it up through the bight» This is a half 
 hitch. Take it round again in the same manner for two half 
 hitches. 
 
 A clovehitchis made bypassing the end of a rope round a spar, 
 over, and bringing it under and round behind its standing part, 
 over the spar again and up through its own part. It may then, 
 if necessary, be stopped or hitched to its own part; the only 
 difference between two half hitches and a clove hitch being 
 that one is hitched round its own standing part and the other 
 is liitched round a spar or another rope. 
 
 Bound turn and two half hitches. Take a round turn around 
 tlic stakes or posts, and secure the end by two half hitches 
 around tlie standing part. This is very useful in securing tlie 
 guys of the gin to the stakes. 
 
 A bowline knot. Take the end of a rope in your right hand 
 and the standing part in your left ; lay the end over the stand- 
 ing part, and with the left hand make a bight of the standing 
 part over it; take the end under the lower standing part up 
 over the cross, and down through the bight. This is very useful 
 in forming a temporary eye at the end of a rope. 
 
 Square knot. Take an overhand knot round a spar ; take an 
 end in each hand and cross tliem on the same side of the stand- 
 ing part upon which they came up; pass one end roinid the 
 other, and bring it up through the bight. This is sometimes 
 called a reef knot. If the ends are crossed the wrong way, 
 sailors call it a granny knot. 
 
 A timber hitch. Take the end of a i-ope round a spar, lead it 
 inider and over the standing part, and pass two or more round 
 turns around its own part; pass tlie first turn over the end part 
 instead of through the bight, as in a half hitch. Used in secur- 
 ing the ends of the trace-ropes to the manceuvering bolts. 
 
 A tolling hitch. Pass the end of a rope round a spar ; take it 
 round the second time, nearer to the standing part; then carry 
 it across the standing part, over and round the spar and up 
 
CORDAGE. 235 
 
 tlirongh the bight. A strap or ii tail-block is fastenetl to a i-ope 
 by this hitch. Useil in shifting tlie fall from one end of the 
 windlass to the other. (See nipper and screw.) 
 
 A hlackwall hitcJi. Form a bight by putting the end of a rope 
 across and under the standing part; put tlie hook of a tackle 
 through it, the centre of tlie bight resting against the back of 
 tlie hook, and the end jammed hi the bight of the hook by the 
 standing part of the rope. 
 
 J cafs-paw. Make a large bight in a rope, and spread it open, 
 putting one hand at one part of the bight and the other at the 
 other, and letting the standing part and end come together; 
 turn the bight over from yon three times, and a small bight will 
 be formed in each hand ; bring ihe two small bights together, 
 and put the hook of a tackle tlirough them both. This is very 
 useful in applying a purchase or taclde to the fall of another. 
 
 A sheet bend ^veaver's knot). Pass the end of a rope up 
 through the bight of another, round both parts of the other, and 
 under its own part. This does not jam, and is useful in tying 
 two ropes together. 
 
 Carrick bend. Form a bight in a rope and lay tlie end across 
 the standing part ; stick the bight of another rope up thi-ough 
 the loop thus formed, and carry the end over the end of the 
 first I'ope, under the standing part, and through the loop formed 
 by its own bight ; stop each end to its own standing part. 
 
 Fis7ierman''s bend (anchor knot). Take two turns around the 
 gun-slinar or spar with tlie end of the rope ; hitch the end around 
 tiie standing part and tlirough both turns, and then pass the 
 end over the second and under the first turn. 
 
 A slieep shank. Make two lonu; bights in a rope which shall 
 overlay one another; take a half hitch over the end of each 
 biglit witli the standing part wliieli is next to it. Used to shorten 
 a rope temporarily. 
 
 A marlinspike hitch. 'Lay the marlinspike upon the seizing 
 stnff, and bi'ing the end over the standing part so as to form 
 a bight; lay this bight back over the standing part, putting the 
 marlinspike down tlirough the bight, under the standing part, 
 and up tlirough the bight again. Very useful in putting on 
 lashings, &c. 
 
 Stopping \i fastening two parts of a rope together, as for a 
 round seizing, without a crossing or riding. 
 
 Nippering is fastening tliem by taking turns crosswise between 
 the parts to jam them, and sometimes with a round turn before 
 each cross. These are called racking turns. Pass riders over 
 these and fasten the end. This is a convenient way to secure a 
 fall while it is being shifted on the windlass. 
 
236 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 A screw is applied by weaving a light strap tlirough the differ- 
 ent parts of a fall, bringing the two ends togetlier, and screwing 
 the whole, up tight by means of a stick or bar passed thi-ougb 
 the bights. 
 
 A strap, or sling, is formed by knotting or spliemg togetlier tlie 
 ends of a short strand or rope. It is used for hooking tackles 
 into. 
 
 Pointing. Unlay the end of a rope and stop it ;. take out as 
 many yarns as are necessary, and split each yarn in two, and 
 take two parts of different yarns and twist them np tant into 
 nettles; the rest of the yarns are combed down with a knife ; 
 lay half the nettles down on the scraped part, the rest back npou 
 the rope, and pass three turns of twine taut round the part 
 where the nettles separate, and liitch the twine, which is called 
 the warp; lay the nettles backwards and forwards as before, 
 passing tlie warp each time. The ends may be whipped and 
 snaked with twine, or the nettles hitched over the warp and 
 hauled taut. The upper seizing must be snaked. If the upper 
 part is too weak for pointing, put in a piece of stick. This is an 
 elaborate way of whipping ropes, and requires considerable prac- 
 tice. 
 
 Frap. To pass a rope around a lashing to keep the turns 
 together. 
 
 Seizing a rope is connecting the two parts with smaller rope, 
 or spun-yarn. Take a piece of spun-yarn and double it ; pass the 
 bight under the two parts of the rope to be seized; put both 
 ends through it and liaul taut, using a lever applied with the 
 marlinspike liitch ; separate the ends, pass them aronnd the rope 
 in opposite directions until enough turns are taken, liauling 
 each turn taut, and seeing that they lay close and smooth. 
 Cross the seizing by passing the ends in opposite directions be- 
 tween the ropes and around the seizing, and finish with a square 
 knot. 
 
 A lashing is applied on the same principles. After saffioient 
 turns have been taken, the lashing is /rapped by taking the ends 
 around the turns, hauling tliem close together, and making the 
 lashing tighter, of course. 
 
 To pass a shear lashing. Middle the lashing and take a turn 
 round both legs at the cross; pass one end up and tlio other 
 down, around, and over the cross, until half of the lashing is 
 expended ; then ride both ends back again on their own parts 
 and knot them in the middle ; frap the first and riding turns 
 together on each side with sennit. This will be useful in rigging 
 shears for lioisting guns, when a gin is not available. Any two 
 spars tliat will support the weight can be used. 
 
CORDAGE. 
 
 237 
 
 To sling a barrel with both heads in, or a box. Lay it on its 
 side ; lay a lon^ strap iiiider it, spreading the parts ; pass one 
 t)io;ht tln-oiiglvtlie otlicr, on top of tlio barrel, and liooli on to it. 
 
 If one head of the bap-el is out. Stand the barrel up ; put 
 one part of a strap under the middle of the bottom; take a half 
 hitola over the top with each part, the hitches exactly opposite 
 to each other and just above the upper bilge hoops. Hook on 
 to the bight as before. Those hoops applied near the ends of a 
 barrel are the '•'•chime,'''' and those near the centre the " bilge " 
 hoops. 
 
 Table showing the weight which Manila rope in daily use will 
 sustain, singly and when rove in tackles. 
 
 4S1. flemp rope is about one-third stronger. Due allowance 
 has been made for loss of strength by wear and tear. 
 
 Look for tlie weight to be raised, or tlie next larger, in the 
 <jolumn headed with the number of sheaves in the purchase or 
 tackle. The circumference of the rope required will be found 
 on the same line in the left-hand column. 
 
 OmCUMPEEBUOl! 
 
 IN Inches. 
 
 1..... 
 
 la.. 
 IH.. 
 W.. 
 
 2)6.. 
 
 31i.. 
 3J4.. 
 3^.. 
 4 
 
 m.. 
 
 m- 
 5 
 
 5«.. 
 BM.. 
 5%.. 
 
 Single. 
 
 m- 
 
 6%... 
 7 
 
 NnMBBB OF Sheaves in Pdechasb. 
 
 540 
 
 1,080 
 
 844 
 
 1,688 
 
 ],215 
 
 2,430 
 
 1,654 
 
 3,308 
 
 2,160 
 
 4,320 
 
 2,T34 
 
 5,468 
 
 3,375 
 
 6,750 
 
 4,084 
 
 8,168 
 
 • 4,860 
 
 9,720 
 
 5,704 
 
 11,408 
 
 6,415 
 
 12,830 
 
 7,594 
 
 15,188 
 
 8,640 
 
 17,280 
 
 9,753 
 
 i9»5ie 
 
 10,935 
 
 21,870 
 
 12,184 
 
 24,368 
 
 13,500 
 
 27,000 
 
 14,884 
 
 29,768 
 
 16,335 
 
 32,670 
 
 17,954 
 
 35,908 
 
 18,252 
 
 36,504 
 
 19,805 
 
 39,610 
 
 21,421 
 
 42,842 
 
 23,100 
 
 46,200 
 
 24,843 
 
 49,786 
 
 32,443 
 
 64,896 
 
 1,350 
 2,110 
 3,038 
 4,135 
 5,400 
 5,835 
 8,438 
 10,210 
 12,150 
 14,260 
 16,048 
 18,985 
 21,600 
 24,393 
 27,338 
 30,460 
 33,750 
 37,210 
 41,838 
 44,885 
 46,630 
 49,513 
 53,553 
 57,750 
 62,208 
 81,120 
 
 1,485 
 2,321 
 3,342 
 4,549 
 5,940 
 6,519 
 9,282 
 11,231 
 13,365 
 15,686 
 17,657 
 20,884 
 23,760 
 26,831 
 30,072 
 33,506 
 37,125 
 40,931 
 45,922 
 49,373 
 50,193 
 54,465 
 58,908 
 63,525 
 63,418 
 89,232 
 
 1,620 
 2,532 
 3,645 
 4,962 
 ■6,480 
 8,202 
 10,125 
 12,252 
 14,580 
 17,112 
 19,245 
 22,782 
 25,920 
 29,259 
 32,795 
 36,552 
 40,500 
 44,652 
 49,005 
 53,862 
 55,756 
 59,415 
 64,263 
 69,.300 
 74,529 
 97,344 
 
 1,755 
 2,743 
 3,949 
 5,376 
 7,020 
 8,886 
 10,969 
 13,273 
 15,795 
 18,538 
 20,854 
 24,681 
 28,080 
 31,697 
 35,629 
 39,598 
 43,875 
 48,37.1 
 53,089 
 68,330 
 60,319 
 64,367 
 69,618 
 75,075 
 80,740 
 105j456 
 
238 
 
 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 To ascertain the strain in pounds whidi a rope will bear with- 
 out breaking, multiply the square of the circumference by the tab- 
 ular number. 
 
 DBSCmPTIOK. 
 
 1' 
 
 WniTB. 
 
 Taiikbd. 
 
 S-Btrand. 
 
 4-strand. 
 
 3-strand. 
 
 4-strand, 
 
 Manila. \ 
 
 Inches. 
 
 2.5 to 6 
 6 to 8 
 2.5 to 6 
 6 to 12 
 
 1140 
 1090 
 810 
 760 
 
 1330 
 
 1260 
 
 950 
 
 835 
 
 860 
 825 
 
 1000 
 940 
 
 For ropes in daily use, the unit should be diminished one-third 
 to meet the reduction in strength by wear and exposure. 
 
 A safe general rule for all ropes is tliis : One-fourth the square 
 of the cii-cumference gives the breaking weight in tons of 2000 
 pounds. 
 
 When using tackles, multiply the weight thus found by one- 
 half the number of sheaves in the blocks. 
 
 Straps are applied by passing them around the object, putting 
 one bight through the otlier, and hooking to this ; or, after put- 
 ting it through, winding all the strap around the rope or spar, 
 and hooking to both bights. 
 
 Preservation in store. Ropes should be placed in the upper 
 stories of buildings, coiled up and labeled ; large ropes on skids, 
 allowing fi'ee circulation of air; small ropes hung up to the 
 joists, on pins or hooks. Ropes should not be colled until per- 
 fectly dry; they should be uncoiled every year, and stretched 
 out for several days in the dry season. Ropes long in store lose 
 their strength. 
 
 Blocks, Tackles, &c. 
 
 {Plates 29 and 30.) 
 
 482. Blocks arc of two kinds, made and mortised. A made 
 block consists of four parts : the shell, or outside ; the sheave, or 
 wheel on which the rope turns ; the pin, or axle on which the 
 wheel turns ; and the strap, either of rope or iron, which encir- 
 cles the whole and keeps it in its place. The sheave is generally 
 strengthened by letting in a piece of iron or brass at the centre, 
 
BLOCKS, TACKLES, ETC. 239 
 
 called a bush, ITeai'Iy all heavy blocks for ordnance purposes 
 are made with h-on shells and brass sheaves. 
 
 A mortised block is made of a single block of wood, mortised 
 out to receive a siieave. 
 
 All blocks are single, double, or threefold, according to the 
 number of sheaves in them. 
 
 There arc blocks tliat have no sheaves, to wit : a bulVs-eye, 
 which is a wooden thimble without a sheave, having a hole 
 through the centre and a groove around it; and a dead-eye, 
 wliich is a solid block of wood made in a circular form, witli a 
 groove round it, and three lioles bored through it, for the lan- 
 yards to reeve through. 
 
 Snatch blocks are single blocks, with a notch cut in one checlc, 
 just below the sheave, so as to receive the bight of a fall with- 
 out the trouble of reeving and unreeviiig the wiiole. Tliey are 
 generally iron-bound, and have a hook at one end. 
 
 A tail block is a single block, strapped with an eye-splice, and 
 having a long end left by which to make the block fast tempo- 
 rarily to the rigging. This tail is usually selvaged, or else the 
 strands are opened and laid up into sennit, as for a gasket. 
 
 4S3. A tackle is a purchase formed by reeving a rope through 
 two or more bloclis, for tlie purpose of lioisting. 
 
 A wliip is the smallest purchase, and is made by a rope rove 
 throuoh one single block. 
 
 A gun-tackle purchase is a rope rove through two single bloclcs 
 
 and made fast to the strap of the upper block. Tlie parts of all 
 
 tackles between the fasts and sheave are called the standing 
 
 ■parts; tlie parts between sheaves are called running parts; and 
 
 tlie part which is taken hold of in hoisting is called the fall. 
 
 A whip upon whip is where tlie block of one whip is made fast 
 to the fall of another. 
 
 A luff-tackle purchase is a single and a double block ; the end 
 of the rope being fast to the upper part of the single block, and 
 the fall coming from the double block. A luif tackle upon the 
 fall of another luff tackle is railed luff upon luff. 
 
 A watch tackle, or tail tackle, is a lufF-tacklc purchase, with a 
 hook in the end of the single block and a tail to the upper end 
 of the double block. One of these purchases with a short fall is 
 kept on deck, at hand, in merchant vessels, and is used to clap 
 upon standing and running rigging, and to get a strain upon 
 ropes. 
 
 A runner tackle is a luff .applied to a runner, which is a single 
 rope rove through a single block, hooked to a thimble in the eye 
 of a pennant. 
 
 A single Burton is composed of two single blocks, with a hook 
 in the bight of the running part. Eeevc the end of your rope 
 
24(J MACHINES AND APPLIANCES, 
 
 thi-ons-h the upper block, and make it fast to the strap of the Qy 
 block; then make fast your hook to the bight of the rope, and 
 reeve the other end through the fly block for a fall. The hook 
 Is made fast by passinsj the bight of the rope through the eye of 
 the hook and over the whole. This is a very quick-working 
 tackle and a strong purchase. Used for hoisting entirely. 
 
 When a very heavy weight is to be raised, the standing parts 
 Ishould be attached to the slings by a fisherman's bend, instead 
 of to the block. 
 
 The size of blocks is expressed by the length of the shell in 
 inches ; if ropes of unusual size are to be used, it sliould be spe- 
 cified in making requisitions for blocks. 
 
 Tackles are also designated by the number of sheaves era- 
 ployed; as, tu-ofold (two single blocks), threefold (double and 
 single block), &c. 
 
 A mousing is a seizing placed around a hook to prevent it from 
 spreading or unhooking, and should always be applied as fol- 
 .lows : Take several turns of yarn or spun-yarn aroimd the point 
 and back of the hook, and frap the ends around all the turns. 
 
 The bight of a hook is the middle of the bend of the hook part. 
 
 Useful suggestions. 
 
 484. A tackle is said to be " two blocks " wlien the entire 
 fall is hauled through, so that the blocks are in contact. 
 
 To overhaul a tackle is to separate the blocks. This is best 
 done as follows : Hook the upper block firmly, or let one or two 
 men hold it; let one or more men take hold of the lower block 
 and haul, while one man lights the fall through the upper block 
 by hauling tlie running part through it. If necessary, let an- 
 otlier'hand lidit the second part through. 
 
 Rope should always be stopped up, either with the end or with 
 rope-yarn stops, to prevent it getting into a snarl. When using 
 ropes for hauling, they sliould never be dragged upon the ground. 
 
 To stop up a coil of rope with the end. Lay off two or three 
 turns of the coil and take a clove hitch around all parts of one 
 side of the coil. Do the same on the other side. If the rope 
 should bo rove in a tackle, run it "two blocks" and make the 
 first hitch around the fall lietween the blocks. 
 
 Before reeving a rope in a block, the turns should be carefully 
 taken out to prevent twisting when the weight is lifted. Tliis 
 is done by stretching the rope out to its full lengtli and turning 
 it In the opposite direction to that in which it is laid up, until 
 all the stiffness disappears. 
 
 Blocks should be overhauled very often to see that the sheaves 
 are working properly on the pin and- that tliey work smoothly. 
 If they do not, turn the pin end for end, and rub a little black- 
 
BLOCKS, TACKLES, ETC. 
 
 241 
 
 lead (graphite) on thora to lubricate them, also on the siilos of 
 tlie sheaves where they nib against the shell. 
 
 When hoisting with tackles they should never be allowed to 
 twist. If they show a tendency to do so, insert a bar in the 
 block or sling, and use it as a lever to hold it straight. 
 
 It frequently happens that the men cannot apply their full 
 strength in the direction in which it would be most effective. 
 Ill such cases hook a single block to some object about two feet 
 above ground and reeve the end of the fall through it, so that 
 the men can add their strength to their weight and more men 
 oan apply themselves. 
 
 Kever trust the suspension of a weight to holding it by the 
 unaided strength of men. If it is possible to get a turn around 
 any fixed object, even in raising or hauling a weight, it is best 
 to take a turn, as all that is gained is then saved. 
 
 Always select such blocks tliat the fall will run freely through 
 them and not ride upon the edges of the s.'heaves. If it does, it 
 will be certain to cut. The rope should not quite fill the score 
 or groove on the sheave. In this way excessive friction is avoid- 
 ed. The sailor's maxim is, "Small ropes and big blocks." 
 
 The power gained by using tackles is as follows : 
 
 Two single blocks, or gun tackle — nearly doubled. 
 
 Luff tackle (double and single block) — doubled. It the double 
 block is movable — trebled. 
 
 Two double blocks — power X 3J. 
 
 Double and treble blocks — power X 4. 
 
 Two treble blocks — ^power X ^■ 
 
 Whip upon whip, single Burton — trebled. 
 
 When one tackle is applied to the fall of another, the power 
 obtained is found by multiplying their respective values together. 
 
 No advantage is gained by using a greater number of sheaves 
 than two treble blocks in one fall. 
 
 
 WeigJit and strength of 
 
 Iron chains. 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■S3 
 
 P. 
 |g| 
 
 
 ft 
 
 ll 
 
 i~^ 
 
 ^§"8 
 
 11 
 
 H 
 
 
 |g"S 
 
 H^ 
 
 •■S 
 
 Inch. 
 
 libs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 0.1875 
 
 0.335 
 
 2,240 
 
 948 
 
 0.625 
 
 4.217 
 
 26,880 
 
 10,304 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.65 
 
 4,256 
 
 1,680 
 
 0.6875 
 
 4.833 
 
 32,704 
 
 12,644 
 
 0.3125 
 
 0.967 
 
 6,720 
 
 2,464 
 
 0.75 
 
 5.75 
 
 38,752 
 
 15,233 
 
 0.375 
 
 1.383 
 
 9,634 
 
 3,584 
 
 0.8125 
 
 6.667 
 
 45,696 
 
 17,696 
 
 0.4375 
 
 1.767 
 
 13,216 
 
 5.152 
 
 0.875 
 
 7.5 
 
 51,744 
 
 20,384 
 
 0.5 
 
 3.633 
 
 17,248 
 
 6;720 
 
 0.9375 
 
 9.33S 
 
 58,464 
 
 23,630 
 
 0.5635 
 
 3.333 
 
 21,728 
 
 8,612 
 
 1. 
 
 10.817 
 
 65,632 
 
 26,880 
 
 IG 
 
242 machines and appliances. 
 
 The Gin. 
 
 {Plate 31.) 
 
 485. A gin is a tripod foi-raeJ of three poles. Two of tliese 
 poles, called legs, are joined together by braces of wood or iron, 
 and contain between tliem the windlass. The third pole is called 
 the pry-pcJe, and is joined to the legs, at the top, by a bolt. 
 This bolt supports a clevis, to which the upper block of the tackle 
 is hooked. 
 
 The windlass is worked by two handspikes flttiug into brass 
 sockets, one at each extremity of the windlass ; the operation of 
 the handspike is made continuous by the action of a pawl at- 
 tached to the socket on the ratchet of the windlass. 
 
 To prevent the legs and pry-pole from sinking into the ground, 
 or injuring the pavement of casemates, stout pieces of wood, 
 called shoes, are placed under them. The hoisting apparatus 
 consists of two blocks, through wliich the fall is rove. The fall 
 is wound two or more times around the windlass. 
 
 There are three kinds of gins used for artillery purposes : the 
 siege, the garrison, and the casemate. 
 
 The last two differ from each other only in height; the first 
 differs from the others in construction and size. Piper's gin is 
 an improved modification of the siege gin. 
 
 Wlien the gin is put together and raised, that part included 
 between the legs and pry-pole is called the inside, the outside 
 being the part without the legs ; the right corresponding to the 
 riglit liand of a man standing at the middle and outside of the 
 windlass, facing towards it, the left corresponding to his left 
 hand. 
 
 4S6. The detachment is composed of one chief, one gunner, 
 and ten cannoneers. Tlie odd numbers are placed on the right 
 and tlie even numbers on tlie left side of the gin, all facing In- 
 wards; Nos. 1 and 2 opposite and one yard outside of tlie foot of 
 the pry-pole ; No. 9 outside of and near the foot of tlie i-ight leg; 
 No. 10 outside of and near the foot of the left leg; Nos. 3, 5, 
 and 7 are between Nos. 1 and 9, dressing on them and dividing 
 tlie intervening space into equal distances ; Nos. 4, C, and 8 oc- 
 cupy similar positions with respect to Nos. 2 and 10. In assem- 
 bling tlie gin, tlie gunner and Nos. 1 and 2 bring up the pry-pole ; 
 Nos. 3, 5, and 7 the right leg, and Nos. 4, 6, and 8 the left leg; 
 Nos. 9 and 10, the windlass. The gunner superintends putting 
 together the head, and the ohief-of-detachraent the placing of 
 the windlass. The braces are brought up and adjusted to their 
 pliiccs by Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8. 
 
 'I'lic gunner, assisted by the most expert cannoneers, rocvos 
 
THE GIN. 243 
 
 the full, sliiigs the piece, and attends to all knottings aud lash- 
 ings. 
 
 In vvorlving the windlass, Nos. 1 and 2 hold on to the fall and 
 talce up the slack; Nos. 7 and 9 work at tlie right, and Nos. 8 
 and 10 at the left handspilte, Nos. 7 and 8 being next the wind- 
 lass. All, except the old-pattern siege gin, are put together and 
 hoisted by raising the head and bringing np the foot of the pry- 
 pole towards the feet of the legs. 
 
 4ST. Tlie siege gin (old pattern) is put together with the out- 
 side of the legs and windlass dovmwards and the pry-pole rest- 
 ing on the top. {Fig. 1, Plate 32.) It has no clevis, as other 
 gins, and, instead of an upper block, two sheaves are inserted 
 between the legs and secured by the bolt holding together the 
 legs. The head of the pry-pole is terminated by a flat piece of 
 iron, which fits between the lieads of the legs above the sheaves, 
 and is secured by another bolt. 
 
 This gin further differs from others in having three wooden 
 braces instead of two of iron. It has the disadvantage of being 
 exceedingly ill-contrived and unhandy. 
 
 To put the siege gin (old pattern) together. 
 
 488. The different parts of the gin having been brought to 
 the place designated, the instructor commands : 
 1. Assemble: the gin. 
 
 This is executed as indicated hi pars. 486 and 487. 
 
 The gin being together and lying on the ground, tlie instruct- 
 or commands: 
 
 1. Reeve the fall. 
 
 Ifos. 1 and 2 raise tlie pry-pole until it clears the sheaves. The 
 gunner, receiving from Nos. 3 and 4 one end of the fall, passes 
 it through the left sheave from below and liands it back to them. 
 They pass it through the sheave of the single pulley, (hooked for 
 convenience on tlie middle brace,) and return it to the gunner, 
 who passes it through the right sheave from below, and gives it 
 to No. 3, by whom it is secured by wrapping it around the middle 
 biace. If the gin has been raised, the instructor gives the same 
 command, when the gunner, mounting upon the upper brace, 
 receives from Nos. 3 and 4 one end of the f:ill, wliich he passes 
 over the left sheave from without to within. The fall is then 
 reeved in the manner prescribed. 
 
 To raise .the gin. 
 The instructor commands : • 
 
 1. Kaisb the oin. 
 Nos. 1 and 2 t.alce liold of the handle of the pry-pole ; Nos. 9 
 
•244 
 
 MACaiNES AND APPLIANCES, 
 
 and 10 each hold down the foot of a leo; to prevent it from slip- 
 ping; Nos. 3 and 4 lift at the head, and ISTos. 5, G, 7, and 8 ap- 
 ply themselves at the legs on their respective sides. The gunner 
 commands: Heave; the gin is raised ; Nos, 1 and 2 carry out 
 the foot of the pry-polc ahout twelve feet from the windlass and 
 place under it a shoe, A shoe is likewise placed under each leg. 
 
 To move the gin when raised. 
 
 The instructor wishing to move the gin a short distance, indi- 
 cates the direction and commands : 
 
 1, Move the gin, 2, Mabch. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2 apply themselves at the handle of the pry-pole ; 
 Nos, 9 and 10 each place a handspike under the windlass from 
 without, and near the legs ; Nos. 7 and 8 assist to lift at these 
 handspikes from within ; at the command Maboh, all move in 
 the direction indicated. 
 
 To lower the gin. 
 
 The gin is lowered in a similar manner, but by inverse means 
 to that prescribed for raising it, Nos. 1 and 2 raise the pry-pole 
 and assist in easing the gin to the ground, the outside down- 
 wards. 
 
 4S9. The following are the kinds, dimensions, weights, and 
 strengths of ropes usually required for the different kinds of 
 gins: 
 
 Desioitatton. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ,3 
 
 ■WmonT. 
 
 m 
 
 Bkuabks, 
 
 1^ 
 
 o 
 
 ID 
 
 k 
 
 o 
 
 Gin fall (siege.) 
 
 Gin fall (garrison 
 and casemate.).,,.. 
 
 Gnn-eling (siege.).,.. 
 
 Trace-rope.» 
 
 Inch. 
 4.25 
 
 6 
 
 ( 
 
 3.25 
 1,75 
 
 Feet, 
 75 
 
 120 
 
 23 
 
 SO 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 Llj.Oz. 
 5 4 
 
 10 6 
 
 10 6 
 
 3 1 
 11 
 
 Lb. Oz. 
 
 67 8 
 208 
 
 44 9 
 
 15 5 
 
 1 2 
 
 U 
 
 Lbs. 
 8,064 
 16,128 
 
 16,128 
 
 4,760 
 1,371 
 
 Hemp, 
 
 Hemp. 
 An eye at one 
 
 . end, served 
 with leath- 
 er. Hemp, 
 
 Manila. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Lashing-line. -.. 
 
 Marline _.. 
 
 
THE GIN. 245 
 
 To mount a siege gun, 
 
 490. It is immaterial upon wliich side of the piece tlie lesrs 
 
 01 the gill are placed, but, for uniformity, they are generally 
 placed on the right. The gun is suspended either by a sling or 
 by a bail : the latter is preferable. It consists of a stout piece 
 of iron {Fig. 2, Plate 32), passing like a liandle over the piece 
 and fitting against the ends of the trunnions, to which it is fast- 
 ened by iron bolts passing through the ends of the bail into holes 
 bored for the purpose; one in the end of each trunnion. 
 
 A clevis, attached to the middle of tlie bail, gives a place for 
 hoolsing the lower blocli of the taclsle. 
 
 Tlie gin being raised and placed with its tackle directly over 
 the trunnions, and the foot of the pry-pole about twelve feet 
 from the lower brace, tlie instructor commands : 
 
 1. Sling the piece. 
 
 No. 1 puts a handspike in the bore, small end foremost ; No. 
 
 2 passes the eye or loop end of the sling around the knob of the 
 cascable ; No. 1 passes the other end under the handspike in tlie 
 bore, and hands it to No. 2, who draws it through the loop ; the 
 gunner fastens it either by a knot or with a lashing-rope, and 
 tlion hooks the single pulley to the sling jnst in rear of the trun- 
 nions, fastening the standing end of the fall to the sling near tlie 
 same place ; Nos. 1 and 2 pass the running end of the fall from 
 the outside under the windlass, and take three turns with it 
 around the left of the windlass, and hold on by the running end 
 or slack. No. 1 being nearest tlie windlass ; the gunner applies 
 himself to the handspike in the bore to steady the piece ; Nos. 
 7, 8, 9, and 10 apply themselves at the windlass handspikes. AU 
 being in readiness, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Hoist away. 
 
 The windlass is worked until the piece is high enough to admit 
 the carriage under it. The instructor then commands : 
 
 1. Halt, 2. Eun up the caeeiage. 
 
 All the men, except Nos. 1 and 2, bring up the carriage, as 
 explained in par. 435, placing the trunnion beds directly under 
 the trunnions. 
 
 The instructor then commands : 
 
 1. Slack off. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2 slack of the fall slowly ; the gunner steadies the 
 piece by means of tlie handspike in the bore, and the piece is 
 
246 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 lowered into its position in the trunnion or traveling beds ; Ifos. 
 3 and 4 pnt on the cap-sqnares and key them. 
 
 Note.— When the bail is used, it is attaelied by the same num- 
 bers as for tlie sling. If it is not convenient to sling tlie piece in 
 the manner prescribed, it may be slimg by a rope passed aronnd 
 each trunnion, and the ends fastened together on top of the 
 piece ; or trunnion rings may be used. Hook the pulley to this 
 sling or to the trnnnion rings ; bear down with one or two men 
 on tlie handspike in the bore to balance tlie piece, and when it is 
 raised sufficiently high run tlie carriage under it, and place a 
 handspike in the trunnion beds and a block on the stock. (For 
 casemate or barbette carriages, upon scaftblds built of blocks 
 under the'breech and chase.) Lower the gun, the trunnions di- 
 rectly over the trunnion beds, until the piece rests on the block 
 and on the handspike. Remove the sling or rings from the 
 trunnions and run tlie carriage, with the gun on it, back until 
 the head of the cheeks are in rear of a perpendionlar let-fall from 
 tlie head of the gin. Pass tlie sling around the chase, hook the 
 pulley to it, and work the gin until the weight no longer bears 
 on the handspike in the trunnion beds ; remove the handspike, 
 and lower the trunnions to their places; bear down on the muz- 
 zle, and remove the block from under the breech. 
 
 To dismount a siege gun. 
 
 491. The gin is placed in the same position with reference 
 to the piece as prescribed for mounting it. The instructor com- 
 mands : 
 
 1. Sling the piece. 
 
 The cap-squares are removed, the piece is slung, and the run- 
 ning end of the fall passed around the windlass as prescribed for 
 mounting it. 
 
 Tlie commands Hoist away. Halt, Run out the carriage, and 
 Slack off are then given and executed in the manner already 
 prescribed. 
 
 To sling and Jioist a siege mortar mounted on its carriage. 
 
 492. A gun-sling or a sling-chain is used. In either case, 
 the middle of it is passed under the front notches ; the ends car- 
 ried up, and, crossing over the top of the mortar, are passed un- 
 der the rear notches. The gin is erected over the mortar and 
 the lovver block of the tackle hooked into the sling where it 
 crosses the top of the mortar. The mortar is raised and lowered 
 •ipoii a wagon in the manner prescribed for a gun. 
 
THE GIN. 247 
 
 To shift the fall. 
 
 493. As the turns gain once tlio diameter of the fall at each 
 revolution of the windlass, they will, wlien the weight has been 
 raised a considerable height, come against the opposite leg. 
 The instructor then commands : 1. HaIiT, 2. Shift the FALL. 
 The gunner mounts to a position where he can reach the run- 
 ning part of the fall, and firmly applies a nipper to two of tlie 
 parts as explained in par. 480. The instructor then commands ; 
 Ease away. Nos. 1 and 2 slack off and shift the turns on the 
 windlass to the opposite end ; they then tighten up the fall, 
 tlie nipping is removed by the gunner, and the manoeuvre is re- 
 sumed. 
 
 Piper's gin. 
 
 494. In this gin, the windlass is attached by placing it in 
 windlass seats of peculiar construction, and is secured in posi- 
 tion by keepers attached to the legs. The keepers are placed 
 under the axles of the windlass. Two stay-chains connect the 
 pry-pole and legs at the upper brace-bands, and prevent them 
 from spreading. They also serve to connect the parts for trans- 
 portation. Two braces (upper and lower) connect and secure 
 the legs when the gin is put together, and serve to distinguish 
 the right from the left leg— the long brace being permanently 
 attached to the right and the short brace to the left leg. The 
 clevis and clevis bolt are attached to the head of tlie pry-pole 
 witli keys which secure the clevis bolt when the gin is assem- 
 bled; double and single blocks, witti fall, are used. Tliis gin 
 was designed by the late Captain J. W. Piper, fifth artillery. 
 
 Leugtli of legs 13 feet 8 inches. 
 
 Length of pry-pole 13 feet 8 inches. 
 
 Weight of gin 365 pounds. 
 
 Weight of windlass 88 pounds. 
 
 Weight of block and fall 100 pounds. 
 
 Weight of bail and dowels.. 41 pounds. 
 
 Tlie parts are estimated to be sufiiciently strong to bear a 
 weight of 5000 pounds. Tlie advantages of this gin are, its 
 superior llgtitness and portability, and its great facility of being 
 assembled, taken apart, packed up, and transported. 
 
 The different parts having been lirought to the place designa- 
 ted, the gin is put together, raised, lowered, and taken apart by 
 the following commands from the instructor : Assemble the 
 GIN. Nos. 1 and 2 place in position the pry-pole ; Nos. 3 and 5 
 place in position the right, and Nos. 4 and the left leg ; the 
 gunner, assisted by Nos. 3 and 4, attaches the clevis and clevis 
 
248 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 bolt, assembles the head of the gin, and hooks on the block and 
 fall ; Ifos. 5 and 6 attach the braces. 
 
 The gin, in tliis position, is lying extended upon the ground, 
 with the inside downwards. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 Eaisb the gin. 
 
 Nos. 9 and 10 hold down the feet of the legs to prevent them 
 from slipping ; Nos. 1 and 2 pnsh up, applying themselves at 
 the handle of the pry-pole. The other numbers apply them- 
 selves as in par. 488. 
 
 The gunner commands : Heave. 
 
 The gin Is raised and the pry-pole brought up to within about 
 twelve feet from tlie legs ; Nos. 3 and 4 attach the stay-chains 
 on their respective sides, and Nos. 9 and 10 put in the windlass. 
 
 To move the gin when raised. 
 
 Executed as explained in par. 488. 
 
 To lower the gin. 
 
 The gin is lowered in a similar manner, but by inverse means 
 to that prescribed for raising it. 
 
 The stay-chains are unhooked and windlass removed before 
 lowering. 
 
 To falce the gin apart. 
 
 The gin is taken apart in a similar manner, but by inverse 
 means to that prescribed for putting it together, and is stowed 
 for transportation by lashing together the legs, pry-pole, and 
 windlass with tlie stay-chains. 
 
 The application of this gin to the mechanical manoeuvres of 
 siege ordnance is similar to tiiat prescribed for the siege gin (old 
 pattern). 
 
 Gaebison and Casemate Gins. 
 
 495. The garrison and casemate gins differ from the siege 
 gin in liaving two cross-bars of iron instead of the three wooden 
 cross-bars, and in having the pry-pole inserted between the legs, 
 whicli are kept together by the clevis bolt. The upper block 
 (generally treble) is liookod to the clevis. 
 
 Tlie casemate gin is made shorter than the garrison gin, so 
 that it may be lioisted in casemates. With the guns now usually 
 mounted in casemates, it is essential to use a bail for slinging, in 
 
GARRISON AND CASEMATE GINS. 24& 
 
 orfler to grain the necessary distance from the head of the gin for 
 the worlving of the tackle. 
 
 The gin is put together across the piece, or on the ground near 
 it, and raised by moving up the legs and piy-pole towards each 
 other as explained in preceding paragraph. The pry-pole has 
 cleats nailed to it to enable a man to mount to the liead of the 
 gin to hook on the block and to reeve the fall. 
 
 In raising it, Nos. 9 and 10, each with a handspilce, brace 
 against the lower cross-bar near tlie legs to prevent them from 
 slipping; ITos. 1 and 2 hold down the foot of the pi'y-pole, and 
 at the same time push up by tlie handle. The remaining num- 
 bers take hold to lift by hand near the head. 
 
 The gunner commands : Heave ; the head of the gin is raised 
 as higii as the men can lift, and the pry-pole pushed up ; Nos. 3- 
 and 4 go to the assistance of Nos. 1 and 2 at the handle of the 
 pry-pole ; Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 lift at the legs on their respective 
 sides. The gunner repeats heave until, \>y successive efforts, 
 the gun is raised. The pry-pole should be, for tlie gari'ison gin, 
 about seventeen feet from the legs ; for the casement gin, about 
 thirteen feet. 
 
 Tlie gin is next placed over the piece by moving the legs and 
 the pry-pole each a short distance at a time. To prevent them; 
 from spreading too much, a lashing is passed from the pry-pole 
 to tlie upper cross-bar. 
 
 To reeve the fall. 
 
 Fasten one end of a trace-rope to the upper block by passing 
 it through the shell of the block. An expert man ascends the 
 pry-pole to the head, and passes the free end of the rope through 
 the clevis, from whence it is carried down to tlie windlass, vv'here 
 a couple of turns are taken. By lieaving on the windlass, tlie 
 bloclt is raised and the hook passed through tlie clevis, with its 
 point towards the pole. The fall is rove as explained in par. 
 488. The upper block may be hooked to the clevis and raised 
 with the gin ; the fall may also be rove and the whole raised to- 
 gether. The extra weight thus given makes the gin more diffi- 
 cult to lift. 
 
 The gin is lowered by gradually drawing out the pry-pole un- 
 til the men can get near enough towards the head to support it ; 
 it is then lowered upon the piece or on the ground, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 To mount a casemate gun. 
 
 496. The carriage is traversed to one side, and the gun — on 
 blocks, or on the truck — is near the middle of the casemate, the 
 
250 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 imizzlu towards the einbrasiu-e ; the ghi is over the gun and 
 caniagu ; the latter on the side of the pry-pole ; the axis of the 
 tninnioMs is horizontal and directly under the head of the gin. 
 
 The gun is slung by means of a bail or trunnion rings. The 
 gin is worked until the gun is raised sufficiently high, when the 
 chassis is traversed under it, and the gun carriage so placed that 
 the trunnion beds come exactly under the trunnions. The gun 
 is then lowered to its place, the sling removed, and the gin car- 
 ried to the next casemate. 
 
 To prevent the pavement from being injured by the points, a 
 shoe is placed under each foot. 
 
 To dismount the gun. 
 
 Executed in the inverse manner to that prescribed for mount- 
 ing. The gun is placed on the track, or on blocks. 
 
 The windlasses of gins should never be ■ painted, as paint is 
 liable to cause surging when easing off the fall, and surging is 
 certain to cause breaking of parts. 
 
 To dismount a barbette gun. 
 
 497. The safest and best method of dismounting the 15-inch 
 gun is by means of blocks, as hereafter explained, or with the 
 gun-lift. It may, however, be dismounted by using two garri- 
 son gins, one of which is erected over the cascable and the other 
 over the chase, midway between the trunnions and the muz- 
 zle. 
 
 The piece is slung by means of chains similar to those used 
 with the gun-lift. The blocks and fall are those usually furnished 
 with the gin. Everything should be perfectly sound and in good 
 condition ; for it must be borne in mind that the weight upon 
 each gin is one-third more than it was originally intended to 
 bear. 
 
 Ten-inch guns, and all below, are mounted and dismounted 
 by means of one garrison gin. To dismount a 10-inch gun, run 
 it from battery as in loading ; erect the gin over the piece so 
 that the head will be directly over the trunnions; the sling, 
 which is made of 9-inch rope, is attached by passing the bight 
 of it around the neck of the cascable, carrying the end forward 
 over the piece and under the end of a roller thrust in the muz- 
 zle ; thence back, passing it through the eye of the sling, draw- 
 ing it tight, bending it into a knot, and securing it with marluie. 
 In all cases, gun-slings should be drawn as tightly as possible ; 
 otherwise the tackle will be block and block before the trunnions 
 arc free from tlie carriage. It may be necessary, especially with 
 a new sling, to take several lifts upon it in order to take tlio 
 
GARRISON AND CASEMATE GINS. 251 
 
 gtretch out of it ; after each lift the slaclc is taken np. A trace- 
 rope is attached to the muzzle as a guy ; tlie taclvle is liooketl 
 to the sling immediately over the axis of the trunnions; tlie 
 gin is worked as explained in par. 490 until tlie trimnioiis are 
 sufficiently above their beds to permit the top-carriage being 
 shoved forward from undei- the piece. Tliis done, the chassis is 
 traversed, towards the pry-pole, from under the gnn ; the latter 
 is then lowered upon blocks and the gin removed. When 
 hoisting the piece, the traverse-wheels should not be chocked. 
 
 To dismount the top-carriage from the chassis. 
 
 498. Back the limber of a field-piece against the rear ends 
 of the chassis rails. The ammunition chest being removed, a 
 couple of large blocks are placed on the limber; the counter- 
 hurters are removed, and the top-carriage pulled and shoved 
 back, off the chassis, onto the blocks npon the limber. If there 
 is no limber or similar carriage available, a scaffolding of blocks 
 is bnilt at the rear end of the chassis, and the carriage moved 
 back upon it ; from tliis it is easily lowered to the ground. 
 
 To remove the chassis from the platform. 
 
 499. Take out the pintle key ; pry and block up the front 
 end of the chassis until it is clear of the pintle ; the chassis is 
 then overturned by attaching a trace-rope to tlie far side of it, 
 chocking the near traverse-wheel, and hauling on the rope until 
 the chassis is on its side; the rope is then carried around to the 
 other side and the chassis eased down npon blocks placed for its 
 reception. From this position it may be moved, if for a short 
 distance only, by placing way-planks and cradle rollers under 
 it ; if for a considerable distance, by backing the liand sling-cart 
 over it and slinging it with a chain. The cart is passed over the 
 traverse-wheels by raising its wheels on way-planks placed on 
 each side of the chassis rails. 
 
 In dismounting the top-carriage of the 8-inch rllle (converted), 
 it is best to use the gin. The carriage is slung by tlie front and 
 rear transoms with chains, the guides are removed, and it is 
 hoisted and lowered in a manner similar to that just described 
 foi' the gun. The latter should previously be removed from the 
 platform to make room for the carriage when lowered. 
 
 With carriages Nos. 1 and 2, the top-carriage is first discon- 
 nected from the friction-bar; in Nos. 3 and 4, the piston of the 
 cylinder is disconnected from the top-carriage. The geared 
 elevating apparatus should be removed, or if not, great care ex- 
 ercised to prevent injury to It. 
 
 The chassis and top-carriage of a barbette gun are placed in 
 
252 
 
 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 position on tlie platform, and tlie piece mounted by operations' 
 the reverse of tliose just explained. 
 
 To prevent spreading or brealfing, the hooks of the gin tackle- 
 should be securely moused. 
 
 Dimensions and weight of gins. 
 
 DnEENSIOItS. 
 
 SrEaE. 
 
 G-ABBISOH. 
 
 Casemate. 
 
 liength of legs and pry-pole...—., 
 
 Inches. 
 175.5 
 
 Inches. 
 ' 258.5 
 
 Inches. 
 172.5 
 
 Wkiohts. 
 
 IiBS. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 65 
 
 ""is's 
 
 43 
 57 
 
 310 
 293 
 280 
 1316 
 
 ""165 
 205 
 
 264 
 208 
 213 
 947 
 
 Of Drv-DOle .MM. 
 
 Of 1^.™!!,™:::....::::: .::::: :::::.:.....:::.;: 
 
 Of gin complete (wlthont blocks) 
 
 Of pnUey-blocks (iron). \ l^^l^^ZlZ 
 Itinadraple. 
 
 165 
 205 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 The garrison gin of the regulation pattern, if perfectly sound,^ 
 is capable of sustaining a weight of 17,000 pounds. It is, how- 
 ever, recommended tliat a heavier one be used for such weiglits 
 when it can be procured. 
 
 Use of the gin as shears. 
 
 500. By removing the pry-polo, the legs of the gin may be 
 used as shears. When the garrison or casemate gin is to be thus 
 used, a block of wood of the same dimensions as the head of the 
 pry-pole, with a hole in it to receive the clevis bolt, must be 
 inserted in place of the pry-pale. The shears are raised and 
 guyed as explained in par. 546. The fall and windlass ai-e 
 operated as for the gin. 
 
 The Gaeeison Gin-deiieick (naerow). 
 {Plate 33.) 
 
 501. The derrick consists of two legs framed together, on& 
 pry-pole, two drums or windlasses with geared wheels, and two- 
 wagon-wlieels, serving the double purpose of movino- the derrick 
 
SLING-CARTS. 253 
 
 from point to point and for working the windlass. The .ixle 
 passes throu<?li one of the windlasses, and can at pleasure be 
 geared into a wheel on the other windlass. Ijen>j;th of legs, 254 
 inches; greatest width of legs, 86 inches; weight, 1725 pounds. 
 It is hoisted by being pulled over to the front ; the feet of the 
 legs then rest on the ground, and the pry-pole is carried out 
 over the object to be raised. The ■wheels are now free, and the 
 method of operating the gin is similar to that for other gins, the 
 power being applied to the wheels instead of to handspiltes. 
 
 Sling-caet. 
 
 503. The sling-cart is nsed for moving pieces of heavy artil- 
 lery, or other objects, short distances. 
 
 They are of two kinds : one, the garrison sling-cart, {Fig. 1, 
 Plate 34,) for heaviest weights, is attached by its pole to a siege 
 •or field limber, and may be drawn by horses; the other, the 
 hand sling-cart, (Fig. 3, Plate 32,) is designed for moving light- 
 •er weights and siege-pieces in the trenches by hand. The siege 
 limber may also, in case of necessity, be used as a sling-cart. 
 With the hand sling-cart, the weightis raised by first attaching 
 to it a sling, and then applying to the sling the hook upon the 
 rear of the axle, by raising the pole of the cart. The pole is used 
 as a lever, the axle and wheels being the fulcrum. It may be 
 used for any weights not exceeding 6000 pounds. 
 
 With the garrison sling-cart, the weight is raised by first at- 
 taching to it a sling, and then applying to the sling the hooka 
 forming the lower part of a powerful screw passing up thi-ough 
 the axle of the cart. Above the axle is tiie nut of the screw, 
 provided with long handles. Power is applied to these handles 
 and the screw is run up, thus raising the weiglit. 
 
 This sling-cart is capable of carrying 20,000 ponnds; but with 
 such heavy weights the handles of the screw are diflScult to turn. 
 To overcome this difficulty, a modification has been made in the 
 ■cart by substituting for the screw a hj'draulic-jack. (Fig. 2, 
 Plate 34.) 
 
 Through the axle-body two vertical mortises are cut, each at 
 a distance of twenty inches from the middle of the axle-body. 
 Through these mortises slide two stout bars of iron, with hooks 
 telow for the sling-chain, and holes above for pins to support 
 them as they are raised ; the pins pass through the bars above 
 the axle-body. A sti'ong cross-bar connects the upright bars near 
 their tops ; under this the head of the jack is applied, tlie jack 
 resting on the axle-body. 
 
2.54 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 To use the hand sling-cart. 
 
 503. The implements necessary are : Two blocks, two half 
 blocks, four wheel-chocks, one sling-chain, and one trace^ope. 
 One sling-chain additional for a siege mortar mounted on its 
 carriage. 
 
 To sling a siege gun, howitzer, or mortar. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 Back the cart over the pieoe. 
 
 Jf OS. 9 and 10 go to the end of the pole ; Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 
 apply themselves at the wheels ; the cart is then backed over the 
 piece, the pole being in the direction of the breech and the axle 
 direct! J' over tlie trunnions ; Kos. 3 and 4 chock the wheels front 
 and rear. 
 
 To sling the piece. 
 
 The gunner fastens the middle of the trace-rope to the eye of 
 th(! pole; Nos. 7 and 8 carry one end of the rope to the rear of 
 the cart ; Nos. 9 and 10 raise the pole by hand, Nos. 7 and 8 
 applying tiieraselves at the same time to tlie rope. 
 
 When tlie pole is nearly vertical, Nos. 9 and 10 seize the other 
 end of the trace-rope to steady the pole. The gnnner lays the 
 middle of the sling-cliain over the piece in rear of the trunnions, 
 carries each end around the trunnions from the rear to the front, 
 and hooks them around the axle-lioolcs, being careful to take up 
 all the slack ; Nos. 9 and 10, assisted by Nos. 5 and 6, haul upon 
 the trace-rope until the end of the pole can be reached by hand, 
 when they seize and bear it to the ground ; Nos. 3 and 4 hook 
 the cascable-ehain around the knob of the cascable in such a 
 manner that the piece will swing level when the pole is hori- 
 zontal; Nos. 9 and 10 raise the pole until it rests on the pole- 
 prop. 
 
 The piece is thus raised about eight inches from the ground. 
 
 For transportation it should be ordinarily raised higher, whicli 
 can readily be done by blocking up the piece and raising it again 
 in tlie manner above prescribed. 
 
 To unsling the piece. 
 
 The piece is lowered to the ground in the same manner, but 
 by inverse means to those just prescribed. 
 
 Nos. 9 and 10 bear the end of the pole to the ground ; Nos. 3 
 and 4 unhook the cascable-cliain ; Nos. 9 and 10 allow the pole 
 to rise gently until it is nearly vertical. If the piece does not 
 
SLING-CARTS. 255 
 
 then rest upon the ground, It is blocked up and unsliing, when, 
 by repeating the manoeuvre, it may bo lowered to the ground. 
 
 After the piece has been unslung, Nos. 7 and 8 ease the pole 
 down carefully, by means of the trace-rope, until N"os. 9 and 10 
 can reach it with their hands. 
 
 To sling a siege mortar mounted on its carriage. 
 
 The instructor gives the same commands, and the duties are 
 performed by the same numbers as prescribed for a siege-piece. 
 
 The sling-cart is backed over the mortar, the pole being in the 
 direction of the breech and the axle directly over the ti-uiinions. 
 
 If the carriage is resting on the ground, it maybe slung by first 
 raising the pole nearly vertical, passing the sling-chain around 
 the front manceuvering bolts, hooking it over the axle-liooks, and 
 hauling down the pole. 
 
 The carriage is then blocked up and the sling taken off tlie 
 bolts and passed under the carriage just in front of the cap-square 
 bolts; this brings the sli-nga little in front of the centre of grav- 
 ity of the mortar and carriage. 
 
 The pole is again raised and tlie hook attached to the sling; 
 Nos. 9 and 10 bear down upon it until the end rests upon the 
 ground ; Nos. 3 and 4 remove the blocks ; the gunner passes 
 the othersling-chain around the rear manceuvering bolts and over 
 the pole, and then hooks it in such manner that tlie carriage will 
 be" level; Nos. 9 and 10 then raise the, pole until it rests on the 
 pole-prop. 
 
 The carriage is thus raised about twelve inches from the 
 ground. If necessary, it may be blocked up and raised higher 
 by a similar manoeuvre. 
 
 The breech should always slightly preponderate, in order to 
 prevent the pole from flying up. 
 
 Sea-coast mortars and their beds are slung separately and 
 carried on the garrison sling-cart. The trunnion-chains are 
 passed over the trunnions and liooked to the hoisting screw. 
 
 To transport a siege-piece short distances with a limber, 
 
 504. The piece is raised upon two blocks — one under the 
 breech, the other under the chase — and a sling-chain is attaclied 
 as explained in par. 503. 
 
 The limber, its pole being in the direction of the breecli, is 
 run up until the pintle is over the chain, when the pole is sliglitly 
 raised and the chain passed around tlie pintle and fastened. 
 The pole is borne to the gi-ownd, the block under the cliase re- 
 moved, and a trace-rope fastened over the pole and around the 
 
256 
 
 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 knob of the cascable. Tlie pole is then raised and^ the otbar 
 block removed. 
 
 To raise a piece upon blocks by a limber. 
 
 The trunnion loop, or an ordinary chain, is passed over the 
 knob of the cascable and the pintle, and made fast while the 
 pole is raised. The piece is then raised by bearing down the 
 pole, and the breech blocked up. The muzzle is raised in the 
 same manner. 
 
 The wheels should not be chocked, as they will soon find their 
 proper bearing. 
 
 To sling a piece on two limbers for transportation with horses. 
 
 The pole of one of the limbers is removed, a block is placed 
 under the body of the gun, and the limber run forward, with its 
 fork over the piece, the pintle over the knob of the cascable, to 
 which it is attached by a sling-chain; the fork is borne down to 
 the piece and lashed with rope. The muzzle is then raised and 
 supported on blocks ; the other limber is backed over the piece 
 until the wheels are within about a foot of the wheels of the 
 rear limber; a sling-oliain is passed under the piece and up over 
 the pintle, tlie pole having been raised for this purpose ; the pole 
 is lowered to the ground, the blocks removed from under the 
 muzzle, and the chase lashed to the forks in front of the axle- 
 tree, so that the weight will balance the pole. To prevent the 
 front limber from pulling away from the piece, a sling-chain is 
 attached to the two pintles. 
 
 505. Dimensions and weight of sling-cart. 
 
 DiusNsioirg. 
 
 Oarrison. 
 
 Hand. 
 
 Ijength from rear of wheels to front end of pole. 
 Length of axle-trees «...«««...••«....,..»«.....«......... 
 
 Height of wheels-.., 
 
 Distance between the wheels on the ground.» 
 
 Inches. 
 242.4 
 
 96 
 62.7S 
 
 Inches. 
 
 160.75 
 75.60 
 72 
 60.4 
 
 ■WiIOHTS. 
 
 L.bs. 
 
 libs. 
 
 One wheel._.......,.,..._....„„„,__„...,... 
 
 Whole weight (without sling-chains) , 
 Tmnnion-chain and rings .................. 
 
 Sling^chain. ....._............._„,_....,..„„ 
 
 701 
 
 U4 
 84 
 
 ms 
 
 27 
 
casemate trucks. 257 
 
 -The Casemate Teuck. 
 {Fig. 4, Plate 32.) 
 506. This machine is intended for moving pieces and their 
 carriages in tlie galleries of casemate battei-ies, or throngh pos- 
 terns. It consists— old pattern, of a stout frame of wood ; new 
 pattern, of wrought-iron, mounted on three low wheels. Two 
 of the wheels are placed at the sides, Mice those of a cart ; the 
 third is placed in a foi-lc at tlie middle of the front end ; the forlc 
 turns around its vertical axis as the direction of the trucli 
 changes. The forlc and wheel are removed by raising the end 
 of the truclj and allowing the fork to drop from its socket. A 
 tongue, likewise removable, is attached for the purpose of guid- 
 ing the truck. 
 
 To place a casemate chassis on the truck. 
 
 The chassis is on the ground, the truck near it, witli its front 
 wlieel and tongue removed. The chassis, either side down, is 
 raised, by successive purchases, with handspikes, and blocked up 
 to a height sufficient to allow the truck to go under it. Tlie 
 truck is then run under the chassis and turned so that its axis 
 is parallel to that of the chassis, and is so placed that the centre 
 of gravitj"- of the cliassis is, as near as possible, over the axle 
 of the truck. The blocking is then removed and the chassis 
 allowed to rest on the truck. Tlie tongue of the truck is re- 
 placed. The truck is moved to the designated casemate, and 
 the chassis lowered from the truck as it was placed thereon. 
 If it is upside down, it is turned over as explained in par. 499, 
 and placed properly on the traverse circles. Tlie tongue of the 
 chassis is then bolted to the front transom and secured by the 
 pintle in the throat of the embrasure. 
 
 The chassis may be lowered from the truck bj' means of the gin. 
 
 To remove the chassis from the casemate. 
 
 The tongue of the chassis is unbolted from the front transom 
 and the chassis raised, either by prying and blocking or with the 
 gin ; the truck is then placed under it as before. 
 
 It is generally preferable to remove the front wheel from the 
 truck and to pry up but one end of the chassis ; the truck is 
 then worlced under it from the side, and, after the chassis is 
 lowered upon the truck, the raised end is borne down until the 
 front wheel of the truck can be replaced. 
 
 Bemarlc. 
 To prevent injury to the pavement, way-planks must be 'aid 
 for the wheels of the truck to run on. 
 17 
 
258 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 To place a top-carriage on the Jruck. 
 
 The carriage is on the ground, standing on the head of its 
 cheeks ; the truck near it, with its front wheel and tongue re- 
 moved. 
 
 The truck is run up to the carriage, tlie end on the ground 
 under the axle, and its wheels chocked; the can-iage is then 
 pulled over on it by means of a trace-rope. The trail is borne 
 down and the head of the carriage raised sufficiently high for the 
 gunner and assistants to replace the truck-wheels and twigue. 
 The carriage is then moved on the truck to its place. 
 
 To lower the carriage to the ground. 
 
 The f r-ont wheel of the truck is removed and its front transom 
 rested on tiie ground. The carriage is then pulled over on the 
 head of its cheeks. 
 
 To shift the carriage from tlie truck to its chassis. 
 
 The truck is run up to the rear of tlie chassis rails on way- 
 planlvs, raised on blocks to a height sufficient to allow tlie car- 
 riage to be launched forward upon the rails. The front of the 
 carriage is towards the front of tlie chassis; the counter-liurters 
 are removed, and. in launching the carriage forward it is so di- 
 rected tliat the guides will take their proper places under the 
 inner edges of the cliassis rails. 
 
 The carriage may likewise be put on tlie chassis from tlie side. 
 To do this, bring it up on the truck by tlie side of the chassis, so 
 that its front end will be iu the same direction with that of the 
 chassis; remove tlie guide from the cheek farthest from the 
 chassis (or, preferably, both guides); pry up the carriage and 
 place under it, and across the chassis rails, two sliifting-planks ; 
 lieave the carriage sideways with handspikes until it is in proper 
 position over the rails; then remove the planlvs and let the car- 
 riage rest on the cliassis. Replace flic guides. 
 
 To shift the carnage from its chassis to the truck. 
 
 This operation is similar to that described in the preceding 
 paragraph. 
 
 To place a heavy gun on the truck. 
 
 The gun is raised, by means of a jack, upon blocks placed 
 under the chase and body, until it is sufficiently high to admit 
 the truck under it; the truck is placed so that the trunnions 
 will be slightly in front of the axle ; the gun is then lowered 
 upon it. 
 
 A gin may be used for raising and placing the gun on llie 
 
HAND-CART, ETC. 259 
 
 tpuck. The gun is removed from the truck by mean:; similar to 
 those employed for putting it on. 
 
 Remark. 
 
 A 10-inch gun can be carried on the truck now furnished, but, 
 except in very crooked galleries, the cradle is much the best 
 means for moving such guns. 
 
 Hand-caet. 
 
 50T. This is used for the transportation of light stores from 
 one part of a work to another. That for carrying powder, fuses, 
 and such like articles has an arched lid-cover to keep oflf rain 
 and prevent accidents from fire. 
 
 Teuknion-chains. 
 {Fig. 3, Plate 34.) 
 
 SOS. The trunnion-chains are three in number, for light or 
 heavy weights. They are made of a patent looped-link chain. 
 A pair is required to carry a gun. One is passed under each 
 trunnion and liooked on the head of the screw of the sling-cart. 
 
 Ifo. 1, composed of one chain, 59 inches long, the ends joined 
 by a ring; weight, 27 pounds. 
 
 No. 2, composed of two chains, each 59 inches long, the ends 
 joined bj' a ring ; weight, 53 pounds. 
 
 No. 3, composed of two chains, each 47 inches long, tlie ends 
 joined by a ring having three bi'anches ; two for the ends of the 
 chains composing the pair, and the third for the hook of the 
 screw; weight, 61 pounds. Thickness of the iron composing 
 the link, .5 inches. .Length of iron for the connecting ring, 23 
 inches for No. 1 ; 24 inches for Nos. 2 and 3. Size of iron for 
 connecting ring, 1.375 inches, round. 
 
 Stoke-trtjck. 
 
 509. This truck is used for moving boxes, &o., in store- 
 bouses and in embarking and disembarking stores. 
 
 Lifting-jack. 
 {Fig. 5, Plate 32.) 
 
 510. The lifting-jack is a geared screw, with a projecting 
 foot at its lower end, for lifting heavy weights. This jack is 
 sometimes to be found at military posts, but is becoming super- 
 
260 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 seded by the hydraiilio-jack. The jack represented in Fig. 5 is 
 the one carried with siege guns. It is very simple, compact, 
 and powerful. 
 
 Levee-jack. 
 
 511. The lever-jack Is an adjustable fulcrum with a long 
 lever, used chiefly for greasing the axles of traveling carriages. 
 
 Hand-barrow. 
 
 512. Wood; two side rails ; the ends are rounded and form 
 handles. Rope netting joins the side rails, passing through holes 
 ill the side rails. 
 
 Madi,. 
 
 513. This is used for driving stakes, and such like purposes. 
 That furnished from arsenals has a cylindrical head of wood, 6 
 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, with an iron band around 
 each end. The handle is 24 inches long and 1.5 inch in diameter. 
 Weight, 10 lbs. This maul, as issued, owing to poor material 
 and faulty construction, is of but little value. Where much ser- 
 vice is required, it is better to make the head of tough, hard 
 wood, with a handle considerably larger than the one of regula- 
 .tion pattern. 
 
 Truck-wagon. 
 {Plate 35.) 
 
 514. This is a powerfully-constructed four-wheel wagon, in- 
 tended for ftie transportation of iron gun carriages, sea-coast 
 mortars and their carriages, and other similar heavy weights. 
 The wheels have a diameter of 42 inches ; the axles are of iron 
 and the bolsters of heavy pieces of timber, having their upper 
 surfaces flush with the tops of the wheels. Heavy plates of iron 
 cover the tops of the bolsters and project slightly over the wheels. 
 The ends of these plates are turned up, forming a projection 
 about two inches high, to prevent the body transported from 
 slipping off sideways. The width between these projections is 
 just sufficient to admit the chassis of the 15-inch gun. 
 
 The wagon is capable of being coupled long or short, to suit 
 the length of the object to be transpoi-ted. The pole, like that 
 of an ordinary road-wagon, is furnished with double-trees for 
 attaching horses. 
 
MORTAR-WAGON, ETC. 261 
 
 The method of usiug this wagon in the transportation of the 
 15-inch carriage and chassis, is explained in par. 536, and for 
 transporting the 13-inch mortar, in par. 537. 
 
 VVlien a 13-ineh mortar without its bed is to be carried, two 
 stout skids, about 12 feet long and 12 by 12 inches thick, are 
 placed on the wagon. The skids are notohed to fit the bolsters, 
 to prevent them from sliding to the front or rear, and a shallow 
 recess is cut in them to form a seat for the mortar. The mortar 
 is placed on the skids with its axis parallel to the axis of the 
 wagon ; it is hoisted into this postition by means of the gun-lift 
 or ttie gin. 
 
 MOETAE-WAGON. 
 {Plate 36.) 
 
 515. This wagon is used for the transportation of siege mor- 
 tars, siege guns, and heavy projectiles. The limber and wheels 
 are the same as those for the siege-gun carriage. The body con- 
 sists of a platform of rails and transoms, resting on the rear axle- 
 tree, the two middle rails being prolonged to the front to form 
 the stock. The side rails are prolonged to the rear, and furnish 
 supports for the roller of a windlass, which is used for loading 
 the wagon, the guns, mortars, &c., being drawn up the stock, 
 which rests on the ground, forming an inclined plane. Each 
 end of the roller is provided with pawl and ratchet, operated by 
 a handspike, fitting into a socket after the manner of the wind- 
 lass of a gin. 
 
 Over good and firm roads the mortar-wagon is capable of car- 
 rying the 100-pounder Parrott, or any other piece not exceeding 
 in weight 10,000 pounds. 
 
 The Cradle. 
 {Plate 37.) 
 
 516. This is a machine used for transporting heavy guns 
 short distances. It is made of oak, and consists essentially of 
 two parallel rails 13 feet 6 inches long and 10 by 12 inches thick. 
 These rails are united by a transom near each end and one in 
 the middle ; these transoms have such length as to make the 
 entire width of the cradle 60 inches. A bolster is placed over 
 each end transom ; the ends of these bolsters are flush with the 
 pxtei'ior sides of the rails. The bolsters for the support of the 
 breed 1 are 6 inches high and 8 inches thick; that for the chase 
 15 inches high and 6 inches thick; the middle part of the top 
 
262 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 of each is slightly lioUowed out to form seats for the piece. A 
 movable bolster, liavino; notches at each end to tit npon tlie rails, 
 is intended to he placed tight up against the middle part of the 
 gun after it has been placed on the cradle. 
 
 Diagonal braces are fitted inside between tlie rails and tran- 
 soms. The under part of the ends of the rails, both front and 
 rear, are' beveled off, so that, in moving in either direction, the 
 rollers can be caught under the cradle with facility. The under 
 surfaces of the rails are shod with iron to prevent them from 
 splintering out. A ring is attached by a link and eye-bolt to 
 each end transom for the purpose of attaching blocks and tackle 
 when moving the cradle and piece. 
 
 The cradle moves on wooden rollers ; each roller is 78 inches 
 long and 7 inches in diameter. From six to ten rollers are re- 
 quired ; they rest and move on way-planks laid on the ground. 
 
 The method of using the cradle is explained in par, 535. 
 
 The Capstan. 
 {Fig. 1, Plate 38.) 
 
 51?. Tliis machine is used as a strong purchase in heaving 
 or hoisting. When so employed, it is held in position by stout 
 chains attached to holdfasts. The rope is passed two or three 
 times around the barrel of the capstan, tlie free end coming off 
 above tlie turns; tlie standing part is attached to the weight to 
 be moved. The rope is drawn taut by hand, the bars inserted 
 into the mortises, and the fi'ee end of the rope held and taken 
 in by two men seated on the ground. 
 
 Twelve men — three at each bar — are all that can be advan- 
 tageously employed. When additional power is required, the 
 bars are swifted ; that is, the ends of the bars are lashed together 
 with ropes, by which additional men to take hold. 
 
 The method of using the capstan in hoisting a lo-inoh gun by 
 means of the derrick, is explained in par. 549, and- for moving 
 it on the cradle up or down a ramp, in par. 535. 
 
 Gm AS A Capstan. 
 
 5U8. Put the gin together on the ground in the usual man- 
 ner ; place the feet of the legs toward the weight, and secure 
 them well with stakes against the cross-bars, feet, and head of 
 the j-^in ; rig the fall as usual, and attach the hook of the lower 
 block to a rope of suitable strength running to the weight to be 
 moved ; the windlass is worked in the same manner as when 
 
HOLDFASTS. 263 
 
 the gin is standinf^. Or the jrhi, with its pry-polo in the direc- 
 tion oE the weight to be moved, may be raised almost to its usual 
 position for hoisting. A block is liooked to the clevis, and through 
 it the rope is passed from the weight to the windlass ; the latter 
 is worked as usual. 
 
 Holdfasts. 
 
 519. Pickets. These are stout wooden stakes to be driven 
 into the ground, and used for securing purposes and in the con- 
 struction of holdfasts. The ordinary stakes for siege-gun plat- 
 forms answer for most cases. When very heavy strains are to 
 be borne, posts from five to eight feet long are required, and 
 are set into the ground by digging holes, or with a pile-driver. 
 "When the latter is used, the post should be shod with an iron 
 point, and have a ring upon the head to prevent splitting. 
 
 330. Pile-driver. A. good form for this is an iron tube (Fig. 
 2, Plate 38) about ten feet long, with a calibre of about five 
 inches. One end of the tube is set into a broad block of wood, 
 forming a base. Upon each side of the top is attached a sheave, 
 over which works a rope ; these ropes are attached to the ham- 
 mer, and are hauled on by hand until the liammer is at the 
 top of the tube, when they are suddenly let go and the hammer 
 allowed to drop upon the head of the pile. The hammer is an 
 elongated bolt of iron, weighing from fifty to eighty pounds, and 
 of a diameter to work freely in the tube. 
 
 To use the pile-driver, it is laid on the ground and the pile or 
 stake introduced, head foremost, into the tube. The machine is 
 then set up over the pohit where the pile is to be driven, held 
 steady, and the ropes worked as just explained. 
 
 In the absence of an iron tube, a box of hard wood may be 
 used in its stead. 
 
 To draw heavy pickets, a gin, a sling-cart, or a limber may be 
 used. They may also be drawn by the application of a lever, 
 the point being passed through a rope or chain around the picket. 
 
 In drawing pickets, care should be taken that they are drawn 
 out in the same line as that in which they were driven. 
 
 521. The most essential points to be considered before any 
 heavy weight is moved or suspended, are the nature and condi- 
 tion of the securing points, together with the strain that will be 
 brought on them. Natural holdfasts — such as the piers of case- 
 mates, pintles for guns of position, trees, &c. — may frequently 
 be found, around which straps may be placed. In such cases all 
 corners should be protected by wood, or the rope itself parceled 
 to prevent chafing. 
 
264 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 In places where holdfasts can be driven or sunk, the ordinary 
 picket post can bo made use of, but only when light weights 
 have to be dealt with. 
 
 In securing to a holdfast from which it may become necessary 
 to ease off, at least one complete turn must be taken before mak- 
 ing fast ; otherwise, when the strain is on it, it is difficult to cast 
 off. 
 
 Precise rules cannot be laid down as to the description of hold- 
 fast best suited for particular operations, but it should be borne 
 in mind that it will save much time and trouble to make it in 
 the first instance considerably more secure than seems to be ab- 
 solutely necessary, as when a holdfast once begins to give, it is 
 diflBcult to strengtlien it. Whatever holdfast may be used, the 
 strain should be taken by tlie entire structure at once ; otherwise 
 it might give way in detail when it would not do so as a whole. 
 
 Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Plate 39, represent some of the methods of 
 constructing holdfasts. 
 
 When the strain to be sustained is very great, the one shown 
 in Fig. 5 is used ; a, 6, c, d is a trench fi-om ten to fifteen feet 
 long and two to four feet in widtli and depth. It is dug in a 
 direction perpendicnlar to tlie strain. Several heavy stakes are 
 driven in the trench far enough from the side to admit planlcs 
 being placed between them and the earth. A heavy beam, with 
 the bight of a cliain around it, is then laid on the bottom of the 
 trench against the stakes, the ends of the chain being brought 
 up between the planks along a trench, rising gradually to the 
 surface so that there will be no tendency to lift the beam up 
 when the strain is on it. The whole trench is then filled in and 
 rammed. 
 
 Anchors or heavy cannon may be buried and used as hold- 
 fasts. 
 
 HYDEAtTLIC-JACK. 
 (Figs. 1 to 12, Plates 40, 41.) 
 
 532. Owing to their efficiency and simplicity, these handy 
 and powerful machines are much used wherever ponderous 
 weights are to be moved, and are an invaluable recourse for 
 artillery purposes of tliis nature. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows the constructive points of one form of the jack, 
 whereof Fig. 2 is a general view. When the jack is depressed, 
 its external appearance is that of a cylinder or pillar, but while 
 being elevated it seems only one cylinder sliding outside another. 
 The outer cylinder (a) is, however, simply a tube aflSxed to the 
 head as a ground attachment, and carries a claw {g) to support 
 
HYDRAULIC-JACK. 265- 
 
 the weight to be raised ; the head (A) Is also applicable to this 
 purpose. The inner cylinder (6) is the true cylinder, within 
 whicli again is another or inmost cylinder (c), which is the true 
 ram. This last cylinder is hollow, and in the enlarged head car- 
 ries the pivot {p) of the socket (s) and lever-arm (Z), whereby the 
 force pump is worked. The internal capacity of the ram and 
 head is the equivalent of the fluid contents of the cylinder (6) 
 when the ram is raised ; it is, thei'efore, in fact the reservoir or 
 source of the hydraulic power. Fitting nicely into the lower 
 part of tliB hollow of the ram is the piston-head with a suitable 
 valve, and a similar valve — both of 'which will be given in detail 
 further on — is fitted below it into the bottom of the ram. The 
 necessary reciprocating motion is communicated to the piston- 
 head by a piston-rod (e) passing within the ram, suitably con- 
 nected with and moved by the lever handle. There are three 
 leather packings : one (d) to the ram in the cylinder (c), one to 
 the piston-head, and one to the pivot of the lever. By the action 
 of tlie lever-arm the fluid is forced into the cylinder (6) beneath 
 the ram, and simultaneously the ram and its load are raised. 
 When the jack is lowered, the fluid simply passes back into the 
 ram and head. 
 
 Fig. 3 is another form, having a broad base ; it is the same in 
 principle as Fig. 1, but does not carry the outer cylinder and 
 claw. 
 
 Tlie larger jacks, and in fact those most used for artillery, are 
 sliown in Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7, which give tlie details of construc- 
 tion, of which Fig. 8 is a general view. This jack differs some- 
 what from those mentioned, in that the ram (a) is a solid plunger, 
 sliding in a simple cylinder (6), which is fixed to tlie base of the 
 cast-iron reservoir (k). The force pump is contained in a simi- 
 lar cylinder (c), and the two are connected through their lower 
 extremities by a channel not more than one-eighth of an inch in 
 diameter, contained in the reservoir base. The course of this 
 channel is shown in Figs. 6 and 7, which are views of the base, 
 into which is let a movable brass stopper (d), which is the bot- 
 tom of the channel and allows access to it. Screwed into the 
 top of the reservoir, and directly above the force-pump cylinder, 
 is a cap (e) carrying a ring encircling the ram, serving as a han- 
 dle for moving and carrying tiie jack. This cap receives tXe pis- 
 ton-rod (/) and holds it in a vertical position, maintaining its 
 connection with tlie spindle (g), from which a tongue (i) enters 
 the square eye {h) formed in the rod to receive it. The spindle 
 is suitably connected with the socket and lever-arm, from which 
 it leeeives motion and actuates the piston pump, whereby the 
 fluid is forced through the pump and chaniiiel into tlie cylinder 
 
266 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 and beneath the ram, thus raishig the load. When the ram is 
 lowered, the fluid passes baeli into the resei-voir through the 
 same connections. There are three packings, viz. : one to the 
 lower end of the piston-rod, one to the ram, and one to the spin- 
 dle. The ram carries a movable claw as a ground attachment, 
 (a, Fig. 8.) 
 
 2'Ae valves. The valves of the larger jacli and their various 
 functions and constructive details are shown in Figs. 9, 10, and 
 11. The piston-rod (/) differs from that of other forms already 
 mentioned by its lower half being hollow, to admit of its carry- 
 ing a small steel rod (r), which backs up the valve-plunger (p), 
 and by having cut in its exterior surface two channels (x) in the 
 same plane containing the square eye, and converging at the 
 lower extremity. These channels admit the passage of the fluid 
 into the pump-cylinder, which is usually submerged in the fluid 
 during tlie ascent of the piston-rod. The upper valve is simply a 
 Ijlunger and cap (w) of brass; the latter is bored with three holes 
 for the fluid, and is screwed into the bottom of the piston-rod ; 
 the former is solid, and has a slight play in the space formed by 
 the convergence of the two channels and tlie brass cap. At the 
 upward stroke this valve is open from the pressure of the fluid 
 passing the channels, the plunger resting in the cap. At the 
 downward stroke it is closed, the plunger stopping the channels 
 at their convergence from the fluid pressure below. The lower 
 valve is simply a plunger (z) of brass working in a chamber at 
 the bottom of the pump-cylinder, and rests on a spiral spring (s), 
 which is fixed to a screw passing througli the base of the jack 
 from the outside. At the upward stroke this valve is closed by 
 tlie spring; at the downward it is opened by the pressure of the 
 fluid, but closes, by the action of the spring, immediately upon 
 a cessation of this pressure. It admits the passage of the fluid 
 into the channel {w) connecting the ram-cylinder, thence under 
 the ram. 
 
 A stop on the under side of the lever handle near the socket 
 prevents the two valves from meeting at the downward stroke; 
 by reversing this stop and pressing the handle downward gently 
 the cap of the upper is brought in contact with the phmger of 
 the lower valve, which it opens to an extent according to the 
 stroke ; the fluid immediately passes through, opening the upper 
 valve, and the ram descends proportionally. This is called trip- 
 ping. A cessation of the pressure upon the handle arrests all 
 motion. 
 
 The valves of the other forms are essentially on the same prin- 
 ciple, the chief difference being that the lower valve is screwed 
 
IIYDEAULIC-JACK. 267 
 
 into the bottom oythe hollow ram, while the upper works in the 
 pistou-head. • 
 
 Thus it is seen that one, and only one, pair of valves is effective 
 in the various functions, viz., to raise, lower, and stop at an}' 
 given point, and to raiss a strolce if required ; tliese different 
 effects being simply realized by a mere reversal of tlie lever han- 
 dle in its socket. In all other respects the sole secret involved 
 is good work and fitting and proper adaptation of wearing sur- 
 faces by case-hardening metal, with care in an occasional renewal 
 of the leather packing. 
 
 These jacks are made in sizes to rise, varying from 7 inches to 
 2 feet, to lift or press from 4 to 120 tons, and from 2 inches and 
 upwards in diameter, according to power. The form first men- 
 tioned is usually employed standing or obliquely ; the last named 
 may be used in any position. They may be worked by one man 
 only, being thus capable of raising 10 tons one foot in one and a 
 half minutes, or in that proportion. 
 
 Fig. 12 is a hydraulic puUing-jack applicable for setting up 
 rigging, testing chains and rope, pile-drawing, slinging heavy 
 weights in confined spaces, &c. It differs from the lifting-jack 
 in being extended when commencing to work, and then being 
 contracted by fluid force. 
 
 To Jill the lifting-jaclc. 
 
 523. Eemove tlie small screw in the head, having the piston 
 or ram quite down ; fill the jack through tlie screw hole in the 
 head with winter-strained sperm oil, alcohol, or whiskey, adding 
 to the latter (if liable to freeze) a tablespoonfnl of sperm oil; 
 work the lever wiille pouring in the liquid until the ram or piston 
 is up to its full stroke; when tliis occurs the jack is sufficiently 
 full. Then reverse the lever and push the ram or piston back 
 to the bottom of the cylinder, and replace the screw in the screw 
 iiole in the head of tlie jack. This screw is not intended to tit 
 tightly, and must not be screwed tight home after filling. Be 
 careful that no dirt gets into the head of the jack while filling. 
 
 The liquid may consist of equal parts of alcohol and water, or 
 equal parts of wliiskey and water; but these liquids should not 
 be nsed when the temperature is at, or likely to be at, freezing 
 point. Neither kerosene oil nor spirits of turpentine, nor any 
 other liquid liable to corrode the packing, is suitable for use in the 
 jack. 
 
 To fill the hydraulic pulling-jack. 
 
 534. With the iron key unscrew and remove the screw at 
 each end of tiie cylinder ; if the piston is not down, push it home ; 
 
268 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 flu through the two screw holes with the same liquid as is usect 
 in the lifting-jack, and replace the screws, sffewing them home, 
 but not too tight. 
 
 To use the Ufting-jach. 
 
 535. To lift. Place the head of the jack under the object 
 to be lifted. If the object is too near the ground to admit of 
 this, use the iron claw, placing one of its hooks under the object 
 and tlie other (which has a dowel) over the head of the jack. In- 
 sert that end of the lever which is squared (or made with a jour- 
 nal) and has a projecting shoulder into the mortise or slot of 
 tlie jack, the projection of the shoulder downward (or under- 
 neath), and pump imtil the object is raised to the required 
 height. If this height is greater than the full stroke of the pis- 
 ton or ram, block up the object lifted, reverse the lever so that 
 the projection of tlie shoulder is upward (or above), press upon 
 it until it is at the bottom of its stroke, and then push the piston 
 or ram down to the bottom of the cylinder ; block the jack up- 
 higher ; then reverse the lever, and proceed to raise the object 
 as in the first instance. 
 
 It sometimes Iiappens that the piston or ram cannot be pushed 
 down after it has been run up to its full height or stroke. This 
 difflcnlty can be overcome by slacking, with a few turns, the 
 small screw in the liead of the jack, and thus allowing the air 
 with which the jack is filled to escape. 
 
 Sometimes the jack fails to work in consequence of the valve 
 sticking in its seat. This difficulty can be overcome by striking^ 
 tlie lever a few sharp blows up and down with a wooden mallet 
 or stick, which will jar the valve and cause it to resume its 
 action. 
 
 The lifting-jack can be used standing at any angle between lO 
 and 90 degrees above the horizontal; but great care must, at all 
 times, be exercised that the support for its base is secure, and that 
 its head is not permitted to slip from under the object to be raised. 
 
 5S6. To lower. Place the head of the jack securely under 
 the object to be lowered, with the piston or I'am run up to the 
 distance to whioli the object is required to be lowered; iiump 
 until the object is raised sufficiently to remove tlie supports from 
 under it; take out tlie lever, and reverse it so that when put buck 
 in the slot or mortise the projection of the shoulder of the lever 
 is upward (or above); then, witli a slight pressure of the hand, 
 push the lever downward as far as it will go, when tlie piston 
 will commence to descend, and will continue to lower as slowly 
 as desired. By raising the lever slightly, the lowering ciin be- 
 arrested at any point. The object must not be lowered too fast^ 
 
HTDKAULIC-JACK. 
 
 269 
 
 mor the lowering checked too suddenly, or the jack will cease to 
 ■work. 
 
 To use the pulling-jaclc. 
 
 SSV. Screw one end of the jack to some fixed object (the end 
 nearest the pump is preferable); unscrew the valve in the pump 
 'by two or three turns with the key, and stretch the jack apart ; 
 attaeii the free end of it to the otiject to he moved ; shut the 
 valve by screwing back the two or three turns that were un- 
 screwed; attach the long lever and pump away at it until the 
 •object is moved as desired. When there is not room for the long 
 lever, the pump can be worked by the short lever. If the jack 
 ■does not start at once, slack the screw in the cylinder close to 
 the pump (which the same key fits) until a drop or two of tlie 
 fluid comes out ; as soon as this occurs, turn the screw imme- 
 ■diately back. If the piston or ram will not rnn out to its entire 
 length or stroke, place the jack in a horizontal position, take out 
 the screw at each end of the cylinder, and fill through both holes 
 with the usual liquid. 
 
 The pulling-jack can be used to pull or lift at any angle be- 
 tween the horizontal and the perpendicular, but the direction 
 ■of its force must be in a straight line, and the force pump always 
 at the lowest end when the jack is used in any other way than hor- 
 izontally. Wlien the pulling-jack is in use, the lever joints must 
 be well oiled and kept free from dirt ; when not in use, the 
 piston-rod must be kept in ; and when hung up, the end where 
 the pump is must always be downward. 
 
 No greater force than that of one man (provided he applies a 
 power of about 150 pounds) need ever be applied to the lever 
 •of either the lifting or the pulling jack, since that force is amply 
 fiuflScient to ivork tiie jack to its full capacity. 
 
 The hydraulic-jacks usually employed for artillery purposes 
 have 15-ton or 30-ton lifting capacity. 
 
 Weight and dimensions of hydraulic^'acks. 
 
 Kind op Jack. 
 
 HixaHT. 
 
 KmroHT 
 
 OP 
 
 Lift. 
 
 Weight 
 (filled), 
 
 Weight 
 
 OP 
 
 Olaw. 
 
 SO-ton lilting 
 
 SO-ton pulling 
 
 15-ton lifting 
 
 Inches. 
 
 20 
 62 
 20 
 
 Inches. 
 
 12 
 18 
 12 
 
 Founds. 
 
 230 
 310 
 140 
 
 Founds. 
 90 
 
 BO 
 
270 machines and appliances. 
 
 Blocks aito Skids. 
 
 528. Slocks are rectangular prisms of wood employed ex- 
 tensively in all operations connected witli the movements of 
 heavy artillery. Skids are rectangular beams of wood used for 
 similar purposes. The dimensions of those used in the lighter 
 mechanical manoeuvres are given in par. 416 ; those for heavier 
 operations, in par. 534. 
 
 AH blocks and skids should be sound, free from knots, and 
 perfectly true in dimensions. When the edges become splintered 
 and rounded by wear, they should be discarded, as witli such it 
 is impossible to erect safe and stable scaflfolding and supports. 
 They should not be painted ; the tiiickness of each should be 
 marked upon both ends. In erecting a scaffold or other sup- 
 port, a level foundation is of ttie first consideration ; the blocks 
 should then be laid crossing each other in alternate tiers, and the 
 weiglit supported should be made to bear equally upon all sides 
 of the base. 
 
 539. Tlie way-plank is an oak plank 15 feet long, 12 inches 
 wide, and 3 inches thick. Each end is beveled for a distance of 
 six indies, the bevel on one end being on the side opposite the 
 bevel of the otlier end. These planks are used chiefly for form- 
 ing temporary tramways for roller, or for the wheels of car- 
 riages bearing lieavy weights. 
 
 •530. Tlie pinch-bar (Fig. 3, Plate 38) is simply a stout hand- 
 spike, of iron, with a round-beveled butt, turned up into a blunt 
 edge for the purpose of catching under a gun or other sifnilar 
 object. It is used as a lever, by pressing down, thus jumping 
 tlie gun forward a very short distance at a time. The butt 
 eiiil is of steel. The length of the bar is from five to seven feet. 
 Tliose used with tlie 15-inch gun are of tlie largest size, and 
 weigh 53 pounds; tlie sliorter size weigh 26 pounds. 
 
 531. The collar {Fig. 4, Plate 38)'is a device placed upon 
 the chase of a gun to make its diameter equal to that of the 
 body of the piece. This enables the gun to be rolled with facil- 
 ity. It is made of pieces of scantling jointed together after the 
 manner of the staves of a cask, and hooped with stout bands of 
 iron. It is shoved over the muzzle onto the chase, and secured 
 with wedges of wood. 
 
 532. Chocks (Fig. 11, Plate 18) for the lo-inch gun arc made 
 of solid oak wood, of the shape and dimensions represented in 
 tlie figure. Tlie grain of the wood runs lengtliwise with the 
 chock. 
 
 Wlien the piece is to be slued, a chock is used having the bev- 
 eled side cut out slightly concave ; the opposite, or flat side, is 
 
i'LANK-CASEMATB HOWITZER. 271 
 
 shod with spikes, for the purpose of keeping it from slipping. 
 The concave side is placed against the piece, and well greased, 
 to allow the piece to turn easily upon it. 
 
 To MOUNT AND DISMOUNT THE FlANK - CASEMATE 
 
 Howitzer. 
 
 The implements necessary are: One half roller, two half 
 blocks, two skids, four blocks, four gun-chocks, one hammer- 
 wrench. 
 
 The piece being from battery. 
 
 533. The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Dismount the oarbiage. 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, and the gunner I'emove the pintle and run the car- 
 riage into battery; tlie gunner, assisted by Nos. 3 and 4, takes 
 pff tlie tbi-ee nuts that hold tiie fork ; ahandspilce, manned by 
 Nos. 1, 2, 5, and 6, is passed under the chassis imm(idiately in 
 rear of the fork, and at the command Heave from the gunner, 
 the cliassis is raised, tlie fork removed, and the trail carefully 
 lowered to the ground; Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 then lay tlie skids in 
 rear and in prolongation of the chassis, tlieir outer edges in line 
 with those of the chassis; Nos. 1, 2, and the gunner tlion run 
 back the carriage, applying themselves as in from battery, until 
 the rear end of the cheeks touch the counter-liurters. 
 
 The gunner bears down on the roller handspike to raise tlie 
 trail as mucli as possible, and, assisted by Nos. 3 and 4, who 
 place the ends of their handspilces under the outer edges of the 
 trail, lifts it over the counter-hurters onto the skids. 
 
 When the front rollers toucli the counter-hurters, No. 2 puts 
 liis handspike into the bore and cliocks it ; Nos. 1 and 2, assisted 
 by No. 5, raise the muzzle ; Nos. 3 and 4 lift at the manceuvering 
 rings, and run back the carriage until the front rollers rest on 
 the skids ; Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and the gunner (the latter embarring 
 in the left mortise, and pressing tlie roller under the roar tran- 
 som, and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 laying hold of the manceuvering 
 rings and handles) run the carriage back on the skids until the 
 muzzle is over their front ends. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Dismount the howitzbk. 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4 remove the cap-squares, and lay a block and a 
 half block across the skids, touching the head of the cheeks ; No. 
 2 inserts his handspike in the bore, chocks it, and, assisted by 
 
272 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 5, raises the muzzle high enough for No. 4 to place 
 a half roller on top of the blocks. The chase is rested on this 
 half roller anfl choclverl on each side ; No. C crosses his handspike 
 uii(l(^r the knob of the cascahle, No. 5 taking hold of the other 
 end; Nos. 1 and 2 bear down on the handspike in the bore; 
 Nos. 5 and 6 lift on that at the, cascable; the gunner and Nos. 
 
 3 and 4 back the carriage until the front rollers rest on the rear 
 -)ends of the skids and the trail is on the ground ; Nos. 3 and 4 
 
 then place a block and a half block across the skids under the 
 breech. 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6, bearing down on their handspikes at the casca- 
 ble, and Nos. 1 and 2 lifting on theirs, raise the muzzle, and 
 Nos. 3 and 4 remove the half block from under the half roller. 
 The muzzle is in like manner lowered, and the half block re- 
 moved by Nos. 3 and 4 from under the breech. The muzzle is 
 again raised, and Nos. 3 and 4 remove the block from under the 
 half roller and place the half roller under the trunnions. The 
 muzzle is borne down, and Nos. 3 and 4 remove the block from 
 under the breech and replace it by a half block. The piece may 
 now be slued in any direction, rolled upon blocks, or placed in 
 any required position. 
 
 To mount the Jiowitzer when on the skids and resting on the 
 half block and half roller. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Mount the howitzer. 
 
 No. 2 inserts his handspike in the bore, and, assisted by No. 
 1, prepares to bear down on the muzzle ; No. 6 crosses his hand- 
 spike under the knob of the cascable, and, assisted by No. 5, 
 prepares to lift at the breech. At the command Heave from 
 the gunner, they lower the muzzle, and Nos. 3 and 4 replace 
 the half block under the breech by a block. The breech is low- 
 ered on the block and chocked. The muzzle is next raised by the 
 same numbers at the handspikes, and Nos. 3 and 4 insert a half 
 block under the half roller, so that the front scaffold thus formed 
 is 3 or 4 inches in front of the junction of the chase and rein- 
 force. The muzzle is now lowered, and a half block placed by 
 Nos. 3 and 4 on top of the block under the breech. 
 
 The muzzle is next raised, and a block placed by Nos. 3 and 
 
 4 under the half block, thus forming under the chase a scaffold 
 consisting of a half roller, a half block, and a block; Nos. 3 and 
 4 now remove the cap-squares, and the gunner, assisted by these 
 numbers, places the front of the carriage on the skids, as near 
 the gun as convenient, the trail resting on the ground; Nos. 1 
 
TO DISMOUNT A 15-INCH GUN. 273 
 
 and 2 bear down on the handspike in the bore, and Nos. 5 and 
 C lift at that undei" the Icnob of the cascable ; Nos. 3 and 4 re- 
 move the rear scaffold, and, with the gunner, run up the carriage 
 until the trunnion beds are under the trunnions ; Nos. 1 and 2 
 raise on tlieir handspike; Nos. 3 and 4 remove the front scaf- 
 fold, and the trunnions are lowered into their beds; Nos. 3 and 
 4 put on the cap-squares. All then run the carriage forward 
 until the front rollers touch the counter-hurters. 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 1. Mount the oaebiaqe. 
 
 No. 2 inserts his handspike in the bore, and, assisted by Nos. 
 
 1 and 5 (the gunner bearing down on the roller handspike), 
 raises the front of the carriage ; Nos. 3, 4, and 6 at the same 
 time push the carriage forward until the front rollers pass over 
 the counter-hurters and the guide of the front transom enters 
 into the guide space ; No. 6, with a handspike at the trail, 
 assisting to pass it over the counter-hurters and guiding the 
 flanges of the roller into the guide space. 
 
 No. 6 then crosses his handspike under tlie knob of the casca- 
 ble, and, assisted by No. 5, lifts against the base of the breech ; 
 Nos. 3 and 4 seize the trail handles, and Nos. 1 and 2 the man- 
 teuvering rings; the gunner bears down on the roller liand- 
 spike. All act together and run the piece up the chassis into 
 battery. 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, 5, and 6 now apply themselves to a handspike crossed 
 under tlie rear end of the chassis, which they raise and hold up 
 while the gunner, assisted by Nos. 3 and 4, replaces the fork and 
 nuts. The piece is then run from battery, and the gunner, 
 assisted by Nos. 1 and 2, puts in the pintle. 
 
 To DISMOUNT A 15 -INCH GuN FEOM ITS CAEEIAGE BY 
 MEANS OF BLOCKS. 
 
 534. The implements required are : Two TiydrauUc-jacka 
 (thirty-ton), four pinch-bars (large), six handspikes (manoeuver- 
 ing), eight wheel-chocJcs, four gun-chocks (large), one trace-rope, 
 six way-planks, four shifting-planks, two wrenches (nut), one 
 sledge-hammer, two long rollers (cradle), four small rollers (15 
 inches long, 1.5 inch diameter), one ten-foot pole, one carpen- 
 ter''s rule, one screw-driver; fifty blocks, 12 by 12 by 44 inches 
 (hard pine); twelve blocks, 12 by 6 by 44 inches (hard pine); 
 eight blocks, 12 by 4 by 44 inches (liard pine); ten blocks, 12 by 
 
 2 by 44 inches (oak); ten blocks, 12 by 1 by 44 inches (oak); six 
 tohole blocks, 8 by 8 by 20 inches (oak) ; four half blocks, 8 by 
 
 18 
 
274 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 4 by 20 inches (oak) ; four quarter blocks, 8 by 2 by 20 inches 
 (oak); two sUds, 12 by 15 by 204 inches (hard pine or oak); six 
 sUds, 8 by 8 by 72 Inches (oak). 
 
 A four-wheel ti-uck-wagon is convenient for removing the top- 
 carriage and chassis. 
 
 The following method is for a gun mounted on a centre-pintle 
 carriage. Only slight changes are necessary to adapt it to a 
 front-pintle carriage, and these will readily suggest themselves 
 to any one performhig the manoeuvre. 
 
 To dismount the gun. 
 
 535. Twleve men are necessary: one chief-of-detachment, 
 one gunner, and ten cannoneers. 
 
 The manoeuvre is executed in the following order : 
 
 1st. Kun the gun into battery and give it an elevation of zero. 
 
 2d. Remove the flooring-planks. 
 
 3d. Eemove from tlie chassis all transoms and braces in rear 
 of tlie pintle transom. This makes a clear space under the body 
 of the gun for a "crib" to be built, as shown in Fig. 2, Plate 42. 
 
 4th. Eemove the fulcrum post, crane, and steps of the chassis. 
 
 5th. Remove the large nuts from the rear end of the piston 
 rods. 
 
 6th. Enn the gun from battery until the top-carriage is within 
 two or three inches of the counter-hurters. 
 
 7th. Eemove the truck-wheels of the top-carriage and take 
 out the axles of the same. 
 
 8th. Eemove the counter-hurters from the chassis and the 
 guides f i-om the top-carriage. 
 
 9tl). Place a half Ijlock crosswise on each rail against the hurt- 
 ers ; upon each of these place one of the six-foot skids, its rear 
 end resting on the chassis rail. This gives a horizontal foun- 
 dation for the front scaffold to be built under the chase of the 
 gun, and a seat for the jack, under the muzzle, to rest upon. 
 (Fig. 1, Plate 42.) 
 
 10th. Build up a scaffold from the gun platform between the 
 rails of the chassis. (Fig. 2, Plate 42.) This supports the body 
 of the gun, wliile the front scaffold supports the chase. Both 
 should be built crib-fashion, and of the 44^inch blocks. Great 
 care should be taken that these scaffolds are firm and true. 
 
 11th. Place a 44 by 12 by 12 inch block on end, resting on 
 the platform and under the fulcrnm-post transom to support it. 
 On top of this transom place blocks to support the jack when 
 raising the breech of the gun. (Fig. 1, Plate 43.) 
 
 I2th. Place the jacks, one under the breech and the other un- 
 der the muzzle; raise until the trunnions are clear of the. car- 
 
TO DISMOUNT A 15-INCH GUN. 275 
 
 riage, and block up the front and rear scaffolds securely under 
 the gun. The greatest care should be observed in this operation 
 to place the jacks squarely under the breech and muzzle, so that 
 the gun may not roll and thus raise one trunnion higher than 
 the other. The jacks should be worked alternately, commeuQ- 
 ing always with the one under the breech, and only two or thr^e 
 inches should be gained at each lift. {Fig. 2, Plate 42.) 
 
 13th. Eemove the front transom from the carriage, so as to 
 admit of the latter being run back clear of the rear scaffold. 
 
 14th. Place a trace-rope through the rear axle-holes of the 
 carriage ; pry up the rear of the carriage, and insert under each 
 shoe a small (1-^inoh) roller. 
 
 15th. Back up the truck-wagoii against the rear end of the 
 chassis rails. The wheels of the wagon should rest on way- 
 planks. 
 
 16th. Haul on the trace-rope and draw back the carriage, 
 catching it on long rollers placed on two way-planks on the 
 wagon. {Fig. 2, Plate 42.) The carriage can be drawn back 
 over the counter-hurters in case the latter are not removed. 
 When a truck-wagon carmot he used, the carriage can, in like 
 manner, be hauled back upon a crib of blocks built in rear of the 
 chassis, from which it may be readily lowered to the ground by 
 means of jacks or handspikes. (Fig. 2, Plate 43.) 
 
 17th. The gun now being free from its carriage and resting on 
 the scaffolds, built up as before described, is lowered, by means 
 of jacks, until it rest^ on two long skids, one end of each rest- 
 ing on the chassis rails, while the other end rests on a crib of 
 blocks built up on the side of the chassis to which the gun is to 
 be moved. The skids must be horizontal and on the same level. 
 To this end the front one should rest across and on the two six- 
 foot skids placed as in "9th." A bar of railroad iron placed on 
 the front skid will greatly facilitate the next operation. 
 
 ISth. Roll the gun over on the skids until it rests above the 
 cribs. The muzzle is cut forward, either by pinching or by 
 hauling on a trace-rope attached to a block or roller in the muz- 
 zle. The gun may now be lowered to the ground by means of 
 the jacks, or, should it be desired to move it to some other part 
 of the works, it may be placed on a cradle. {Fig. 1, Plate 44.) 
 
 To do this, tlie cradle is placed parallel to the gun and about 
 three feet from the cribs. The cradle rests upon five or more 
 long cradle rollers resting on two way-planks laid on the ground 
 directly under the rails of the cradle. (It is best to double the 
 way-planks by laying them on each other in such manner as to 
 break joints.) The rollers are securely chocked. The gun is 
 now lowered, by means of the jacks, until it rests upon the two 
 
276 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 long skids placed across the cradle, the ends under the gun rest- 
 ing on the cribs — now reduced in height to two blocks — while 
 the other ends are supported by blocks on the other side of the 
 cradle. (Fiff. 2, Plate 44.) 
 
 The gun is next rolled until it rests squarely over the cradle, 
 when it Is again jacked up until the skids are removed, after 
 which it is carefully lowered into its place on the bolsters of the 
 cradle. {Fig. 1, Plate 45.) 
 
 The gun may be rolled over by means of pinch-bars, but more 
 easily by parbuckling. A parbuckle-rope is used for this purpose, 
 and is hauled upon by hand, or, better, by attaching to it a tackle 
 secured to a holdfast or some other fixed object. 
 
 The same rope and tackle may be advantageously used for 
 cutting forward tlie muzzle ; attaching the rope for this purpose 
 to a block or roller placed in the bore of the gun. {Fie/. 2, 
 Plate 45.) 
 
 The gun upon its cradle is moved by attaching to the front 
 ring of the cradle a heavy rope (6 to 8 inches circumference) and 
 hauling on it by means of a capstan, or a tackle may be used 
 instead of a cjxpstan, in which case a single-sheave" block is 
 hooked into the ring, and through it a rope Is rove, one end of 
 which is secured to a strong holdfast to the front, and the other 
 hauled upon by tackle in the manner represented In Figs. 1, 2, 
 Plaie 46. 
 
 Way-planks are placed successively as the cradle moves for- 
 ward, and as the rollers become disengaged at the rear they are 
 placed in front, care being taken to presei-ve an equal bearing 
 upon all. 
 
 In passing around curves, the rollers are kept in the position 
 of radii of the curve. This is accomplished by placing each roller 
 in the required position and by driving the ends backward or 
 forward, as the case may require. By observing this, all un- 
 necessary jerking will be avoided. The cradle should, if possi- 
 ble, be moved with the muzzle of the gun foremost; it then 
 engages the rollers in front more freely, glides over inequalities 
 with greater ease, and is more readily directed in its course, — 
 results following from the smallest weight being in front. In 
 going up or down inclines, the rope should be attached to the 
 gun, by the trunnions, instead of to the cradle. This will obvi- 
 ate any danger of its slipping on the cradle. 
 
 When the inclination is great — as upon a ramp — tackling 
 should be used as illustrated in Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, Plate 46. 
 
 Should the railway truck be used instead of the cradle, the 
 gun is placed on it by operations similar to those for the cradle, 
 except that the skids must be supported entirely by the cribs at 
 
TO DISMOUNT A 15-INCH GUN. 277 
 
 the sides, and not allowed to rest on the truck ; observing, also, 
 that the jront end of the truck must always be in the dii-eotion 
 towards which the gun is to be moved. 
 
 Unless the ground is very firm and the mancBuvering detach- 
 ment skillful, the cradle is the safest and surest method. 
 
 To remove the chassis from its platform. 
 
 536. This may be done by jacking and blocking it up, and 
 placing under it the cradle and rollers. A better way, however, 
 is to use the garrison gin instead of jacks, and the four-wlieel 
 truck-wagon instead of the cradle. 
 
 The giu is placed over the chassis ; a sling-chain, doubled, is 
 passed around the latter directly in front of the pintle bolster; 
 to this the hook of the tackle is attached. 
 
 The sling-chain should be of iron, at least seven-eighths of an 
 inch in diameter. It is better, however, to use heavy rope for 
 slinging. A gun-sling made of not less than 9-inch rope is most 
 convenient, and to use it a cradle roller, or a beam of wood of like 
 dimensions, is placed under the chassis, directly in front of the 
 pintle bolster, its ends projecting equally on the sides. Lay the 
 gun-sling across and over the chassis; bring both ends of it 
 under the ends of the roller and up together on top of the chas- 
 sis, where the free end is drawn through the eye, bent into a 
 knot, and stoppered. The hook is attached to the sling by lash- 
 ing with a trace-rope, not less than six turns being taken for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Blocks of wood, with rounded edges, are placed against the 
 sides of the chassis rails, under the sling, to prevent the sharp 
 edges of the chassis from cutting the rope. 
 
 The chassis is then raised until tlie truck can be backed under 
 It. The wlieels of the truck rest on way-planks, and the truck 
 coupled to such length that when the chassis is lowered the rear 
 traverse-wheels will be in front of the front bolster, and the 
 front traverse-wheels in rear of the rear bolster of the truck. 
 (Plate 47.) Tiie chassis is lowered so that the rails will rest on 
 the bolsters between the iron projections at their ends. The. 
 truck, with the chassis, can now be moved wherever desired. 
 
 The chassis is replaced and the gun remounted by operations 
 the reverse of the foregoing. 
 
 The precautions necessary to be observed in all mechanical 
 manoeuvres with artillery, multiply rapidly with the weight of 
 the piece. 
 
 With the 15-inch gun, all implements and material should be 
 of the most perfect kind, and no doubt should be allowed as to 
 strengtli of parts to sustain the weight or pressure required of 
 
278 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 them. The utmost care should be taken to avoid all sudden shocks 
 and jerking movements. 
 
 537. Another method of mounting guns on iron carriages, is 
 to bloclc up the piece to the proper height, and then assemble 
 the chassis and carriage under it. 
 
 To do this, place the piece on the platform in such position as 
 to bring the chassis in its proper place with reference to tlie 
 pintle and traverse circles ; raise the muzzle and breech alter- 
 nately by means of the jack, supporting the gun on two scaf- 
 folds of blocks placed in front and in rear of the trunnions ; 
 assemble the chassis in position; place one cheek of the top- 
 carriage on the chassis rail, with the trunnion bed directly under 
 the trunnion, and bolt the transoms to it ; place the other cheek 
 in position, and bolt it to the transoms ; lower the trunnions 
 into their holes and remove the block. 
 
 To dismount a gun, proceed in the inverse manner. 
 
 Another method, wlien the top-carriage has not been taken 
 apart, is as follows : Mount the chassis on the platform and the 
 top-caiTiage on the chassis, and then run the top-carriage into 
 battery; bring the gun upon the cradle or skidding until it 
 is parallel to a convenient portion of the chassis; roll the 
 gun over the chassis, having the breecii projecting beyond the 
 rear end of the chassis ; raise it by blocking under the breech 
 beyond the rails and under the muzzle by a pier of bloolcs be- 
 tween the raUs, or by a pier of blocks outside of each rail with 
 a skid laid across. The piece is raised until the trunnions are 
 high enough to permit the top-carriage being moved back under 
 them, when the piece is lowered into the trunnion beds and the 
 scaffolding removed. 
 
 ^hen a pier of blocks is placed between the chassis rails, a gin 
 is used for suspending the muzzle until the pier is removed and 
 the carriage moved back under the trunnions. 
 
 A gin may be advantageously used for raising heavy guns 
 upon blocks. To do this, supposing the piece to be lying on the 
 ground, insert a skid or similar piece of timber into the muzzle ; 
 erect the gin over the muzzle and attach the taolUe to the skid; 
 raise the muzzle and place a block under the piece just in rear 
 of the centre of gravity ; lower the muzzle and block up under 
 the breech ; again raise the muzzle and block up on the fulcrum ; 
 lower the muzzle and block up under the breech ; and continue 
 this operation until the piece is at the required height. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE GUN-LIFT. 279 
 
 To PLACE A 13-INCH MORTAR, MOUNTED ON ITS CAB- 
 EIAGE, ON A TEUCK-WAGON. 
 
 53S. Implements specially required : One gin, of size larger 
 than garrison gin ; one fall, ot large size (5 to 7 inches) ; one 
 quadruple block, one triple block, fonr sling-chains (links not 
 less than 0.75 inch in diameter), one four-wheel truck-wagon, 
 one clevis for mortar Ing. Instead of the sling-chains, two gim- 
 slings may be used. These should be of rope not less than nine 
 inches in circmnference. 
 
 Twelve men are necessary : ofle chief-of-detachment, one gun- 
 ner, and ten cannoneers. 
 
 Remove the upper step from the bed and depress the mortar 
 until its axis is horizontal ; raise the gin over the mortar and 
 rig the tackle ; attach the clevis to the clevis lug and hook the 
 lower block to it ; pass a sling-chain under the rear notches of 
 the bed and up over the mortar, in front of the clevis lug, — this 
 is to prevent the rear end of the carriage from sagging when the 
 mortar is raised ; work the windlass until the carriage is high 
 enough to pass the wagon under it ; the wagon, having been 
 coupled short enough to receive the mortar bed on both bol- 
 sters, is run under and the mortar lowered upon it. 
 
 Should there be no clevis lug on the mortar, two sling-chains 
 are used, passing under the front and rear notches of the bed 
 and crossing each other on top of the mortar. The lower block 
 of the gin tackle is hooked at the crossing, and the operation ot 
 raising is as before described. 
 
 The mortar thus mounted on a wagon can be moved by hand 
 short distances, and with eight horses may be transported over 
 level and firm roads. 
 
 Instead of the gin, one trestle of the gun-lift may be used for 
 the foregoing operation. It is set over the mortar, and the ma- 
 noeuvre is proceeded with as with the gin. {Fig. 1, Plate 48.) 
 
 Desceiftion oe the Gun-lift. 
 {Plates 48, 49.) 
 
 539. A. Sill, with mortises to receive the legs of the trestles. 
 
 B. Brace sill, notched to fit on sill, with a bolt and key to 
 secure it in its place and a cast-iron seat for end of adjusting 
 screw of brace to rest in . 
 
 C. Legs of trestle, bolted and keyed together at top. 
 
 D. Brace, with adjusting screws attached to foot. One brace 
 on each trestle has cleats to form a ladder. 
 
280 SIACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 E. Cap, with a shallow mortise near each end to receive ends 
 of legs and braces, and a hole to receive large bolt for securing 
 it to legs. These bolts are keyed below, and their heads project 
 above the cap about three inches, and serve as dowels to secure 
 the bolsters. 
 
 F. Bolsters, resting on cap, having a clevis at centre of gravity 
 for hoisting it in position and a mortise for hoisting-bar to pass 
 through. 
 
 Gr. Bracket, fastened to cap by a bolt, around which it turns. 
 
 H. Staging-planJc, resting on brackets. 
 
 I. Fulcrum, resting in mortise in bolster. 
 
 J. Lever, one end resting in fulcrum and the other on hy- 
 draulic-jack, and having a mortise through which the hoisting- 
 bar passes. 
 
 K. Hoisting-bar, with hooks on lower end for sling-chains and 
 holes at intervals to receive supporting pins. 
 
 L. Shears, for hoisting into tlieir places the bolster, levers, 
 fulcrums, and jacks. 
 
 M. Hydraulic-jack, for raising end of lever, and thereby the 
 weight. 
 
 Each gun-lift is provided with two sets of caps and bolsters. 
 One of these sets has the mortises for the lioisting-bar through 
 its middle ; this is intended for centre-pintle carriages. The 
 other set has mortises much nearer one end than the otlier, and 
 is for front-pintle carriages. The latter arrangement is intended 
 to permit the carriage to be traversed from under the gun, when 
 it is raised, or under it, when it is being mounted. 
 
 When weights are not excessive — that is, not exceeding, say, 
 fifteen tons — ^ivnd can be slung with a single sling, but one trestle 
 need be used. This would be the case with mortars, gun car- 
 riages, and like weights. 
 
 The jacks used must be of a power equal to the weight to be 
 raised, as there is nothing gained for them by way of levei-age. 
 
 Twelve men are necessary to erect the gun-lift and mount or 
 dismount a 15-inch gun. 
 
 Implements specially required : Two htjdraulic^acks (30-ton, 
 or one 30-ton and one 15-ton), two mauls, two hammers, one 
 measuring-rod (12 feet), one spirit-level (carpenter's). 
 
 If the carriage and chassis are to be moved, the following will 
 be requh-ed in addition: One cradle (or truck-wagon), six cradle 
 rollers, twelve wheel -chocks, four way-planks, two shifting- 
 planks. 
 
 A sufficient number of 44rinch blocks of various thicknesses 
 should be at hand for any purpose required of such material. 
 
DESCKIPTION OP THE GUN-LIFT. 281 
 
 To assemble and raise the gun-lift. 
 
 540. Place the sills parallel to each other at the required 
 distance apart and on the spot where the trestle is to stand. It 
 ■will be convenient to have a wooden rod of a length equal to the 
 proper distance between the sills. Lay down the brace sills and 
 key them ; take two legs, bring together the two ends which 
 form the mitre joint, pass the bolt through them, and drive in 
 the liey; raise one leg above the other, insert the head of the 
 legs into the mortise in the cap, put iu the bolt, and drive in the 
 key. At the same time two other men have gone through the 
 same operation with the other two legs. 
 
 Place the ends of the legs that are on the ground close to the 
 mortises in the sills ; all take hold of the cap and raise it, bring- 
 ing the trestle on its feet and placing the legs in the mortises in 
 the sills. 
 
 A pole with a notch in the end, or hook like a boat-hook, will 
 be convenient in raising the trestle after the cap is too high to 
 hold it with the hands ; or the trestle may be raised by the shears 
 in the same way as the bolster, if the party be deficient in force, 
 or if for other reasons it be deemed desirable. Correct the posi- 
 tion of the trestle, if it be necessarj', so as to bring the mor- 
 tise for the hoisting-bar directly over the centre of gravity of 
 the weight to be raised. Put up the braces, varying their length 
 as may be required, by turning the screw in the foot, until they 
 shall have a good bearing when the legs are vertical, which is 
 determined by a plumb-line or spirit-level. 
 
 To raise the bolster, a pair of light shears is provided. Place 
 them so that when raised the head shall be over the middle of 
 the cap of the trestle ; hook the pulley-hook in the link provided 
 for the purpose ; fasten two guys to the head, one to the front 
 and the other to the rear; raise the shears and make fast the 
 guys ; hook the pulley to the clevis of the bolster and raise it 
 to its place on the cap ; raise tlie staging-plank and lay them 
 on the brackets. 
 
 Two men ascend the steps on the brace to the top of the trestle 
 and receive the fulcrum, lever, and jack, which are hoisted to 
 them in turn, and place them in position. The hoisting-bar is 
 brought by the men on the ground, who insert it into the mor- 
 tise in the cap and bolster, and raise it, assisted by those on the 
 trestle, until it be in position. 
 
 To raise the weight. 
 Pass a sling around the weight, bringing the ends over the 
 hook on the end of the hoisting-bar, taking in all of the slack. 
 Bring the lever down on the head of the jack; put in the pia 
 
282 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 over it and through a hole in lifting-bar ; commence pumping, 
 and raise the weight the lull lift of the jack ; insert the pin in 
 the hole in lifting-bar above the bolster and run down the head 
 of the jacli as far as it will go ; bring the lever down as at fii-st, 
 and continue the operation as already described. The weight 
 should not be left on the jack for any length of time, bid on the pin. 
 
 To mount a 15-inch gun vjith the gun-lift. 
 
 541. The platform is supposed to have nothing on It. Bring 
 the gun onto the platform by means of the cradle, or truck and 
 portable railway, the muzzle to the front, the vent uppermost, 
 and leave it in such a position, with the muzzle about two feet 
 in rear of where the end of the chassis will come, that when the 
 gun shall be raised vertically the carriage can be placed on its 
 pintle and directly under the gun ; place tlie shears midway 
 between the place where the two trestles are to stand ; raise the 
 trestles and place them over the gun so that one hoisting-bar 
 shall be over the centre of the neck of the cascable and the other 
 about two feet from the muzzle ; raise the gun to its full height 
 as already described for raising a weight ; remove the truck, 
 bring the chassis (on a truck), and run it between the legs of 
 the trestles under the gun; remove tlie truck and place the 
 chassis on the pintle ; bring the top-carriage and place it on the 
 chassis, placing the trunnion beds under the trunnions; lower 
 the gun into ite place, and remove the gun-lift. 
 
 If the gun and can-iage be already on the platform, or if the 
 peculiar position of the platform be sucli as to render the forego- 
 ing method impracticable, the following plan may be executed : 
 
 Place the gun in such a position that the axis of the bore shall 
 be in the same vertical plane as the central line of the chassis 
 when the latter shall be in place ; move the chassis parallel and 
 close to the gun, the top-carriage run well to the front; put up 
 the trestles over the gun and chassis, both of them being between 
 the legs of the trestles; hoist the gun, raise and slide the chassis 
 by means of the jacks under the gun and over its pintle ; run 
 the top-carriage back under the gun, and lower it into its place. 
 
 To DISMOUNT A 10-INCH SmOOTH-BOEE (CASEMATE GUN) 
 
 BY MEANS OF BLOCKS. 
 
 {Figs. 1, 2, Plate 50.) 
 
 542. The detachment consists of one chief, one gunner, and 
 ten cannoneers. 
 
 Implements: Two skids, 96 by 12 by 12 inches; seventeen 
 
TO DISMOUNT A 10-INOH SMOOTH-BOKE. 283 
 
 blocks, 44 by 12 by 12 inches ; five blocks, 44 by 12 by 6 inches ; 
 five blocks, 44 by 12 by 4 inches ; five blocks, 44 by 12 by 2 Inches ; 
 eiglit whole blocks, four half blocks, lour quarter blocks, one 
 bar (railroad iron), two hydraulic -jacks, two pinch-bars, two 
 hammer-wrenches, two iron wrenches, four long handspikes, two 
 manoeuvering-bars (iron), one two-foot rule, two muzzle-chocks, 
 two breech-chocks, one large chock, five wheel-chocks. 
 
 To dismount the piece. 
 
 543. Enn the piece from battery until the carriage touches the 
 counter-hurters ; throw it out of gear ; remove fulcrum post, rear 
 transom, rear guides, and depress the piece as far as possible. 
 
 Under the rear of the chassis rails, and parallel to them, lay 
 two 12-inch blocks, their front ends touching the traverse- 
 wheels; across these place two 6-inch blocks about six inches 
 apart, the front edge of the front one directly under the rear 
 €dge of the middle transom of the top-carriage ; across these 
 rest on each side a whole and a halt block, the whole blocks one 
 foot apart, their front ends on a line with the fi'ont edge of 
 the 6-inch block under the middle transom ; lay a half block be- 
 tween the whole blocks for a support for the hydraulic-jack. 
 Under the chassis, in front, place transversely two 12-inch blocks 
 about 15 inches apart, the rear one under the rear part of the fork ; 
 across these place a 6-inch block to support the hydraulic-jack ; 
 across the chassis rails, and resting against the hnners, place two 
 quarter blocks; let the front ends of the 6-inch blocks rest upon 
 these, the rear ends beaiing upon the chassis ; build across the 
 rear ends of the 6-inch blocks, with 12-inch and 6-inch blocks (or 
 thinner pieces if necessary), until the muzzle is reached ; block 
 up securely and chock the breech, and, by means of the jack, 
 raise the muzzle until the gun has a slight elevation ; then raise 
 the breech and muzzle alternatel}'- until two whole blocks, in 
 addition to those already placed, can be put under the former, 
 aud one 12-inch and two 6-inch blocks under the latter ; run the 
 top-carriage forward until the front ends nearly touch the block- 
 ing in front-; remove eccentric sockets, wheels, axle, and right 
 front guide ; raise the carriage, and under it, front and rear and 
 across the chassis, place two iron manoeuvering-bars ; back up 
 the casemate truck, chock the wheels, and slide the top-carriage 
 upon it. The trucls having been removed, two sldds are placed 
 under the gun, front and rear, between the blocking, their inner 
 ends ends resting upon both chassis rails, the outer upon cribs 
 built of 12-inch blocks as near the chassis as possible. The gun 
 having been lowered upon the skids, the muzzle resting upon 
 the railroad iron so that it can be cut, it is rolled until it rests 
 directly over the cribs, Yaised sufficiently to pcimit the skids to 
 
284 
 
 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 be removed, and lowered to the ground or npon the oasematft 
 truck, as may be desired. 
 The gun is mounted by inverse means. 
 
 Precautions to he observed. 
 
 544. After the breech is sufiSciently raised, the two upper 
 whole blocks are backed up by two others placed in rear, In order 
 to give a broader bearing and prevent the possibility of upsetting. 
 The gun should never have much elevation when being raised 
 by the jacks, as It is liable to slide to the rear and upset tlie jack. 
 Tliis is especially important when the gun is being mounted be- 
 fore tiie top-carriage has been run back. In remounting tlio 
 gun, care must be taken that it is not too far to the rear (the dis- 
 tance from the rear of the chassis to a point directly under tlie 
 axis of the trunnions is 5 feet 1 inch) ; should this occur, how- 
 ever, the carriage can be run farther to the rear by removing 
 the counter-liurters. Should the gun, upon being rolled bade 
 over tiie chassis, have its trunnions in line, but not rest directly 
 over the carriage, it may be moved sidewise, by raising it with 
 the jack, and then lowering it slowly upon a large ground-chock. 
 
 If the blocking under the breech is placed too far forward, it 
 will not allow the carriage to be run sufficiently far to the rear 
 to receive the trunnions in the trunnion bed. 
 
 Care must always be taken to arrange the blocking and crib- 
 work so that it will not interfere with the free manipulation of 
 the jacks. 
 
 The foregoing is for a gun mounted on a casemate carriage. 
 When mounted on a barbette carriage, the operation diflers but 
 little from the former. 
 
 Shears. 
 
 545. Shears are used for lifting heavy weights over the face 
 of a wall or cliff, or in other situations where the gin could not 
 be used for want of footing for the pry-pole. 
 
 All shears are constructed and erected on the same principle. 
 They consist of two spars of suitable size for the weight to be 
 raised. The following will serve as a guide : 
 Spars. 
 
 Wbiqht. 
 
 DiAMETBK. 
 
 Lenotu. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 2 
 5 
 12 and 
 upwards. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Head 6 to 9 heel. 
 " 10 to 14 " 
 " 14 to 20 " 
 
 Feet. 
 
 20 to 30 
 30 to 40 
 30 to 45 
 
SHEARS. 285 
 
 The upper and lower ends are respectively called the head 
 and heel, and the part where the lashing is applied is termed the 
 cross. 
 
 The stores necessary to equip a pair of shears are : 
 
 Gin tackles — Two single blocks, two double blocks. 
 
 Main tackle — One double block, one treble block, one snatch 
 block. 
 
 Cordage — Main-tackle fall, 100 fathoms 3 to 5 inch Manila 
 rope ; gnys, 50 fathoms 3 to 6 inch Manila rope ; head lashing, 
 10 fathoms 3 to 4 inch Manila rope ; heel lashing (two each), 10 
 fathoms 3 to 4 inch Manila rope ; contingencies (two each), 50 
 fathoms 3 to 4 inch Manila rope. 
 
 Straps — Main tackle, one fathom 6-inch Manila rope ; snatch 
 block, one fathom 4^inch Manila rope ; holdfasts (six), each made 
 of one fathom 4^inch Manila rope ; contingencies (six), each made 
 of a half-fathom of 4-inch Manila rope. 
 
 Spun-yarn for mousing, stops, &c., one ball of 100 fathoms. 
 
 Two cleats for heels, to prevent the lashing from slipping up, 
 made by cutting lengthwise, diagonally, a piece of 6 by 6 incii 
 scantling 2 feet long. These cleats are spiked to the heels 6 
 inches from the bottom. Twelve stakes for holdfasts for guys, 
 6 feet by 6 feet by 8 inches; four stakes for heel-posts; two 
 shoes for heels, 6-inch plank, 15 feet by 15 feet. 
 
 To rig the shears. 
 
 {Fig. 1, Plate 51.) 
 
 546. Lay the heads of the spars on a trestle about three feet 
 high, the right leg above the left, so that they cross at about 
 twice their thickness from the ends, with tlie heels in their 
 proper position. 
 
 Pass the head lashing as described in par. 480, or if a very heavy 
 weight is to be i-aised, as follows : Take a good piece of 3J or 
 4 inch rope, well stretched, middle it, and make fast to the shear 
 leg, below the cross ; with one end pass the requisite number of 
 figure-of-eight turns around both spars, heaving each turn well 
 taut, and hitch the end to the upper part of the shear leg; with 
 the other end pass riding turns around both legs, filling up the 
 intervals between the first turns ; come up with the hitch of 
 the first end, and pass frapping turns around all parts of the 
 lashing between the shears ; finish with a square knot, and stop 
 the ends back with a good spun-yarn stop. If necessary, tighten 
 up with wedges. 
 
 Lay the middle of the back guy in the cross ; bring the left- 
 hand end up around the right leg and over the head of the left 
 leg ; then carry the right-hand end around under both legs ; let it 
 
286 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 cross over the left-hand end, and seize them together with spun- 
 yarn. 
 
 Make a bowline knot in the end ot the fore guy and slip it 
 over the head of both legs. 
 
 Lay the middle of the main-tackle strap under the cross above 
 the fore guy ; bring the ends up over the cross; hook the upper 
 block to them under the cross below the fore guy, and mouse it, 
 taking care that the splice comes in the middle of the strap and 
 that the fall leads to the rear. 
 
 Drive the heel-posts on each side the heels about a foot toward 
 the head, and one foot outside ; lay the shoes under the heels ; 
 make a timber hitch around the inner posts with the heel lash- 
 ings; pass three turns over the legs below the cleats, and hitch 
 the lasliings to the outer posts. 
 
 Drive four holdfasts for each back guy as follows : Two on 
 eacli side the line of the legs prolonged, three feet apart, and 
 two six feet in rear of these. 
 
 Lay the ends of the guy straps over the front stalces; connect 
 each pair of front and rear stakes with a strap twisted up taut to 
 insure the strain being distributed properly. 
 
 Drive two holdfasts for the fore guy, one In rear of the other, 
 in the prolongation of the axis of tlie shears. 
 
 Hook tlie upper blocks of the guy tacldes to a bowline In the 
 end of the guj's, and the single block to the guy strap, and 
 mouse them all. 
 
 Ordinarily the fore guy can be worked without a tackle, be- 
 laying it over the holdfasts, first taking a round turn over the 
 one next the shears. 
 
 If not too heavy, the shears may be i-aised by lifting the head 
 and hauling on tlie guy tackles, slacking the heel lashings as re- 
 quired, and tending the fore gny carefully to prevent the shears 
 falling over toward the rear. 
 
 When raised, hook the snatch block to a strap placed below 
 the cleat on either leg. 
 
 If the shears are too heavy to raise in this way, bring both guys 
 together at the heels; form a crutch by lashing together two 
 poles (or use the legs of the garrison gin) ; place the guys in this 
 crutch ; pass the end of a small rope over botJi guys, in front of 
 the crutcii, down under the lashing, and take a rolling hitch 
 with it around one of the guys in rear of the crutch ; haul the 
 rope well taut, and secure it to the lower end of the crutch leg. 
 
 Raise the crutch with an inclination of one-sixth to the front, 
 and heave up the shears by the guy tackles. When the crutch 
 ceases to act, slack it to the ground by the small rope. 
 
 In general, the inclination or rake of the shears should not 
 
SHEARS. * 287 
 
 exceed 20 degrees, or four-elevenths of their height, and each 
 leg should have about one-half this inclination. In tliis position 
 the strain on the guys will never exceed one-half the weight. 
 Allowance of seven or eight degrees, or one foot in eight, should 
 be made for the stretch of the guys. 
 
 ThG diagram {Fig. 2, Plate 51) will serve as a guide in plac- 
 itlg shears, holdfasts, &c. 
 
 Make A B= J C E. 
 
 C D= 2 a 6. 
 
 I ^ |=at least 2 A C. 
 
 When the locality will not admit of rigging the shears in posi- 
 tion as described, they may be raised from the foot of the wall 
 or cliff by means of a gin or lighter shears In the following man- 
 ner : Pass the shear lashing and attach the front guy ; lash a 
 stout spar across the legs about two feet above tlie centre of 
 gravity, giving the heels the proper spread ; fasten a small rope 
 to each heel to serve as guys ; hook the gin tackle to a strap 
 firmly attached to the middle of the cross-spar, and heave away, 
 tending the guys carefully. As the head of the shears comes 
 above the crest of the wall, put on the back guys and main-tackle 
 strap, and hook on the tackle ; mouse all hooks; raise the shears, 
 place the heels in the shoes, pass the heel lashings, set up the 
 guys, and lower the gin to the ground by means of its tackle, 
 leaving the spar in position. 
 
 Use of the gin as shears. 
 
 547. When the garrison or casemate gin is used as shears' 
 the pry-pole is replaced by a parting block of the same diameter- 
 
 The guys are attached as follows : Middle the rope for the back 
 guys ; push the bight through the clevis from below and slip it 
 around both legs; haul tlie ends back tight and lay them over 
 the head of the gin to tlie rear, each part lying between the 
 nearest leg and the parting block, taking care to place canvas 
 under the ropes to prevent chafing. 
 
 The fore guy is hitched around the clevis bolt. 
 
 A single back guy may be used, formed of a tackle of the same 
 size as the gin tackle, liooked into a strap applied as described 
 for the guy-ropes. In this case particular care must be taken 
 to bring the axis of the shears in the vertical plane containing the 
 holdfast and the centre of gravity of the weight to be lifted. 
 
 The shears are lowered by slacking the guys and heel-ropes, or 
 by using small shears. When no capstan is available, a windlass 
 may be improvised as follows : 
 
 Nail a strong cleat on the lower side of each leg, three feet 
 
288 • MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 from the heel, butt end down ; lay a round spar a little more 
 than one-third the length of the shears across the legs, one foot 
 above the butt of the cleats, and pass a strong lashing, trapping 
 it loosely between the spar and legs, taking care to have the 
 lashings of equal length; grease the spar under the lashing; 
 pass a strap around each end of the spar, put one end through 
 the other, take a round turn around the spar, and put a hand- 
 ■"lopilce through the free end, to be used as a lever to turn the 
 windlass. The straps should be nailed to the spar to prevent 
 slipping. Additional levers may be applied in the same manner 
 if required. 
 
 The windlass is chocked by allowing the ends of two hand- 
 spikes (or more) to touch the ground. 
 
 The officer in charge of the work should place himself where 
 he can carefully observe the working of the entire structure, 
 particular attention being paid to the rake of the legs and the 
 security of the several holdfasts. 
 
 No person should be permitted to stand or pass under the shears 
 while a weiglit is being raised. 
 
 The shears proposed by the Ordnance Department to be fur- 
 nished for hoisting a 15-inch gun are represented on Plates 52 
 and 53. 
 
 Deeeicks. 
 (Jig. 3, Plate 51.) 
 
 548. The derrick is a machine used for hoisting or lowering 
 heavy bodies to or from the top of vertical walls or similar 
 places. It usually consists of one spar or leg; but the one 
 employed for raising 15-inoh guns consists of two legs made 
 of round spars of yellow pine, 29 feet long, 11 inches diameter 
 at tlie foot and 9 inches at the top; one sill, half round, 16 feet 
 long and 11 inches in diameter; one cap, half round, 8 feet 
 long and 9 inches in diameter; two iron straps, with keys and 
 wedges for securing cap to legs. Near each end of the sill, on 
 the square side, is a mortise, into which fits the tenon on the 
 foot of the leg. Tlie cap is similarly mortised to receive the 
 top of the legs, and is held fast Iti this position by the straps 
 fitting over it and keyed through the legs. 
 
 The following is a list of the stores required for it when hoist- 
 ing a 15-inch gun to the top of a rampart thirty feet high : 
 
DERRICKS. 
 
 289 
 
 MATSBLUi. 
 
 Bemp rope- 
 
 ManUa rope... - 
 
 Hemp . 
 
 Iron 
 
 Wood.. 
 Iron..,. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Main-tackle fall.. 
 
 G-uys (single rope doubled).. 
 
 Stmps for gujB 
 
 Fore guy 
 
 Lower-block lashing 
 
 Upper-block lasliing 
 
 Leading-block straps 
 
 Muzzle-tackle fall 
 
 G-uy-tackle fall 
 
 Preventer- tackle fall 
 
 Fore-gny-tackle fall. 
 
 Luff-tackle fall 
 
 Muzzle-tackle lashing 
 
 Straps for various uses.« 
 
 Trace-rope for lashing 
 
 Shear-head lashing. 
 
 Spun-yam, 3-yam 
 
 Seizing stuff, 12-yam 
 
 Stoppers (soft plated) 
 
 Thimbles 
 
 Sling-chains 
 
 Handspikes (manceuvering). 
 Pinch-bars 
 
 No. 
 
 Size. 
 
 5.5 
 6 
 6 
 
 e 
 
 4.5 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 i£ 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 3.5 
 5 
 4 
 3 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.6 
 3 
 
 Len'th, 
 
 90 
 20 
 10 
 20 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 100 
 20 
 20 
 30 
 30 
 
 8 
 land 2 
 
 5 
 
 84 in. 
 84 in. 
 
 each. 
 
 each, 
 each. 
 
 each, 
 each. 
 
 each, 
 each, 
 each. 
 
 heavy, 
 heavy. 
 
 Purchase blocks 
 
 V8BD. 
 
 Kind. 
 
 
 1 
 
 at 
 
 Material. 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 R 
 
 IS 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 In. 
 
 14 
 14 
 10 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 6 
 5 
 6 
 4.6 
 
 ? Wood and hran. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Wood, 
 f 2, wooden. 
 1 2, Iron. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Wooden. 
 J 
 
 Main tackle, leading 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 "i" 
 
 Muzzle tackle, leading.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fore-guy tackle 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fore-guy tackle, leading 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Glrtline 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Two capstans, wooden ; four stakes for securing capstan, 8 
 feet long, 5 inches diameter; eiglit staJces for securing capstan, 
 
290 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 6 feet fong, 5 inches diameter; two skids, yellow pine, 18 feet 
 long by 12 by 15 inches ; fifteen blocks, yellow pine, assorted 
 (four sizes) ; stakes for securing sill, 8 feet long, 5 inches diameter. 
 
 To raise a 13-inch gun. 
 
 549. The derriolc is put together on top of the rampart (or 
 other place to which the gun is to be raised) ; the sill is about 
 five feet from the edge of the wall ; the main-tackle upper block 
 is lashed to the cap near one leg, and the muzzle-tackle upper 
 block near the other leg. 
 
 The ends of the guys (Fig. 3, Plate 51) are hitched to the ends 
 of the cap; the middle laid across the legs, and a half hitch 
 taken over each end, thus doubling them ; a stout thimble is 
 placed in the bight of each, into which the guy tackles are 
 hooked. Secure hold-fasts must be obtained for the guys; to 
 these the gny straps are attached, and in the bight of each a 
 stout tliimble is placed, into which the guy tackle is hooked. 
 
 One end of the fore guy is attached to the middle of the cap 
 by a round turn and two half hitches, the end being securely 
 stoppered to the guy. 
 
 A luff-tackle purchase is applied to the fore guy and its hold- 
 fast, and by means of this the derrick is raised to a vertical posi- 
 tion. 
 
 The sill is firmly secured, with stakes or by bracing with skids, 
 against some fixed object. The girtline is attached to the cap 
 by a strap, and having been raised with the derrick, a man is sent 
 up by it, who, by the same means, receives tlie leading bloclis, 
 which he secures to the cap by means of straps. 
 
 The niain-tacUle fall is next rove through the blocks, and the 
 lower block lashed to the gun 2 feet 6 inches in rear of the axis 
 of the trunnions. The muzzle-tackle fall is rove, and the lower 
 block lashed 3 feet in front of the axis of the trunnions. These 
 blocks are each laslied to the gun by seven turns with the lower- 
 block lashing, the lashing being trapped on each side of the 
 blocks with its ends. 
 
 Two snatcli blocks are attached to the sill, one near the foot 
 of each leg, by strong straps. These straps should be laid on 
 the ground under the sill previous to raising the derrick, and if 
 the ground is gravelly they should be protected from chafing by 
 canvas laid under them. 
 
 Through these snatch blocks the main and muzzle tackle falls 
 are severally led, each to one of the capstans. 
 
 The capstans are manned by sixteen men each. A strain is 
 brought upon the falls, and the guy tackles hauled upon until 
 
DERRICKS. 291 
 
 the head of the derrick is almost vertically over the edge of the 
 wall. 
 
 The capstans are worked and the gun is hoisted, care being 
 observed to work the capstans so as to keep the piece in a hori- 
 zontal position. One or more shifting-planks are let down by 
 ropes against the side of the wall to prevent the gun from chafing 
 against it and to ease it over the coping. 
 
 When the gun reaches the top of the coping, preventer tackles 
 are hooked to straps around the breech and muzzle. When the 
 piece is sufficiently high, the guy luff tackles are hauled upon 
 and the piece landed on cribs or blocks. The preventer tackles 
 are likewise used to assist in bringing in the piece and landing it 
 in a proper position. 
 
 If it is desired to place the gun on the cradle, the falls are 
 slacked off and the siU of the derrick moved far enough back to 
 admit the cradle. The gun is again raised and landed in its bed 
 on the cradle. 
 
 The derrick should not be allowed to assume an inclination of 
 less than four upon one. 
 
 To lower a \5-inch gun. 
 
 350. The piece is brought to the edge of the wall on the 
 crailte; the derrick is erected over it; the gun-sling and the 
 tackling attached, all in the manner explained for lioisting ; the 
 capstans are worked ; the piece lifted and eased to near the edge 
 of the wall by the preventer tackles. The cap of the derrick 
 having been placed directly over the piece, the strain will in- 
 crease its inclination sufficiently to allow the gun to be eased to 
 the edge of the wall. In this position the piece is allowed to 
 rest on blocks or skids, the cradle is removed, and the sill of the 
 derrick moved up close to the gun. 
 
 The gun is then hoisted, eased over the edge, and lowered to 
 the foot of the wall. 
 
 The derrick is dismantled in the inverse order iu which it was 
 put up. 
 
 Note. — One capstan, if powerful enough, is sufficient for low- 
 ering or hoisting the gun, in which case the lower block is laslied 
 to the piece at the centre of gravity. The lashing is executed as 
 before explained. 
 
 The capstan usually issued to artillery posts is, however, not 
 sufficiently powerful, and it will invariably require two of them. 
 
 Care must be taken to keep the guys hauled upon so that tlie 
 cap and sill remain always parallel to each other ; the derrick is 
 thus prevented from twisting. 
 
 By omitting the cap and then lashing the heads of the spars 
 
292 MACHINES AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 together with shear lashing, the derrick may be used as^shears. 
 In this case, only the main taclsle can be used. 
 
 When spars can be procured of sufficient length to construct 
 ishears high enough, it is best to place the shears at the foot of 
 the wall instead of on top. The shears should be not less than 
 20 feet higher than the wall. This method permits the piece to 
 be raised and eased over to the terre-plein with less inclination, 
 and consequently less strain upon the legs of the shears and oa 
 the guys. 
 
^mt imxtU, 
 
 QABE AND PRESERVATION OF ARTILLERY 
 MATERIAL. 
 
 551. All cannon and other artillery material are either man- 
 ufactured or purchased by the Ordnance Department and turned 
 oyer to the artillery arm for use. 
 
 It is the duty of the artillery to care for and preserve such 
 property, and to return to the Ordnance Department for repairs 
 such as may require it. 
 
 Officers in charge of permanent works will keep, as far as pos- 
 sible, the armament complete and in serviceable condition, and 
 will also keep on hand a proper quantity of ammunition and 
 other supplies. 
 
 553. A book is furnished to each post for the "record of artil- 
 lery " and " record of firing." In the front of this book are printed 
 instructions fully explaining how it is to be kept. Under appro- 
 priate headings, in the part set aside for record of artillery, each 
 gun is described by its number and marks; when received and 
 where from ; whether mounted or dismounted ; if mounted, in 
 what part of the work, stating its platform number. The result 
 of each inspection, made as hereinafter described, will be entered 
 for each piece in this part of the book. 
 
 In the portion of the book devoted to record of firing, each piece 
 has a separate page, which, when filled, is carried on to another. 
 Each sliot tired is duly recorded as to date of fire, kind and 
 weight of projectile, kind and quantity of powder, elevation, 
 time of flight, range, &c. When a piece is transferred from one 
 post to another a complete record is sent with it, and the pre- 
 vious number of fires is entered in the book at the last post, so 
 that the firing may not go beyond the limit prescribed as the 
 endurance of the piece; this has been fixed at one thousand 
 service rounds for cast-ii'on cannon. 
 
 553. Marks. All cannon are required to be marked with 
 the weight in pounds, the number of the piece, the initials of the 
 inspector's name, the initials or name of the foundry, and the 
 year of fabrication. All pieces manufactured since 1861 have 
 these niaiiis on the face; those of previous date have them dis- 
 (293) 
 
294 CARE AND PRESERVATION OP 
 
 tributed on the ends of the trunnions, the face, the breech, and 
 the top. 
 
 The numbers for each kind and calibre at each foundry are in 
 separate series. 
 
 Cannon that have been inspected and condemned are marked 
 on the face X C. 
 
 554. Ordnance-sergeant. The ordnance-sergeant of a post 
 has, under the commanding officer, immediate charge of all the 
 artillery material at the post. It is his special duty to see to its 
 care and preservation, and to keep the books and records relat- 
 ing tiiereto. He takes an account of receipts and expenditures, 
 makes a memorandum of all brealtages and damages, and keeps 
 the commanding officer informed as to the condition of the 
 armament of the post and the extent of the supplies. 
 
 555. Preservation of artillery. Cast-iron cannon, whether 
 mounted or dismounted, should be lacquered once a year. The 
 lacquer used is coal-tar of the best quality, mixed with sufficient 
 spirits of turpentine to malce it work freely with a paint brush. 
 It should be applied only in warm weather. 
 
 The muzzle of "the piece sliould always be depressed so that 
 water may not stand in the bore, the tompion kept in, and the 
 vent closed. At least once a month, especially after a rainy 
 period, the bore should be sponged dry and oiled by passing 
 down it a sponge saturated with sperm oil ; especial attention in 
 this respect should be given to rifled guns. In cold weather a lit- 
 tle kerosene oil is mixed with the sperm. The vent at the same 
 time is examined and oiled, and if the piece is not in use, stopped 
 with putty or a plug of soft wood. When the piece is mounted, 
 the trunnions and trunnion beds are kept from rusting by pour- 
 ing a small quantity of the same oil into tlie beds and elevating 
 and depressing it several times. 
 
 Once a month the carriage should be traversed so as to change 
 its place of rest on the traverse circle. At the same time the 
 pintle and axle journals are oiled with sperm oil, and pieces with 
 hydraulic or pneumatic buffers run from battery and the pistons 
 cleaned and oiled. If the pistons are found rusted, the rust is 
 removed with fine emery-cloth, and the surface polished smooth 
 with rotten-stone and oil. Such pieces ought always to be kept 
 in battery and the air holes in the cylinder heads carefully closed 
 will the plugs. 
 
 The axles of the truok-wheels are cleaned and cared for in the 
 same manner as the pistons. Elevating screws, when not in use, 
 are kept in the store-house, and are cleaned and oiled in the same 
 way. Guns, especially rifled pieces, in batteries exposed to blow- 
 ing sand, should, in addition to the tompion, be provided with 
 
ARTILLERY MATERIAL. 295 
 
 canvas hoods placed over the muzzle. When firing, this is a 
 useful precaution. 
 
 Cannon not mounted should be placed together, according to 
 kind and calibre, on skids of stone, iron, or wood laid on hard 
 ground, well rammed and covered with a layer of cinders or 
 gravel to prevent vegetation. The pieces should rest on the skids 
 in such a manner as to be rolled over when necessary for lacquer- 
 ing, the muzzle depressed and in such position as to be readily 
 got at with the sponge. The place selected should be free from 
 shade of either buildings or trees. 
 
 Siege mortars may be placed on their muzzles, resting on thick 
 planks or pavement. 
 
 556. Carriages. Iron carriages should be painted once a year, 
 and this in dry, warm weather. The best paint for preservation of 
 iron is red-lead, but this being comparatively expensive, the kind 
 generally used is oriental red paint. It is supplied ready mixed, 
 and is applied in the usual manner of painting. If it should re- 
 quire thinning down, this U efljected by adding turpentine and 
 linseed oil, the latter either boiled or raw. 
 
 Before painting, all blisters, rust, or accumulation of old paint 
 should be removed with a scraper. The top of the chassis rails 
 should neither be painted nor oiled, but kept clean by dty scrap- 
 ing. All iron handspikes, elevating-bars, aud similar imple- 
 ments are painted black, using for this purpose common black 
 paint. Heads of bolts and edges of rails may likewise be painted 
 black. 
 
 The damp location of most artQlery posts is particularly favor- 
 able to the rapid decay of material. Kust gradually eats away 
 iron parts of carriages and machines. These defects are fre- 
 quently hidden by repeated coats of paint or lacquer, making 
 them extremely liable to lead to accident or disaster. Such parts 
 should be carefully examined by means of punches and ham- 
 mers, and no such material be suffered to remain where it is 
 dangerous. 
 
 The wooden parts of gun carriages and machines frequently 
 become dry-rotted, while the exterior, covered with paint, con- 
 tinues a shell apparently quite sound. Sounding such parts with 
 a hammer, and searching into cracks and flaws, will indicate the 
 defects. 
 
 Wooden implements become brittle from age, by having the 
 "life seasoned out." This is readily detected, by those familiar 
 with wood, by the appearance of the fracture, the weight, the 
 elasticity, and by the resonance of the article. 
 
 557. Siege-pieces are scraped off and painted once a year 
 with black paint or Japan varnish, they being dismounted for this 
 
296 CARE AND PRESERVATION OF 
 
 purpose. The carriages are scraped to remove all blisters and 
 lumps of old paint, and then painted with olive paint. The iron 
 XDarts are painted black. 
 
 If possible, siege-gun carriages should be kept under cover in 
 well-ventilated slieds. 
 
 The following is the method pursued in the Navy for blacking 
 and polishing guns. Whenever the number of men in charge of 
 pieces admits of it, the same care should be observed in the land 
 service. 
 
 The piece is first scraped clean and then scrubbed well with 
 fresh water and sand ; when dry it is washed with spirits of tur- 
 pentine, and a coat of well-ground red-lead, mixed with boiled 
 linseed oil, is applied ; this is well and smoothlyrubbed in, allow- 
 ed a couple of days to harden, and then rubbed down with sand- 
 paper, after which another thin coat of red-lead and oil is applied ; 
 this is allowed to dry, and is then rubbed until smooth. A coat 
 of well-mixed and strained black paint is now applied, as smootli- 
 ly as possible, and allowed to dry, after which a polish of the fol- 
 lowing preparation is used, viz.: 4 lbs. of good bees-wax and 1 
 lb. of spermaceti are melted together in a clean vessel free from 
 grit; while hot this is strained through a cotton or woollen cloth. 
 To this mixture is added 1 oz. of dry ground Prussian blue, 0.75 
 lb. of ivory-black, or the same quantity of lamp-black, and 1 gal- 
 lon of spirits of turpentine. All these ingredients are mixed well 
 together while warm, and thoroughly rubbed in with the hand; 
 the rubbing is finished by working the hand around the piece — 
 not lengthwise. The first coat is allowed to stand a day and 
 then rulibed lightly with a cotton eloth, after which a second 
 coat is applied and rubbed with the cloth until a brilliant polish 
 results. 
 
 In case the mixture is not put on smoothly, it may be neces- 
 sary to cork the surface ; this is done by rubbing with a flat piece 
 of cork about half the size of the hand. Scratches are generally 
 corked out, care being taken to avoid all dust or grit. 
 
 To brown a gun. Scrape clean ; scrub with fresh water, sand, 
 and canvas; allow to dry; wipe off; apply a strong solution of 
 salt and vinegar three or four times a day for two days, or until 
 a good coat of rust is formed; allow to dry, then rub lightly with 
 old canvas ; apply a thin coat of the following mixture, rubbing 
 it in well : 4 lbs. bees-wax, melted and strained; 0.50 oz. pure 
 vitriol (white), or 1 oz. of pulverized alum ; 1 gallon spirits of tur- 
 pentine; allow to dry until next day; then put on another thin 
 coat, and when dry rub with a clean cotton cloth. 
 
 In case of a dull appearance, by reason of having been handled. 
 
ARTILLERY MATERIAL. 297 
 
 rub over with a cotton cloth and spirits of turpentine, and tliea 
 with a dry cloth. 
 
 558. Injuries. The injuries to which heavy cannon are 
 liable are confined almost entirely to the interior. Rusting^ 
 produces roughness and an enlargement o£ the bore, and in- 
 creases any cavities or honey-combs that exist in the metal. 
 
 In smooth-bore guns, the principal injuries arise from the wear- 
 ing away of the raetal on the upper and lower surfaces of the 
 bore at the seat of the projectile and the enlargement of the in- 
 terior orifice of the vent. This enlargement of the bore can be 
 measured with accuracy only by means of the star gauge ; but 
 as this instrument is seldom to be had at artillery posts, reliance 
 must be placed upon such inspection as can b.e made with a 
 mirror or small lamp. When the enlargement is suflBciently 
 great to be manifest by such inspection, the piece should not 
 be further used until it can be gauged and tlie full extent of the 
 injury determined. 
 
 The enlargement of the vent is determined by means of an 
 impi'ession of it taken with wax or soft gutta-percha, applied by 
 pressing it up against the bore at the vent as hereinafter de- 
 scribed. The appearance of a vent (Fig. 4') enlarged by much 
 firing is irregular and angular, with its greatest diameter in the 
 direction of the axis of the bore. When the fissures of this en- 
 largement exceed an inch in any direction, the piece is no longer 
 serviceable, and further use of it should be discontinued until a 
 new vent can be bored and the old one stopped with melted zinc. 
 One vent in a cast-iron piece will stand five hundred service 
 rounds. Other enlargements, or cracks in the vent, may be dis- 
 covei-ed by means of a searcher made of a piece of bent wire. 
 The service to which a cast-iron piece has been subjected can 
 generally be approximately determined by the appearance of the 
 vent. 
 
 All cracks and flaws, in any part of the piece, should cause 
 it to be laid aside until it can be inspected with the proper in- 
 struments. 
 
 Rifle cannon. These become injured by the wearing away of 
 the lands, especially upon the driving side. 
 
 Any serious damage to the lands can be ascertained by exam- 
 ining the bore with a mirror. It will also manifest itself in 
 firing by inaccuracy and frequent tumbling of the projectiles. 
 
 Slight craclis in the surface of the bore, particularly about the 
 seat of the charge, indicate the approaching fracture of a piece, 
 and should be sufficient warning to cause a discontinuance of its 
 use. 
 
 The bursting of shells in the bore, particularly in rifled pieces. 
 
298 CARE AND PEESEEVATION OF MATERIAL. 
 
 frequently causes dents and abrasions. Sucli bnrstings or pre- 
 mature explosions are, liovvever, less frequent now than formerly, 
 owing probably to the fact that inilder and slower powdors are 
 now used behind the projectile ; still, such accidents occasionally 
 take place, and the causes which lead to their occurrence are often 
 obscure and require close investigation to discover. 
 
 Most prominent among those usually assigned are the follow- 
 ing : Too great quickness of burning in the powder charge of the 
 gun; defects in the working or placing of the fuses; imperfec- 
 tions in the metal of the shells themselves, due to faulty casting; 
 thinness of the walls or of the butt ; concussion and friction of 
 the powder within the shell itself when the piece is fired ; insuf- 
 ficient quantity of powder in the shell. 
 
 Most of these causes take elfect at the instant of ignition of 
 the powder charge of the gun, and it is probable that most shells 
 that fail receive their injuries before they are unseated, or their 
 inertia fully overcome. 
 
 It has been found that roughness on the interior of shells or 
 the presence of grit contributes to the frequency of premature 
 explosions, by shook and attrition witli the grains of the burst- 
 ing charge ; hence it is important to remove, by scraping, all 
 such gritty substances. It is recommended to coat the interior 
 of shells with some elastic composition. A very good kind is com- 
 posed of : Soap, (common yellow,) 16 ounces ; tallow, 7 ounces ; 
 rosin, 7 ounces. The tallow should be melted first ; then melt 
 and add the rosin, and lastly the soap, bringing the mass to a 
 heat that will make it very fluid. 
 
 The shells having been first thoroughly cleaned, fill them 
 about one-third fnll of the composition, roll them slowly so as 
 to spread the mixture over the whole interior surface, and then 
 pour off the residue. This coating should be about one-tenth 
 (0.1) of an inch in thickness, except at the bottom of the shell, 
 where it should be about three-quarters of an inch thick. To 
 obtain these thicknesses, the operation of coating should be per- 
 formed twice ; then pour into the shell enough of the composi- 
 tion to produce the desired thickness at the bottom, the shell 
 Standing on its base. After the composition is perfectly cool, 
 immerse the shell in hot water at as high a temperature as the 
 composition will stand without " running " — about 170 degrees. 
 This second heating of the composition in the bath toughens it, 
 and causes it to adhere more closely to the shell. 
 
 Another method of meeting this difficulty, as also that arising 
 from friction and packing from the set-back of the grains of the 
 bursting charge, is to place the charge in a bag. The material 
 for the bags is the same as for cartridges; they are made in the 
 
INSPECTION OF CANNON. 299 
 
 same way, and of a size suitable for tlie cliarge. In cliai-gino^ a 
 sliell in tliis manner, tlie bag is puslied into tlie cavity with a 
 slender stick, leaving tlie mouth of the bag projecting out of the 
 fuse hole; this is securely held while the powder is introduced 
 through a funnel, and worked and settled into the bag with the 
 stick. When the bag is nearly full the funnel is withdrawn, the 
 neck of the bag tied, and pushed down to one side of the fuse 
 hole. 
 
 On the occurrence of a premature explosion, or the rupture of 
 a shell in a gun, the bore must be carefully examined with the 
 mirror, and by taking impressions, especially about the place of 
 explosion. A close examination should be made for cracks. 
 These may not at first be discoverable, but will develop with 
 subsequent firings. It is important, therefore, that frequent ex- 
 aminations be made of guns in which shells have exploded. 
 
 Inspection of cannon. 
 
 559. Every artilleryman should know how to examine the 
 weapon with whicli he works, and sliould understand what de- 
 fects in guns are serious and what may be disregarded. It is of 
 great importance that the examination of both guns and fittings 
 should be very searching and exact-; otherwise, a small flaw left 
 unnoticed may endanger the life of the piece in future. 
 
 Guns, upon being accepted into service, are inspected as pre- 
 scribed in the regulations for the Ordnance Department. 
 
 Tlie following rnles are given for subsequent inspections in 
 service. 
 
 Every gun must be examined after firing tlie following num- 
 ber of rounds witli projectiles : 
 
 Smooth-bore cast-iron guns. — ^Firing 50-11) charges and upwards, 
 60 ; lO-lb up to 50-lt) charges, 100 ; under lO-R) charge, 200. 
 
 Rifles. — iO-inch and upward, 50; 8-inch, 100; under 8-inch, 
 150. 
 
 In the record-boolc of firing, (see par. 552,) on the pages where 
 the shots are recorded should be entered the inspections, their 
 dates, by whom made, and a full description of any defects that 
 may be found, and particularly whether those discovered at pre- 
 vious examinations are increasing, and if so, to what extent. 
 
 Instruments for inspecting cannon. 
 
 560. 1. Star-gauge. Used for measuring the diameter of 
 the bore at any point. 
 
 2. Gylinder-staff. Used to measure the length of the bore. 
 It is supported in tlie centre of the muzzle by a T-rest, and the 
 
300 INSPECTION OF CANNON. 
 
 extremity inserted in the gun Is furnished with a measuring 
 point and guide plate. 
 
 3. Cylinder -gauge. This is a hollow cylinder of cast-iron, 
 turned to the least allowed diameter of the bore, and one calibre 
 in length. When used, it is attached to the cylinder-staff. 
 
 4. Searcher., consisting of four flat springs turned up into 
 points at their ends, and attached to a socl<et which is screwed 
 on the end of the cylinder-staff. It is used to feel for cavities 
 in the surface of the bore. 
 
 5. Trunnion-gauge. Used to verify the diameter of the trun- 
 nions and rimbasps. 
 
 6. Trunnion-square. Used for verifying the position of the 
 trunnions with reference to the bore. 
 
 7. Trunnion-rule, for measuring the distance of the trunnions 
 from the base of the breecli. 
 
 8. Calipers, for measuring exterior diameters. 
 
 9. Standard rule, for verifying other instruments. 
 
 10. Vent-gauges ol steel wire, with shoulders to prevent them 
 from slipping into the vent. There are tliree, differing in size 
 by 0.005 of an inch ; one is the exact size of the vent, and one 
 larger and one smaller than the exact size. To ascertain the 
 wear of a vent tliere should be several others, increasing in size 
 by the above dimensions. 
 
 11. Vent-searcher is a steel wire of the length of the vent, bent 
 to a right angle at the lower end and pointed. It is used to de- 
 tect cavities in the sides of the vent. 
 
 12. Wooden rule, to measure exterior lengths. 
 
 13. Mirror, for reflecting the sun's rays into the bore. 
 
 14. Spirit lamp, attached to a staff, used In examinhig the bore 
 when the mirror cannot be used. 
 
 15. Machine for taking impressions of the bore. 
 
 561. To ascertain injuries to cannon in service, only those of 
 the foregoing list numbered 1, 2, 4, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15 are 
 required. 
 
 The star-gauge {Fig. 1, Plate 54) is composed of the staff, the 
 handle, and a set of four steel points for eacli calibre. 
 
 The staff is a brass tube, made in thi'ee pieces, for convenience 
 of stowage, and connected together, when required, by screws. 
 The end that goes into .the gun expands into a liead (a), in 
 which are placed four steel sooljets, at equal distance from each 
 other, which receive the points. Two of the soclsets opposite 
 each other are secured permanently ; the other two are movable. 
 A tapering plate or wedge (6), the sides of which are cylindrical,, 
 runs through a slot in the head ; an aperture in the inner ends 
 of the movable socliets embraces the cj'linder, so that wlien tlie 
 
INSPECTION OF CANNON. 301 
 
 wedge Is moved forward the sockets are forced outwards, and 
 when moved backwards the sockets are withdrawn. The side.s 
 of the wedge incline 0.35 inch in a length of 22 inches, so that by 
 pushing the slide in the thirty-fifth part of this distance, the dis- 
 tance between the two sockets is increased 0.01 indi. 
 
 A' square sliding rod (c) is connected with tlie wedge, and runs 
 through the whole length of the tube, projecting a few inches 
 beyond the outer end. This rod is in three parts, like tlie staff, 
 and, like them, connects by screws. The sections of the rod are 
 prevented from falling out of their proper section of the staff by 
 pins. When screwing the joints of the staff together, if the ends 
 of the rod are pressed up to each other they become connected 
 by the same motion. 
 
 The staff is graduated into indies and quarters, so that the 
 distance of the point from the muzzle of the piece may always 
 be known. 
 
 The handle {Fig. 2, Plate 54) is made to fit over the outer end 
 of the staff, and to connect with the sliding rod by a screw hav- 
 ing a milled head at the outer extremity of the handle. It may 
 be used on either joint, as most convenient for the length of the 
 bore. The socket of the handle slips over the end of the staff 
 made smaller for the purpose, and has a slot in it, allowing the 
 staff to be seen through it. A scale on one side of the slot is 
 graduated to show the distance that the rod moves to throw the 
 points 0.01 apart. 
 
 Tliat part of the handle containing the slot and scale is sepa- 
 rated from the other part, but is made to fit closely over it. On 
 one side there is a mill-headed screw for clamping the parts to- 
 gether. Seen through the slot is a small plate of silver inserted 
 in the staff, and a fine mark upon it to show the place of the 
 zero when the points are adjusted. The zero mark on the 
 scale is made to correspond with it by means of the screw just 
 mentioned. 
 
 A set of adjusting rings belongs to the instrument — one for 
 each calibre — creamed out to the exact minimum diameter of the 
 bore. To adjust the gauge for any calibre, the handle is loosened 
 by means of the clamp screw, the proper measuring points are 
 screwed in, the adjusting ring placed over them, and the slider 
 pushed out until all the points touch the inner circumference. 
 The zero of the scale is then made to coincide witli the mark on 
 the tube, and the handle clamped ; the instrument is then ready 
 for use. 
 
 The arras of the T-rest {Fig. 3, Plate 54) are adjusted for the 
 particular calibre. It is placed in the muzzle to keep the instru- 
 ment in the axis of the piece. A centre line, starting from the 
 
302 INSPECTION OF CANNON. 
 
 centre of one of the permanent sockets, is marked on the staff 
 throughout its length. In joining the sections together care 
 must be taken to secure coincidence of this centre line. When 
 the gauge is in the bore the centre line should be uppermost; 
 the movable points are then horizontal, and measure the diam- 
 eter of the bore only in a horizontal plane. To make a thorough 
 measurement in every direction, the piece should be on skids, 
 and then by rolling it over diflFerent elements of the bore vrill be 
 bi'ought uppermost, and can be measured in succession. When 
 the piece cannot be rolled over, and it is desirable to obtain 
 measurements all round at any part of the bore, the gauge may 
 be inserted with the movable points in the direction in which it 
 is required to make the measurement. The centre line of the 
 staff will indicate the direction of the measuring points. 
 
 To ascertain thoroughly the condition of the bore, measure- 
 ments should be made at intervals of 0.25 inch in the part occu- 
 pied by the charge and shot ; at intervals of one inch in the rest 
 of the bore in rear of the trunnions, and at about one calibre 
 intervals from the trunnions to the muzzle. 
 
 In tlie original inspection of the piece, no variation greater 
 than 0.03 inch beyond the true dimensions was allowed; there- 
 fore anything exceeding this is an enlargement caused by serv- 
 ice. The scale upon the handle of the instrument is marked to 
 correspond to hundredths of an inch of movement of the meas- 
 uring points. The divisions are numbered both ways from the 
 zero. Those towards the handle indicate excess of diameter; 
 those in the other direction hidicate deficiency. Bifled pieces 
 are measured across from the lands — not from the grooves. In 
 doing this, a special instrument is required for guiding the meas- 
 uring points so tliat they vdll follow the lands as they proceed 
 along the bore. Tlie hexagonal hole {Fig. 4) in the centre is 
 fitted on to that portion of the end of one of the measuring 
 points which is similarly shaped. Two small arms on either side 
 of the guide-piece face each other, and can be movBd toward or 
 from each other by means of sliding plates to which they are 
 attached. For this adjustment, finely-divided scales are marked 
 on the sliding plates. When in the bore the two small arms 
 rest in two contiguous grooves, and embrace between them the 
 land which the measuring point is forced to follow. 
 
 To prevent obstructing the motion of the measuring point 
 wlien it is shoved out by the slider, the arms rest upon light 
 springs, which are simply compressed during the measurement. 
 
 The hexagonal socket is made to turn within the rest of the 
 guide-piece to allow the necessary freedom to the arms. 
 
 Before and after each set of measurements, the rings must be 
 applied to the points and the instrument adjusted. 
 
IMPRESSIONS OF THE BORE. 303 
 
 Instruments for taking impressions. 
 
 562. The machine {Fig. 1, Plate 55) for taking the Interior 
 impression of the vent consists of a wooden head (a), one-lialf 
 the length of which is cylindrical and the other half rounded off 
 to the shape of the bottom of the bore. The diameter of the 
 head is rather smaller than the bore. A staff (6), flat on the 
 upper side and rounded on its under side to fit the curve of the 
 bore, is mortised into the cylindrical part of the head so that the 
 rounded side will be coincident with the circumference. A mor- 
 tise (c) is cut through the head, extending several inches in rear 
 and front of the position of the vent. Into this mortise a loose 
 block is fitted, capable of free upward and downward motion. 
 The top of the block is pierced witli holes to secure the compo- 
 sition spread over its surface. This movable piece rests on a 
 wedge (d) attached to a flat rod running through a slot in the 
 head. To prevent this rod and the wedge from coming entirely 
 out of the head, a slot, about four inches long, is cut iu it, 
 through which passes a pin {e) attached to the staff. 
 
 To use the instrument, withdraw the rod as far as the slot 
 will permit ; this allows the block to drop below tlie surface of 
 the head, and protects the composition which has been spread 
 on it ; pusli the head to the bottom of the chamber, and arrange 
 the position of the staff so tliat the movable piece will cover the 
 vent ; then press the end of the rod home. This motion will 
 throw out tlie block with the composition, and a distinct impres- 
 sion of the vent and of fire-cracks (should there be any) will be 
 left upon its surface ; draw the rod back as far as the slot will 
 allow, and withdraw the instrument; the impression, being pro- 
 tected thereby, will come out uninjured. 
 
 Gutta-percha impressions of a portion of the bore of a gun can 
 be taken by means of wooden blocks or wedges. For this pur- 
 pose use two blocks (a 6, Fig. 2, Plate 55), one about two- 
 thirds the length of the other, the longer block to carry the 
 guttar-percha for tlie impression, the shorter one to be driven 
 as the wedge, each block with a staff or handle longer tlian tlie 
 bore of the gun, so as to'enable the operator at the muzzle to 
 place the blocks in any desired position in the bore; also for 
 driving the wedge andvvithdrawing the blocks. These blocks 
 are so shaped that when in one position they form an imperfect 
 cylinder, whose diameter is less than that of the bore, tlius en- 
 abling the longer block to carry the gutta-percha to the required 
 place in the bore; then, by driving the wedge, the diameter of 
 this cylinder is increased nearly to that of the bore, the gutta- 
 percha is caught between the surface of the bore and its carry- 
 
304 IMPRESSIONS OF THE BORE. 
 
 ing block, and is thus forced by the driven wedge to take note of 
 whatever it finds there. 
 
 To take an impression, the gan should be thoroughly washed 
 out and then oiled with an oiled sponge; the gutta-perelia is 
 softened by means of hot water, just, under the boiling point, 
 to the required consistency, about that of putty ; is then placed 
 ■on the block, which is well oiled (sperm oil is the best), and 
 worked and kneaded with oil until it is spread over the required 
 portion of the block; the blocks are well oiled, particularly the 
 surfaces which come in contact ; the, two blocks are put togetlier 
 at the muzzle so as to enable the carrying block to carrj' tlie 
 gutta-perclia to the desired place ; when both blocks together 
 are pushed into the bore, the distance may be marked on the 
 handle of the carrying block ; the carrying block is tlien held 
 steady by its handle, while the wedge block is driven in by sev- 
 eral blows of a sledge on the end of its handle ; from two to 
 five minutes is suflScient time to allow it to set. The wedge- 
 block is withdrawn first, and the carrying block with the impres- 
 sion afterwards. To withdraw the wedge block, run an iron 
 pin through the handle near the end, and strike against that 
 with a sledge nntil it starts, when it is easily withdi'awn ; the 
 ■carrying block will generally fall or release itself by its own 
 weight, bringing the impression with it. If the impression is 
 taken anywhere in the upper half of the bore, and for this 
 reason, and also that it is easier to work the blocks, it is always 
 better to turn the gun over, so as to take the impression above 
 the block. When this cannot be done, and an impression is 
 wanted from the bottom of the bore, a small block or rider is 
 pushed in at the same time as the carrying block, so as to keep 
 the gutta-percha- from touching the surface of the bore while 
 being pushed into place. Afterwards the rider block is with- 
 drawn, the wedge driven, and after the wedge is withdrawn the 
 rider block is pushed back close to the carrying block, and acts 
 as a fulcrum by which the impression is raised free from the 
 bore, when both are withdrawn together. In taking an impres- 
 sion on the side, it is better to push in the blocks as if the im- 
 pression was above, and then to turn, the blocks to the place. 
 Unless the block under the gutta-percha is well oiled, some diffl- 
 <!ulty may be experienced in releasing the impression from the 
 block. The carrying block should have a slight raised edge on 
 each side of the upper surface to prevent the gutta-percha from 
 spreading out too much when undergoing the pressure from the 
 wedge, and also to protect it when turning the blocks for side 
 impressions. 
 
 In cases where there is any doubt as to the state of the bore 
 
IMPRESSIONS OF THE BORE. 305 
 
 of rifled guns, impressions sliould be taken of the whole length 
 with gutta-percha, and for doing this the blocks just described 
 should be long enough to reach from the bottom of the bore to 
 a foot or more bej'ond the muzzle. They are, in fact, scantling 
 rounded off and made wedge-shape. 
 
 A convenient size to obtain the gutta-percha, is in slabs twenty 
 inches long, five wide, and flve-eighths thick. Each slab will 
 make ordinarily two or three impressions. It can be used over 
 juid over again, and need never be thrown away it a little fiesh 
 material be added occasionally to prevent it fi'om becoming brit- 
 tle. It must be kept free from dust or grit, and should be pre- 
 served in water when not in use. 
 
 As a proper set of instruments is rarely or never to be obtained 
 at artillery posts, a substitute for taking impressions with the 
 wax composition may be made by using a block of wood about 
 a foot in length, one side of which is rounded oil' so as to have 
 the curvature of the bore ; to the block is attached a strong staff 
 or handle. To use it, a biscuit-shaped ball of the composition is 
 placed on the rounded surface of the -block, which is then in- 
 serted to the flaw and pressed against the bore, using chocks 
 Inside the gun as a fulcrum and the handle as a lever. 
 
 Impressions of the vent may also be taken with lead. The 
 implements required for this are a piece of soft fine wire, about 
 twice the lenf^th of the piece ; a stout lever, about the same 
 length, and shod to suit the curveof the bore; and a small but- 
 ton of soft lead, judged to be of sufficient size to till the vent at 
 least one inch from the bore. This is pierced lengthwise to re- 
 ceive the wire. 
 
 To take the impression. Shove the wire through the vent ; 
 let it pass along the bore and out at the muzzle ; put it through 
 the leaden button and tie a knot at the end ; draw the wire 
 back through the vent until the button is introduced firmly into 
 the inner orifice ; apply the lever, making its shoe bear on the 
 button, and force it well in by repeated blows, the muzzle being 
 the fulcrum, or, better, a block of wood placed in the bore as far 
 as the arm will reach. The button is disengaged by pushing in 
 the vent-punch. 
 
 In taking impressions of the vent and cracks, eacli button in 
 turn is used as a pattern for moulding its successor. 
 
 All impressions, however they may be taken, should be most 
 critically examined with a magnifying glass ; otherwise the most 
 important indications will escape observation. 
 
 Water-proof. Cannon, when inspected upon being received 
 into service, are subjected to an hydraulic proof of about 30 
 pounds to the square inch. This requires a special apparatus 
 20 
 
306 MODE OF EXAMINING CANNON. 
 
 not usually found at posts. Nevertheless, useful application ol 
 the principle may be made by giving tlie piece as mucli elevation 
 as possible, stopping the vent, and tilling it with water. Allow 
 it to stand thus for a few hours, draw off the water, wipe the 
 bore perfectly dry, and examine with a mirror or lamp. Water 
 seen oozing from any part of the bore indicates a crack or a clus- 
 ter of cavities, a sure sign of serious defects. 
 
 563. Mode of examination. The bore should be thoroughly 
 cleaned to detect small defects. If care has previously been 
 taken in keeping a gun tolerably clean. It will probably be suflEi- 
 ciently prepared for examination by washing and drying witli 
 tow, cotton-waste, or a clean sponge. Should there be hard rust 
 which will not yield, or a thick coating of grease, the bore may 
 be cleaned by firing (if circumstances permit of it) one or two 
 scaling charges of about one-third the full service charge, with- 
 out projectiles; this will usually loosen the scale. The same 
 may be effected by using hot water and potash, in the following 
 manner : About a gallon of boilijig water is poured on one pound 
 of ordinary black potash, and an old sponge, covered with a 
 clotli to make it fit tightly to the bore, is dipped into the solu- 
 tion, and the bore rubbed with it till the dirt is loosened, when 
 a hard brusli will remove it; it is tlien wiped dry and slightly 
 oiled. Tlie potash water must be used very hot and the sponge 
 made to fit tightly, or the process is ineffectual. The hard brush 
 is made of wire, and is similar to those used for fowling-pieces. 
 Brushes of bristles — Turk's-heads — ai'e also used. No sharp- 
 edged or pointed sci-apers should be employed for cleaning tlie 
 bores of rilled guns, as they would be liable to injure the rifling. 
 
 Tlie bore, being thus cleaned, should be examined by the aid 
 of a lamp, or if there be bright sunlight, with a mirror. If the 
 bore be slightly wet, tlie detection of defects is greatly facili- 
 tated. A sharp-pointed pricker is used to ascertain the extent 
 and position of any flaw, the staff being graduated in Inches so 
 that ttie distance from the muzzle may be readily ascertained. 
 A spring searcher is also used to detect defects, and, with rifles, 
 in such manner tliat each groove shall be travereed in succession 
 by one of the points. 
 
 Should a flaw be found, an impression is taken of it. This is 
 done In the manner. just described, with gutta-percha, or by 
 using a mixture composed of bees-wax, two parts; treacle, one 
 part; soft soap, one part. The wax should be melted over a 
 slow fire in an iron pot ; the treacle is then added and mixed 
 well by stirring; and lastly the soft soap, a little at a time. 
 The mixture must be kept in motion, and when thorouglily 
 stirred poured out, cooled, and made into balls. This compo- 
 
MODE OF EXAMINING CANNON. 307 
 
 sition being soft, is always ready tor use, but tlie impi'ession is 
 easily destroyed by handling. 
 
 Tlie gun should be so placed that the impression will be taken 
 upwards. 
 
 In recording the position of any defect, its distance from the 
 muzzle is given in inches, and noted as "up," "right of up," 
 "right of down," &c., the vent always being considered up, and 
 the i-ight or left the sides as tliey would appear to an observer 
 looking into the muzzle. {Fig. 3, Plate 55.) Impressions of 
 the vent and of the bottom of the bore can be taken properly 
 only by the use of tlie appropriate instrument; nevertheless, 
 by the exercise of a little skill and ingenuity, tolerably fair 
 results may be obtained with the improvised instruments just 
 described. Considerable practice is required to get good smooth 
 impressions, and, with the vent, several iiave sometimes to be 
 taken before one is obtained which can be relied on to show hair- 
 lines. Wlien it is desirable to preserve an impression for future 
 reference or comparison, a label is gummed to its back, giving 
 the number of tlie gun, date of taking it, aud the position of the 
 flaw. 
 
 Should any defects be discovered in the bore (not including the 
 immediate vicinity of the vent) they need not be considered seri- 
 ous, unless, in the case of smooth-bore guns, they are 0.1 inch deep 
 in rear of or 0.2 inch deep in front of the tnmnions, or unless 
 they have jagged edges likely to retain pieces of ignited cartridge ; 
 and in the ease of rifled guns, unless, in addition, they are new 
 defects not shown in the memorandum of former inspections, or 
 old ones which have materially increased. Generally speaking, 
 the deptii of a defect is of more importance than its extent. 
 With the converted gnu, should a defective weld I'un a consider- 
 able distance around the tube of the bore, it would be liable to 
 part at that point, and the piece should be considered unservice- 
 able. The best method of testing a gun is to take au impression 
 of the defect; then to fire a few rounds with service -charges and 
 take another impression. If, on comparing these impi-essions, 
 the defect does not appear to have increased, the piece may be 
 considered serviceable. As a precaution against accident, in case 
 of the splitting of-the inner tube of converted rifle guns, a gas 
 escape or indicator is provided. This is a small hole similar to 
 the vent bored through the cast-iron case on tlie side opposite 
 the vent, and connecting with a shallow spiral groove cut around 
 tile outer tube near the seat of the chai-ge. Should the tube 
 split, smoke will be seen issuing from the hole, and firing should 
 be discontinued. 
 
 Examination of the vent. Especial care sliould be given to 
 
308 MODE OP EXAMINING CANNON. 
 
 this, for the reason that the amount of firing to which a piece 
 has been subjected is pretty well indicated by the wearing away 
 of the vent. 
 
 The standard gauge (0.2 inch) will be used to ascertain the gen- 
 eral enlargement, and the searcher to detect defects that may 
 have been developed in firing. The vent channel is first thor- 
 oughly cleaned and then tested with a set of cylindrical gauges 
 differing from each other by 0.01 of an inch. 
 
 The greater the calibre and the heavier the charges, the more 
 rapidly is the wear manifested on the interior and exterior of 
 the vent. The following, however, is tlie average wearing of 
 the vent for the heavier classes of cast-iron guns. 
 
 Number of rounds 100 200 300 400 500 
 
 Diameterof vent........ 0.24 0.26 0.30 0.35 0.40 
 
 These, combined with examination of the interior orifice, will 
 enable a very correct judgment to be formed of the probable 
 number of fires sustained and the duration of the gun. 
 
 The enlargement does not extend very far from the lower 
 orifice until the enlargement on the exterior has reached a diam- 
 eter of 0.3 of an inch. 
 
 So long as the wear is regular and the fissures, although nu- 
 merous, do not exceed 0.5 of au inch, the indications are good. 
 If the cracks are few or diminish in number, running into each 
 other and extending rapidly, it is a very unfavorable sign. 
 
 Should it be found that the vent has enlarged so as to admit 
 the 0.4-iuch gauge, the vent is either bushed or is filled with zinc 
 and a new one bored, as the character of the gun may require. 
 A clean impression should be taken of the bottom of the vent. 
 Unless the proper instrument is provided for doing this, it wiU be 
 found to be a difficult operation, and should be repeated several 
 times. If the vent be unbushed, the eflfect of service is seen by 
 a gradual increase of the channel and by an irregular wearing 
 away of the bottom {Fig. 4, Plate 55) and the formation of fis- 
 sures and hair-lines radiating from the edges of the orifice. The 
 extent of these defects is measured on the impression, and if 
 found to be less than half an inch in extent from tlie original 
 centre, the piece will be reported for bushing or to have a new 
 vent bored ; if greater than this, the piece should be reported as 
 unserviceable. 
 
 The defects usually found around the vents of bushed guns 
 are the giving way of the iron around the bush from the gas 
 getting in between the two metals {Fig. 5), and the fissures or 
 hair-lines which radiate in the iron from the edge of the bush. 
 (Fig. 6.) The metal around the bush gives way almost immedi- 
 ately after a gun is bushed, forming a hollow ring around it 
 
DISABLING CANKON. 309 
 
 which gradually increases. So long as this wear is uiitform and 
 the edges are not jagged, it is of little importance, and gans need 
 not be rebushed or condemned for this cause until the ring has 
 become 0.1 of an inch deep or 0.1 of an inch wide. If, howevei-, 
 the edges are jagged, or if one side has given way much more 
 than the other, so as to be likely to hold pieces of undonsumed 
 cartridjje, the examiner must use his discretion as to condemning 
 the gun, it being impossible to lay down fixed rules suitable for 
 all cases. Fissures or hair-lines i-adiating in the iron from the 
 edge of the bush, should be oiirefuUy traced on the gutta-percha 
 Impression, and it they extend more than one-twentieth of Ihe 
 circumference of the bore in any direction, measured from the 
 original centre, the pieces should be condemned. 
 
 564. Disabling cannon. This is either permanent or tem- 
 porary. The first is accomplished by bursting, or \i the piece is 
 rifled, by scoring the surface of the bore so as to destroy the 
 efficiency of the rifling. 
 
 To bui-st a piece, load it with a double charge ; musket or other 
 violent powder is the best; put in a projectile and ram down 
 around it iron wedges, the more tapering the better; throw sand 
 in to make the wedges take hold, and flVe the piece. If wedges 
 are not at hand, large spikes or similar pieces of iron will answer 
 the purpose ; or load the piece as before, fill it full with its own 
 projectiles, and fire at a high elevation. 
 
 To fire the piece, when electrical primers are not to be had, 
 prime with fine-grained powder, and place over the vent a p.'ece 
 of port-fire long enough to permit the man firing it to reach a 
 place of safety before the charge explodes. The port-flre is 
 held in position by being set in clay or putty, or it may be tied 
 to the piece with twine. 
 
 If port-fire is not at hand, a slow match can, in a few min- 
 utes, be made of any ordinary paper by saturating it with a 
 solution of saltpetre (gunpowder dissolved in water will an- 
 swer) ; after drying, cut it into strips, and slightly twist them ; 
 place one end of ii twist in contact with the priming of the vent, 
 and apply fire to tlie othei-. 
 
 To disable a piece by scoring the bore, load it with a charge 
 of powder and a shell tilled wilh powder. The shell is without 
 a fuse, and the fuse hole is closed sufficient only to keep the 
 powder from spilling out; the shell is inserted with the fuse-end 
 foremost and the piece fired. The bursting of the shell in the 
 bore and the scoring elfect of the fragments will moat likely tear 
 away the lands and render the piece nn serviceable. 
 
 Cannon are temporarily disabled to prevent tliom from being 
 immediately used by tlie enemy, and also when they are ex- 
 
310 PRESERVATION OF PROJECTILES. 
 
 pected to be retaken. This operation is accomplislied by means 
 of a spilve. 
 
 A spike is made of hardened steel, with a soft point that may 
 be clinched on the inside of the piece. A nail without a head, 
 or the point of a file, may be used instead of a regular spike. 
 
 To spike a piece. Drive in tlie spike flush with the outer 
 surface of the vent, and clinch it on the inside with the rammer. 
 To prevent the spike from being blown out, wedge a shot in the 
 bottom of the bore by wrapping it with cloth, or by means of 
 wedges driven in with a bar. 
 
 To unspike. If the bore is unobstructed and the spike be not 
 screwed or clinched in, put a heavy charge of powder in the 
 piece and ram jnnk-wads tightly over It, laying on the bottom 
 of the bore a strip of wood, with a groove on the under side, for 
 a strand of quick match, by which fire is communicated to the 
 charge. When the bore is obsti-ucted, endeavor to drive the 
 spike into the bore with a punch. If this succeeds, introduce 
 fine-grain powder into tlie veut to blow the obstacle out. If, 
 after several trials, neither of these methods succeeds, drill out 
 the spike or drill a new vent. 
 
 A gun upon an iron carriage is readily dismounted and the 
 carriage disabled by removing the counter-hurters, running the 
 piece from battery, throwing the axles in gear, and then firing 
 it. The recoil will carry the top-carriage oft' the chassis, and 
 the fall will smash it to pieces. If the pintle key be removed, 
 the chassis will also be thrown oflF and injured. When it is not 
 desirable to fire the piece, the top-carriage may be hauled oflF by 
 means of a tackle. 
 
 Pheseevation of Projectiles. 
 
 565. Projectiles for rifle guns should be neither lacquered 
 nor painted, for tlie reason that either of these substances would 
 adhere to and foul the grooves of the piece. Wlien practicable, 
 they should be kept under cover, in a dry place, and if unboxed, 
 should be oiled once a year with sperm oil. Tiiey are piled, ac- 
 cording to kind and calibre, on their sides, in tiers of convenient 
 height. The fuse holes should be stopped with tow or cotton^ 
 waste. Great care should be taken when handling them to 
 avoid injuring the sabot. No shells of any description should 
 be kept habitually charged. This is done, as occasion requires, 
 when firing. 
 
 Eifle projectiles for all calibres above 4.5-inch are packed sep- 
 arately in boxes. The. boxes have rope handles, and are marked 
 with the kind of projectile. Projectiles thus packed should be 
 
PRESERVATION OF PROJECTILES. 311 
 
 stored in a dry place, and not removed from their boxes nnril 
 reqnired for use. 
 
 Projectiles for siege guns ai-e packed in boxes, painted diifer- 
 pnt colors to indicate tlieir contents. Those for solid shot are 
 painted olioe; for shell, black; for case-shot, red; for canister, 
 light drab. The khid of ammunition is furthermore marked, on 
 each end of the box, in lai'ge white letters, and the place and 
 date of fabrication on the inside of the cover. Each box for 
 siege-gun ammunition contains fom- projectiles and weighs about 
 145 pounds. The box is 20 inches long by 11.5 niches wide and 
 13.5 inches deep, outside measurement; it has two partitions 
 across it, the space between the partitions holding the car- 
 tridges; the two outside spaces, two projectiles each. The 
 boards of which the partitions are formed are thick enough to 
 allow of a recess being cut in each, in which are carried the req- 
 uisite number of fuses and friction-primers. The boxes have 
 rope beckets on their ends for convenience of handling. 
 
 Ammunition for the 3.5-inch guns is put up in a similar Inan- 
 ner, each box containing ten rounds and weighing about 135 
 pounds. 
 
 When projectiles of any kind are received at a post, they 
 should be carefully examined and gauged, to see that they are 
 of the proper calibre and quality required for the particular 
 piece. 
 
 Spherical projectiles are lacquered. This is done as soon as 
 possible after they are received. The lacquer used is coal-tar, 
 applied with a brush, as for guns. All rust should be carefully 
 removed, by scraping and wiping, before the lacquer is applied. 
 
 The projectiles are assorted as to kind and calibre and piled 
 in a dry locality where there is a free circulation of air. The 
 ground is prepared for the base of the pile by raising it above 
 the surrounding level so as to drain oft" the water; it is made 
 level, rammed well, and covered with a layer of sand. The 
 bottom tier of the pile is made of unserviceable balls, buried 
 about two-thirds of their diameter in the sand ; this base may 
 be made permanent. The pile is then formed, putting the 
 fuse holes of shells downward in the intervals, and not rest- 
 ing on the shells below. The bed may also be made of brick, 
 conciete, or stone pavement, with borders and braces of iron ; 
 or the bed and border may be made of heavy plank and scant- 
 ling. These, however, in consequence of decay, will require 
 renewing every six or seven years. When for this or any other 
 purpose the pile is taken down, the projectiles should be freshly 
 lacquered. It is generally sufficient that the projectiles be lac- 
 quered, without disturbing the pile, by applying it to those on 
 
312 STORE-HOUSES. 
 
 the outside. This is done once a year in warm, dry weather. 
 When the lacquer accumulates so that the projectiles will not 
 pass throuo;li the large gauge or into the piece, it must be re- 
 moved. This is done by rolling and scraping; or for those of 
 10-incli and upwards it may be burned off, provided the burning 
 be quick, so as not to heat the projectile to any great extent. 
 
 Piles ot projectiles should not exceed eight feet in width. 
 Square piles are to be preferred where there is room ; where this 
 is wanting, the piles may bo extended in length. Tlio piles 
 should be examined ev<'ry spring to see that the projectiles are 
 not rusting ; tliis can be suffloiently done by removing a few 
 from each pile and looking through the crevices. 
 
 To find the number of balls in a pile. Multiply the sum of 
 the number of balls in the three parallel edges by one-third of 
 the number in a triangular face. In a square pile, one of the 
 parallel edges contains but one ball ; in a triangular pile, two of 
 the edges have but one ball each. 
 
 STOEE-nOUSES. 
 
 566. Every post furnished with heavy artillery has one or 
 more store-houses for the preservation and safe-keeping of equip- 
 ments, implements, and such machines as should not be exposed 
 to the weather. They should be light, dry, well ventilated, and 
 furnished with shelves, racks, and tables for the accommodation 
 of the stores kept therein. The articles are sorted according to 
 their natures and arranged in appropriate places. These places 
 are distinctly labeled, and. furthermore, each article, as far as 
 possible, should be marked, so that under no circumstance there 
 may be mistakes or confusion. 
 
 Cartridge-bags are preserved from moths by packing them 
 with an hydraulic press ; by enveloping them in paper bags her- 
 metically sealed, the paper being similar to that used for pre- 
 sei-ving army clothing ; or by heading them up in tight casks. A 
 mild infusion of colocynth will preserve them from moths. The 
 bags are steeped in it, afterwards dried, and then packed away. 
 
 Sponges are preseiTed from moths and packed away in the 
 same manner as cartridge-bags. They should not be "kept on 
 the heads of sponges in store, as tliey are then always damaged 
 by rats and moths. Sponge-covers must never be put on the 
 sponge-head unless both are clean and dry ; after use the sponge 
 should be washed clean and dried, and then the cover put on. 
 
 Sponges, rammers, worms, and ladles are generally placed on 
 racks, with supports, not over three feet apart, to prevent the 
 staves from warping. 
 
STORE-HOUSES. 31S 
 
 Articles composed of brass are spread out on shelves, and are 
 kept clean and free from verdigris. It is forbidden by regula- 
 tions to use oil or grease upon them ; alcohol or vinegar, with 
 rotten-stone and afterwards whiting, are the most suitable pol- 
 ishing materials for them ; all scouring is to be avoided. A good 
 lacquer for brass articles is composed of : Alcohol, 95 per cent., 
 2 ounces ; seed-lac, 1 ounce. Put the mixture in a glass vessel 
 for live or six days, exposed to the light ; shake well once each 
 day ; apply with a brush while the article is as hot as it can be 
 made without injury. 
 
 Steel or iron implements should be painted black or kept bright, 
 according to the use for which they are intended. For polish- 
 ing, use crocus-cloth, oil, and rotten-stone ; after which, oil with 
 sperm oil. 
 
 For the preservation of the bright parts of machinery, elevating 
 screws, &c., when not in use, the following preparation is used, 
 viz. : One pound white-lead and 0.25 pound tallow or lard oil, 
 heated and mixed together. This is applied warm with a brush 
 or cloth. It is removed by rubbing off with a cloth, using a 
 little turpentine. 
 
 Leather equipments are hung on pegs in a cool, airy place. 
 Those of russet leather should be taken down three or four 
 times a year and brushed off to prevent accumulation of mould. 
 Those of black leather should, once or twice a year, be washed 
 with castile soap and water, well rubbed, and before thoroughly 
 dry oiled with a mixture of neat's-foot oil and tallow ; lamp- 
 black may be added to the oil for blacking. 
 
 Fuses, frictionrprim,ers, and water-caps are kept, as far as pos- 
 sible, in their original packages, and are stored in the driest 
 and safest place in the store-house ; it is preferable to store such 
 articles as indicated in ^ar. 567. 
 
 Ropes are stored and cared for as explained in par. 481. 
 
 Pulleij-blocks are hung up or piled where they have free circu- 
 lation of air ; those of wood are occasionally oiled with raw lin- 
 seed oil. The lioohs, cheeks, and partitions of iron blocks arc 
 painted black. Journals should be coated with black-lead, or it 
 this is not available, lubricating oil must be applied before using. 
 The greatest care must be observed to keep them free from sand 
 or other gritty substance. 
 
 Hollers, manoeuvering blocks, sMf ting-planks, chocks, cradles, 
 capstans, and capstan^ars are stored in dry places. They should 
 not be painted, but occasionally oiled with raw linseed oil. 
 
 Gins are painted olive, with the iron parts black. The wind- 
 lass, however, should never be painted, but oiled with linseed 
 oil. 
 
314 STORE-HOUSES. 
 
 As strict uiiiforralty is not observed in the construction of gins, 
 each one should be numbered and its parts so marked that if parts 
 of different gins become mixed they may be readily separated. 
 Each gin should be placed by itself, the braces fastened to the 
 legs by their bolts and keyed up ; the clevis iind clevis bolt are 
 left on tlie pry-pole. 
 
 Trunnion rings, sling-chains, &c., are hung on pegs and pre- 
 served from rust by a thin coat of black paint. 
 
 Hydraulic-jacks should be kept filled. The ram or piston and 
 the journals are frequently oiled to prevent rusting, but when 
 used, the head of the ram, to prevent slipping, must be free 
 from oil or grease. The outside of the jack may be painted. 
 
 Oatling guns are kept in dry store-houses, and require the 
 greatest care to preserve them from rust. The use of emery- 
 cloth or other scouring material must be avoided. They must 
 be kept covered, and well oiled with a mixture of about equal 
 parts of sperm and kerosene oil. Every two or tliree days they 
 should be wiped off, a rag passed through the barrels, and fresh 
 oil applied. The journals are oiled through the oil holes in the 
 breech casing. The carriages, limbers, and caissons are painted 
 and cared for as other wooden carriages. 
 
 Gun-lifts are painted olive, and when not in use are kept 
 under cover. 
 
 Hand-carts, sling-carts, garrison trucJcs and wagons are painted 
 the same as siege carriages, and should be kept under sheds. 
 The small sling-cart, being entirely of iron, excepting the pole, 
 is painted the same as iron carriages. 
 
 Faints, turpentine, oils, lapquers, &c., are kept in a room sepa- 
 rate from other stores ; a cellar or casemate is preferable. The 
 floor should be covered with two or three inches of fine sand, 
 which .should be renewed occasionally. Sawdust should never 
 be used for the floor. 
 
 Volatile oils, such as kerosene or benzine, must not be kept 
 stored in the paint and oil room, but in such place that the least 
 possible damage will arise from it should It take fii'e. 
 
 Paint brushes, when new, and before using, should be wrapped, 
 or, as painters term it, bridled with strong twine, and soaked in 
 water to swell them. After using, they should be cleaned with 
 spirits of turpentine and put away in a vessel containing water 
 to keep them from drying and becoming unpliable. 
 
 Se?. The following table gives the quantity of material re- 
 quired for the preservation of the armament of a fort. It is made 
 upon the basis of what is required annually for ten pieces, car- 
 riages, &c., of each kind : 
 
STORE-HOUSES. 
 
 315 
 
 
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 1 
 
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 15-inch smooth-bore guns 
 
 10-inch smooth-bore guns 
 
 8-incli rifled guns 
 
 8-inch smooth-bore guns 
 
 100-pounder rifled guns 
 
 Siege guns, rifled 
 
 Gatlinggons 
 
 Sea-coast mortars 
 
 .Siege mortars 
 
 Coehom mortars, bronze {and carriages, wood) 
 
 15-incli gun carriages, -without pneumatic buffers 
 
 10-inch smooth-bore and 8-inch rifled gun carriages, without 
 
 5 
 ? i 
 
 a 1 
 
 EJ : 
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 Sp. 
 
 A 
 
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 ■0-C- 
 
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 obO!!/ 
 
 Siege-mortar carriages and hand sling-carts, small 
 
 Siege-gun carriages, mortar-wagons, and sling-carts, large- 
 Field-gun carriages 
 
 Caissons 
 
316 preservation op powder. 
 
 Aemament of Works. 
 
 568. The kind, calibre, and number of cannon constituting 
 the armament of a permanent worlc, as lilsewise the emplace- 
 ment of the piece, is determined by the Engineer Bureau. Tlie 
 different parts of a work receive tlieir specific designation from 
 the same source, which likewise numbers, in regular series, the 
 position of the pieces occupying each part. These numbers, run- 
 ning from right to left as you look outwards, are placed on the 
 parapet opposite tlie platform. 
 
 It is the duty of the Engineer Bureau to furnish each woi'U 
 witli a chart showing the water channels, with their soundings, 
 and other approaches to the work. From this it is the duty of 
 each artillery offlfler in charge of pieces to study and familiarize 
 himself with the method of using them so as to make them most 
 effective in carrying out the object for whidh they were placed 
 in the work. 
 
 Supply of ammunition. 
 
 The amount of ammunition which should constitute a supply 
 for artillery in a permanent work, depends so much upon cir- 
 cumstances that no fixed i-ule can be laid down for it. A place 
 liiible to close siege should be more amply supplied than one 
 whieh can be replenished, and less would be required to repel 
 attacks from vessels than from a besieging force on land. Two 
 hundred rounds per piece may be taken ordinarily as a good 
 supply for 15-inch guns and the heavier calibres of rifles ; greater 
 amounts are I'eqnired for smaller calibres. 
 
 For all guns, the projectiles should be about equally divided . 
 between shell and solid shot. 
 
 The amount of ammunition for siege guns, when used in cam- 
 paign as heavy field-pieces, is 200 rounds per piece, together 
 with a small reserve. 
 
 Preservation of Potvber. 
 
 569. Powder is kept in magazines constructed with the works. 
 The number of these magazines depends on the number and 
 calibre of pieces iu the work and the probable amount of ammu- 
 nition required for each. 
 
 Magazines are of two kinds, viz.: storage and service. Tlie 
 former are for the accommodation of powder in bulk ; the latter 
 are smaller than the former, and are placed as convenient a* 
 practicable to the pieces to be sei-ved, and contain only sufficient 
 powder for immediate use. Adjoining or convenient to eael> 
 sei-vice magazine is a filling-room, in whieh cartridges are made 
 
PRESERVATION OF POWDER. 317 
 
 up and shells filled. Powder is brought from the magazhie for 
 this purpose, but only in such quantities, at a time, as may bo 
 necessary. In the filling-room are kept the filling implements 
 and such small articles of equipment as are required to be near 
 the pieces. 
 
 The storage magazines of a post are conspicuously marked 
 A, B, C, &c.; the service magazines are numbered 1, 2, 3, &c., 
 and, in addition, are marked for tlie particular pieces tliey are 
 to serve. 
 
 A magazine of suflicient size, and fitted up with shelves, 
 tables, and racks, is set aside for tlie storage of rockets, port- 
 fii-es, fuses, primers, slow and quick match, and other similar 
 articles. No such stores will be permitted in a magazine with 
 powder. 
 
 The keys of the storage magazines are kept by the command- 
 ing ofiicer of the post. Those of the service magazines, unless 
 otherwise ordered, are in possession of the ofiicei-s having charge 
 of the particular pieces to be served from tliem, a competent non- 
 commissioned officer being assigned to the immediate care of 
 each. The ordnance-sergeant of the post will have charge of 
 the storage magazines and of the one containing fuses, port-lires, 
 &c. 
 
 Powder is stored in ban-els containing 100 pounds each ; the 
 heads of the barrels are painted black, so as to show more plainly 
 the marks, which are stenciled in white. Each barrel is marked 
 on both heads with the number of the barrel, the name of tlie 
 manufacturer, year of fabrication, and the Idnd of powder — can- 
 non, mortar, musket, mammoth, or liexagonal ; the mean initial 
 velocity, and the pressure per square inch on the pressure piston. 
 Each time the powder is proved the initial velocity is marked 
 below the former proof-marks, and the date of trial opposite it. 
 Each manufacturer has, in addition, certain private marks — 
 initial letters — denoting the particular gi-ade to which the pov/der 
 belongs. A book is kept, by the ordnauce-sergeant, which shows, 
 besides all these marks, when the powder was received, where 
 stored, and how much on hand. 
 
 Barrels of different kinds of powder are piled separate!}', and, 
 besides being recorded in the magazine -book, each parcel is 
 marked with a card, sliowing the kind aud tlie entries and issues. 
 
 In the magazine, the barrels are placed on their sides, gener- 
 ally three tiers high, or four tiers if absolutely necessary. Small 
 skids are placed on the floor and between the several tiere, and 
 the barrels chocked at intervals to prevent rolling. Ttie tiers 
 must be so arranged that the marlcs cjin readily be seen and any 
 particular kind reached. There should be an unobstructed space 
 
318 PEESERVATION OF POWDER. 
 
 of several square yards at the door, and this space, as likewise 
 the alleys, should be covered with carpet or matting. The mag- 
 azine is provided with a well near tlie door; into this the sweep- 
 ings are put ; they should never be swept out at the door. For 
 the preservation of tiie magazine, it is of the greatest importance 
 to keep unobstructed the circulation of air, under as well as 
 above tlie flooring. The magazine should be opened and aired 
 only ill clear, dry weather, when the temperature of the air out- 
 side is lower tlian that inside of the magazine. It should not be 
 o]iened in damp weather if it can be avoided. The ventilators 
 must be kept free and no shrubbery or trees allowed to grow so 
 near as to screen the building from the sun. The magazine 
 yard should be of sand or clay and well drained. The moisture 
 of a magazine may be absorbed by chloride of lime kept in an 
 open vessel and renewed from time to time. Quick-lime is dan- 
 gerous, and should not be used. 
 
 Candles, in lanterns, are used for lighting the magazine. No 
 one should enter without first removing his shoes or putting 
 india-rubbers over them. No cane, sword, or anything which 
 might occasion sparks, must be carried in. 
 
 Barrels of powder must not be rolled in transportation; they 
 should be carried in hand-baiTOws, or in slings made of rope, 
 canvas, or leather. All implements used in the magazine or on 
 the barrels should be of copper or wood. The barrels must never 
 be repaired in the magazine. When it is necessary to roll them 
 for the better preservation of the powder and to prevent its cak- 
 ing, this is done, with a small number at a time, on boards in 
 the yard. 
 
 Occasionally, especially in the spring, the barrels should be 
 inspected, and, as far as possible, brushed off, to prevent insects 
 fi-om destroying the hoops. A light brushing over with oarbolio 
 acid will be good for this. 
 
 When practicable, a sentinel shonld be posted over the maga- 
 zine, to keep unauthorized persons away and to prevent smoking 
 or fire within dangerous proximity. The lightning-rods must 
 never be out of repair. 
 
 Should a fire occur near the magazine, the ventilators and 
 windows must be immediately closed, and the building covered, 
 if possible, with pauliua, blankets, or carpets saturated with 
 water. It is extremely hazardous to attempt to remove the con- 
 tents at such a time. 
 
 Neither loaded shells, fire-works, uor composition for fire- 
 works will be stored in a magazine with powder. Shells should 
 be filled in the filling-room of the service magazine. 
 
 Transportation. In wagons, tlie barrels of powder must be 
 
FILLING CARTRIDSB-BAGS. B1& 
 
 packed In straw, secured In such a manner as not to rub against 
 each other, and the load closely covered with canvas. Sufficient 
 gnai'd should accompany the ti'ain to prevent all smoking or firo 
 near the wagons. No camp-flres should be allowed near the 
 park. On railroads, each barrel should be tightly boxed and 
 packed so as to avoid friction ; the cars, if practicable, should 
 have springs similar to those for passenger cars. 
 
 570. Filling cartridge-bags. Cartridges for all pieces larger 
 than the'siego gun should be made up only as required for use, 
 arid when any are left over after firing, they are stored away in 
 the service magazine on shelves. The cartridges are filled in the 
 Jilling-room of the service magazine. Under no circumstances 
 will filling be done in a powder magazine. The powder, in bar- 
 rels, is carried from the storage magazine to the service maga- 
 zine in powder-carts or hand-barrows. 
 
 To fill the cartridges, the implements required are : One cop- 
 per hammer^ one wooden drift, one counter hrush, one scoop, one 
 counter scales and weights (brass or copper), one filling funnel, 
 one set powder measures, cartridge-bags, and twine. 
 
 The barrels are opened by first loosening the upper hoops, 
 when the heads can be taken out easily. Care should be talicn 
 not to handle the barrels or powder roughly. 
 
 Should tlie powder be caked or lumpy, caution should be ex- 
 ercised in breaking the lumps. When the lumps are small and 
 not very hard, they may be broken by pressing them witli tlie 
 hands ; but when large and hard, requiring more force to break, 
 the powder is taljen to some safe place away from 'the magazine, 
 spread upon a paulin, and brolcen with a mallet. The grains 
 must be separated, but not crushed. 
 
 When cartridges are to be used with projectiles, the powder is 
 carefully weighed ; for blank cartridges, it is measured. When 
 the piece for whicli the cartridges are to be prepared has a cali- 
 bre of less than 7 inches, the filling funnel is used, one man hold- 
 ing open the mouth of the bag while another pours the powder 
 into it through the funnel. The bag is then tied witli twine 
 close to the powder. For cartridges of more than 7 inches diam- 
 eter, the powder is poured into the bag by means of the scoop • 
 the bag is tied as before. When cartridges are filled, each one 
 should be marked with a pencil or by stenciling, showing the 
 kind and weight of powder and for what kind of piece it is t^ 
 be used. 
 
iavf liftft. 
 
 TRAJSfSPORTATION OF ARTILLERT. 
 
 To Embark and Disembark Artillery and Artillery Stores. 
 General Rules. 
 
 STl. When artillery and its stores are to be shipped for an 
 expedition, prepare first a list of all the articles, stating; their 
 number, individual weight, and the total weight of each kind. 
 
 In estimating the weights, allow double for that of bulky 
 articles which occupy much space without weighing much. 
 
 Divide the total quantity to be transported among tlie vessels, 
 and make statements in duplicate of the articles on board each 
 vessel, one of wliich lists should go witli the vessel and the other 
 remain with the ofHeer shipping the stores. 
 
 The articles must be divided among the vessels according to 
 the circiimstances of the case ; but, as a general rule, place in 
 each vessel everything necessary for the service required at the 
 moment of disembarkation, so that tliere will be no inconven- 
 ience should other vessels be delayed. 
 
 It a siege is to be undertalcen, place in each vessel with each 
 piece of artillery its implements, iimmunition, and the carriages 
 necessary to transport the whole or a part ; the platforms, tools, 
 instruments, and materials for constructing batteries; skids, 
 rollers, scantling, and plank. 
 
 If a particular calibre of gun is necessary for any operation, 
 do not place all of one kind in one vessel, to avoid being entirely 
 depi-ived of them by an accident to it, 
 
 Dismoinit the carriages, wagons, and limbers by taking off 
 the wheels and boxes and, if absolutely necessary, the axle- 
 trees. Place in the boxes the linch-pins, washers, &c., vdth the 
 tools required for putting the carriage together again. Number 
 each carriage, and mark each detached article with the number 
 of the carriage to which it belongs. 
 
 The tixed ammunition must be carefully packed in its pre- 
 scribed boxes ; the cartridge-bags, fuses for shells, and their 
 ammunition, either in substantial boxes with rope handles or in 
 21 (321) 
 
322 TRANSPORTATION OF ARTILLERY. 
 
 barrels ; powder in barrels, in a magazine constructed in a 
 vessel to hold it. 
 
 Sponges, rammers, worms, and ladles should be united in 
 bundles ; other implements, intrenching tools, levels, rules, &o., 
 in bundles or boxes; implements, in bundles and boxes of com- 
 plete sets, as far as practicable. 
 
 Small-arms should be in their prescribed boxes. 
 
 The contents of each box, barrel, or bundle should be marked 
 distinctly upon it. The boxes should be made small for the 
 convenience of handling, and have rope handles to lift them by. 
 
 The position of the different articles in each vessel should be 
 noted in a column in the list on board. 
 
 Place the heaviest articles below, beginning with the shot and 
 shells, (empty,) then the guns, platforms, carriages, wagons, 
 limbers, ammunition-boxes, &c. Boxes of small-arms and am- 
 munition in the driest and least exposed part of the vessel. 
 The skids, scantlhig, and boards may be in the more exposed 
 pai'ts, or in tlie run. 
 
 Articles required to be disembarked first should be put in last, 
 or so placed that they can be readily got at. 
 
 If the disembarkation is to be performed in front of the enemy, 
 some of the field-pieces should be so placed that they can be dis- 
 embarked immediately with their carriages, implements, and 
 ammunition ; also the tools and materials for throwing up tem- 
 porary intrenohments on landing. 
 
 When there are several vessels laden with artillery and stores 
 for the expedition, each vessel should have on each quarter and 
 on a signal at mast-head a number that can be easily distin- 
 guished at a distance. The same number should be entered on 
 a list of supplies shipped in each vessel. The commander can 
 then know exactly what resources he has with him. Some 
 vessels, distinguished by particular signal, should be laden solely 
 with such powder and ammunition as may not be required for 
 the immediate service of the pieces. 
 
 If it is necessary to resliip or leave any articles on board the 
 vessels, care should be taken to note them on the list. 
 
 Boats of proper capacity must be provided for the disembarka- 
 tion, according to the circumstances in each case. 
 
 It may be necessary to establish temporary wharves on tres- 
 tles, and to erect sheai's, cranes, or derricks. 
 
 On a smooth sandy beach, heavy pieces, &c., may be landed 
 by i-olling them overboard as soon as the boats ground, and 
 hauling them up wilh sling-carts. 
 
 572. Railroad transportation. The most suitable car for 
 carrying horses, especially in warm weather, is the "slat stock- 
 
TRANSPORTATION OF ARTILLERY. 323 
 
 car," built of slats and open all around, but tight in roof. 
 Another kind, known as the "combination car," is made with 
 five doors on each side and one at each end, which may be 
 closed tight for stores, or with iron grates when carrying horses. 
 These are suitable for either warm or cold weather. 
 
 Both kinds are usually 27 feet 4 inches long, 7 feet 9 inches 
 wide, and 6 feet 8 inches high, inside measurement. Each ear 
 will carry fourteen artillery or sixteen common horses or mules. 
 
 The hoi-ses all face towards the same side of the car, and are 
 hitched by their halters to the fi-ame-work. If the journey is 
 to be continued beyond eighteen or twenty hours, the horses 
 will require to be watered and fed. Nose-bags are generally 
 used for the grain. If the drivers are attentive, they, by taking 
 advantage of the short halts made by the train, can feed grain 
 and hay quite easily by hand. Half rations will be sufficient 
 under any circumstances. Before placing the horses on the cars, 
 they should be thoroughly groomed and cooled; they should 
 have nothing more on them than their halters. 
 
 It the journey is to continue for several days, (but never be- 
 yond four without unloading,) the horses should stand length- 
 wise of the car, facing eacli other, and hitched to two bars 
 placed for the purpose acroSs the car. The bars have space 
 between ihem sufficient for feeding purposes and for a man lo 
 remain in charge. When thus arranged only about one-half as 
 many can be carried in each car as in the other case. By load- 
 ing in this way, close "box "-cars may, even in hot weather, be 
 used, the doors being left open for ventilation. 
 
 Horses are best loaded and unloaded from a "stock shute," 
 but where this convenience is not available, and there is no plat- 
 form, a ramp or shute may be improvised, using for it planks 
 about 12 feet long and from 2 to 3 inches tliick, depending on 
 the strengtli of tlie wood. 
 
 The ramp should be about four feet wide, with the planlis 
 firmly fastened together with transverse battens. These battens, 
 furthermore, prevent the horses from slipping. A strong trestle 
 or crib of logs supports the end of the ramp next the car, while 
 the other rests on the ground and is secured from slipping by 
 strong stakes. An intermediate trestle or a support of logs 
 should be placed to prevent the planks from springing with tliu 
 weight of the horses. Three or four posts of suitable height are 
 set in the gi-onnd on each side, to which side rails are lashed or 
 spiked for the purpose of keeping the horses from stepping off. 
 A board should be placed on each side to prevent the liorses' 
 feet from slipping over the edges of the planks. Wlien planljs 
 
324 TRANSPORTATION OF ARTILLKRT. 
 
 are not procurable, a ramp of oarth, supported by nlpans of logs 
 or stone on the end next the track, may be oonstrneted. 
 
 Tlie cars ai-e brought np in succession to the ramp to be 
 loaded or unloaded. Mules and ordinary horses are usually 
 driven in loose and stand unhitched. 
 
 In the field, where no shute or ramp is to be found at the 
 place of unloading, material ready prepared for constructing one 
 should be carried with the train. 
 
 Artillery carriages and transportation-wagons are carried on 
 platform or "flat" cars. 
 
 Tliese cars are generally 28 feet long by 8 feet wide. When 
 properly loaded eacli will carry two field guns and two caissons 
 complete. To load them the carriages are unlimbered and the 
 i-pare wheels removed from the caissons; the rear train of a 
 caisson, its stock to the rear, is run to the front end of the car 
 and its stock rested on the floor; another rear train is run 
 forward in like manner until its wheels strike or overlap those 
 of tlie first, when Its stock is rested on the floor. A limber 
 is then placed on the car with its pole to the front, resting 
 on the rear train ; the second limber is backed on and its pole 
 lield up until a gun, trail foremost, is run under it; the trail of 
 ihe gun is rested on the floor and* the pole of the limber on the 
 gun carriage. The other gun is run on in the same manner, and 
 its trail rested on the floor under the first gun ; a limber is next 
 run on and its pole rested on the last gun ; the remaining limber 
 is run on witli its pole under the preceding limber. All of the 
 carriages ai-e pushed together as closely as possible and firmly 
 lashed. Where the carriages are liable to chafe each other, they 
 are bound with gunny-sacking or other stuff. 
 
 A side platform, such as are found in depots, is tlie best for 
 loading. The carriages are first run onto a spare car; from this 
 tliey are crossed over on planlcs to the one upon which they are 
 to be carried, and arranged on it as already described. When 
 tliere is no side platform, the carriages are run up at the end of 
 the car by means of way-planks. 
 
 Siege guns can be loaded and carried in a similar manner, but 
 wlien there is no side platform, blocks and tackle will be required 
 for hauling them up the way-planks. Two siege guns with their 
 carriages and limbers complete can be carried on one cai-, and, 
 in addition, boxes of ammunition or stores may be piled between 
 and underneath the carriages. One "fiat" car will carry two 
 army transportation-wagons standing, besides a large quantity 
 of other material. If the wagons are ^^ knocked down," the same 
 car will carry four. 
 
 Twenty-four thousand pounds is considered a safe load for one 
 
TRANSPORTATION OF ARTILLERY BY SEA. 325 
 
 car on a good track. Baggage, harness, forage, &c., are usually 
 carried in box-ears. These cars have the same dimensions as 
 heretofore given for those carrying hoi'ses. 
 
 Tlie average size passeuser car will «>eat sixty men, but a small 
 car will seat only fifty. The men must be provided with cooked 
 rations for the whole trip. Each car must be liberally supplied 
 with drinking water, lights at night, and all other conveniences, 
 to make it unnecessary for the men to leave them during stop- 
 pages of the train. 
 
 The officer in command of troops on a train will act in har- 
 mony with the railroad officials, and must not interfere in any 
 manner whatever witli the running of tlie train. 
 
 Ten to fifteen passenger or sixteen to twenty-two fi'cight cars 
 go to make np a train drawn by one locomotive ; but when the 
 grades are light and but little curvature in the road, the maximum 
 weiglit of trains may reach double these figures. 
 
 Passenger trains generally travel at the rate of about twenty- 
 two miles per hour, and freight trains about fifteen, including 
 customary stoppages. Troop trains should not be dispatched 
 from a station with less intervals than ten minutes between 
 them. 
 
 Tlie experience gained during the war of the rebellion shows 
 that to supply an army of 100,000 men in the field h^ means of 
 a single line of rails, the proportion of rolling stock should be — 
 engines 0.25 and freight care 6.0 to every mile of road. This docs 
 not provide for the conveyance of troops. In calculating the 
 amount of rolling stock available for use, a deduction of 50 per 
 cent, for locomotives and 30 per cent, for all other carriages 
 must be made for those usually undergoing repairs. 
 
 From the foregoing data, a small calculation will give the 
 amount of railroad transportation required for any given num- 
 ber of troops, artillery, or material, and the capacity of a road 
 for performing the work. 
 
 573. Transportation of artillery hy sea. In the United States 
 service tliere are no vessels fitted up especially for transportation 
 of troops, hoi'ses, or artillery material. Even daring the four 
 years of the war of the rebellion no attempt was made towards 
 it further tlian temporary arrangements for some particular voy- 
 age. The voyages were short, lasting generally only two or 
 three days, never exceeding eight. Embarking and disembarlv- 
 ing were usually accomplished with wharf facilities. In only 
 three or four instances vrwe the movements of an expeditionaiy 
 character, requiring these operations to be performed on an open 
 beacli or in front of the enemy. As desirable and advantageous 
 as it would have been to have had suitable transports properly 
 
326 TRANSPORTATION OF ARTILLERY BY SEA. 
 
 fitted up, the absolute necessity for it was never felt, and conse- 
 quently they were never adopted. It may not always occur 
 that the same conditions will exist, and it is therefore well to 
 collect such information on the subject as may be needed. 
 
 The horses and material belonging to artillery require so 
 great an amount of space in proportion to that required for the 
 men, the latter need scarcely be taken into account when esti- 
 mating for ship room. Any vessel capable of carrying horses 
 and guns will accommodate the men belonging to them in those 
 parts where neither horses nor guns can be stowed. 
 
 Guns, caissons, ammunition, and other material of this char- 
 acter are cariied in the same manner as ordhiary merchandise. 
 When once within reach of the ship's tackle, the officers and crew 
 of the vessel will know how to stow and take care of them to the 
 best advantage. When practicable, it is not only the most expedi- 
 tious, but altogether the best way to leave the carriages mounted. 
 Tiie length of the voyage and the character and capacity of the 
 vessel will determine whether or not this should be done, and 
 in what pait of the ship stored. Other considerations, such as 
 facilities for embarking and disembarking, will likewise go to 
 determine these questions. 
 
 The hordes are more difficult to provide for, and it is with ref- 
 erence to their accommodation and safety that vessels for the 
 transportation of artillery should be selected. 
 
 During the rebellion a species of transportation was employed 
 upon the Chesapeake Bay, and even for short voyages at sea, 
 which proved very successful, and which might again find useful 
 application. 
 
 This consisted in embarking the horses on large schooners and 
 the batteries on steamers, (frequently fei-ry-boats,) which, tak- 
 ing the schooners in tow, conducted them to their destination. 
 Each schooner carried upon an average fifty horses; three were 
 therefore required for one battery. The ferry-boat carried easily 
 the material of two batteries. The advantage of this kind of 
 transportation consisted chiefly in the ease of loading and un- 
 loading the vessels. Their ligiit draught enabled them to lie up 
 to almost any kind of wharf. Strong gang-planks were pro- 
 vided, over which the horses were led to the decks of the 
 schooners, upon which they stood, facing outwards. To prevent 
 tiiem from gnawing and injuring the gunwales, stout boards 
 were temporarily nailed thereon. The batteries were run by 
 hand onto the ferry-boats, the carriages unlimbered and stowed, 
 the whole occup3'lng but a few minutes of time. Disembarking 
 was accomplished with equal facility. 
 
TRANSPORTATION OF ARTILLERY BY SEA. 327 
 
 Each schooner carried its due pi'oportion of the men of the 
 battery, who looked after the horses. 
 
 When the voyage is to extend beyond six or seven days at sea, 
 the vessel should have room between decks where stalls can be 
 fitted up in the manner hereinafter described. But if the voyage 
 is of shorter duration, stalls are not absolutely necessary. In 
 this case the vessel best adapted is a long low steamer, with a 
 clear upper deck for the accommodation of the horses. The 
 guns, carriages, harness, and baggage are stowed between decks, 
 where likewise the men find ample room. In many steamers a 
 large gangway on each side leads to the main deck, through which 
 the carriages can be run by hand. In vessels not so provided 
 they have to be lowered by means of taclile down the main 
 hatch, — a slow and laborious process. 
 
 Horses, in all cases, should stand athwart-ship ; in this posi- 
 tion they better accommodate themselves to the rolling motion 
 of the vessel. When on the upper deck they should face in- 
 wards ; this, for the reason that the spray will not then strike 
 them in their faces, and, besides, when facing each other in this 
 manner they will suffer less from fright and nervous excitement. 
 
 A vessel of not less than 25 feet beam will accommodate two 
 rows of horses, leaving a space between the rows, and between 
 the croups of the animals and the sides of the ship, ample for 
 the proper care of the horses. These spaces are, furthermore, 
 ne-cessary as gangways for working the vessel. The avei-age 
 artillery horse occupies a deck space of 8 feet by 2 feet 4 inches. 
 It results, therefore, that the whole length of the deck in feet 
 divided by the last dimension will give the number that may be 
 accommodated in each row. As they stand better when close 
 together, side by side, no allowance need be made for vacant 
 space between them. 
 
 The horses are secured by their halters to hitchhig-bars (B B, 
 Fig. 1, Plate 56), of strong scantling, running longitudinally 
 in two lines along the deck. A space of about five feet is left 
 between the lines for the gangway before mentioned. These 
 bars should be about four feet from the deck, and supported by 
 stanchions (A A) secured to the deck by strong angle-irons fast- 
 ened with screws. The bars are braced from the sides of the 
 vessel with stout scantling (C C). These braces are arranged so 
 that the spaces between them will include five horses, (more or 
 less, depending upon the strength required to give entire secu- 
 j-ity to the structure,) and are fastened with bolts and nuts, so 
 that in loading they may be removed and replaced successively 
 as the horses are put in their places. The}' must be smoothed 
 ofl", or wrapped with gunny or other material, to prevent their 
 
328 TRANSPORTATION OF ARTILLBEY BY SEA. 
 
 chafing the hoi-ses. Holes are bored or rings attached to the 
 liitching-bars for the halter-straps. Tke horses should be hitched 
 short, and when putting them on board care should be observed 
 to have those accustomed to each other placed together. Kick- 
 ing and vicious animals are placed, as far as practicable, where 
 they can do least mischief. 
 
 All stalls, hitching-bars, or whatever other arrangement for 
 securing horses, must be strong beyond any possibility of giving 
 way. The living force exerted by a row of horses as they swing 
 with the motion of a ship in a heavy sea-way, is very great, and 
 it is better to liave no securing arrangements whatever than to 
 liave those that, by giving way, will wound and injure the ani- 
 mals in the vvreclt. 
 
 It the transport is to be used in very inclement weather, the 
 spar deck, over the horses, should be covered. Canvas stretched 
 ovei- a secure frame is better than boards, as the latter, in a 
 severe storm, might be carried away, and its wreck would cause 
 disaster among the horses. 
 
 During heavy weather, horses sometimes become exhausted 
 and fall. The best thing that can be done in such cases is to 
 back out the horse on each side, so as to give the fallen horse 
 plenty of room. The next horses adjoining are prevented from 
 trampling him by having placed against them braces such as 
 heretofore described. Ther« should be several of these braces 
 spare for this special purpose. The fallen horse should be pro- 
 tected from rain and spray by a paulin, and great care and ten- 
 derness exercised towards him ; otherwise he is very liable to 
 perish. The horses may be fed from nose-bags, but it is better 
 to have for each one a small trough, suspended to the hitching- 
 bar by means of two iron hooks passing over the bar. The 
 troughs are moved out of the way when not in use. Hay can 
 be fed to them by tying it up tightly in bundles with rope-yarn 
 and fastening the bundles to the hitching-bur. It may also be 
 fed in small quantities by hand, and the more attention the 
 horses receive in this way from the men, the less fretful and 
 uneasy they become. 
 
 When the embarkation takes place from a wharf, and the ves- 
 sel is not too high, it is best to use gang-planks and lead the 
 horses on board. The gang-plank leading up from the wharf 
 to the gunwale should be about 20 feet long by 10 wide, and 
 be made very strong. This width a<lmits of its being used for 
 gun carriages. It should be provided with ropes at the corners, 
 rollers, side rails, and boards upon the sides to prevent the 
 horses from getting their feet over the edges. Another similar 
 gang-plank, but not so long, leads from the gunwale to the 
 
SLING. B29' 
 
 deck, the two being securely fastened together by their ropes. 
 These gang-planl^s should be carried by the vessel, ready for 
 disembarking. Every provision lor this latter operation should' 
 be thoroughly looked after before starting on the voyage. 
 
 When it is not practicable to use gang-planks, the horses are 
 hoisted on board by means of a sling and lifting tackle. 
 
 574. Sling. This is made of stout web, or double No. 1 
 canvas. It is 5 feet long and 2 feet wide, secured at each end 
 by a stick of strong wood 2 inches in diameter. The sides are 
 bound with strips of canvas doubled, thus making the edges four 
 thicknesses. Loops of 4-inch rope are attached to each stick. 
 (,Fig. 2, Plate 56.) 
 
 The loop attached to onu_stick is 9 inches long ; that attached 
 to the other is 2 feet 11 inches, and has an iron ej'e — 3 inches, 
 inside measurement — fixed in the end. Breast and breech ropes 
 (2-inch) 9 feet long are fixed to each side, and are tied together 
 when the sling has been put under the horse. The slings should 
 be tested by an excess of weight. A donkey-engine is used foi*^ 
 hoisting. 
 
 rive men are required to sling a horse quickly and well. One 
 man holds the head guy, which Is attached to a neck-collar ; two 
 men, one on each side of the horse, pass the sling under his 
 belly ; both then hold up the ends over his back, passing the 
 long loop through the shorter one and hooking on the eye of 
 the former to the lifting tackle, continuing to hold up the sling 
 until the horse's legs leave the ground; another man stands at 
 the breast and fastens the breast-rope, while the fifth stands at 
 his rump and fastens the breech-rope. The officer supeiintend- 
 ing commands : HoiST AWAY. The first man slacks away at 
 the guy-rope, holding it just suflBcieutly taut to keep the horse's 
 head steady. When hoisting, no delay should be pei-mitted ; it 
 should be done in the shortest time compatible with safety. At 
 the commencement, after a certainty that all is right, it should 
 be done i-apidly, to raise the horse off his feet and free him from 
 surrounding objects before he has time to do any injury by kick- 
 ing. After attaining the necessary height, he is carefully and 
 steadily lowered to the deck. Care slionld be taken to have two 
 or three careful and active men stationed to seize the horse and 
 prevent his plunging until the slings are removed. While one 
 holds him by the head-stall, another rapidly unhooks the tackle 
 purcliase, and two others let loose the breech and breast bands, 
 or ropes. When the liorses are to be lowered . through a hatcli 
 to a deck below, the combings of the liatch, as well as stanchions 
 about It, should be well padded. As an additional precaution, 
 a head-collar should be provided, with a large pad on top to pre- 
 
SaO STALLS. 
 
 vent iiijmy should the horse strike his head against the deck 
 beams when lighting on his feet. Everything being in readi- 
 ness and skillfnllj'- managed, an average lot of one hundred 
 horses can be hoisted on board in from two to three hours. 
 Hatches for horses must be at least 10 by 10 feet. 
 
 Allowing 1100 pounds as the average weight o! artillery horses 
 and 150 pounds as that of men, and estimating for ten days' sup- 
 ply of food, water, and forage, the total weight of a field battery 
 of six pieces, fully equipped and provided for field seiTice, and 
 including two baggage-wagons loaded with camp equipage and 
 baggage, will be 329,000 pounds, or about 165 American tons. 
 Horses embarked as described — i. e., without stalls — require 
 each a space equal to 3.5 tons, marine measurement ; therefore 
 about 550 tons will be required for the horses alone. It is thus 
 seen that the actual weight of a battery forms but a small pro- 
 portion of the shipping tonnage required for it. The class of 
 sea-going steamers usually chartered for transportation service 
 are those that ply between points along tiie sea-board. They 
 are generally propellers, ai:d vaiy in tonnage from one to two 
 thousand tons. Owing to the fact that a considerable part of 
 their room is usually taken up with passenger accommodations, 
 they are seldom able to oarrj' more than one full battery. A 
 steamer of 2000 tons burden, with a free spar and main deck, is 
 capable of carrying two complete battei-ies. 
 
 STS. Stalls. The extensive experience of the British Army 
 during the Crimean war and in the Canadian, East Indian, and 
 other colonial service, has enabled the English to arrive at great 
 perfection in fitting up transports for horses. The following is 
 the method adopted : Each horse is provided with a stall ; these 
 are placed in two rows, one on each side of the ship, with the 
 heads of the liorses facing inwards. {Fig. 3, Plate 56.) The 
 rear end of the stall is not less than two feet from the side of the 
 vessel; three feet is allowed when breadth of deck admits of it. 
 The stalls in each row are built together, so as to be continuous. 
 They are 6 feet long from inside of padding on the breast-piece 
 to the inside of haunch-piece, and 2 feet 2 Inches between the 
 padding on the side bales; ten per cent, are 2 inches narrower, 
 and five per cent, are 6 inches longer. 
 
 To construct the stalls, two lines of scantling (A and B) are 
 laid down parallel with the keel of the ship, and 7 feet 5.5 
 inches apart ; the outer line is at the required distance (2 to 3 
 feet) from the ship's side ; the scantling are 5 bj' 5 inches, and 
 are secured to the deck by 1-inch screw bolts of wrought-iron. 
 They are scored three-fourths of an inch deep on the inside, at 
 intervals of 2 feet 6.5 inches (from centre to centre of score), to re- 
 
HAUNCH-PIECE — BREAST-PIECE. 331 
 
 ceive the heels of the stanchions (C and D). These stanchions are 
 of scantling the same as the sti-ingers, and ai'e ent to the exact 
 height from deck to declv ; they rest below on tlie decli, fitting 
 into the scores of the stringers ; tliey are secnred to tlie deck 
 above by means of cleats fastened with heavy spikes ; the stan- 
 chions are secured, in addition, both above and below, with spikes 
 driven obliquely into them and the deck ; against the i ear side 
 of the front stanchions are placed short pieces of scantling (E) 
 for the purpose of securing the breast-piece and side bales ; these 
 pieces are 4 feet long, 7 by 6 inches, thick, and of good strong 
 wood L in the top are two slots for the i-eception of the ends of 
 the breast-piece and side bale ; they are secured to the front 
 stanchion by a 0.75-inch bolt at 12 inches from the top ; below 
 they are secured by spikes toed into the deck and by the floor- 
 ing cut away to receive them. 
 
 The flooring is of 2-inch plank spiked to the deck ; the spikes 
 are driven so that they are covered by the cross-battens ; the 
 planks are laid lengthwise, not across the stall, extending from 
 the front scantling (A) to within 7 inches of the rear one (B), 
 with intervals between them of 0.75 inch. The upper edges are 
 beveled off half an inch. These intervals are for the purpose of 
 drainage. 
 
 Six battens (PFF)of hard wood, 2 by 3 inches, are laid across 
 the planks, beginning 9 inches from the rear ends of the planks ; 
 the others at intervals of 12 inches. These battens aie contin- 
 nous, running the entire length of the stalls; scantling 5 inches 
 deep by 3 Indies wide and 6 feet 9 inches long are hud along 
 each side of the stall, fitting tightly between the front and rear 
 stanchions, and scored underneath to fit on the cross-battens j 
 each is secured by spikes driven through the fiooi-planks into 
 the deck. These pieces are for the purpose of holding the cross- 
 battens bej'ond any possibility of breaking away. 
 
 To facilitate cleaning the stalls without at the same time 
 weakening the construction, these pieces are sawed through at 6 
 inches from the hind stanchions, and a strap-liinge fastened on 
 top so that tlie short end can be thrown back when it is neces- 
 sary to sweep the stalls. A clear drainage space is tlius left along 
 the whole line of stalls. 
 
 The haunch-piece (G) is a continuous piece of scantling 9 inches 
 deep by 5 inches thick ; it is secured to the inside of the rear 
 stanciiions by bolts, with its top 3 feet 8 inches above -the floor- 
 planks ; the top and inside surface are rounded off and smoothed 
 so as not to chafe the horse ; opposite each stanchion a mortise 
 is cut in the haunch-piece for tlie reception of the side bale. 
 
 The breast-piece (H) is of hard wood 6 inches thick by 9 
 
332 HORSE-HAMMOCK. 
 
 Inches deep ; it is hollowed ont in the middle and rounded so as- 
 to conform to the breast of the horse. The breast-piece of each- 
 stall is removable; its ends, cut to the proper shape, rest in the- 
 slots of the short uprigtits (B) ; a wooden key (J), turning on an 
 iron bolt, secures both the breast-piece and side bale from lift- 
 ing out ; the upper edge of tiie breast-piece is 3 feet 11 inclies^ 
 above the floor-planks. 
 
 The side bales are o£ 9 by 3 inch wood ; in front, they are on 
 a level with the breast-piece; in rear, with the haunch-piece;, 
 beiiind, they are tenoned into the haunch-piece; in front, they 
 slide into the slot in the short nprights, beina; kept there by 
 the key (J) ; they are smoothed off and padded with sheepskin 
 long in wool, put on double. The same kind of padding is used 
 for the breast-piece ; none is put on the haunch-piece. About 
 15 per cent, of mpare side bales are provided. 
 
 The manger (L) is made of inch boards 18 inches long, 15 inches 
 wide at top and 12 at bottom, and 9 inches deep, inside meas- 
 urements; it is lined with tin or zinc; an ii-on band passes un- 
 derneath and up over the ends, terminating in two holes, by 
 means of which the manger is suspended to two iron pins fixed' 
 to the front stanchions. 
 
 Zinc or iron hooping is nailed around the stanchions wher- 
 ever horses can get at them to gnaw. 
 
 The horse's liead is secured by means of a head-haltex', tlie 
 strap of which is fastened to a ring attached to the front stan- 
 chion. It is best to liave two straps to each halter, one fastened' 
 to each side. 
 
 Kicking hoards are provided for such horses as require them ; 
 •they are attached to the inside of the rear stanchions with 
 screws. 
 
 Four pulley blocks for the ropes of the horse-hammocks are 
 placed, two over eacli side bale, one at 12 inches from the front 
 stanchion and the other 2 feet 3 inches from the hind stanchion. 
 Those in front are double, the hind ones single. These bloclcs 
 are sci-ewed to the deck above. 
 
 576. The horse-hammock is similar to the sling befoi'c do- 
 scribed, except that the sticks at tlieends project on each side 
 3 inches beyond the canvas. A 2-incli rope 30 feet long is passed 
 around each stick in a single clove hitch, {.Fig. 4, Plate 56,) 
 the hitch being secured at its crossing with spun-yarn. The end 
 of the rope from the rear side of tlie iiammock is 3.5 feet longer 
 than that from the front side, and passes up througli the rear 
 block and over one of the sheaves of the front block; tlie front 
 end of the rope passes over the otiier siieave ; botli are caiTic^d 
 forward and secured by an iron belaying cleat fastened to the 
 
CARE OF HORSES A.T SEA. 333 
 
 •deck above. The hammock is kept in position on the horse by 
 « breast-band 40 inches long and a breeching 56 inches long and 
 4 inches wide. These straps are held in position by a wither 
 and a cronp strap, both of which are united along the back by 
 another strap. All of these straps are made of canvas or strong 
 webbing, and secured with buckles. 
 
 There must be ten per cent, of spare stalls, and there should 
 be a loose box constructed near a hatchway to admit of a sick 
 horse lying down. Each stall is numbered, the side bales, breast- 
 pieces and mangers being marked with the number of the stall 
 to which they belong. 
 
 It is advisable to have as many stalls on the upper deck as 
 possible, unless extremely bad weather is anticipated. They 
 are constructed like those already described, except that they 
 are covered in above by a sloping roof laid upon rafters connect- 
 ing the .'Stanchions. 
 
 The Himalaya, of 3500 tons burden, fitted up in the manner 
 described, successfully carried, during the Crimean waj", 3000 
 horses with a loss of only three. They were arranged : 200 on 
 the spar deck ; 130 on the main deck; 50 on the oi-lop deck, — 
 making 380 carried at a trip. 
 
 On the spar deck, the platforms of the stalls were placed 2 
 inches above the deck to admit of cleaning, draining, and wash- 
 ing. The platform was in sections of two stalls each, and could 
 be shifted. 
 
 The horses, when put aboard, were led, the first one to the 
 most distant stall; then the side bale was put in place, another 
 liorse brought and placed alongside, and so on until the embark- 
 ing was completed. 
 
 When a horse becomes sick or disabled at sea, and it is found 
 necessary to move him from his stall, the feed-ljox is unhooked, 
 the breast-piece unshipped, and he is taken into the narrow 
 passage or gangway separating the two rows of stalls. 
 
 57'!'. Care of horses at sea. For the first few days on ship- 
 board food is, to be given rather sparingly, and bran is to form 
 a large portion of it ; but after the horse becomes accustomed to 
 his new situation and his appetite increases, lie is to be more lib- 
 erally fed. A bran mash, or oats and bran mixed, is to be given 
 to him eveiy other day. 
 
 The spare stalls admit of the horses being shifted, rubbed 
 down, their feet washed, and the stalls cleaned out every day 
 when the weather permits. Hand-rubbing the legs is of the 
 greatest consequence to the comfort and well-being of the horse, 
 and is to be practiced, if possible, every day, or whenever the 
 horses change stalls. 
 
334 CAEE OF HORSES AT SEA. 
 
 Horses are to be slung in smooth weather, and allowed to 
 stand on their legs in rough and stormy weather. In smooth 
 weather, they will rest their legs and feet by throwing their 
 whole weight Into the slings. To sling a horse in rough weather, 
 whereby he is taken off his feet, would only have the effect of 
 knocking him about with the roll of the ship. Horses standing, 
 accommodate tliemsclves to the motion of the vessel. They are 
 not to be placed in the liorse-hammook until they have been at 
 sea for a week, as some would only be made uneasj' by the at- 
 tempt to do so. 
 
 Tire liammock is to be placed around the centre of the horae's 
 belly, and then the breast-band and breeching fastened to the 
 required length and degree of tightness. When everything is in 
 readiness, and not before, the horse is quickly raised until all, or 
 nearly all, of his weight is off his legs. He will very soon learn 
 the relief the liammock affords him, and will not be slow in 
 availing himself of it by throwing his weight into it. With some 
 liorses it is necessary to use great quickness in making the ropes 
 fast before they throw their whole weight into the hammock. 
 
 When the horses are between decks, too much attention can- 
 not be paid to the constant trimming of the wind-sails, so as to 
 insure plenty of fresh air. The wind-sails should be well for- 
 ward, and extend down- to within tvvo or three feet of the deck. 
 When a horse between decks becomes ill, and the weather is at 
 all fine, he should be removed to the upper deck, where the fresh 
 air and change will probably soon bring him right again. 
 
 Besides the ordinary grooming ul ensils for stable service, there 
 should be a plentiful supply of stable brooms, hoes, and shovels 
 for cleaning out the stalls, and baskets or other light vessels for 
 removing the manure. The ship must be well lighted and the 
 guards attentive ; sea-sick men must not be intrusted with this 
 important duty. 
 
 Disinfectants, such as chloride of lime and of zinc, copperas, 
 powdered gypsum, &c., should be freely used, and upon embark- 
 ing the artillery commander will see that they are supplied. 
 
 The feed-troughs and nostrils of tlie horses are washed every 
 morning and evening with diluted vinegar. 
 
 Water is .allowed at the rate of six gallons a day per horse and 
 one gallon per man. 
 
 Dui'ing the voyage the artillery commander will make it his 
 especial study to act in harmony with the master of tlie vessel. 
 There must of necessity be divided authority and responsibility. 
 Order and neatness among the men and cleanliness with tho 
 liorses are to be looked after by the commander of the troops. 
 In attending to these duties, care will be observed not to inter- 
 
DISEMBARKING. 335 
 
 fere needlessly witH the duties of the crew, nor with the belong- 
 ings of the ship. 
 
 OflScers are always to be furnished with cabin accommodations 
 and the men with proper messing arrangements. This should 
 be specified in the charter, and shonld be clearly understood by 
 all parties previous to setting out on the voyage. 
 
 The fitting-up of the vessel is generally done by the Quarter- 
 master's Department, but the commander of the artillery to be 
 embarked will, as the one most concerned, give his special at- 
 tention to see that the work is thorough and complete. 
 
 Masters and owners of vessels always dislike to have them 
 bored, spiked, and bolted into in the manner necessary for fit- 
 ting tliem up for artillery transports. To remove all causes of 
 complaints and objections, and of contentions between the 
 master of the vessel and tlie officer embarking his ti-oops, arising 
 on this score, the charter party should clearly specify the extent 
 and nature of the work required to be done. 
 
 When an expedition of consideiable size is to start out, a 
 steamer suitable for the purpose should be converted into a 
 workshop, containing forges capable of doing heavy work, to- 
 gether with carpenter and shipwright facilities. She should carry 
 a plentiful supply of such material as will probably be required. 
 
 A steam pile-driver should always form part of the outfit of 
 an expedition. 
 
 dYS. Disemharlcing. When this can be done at a wharf, it 
 is simply the reverse operation of embarking. 
 
 Wlien wharf accommodations are not available, arrangements 
 will have to be made for transferring the men, horses, and 
 material from the vessel to the shore. 
 
 An army or other considerable body of troops embarked for 
 an expedition, to be landed under such circumstances, will be 
 provided with general means for disembarking, and the artil- 
 lery, which usually constitutes an important feature of the out- 
 fit, shares with the rest in these general arrangements; but, 
 owing to its nature, much of a special character is required for 
 it, demanding the most careful consideration and attention from 
 artillery oflicers. 
 
 Such expeditions usually embark at sea-ports where there are 
 accommodations that make the operation comparatively simple 
 and easy, and for this reason the many preparations necessary 
 for landing on an open shore are apt to be overlooked, or to be 
 inadequately provided for. It becomes the especial province of 
 the aitillery commander to look out for this, and to give his 
 advice and make his wants known to the army commander, so 
 that tlie latter may cause proper provision to be made. 
 
S36 DISEMBARKING. 
 
 The follo%\ing method for the disembarkation of an army 
 <;orps proved successful duiing the war of the rebellion, and 
 tlie same, or some modificatioa of it, will apply in every case. 
 
 The essential articles for forming a landing-place Were, sev- 
 eral canal-barges ; a nnmberof pontoon-boats, with balks, chess, 
 oars, anchors, &c., complete; a number of gang-planks; a plen- 
 tiful supply of lumber, and the necessary amount of ground 
 "^ tackle, cordage, and tools. 
 
 'i'he canal-barges were about 14 feet wide and 70 to 80 feet 
 long, (drawing, when loaded, 5 feet of water; when light, 2 feet,) 
 and of about 80 tons burden. 
 
 The gang-planks were from 12 to 30 feet long and 10 feet wide, 
 and very strong; ropes were attached to their corners, and the 
 larger oijes furnished with rollers. 
 
 By la-hlng two of the canal-barges together, placing the boats 
 some 12 feet apart, and throwing a false or additional deck over 
 the whole, a platform was formed about 40 feet wide and 45 
 feet long, capable of holding all the pieces and caissons of a"six- 
 gun field battery, or from forty to fifty horses. This boat or 
 faft, when thus loaded, drew about 4 feet of water. 
 
 Several of these rafts were prepared for the purpose of form- 
 ing a wharf-head, alongside of which vessels could lie and dis- 
 charge. 
 
 Froiri this wharf-head to the shore a pontoon-bridge was con- 
 structed. {Fig. 5, Plate 56.) 
 
 The whai'f-head was formed by bringing up as near the shore 
 as possible one of the lightest of the double canal-boats just de- 
 scribed ; this was securely moored in proper position at high 
 water, when it at once grounded. Outside of and parallel to it, 
 at a distance of some twenty feet, was placed, and in like man- 
 ner securely moored, the double canal-boat next heaviest in 
 draught of water ; the space between the two being bridged by 
 one of the largest gang-planks. 
 
 In the same manner was placed a third double canal-boat, 
 alongside of which was moored a light draught steamer, which 
 formed the pier-head to the wharf and secured depth of water 
 sufficient for the transports to come alongside. 
 
 Fi-om the double canal-boat first put in position, a roadway 
 to the shore was made by constructing a pontoon-bridge in the 
 usual m.inner. 
 
 The operation of disembarking consisted in bringing the 
 transports alongside of the wharf-head, placing a gang-plank 
 from the deck to the gunwale, and another from the gunwale 
 to the wharf-head. Over these gang-planks the horses were led 
 and taken ashore. The guns, caissons, and other carriages were 
 
DISEMBARKING. 337 
 
 fiin down the gang-plank and over the bridge by hand. In I his 
 «ay but two or three hours were consumed hi disembarkhig an 
 <'ntire battery. 
 
 For disembarking artillery by this method, or indeed by any 
 Jtiethod, smooth or comparatively smooth water is a sine qua 
 lion. Infantry, and even artillery material, maj' be landed with 
 small boats or lighters tlu'Oiigh a heavy surf, but a smooth sea is 
 required for horses. 
 
 When it is not considei'ed expedient to construct a wharf- 
 head and bridge as just described, and the water near shoie is 
 of sufficient depth, double canal-boats may be used for rafts to 
 disembark both horses and material. The rafts must have rail- 
 ing around them ; this should be strong, the stanchions extend- 
 ing into the boats and secured throughout ■nith bolts and nuts. 
 The horses are loaded from the vessel onto the raft either by 
 means of gang-planks or by slinging them. The i-af t is towed to 
 the shore by small boats or, better, by a small steam-tug ; a 
 gang-plank is run out and the horses led ashore. The guns and 
 caissons are bi-ought ashore in the same manner. 
 
 When canal-barges are not to be had, small coasting schoonei's 
 may, by removing their deck hamper, be used instead. Large 
 decked-over scows, such as are to be found in sea-port towns, 
 make excellent rafts. When the distance from the vessel to the 
 shore does not exceed 1000 yards or tliereabonts, a warp-line 
 may be used for bringing back and forth the raft. Every exer- 
 tion should be made to erect a wharf, rough and temporary 
 though it be, using for the piu-pose any kind of boats or scows 
 tliat can be obtained. It may sometimes be advisable to sacri- 
 fice a ship for the purpose of forming a wharf-head, by scuttling 
 and sinking her in such depth of water as to leave her spar deck 
 three or four feet above high water. With a sandy or muddy 
 bottom, a ship might be sunk by loading her dovsfn until she 
 rests firmly on the bottom. If the weather is calm she will 
 suffer no great injury, and can be floated off when no longer 
 required. 
 
 The business of constructing rafts and wharfs as described, 
 belongs, as a general rule, to the engineers; but should the 
 artillery commander of an expedition anticipate, even in the 
 remotest degree, a failure to provide the requisite means for 
 <]isembarking, it becomes his duty to look after it, and he can- 
 not be too zealous in doing so. The best plan under such cir- 
 cumstances is for each transport to carry along with it an outfit 
 ■capable of discharging its cargo. 
 
 The most useful boat for lightering, that can be carried, is the 
 wooden pontoon, siich as is used for military bridges. It is 31 
 22 
 
338 DISEMBARKING. 
 
 feet long, 5.5 feet wide at top, 4.5 feet wide at bottom, and 2.5 
 feet deep. Besides the three men required for managing it, it 
 Is capable of carrying 40 infantrymen with their arms and knap- 
 sacks, and it will very readily carry six horses. It is better, 
 however, when disembarking artillery, to form rafts by uniting 
 two boats in the usual manner for a bridge, except that a double 
 number of balks should be used. The platform may be twice 
 the width allowed for the roadway of a bridge ; thus formed, it 
 will be 24 feet long by 20 wide, and capable of carrying two 
 field-pieces and caissons complete, or from 15 to 20 horses. 
 
 The platform must be provided with a secure railing. All of 
 the parts should be fitted and numbered previous to embarking, 
 and the men practiced until they become skillful in putting the 
 raft together. In consequence of the lowness of this platform, 
 it is impracticable to use gang-planks from the decks of ordinary 
 vessels, and the horses have therefore to be lowered onto it by 
 slinging. A warp-line to the shore is the best means of taking 
 it back and forth. 
 
 Each transport should carry four pontoon -boats and all the 
 equipment for two rafts. If there is not sufficient room on deck 
 for the boats, they may be carried stowed flat to the sides of the 
 ship, bottom outwards, resting on strong solid chocks bolted to 
 the wales. A strong parbuckle-sling passes around each, with 
 which it is hoisted into place by the yard and stay purchases, 
 and secured by lashings ; by tlie same means it is lowered into 
 the water. 
 
 With several transports, each carrying the above-described out- 
 fit, it is generally practicable, by combining all, to form a bridge. 
 Suitable vessels can nearly always be obtained for forming the 
 ■wharf-head. 
 
 When there are several transports unloading at the same time, 
 conspicuous and well-understood signal marks must be placed op- 
 posite each, on the beach, so that it may be known to what points 
 to direct the boats and rafts without confusion, A strong party 
 for each should be on shore to secure the rafts upon touching, to 
 haul up the guns and caissons, and to take care of tlie horses. 
 
 Unless there is some special reason to the contrary, horses 
 will always be landed first. This gives them an opportunity of 
 resting and recovering from the trip while the material is being 
 landed. 
 
 When pontoon-boats are not available, scows, flshlng-smacks, 
 or other small craft must be collected and used instead. 
 
 As a last resort, the horses may be swum ashore, and the mate- 
 rial landed in the ship's boats, — a very tedious operation. The 
 liorses are lowered over the side by slinging ; a boat must be in 
 
DISEMBARKING. 339 
 
 attendance below to unhook the fall and clear tlie sling. The sling 
 for this purpose must be without breast or breech straps, and the 
 loops should be closed up with canvas, so that there may be no pos- 
 sibility of the horse getting his legs entangled in any part of it. 
 A very slight embarrassment of this kind will cause the horse to 
 drown. A man in the small boat takes him by the halter and, 
 conducting him a short distance, gives him the proper direction 
 to the shore ; without this precaution, horses sometimes become 
 bewildered and swim around the vessel until exhausted. Horses 
 will very readCy swim, in smootii water, lialf a mile. When 
 the deck of tiie vessel is low, say not over ten feet, and tliere is 
 a gangway, tlie horses may be backed off into the water without 
 slinging. This method should not, however, be resorted to if it 
 can possibly avoided ; it is liable to strain and injure tlie animal, 
 and will ever after malve him timid and shy about taking tlie 
 water when it is necessary to cross streams on the march. 
 
 Siege guns are embarked and disembarked in the same general 
 manner as light lield-pieces. When gang-planks are used, they 
 are hauled up or let down by means of tackle. When embarking 
 from a wharf or raft without gang-planks, the piece is I'un with 
 its carriage under the ship's tackle ; the gun is slung and hoisted 
 aboard and lowered onto the deck or into the hold. In disem- 
 barking, the carriage is first put upon the wharf or raft under 
 the ship's tackle, and the piece then lowered onto it. 
 
 When it is necessary to land heavy guns by means of lighters, 
 or from small vessels, the latter may be beached at high tide ; 
 the pieces are raised by blocking and skids until tliey can be 
 i-oUed down two inclined skids from the vessel to the beacli, 
 where they are received upon sldds or blocks of sufflclent size to 
 prevent them from burying themselves in the sand. At low 
 tide they are removed from the beacli. 
 
 Sieges, and similar operations calling for tlie use of the 
 heavier classes of ordnance, are usually of such a protracted 
 nature as to allow of substantial wharves being constructed, and 
 cranes, derricks, and shears provided for unloading weiglity 
 material. It is but loss of time and labor, often ending in fail- 
 ure, to proceed with imperfect arrangements of this kind. It is 
 the duty of the artillery commander to study the situation and 
 see that proper facilities are prepared. Such preparations re- 
 quire considerable time to make, and he should tlierefore antici- 
 pate the probable wants of the service in this direction, and not 
 wait until the vessels carrying the material arrive, or the demand 
 foi- it becomes urgent. 
 
 5f9. The disembarkation of an army mus't be considered 
 under two heads : 1st. When made without any chance of inter- 
 
340 DISEMBARKING. 
 
 ruption from an enemy; 2d. When made in presence of an 
 enemy, or where an attack is possible. 
 
 So far as artillery is concerned, the first of these conditions 
 has been discussed in the foregoing paragraphs. 
 
 With regard to the latter, all questions, political, strategical, 
 or otherwise, entering into the object of the expedition, having 
 been settled by the proper authorities, and the army for carrying 
 it out having been organized, embarked, and the transports 
 arrived within the general limits of the field of operations, the 
 lirst thing to be decided upon is the exact place or places where 
 the various parts of the command are to be put ashore. Many 
 local circumstances will influence this decision ; among the most 
 important of which will be to secure good anchorage and depth 
 of water near the shore, a general configuration of ground in 
 front which will admit of its being swept by the fire of the fleet, 
 a firm and commodious beach, and freedom from prevailing winds 
 or currents which may interrupt the disembarkation. 
 
 The fire of the fleet must clear the country in front. The in- 
 fantry is first landed and pushed out sufljciently far to keep the 
 enemy beyond cannon range of tlie landing-place; here it in- 
 trenches itself, forming a Ute-de-pont around the landing. 
 
 Meanwhile preparations will be made for landing the batteries. 
 All the boat-rafts will be put together, and if a wharf-head and 
 floating bridge is to be constructed it will be commenced at once. 
 Hteam-tugs must be in attendance for towing the rafts, carrying 
 orders, and other raiscollaneous duties. The artillery commander 
 designates the order in which the batteries are to disembark, and 
 will see that the transports take proper positions for eSecting 
 this without causing intervals of unnecessary delay. 
 
 If the attacks of the enemy are formidable and persistent, de- 
 manding the immediate service of artillery, the guns of several 
 or of all the batteries may be landed without their horses, and 
 taken to positions on the line by hand, or by tlie horses of one 
 of the batteries lauded for that special purpose. The cannon- 
 eers will accompany their guns. 
 
 If the resistance of the enemy cannot be overcome at this 
 period, the expedition is a failure, and the army will have to be 
 reembarked. To accomplish this a strong defensive work should 
 be constructed, and well armed with such artillery as may be 
 required. 
 
 The remainder of the disembarked artillery is next put aboard 
 the transports ; afterwards the infantry and, if possible, all the 
 artillery. The fire of the fleet should cover thie reembarkation, 
 ilud keep the enemy at such distance that he will not be able 
 to use his artillery upon the transports or the place of landing. 
 
WEIGHT OF TROOPS ON BRIDGES. 341 
 
 When the expedltoii is larjje and the number o£ transports, 
 store-ships, &e., great, the worst of confusion will arise unless 
 some system of marlcing and distinguishing them is adopted. 
 The best metliod is for each one to carry, instead of Iier own 
 burgee, tlio distinguishing flag of the corps to whicli the troops 
 on board belong. This will show at a glance whether they are 
 infantry, artillery, or cavalry, and to what corps, division, and 
 brigade they belong. Besides this, each vessel should have- a 
 number jjainted, as large as possible, on each quarter. When 
 embarking, a memorandum is kept and furnished to command- 
 ing and staff officers showing what troops are on board of each 
 transport. 
 
 The chief-of-transports, who should be a quartermaster select- 
 ed for his practical capacitj' in such business, designates the 
 ancliorage-ground for each part of the command, and sees that 
 they move up at the proper time and in the required order to 
 the place of debarkation. It is with him that the artillery com- 
 mander communicates in reference to the movements of the 
 artillery transports. 
 
 When boats are to be used either for lightering, rafting, or 
 bridging, it is important to know their sustaining capacity. 
 With small craft, this is best ascertained by calculating the area 
 of several cross-sections, from whicli a close approximation of 
 the cubic contents in feet is obtained; this, multiplied by 6:2,5, 
 gives the weight in pounds of the displaced water. 
 
 If the boat can be put in the water, the operation is simplified 
 and made more accurate by calculating the volume of that part 
 between the water-line when the boat is empty and the line to 
 which it can be safely sunk when loaded. 
 
 When boats of different sizes are to be used in a bridge, the 
 largest should be where the current is swiftest, so as to have 
 there the greatest space possible between the boats. Anchors 
 for ordinary ships' boats should weigh from 50 to 100 pounds; 
 for regulation pontoons, they should weigh 150 or 200 pounds. 
 
 The length of the cable should always be at least ten times 
 the depth of water in which the boat is anchored. The anchor 
 should be taken out in a boat and dropped over at the required 
 spot. 
 
 Weight brought on a bridge by tJie passage of troops. Infantry 
 marching by fours cause a load of 225 pounds for each lineal foot, 
 of roadway. When crowded by a check in front, the load is in- 
 creased to about 550 pounds. 
 
 Cavalry in column of twos, each man and horse weighing 
 about 14:00 pounds, and occupying 12 feet of bridge, cause a. 
 
342 WEiaHT OF TROOPS ON BRIDGES. 
 
 load of about 230 pounds per lineal foot of roadway. When 
 crowded by a check, this is increased to about 350 pounds. 
 
 When artillery carriages cross a bridge, the weight is not 
 equally distributed. With the carriages of light field batteries, 
 the weight is about 400 pounds per lineal foot. The 4.o-inch 
 siege gun a"nd carriage, equipped for traveling, weighs 7400 
 pounds, and has a distance of S feet between bearing parts of 
 hind and fore wheels, giving 925 pounds per lineal foot of 
 bridge. The 100-pounder Parrott, carried on a mortar-wagon, 
 gives 1737 pounds per lineal feet. 
 
 A 10-inch siege mortar mounted on its carriage and carried 
 on a mortar-wagon causes a load of 800 pounds per lineal foot. 
 
 To each running foot of bridge must be added about 100 
 pounds as weight of superstructure. 
 
 When heavy carriages are to be crossed, a substantial tram- 
 way made of long way-planks should be laid, and the carriages 
 moved on it by hand. 
 
 In constructing a bridge witli ordinary boats, great care must 
 be observed not to allow the balks to rest on the gunwales; 
 they must be supported from the middle of the boat. 
 
 Ice, when from 3 to 4 iuches thick, will sustain infantry march- 
 ing in single file. With a thickness of 4.5 inches, cavalry aud 
 light guns can pass over ; with 6 inches, heavy field-pieces ; 8 
 inches will support siege guns, but, for greater security, the 
 wheels should be looked and secured upon way-planks which 
 slide upon the ice, tlie pieces being moved by hand. 
 
 In very cold weather the thickness of the ice may be increased 
 by covering it with a layer of straw or brush and throwing 
 water over it, or two rows of logs may be laid at a distance 
 apart equal to the vvidtli of the roadway ; a layer of earth is 
 spread between them and water thrown on and allowed to 
 freeze. This operation is repeated until a solid roadway is 
 formed. 
 
 Ice, when very thick, and therefore difficult to remove, may 
 be broken up by charges of powder in water-tight cans or bags, 
 fixed underneath or placed in lioles bored in it. Cliarges of 
 from five to ten pounds of powder placed in ice two feet thick 
 will break up an area twenty feet in diameter. Eight ounces 
 of dynamite will produce a like result. 
 
^»xt J!ixtlt. 
 
 HAKBOR DEFENSES. 
 
 5 SO. The entrance to a harbor may be considered, and is in 
 fact, a defile, the defense of which follows the rules applicable to 
 defiles generally. 
 
 The means usually employed to prevent the passage of hostile 
 ships are divided into three classes, viz.: 1st. Forts and land bat- 
 teries; 2d. Submarine mines; 3d. Floating defenses. 
 
 The latter class, which includes monitors and o£Eensive torpe- 
 does, is under the exclusive control of the Navy. 
 
 Submarine mines will be considered further on. 
 
 The first class is the one now to be considered, and this con- 
 sideration of it is intended to refer especially to the use of guns 
 on land against ai-mored ships. 
 
 581. Position of batteries. Whenever practicable, batteries 
 should be well strung out in groups, the strength of which should 
 increase as they are approached from the outside. This arrange- 
 ment has a peculiarly discouraging effect on an enemy. The 
 first batteries will at least damage him and. cause confusion, thus 
 weakening his attack on the stronger; and when his discom- 
 fiture finally takes place, the batteries already passed will pre- 
 vent his return and insure his total destruction. The islands, 
 headlands, and narrows usually found at the entrances of har- 
 bors will generally, to a greater or less degree, enable this 
 arrangement to be carried out. 
 
 Experience teaches that where the channel is unobstructed 
 steam vessels can run past shore batteries, however well the 
 latter may be served. But, on the other hand, where obstruc- 
 tions to their rapid transit exist, they have not the endurance 
 and aggressive power to effect much damage to land defenses. 
 In the smoke of battle and tide-way of the channel they become 
 nnmanageable, get aground, or collide with each other. The 
 most effective class of channel obstructions are submarine mines ; 
 the position, planting, and working of which are explained under 
 the head of Submarine Mines. 
 
 It is a well-settled fact that a hostile fleet, by concentrating 
 its fire on an open work, may temporarily silence its guns. For 
 
 (343) 
 
344 HAEBOR DEFENSES. 
 
 this reason the accumulation o£ guns in works exposed to such 
 concentration siiould be avoided by distributing them in bat- 
 teries, each containing but a few pieces, due regard being hiid to 
 their security from assault and capture by any force that may be 
 landed for tl'iat purpose. The best arrangement is to place them 
 in detached batteries of, say, two, four, or six pieces each, well 
 secured from the enemy's fire by earthen epaulments and trav- 
 erses. This arrangement makes it difBcnlt for the enemy to 
 discover tlie exact position of the guns, and every peculiarity of 
 ground should be taken advantage of to increase this diflSculty. 
 Whatever tends to make batteries diflBcult to see, and conse- 
 quently to hit, is as much a protection as that which makes them 
 capable of resisting a hit when made. Guns thus dispersed have 
 greater freedom of lateral range of fire, and do not interfere so 
 much with each other by reason of their smoke as when concen- 
 trated, — a matter of no little importance with heavy artillery, 
 which emits such volumes as, in certain conditions of tiie atmos- 
 phere, to greatly interfere with accuracy of aim. 
 
 When batteries are extended, a larger area will be swept by 
 their converging Are than when the guns are assembled en 
 masse. An additional advantage conferred by distributing the 
 guns is, that wliilc obtaining concentrated fire on an important 
 or decisive point, a similar fire cannot be directed on tlie guns 
 in return. 
 
 This arrangement would, furthermore, tend to neutralize the 
 power which a fleet might have of forming on a wide arc of a 
 circle, and moving slowly under steam, so as to render the task 
 of hitting the individual ships more difficult, throw a converg- 
 ing fire upon the works on sliore. 
 
 In tlie design of such works, it Is of primary importance that 
 conjoint action of the various parts should be maintained ; and 
 to prevent the individual batteries from being captured by coup 
 de main, small inclosed earth-works, heavily stockaded lo resist 
 escalade, and each armed witli field, siege, and macliine guns, 
 and siege mortars, should be constructed so as to have complete 
 command over all land approaches. 
 
 These earth-works should contain the infantry supports. In 
 this manner most of tlie existing sea-coast forts may be utilized, 
 making of them protecting works Eor exterior earthen batteries. 
 
 The defenses of a harbor should, in every instance, be capable 
 of repulsing all attacks that the enemy is liirely to make on them. 
 The power and persistency of these attacks will depend upon 
 the importance to him of the object to be gained. Large and 
 opulent cities, naval establishments, and ship-yards are among 
 the first prizes .sought for. The aggressive power of modern 
 
HAEBOK DEFENSES. 345- 
 
 navies is sucli as to make it quite impracticable to effectually 
 guard every harbor on an extended coast. It is, therefore, bet- 
 ter to entirely abandon those that are ilnimportant to the enemy, 
 for whatever use he may make of them, than by feebly guarding 
 them to invite his attacks and thus afford him the moral effect 
 and consolation of cheap victories, and to the country the morti- 
 fication and disadvantage of defeat and loss of prestige. 
 
 5S3. Number of troops required for harbor defense. Tlie 
 number of troops required for the manning of a work erected for 
 harbor defense depends chiefly upon the nature and amount of 
 armament contained therein. Works of tliis nature are armed 
 principally with pieces of the heaviest calibre, but, for reasons 
 hereafter given, all kinds should generally find place. Tlie 
 amount of armament depends upon the extent of the work and 
 the part it is to play in the scheme of defense. 
 
 Three full detachments are necessary for eacli piece. Know- 
 ing the number of pieces in the work and the number of men 
 required for the service of each, the entire strength required is 
 obtained. Three relief detachments are necessarj', for the rea- 
 sons that the labor of manipulating and serving heavy artillery 
 is very great, and when a rapid and continuous fire is to be main- 
 tained, strong fatigue parties are required in carrying ammuni- 
 tion from the seiTice magazines to the pieces ; damages done 
 to the works during the day have to be repaired at night, and 
 casualties occurring, whether from the fire of the enemy or from 
 accidents, must be provided against, so that at any moment an 
 efficient detaclunent may be at every piece. 
 
 As a general rule, batteries should not be incumbered by an 
 attempt to include musketry defense witliin their limits. The 
 place for tliis arm is on tlie flanlcs of the batteries, and in 
 strength sufficient to prevent an enterprising enemy from land- 
 ing and assaulting tlie work, and from approaching to keep down 
 the fire of the guns while his vessels run by it. 
 
 However well it may liave answered with the old style of 
 artillery to have the troops serving batteries cliarged, in addi- 
 tion, with mnsketiy duty, it certainly is not advisable with the 
 artillery of the present. Steam-propelled iron-olads, carrying 
 guns of enormous power, range, and accuracy, demand the 
 undivided attention in action of those using the only weapons 
 effective against such adversaries. 
 
 The labor of handling and caring for the kind of artillery, 
 ammunition, material, and nianhines now used, together witlv 
 the construction, preservation, and repair of batteries, will re- 
 quire all the time and the whole attention of the troops serving 
 
346 HARBOR DEFENSES. 
 
 guns in war. The care of infantry arms and equipments, together 
 with the drills and parades incident thereto, have a tendency to 
 draw away the attentionof oflScers and men and prevent them 
 fi-om keeping in an efficient state of readiness, the only safe- 
 guard that stands between an enemy and the object for which 
 he may desire to enter a harbor. 
 
 When a work containing batteries for harbor defense is inclos- 
 ed, the amount of musketry necessary for it is determined by 
 allowing two muskets for each lineal yard of parapet not occu- 
 pied by the batteries. 
 
 553. Artillery being the main feature in such works, the 
 command should be vested in an artillery oflScer. Where there 
 are several forts and batteries guarding the entrance to a harbor 
 or constituting a line of works, they should, for the purpose of 
 administration and command, be united in groups, each group 
 being under an artillery officer of appropriate rank, and the 
 whole combined and commanded by the senior officer of artil- 
 lery present. By this means thorough cooperation is secured 
 throughout the entire system. 
 
 554. In order to avoid the weakening eflFect of divided re- 
 sponsibility, submarine mines, when employed in conjunction 
 with a fort for the defense of a cliannel, sliould be under the 
 control of the commandant of the fort, who should select from 
 his command the proper number of officers and men to be in- 
 structed in the method of working this branch of defense. 
 
 No more troops than are necessary to carry out the foregoing 
 rules should be crowded into a work; otherwise, unnecessary 
 casualties from the fire of the enemy will be added, stoi'es con- 
 sumed, and uiihealthiness engendered ; and, besides, in time of 
 war, when troops are not required at one place, their services 
 are generally needed elsevvhere. 
 
 The high standard of practical gunnery required of artillery 
 troops demands a proportional degree of Intelligence and capacity 
 for instruction in the individual soldier. Artillerymen should 
 be selected with a special view to this, artisans and mechanics 
 forming a large proportion. Steam-power and the application 
 of labor and time saving machinery should, wherever practicable, 
 be introduced to assist in making the defensive ability of forti- 
 fied places more perfect. 
 
 In conducting the defense of a work, too much importance 
 should not be attached to the battering of it by an enemy ; for 
 experience teaches that a place Is formidable, if resolutely de- 
 fended, long after it has lost all semblance of the form and sym- 
 metry possessed by it when it came from the hands of the con- 
 structing engineer. 
 
ARTILLERY AGAINST ARMOR. 347 
 
 585. Elevation of batteries. Against uiiarmored vessels, 
 ricochet firing, owing to the greater cliances of liitting Llie 
 object, is tile most effective ; and in order to secure flattened 
 I'icocliets, so tliat the shot, in bounding, may not pass over the 
 hostile vessel, batteries should be placed as low as possible ; but 
 since the introduction of iron-clads, special importance is given 
 to the kind of fire most effective against tliem. 
 
 Bicochet firing with elongated projectiles is exceedingly un- 
 certain, and the loss of power from ricochet with spherical shot 
 is so great as to make this kind of firing of little or no avail 
 against armored vessels as now constructed. Direct hits must 
 be resorted to, and these, too, from rifled guns of heavy calibres. 
 Direct hits caa be made as well from a moderate elevation as 
 from near the level of the water ; and, besides, the chances of 
 striking the deck — always the most vulnerable part of an iron- 
 clad — are tlius considerably increased. An elevation of fifty 
 feet above the water will deprive the enemy of the advantage of 
 ricochet firing, which, although not effective against iron-clad 
 vessels, is nevertheless very damaging to defensive works on land. 
 The interior of the work is obviously more sheltered from the 
 missiles of the enemy when it is above his level than when low 
 down ; his projectiles then either lodge in the epaulraent or pass 
 over the work far to the rear, with greatly diminished chance of 
 hitting the guns, either in bavbette or in embrasure. (See table, 
 par. 210.) 
 
 5S6. Artillery against armor. Rifled guns of heavy calibres 
 are, for reasons hereafter given, the only kind capable of inflict- 
 ing much damage upon iron-clad ships. This damage is effected 
 by shot penetrating through the iron shield and reaching the 
 active enemy within — the men, guns, and the machinery. 
 
 The first thing, therefoie, to be considered in this connection. 
 Is the power of rifled guns to penetrate armor. A vast amount 
 of experimental firing, by various nations, has been done to as- 
 certain this and to arrive at the laws governing the effect pro- 
 duced by the impact of cannon shot against metal plates. These 
 laws have been formulated, and the results obtained therefrom 
 agree, with remarkable precision, with those obtained by obser- 
 vation from actual practice. 
 
 These experiments have been more exhaustive abroad than in 
 the United States, and as the English system of rifled ordnance 
 includes all the calibres of the United States system, and is like- 
 wise muzzle-loading, the diagram on Plate 76 is inserted to show 
 the penetrating power of rifles. 
 
 The following table, from calculation, gives the penetrating 
 power of projectiles fired from smooth-bore guns against backed 
 
848 
 
 ARTILLEKY AGAINST ARMOK. 
 
 armor, for the velocity, charge, and weight of projectiles set 
 opposite : 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^• 
 
 ^k 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 hH 
 
 
 
 Ij 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ssgs 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 PJ 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 PM 
 
 Pm-"^ 
 
 
 In. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 
 
 an 
 
 1070 
 
 200 
 
 1400 
 
 13 
 
 234 
 
 Prismatic powder. 
 
 15 
 
 45U 
 
 100 
 
 1487 
 
 10.15 
 
 143 
 
 Prismatic powder. 
 
 10 
 
 187 
 
 28 
 
 1600 
 
 7.30 
 
 73 
 
 Cannon powder. 
 
 The penetration above given is for the velocity at the muzzle; 
 but as the velocity for smootli-bores rapidly diminishes, the pen- 
 etration lilvewise diminishes, and to such a degree as to render 
 this class of guns almost powerless to perforate modern armor 
 at the distances usually required of gnns on stiore. 
 
 It will be observed from the foregoing diagram that iron- 
 clads are classified with reference to their armor — chiefly as to 
 the thickness of the plating. The thickness and arrangement 
 of the wood backing has more reference to the strength of the 
 vessel to resist racking than to power of resisting penetration by 
 shot ; for the best oak timber possesses only about one-sixteentli 
 of the resisting power of wrought-iron. 
 
 The foregoing penetrations are for impacts normal to the sur- 
 face of the plates. When the impact is not normal, the pene- 
 trating elTect is diminished increasingly with the obliquity of the 
 direction of the shot. Flat-headed projectiles encastrent and 
 penetrate at as low an angle as 45 degrees, but ogival-headed 
 or spherical projectiles glance from the surface when the angle 
 reaches about 20 degrees from the normal at the point of impact. 
 
 The full penetrating power of rifle projectiles requires that the 
 armor should be struck perpendicularly to its surface. This catx 
 never occur in action except by rare accident. The trajectory 
 of the sliot forms one angle j the curvature of the ship's side 
 forms another; the inclination of the ship's course forms a third, 
 all of which are constantly varying by reason of tlio motion of 
 the vessel. 
 
 587. Besides monitors, which of themselves form a distinct 
 class of iron-clads, bearing little or no resembla\ice to any other, 
 there are many varieties of armored vessels. The following, 
 liowever, is a fair type of the class that, in the event of war. 
 
ARTILLERY AGAINST ARMOE. 349 
 
 would probably prove most troublesome to our harbor defenses : 
 Length of hull, 300 feet; breadth, 56 feet; height of mahi deck 
 above water, 6.5 feet. The entire hull is protected by armor 
 from 6.5 feet below tlie water-line to the main deck, thus cover- 
 ing not only the middle part of the ship where the machinery 
 and turrets are placed, but also the quarters foi' officers and men. 
 The thickness of the armor opposite the turrets is 8 inches ; that 
 on the remainder of the midships is 7 inches, which is slightly 
 reduced towards the ends of the vessel. The plates lest on a 
 backing of hard wood 12 inches thick, through whicli they are 
 bolted to the iron skin, 1.5 inclies thick, the whole being sup- 
 ported by the massive frame-work of the ship, 10 inches deep. 
 
 The upper deck, which, as before stated, is at a level witli tlie 
 top of the armor on the sides, is covered with iron plating 4 
 inches thick for the length of the turret spaces, and with about 
 half the latter thickness over the remainder. The plating is laid 
 on a deck of hard wood 6 inches thick, the whole being supported 
 by iron beams 14 inches deep. The draught of sucli a vessel is 
 about 26 feet. 
 
 The turrets, two in number, project through circular openings 
 in the upper deck, that part above the deck being covered with 
 armor plates 10 inches thick about the ports and for one-third 
 of the circumference, with 9 inches for the remainder. The part 
 below the deck and all the gearing is protected by the 8-ineh 
 iirmor of the sides of the hull. The height of the guns in the 
 turrets is 10 feet above the water-line. 
 
 A vessel of tliis description carries an armament, usually, of 
 six guns, four of whicli are in the turrets and are 12-inch li'fles; 
 tlie other two are 100-pounder rifles, and are carried on the up- 
 per deck, fore and aft, as chase guns. The turrets are about 
 27 feet in diameter. 
 
 The hull of such a vessel, when broadside-on, presents, exclu- 
 sive of the turrets, a vertical target, above water, 300 feet long 
 and 6.5 feet high ; any part of which, at a range of 2000 yards, if 
 fairly struck, is vulnerable to the racking effect of shot from the 
 15-inoh smooth-bore, or to penetration from rifles of not less 
 than 10 inches calibre ; and it would not require manj' such hits 
 to disable her or cause her to withdraw from action. 
 
 When bow-on, the hull presents a vertical target, above water, 
 56 feet long by 6.5 feet high, alike vulnerable to the same 
 shots. The difficulty of striliing normally the curved surface 
 thus presented would be partly compensated for by the large 
 horizontal target presented by the deck of the vessel when in 
 this position. This target would be 360 feet long in the direc- 
 tion of the shots, with an average width of about 45 feet. The 
 
350 ARTILLERY AGAINST ARMOR. 
 
 angle of fall due to shot at the distance usually employed against 
 irou-clads would give them a very considerable striking power, 
 enabling them, most probably, elthev to penetrate oi- sei-ionsly 
 rack tiio deck. It is thus seen that in whatever position the 
 vessel may be with reference to the batteries on shore, she will 
 pr'esent no inconsiderable mark to fire at. 
 
 Kifle projectiles are not liable to ricochet upon water, and will, 
 especially those that are pointed, pass through it to a distance 
 of fifteen to twenty feet with but small diminution of force. 
 Against this class of projectiles, the target presented by the ves- 
 sel is increased by at least three feet below the water-line. At 
 ranges not exceeding 2000 yards, ricochet from the 15-inch gun 
 is formidable, and with anything like good practice, shots strik- 
 ing short would stand a good chance of hitting ttie vessel upon 
 the first rebound. 
 
 Line-of-battle cruisers of the broadside class present greater 
 dimensions, as a target, than the turreted vessels of the type just 
 given. At the same time, they cai-ry no greater thickness of 
 armor, and are consequently more vulnerable. The best protec- 
 tion for harbors upon the American side of the Atlantic against 
 100-ton guns carried in vessels protected by two feet or more of 
 armor, will be the clumsiness and unseaworthiness of such ves- 
 sels themselves. As armor increases in thickness, the belt of it 
 that can be carried diminishes in width; and thus what is pro- 
 tection in one sense may be regarded as weakness in another. 
 
 It is important with artillerists to know the character of ves- 
 sels opposed to them. To enable them to ascertain this, it is 
 the duty of the proper department of the government, in the 
 event of hostilities with a maritime power, to supply diagrams 
 showing the general appearance of each of the enemy's iron- 
 clads, or at least of each class, and by a brief description to point 
 out tlie most vulnerable parts. This would enable the artillerist 
 to determine not only the proper guns and projectiles to be used, 
 but where his shots may be aimed to the best advantage. 
 
 588. A vessel moving at the rate of 10 miles an hour passes 
 over a distance of nearly 15 feet per second. The time of flight 
 of a rifle projectile for a range of 3000 j'ards is within a fraction 
 of 9 seconds. Allowing one second to elapse from the time the 
 gun is aimed to the moment of being fired, the time required 
 for the projectile to reach its object at the above range will be 
 10 seconds; in which time the vessel will have passed over a 
 space of 150 feet, or half the length of the average iron-clad. It 
 she is at the above distance, and moving at that rate of speed 
 directly across the line of fire, it will be necessary, in order to 
 strike her amidship, to aim directly at her bow. 
 
TITAL POINTS OF lEON-CLADS. 351 
 
 If she is moving at tlie rate of 15 miles an hour, she will in 
 the same time pass over a distance of 220 feet ; and to strilie 
 her amidship, it will be necessary to aim 70 feet, or about one- 
 fourth of her length, in front of her bow. 
 
 The time of flight of a projectile from the 15-inch smooth-bore 
 for this distance is about one second greater than the rifle shot. 
 It will thus be seen that the problem of aiming becomes greatly 
 complicated by the motion of the vessel. Her distance; the 
 direction in which she is moving, whether perpendiciilai- or ob- 
 lique to the line of fire ; her rate of speed ; her size, and the time 
 of flight of the projectile fired, are all elements of the problem, 
 to be determined on the instant, bj' the judgment of the artil- 
 lerist. Both officers and men should be thoroughly instructed 
 and practiced in these matters for the particular guns they are 
 serving. 
 
 Almost every locality will aflbrd stations for obtaining cross 
 bearings, by means of which, with telegraphic and other arrange- 
 ments, the exact position of a vessel at any moment may be 
 known at the piece. The method of doing this is explained 
 under the head of Submarine Mines. 
 
 By this means guns and mortars, trained upon any particular 
 point of a vessel's course in a channel, may be fired at the pre- 
 cise moment when the vessel is at the point. 
 
 5S9. Vital points of iron-clacLs. The most vital part of an 
 iron-clad, or, indeed, of any sliip as against shot, is the water- 
 line, where, If an irreparable leak can be effected, she 'must 
 inevitably go to the bottom. Shot holes of small calibre may, 
 especially in wooden vessels, be plugged; but projectiles capa- 
 ble of piercing modern armor make breaches impossible to stop 
 in this manner. The projectile always makes a hole larger than 
 its own diameter, and the plating at the exit of the sliot is 
 nsually bulged, cracked, and carried away to a still greater ex- 
 tent. "The wood backing is torn, splintered, and racked for sev- 
 eral feet around, in sucli a manner as to make immediate repair 
 impossible. An iron-clad penetrated in this way, by even a 
 single shot, is at once put hors de combat. Her well-known 
 want of buoyancy, although provided, as most are, with water- 
 tight compartments, will cause the most resolute crew to desist 
 the fight and look to their own safety. 
 
 The machinery of sea-going iron-clads is always below the 
 water-line, and is generally protected by an additional thickness 
 of armor. It is consequently difiicult to reach, but should a 
 shot enter there, especially into a boiler, the most serious calam- 
 ity to the vessel must follow. It not only destroys the locomo- 
 tive power 9f the vessel, leaving her without the means of 
 
552 PHENOMENA OF IMPACT. 
 
 manoGuvering or possibility of escape from stranding, but it. is 
 likely to cause great destruction of life. Tlie position of the 
 machinery and boilers of a steamer is pretty well indicated by 
 tliat of the smoke-stack. 
 
 When the vessel is broadside-to, fire should be dii-ected so as 
 to sti-ike her at or just below the water-line, opposite the ma- 
 <!liinery. 
 
 Experience teaches that tlie most vulnerable part of a turret 
 is its lower circumference, which, wtien once jammed, totally 
 disables it for the fight. If, from weight of armor, the vessel is 
 known to be invumerable to the guns employed against her, 
 their fire slioulfl be directed with a view to jamming lier turrets. 
 
 The ports of a turret are generally each 2 feet 2 inches wide 
 by 3 feet 7 inches high, tlius forming no inconsiderable target, 
 tlirough which a projectile entering would destroy, at one blow, 
 half of her armament without possibility of repair. The ports 
 of broadside iron-clads are generally about two inches in both 
 directions greater than tliose of turrets, and in number average 
 ten for each side. It will therefrom be seen that a considerable 
 area of the ship's side is thus vulnerable. 
 
 The accuracy of fire at objects on water is generallj' superior 
 to that at oI)jects as they usually occur on land ; this, for the 
 reason that the distance of the object, thougli it may be moving, 
 is more readily determined by its relative position to known 
 objects, the position of wliich are well understood beforeliand. 
 The effect of the shot can be more easily observed on water than 
 on land. The size of the object, if a vessel, is large, and its ap- 
 pearance generally well defined. 
 
 590. Phenomena of impact. When a heavy beam of wrought- 
 iron — one, say, twelve or fourteen inches square — is struck by a 
 heavy shot at liigli velocitj', the beam snaps sliort off, as though 
 it were cast-iron. The same shot, striking a wrought-iron plate 
 backed in the usual manner of armor, penetrates or perforates 
 it in a manner similar to the action of a liand-pnncli on a sheet 
 of iron laid on a block of wood. The effect is entirely local ; the 
 hole is made without bending or twisting tiie plate in one case, 
 or the sheet in the other. The same projectile, propelled witli 
 a. low velocity, will bend tlie beam and produce the ordinary 
 fracture of wrought-iron, and in case of the plate, the latter will 
 be distorted, strained, and loosened from its fastenings. 
 
 A simple way of explaining these plienomena is as follows : 
 In the case of the high velocity the effect is wholly local, because 
 the surrounding material has not time to propagate the vibration 
 of impact throughout the mass. In other words, tlic cohesion 
 of the material is not sufficient, in the time allowed, to overcome 
 
RACKING PUNCHING. 353 
 
 (lie inertia o£ the siinoimdtng mass. The distribution of the 
 <'ffect in tlie other case is due to the low velocity, wherein a 
 certain length of time is consumed in aoeomplisliing the blow. 
 During this interval, all surrounding particles of iron liave time 
 lo sustain tlio point struck; the force of tlie blow is thus spread 
 over a large surface and the cohesion of the particles is undis- 
 turbed, since each particle is enabled to contribute the force of 
 its attraction towards uniting the whole. These two distinct 
 •eflfects are called, respectively, punching and racking. 
 
 Tlie work done by a shot is represented by its weight multi- 
 plied by the square of its velocity at the moment of impact ; 
 from which it will be seen that a small projectile moving with 
 great velocity is capable of doing the same amount of work as a 
 large projectile with low velocity. The character of the work 
 is, however, as above explained, entirely different. In case of 
 a. given projectile, whatever power Is employed in racking tlie 
 side of tlie vessel does nothing towards penetration, and vice 
 versa. 
 
 Backing. The theory in favor of the racking system is, that 
 heavy projectiles may be fired with low velocities without strain- 
 ing the gun; that blows given in this way waste no power in 
 punching mere holes, but that the entire work will be expended 
 in straining, loosening, and dislocating the armor and breaking 
 its fastenings, tearing it off and exposing unprotected spots eas- 
 ily vulnerable to shells, at the same time racking and breaking 
 tlie ribs and sides of the vessel to such extent as to render her 
 unseaworthy. For producing these effects the 15-inch gun, 
 throwing solid cast-iron balls, is quite as formidable as the pow- 
 erful rifle expending costly bolts ; but the accuracy of Are from 
 ^he rifle is so greatly superior to that from the smooth-bore, as to 
 leave a large margin in its favor. Splierical shot, and slow shot 
 of any form, will do very little execution under water. The 
 .loncussion from racking blows, although it may not seriously 
 Injure the vessel, stuns and temporarily paralyzes many of the 
 3rew, and, spreading terror to all, greatly interferes with the 
 sfficient worldilg of the ship and of her armament. 
 
 Punching. The theory in favor of punching is, that the vital 
 yarts of the vessel and the active enemy w'ithin — the men, guns, 
 imd machinery — are reached at once. A projectile piercing the 
 urmor of a vessel carries with it portions of the broken plate, 
 which, together with bolts, nuts, and fragments of wood from 
 the backing, form a species of langrage, the effect of which is not 
 less to be feared on a crowded deck, or in a turret, than the 
 ■explosion of the most formidable shell. But to produce this 
 result the projectile must penetrate entirely through. A pro- 
 jectile moving with a punching velocity has only local effect, 
 23 
 
354 AEMOE-PUNCHING PROJECTILES. 
 
 penetrating without racking tlie armor. If it goes but partly 
 through, it does no damage either to the ship or to the enemy 
 within. Therefore, whether from the greatness of range, the 
 thickness of the armor, or want of power in the gun, entire per- 
 foi-ation cannot be effected, it is only a waste of ammunition to 
 use it in simply indenting armor. 
 
 Although a spherical projectile may have, upon starting, great- 
 er velocity than a rifle projectile of equal calibre, and conse- 
 quently may have greater punching power stored up in it at this 
 part of its flight, nevertheless, owing to its greater cross-sectional 
 area in proportion to its weight, it will lose its velocity more 
 rapidly, a'nd the rifle projectile will soon overtake it in its flight 
 and go far beyond it in range. 
 
 At the distances that iron'-clads usually engage land batteries, 
 smooth-bore projectiles would possess no punching power ; 
 therefore for this kind of work rifles are the only suitable arma- 
 ment for such batteries. They should be powerful enough to 
 do the work effectually. 
 
 When heavy enough for this, all additional weight is rather a 
 .detriment than an advantage, from the fact that light guns are 
 less cumbersome, can be fired more rapidly, are more easily re- 
 placed when disabled, and less costly in ammunition. They 
 likewise stand greater relative charges and yield higher veloci- 
 ties with safety. 
 
 The 8-inch rifle, carrying a projectile 185 pounds in weight, 
 fired with a charge of 35 pounds hexagonal powder, is the mini- 
 mum calibre that can be successfully used against the present 
 style of sea-going iron-clads. 
 
 591. Armor-punching projectiles. Spherical solid shot of 
 cast-iron, as usually furnished, almost invariably break into 
 many fi-agraents upon striking armor plates. When made with 
 particular care as to quality of metal and mode of casting, they 
 will penetrate, provided the velocity is not too much reduced by 
 range, but in doing so have a tendency to break after entering 
 the armor, — a circumstance, however, i-ather in their favor when 
 they pass entirely through, as they then scatter their fragments 
 in the interior of the ship. Spherical shells of cast-iron have 
 not strengtii to penetrate unimpaired ai-mor, and are useful 
 against iron-clads only when tUey chance to strike a weakened 
 part of the vessel. They nevertheless have other uses; their 
 large fragments may enter the ports and do the work of solid 
 projectiles within ; an unremitting fire with them will blind the 
 enemy by their explosion and bewilder and distract him to such 
 an extent as to render his fire scattering and uncertain. The 
 best material for rifle projectiles for punching purposes is Bes- 
 semer steel, but as it is too expensive for ordinary service, cliill- 
 
STRENGTH AND COMPOSITION OF BATTERIES. 355 
 
 ed cast-iron is used. The form of Iiead best suited for tlie per- 
 foration of plates, wiietlier direct or oblique, is tlio ogival or 
 pointed arch. The flat-headed projectile possesses some advan- 
 tage over the ogival in taking hold of the plate at a greater angle 
 of obliquity, but this advantage is counterbalanced by loss range 
 and accuracy of flight. The effect of striking a plate obliquely 
 is diininislied, as regards power of perforation, in tlie proportion 
 of tlie sine of the angle of incidence to unity. Elongated shells 
 of good metal and thickness have a power of penetration but 
 little inferior to corresponding solid projectiles. 
 
 The heat generated by impact against armor will usually ignite 
 the charge, and the bursting takes place about the time the sliell 
 reaches the backing of the armor. The head and walls of tlio 
 shell require to have sufficient thickness to resist crushing by 
 the force of the blow. 
 
 59S. Strength and composition of batteries. In determining 
 tlie armament necessary to protect a harbor from an enemy's 
 fleet, it may be laid down that no iron-clad carrying a certain 
 number of guns can successfully attack a battery on shore prop- 
 erly situated and armed with a like number of guns of calibre 
 equal to the task of racking or punching her armor. But as 
 vessels are capable of moving, and can pass by and out of range 
 of batteries on shore in a given period of time, the chance of 
 their being crippled or disabled will be in direct proportion to 
 the number of guns employed against tliem ; hence this number 
 should be as large as circumstances will admit. 
 
 Assuming 4000 yards as the maximum effective range against 
 a vessel, 8000 yards would be the distance she would have to 
 pass over in running by and beyond the range of a battery. At 
 a rate of speed of 15 miles an hour, she would accomplisli this 
 in a little less than 18 minutes; at 10 miles, in a little over 27 
 minutes. Supposing everything in the battery to be in the most 
 complete order and state of readiness, not more than tliree shots 
 from the 15-Inch smootli-bore or 12-incli rifle could be fired in 
 the first interval, and not over five in the second. Twice this 
 number might, Iiovvever, be flred from pieces of less calibre. 
 The movement of the vessel would greatly diminish tlie cliances 
 of hitting Iier, and, besides, it is by no moans every hit tliat 
 seriously injures an iron-clad. Tliis suggests tliat tlio number 
 of guns should be as great as possible. 
 
 The pieces in each battery should, as a rule, be of the same 
 calibre and kind; but the batteries themselves shouhl be mixed 
 as to armament. The smaller calibres are more easily worked, 
 and are capable of rapid fire. This would be ofTective against 
 woollen vessels assisting in the passage or attack. When a ves- 
 sel is stopped by an obstacle in the channel, fire should be cou- 
 
S56 MORTARS AGAINST IRON-CLADS. 
 
 ccntrated upon it, for the reason that in this position it is most 
 liable to be disabled, and, being disabled, will embarrass the 
 remainder of the fleet and tend to frustrate the plans of the 
 «nemy. 
 
 To guard against ships taking advantage of night to run by a- 
 work, the gnus should be trained upon the channel-way, prefer- 
 ably that portion exposed to enfilade Are, and the travei-se circle 
 «o marked that the pieces can be readily aimed after each" dis- 
 •charge. The marking should be done in such a manner as to be 
 readily used in the dark. This may be effected by placing a 
 fitraight-edge against one side of the fork of a traverse-wheel, 
 -and making a nick in the traverse circle with a cold-cliisel ; the 
 iitraight-edge placed in the same position will show when the 
 gun has the same direction. The chances of hitting a vessel be- 
 ing greatly diminished by darkness, it is most advantageous 
 •tmder such circumstances to use shells. This kind of firing car- 
 ries with it at night a peculiar moral effect which may greatly 
 interfere with the navigation of tlio vessel. When the vessel 
 arrives within easy range, round shot, flred in ricochet, will be 
 lonnd effective. 
 
 593. Mortars against iron-dads. Vertical Are is effective 
 when it is desirable to prevent an enemy from occupying certain 
 jinchorago. The deck of a ship is as completely vulnerable to 
 falling shells as the bottom is to submarine mines and torpedoes. 
 Judiciously-placed batteries, if armed with a sufHcient number 
 of mortars throwing showers of shells, would make it perilous 
 for an enemy to remain within their reach. But mortar firing 
 from smooth-bore mortars is at best somewhat wild, and depends 
 on quantity for its effectiveness. It is, however, safe to say that 
 no fleet nor vessel can remain under well-directed fire from 
 Jieavy mortars. A battery of one hundred heavy mortars will 
 keep at bay all the iron-clads that can manoeuvre or anchor 
 within their range. The moral effect of mortar firing is appall- 
 ing, and increases vastly with the numbers of mortars used. 
 
 The armor that a vessel is capable of carrying on her deck, in 
 addition to that upon other parts, is not sufficient to resist the 
 crushing power of a 13-inch sliell with maximum velocity — 419 
 feet per second. The 10-inch raortar is serviceable only against 
 unarmored decks, or those very slightly protected. In firing at 
 iron-clads the shells should not burst before striking ; in fact, it 
 is best to flu the shells with sand instead of powder. Solid shot 
 would be preferable to either. 
 
 Mortars mounted on the centre-pintle traversing chassis, and 
 provided with the pointing apparatus described on page 64, are 
 capable of following the course of a moving vessel with the same 
 facility as a gun. 
 
M ^mntU. 
 
 FIELD INTRENCHMBNTS. 
 
 594. In active service it is frequently necessary for artillery 
 troops to construct works for tlie emplacement of their weapons. 
 Such troops should therefore be instructed in the art of select- 
 ing sites, laying out and erecting batteries, magazines, bomb- 
 proofs, traverses, and other works immediately connected with 
 the efficient sei-vlce of their special arm. 
 
 Wlien positions are to be taken up and lines of intrenchments 
 or detached works are to be constrncted, it is tlie duty of artil- 
 loiy officers, in cooperation with those of engineers, to select 
 positions for batteries and determine the kind and amount of 
 armament therefor. It is therefore necessary that they should 
 bo thorouglily conversant with the principles of military engi- 
 neering, especially those oi field intrenchments. 
 
 Tlie object of every fortification is to shelter tlie troops occu- 
 pying it from the view and fli-e of an assailant, and at the same 
 time to afford them a commanding view and sweeping fire over 
 their enemy. 
 
 Earth is the principal material employed on land for resisting 
 the fire of artillery. Wood, iron, and masonry are used in con- 
 junction with it, principally for sustaining purposes. 
 
 As a material for fortifications, earth possesses advantages over 
 all other, in being found ready at hand in almost all localities 
 where wanted for such purposcs,.in being easily handled, and in 
 possessing unrivaled properties of resistance as a covering mass 
 against projectiles. 
 
 595. Penetration. At modei-ate distances there is but little 
 difference between the penetrating power of rifle and smooth- 
 bore guns throwing projectiles of equal weight ; but as the rifle 
 has great superiority in range, its penetrating power at long 
 distances greatly exceeds that of the smooth-bore. 
 
 The following tables, the result of actual firing, show the. 
 maximum penetration, for various calibres, in different earths,, 
 and convey a good idea of the enormous power of modern artil^ 
 - ery. 
 
 Since tlie dates of these firings, great improvement has been 
 made in the character of powder used with the heavier classes of 
 guns, whereby much larger chai-ges are used and greater range 
 and penetrating energy gained. 
 
 (357) 
 
358 
 
 FIELD INTKENCHMENTS. 
 
 In a bluff bank of natural soil of clay and sand. 
 
 
 KrUD OF PlKOlt. 
 
 Oalibbb. 
 
 WbioiIt 
 OP PltO- 
 JBCTILE. 
 
 OHAnoi. 
 
 OF 
 POWDBB. 
 
 g 
 
 Pbns- 
 
 TBATIOK. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ponnds. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Peet. 
 
 
 lOO-pdr. rifle (Par't.) 
 Soh(l shot......~.. — 
 
 6.4 
 
 ">g.'s 
 
 io" 
 
 1800 
 
 iS"' 
 
 18^ 
 
 Siege gnn (rifle.)..... 
 SheU 
 
 4.S 
 
 "Sir" 
 
 "8.6 
 
 1800 
 
 u" 
 
 1863 
 
 BiYK>ks rifle 
 
 7 
 
 •HHS 
 
 "■- 
 
 2700 
 
 is™ 
 
 isM 
 
 SheU 
 
 Parrott rifle..... — ^ 
 Solid shot ...._...... 
 
 12 
 
 m 
 
 sb"* 
 
 200 
 
 sO 
 
 ...... 
 
 In a well-settled parapet of clay and sand. 
 
 Enn> OF Peeoii. 
 
 Oai.ibrb. 
 
 Wbiohtof 
 Pbojbo- 
 
 TILB. 
 
 Obakob 
 
 OF 
 POWDBR. 
 
 g 
 
 Pbnb- 
 
 TBATION. 
 
 1 
 
 100-pdr. rifle (Par't.) 
 Solid shot 
 
 Inches. 
 6.4 
 
 4.2 
 
 3.67 
 
 8 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 gs'is 
 
 92 
 
 so'b 
 
 27.6 
 
 i»'" 
 
 14.26 
 
 io.(i 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Tds. 
 383 
 
 383 
 
 883 
 
 383 
 
 Feet 
 
 "w" 
 
 16 
 
 "li)' 
 12 
 
 "ii' 
 
 9 
 
 "ib" 
 
 1863 
 
 1863 
 W83 
 
 wa 
 
 1863 
 
 Ufa 
 
 gj^ell «. 
 
 30-pdr. rifle (Par't.) 
 
 SheU.......™ 
 
 20-pdr. rifle (Par't.) 
 
 Solid shot 
 
 SheU....._ 
 
 10-pdr. rifle (Par't.) 
 SheU M..„ 
 
FIELD INTRENCHMENTS. 359 
 
 In a parapet of pure quartz sand, well rammed. 
 
 Euro OK FiBCc 
 
 Oaubbb. 
 
 WEionT OP 
 
 PnojEC- 
 
 tcb. 
 
 Oharob 
 
 OP 
 POWSXB. 
 
 1 
 
 Penb- 
 
 TBATION. 
 
 1 
 
 Xy. S. rifle MMM 
 
 Inches. 
 12 
 
 ...... 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 Founds, 
 
 m 
 
 486 
 298 
 
 m 
 
 'Si' 
 
 Founds. 
 
 "to" 
 "m 
 
 25 
 "i4"6 
 
 iob" 
 
 Yds. 
 ITS 
 
 400 
 
 430 
 
 200 
 
 Feet. 
 
 SO™ 
 18 
 
 16.1 
 18.1 
 
 U 
 22"* 
 
 U87 
 
 iJstit 
 mi 
 mi 
 
 Solid shot 
 
 SheU 
 
 V. S rifle ....«...„.„ 
 
 Solid shot ............ 
 
 Shell »„ 
 
 U. S. rifle __» 
 
 Solid shot............ 
 
 SheU _.....,„. 
 
 U. S. smooth-bore... 
 Solid shot.. H.« 
 
 
 In a 
 
 parapet of clay, 
 
 vidl rammed. 
 
 
 
 KntD OP Pntnit. 
 
 Oaubbe. 
 
 ■Weiohtof 
 
 Pbojec- 
 
 HLB, 
 
 ClUBGE 
 
 OP 
 POWDBB. 
 
 1 
 
 Pejje- 
 
 TBATIOW. 
 
 1 
 
 U. S. rifle 
 
 Solid shot ,.,...«. 
 
 Inches. 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 485 
 
 450 
 S30 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 "70 
 liio* 
 
 65 
 
 Yds. 
 175 
 
 176 
 
 Feet. 
 
 "Si 
 
 34 
 
 "ss" 
 
 24 
 
 1867 
 1867 
 
 SheU _ 
 
 U. S. smooth-hore... 
 Solid shot ™.. 
 
 
 
 In a parapet of clay and »and, well rammed. 
 
 
 KiiTD OP Piece. 
 
 Oaubbs. 
 
 ■Weight or 
 Pbojeo 
 
 TILB. 
 
 Chabob 
 
 OP 
 POWDBB. 
 
 1 
 
 Pbnb- 
 
 TBATIOK. 
 
 1 
 
 U S rifle «... 
 
 Inches. 
 12 
 
 8 
 15 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 res' 
 
 150 
 450' 
 
 Founds. 
 
 "■76 
 18 
 
 "ioo 
 
 Yds. 
 176 
 
 24 
 175 
 
 Feet. 
 
 34"' 
 
 18.6 
 
 'ii" 
 
 1867 
 
 
 200-pdr. rifle CPar't.) 
 U. S. emooth-bore... 
 
 
360 
 
 FIELD INTRBNCHMENTS. 
 
 
 English guns. 
 
 
 
 
 Ermi or Fiscs. 
 
 Parapet of clay and 
 
 sand, well rammed. 
 
 Bange, 1060 yds. 
 
 Natural bank of clay 
 
 and sand. Range, 
 
 1060 yards. 
 
 
 Shot. 
 
 ■ Shell. 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Shell. 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 In. 
 
 100-pdr. Armstrong. 
 70-pdr. Armstrong... 
 40-pdr. Armstrong... 
 ZO-pdr. Armstrong... 
 la-pdr. Armstrong... 
 
 21 8 
 14 4 
 14 11 
 10 10 
 
 16 8 
 
 li "i 
 
 U 1 
 4 
 
 10 3 
 6 9 
 I 2 
 4 7 
 
 10 6 
 
 "6 "9 
 5 5 
 2 7 
 
 7.09 
 6.48 
 4.84 
 3.84 
 3.07 
 
 lO-inoh smooth-bore 
 8-inch smooth-bore.. 
 68-pdr. smooth-bore. 
 32-pdr. smootb-bore. 
 
 19 i'i 
 
 13 
 
 11 5 
 11 6 
 14 10 
 9 6 
 
 "9 8 
 3 9 
 
 6 7 
 4 10 
 T 6 
 2 8 
 
 9.84 
 7.85 
 7.85 
 6.17 
 
 The foregoing tables, both American and English, are abstracts 
 from many shots, from which it will be seen that, even with 
 smooth-bores, penetration is quite variable. It will be observed 
 also that there is a great difference in the resisting properties 
 of the various earths, pure clay possessing the least and sand 
 the greatest. It may here be stated that the resistance of dry 
 sand is slightly greater than that of wet, and dry clay very much 
 greater than moist. 
 
 Spherical projectiles are much more uniform in penetration 
 than elongated. With the latter, it depends in a great degree 
 upon the direction preserved by tlio axis of the shot ; when this 
 remains so that the projectile strikes directly, point foremost, 
 the penetration is greatest, but a very slight object will fre- 
 quently cause it to turn while penetrating, and thereby diminish 
 the penetration, sometimes nearly one-half. When the medium 
 is homogeneous, the tendency of the projectile after entering it 
 is to turn to the right or in the direction of the twist, to curve 
 upwards, and to lodge with the base towards the left. After the 
 primary impact it does not, as a general rule, continue to pene- 
 trate point foremost; this, in earth, causes it to have a plough- 
 ing effect not possessed in so great a degree by spherical pro- 
 jectiles. Percussion shells attain fully three-fourths of their 
 entire penetration before bursting. Time-fuses, unless protected 
 by water-caps, are liable to be extinguished upon entering earth. 
 Percussion shells should, therefore, be preferably employed 
 against magazines, where, by entering and bursting, they will 
 cause an explosion. 
 
FIELD INTUBNOHMBNTS. 86! 
 
 As a general rule, penetration, both for smooth-bores and for 
 rifles, increases with the calibre of the piece and the weight of 
 the projectile. 
 
 The craters formed by the explosion of shells are much greater 
 in clayey earths than in sand. In fact, but little impression is 
 made on the latter, as the sand, when tiirown up by the explo-- 
 eion, settles back almost in its former position. 
 
 The ratio of increase of craters is generally in excess of the 
 increase of weight of the shells or of the bursting charges. A 
 rifle projectile tears a long furrow previous to explosion, scatter- 
 ing the earth to either side, and on bursting uplifts and displaces^ 
 a large mass of earth, whereas spherical shells merely 5ury them- 
 selves and raise up a comparatively small quantity of earth, tlio 
 larger portion of which falls bacli into the crater. Hence the 
 rifle is superior to the smooth-bore for demolishing earth-worlss. 
 
 Wlien a projectile, spherical or elongated, striltes a slope, jis, 
 for instance, the superior slope of a parapet, and takes a direc- 
 tion approximately parallel to it, it makes au open furrow, pro- 
 vided the deptii below the surface is not greater than about four 
 times the diameter of the sliot. Tliis indicates, what experience 
 has proved, namely, that the best method of breacliing eartli- 
 works is to direct a concentrated fire of shells from rifle guns, 
 with full service charges, upon the parapet in such manner as 
 to cut it gradually down from the superior slope to tlie base. 
 The great accuracy of rifle guns enables this to be done. Tlie 
 shells, after having performed their work in the parapet, send 
 their fragments beyond and carry destruction to the interior of 
 the work. A few heavy pieces are far more effective in accom- 
 plishing this object than a greater number of smaller calibres^ 
 altliough the aggregate of metal thrown may be in favor of the 
 smaller guns. 
 
 In this connection it may be mentioned that a vigilant and 
 active garrison, by taking advantage of the darkness of night, 
 will repair an earth-work faster than tlie most powerful artillery 
 can reduce it. ITevertheless it is possible to maintain such a flre 
 daring the day as will cut down the parapet and uncover the 
 interior of the work sufficiently to allow of tlie destruction of 
 magazines, bomb-proofs, and other arrangements for defense 
 not so readily repaired, and the destruction of which may event- 
 uate in the loss of the work. 
 
 For the purpose of retarding as much as possible repJilrs 
 during the night, the assailants should maintain upon that part 
 of the work a constant shower of shells from mortars. 
 
 596. To provide a safe margin against the cutting-down 
 effect of the enemy's flre and to pi-eserve the interior revet- 
 
362 FIELD INTKENCUMENTS. 
 
 meuts of a work from destruction or injury by the impact of 
 shot or explosion of shells, the epanlment must be made consid- 
 erably thicker than the actual penetration of the projectiles used 
 against it. Formerly this additional thickness was put down at 
 one-half, but this is manifestly greater than is necessary for the 
 artillery now in use. 
 
 An addition of one-third of the maximum penetration is ample. 
 Assuming this as the I'ule, parapets constructed of ordinary 
 earth — i. e., clay and sand mixed and well ramraed^-should have 
 the following thicknesses : Range 1500 yards — To resist 12-inch 
 rifle, 45 feet ; 10-inch rifle, 35 feet ; 8-inch rifle, 25 feet ; 6.4- 
 incli rifle,* 22 feet; 15-incli smooth-bore, 30 feet. Range 1000 
 yards — To resist 4.5-inch rifle, 16 feet; 3.67-inch rifle, 15 feet; 
 3-incli rifle, 14 feet. 
 
 For parapets constructed of sand: Range 1500 yards — To 
 resist 12-inch rifle, 30 feet; 10-inch rifle, 25 feet; 8-ineh rifle, 
 20 feet ; 0.4-inch rifle, 18 feet ; 15-inch smooth-bore, 25 feet. 
 
 Common earth, (mixture of clay and sand,) loosely thrown up, 
 offers much less resistance to penetration than wlien settled ; 
 with sand tlie difference is not so great. 
 
 Interior revetments of ordinary thickness, whether of ma- 
 sonry, sods, or gabions, give but little additional resisting power 
 to a parapet, and should not therefore be talten into account 
 when estimating its thickness. 
 
 From experiments made for the purpose of determining the 
 best form and dimensions for masonry breast-height walls, it was 
 found that 15-inch smooth-bore projectiles fired at a butt 200 
 yards distant, after passing through 20 feet of well-rammed sand, 
 overturned a wall of best-laid granite masonry 3 feet thiclc and 5 
 feet high. The penetration was but little interior to that of sim- 
 ilar shot fired into unsupported sand. Tiie projectiles, although 
 not coming in actual contact with the wall, (in most instances 
 lodging several foot from'it;) transmitted the force of their im- 
 pact through the intervening sand, each one forcing the wall 
 more and more from the perpendicular, until at the sixtli it fell 
 bodily. 
 
 With a parapet of 12 feet of well-rammed sand against a breast- 
 height wall of concrete G.5 feet high, 5 feet thick at top and 7 feet 
 2 inches at bottom, projectiles from the same gun, with a range 
 of 430 yards, demolished the wall; not, however, as in the pre- 
 ceding case, by overturning it, but by cracking and crumbling 
 it. In this case the shot penetrated to the concrete and destroyed 
 it by direct impact. 
 
 With a parapet of 9 feet of sand against a concrete breast- 
 height wall 8 feet thick at top and 10 feet 2 inches at bottom. 
 
PENETRATION OF RIFLE-MUSK?ET. 363 
 
 projectiles fi-om a 12-incli rifle, at a range of 430 yards, demol- 
 ished the wall in a manner similar to the foregoing case. 
 
 AVith a parapet of 7 feet of sand against a concrete breast- 
 height wall 10 feet tliick at top and 12 feet 2 inches at bottom, 
 projectiles from a 15-inch smooth-bore gun (die range being as 
 above) cracked the wall, but did little or no other damage to it. 
 
 In these experiments it was demonstrated that when the wall 
 is stout enough to resist the projectiles, the latter invariably 
 glance upwards and, passing out through the interior crest, fall 
 within the parapet at distances varying from a few yards np to 
 a thousand or more. After thus glancing they are still capable 
 of doing considerable damage to the interior of a work. 
 
 These facts go to prove that however massive a sustaining wall 
 may be, there should be sufficient earth in front of it to arrest 
 the projectiles the same as though there v/ere no wall at all. 
 Hence it wUl be economy of labor, material, and space to have 
 revetments as slight as is consistent with the object of holding 
 up tlie eartli of the parapet. 
 
 597. Penetration of' shells from mortars. In sand and in 
 compact clayey earths, such as would generally be employed for 
 the coverings of .magazines and bomb-proofs, the penetration of 
 mortar sliells falling with maximum velocities is about throe 
 times their diameters ; but in order that the lining of the maga- 
 zine or bomb-proof may not be injured by their impact, double 
 this thickness sliould be given. 
 
 Shells fired from guns at liigh elevation possess many of the 
 properties of mortar shells; but as tlie velocity is mucli greater, 
 the penetration also is greater, and their cft'ect upon striking is 
 more destructive ; consequently, additional thickness of earth is 
 required for magazines and bomb-proofs exposed to this kind of 
 fire. 
 
 In clayey earth tlie month of the crater formed by the explo- 
 sion of a mortar shell is about four times the diameter of the 
 shell; in sand it is considerably less. 
 
 The maximum velocity of a descending mortar shell is 419 feet 
 per second, or about one-third that of the striking velocity of 
 projectiles fired from guns at ordinary distances. This accounts 
 for the compai'atively small penetration of the former. 
 
 Shells of any kind striking on marshy ground bury themselves 
 so deeply as to produce but little effect by explosion. 
 
 598. Penetration of rifle-musket. Kecorded experiments 
 give somewhat conflicting results on tliis liead, but, to be on the 
 safe side, the following thicknesses appear to be needfnl to give 
 security against infantry fire: Clay, loosely thrown up, 4 feet; 
 sandy or gravelly earth, loosely thrown up, 3 feet; sand-bags 
 
364 ^ INTRENCHED CAMPS. 
 
 filled, 1.25 feet; gabions (wicker), filled with earth, 1.75 to a 
 feet; pine (soft), 16 to 18 inches; oak and elm (green), 6 inches;: 
 ash (green), 4.5 inches; sap-roller and fascines (green), 12 to 15. 
 inches; brick-work, 4.5 inches; boiler-plate, ^ inch. 
 
 The above are for distances not exceeding 100 yards ; beyontl 
 that, penetration diminishes rapidly with the range. At a dis- 
 tance of twenty yards a rope mantlet 4 inches thick is proof 
 against a rifle-musket sliot. As weight is a consideration in 
 mantlets, they need not be given a gi-eater thickness than this- 
 to insure all necessary security from such lire. 
 
 599. Field intrenchments may be classified as follows : 1. 
 Intrenched camps; 2. Intrenched lines of battle; 3. Detached 
 works ; 4. Lines of works ; 5. Works auxiliai-y to permanent 
 fortifications ; 6. Works for siege operations. 
 
 600. So far as artillery is concerned, the first object to be 
 considered is position, the general principles of which are the 
 same for each of the above classes, and which may be briefly 
 stated as follows : 
 
 1st. Artillery should, if possible, overlook all the ground with- 
 in range over which an enemy might advance, and the piece* 
 be so placed as to sweep the entire surface witli their fire, thosfr 
 of longest range occupying the most commanding positions. 
 
 2d. All tlie lines of approach of the assailant should be swept 
 not only by the frontal, but by the flank or cross-flre of the 
 assailed. 
 
 3d. The features of the ground should screen the assailed from 
 the assailant's view, and afToi-d cover from his fire whilst that of 
 the assailed can be delivered with full effect. 
 
 4th. The position slionkl, if possible, present natural obstruc- 
 tions to the advance of the assailant. 
 
 5tli. It should offer no obstructions to the free movements of 
 the assailed, either for the offensive or defensive, and should 
 affoi-d facilities for active offensive movements at the opportune 
 moment. 
 
 6th. It should have secure supports, both on its flanlcs and in 
 the rear. 
 
 7th. It should afibrd every convenience for encamping and 
 being supplied. 
 
 601. Intrenched camps. Troops, when within striking dis- 
 tance of the enemy, should, to avoid the consequences of a sur- 
 prise, be encamped always in order of battle. Tlie modern 
 practice of armies is to intrench, if encamped even for one night. 
 Such intrenchments are usually of the slightest and most lias-tily- 
 constructed kind, merely sufficient to afibrd shelter against a 
 night attack. The artillery in this case is only that usually ac- 
 
INTRENCHED GAMPS. 365 
 
 •oompanying troops on the marcli, and for it p;nn-pits vyill suf- 
 fice. These are made by simply throwing up tlie. earth in front 
 ■of eaoli piece so as to form for it a crescont-sliaped ppanlment. 
 If rails or any similar material are convenient, a slight revet- 
 ment may be constructed to support the earth on tlie side towards 
 the piece. In dry weather tlie earth may be dug from the inside 
 and thrown up in front, tluis forming a depressed position or 
 hole for the piece to stand in. Tlie chest of- the limber will hold 
 sufficient ammunition for immediate nse. To protect it, the 
 limber is turned with its pole/roTre the piece, and is covered vifith 
 ^n epaulment similar to that for the gun ; or, removing the horses, 
 it may be backed up near to and on one side of the piece, occupy- 
 ing with the latter a portion of the gun-pit. The caissons, horses, 
 «nd other material of the battery may be placed in some shel- 
 tered position a little way to the rear. The positions occupied 
 by artillery on such a line ought to be those that would be se- 
 lected for it on any well-arranged line of battle. 
 
 When, in consequence of attack by the enemy, or of his 
 threatening attitude, the army stands upon the defensive, the 
 slight intrenchraents of a temporary camp are increased and 
 strengthened until they become a strong inirenclied line of 
 tattle. 
 
 602. The gun-pits, which before were separate for each piece, 
 are now united by a continuous epaulment, and an interior re- 
 vetment of logs, rails, watling, or sods is given to it. All woods 
 within musket range in front of the line are slashed, for the 
 double purpose of destroying them as cover for the enemy and 
 for transforming them into an entanglement difficult for him to 
 pass. This work is done by the infantry, the artillery having its 
 full share of labor in intrenching the batteries. 
 
 An army taking up a defensive position, intrenches itself in 
 the manner above described. When such a line is attacked, and 
 the assault is repulsed, the assailing force falls back to the nearest 
 Jeover, and there, hugging the ground closel3^ usually intrenches 
 itself. To accomplisli this, the men use their bayonets, tin cups, 
 ■or in fact anything for loosening and throwing up the soil. Only 
 a few minutes are thus required by veteran soldiers for cover- 
 ing themselves. This line grows by degrees into a formidable 
 •epaulment, along which, in positions the most advantageous, the 
 ■discomfited assailant places his artillery, the intrenohments for 
 which are similar to those just described. 
 
 In these positions the opposing forces remain, usually expend- 
 ing, without much effect, a large amount of ammunition, until 
 one or the other withdraws for the purpose of making a new 
 move. The operation of withdrawing is one of great delicacy, 
 
366 DETACHED WOKKS. 
 
 and is generally performed at night with all possible secrecy. 
 The artillery commanders at such times have to exercise great 
 care and forasiglit, tiiat their batteries may take the proper 
 routes and not obstruct their own movements or those ol other 
 troops. An oflBcer from each battery should make himself 
 familiar with the road to be taken by it, and act as its guide. 
 
 603. Detached works are those that are situated beyoncj the 
 i-ange of fire of any other wo."ks, and which, for their security, 
 have to rely upon their own strength and resources. 
 
 The object of suoii works is to defend and hold isolated 
 points that are of importance ; such as railroad or other bridges, 
 mountain passes, narrow defiles, fords, points upon rivers to 
 close them against the passage of hostile vessels, &c. The char- 
 acter and extent of a work of tliis class will depend upon the 
 degree of importance attadhed to the object for which it is con- 
 structed, the amount of force available for its occupancy, and 
 the nature of the locality. In every instance, artillery would 
 form an important element in its means of defense, and the posi- 
 tion of the work should be selected so as to allow free use of it. 
 
 Works of this kind may be classified under tliree heads : 
 
 1st. Those which, being secure on the flanks and in the rear, 
 are assailable only in front. Under this class may be placed 
 open batteries located on the banlis of rivers, or at the entrance 
 of harbors, to prevent the passage of an enemy's vessels. 
 
 2d. Those whicli are assailable in front and on tlie flanks, but 
 not in rear. 
 
 3d. Those which are assailable on all sides. 
 
 604. First class. This is applicable to narrow defiles where 
 the flanks are secure against being turned. {Fig. 1, Plate 57.) 
 
 When the width of tiie defile is not greater than 1800 yards, 
 the line may be a straight one (AB) for infantry, with short ad- 
 vanced lines on the flanks, as represented in the figure, for artil- 
 lery. Should the conformation of the ground be not suitable for 
 placing artillery precisely as represented in the figure, tlien the 
 most commanding position on some other part of the line will bo 
 selected for it, bearing in mind always to secure as far as possi- 
 ble cross-fire over the ground in front. When the defile exceeds 
 1800 yards in width, a cremaillere or serrated line is adopted, and 
 on it the artillery is disposed as represented in Fig. 2, Plate 57. 
 
 605. Second class. The plan of works o| the second class 
 admits of great variety, depending on the extent of the position. 
 The most simple is that of a work of only two faces, the salient 
 being towards the assailant's line of approach. Tliis work is 
 termed a redan. {Fig. 3, Plate 57.) A B, gorge ; A C and B D, 
 faces; CD, pan-coup4e; BE, a small flank sometimes used. 
 
STRENGTH OF GARRISON. 367 
 
 The faces should receive such dh'ection as to sweep the ap- 
 proaches to the flaaks of the position. As many pieces as possi- 
 ble are placed in the salient, and others disposed along tlie faces 
 in the most commanding positions for sweeping the ground in 
 their front. The angle formed at the salient by the faces should 
 never be less than 60°. This rule is general for all salients. 
 
 606. When the flanls approaches extend somewhat to llie 
 rear, (as in Fig. 4, Plate 57,) a flank is added to each face of the 
 redan ; it then becomes a lunette. The flanks receive such direc- 
 tions as will sweep by their flre that portion of the flank ap- 
 proaches which cannot be reached from the faces except by a 
 very oblique fire. B C and C D are the faces ; A B and D E, the 
 flanks. 
 
 The artillery is placed in position at the salients, in each of 
 which is a pan-coup4e. 
 
 607. Third class. The worlis comprised in this class are 
 termed inclosed works ; as, being assailable on all sides, they 
 must, for security, present a complete line throughout to any 
 assault. 
 
 These works may be divided into three orders : 1st. Polygonal 
 works, or redoubts ; 2d. Tenailled works, or star forts ; 3d. Bas- 
 tioned works. 
 
 COS. Redoubts. These are polygonal figures having any 
 number of sides; and when the site is horizontal, or sensibly so 
 within cannon range, tliere is no reason for adopting any other 
 than a regular polygon for a plan. 'J'he most simple, and the 
 one usually taken, is the square, (^Fig. 5, Plate 57,) the aiis'lf s 
 of which are formed into pan -couples for the reception of 
 artillery. 
 
 The size to be given to a redoubt, or generally to any inclosed 
 work, will depend upon the number of men available for its 
 defense, taking it as an established rule that it is better to have 
 a force concentrated than too much distributed, and tliei-efoie 
 injudicious to make works of a greater extent than can be well 
 manned and vigorously defended. The number of men will 
 depend upon the particular circumstances of the case ; as, for 
 instance, its situation with regard to distance from tlie enemy ; 
 whether it is likely to be attacked by a powerful force or only 
 by raiding parties; whether it is of such vital importance as to 
 require it to be Iield at all hazards, and its distance from sup- 
 porting force. • 
 
 609. Strength of garrison. One double-rank file — that is, 
 two men — is required for the defense of every lineal yard of 
 parapet; the number of yards in the crest-line of any redoubt 
 should not, tlierefore, exceed half the number of men to be con- 
 
■S68 STAR FORTS. 
 
 taiued in it. This number makes allowance for the sick and the 
 various details and duties which deplete the effective strength of 
 garrisons. 
 
 For the actual defense of lines, with modern arms, one man 
 per lineal yard is ample. 
 
 Every man in an inclosed work requires for lodging-room 3 
 square yards of tlie interior space ; that space, clear of the ban- 
 quette, magazines, gun spaces, and traverses, must not therefore 
 contain less tlian three times as many square yards as the number 
 -of men to be contained in it. Prom these considerations it fol- 
 lows : 1st. To And the least number of men sufficient to man 
 the parapet of an inclosed work, multiply the number of yards 
 in the cresHine by 2. 2d. To find the greatest number of men 
 that an inclosed work can accommodate, And in square yards 
 tlie area, clear of the banquette, magazines, and traverses, and 
 divide, this number by 3. 
 
 Eacli gun requires 300 square feet; this multiplied by the 
 number of guns must be subtracted from the whole interior 
 space. 
 
 In estimating for the number of men required for any given 
 length of interior crest-line, no account is taken of the space 
 taken up by guns, as the number of men required for each piece 
 is about eq'ual to the infantry allowance, i. e., two for eacli lineal 
 yard occupied by the piece. 
 
 The minimum length of side for a square redoubt capable of 
 holding artillery is 40 yards ; this gives a work capable of con- 
 fining one field-piece at each angle and about 250 men. 
 
 The redoubt has sectors witliout fire, except that delivered 
 from the pan-coup6es, and is without flanking arrangements. 
 
 6 to. Star forts. A star fort in plan consists of a polygon 
 having alternately salient and reentering angles. The object of 
 this disposition is to obtain cross-fires on tlie approaches to the 
 salients. The simplest form of the star fort is planned by plac- 
 ing redans on the middle of tlie faces of a square redoubt, {Fiff. 
 ■6, Plate 57,) thus giving alternate salients of 90 degrees and 60 
 degrees. AB CD, square redoubt; a6cd, redans. 
 
 The gnns would naturally occupy the pan-coup6es of the at- 
 tached redans, and likewise those of the square. The star fort, 
 from Its imperfect flanking dispositions, is but little, if at all, 
 superior in strength to the redoubt. For the same interior space 
 for the uses of the garrison, the star fort presents a much longer 
 line of parapet to be defended than the redoubt.' It is therefore 
 only on irregular sites or broken ground that application of it 
 will be found advantageous. 
 
 Bemarhs, — Since the introduction of modern improved arms, 
 
BASTIONED FORTS. 369 
 
 Imt little regard has been given to flanliing arrangements in field- 
 vorks, experience having developed the fact that they are of very- 
 little practical advantage. Lines and groups of works are now 
 laid out so as to cover each otlier by flanlc and cross-fire. 
 
 A work entirely detached should, liowever, have within itself 
 flanking arrangements. 
 
 611. BasUoned forts. The bastioned fort has been devised 
 to remedy the defective flanking dispositions of the preceding 
 <ilasses of works. 
 
 This fort may consist of a polygon of any nimiber of sides, but 
 for Held forts the square and pentagon are generally preferred, 
 on acco.unt of economy of labor in construction. To plan a work 
 of tills kind, a square (A B K, &c.. Fig. 1, Plate 58) or a pentagon 
 is laid out, and the sides bisected by perpendiculars ; a distance 
 <C D) equal to one-eighth of tlie side is set off on the perpendic- 
 idar in the square, or one-seventh in the pentagon; from the 
 angular points of the polygon, lines (AG- and IIB) are drawn 
 through the points thus set off; these lines give the direction of 
 the lines of defense; from the salients of the polygon distances 
 {AE and FB) cqnal to two-sevenths of the side are set off on the 
 directions of the lines of defense, giving the faces; from tlie 
 extremity of tlie faces the flanlcs (E H and FG) are drawn per- 
 pendicular to the line of defense of the otlier face of the same 
 front ; the extremities of the flanks are connected by a straiglit 
 line termed the curtain. 
 
 AB is the extei-ior side ; H, the angle of the curtain ; C D, the 
 pei-pendicular; IIB, the line of defense; A, the salient angle ; 
 A E, the face ; F, the shoulder angle ; E H, the flank ; B P, the 
 ■capital; HG, the curtains; GO, the gorge of bastion; CAE, 
 the diminished angle. 
 
 The side of the polygon is termed the exterior side; the line 
 bisecting it, the perpendicular; the angle at the salient is the, 
 Jlanhed angle; the one formed by a face and flank, the shoulder 
 angle^ the one between the flank and curtain, tJie angle of the 
 curiam; tlie line bisecting a bastion, the capital; the portion of 
 the work Included between the capitals of two adjacent bastions 
 is denominated a bastioned front, or simply a, front; the interior 
 space of the work not included in the bastions is called the 
 parade. 
 
 BemarJe. — The foregoing nomenclature applies also to perma- 
 nent works. In the latter class the parapet is generally much 
 above the parade. The space behind the parapet for the accom- 
 modation of the guns is termed the terre-plein, which is united 
 with the parade by earthen slopes or vertical walls. Commnni- 
 oation with the parade and terre-plein is generally provided for 
 24 
 
370 BASTIONBD FOKTS. 
 
 by means of roadways termed ramps. The whole mass of struct- 
 ure thus raised above the parade is called the rampart. 
 
 An examination of the arrangement of a bastioned front shows 
 that there are neither dead angles nor sectors without fire; that 
 the salients, and all the ground within range of fire, are pro- 
 tected by columns of direct, flanlc, and cross fire. 
 
 Permanent fortifications are, when the site admits of it, con- 
 structed on the bastioned-front principle, and generally have 
 auxiliary outworks, which are usually omitted in field-works. 
 The object for which permanent works are erected is to afford a 
 powerful artillery fire, and the entire interior crest may, there- 
 fore, be occupied by cannon. In field-works the proportion of 
 artillery is less, and is usually disposed of by placing a piece in 
 each pan-couple, two or more on each face and one on each 
 flank, leaving the curtains entirely free for infantry. Siege 
 howitzers, when used, are placed on the flanks, where their 
 capacity for firing canister is most serviceable in sweeping the 
 ditch in front of tl>e opposite face. Machine guns occupy a like 
 position. 
 
 The sides of the polygon upon which a bastioned fort is laid 
 off should not exceed 600 yards, nor be less than 125 yards. If 
 greater than the former, the range from the flanks will be too 
 great to cover properly the salients of the bastions ; if less than 
 125 yards, the flanks will be too short for efficiency, and the 
 bastions too restricted in space for artillery. 
 
 Calling the exterior side X, the parts of the front will be as 
 follows : 
 
 Diminished angle =14° 2' 10" 
 Salient angle . =61° 55' 40" 
 Shoulder angle . =118° 4' 20" 
 Curtain angle . =104° 2' 10" 
 
 Line of defcnse=0.71804 X 
 
 Face . . . =0.2857 X 
 
 Flank . . . =0.10808 X 
 
 Curtain . . =0.39320 X 
 
 Gorge . . . =0.18279 X 
 
 The entire front is equal to X multiplied by 1.1824. 
 
 With a pentagon the above numbers are sliglitly changed, but 
 so slightly as to make no appreciable difference when estimating 
 the dimensions of the sides of a polygon for a bastioned work to 
 accommodate a specified number of men. In making an esti- 
 mate for the number of men required to man the parapet of a 
 work, no allowance is made for the space occupied by guns ; this, 
 for the reason that the number of men so required is about equal 
 to that of infantry for the same space ; that is, two men for each 
 lineal yard of interior crest. 
 
 The foregoing is expressed by X= g x N X 1.1824 
 In wliich F = tlie number of men ; S = the number of sides 
 
BASTIONED FORTS. 371 
 
 of the polygon ; and N = the number of men per yard of interior 
 crest ; X being, as before, the exterior side. 
 
 In actual field service, it seldom liappens that the ground will 
 admit of a bastioned work constructed on a regular polygon; 
 but whatever it may be, the foregoing principles will apply and 
 give a close approximation to the size of the required work. 
 
 To ascertain the number of men required to man a given 
 work, measure the interior crest (in yards) and multiply by 2. 
 
 Allowing two men for each yard of parapet, the exterior sides 
 of a square bastioned fort to accommodate 4000 men would be 
 422.8 yards. 
 
 A fair proportion of artillery for a work requiring 4000 men 
 would be 36 guns, disposed of as represented in the figure — i. «., 
 one in the salient of each bastion ; one on each flank ; one in 
 the shoulder angle, and two on each face. 
 
 A bastioned work constructed on a square of 125 yards will 
 accommodate about 1180 men and an armament of 8 pieces. 
 
 612. For ordinary field-works the pieces would generally bo 
 those on traveling carriages, and consequently readily moved 
 from one part of the work to another, as required by the nature 
 of the attack. As a general rnle, the heaviest pieces would be 
 placed in the salients, and howitzers, it used, in the flanks to 
 sweep the ditch with canister. 
 
 Machine guns are especially adapted to the defense of fleld- 
 works, and should never be omitted as part of the armament.' 
 Being breech-loading and easily handled, they require but little 
 exposure either for themselves or the cannoneer.«i. The oscillat- 
 ing apparatus with which they are provided allows the Are to be 
 delivered in a horizontal line, which is superior to the cone of 
 dispersion of canister from howitzers or guns. Wlien practica- 
 ble, the machine gnn should be fired from a platform ; but as 
 the piece is light and the recoil small, the platform may be slight 
 and laid without counter-slopg. As a general rule, all platforms 
 for pieces on traveling carriages should be laid horizontally, as 
 this enables them to be fired in anj' direction witli equal facility. 
 A bag of earth placed at a proper distance behind each wlieel 
 will check recoil. 
 
 Since the fire of the Gatling gun is that of infantry alone, its" 
 introduction should not diminish the amount of artillery prop- 
 erly requisite for a work. Machine gnns may partly replace 
 infantry, but not artillery. 
 
 Whenever practicable, mortars should constitute a part of the 
 armament of field-works. Tliese should be placed in such posi- 
 tions, usually behind traverses, as not to prevent, by their blast, 
 
372 LINES OF WORKS. 
 
 any portion of the parapet from being occupied by guns or 
 infantry. 
 
 Ill actual service it seldom occurs that the configuration of the 
 ground admits of works being laid out with the exact dimensions 
 and figures above described. Tliese are intended to illustrate 
 general principles capable of being modified and adapted to suit 
 each particular case. The plan of tlie work should be adapted : 
 1st. To the natural form of the site, talking advantage of all 
 iimhilations to diminish the labor of construction; 2d. To the 
 object in view ; 3d. The time available for construction and the 
 nnmber of men to form the garrison. 
 
 Tlie prolongation of all the principal lines of a work sliould be 
 <lirected as much as possible on ground inaccessible to the ene- 
 my, or at least where he cannot obtain an enfilade flre with his 
 artillery. 
 
 When circumstances permit, a field fort should be constructed 
 with such care that tlie enemy will be forced to abandon an 
 attempt to storm it and be obliged to resort to the method of 
 regular approaches used in the attack of permanent works. To 
 cfToot this, no ground around the fort within range of cannon 
 should offer slielter to the enemy from its fire ; the ditches 
 should be flanked throughout, and the relief be so great as to 
 preclude any attempt at sealing the work. Approaches to it, 
 particnlarly on the salients, should be obstructed by abattis, 
 fraise, wire entanglements, &c. 
 
 613. Lines of works. {Figs. 2 to 5, Plate 58.) When it is nec- 
 essary to liold for a time a. line of considerable extent by a force 
 inferior to that which may be brought against it, the line should 
 be fortified by intrcnchments, consisting of a series of works 
 laid out according to the foregoing principles. The. kind of 
 work for any particular position on the line will depend upon 
 the nature of the locality it is to occupy and the manner in 
 which it will combine with those adjacent in securing mutual 
 support throughout. Such lines are frequently from fifteen to 
 twenty, or even tliirty miles in length, extending over every 
 variety of country, and in tlieir construction call for the highest 
 skill in militarj' engineering. 
 
 • They are constructed, usually, either for the protection of 
 important towns, cities, and depots ; or to make secure the base 
 of operations and lines of communications of an army manoeu- 
 vering in the field ; or, by stretching across peninsular regions, 
 to restrict the theatre of operations of the enemy; or for sur- 
 rounding and besieging a place ; or for the purpose of holding 
 the enemy in position with a part of an army while the remain- 
 der makes a flank or other strategic movement. The civil war 
 
LINES OF WORKS. 873 
 
 of 1861-65 afforded numerous instances of each of these condi- 
 tions. 
 
 The same general principles apply to lines as to other field- 
 works; but from their great extent they usually receive only a 
 slight relief, and the simplest angular figures are adopted for 
 their plan. In laying them out, advantage should be taken of all 
 the natural features presented by the position, so as to diminish 
 the labor of erecting artificial ones. 
 
 The flanks of a line or position are generally weak points. 
 When possible, one or both should rest on natural points of sup- 
 port. A flank not so supported must be secured by strong works 
 especially well garnished with artillery. 
 
 A point that has not a clear field of Are is a weak point, and 
 should be strongly intrenched, so that the enemy may not liave 
 advantage of hills, ravines, or other shelters in approaching the 
 line. Care should be exercised in determining the kind of artil- 
 lery for such positions. The field of fire being contracted, long 
 range is not of so much importance as ability to search behinil 
 the enemy's shelter, or to throw a great mass of projectiles in a 
 limited time. Mortars, howitzers, and machine guns will be 
 found serviceable. 
 
 In establishing a line of works, the main object should be to 
 cover every portion of tlie front within range with direct or 
 ci'oss fire. To accomplish this, all prominent points along the 
 line are fortified, each with a work liaving a trace most suited to 
 the conformation of that particular site. Tlie most important of 
 these should be inclosed works upon the bastion-front principle, 
 and of considerable size, capable of enduring an independent 
 attack. 
 
 Smaller inclosed works, such as redoubts and star forts, occupy 
 the secondary points. Between the works thus located extend 
 rifle-trenches capable of sheltering infantry. The line is there- 
 fore composed of a series of works mutually supporting each 
 other and covering every avenue of approach. 
 
 The artillery, of which there should be an abundance, will 
 naturally be placed in the works occupying the most command- 
 ing and salient positions. Tiiese works should never be so far 
 apart as to be out of mutual flanking range of the artillery with 
 which tliey are armed. It is tlie duty of officers of artillery ta 
 cooperate with those of engineers in selecting the positions ot 
 the works that are to be armed with artillery, and to determine- 
 the kind and quantity to be placed in each. 
 
 As infantry troops constitute the cliiet garrison of works of" 
 this nature, they will be required to construct them, leaving to. 
 tlio artillery the construction of magazines, embrasures, plat-. 
 
374 LINES OF WOEKS. 
 
 lorms, and other accessories pertaining to their special arm. 
 Generallv these works are thrown up very hastily, and often 
 when au'immediate attaclc is apprehended ; this, to a considera- 
 ble extent, decides not only the nature of the works, but tlie 
 parts of them tliat require the first attention. Subsequently, 
 If time permits, they are strengthened, improved, and worlied 
 into better shape. 
 
 As far as practicable, the line should be composed of inclosed 
 works, for the reason that should the enemy concentrate and 
 break through at any point, he will not be able to sweep the line 
 to the right and left by taldng it in flank and rear. To storm 
 and capture each work in succession would be an operation too 
 costly for him to undertake. 
 
 It is advisable in most instances to have in front of the line, 
 within easy musket range, a line of small redans or lunettes at 
 intervals of about 1500 yards. Each of these should be capable 
 of holding fi-om one to two hundred infantry and four to six 
 field-pieces. This line of outworks would form, as it were, a 
 species of picket line, keeping the enemy from closely observing 
 and harassing the main line, and would constitute an advanced 
 line of battle, against which the first shock of the enemy is par- 
 tially thrown away, and he dare not attempt to neglect them ; 
 for an endeavor to ijenetrate tlirough the intervals would expose 
 his flanks to a close and deadly flank and cross Are. The redans 
 being open towards the main line, could not be held if captured 
 by the enemy. 
 
 A somewhat similar line of works should be established in rear 
 of the main line. They should, however, have their gorges stock- 
 aded or otherwise closed to prevent the enemy, should he suc- 
 ceed in forcing his way through the main line, from obtaining 
 easy possession of them by the rear. Sites for them should be 
 selected with a view of obtaining from them a searching fire of 
 the front line in reverse. This line of works, although appar- 
 ently inert in rear, must be kept fully armed and manned, ready 
 to drive the enemy from any part of the main line that he may 
 succeed in obtaining possession of. 
 
 Prominent salients in the main line are especially inviting to 
 the enemy ; behind tliese a second line should be prepared, so 
 placed, if possible, that should the enemy obtain the main line 
 he will be within musketry range of the second, and be forced 
 with v/earied troops to undertake the capture of it. 
 
 SI141. An approximate estimate of the number of troops re- 
 quired to man such a system of intrenchments may be obtained 
 Ijy allowing 300 men per mile for the first or redan line, 4000 for 
 
LINES OF WORKS. 375 
 
 the main line, 300 for tlie rear line, and 1200 for reserves; mak- 
 ing a total of 5800 per mile of actual fighting force. 
 
 The" amount of artillery required will depend upon such cir- 
 cumstances as the kind employed ; the kind and quantity brought 
 up by the enemy ; the nature of the country, and the quality of 
 the troops on either side. From four to five pieces per thousand 
 infantry is a fair estimate. 
 
 To break a line of works the enemy would secretly concentrate 
 as powerful a force as possible and assault some particular part 
 of the line. As it would be impracticable to have at every part 
 of the line a force capable of successfully resisting such a con- 
 centration, the probabilities are that he would succeed in his 
 assault, if vigorously made. To dislodge him from any portion 
 he might thus capture, it is advisable to hold strong reserves of 
 both ai-tillery and infantry at central and convenient points in 
 rear of the line of works. One reserve of say 5000 infantry and 
 20 field-pieces for each four miles of line would make it almost 
 impossible for an enemy of ordinary strength to hold any part 
 of it that he might capture. Telegraphic communication should 
 be established from one reserve to another and to every part of 
 the line. This would insure a prompt cooperation of all the 
 forces. 
 
 In tracing field-works, care must be taken to direct, as much 
 as possible, their faces upon ground least accessible to an enemy, 
 so as to reduce to a minimum the efTect of his enfilade. 
 
 6U5. When the importance of the case demands it and the 
 means are available for carrying it out, lines of field-works some- 
 times assume — as was the case during the rebellion — a semi- 
 permanent character. These are laid out with great care and 
 constructed with skill and nicety ; they are furnished with sub- 
 stantial and commodious magazines and bomb-proof; the slopes 
 are sodded and the revetments constructed for endurance. 
 Works of this character are frequently armed with the heaviest 
 classes of ordnance, the emplacement, care, and preservation of 
 which, together with tlie ammunition therefor, will be governed 
 by the same rules as for permanent works. 
 
 616. The camps, paries, trains, hospitals, depots, &c., should 
 be sufficiently far to the rear to be out of range from the fire of 
 the enemy, and should have through communication to the vari- 
 ous parts of the line by means of well-constructed roads. These 
 roads sliould be laid out in such manner as to be, as much as 
 possible, out of view of the enemy. The horses of the artillery 
 in the works, with their drivers, and all parts of the batteries 
 not absolutely required for the efficient service of the guns, 
 should be encamped, as above, in rear. The cannoneers, offi- 
 
376 DISTANCES PARAPET. 
 
 cei's, and noii-comiiiissionetl officers will invariably remain in 
 the works, ready foi' action at. any moment. 
 
 6r'7. Distance of works from towns, cities, SfC. Rifled artil- 
 lery, of large, calibre, is capable o£ doing great damage to towns, 
 cities, dock-yards, and other objects of large extent, up to a dis- 
 tance of five miles. _ A few pieces of enormous calibre have been 
 constructed capable of throwing huge projectiles to a distance of 
 about nine miles. These are, however, exceptions, and as they 
 can be made available only by means of a certain class of almost 
 impracticable vessels, it is not necessary, at present, to embrace 
 them in this consideration. Five miles being the limit within 
 which the enemy must not be allowed to establish his batteries, 
 the distance of defensive works within this limit will depend 
 upon the character and power of the artUlery with which they 
 can be armed. Heavy calibres are more capable of keeping an 
 enemy at a distance than small calibres, and rifles are superior 
 to smooth-bores. About two miles is the limit of eflective range 
 against ships of war, and beyond this distance it would be im- 
 possible to prevent an enemy from carrying on operations by 
 land; this, therefore, is the maximum distance that it is admis- 
 sible to subtract from the live-mile limit of the enemy. In other 
 words, if an enemy is able to bring heavy rifle guns against a 
 large object, as a city or a dock-yard, works for its protection 
 should be at least three miles distant therefrom. No such area 
 can thei'efore be surrounded and protected by a line of works 
 of less extent than 18 miles ; generally it would be much more, 
 depending upon the size of the city, town, or other objects. 
 
 61S. Parapet. In field fortifications the main features are 
 the covering masses of earth of which they are constructed, and 
 which are intended to shelter the assailed from the view and fire 
 of the assailant. When the covering mass is so constructed as 
 to afford the assailed a view and fire over the assailant's line of 
 approach, it is termed a parapet; when intended simply as a 
 screen or cover from the fire of the enemy, it is termed an epaul- 
 ment; and when used to cover troops or guns from an enfilading 
 fire on the flank or in the rear, a traverse. 
 
 The simplest form of work is the rifle-trench or pit, {Figs, 1 
 and 2, Plate 59.) 
 
 In this, the parapet is formed by throwing the earth from a 
 trench within to the front. The earth thus thrown up, together 
 with the depth of the trench, afibrds the desired shelter. The 
 troops stand or squat in the trench and deliver their fire over 
 the bank of earth in front. This method of intrenching aflbrds 
 the speediest means of obtaining cover, and is the one resorted 
 to when troops are under fire, or when they intrench their camp 
 
PARAPET. 377 
 
 or position for a temporary stay. Kails, logs, in fact, almost 
 anything at hand may be used as a rongli interior revetment 
 for sustaining the earth. For artillery, the trench is made some- 
 what wider than is necessary for infantry. 
 
 619. In the more elaborate class of field fortifications, such 
 as the inclosed works previously mentioned, the earth to form 
 the parapet is taken from the exterior, tlms forming in front of 
 the parapet a ditch which makes a formidable obstacle In the 
 way of au assailant attempting to enter the work by escalade. 
 
 Fig. 3, Plate 59, shows the usual form of the profile of such an 
 intreiicluneiit in ordinary soil. 
 
 B C D E F G, profile of parapet ; n I K L, profile of ditch ; M 
 N" O, profile of glacis ; A B, terre-plein, or parade ; B C, ban- 
 quette slope, having a slope of one upon two ; C D, tread of the 
 banqnelte, having a slope to the rear of tv/o inches ; D E, inte- 
 rior slope, having a slope of three upon one ; E F, superior slope, 
 having a slope of one upon four to six ; F G, exterior slope, having 
 a slope of one upon one ; G H, berm ; H I, scarp, having a slope 
 of about two upon one ; I K, bottom of ditch ; K L, counterscarp, 
 having a slope of about two upon one ; B, foot of the banquette 
 slope ; C, crest of thebanquette ; D, foot of the interior slope ; E, 
 intei-ior crest ; F, exterior crest-; G, loot of the exterior crest ; 
 H, crest of the scarp ; I, foot of the scarp ; K, foot of the coun- 
 terscarp ; L, crest ox the counterscarp ; M, foot of the glacis ; N, 
 crest of the glacis ; a b, thickness of the parapet. The tread of 
 the banquette is placed 4 feet 3 inches below the interior crest. 
 
 The following table, giving the slope for various degrees of 
 elevation, will prove useful. 
 
 By referring to tables of ranges, and bearing in mind that the 
 angle of fall of a projectile is always greater than the elevation 
 of the piece, the table will also afford useful suggestions and 
 data with i-efei'ence to defilading works. 
 
 In seeking protection from the fire of an enemy, either by nat- 
 ural or artificial cover, the drop of the projectile must be taken 
 into accoiuit. This depends upon the range, kind of piece used, 
 and nature of fire employed. 
 
 The table, furtlieruiore, furnishes useful assistance, when 
 studying defensive positions, as to locating batteries and deter- 
 mining the kind of artillery to be placed at the various points 
 for reaching ground that may be occupied by the enemy, and 
 which is sheltered by undulations or by timber growth from view 
 from the work. 
 
 In connection with this, see^ar. 650 and tables of ranges for 
 the 8-inch and 100-pounder rifles. 
 
378 
 
 DITCH. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Rise. 
 
 Anoie. 
 
 ElFiE. 
 
 ANOtE. 
 
 Rise. 
 
 Ansle. 
 
 Bisi. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 One on. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 One on. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 One on. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 One on. 
 
 1 
 
 B7.3— 
 
 9 
 
 6.3+ 
 
 17 
 
 3.2+ 
 
 25 
 
 2.1 
 
 2 
 
 23.6+ 
 
 . 10 
 
 6.7+ 
 
 18 
 
 3.0+ 
 
 26 
 
 2.0 
 
 3 
 
 19.0+ 
 
 11 
 
 5.1+ 
 
 19 
 
 2.9— 
 
 27 
 
 1.9 
 
 4 
 
 14.3- 
 
 12 
 
 4.7+ 
 
 20 
 
 2.7+ 
 
 28 
 
 a.85 
 
 6 
 
 11.4+ 
 
 13 
 
 4.3+ 
 
 21 
 
 2.6 
 
 29 
 
 1.80 
 
 e 
 
 9.5- 
 
 14 
 
 4.0+ 
 
 22 
 
 2.5- 
 
 30 
 
 1.75 
 
 7 
 
 8.1+ 
 
 15 
 
 3.7+ 
 
 23 
 
 2.3+ 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 7.1+ 
 
 16 
 
 3.5- 
 
 24 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 
 The dimensions of the parapet will depend upon the kind ol 
 eartli used and the time and means that can be employed in its 
 cousti-uetion, together with the time that the work is to remain 
 occupied, and, finally, with the time and means the enemy can 
 dispose of in the attack, and the degree of resistance the work 
 should offer. The relief, which is the vertical height (E a) 
 of the parapet above the terre-plein, should not be less than 8 
 feet, and it will be seldom necessary or expedient to exceed 12 
 feet. Its thickness, which is the horizontal distance (a b) be- 
 tween the interior and exterior crests, is regulated by the kind 
 of earth used and the kind of -attack it is expected to meet. If 
 it is to resist artillery, the thickness is that given in par. 596, in 
 which the minimum Is laid down at 14 feet. 
 
 The relief ot a work, or of any part of a work, is its height 
 above the ground on which it stands. 
 
 The command of a work Is its elevation with reference to the 
 surrounding country, especially that within striking distance, 
 which may be occupied by an enemy. 
 
 630. Ditch. The dimensions of the ditch should be regulated 
 to furnish the earth for the parapet. To present a respectable 
 obstacle to the enemy, Its depth, however, should not be less than 
 6 feet, nor its width at the top less than 12 feet. For approxi- 
 mate purposes, the dimensions of a ditch to supply earth neces- 
 sary for a given parapet may be obtained by assuming the depth 
 of the ditch and dividing the area of the profile of the parapet by 
 it to obtain the width. 
 
 In turning the salients, keeping the dimensions of the ditch 
 the same, there will be an excess of earth, — a circumstance 
 which may be taken advantage of by making the parapet thicker 
 in these parts. Due allowance must be made for this when lay- 
 ing out the work. The salients should always be the thickest 
 and strongest. 
 
 6!21. Tracing. In laying out the figure of a work on the 
 
SOD REVETMENT. 379 
 
 ground, which operation is called tracing, the interior crest is 
 taken as the governing line ; all other lines are laid off with ref- 
 erence to it. 
 
 Profiling. The trace being laid off and marked by stakes at 
 the angles, profiles of the parapet, [Fig. 1, Plate 60,) constructed 
 of strips of light wood, are set up at the angles, and at other 
 points along the parapet where long stretches of the latter occur. 
 The method of establishing these profiles will readily suggest 
 itself. 
 
 When strips of wood are not easily obtained, stout cord may 
 be used instead, the cord being attached to the uprights at the 
 points where the strips of wood are or would be nailed. 
 
 When a suflScient portion of the profiling is completed, work- 
 ing parties are set to woi-k excavating the ditch and forming the 
 parapet. The latter, as the work progresses, should be well 
 rammed. If the soil is stony, the vegetable mould on the sur- 
 face should be removed, and reserved to form the top of the par- 
 apet. This should always be free from stones to a depth of at 
 least three feet, to prevent injury to the troops from tiie effect 
 of shot striking and scattering the pebbles and fragments. 
 
 Those portions of an earth-work within effective range of the 
 enemy's artillery, and upon the endurance and integrity of 
 which depend the support and safety of valuable batteries or 
 magazines, should bo made strongest by additional thickness and 
 height. The material and workmanship should be of the best 
 quality. 
 
 It is almost impossible to make a breach in a work constructed 
 of sand of snflicient tliickness to prevent penetration through 
 and through it and having flat slopes towards the breaching 
 batteries of the assailant. In such cases the sand displaced by 
 successive shots falls back again and again within the area 
 attempted to be breached. 
 
 633. Revetments. A revetment consists' of a facing of stone, 
 wood, sods, or other material to sustain an embankment which 
 has a slope steeper than the natural slope of the particular kind 
 of earth used. 
 
 In field-works, revetments are used only for the interior slope 
 of the parapet and for the scarp. For the first, sods, palisades, 
 fascines, logs, gabions, and plank are chiefiy used ; and for the 
 last, timber. 
 
 623> Sod revetment. Sod-work forms a strong and durable 
 revetment. The sods should be cut from a well-clothed sward, 
 with the grass of a fine short blade and thickly-matted roots. 
 If the grass is long it should be mowed before the sod is cut. 
 
380 FASCINE KEVETMENT, 
 
 The more tenacious the soil the better will be the sods. Those 
 cut from sandy localities are of butdittle value. 
 
 Sods are of two sizes : one, termed sfreehers, are 12 inches 
 square and 4J Inches thick ; the othei-, termed headers, are ]& 
 inches long, 12 inches broad, and 4J inches thick. 
 
 Tlie sod revetment (Fig. 2 , Plate 60) is commenced as soon 
 as the parapet is raised to the level of tlie tread of the banquette. ■ 
 A course of sods is then laid, eitiier horizontal or a little inclined 
 from the banquette. The course consists of two streehers and 
 one header alternating, the end of the header being laid to the 
 front; the grass side is laid downwards, and the sods should 
 protrude a little beyond the line of the interior slope, for tlie 
 purpose of trimming the course even at top, before laying an- 
 other, and to make the interior slope regular. The course is 
 firmly settled by tapping with a spade each sod as it is laid, and 
 the earth of the parapet is packed closely beliind the course. A 
 second is laid on the first so as to break joints with it. The top 
 course is laid with the grass side up, and in some cases pegs are 
 driven through the sods of two courses to connect the whole 
 more firmly. When cut from a wet soil, the sods should not be 
 laid iuitil they are partially dried; otherwise they will shrink 
 and the revetment crack in drying. In hot weather the revet- 
 ment should be watered frequently until the grass puts forth. 
 Sod revetment, on account of its durability and freedom from 
 splinters, is the best of all revetments. 
 
 Log revetment. {Fig. 3, Plate 60.) This revetment is made 
 of trunks of small trees or saplings laid Iiorizontally one on the 
 other and supported by posts set into the banquette. At fre- 
 quent intervals tie beams are dovetailed between the logs, and, 
 extending six or eight feet into the parapet, are secured to 
 horizontal anchoring logs. For intrenchments hastily thrown 
 up, this Is the most usual form, rails or timber of any kind being 
 used. 
 
 624. Fascine revetment. A fascine (Fig. 4, Plate 60) is a 
 bundle of twigs closely bound together. Tliere are two sizes of 
 fascines : one size is 9 Inches in diameter and about 10 feet long ; 
 the other, which is generally termed a soucisson, is 12 inches in 
 diameter and 20 feet long. It is chiefly used for the revetments 
 of batteries. 
 
 To make a fascine straight twigs are selected, between the 
 thickness of the little finger and tliumb, — the longer the better. 
 They should be stripped of the smaller twigs. A support, term- 
 ed a fascine-horse, (Fig. 5, Plate 60,) is put up by driving two 
 stout stakes obliquely into the ground about two feet, so as to 
 cross each other about two feet above the ground, where they 
 
SABION REVETMEJ«V 381 
 
 are firmjy lashed together. As many of these supports as may 
 be required are put up in a straight line, about 18 inches apart. 
 This forms the horse, on which the twigs are laid to be bound 
 together. 
 
 A machine (C D) termed a fascine choker is formed of two 
 stout levers about 5 feet long, connected near theii- extremities 
 by a chain or strong rope, which must be long enougli to pass 
 once around the- fascine and be drawn tight by means of the 
 levers. 
 
 The twigs are laid on the horse with their large and small 
 ends alternating; the choker is applied to bring them togetlier, 
 and they are bound bf wire, or by withes made of tough twigs, 
 properly prepared Dy twisting over a blaze, so as to render them 
 pliable." The ties are placed 12 inches apart, and every third or 
 fourth one should be made with an end about three or four feet 
 long, having a loop at the extremity to receive a stake through 
 it. This stake is termed an anchoring stake, its object being to 
 secure the fascine firmly to the parapet. 
 
 To form the revetment, the first row of fascines is imbedded 
 {Fig. 4, Plate 60) about half its thickness below the tread of the 
 baaquette, and is secured by means of the anchoring stakes, and 
 also by several stalces driven through the fascine itself about 12 
 inches into the earth. The knots of the ties are laid inside, and 
 the earth of the parapet is well packed behind the fascine. A 
 second row is laid on the first, so as to give the requisite interior 
 slope ; it sliould break joints with the first row, and be connected 
 with it by several stakes driven through them both. The other 
 rows are laid with similar precautions, and the parapet is ixsually 
 finished at the top by a course of sods. 
 
 635. Post revetment. {Fig, 6, Plate 60.) This is construct- 
 ed of posts from 4 to 6 inches in diameter, cut into lengths of 5.5 
 feet, and set with proper slope, in close contact, in a trench two 
 feet in depth, at the foot of the br«ast-height. The tops of the 
 posts, if not already so, are sawed off level, to receive a horizon- 
 tal capping piece, wliich is spiked on. Anchor ties are dove- 
 tailed into the cap and secured to an anchor log imbedded in the 
 parapet. On top of the cap are laid several courses of sods, rais- 
 ing the interior ci'est to the proper height. With a good quality 
 of timber this revetment is durable. It is easily constructed, and 
 next to sods is the best. 
 
 636. Gabion revetment. {Fig. 7, Plate 60.) The gabion is 
 a basket of a cylindrical form, open at each end. Its height is 
 usually 2 feet 9 inclies, and diameter 2 feet. 
 
 To form a gabion, a directing circle is made of two hoops, the 
 diflierence between their radii being such that, when placed con- 
 
382 PLANK KBVBTMENT — SAND-BAGS. 
 
 centrically, thei-e shall be about If inches between them, They 
 are kept in this position by placing small blocks of wood between 
 them, to which they are tied with pack-thread. The directing 
 circle is placed on the ground, and seven or nine stakes, about 
 1 inch in diameter and 3 feet long, are driven slightly into the 
 groimd between the hoops, at equal distances apart ; the directing 
 circle is then slipped up midway from the bottom, and tied in 
 that position. Twigs about halt an inch in diameter, and as long 
 as they can be procured, are wattled between the stakes like or- 
 dinary basket-work. When finished to within about 2 indhes of 
 the top, the gabion is placed with the other end up, the directing 
 circle taken off, and the gabion completed to within 2 inches of 
 the other extremities of the staltes. The wicker-work at the two 
 ends is secured by several withes, and the ends of the pickets are 
 sharpened. The gabion is then ready for use. 
 
 To form the revetment, a fascine is first laid partly imbedded 
 below tile tread of the banquette; (Fiff.4, Plate 60 ii the gabion, 
 which is placed on end, rests on this, so as to give it the requisite 
 slope ; it is then filled with earth ; others are placed in like man- 
 ner, and the parapet is raised behind them ; another fascine is 
 laid on top, and in some cases two. 
 
 In making gabions, iron hoops, similar to barrel hoops, may 
 be used instead of wattling. The number of stakes should be 
 increased to eleven or thirteen. Gabions made either of wattlings 
 or hoops are not good for holding dry sand. 
 
 Sheet-iron is preferable to either iron hoops or brush for ga- 
 bions. For this purpose rectangular sheets of suitable dimen- 
 sions to form cylinders of the same height and diameter as the 
 ordinary gabion, are prepared with three holes punched near to 
 and pai-allel with the shorter sides of the sheets. These are to 
 secure the ends with wire when the sheet is bent into the cylin- 
 drical form. The advantages of this description of gabion are 
 greater streiigth, lightness, and durability than either of the 
 other two, offering great facility for transportation, and resist- 
 ing better the blast of guns when used for reveting the cheeks 
 of embrasures. Galvanized iron is less liable to rust than plain 
 iron ; when not galvanized, the gabions should be lacquered with 
 coal-tar. 
 
 63T. Plank revetment. This may be made by setting stout 
 posts of scantling about 3 feet apart, 2 feet below the tread of 
 the banquette, giving them the same inclination as the interior 
 slope. Behind these stakes boards are nailed to sustain the 
 e.irth. The posts should be securely anchored into the parapet 
 with wire and stakes. 
 
 62S. San(^-bag3 are sometimes used for revetments when 
 
SCARP REVETMENT. 383 
 
 Other materials cannot be procured ; though then- object in most 
 oases is to repair damages done by the enemy's fire. They are 
 made of canvas, or a good quality of gunny-cloth, sewed with 
 cotton twine with loclf-stitch ; the bag, when empty, is 2 feet 8 
 inches long and 1 foot 4 inclies wide. . When filled and laid they 
 occupy a space of 6 by 10 by 24 inches, and contain 0.85 of a cubic 
 foot of sand, weighing about 85 pounds. Thirty-two make a cubic 
 yard. 
 
 The bags are laid as headers and strechers, either in the Eng- 
 lish or Flemish bonds. They should not be more than three- 
 fourths full when laid ; if full, they do not lay well, and are more 
 liable to burst on becoming wet, or under great pressure. When 
 time is of importance, the bags need not be tied, but the throat 
 is given a twist and turned under the end of the bag as it is laid. 
 To prevent decay, they should be payed with coal-tar before be- 
 ing filled or before being laid ; this, furthermore, renders them 
 less liable to take fire when dry. One hundred and forty-four 
 sand-bags, laid as above, make ten superficial yards of revetment. 
 
 Saud-bag reveting requires less anchoring to make it stand 
 than any other. If the reveting is kept wet, the sand will not 
 so readily escape through rents, nor will the bags take fire from 
 the blast of the pieces ; this, however, hastens their decay. From 
 six to ten months, depending upon usage, is the duration of 
 reveting made of sand-bags. When used near the muzzle of 
 the piece in the revetment of embrasures, they soon wear away, 
 from the blast of the piece, unless well protected. 
 
 629. Scarp revetment. {Fig. 1, Plate 61.) This revetment is 
 serviceable where the foot of the scarp is subject to wash, as in a 
 wet ditch. It is formed of a frame-work of lieavy timber, and is 
 used chiefiy for important field forts. A piece, termed a cap, is 
 imbedded in a trench made along the line of the berme ; otlier 
 pieces, termed land-ties, are placed in trenches perpendicular to 
 the cap, with which they are connected by a dovetail joint; 
 they are about 8 or 10 feet apart. Cross-pieces are halved 
 into the land-ties near their extremities, and two square pQes, 
 about 5 feet long, are driven in the angles between the land- 
 ties and cross-pieces; inclined pieces, serving as supports to the 
 cap, are mortised into its under side at intervals of 8 or 19 feet. 
 These supports usually receive a slope of ten perpendicular to 
 one base ; they rest on a ground-sill at the bottom of the ditch, 
 to which they are mortised, this sill being held firm by square 
 piles. 
 
 Behind this frame-work thick plank or heavy scantling are plac- 
 ed horizontally, iiaving the same slope as the supports ; or else a 
 rabbet may be made in the cap and ground-sills, and the scant- 
 
384 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS — BARBETTE. 
 
 ling let. In between these two pieces, serving as a support to the 
 <!ap. This is tlie more difBcult construction, but the better, 
 since, should the heavy supports be cut away, the cap will still 
 be retained in its place. 
 
 In constructing the scarp revetment the cap-sill and land-ties 
 are first laid, and then a narrow trench is dug to the bottom oj 
 the ditch to allow the ground-sill and frame-work to be set in. 
 
 In many of tlie earth-works constructed during 18G1-65 the 
 berme was dispensed with, the exterior slope being continued 
 down to the bottom of the ditch. This plan worked successfully. 
 
 When circumstances admit of it, all the slopes of an earth- 
 work should be sodded, or else be manured and sowed with 
 grass seed. 
 
 630. Interior arrangem.en.tg. Under this head come batteries, 
 magazines, traverses, tomb and splinter proofs, and interior 
 redoubts. 
 
 631. Batteries. The term battery, in this connection, is 
 usually applied to a place in a work prepared for the accommo- 
 dation of several guns. It is also used when speaking of the 
 arrangements made of a parapet to enable the guns to fire over 
 it or through openings in it; as, a barbette battery, an embrasure 
 battery, &c. 
 
 632. Barbette. This is a construction by means of which a 
 piece can fire over a parapet. It consists of a mound of earth 
 thrown up against. the interior slope; the upper surface is level, 
 and 2 feet 9 inches below the interior crest, for light field- 
 pieces, and from 4 to 6 feet for heavy guns. If the barbette 
 is raised behind a face, its length should be sufScient to allow 16 
 <or 18) feet along the interior crest for each gun ; and its depth, 
 or the perpendicular distance from the foot of the interior slope 
 to the rear, should be 24 feet. The earth of the barbette at the 
 rear end receives the natural slope. To asc-end the barbette a 
 ramp is made of earth, connecting the top of the barbette with 
 the terre-plein. The ramp is 10 feet wide on the top, and its 
 slope is six base to one perpendicular. The earth at the sides 
 receives the natural slope. The ramp should be at some con- 
 venient point in the rear, and take up as little room as possible. 
 
 633. As barbettes are usually placed in the salients, an ar- 
 rangement is made for guns to flre in the direction of the capital. 
 The construction in this case is somewhat different from the 
 .preceding. A pan-coupS {ab) of 11 feet {Fig. 2, Plate 61) is first 
 made, and from the foot of its interior slope a distance of 24 
 feet is set off along the capital ; at the extremity of tills line a 
 perpendicular Is drawn to the capital, and 5 feet are set off 
 on this perpendicuLir on each side of the capital ; from these 
 
EMBRASURES. 385 
 
 l)oints on the perpendicular a line is drawn perpendicular to 
 t-ach faoe, lespectively ; the hexagonal figure thus laid out is the 
 surface oi the barbette for one gun. The ramp (c) in this case 
 is made along tlie capital. 
 
 If three or more guns are placed in the salient, a pan-coup6 
 is formed as in the last case, (Fig. 3, Plate 61,) and 24 feec 
 are, in like manner, set oflF on the capital ; but instead of pro- 
 ceeding as in the last case, a perpendicular is drawn from this 
 point to each face, and the pentagonal space thus inclosed is 
 laken for the gun in the salient;"from the pei-pendicular last set 
 off, as many times 16 (or 18) feet will be set off on the interior 
 crest of each face as there are guns required. This gives the 
 length of the barbette along each face; the depth is made 24 
 feet, and the two are united in the salient. One or more 
 ramps may be made, as most convenient. 
 
 The advantages of tlie barbette consist in the commanding 
 position given to the guns, and in a v^ry wide field of flre. On 
 these accounts the salients are the best positions for them. 
 Their defects are, that they expose the guns and men to the 
 enemy's artillery and sharp-shooters. 
 
 634. Embrasures. The embrasure {Fig. 4, Plate 61) is an 
 opening made in the parapet for a gun to flre through. The 
 bottom of the embrasure, termed the sole, is 2 fcet 9 inches, 
 or from 4 to 6 feet above the ground, on which the wheels 
 of the carriage rest, according to the size of the gun and the 
 kind of carriage. It usually slopes outward to allow the gun to 
 be fired at a depression. The base of this slope should never be 
 less than six times the altitude. In most cases it may be hor- 
 izontal, or even Iiave a slight slope to the rear. The interior 
 opening, termed the moufh, is from 18 to 36 inches wide, accord- 
 ing to the calibre of the gun, and is of a rectangular or trapezoidal 
 form. 
 
 The line which bisects the sole in the direction of the line of 
 flre is called the directrix. The sides of the embrasure arc termed 
 the cheeks; these widen out towards the exterior, which widen- 
 ing is termed the splay, the inclination upon each side from the 
 directrix being one upon ten. They furthermore have an in- 
 clination outwards from the vertical; this inclination, at the 
 line of the exterior crest, is three upon one. 
 
 When the directrix is perpendicular to the Interior crest, the 
 embrasure is termed direct; {Fig. 4, Plate 61 ;) when oblique, 
 the embrasure is termed oblique. {Same figure.) In order that 
 the part of the embrasure which is next to the muzzle of the 
 gun may be nearly of the same width in both the direct and 
 25 
 
386 EMBRASURES. 
 
 oblique pmbrasures, the mouth of the latter is wider lis propor- 
 tion to tlie obliquity. 
 
 Embi-asures arc i-eveted with the same material and in, the 
 same manner as described for the interior slope. 
 
 If the exact position for the embrasure is known, it is best to 
 lay it out and make it while the parapet is beinoj constructed. 
 As soon as the latter is built up to the sill of the future embra- 
 sure, a light stake is planted in line with the interior slope on 
 each side of the directrix, in such position as to represent the 
 sides of the moutti of the embrasure; a strip is nailed aci'ossat 
 the proper height to represent the sill, and another above on the 
 line of the interior crest. The earth being smoothed off to give 
 the desired slope to the sole, the directrix is marked out on it 
 by means of a coi-d ; the splay of the clieeks is obtained by 
 giving the sides an inclination of one-tenth witli the directrix, 
 'i'liese lines being laid oft" on the sole, the revetment is placed 
 along them and is given an inclination corresponding with the 
 two profile stakes at the mouth, and three upon one at the exte- 
 rior crest. Should gabions be used for reve'ting the clieeks, 
 fascines are first partly imbedded along the edges of the sole, 
 and the gabions placed on them in such manner as to obtain the 
 proper flarp. The gabions are held in position by being an- 
 chored with telegrapli wire to a beam of timber imbedded in 
 the parapet parallel to and about 8 feet from the cheeks of the 
 embrasure. The beams are held by securing stakes. Revet- 
 ments made of other material are secured in a similar manner. 
 This precaution should be thoroughly looked after in the first 
 instance, because wlien the revetment is broken by the blast of 
 the gun or the shots of the enemy it is difficult to repair it, and 
 the necessity for repairing would probably come at a time wlien 
 it could not be done. 
 
 If the embrasure is to be cut out after the parapet is com- 
 .pleted, tile mouth is marked oflf with stakes and strips as before; 
 the earth is removed so as to obtain approximately the sole, 
 which is then laid off and the work completed as jnst described. 
 
 The sole of the embrasure should be secured from being worn 
 away by the blast with boards, poles, or some similar material 
 running lengthwise with the embrasure. Kaw-hidcs will greatly 
 assist in preserving the revetments of the cheeks from the eft'ects 
 of abrasion produced by firing. For this purpose the hide, while 
 green, is stretched, witli the flesh side outward, over the part to 
 be protected, and is there confined by stakes driven through it 
 'uto the parapet. 
 
 Tlie best method, however, for securing the month of the em- 
 brasure, and the sole and sides for 5 or 6 feet from the mouth. 
 
PLATFORMS. 387 
 
 is a lining made of J^-iiicli boiler ii-on. [Fig. 5, Plate 61.) The 
 plates are cut to the proper form to fit the sole and cheeks, and 
 are fastened together with angle-irons and rivets. Wings, about 
 a foot wide, extend out on each side against the interior slope to 
 prevent the lining from being moved to the front by the blast. 
 A round bar of iron passes across the top about 18 inches from 
 the throat ; to this a door of sheet-iron is suspended, forming a 
 mantlet against musketry. In the centre of this door is a cut or 
 slot, about a foot high and 6 inches wide, for the double purpose 
 of allowing the rammer to pass through while loading the piece, 
 and for sighting it. A vertical lever of wood or iron is fastened 
 to one side of tlie door ; to this a rope is attached, so that by pull- 
 ing on it the door is thrown up to allow the piece to be flred. 
 
 That pai-t of the interior slope lying below the mouth of the 
 embrasure is termed the genouillh-e. The mass of earth between 
 two embrasures is termed a merlon. 
 
 The advantages of embrasures are, that the men and guns are 
 less exposed tlian in a barbette battery. Their principal defects 
 are : they have a very limited field of fire ; they weaken the par- 
 apet, and present openings through which the enem.y may pene- 
 tx-ate in an assault. Owing to their limited field of fire, they are 
 generally used for the protection of particular points ; as, to flank 
 a ditch, protect a salient, enfilade a road, &c. The most suitable 
 position for them in a work is on the flanks. 
 
 635. Platforms. When a gun mounted on a traveling car- 
 riage is fired often in the same direction, the ground under the 
 wheels is soon formed into ruts. It is to prevent this that plat- 
 forms of timber are used in such cases. Those for field semce 
 ai-e described in par. 254, et seq. 
 
 Tlie shape of the platform for works is usually a rectangle ; in 
 some cases, where a wide field of fire is required, the form is a 
 trapezoid. The rectangular platform is 10 feet wide and 17 feet 
 long for siege-pieces, and 9 feet wide and 15 feet long for field 
 guns. It consists of three sleepers of 6-inol) scantling, either 15 
 or 17 feet long, laid parallel to the directrix of the embrasure 
 and covered with 2-inch plank cut into lengths of nine or ten 
 feet. Between tlie ends of the sleepers and the foot of the gen- 
 ouillSro a piece of 8-inch scantling 9 feet long, tei'med a hurier, 
 is laid ; it should project about 6 inches above the platform and 
 be bisected by the directrix. The object of the hurter is to pre- 
 vent the wheels from striking against the revetment. 
 
 'i'o la3' a platform, the earth on which it is to rest should be 
 well rammed and leveled. Three trenches arc then made for 
 the sleepers, two of which should be under tlie wheels and the 
 middle one under the trail. The sleepers are laid flush with the 
 
388 PLATFOEMS. 
 
 ground and firmly secured by stakes driven at their sides and 
 ends, and the earth is solidly packed around them. The planks 
 are then laid and secured by nails. 
 
 When the piece is to be fired habitually in the same direction, 
 a platform may be constructed of three pieces of timber, one 
 under each wheel and one under the trail, firmly secured by 
 stakes and connected by cross-pieces, into which they are halved. 
 
 Guns and mortars in field-works are best in pairs, with trav- 
 erses between each set of pairs. A good platform for guns may 
 be made of 3-inch plank laid on timbers 3 feet apart. If lumber 
 is abundant, it is best to have the planks extend over the wliole 
 space occupied by each pair of guns. 
 
 636. In many fleld-works, especially those erected for the 
 defense of rivers and the entrances to harbors against armed 
 vessels, artillery of the heaviest calibre is mounted. The gen- 
 eral features of worlcs for such an armament are the same as 
 those previously described for light armament, but in many of 
 the details— notably in tlie method of mounting the guns — there 
 are difTerences of especial interest to artillerists. As such works 
 are intended to resist fire from the heaviest artillery, they should 
 receive the maximum thickness of parapet. {Par. 586.) The 
 parapet is much higher, the merlons being simply masses of 
 earth thrown up in mound shape and reveted on tlie interior 
 slope, without any attempt at arrangement for infantry fire. 
 The magazines, traverses, and splinter-proofs are of greater size 
 and thickness. The guns are mounted on iron carriages the 
 same as for permanent fortifications ; tlie Iieight of these carri- 
 ages admits of from five to seven feet from the interior crest, or 
 from the sill of the embrasure to the top of the platform. Eaclt 
 piece requires 18 feet in width of clear space, and in most cases 
 a splinter-proof traverse should be placed between each gun, or 
 pair of guns, and its neighbor. 
 
 Tlie gun platforms are constructed of heavy beams of timber 
 in two or three layers, crossing each other and firmly secured 
 together with iron bolts. Plate 62 shows in detail the construc- 
 tion of the platform for the 8-inch converted rifle, which is also 
 the same for the 100-pounder Parrott and 10-inoh smooth-bore. 
 
 For the 12-inch rifie, the platform represented in Plate 63 has 
 been proposed by the Engineer Bureau. 
 
 The platform adopted for the 15-inch smooth-bore (front pin- 
 tle) is shown in Plate 64 This platform is designed for a carri- 
 age with depressed traverse circles, admitting of the terre-plein 
 being 11 feet below the interior crest, thus giving increased se- 
 curity to the cannoneers. 
 
 Plate 64 shows the details of construction of the platform 
 
POWDER MAGAZINES. 389 
 
 adopted for the 15-inch smooth-bore, mounted on a centre-pintle 
 carriage. 
 
 These platforms are supplied, when needed, by the Engineer 
 Department. To lay one, a pit of the proper size is dug; the 
 bottom of it is thoroughly settled by ramming, and the platform 
 is laid in it, and the earth filled in and well rammed about the 
 timbers. Great care should be observed to have the circles per- 
 fectly level. Previous to laying the platform the timbers should 
 be coated witli coal-tar. 
 
 In case of war with an}' maritime power, it would be necessary 
 to erect earth-works of the foregoing character for the protection 
 of our harbors. The permanent works constructed and intended 
 for that purpose were designed when the 10-inch Columhiad rep- 
 resented artillery of the greatest power. Since then artillery of 
 a new type and vastly greater power has been introduced, against 
 which fortifications of old style are capable of offering but feeble 
 resistance. The construction of these old works, furthermore, 
 does not, except to a small degree, admit of the changes that 
 would be necessary to adapt them for receiving armaments of 
 modern artillery. An oflScer in command of the defenses of a 
 harbor being called upon to place them in a state of efficiency, 
 would, therefore, select positions exterior to the permanent 
 works, and erect thereon earth-works of the character just de- 
 scribed, and aim them with appropriate artilleiy. Tlie new 
 works would, generally, be simply uninclosed batteries bearing 
 upon the channel. They should, if possible, hold defensive rela- 
 tionship with the old works and the latter be utilized as redoubts, 
 armed with light guns and musketry, to prevent the enemy from 
 landing and assaulting the new works in rear. The old works 
 would, furthermore, serve as places of arms and depots secure 
 from capture by coup de main. 
 
 Whenever railroad or water transportation is available, artil- 
 lery of heavy calibre is made use of in siege operations. Guns 
 thus used are mounted on wooden platforms of the foregoing 
 models, and placed in earth-works of the character herein de- 
 scribed. 
 
 637. Powder magazines. The main objects to be obtained 
 in constructing a powder magazine arc, to place it in a position 
 convenient to the pieces to be served, and one least exposed to 
 the fire of the enemy ; to make it shot-proof, and to secure the 
 contents from moisture. 
 
 Magazines are of two kinds: the storage magazine., in which 
 is kept the general supply of powder for the work, and scroice 
 magazines, wliicli are small, containing only a limited supply 
 for the immediate use of a few pieces. The latter shoifld be 
 
S90 STORAGE MAGAZINE. 
 
 near the pieces to be served ; generally they would be placed 
 ill the traverses separating guns, or else close in rear of the 
 platforms. 
 
 Storage magazine. The size of the storage magazine will 
 depend upon the number and calibre of pieces in the worls 
 and the number of charges to be kept for each. This data 
 being known, the amount of storage room required will be de- 
 termined by allowing 5780 cubic inches for each barrel contain- 
 ing 100 pounds of powder. 
 
 Prnjectiles and cartridges for siege and field guns are put up 
 in boxes, as explained in par. 565, and are stored in magazines 
 kept especially for this kind of ammunition. Each box of siege- 
 gnn ammunition contains four projectiles and four cartridges, 
 and measures about 2950 cnbic inclies. Each box of fleld-gun 
 ammunition contains ten projectiles and cartridges, and meas- 
 ures about the same. From this it is easy to obtain the storage 
 capacity required for any amount of these kinds of ammunition. 
 
 The dimensions of the interior of the magazine should be so 
 regulated as to entail no unnecessary loss of space in storing its 
 contents. The exterior dimensions of a powder barrel are : 
 Length, 20 inches ; diameter at bilge, 17 inches. With the bar- 
 rels stored in the usual vi^aj', on the side, {Fig. 1, Plate 65,) a 
 magazine 6 feet 6 inches high would afford space for four tiers, 
 leaving 8 inches on top for handling room. A magazine 10 feet 
 wide will give room for four rows, leaving 40 inches for passage- 
 way; therefore each 17 inches of length of a magazine 10 feet 
 wide by 6.5 feet high wiU contain 16 barrels. A magazine of 
 this height. and width and 30 feet long would store 400 barrels 
 and leave a space of about one yard in width, extending across 
 it, at the entrance. 
 
 At the rate of 100 rounds for each 15-inch gun, a fair allow- 
 ance for such gnns in field-works, a magazine of the foregoing 
 dimensions will give storage for a supply of powder for four 
 pieces. The number of rounds per gun should increase as the 
 calibre diminishes. It would, however, seldom be necessary to 
 have more than 300 rounds for any calibre above 100-pounders. 
 An ordinaiy packing-box containing the number of rounds 
 before specified measures, in exterior dimensions, 19 inches in 
 length, 13.5 inches in width, and 11.5 inches in height. These 
 dimensions allow the boxes to be compactly packed in a maga- 
 zine of any ordinary shape, and it requires only a small calcula- 
 tion to determine the storage room required for any given num- 
 ber of rounds for guns of these calibres. 
 
 It is best not to exceed, for any one magazine, the dimensions 
 
STORAGE MAGAZINE. 391 
 
 above laid down, namely, 30 by 10 by 6.5 feet. When greater 
 storage room is required, two or more should be constructed. 
 
 Precautions to secure drainage are of the utmost importance. 
 Generally tlie ground is sufficiently undulating to effect this by 
 means of a covered drain leading from the bottom of tlie maga- 
 zine. Where this is not practicable, the bottom of the excava- 
 tioiv must be formed so as to collect the water at one point, 
 whence it may be removed by pumping or bailing. 
 
 Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate tlie best method of constructing a stor- 
 age magazine. The sides of the interior of the magazine are 
 formed of 12-inch logs, either square or round, placed vertically 
 in juxtaposition, and restingon aground-sill. These are capped 
 on top by a 2-incli plank, a strip of the same being spiked on 
 within the cap. The roof is formed of 15-inch logs, laid across, 
 in juxtaposition, each having a shoulderof 3 inches to fit it to the 
 cap and Inside strip. Longitudinal logs with varying diame- 
 ters are laid on these, so as to give- a proper pitch to the roof. 
 Earth is solidly packed upon the top and between the roof logs, 
 receiving the proper slope for the roofing boards. These boards, 
 carefully joined, are laid on in two thicknesses, eacli being covered 
 with a coating of asphalt or coal-tar; upon these boards rest the 
 covering of earth. The flooring is of joists and boards. The 
 sides of the magazine are surrounded with an air-chamber formed 
 of inclined logs supported on a ground-sill and resting against tlie 
 top logs; these are placed at three or four feet apart, each one 
 being braced at the middle to resist flexure from the pressure of 
 the earth. The air-cliamber is covered in by saplings laid upon 
 each othep horizontally. Ventilators are placed between the 
 magazine and the air-chamber, near the top, and also between 
 the latter and the external air, the two not being opposite, and 
 the usual precautions to guard against sparks, by covering the 
 mouth with wire cloth or perforated tin, are taken. The whole 
 is covered with earth, the thickness of which will depend on the 
 character of the enemy's artillery. In no case shoidd it be less 
 than 14 feet on the exposed side ; 10 feet will be sufficient for 
 the other sides and the top. The entrance may be either upon 
 an end or side, depending upon how the magazine has been 
 located with reference to the enemy. In all cases the entrance 
 must be on the side from the enemy, and should be secured by 
 a bomb-proof covering. The magazine chamber should, if prac- 
 ticable, be placed at least two-thirds of its height below the sur- 
 face of the ground. The ammunition is stored and cared for as 
 explained in par. 569. 
 
 In this and all similar structures railroad iron is a highly serv- 
 
392 SERVICB MAGAZINES. 
 
 iceable material for roofing, the bars being laid in juxtaposition 
 in place of the logs before mentioned. 
 
 Service magazines. The size of these will depend upon the 
 number of rounds it is desirable to have ready for immediate 
 use ; usually, twenty rounds for sea-coast guns, and from fifty to 
 a hundred for those of smaller calibre, will be sufficient. The 
 capacity of tlie magazines to hold this amount or any other that 
 may be fixed upon will be determined by the rules just given. 
 If the magazine is to hold barrels, it should be 6.5 feet high and 
 7..5 wide ; this will accommodate four tiers of three rows, leaving 
 a passage-way of 30 inches. The length will depend upon the 
 number of barrels, and this w.ai be governed by the number and 
 calibre of pieces to be provided for; generally, 15 feet will be 
 ample. 
 
 A magazine of this description is usually constructed of coffer- 
 work. 
 
 A coffttr-work is formed by making frames (Fig. 1, Plate 66) cor- 
 responding in dimensions with the cross section of the magazine ; 
 each frame is composed of two uprights, termed stanchions, and 
 a cap and sill of stout timber or scantling, not less than 6-inch, 
 The cap and sill pieces are slightly notched to fit the stanchions, 
 and all secured together with nails or spikes. These frames are 
 placed upright and parallel to each other, about 2 feet apart ; 
 tliey are covered on the top and sides with 2-inch plank, termed 
 a sheeting. The magazine, otherwise, is constructed as in the last 
 case. 
 
 A very good magazine, and one easiest of construction, is made 
 of logs notched together at the corners after the fashion of a log 
 cabin. {Fig. 2, Flate 66.) Other logs are laid in juxtaposition 
 across the top, and the whole covered over with earth. This is 
 the most substantial for those placed in traverses. 
 
 For field and siege pieces the magazines are not required to be 
 so large. A height and width of 6 feet with a length of 12 feet 
 will generally be sufficient. 
 
 Magazines of this size may be made as just described, or they 
 may be made of gabions. (Fig. 3, Plate 66.) When the latter 
 are used, a hole is usually dug in the ground to form part of the 
 magazine; the gabions are placed in three rows, side by side, 
 around the hole, and are filled with earth. The top is formed 
 of timbers laid across in juxtaposition and covered with fascines, 
 the whole being covered with a proper-thickness of earth. The 
 bottom is covered by a flooring of joists and boards, a shallow 
 ditch being left under the flooring to carry any water to a drain 
 outside. This, at best, is but an inferior method of constructing 
 a magazine. 
 
TRAVERSES. 393 
 
 Entrances to magazines must always be on the side from the 
 enemy, and protected by a splinter-proof shelter large enough 
 to afford easy access to the door. 
 
 SpUnier-proofs are usually constructed of scantling or trunks 
 of trees cut into suitable lengths and placed in an inclined posi- 
 tion over the magazine door. {Fig. 4, Plate 66.) The timbers- 
 are placed side by side, and covered with at least two feet of 
 earth or sods. 
 
 To prevent rain from percolating through the earth on top, 
 the magazine is covered with a paulin laid on the earth and 
 secured witli pickets. To prevent rapid decay of the paulin, it 
 should be payed with a mixture of tar and grease boiled to- 
 gether — about two parts of tar to one of grease ; this composi- 
 tion is applied to both sides. In dry weather the paulin should 
 be removed to let the earth dry. 
 
 Boards, bark, or shingles may be used instead of paulins. 
 
 Adjoining or near the service magazine is a fllling-room, in 
 which the powder barrels are opened and the cartridges made 
 up and the shells filled. A room 10 feet square by 6J feet higii 
 will generally be suflSciently large. It is constructed in the same 
 manner as the magazine, and is fitted with shelves, &c., for the 
 convenient keeping of primers, fuse§, implements, and other 
 small articles required in making up cartridges and preparing 
 shells. 
 
 While being convenient to the magazine, it should be so sit- 
 uated that an explosion taking place in it will not communicate 
 fire to the magazine. Fig. 2, Flate 65, represents the ground 
 plan of one form that may be adopted. 
 
 The powder is carried from the magazine to the fllling-room 
 in canvas or leather stretchers, and only in such quantities at a 
 time as may be necessary for keeping the pieces served. 
 
 63S. Traverses. Those which are placed between guns or 
 on their flanks to cover them from an enfllade flre, are usually 
 termed gabionades. 
 
 To form a gabionade, gabions are placed in a row {Fig. 5, 
 Plate 66) side by side, inclosing a rectangular space of about 15 
 feet in width from out to out, and about 24 feet in length, per- 
 pendicular to the parapet. A second row is placed within this 
 and touching it, and a third row inside of the second. The area 
 thus inclosed is filled in with earth to a level with the top, of the 
 gabions. Six rows of large fascines are next laid on the gabions 
 to support a second tier consisting of two rows. The second tier 
 is filled in lilce the first, and the earth is heaped up on top. Four 
 rows of large fascines are placed on thesp to support a third 
 consisting of one row, making th^ gabionade nearly 12 feet 
 
394 BOMB-PKOOF SHELTERS. 
 
 liigli. Tlie ends are inclosed by filling in with gabions, as for 
 the sides. A passage-way of abont two feet is left between the 
 end of the traverse and the parapet. This space may be roofed 
 over with logs and earth to form a cover in which the cannon- 
 eeis may shelter themselves against fi-agments of shells. 
 
 Splinter-proof traverses may be made by placing two thick- 
 nesses of gabions side by side filled with earth, with a second 
 tier of one thickness on top. When a service magazine is to be 
 placed in a gabionade, the rows of gabions are set fartlier apart, 
 and the excavation for the magazine is made between them. 
 The chamber of the magazine is constructed In one of the ways 
 heretofore described. 
 
 639. Bomb-proof shelters. These are for the protection of 
 the troops when not on duty. They should be located on the 
 pai'ade, convenient to the pieces to be served, yet not so near as 
 to interfere with the defense. They are usually constructed in 
 half excavation of logs built up like a log house, or of a frame- 
 work in the manner shown in Fig. 1, Plate 67, the exterior 
 side being of heavy logs placed vertically in juxtaposition, rest- 
 ing on a ground-sill and capped at top. Parallel to this is an- 
 other row, forming the other side, which may also be placed side 
 by side or at short intervals apart, and capped like the outside 
 row. The roof, consistfng of heavy logs laid in juxtaposition 
 and covered with thick boards joined, rests on the capping, the 
 wliole covered over on the side of the enemy with earth to a 
 depth of at least 14 feet from the wood-work. To prevent this 
 mass of earth from pushing the structure over to the rear, one 
 in every two or three of the roof-logs are cut of sufficient length 
 to extend about 8 feet beyond the front of the wall, and dove- 
 tailed to a longitudinal log held in position by vertical posts, the 
 anchor-log being sufficiently covered with earth to protect it 
 from injury by sliot from the enemy. 
 
 These bomb-proofs are made to serve the purpose of traverses, 
 and are frequently arranged with a staging or gallery along the 
 rear side for the accommodation of infantry, who deliver their 
 fire over the top, arranged for this-as a parapet. 
 
 In all interior arrangements, system and regularity should be 
 observed from the first ; otherwise the work will grow into a 
 labyrinth of confusion gi'eatly opposed to efficiency and comfort. 
 
 640. Splinter -proofs made after the foregoing plan, but 
 smaller, may be placed against the parapet between the guns. 
 These not only afford shelter for the men, but give a place to 
 keep implements and a few rounds of ammunition ready for 
 immediate use. Auotlier convenient form of splinter-proof may 
 
BATTERIES. 395 
 
 be made by leaning logs or lailroail-ii'on bars against the sides 
 of traverses and covering tliern over with eartli. 
 
 Worlis expos'ed to anytliing lilie constant and protracted artil- 
 lery flre, should be provided with bomb and splinter proof shel- 
 ters sufficient to comfortably lodge the entire garrison. This is 
 made more necessary now than formerly, from the very great 
 range and searching power of modern artillery, which makes it 
 impossible for a garrison to obtain rest without going to too 
 great a distance from the work. 
 
 As a general rule, troops should, for sanitary reasons, be 
 quartered as much as possible outside of the works. 
 
 The importance of protecting guns and their carriages with 
 traverses and epaulments bears an increasing ratio to the size 
 of the piece. 
 
 Formerly, when guns were comparatively light, works were 
 garnished with them in great numbers, and the fact of having a 
 few of them disabled was of but little consequence ; it required 
 but simple appliances and only a few hours to replace them by 
 others. With modern heavy artillery, it is impracticable to have 
 many pieces in a work, and when one is disabled it requires 
 daj'S instead of hours, and the employment of much machinery 
 and labor, to replace it. 
 
 641. Batteries. The fleld-work that artillery troops are most 
 frequently called upon to construct is the battery. This may be 
 for one piece or for several. Fig. 2, Plate 67, represents a bat- 
 tery for four siege-pieces. 
 
 In this instance, the parapet (A) Is made of eartli taken from 
 the front, thus forming a ditch (C). To protect the pieces 
 {XX XX) from flank fire, the parapet is continued around on 
 one or both ends, forming epaulments (BB). The guns are in 
 pairs, separated by a traverse (D). The interval between the 
 axes of the embrasures of each pair is 16 feet tor giuis on travel- 
 ing carriages, and from 18 to 22 feet for sea-coast guns. Be- 
 tween the two middle pieces, this distance is increased by the 
 thickness of the traverse, generally about 15 feet. The entire 
 length of the interior crest of the parapet, from a to 6, will there- 
 fore be 79 feet. This and other given dimensions are not abso- 
 lute, but indicate the method of obtaining the data necessary 
 for laying out any battery. The length of the flank epaulments 
 will depend upon the direction of the enemy's fire; in all cases, 
 It must be sufficiently great to give full protection to the whole 
 interior from an enfilading flre; generally it would be about 24 
 feet. The thickness of the parapet and epaulments will depend 
 upon the power of the artillery they are expected co resist. 
 
396 BATTERIES. 
 
 (See par. 596.) The details of the various parts are the same a» 
 heretofore given. 
 
 When the earth is thrown up from the rear to form the para- 
 pet and epaulments, the worlc is termed a sunken hattery. The 
 ditch (C) is then dispensed with. In many instances a ditch is 
 of hut little importance, and for economy of labor the earth may 
 be taken f i-om both front and rear. 
 
 Embrasures for guns firing with great angles of elevation may 
 receive a counter-slope, giving the sole nearly the same inolina^ 
 tion from the sill upwards as the least angle of elevation uuder 
 which it may be required to aim the piece. {Fig..i, Plate 61.) 
 
 Batteries for even the heaviest pieces may be constructed on 
 marshy ground by laying a grillage of timber over the surface 
 and building up the parapet on it with sand-bags. To prevent 
 the parapet from settling over towards the front, the grillage 
 should extend several feet beyond it in that direction. In or- 
 der that the platform of the piece may not be moved from its 
 true horizontal position by any settling of the parapet, the space 
 to be oocupi<id by it is inclosed with strong sheeting piles. In 
 this inclosed space several layers of fascines are laid, crossing 
 each other at right angles ; on these earth or sand is rammed, 
 and the platform laid in the usual manner. If sand is used 
 on top of the fascines, two or three thicknesses of paulins should 
 be spread over them to hold the sand. Magazines in such locali- 
 ties must, of necessity, be entirely above ground, and supported 
 on grillage in tlie same manner. 
 
 642* Batteries are classified according to tlieir construction, 
 use, and armament, as follows : Covered battery, intended for a 
 vertical fire and concealed from the enemy ; breaching battery, 
 intended to breach the works of the enemy ; joint batteries, unit- 
 ing their fire against the same object ; counter-battery, one bat- 
 tery opposed to another ; cross-batteries, forming a cross-fire on 
 an object ; oblique battery forms an angle of 20 degrees or more 
 with the object against which it is directed, in contradistinction 
 to direct battery ; raised battery, one whose teire-plein is elevat- 
 ed considerably above the ground; sunken battery, where the 
 sole of the embrasure is on a level with tlie ground, and tlie 
 platform consequently sunk below it ; enfilading battery, when 
 the projectiles sweep along a line of troops, a ciiannel, road, or 
 part of a work ; horizontal battery, when the terre-pleiu is tliat 
 of the natural level of the ground ; open battery, without epaiil- 
 ment or other covering — ^wholly exposed ; indented battery, or bat- 
 tery & crhnailli^e, one constructed with salient .and reentering 
 angles for obtaining an oblique fire as well as a direct fire, and 
 to aflford shelter from the enfilade fire of the enemy; reverse bat- 
 
WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS, ETC. ^ 397 
 
 tery, that which flres upon the rear of a work or line of troops ; 
 ricochet battery, that whose projectiles, being flred at low eleva^ 
 tion, graze and bound along without burying themselves ; masked 
 battery, artificially concealed until required to open upon the 
 enemy ; mortar batteries, gun batteries, &c. 
 
 643. Mortar batteries. These have the principal features of 
 batteries for guns. It is desirable that they should be located 
 where good views of the enemy's position may be had ; this, in 
 order that the gunner may himself see the effect of his shot, and 
 not, as is too frequently the case, have to depend upon the im- 
 perfect report of a distant observer. For siege mortars, the 
 platforms are placed the same distance apart as for siege guns, 
 viz., 16 feet ; for sea-coast mortars, tlie distance is the same as 
 for sea-coast guns, viz., 18 to 22 feet. They are usually placed 
 in pairs, with traverses between each set of pairs. Embrasures 
 are not required, and as the platform must be at such distance 
 from the parapet that the blast will not injure the interior crest, 
 it is not necessary to revet the interior slope, the earth being 
 allowed to assume its natural slope. 
 
 The siege-mortar platform furnished for field purposes is too 
 light to sustain mucli firing. For fixed batteries, they should be 
 constructed of heavy timbers, and, to insure anything like accu- 
 racy in firing, nuist be both level and stable. The sea-coast 
 platforms {par. 229), when properly laid, are in every respect efli- 
 cient. A good kind of rail platform may be made by using two 
 pieces of timber (Fig. 4, Plate 67) 12 to 15 inches square and 
 9 feet long for the rails, to which planks 2 or 3 inches thick and 
 8 or 9 feet long are spiked. The rails are parallel, and have 
 their centres 28 inches apart for the 10-inoh mortar, and 22 Inches 
 for the 8-inoh. A pit is dug large enough to receive this struct- 
 ure, and the bottom being made perfectly level, it is placed in 
 it with the planks down. Earth is filled in on top of the plank- 
 iug. This kind of platform is particularly well adapted to sandy 
 localities. If the mortar is intended to be flred in various direc- 
 tions, a suflScient number of rails are used to extend over the 
 whole surface, the planks being spiked to all of them. 
 
 644. Wire entanglements, abattis, S^c. Every approach 
 which an enemy might use to reacli a work, should be so ob- 
 structed as to keep him as long as possible under a close fire of 
 musketry. The best thing for tliis purpose is wire entangle- 
 ment, made by planting stout stakes, (Fig. 5, Plate 67,) about 
 3} feet long, 2 feet in the ground and 7 feet apart, in quincunx 
 order and in three or four lines. Around the tops of these 
 stakes, at from 12 to 18 inches from the ground, in notches pre- 
 pared for the purpose, telegraph or other strong wire is securely 
 
398 TORPEDOES. 
 
 wound, extending from one stake to another. This obstacle is 
 rapidly made, is diflScult to remove, and can be injured but little 
 by the fire of the enemy. 
 
 645. Abaitis is formed of the large limbs of trees, or of small 
 trees themselves; the small branches are chopped oflf and the 
 ends, pointed and interlaced, are presented to the enemy. The 
 large end of the limb or tree is secured to the ground by stakes. 
 Obstacles should be in two or more lines, and not too close to the 
 work ; the first line should be about 100 yards in front, and the 
 others beyond, at about 50 yards intervals. 
 
 646. Torpedoes, if used, would be placed in these intervals. 
 These weapons depend for their utility more upon their deter- 
 ring than upon their actual destructive power. Men who will 
 march bravely up through a blaze of musketry will walk timidly 
 overground in which they suspect the hidden mine. Torpedoes 
 may be simply shells charged with powder and slightly burled 
 in the ground ; or they may be wooden boxes, kegs, or any other 
 vessel capable of holding and keeping dry a charge of powder. 
 Shells produce their eflEect from their fragments, and likewise, 
 it large, from the blast of the explosion. Charges otherwise in- 
 closed produce effect only by the blast ; consequently the greater 
 the quantity of powder the greater will be the effect. 
 
 Tiie chief difficulty in planting torpedoes is in the arrange- 
 ment for igniting them at the proper moment. This may be 
 done by electricity, as for submarine mines, or by a self-acting 
 device whereby the charge is exploded by the tread of an enemy 
 passing over it. The device used by the Russians at Sebastopol 
 is perhaps the best of many that liave been tested. The case 
 consisted of a cubical wooden box {abed. Fig. 1, Plate 68) 
 large enough to contain a cliarge of 10 to 20 pounds of powder. 
 Tliis box \^'as contained in another box (ABC D); leaving a space 
 between of about 2 inches, which was filled with pitch, render- 
 ing the powder in the inner box secure from moisture. The top 
 of the exterior box was placed 6 or 8 inches below the surface 
 of the gi'ound, and on it rested a board about the size of the top ; 
 this board stood on four legs of hoop-ii-on about 4 inches high. 
 The top of this board was near the surface of the earth, and 
 covered slightly so as not to be perceived. On any slight press- 
 ure upon the board, such as a man treading upon it, the hoop- 
 iron supports yielded and the board came in contact with a glass 
 tube (X) containing sulphuric acid ; the tube breaking liberated 
 the acid, which came in contact with a priming of potassa chlo- 
 i-ate and loaf-sugar witliin the box, causing instant combustion 
 • and, as a consequence, explosion of the powder. The glass tube 
 is placed within another of lead, tin, or other metal which bends 
 
MANTLETS. 399 
 
 readily, yet strong enough to aflford a certain degree of protec- 
 tion to it. The metal tube conducts the acid to tlie interior after 
 the glass is broken. Instead of the interior box, a shell filled 
 with powder may be used. Other devices for exploding the 
 charge are frequently employed. They are constructed upon 
 the principle of a plunger striking upon fulminating composi- 
 tion, but these are diflScult to construct so that moisture will not 
 enter and destroy either the fulminate or charge. When torpe- 
 does are planted, the position of each one should be so marked 
 as to be known to friend, but not to the enemy. They should 
 not be planted in front of any work from which sorties are to be 
 made. They are useful along beaches to prevent the enemy 
 from landing. 
 
 641'. Mantlets. A mantlet is a shield placed over the mouth 
 of an embrasure to prevent musketry bullets and fragments of 
 shells from flying through and injuring those serving the piece. 
 A hole in the lower part allows the muzzle of the piece to pass 
 through into the embrasure when it is to be fired. The size of 
 these openings will depend upon the dimensions of the piece. . 
 Kope is the best material for constructing mantlets. The usual 
 size of a mantlet is 5 feet high, 4.5 feet across, and 4 inches thick. 
 For siege guns the opening is 1.6 feet high by 1.3 feet across. 
 Three-inch rope is a suitable size ; it is laid in three or five thick- 
 nesses, each of the two outer layers being in one piece bent ver- 
 tically. (Fig. 2, Plate 68.) The inner layers are bent and laid 
 horizontally, and the whole well tied together. The mantlet is 
 hung on a horizontal pole supported by forked uprights set in 
 the ground, on each side of the embrasure, at the foot of the 
 interior slope. The elasticity thus afforded by the supports 
 greatly increases the resistance of the mantlet. A small hole or 
 slit is pierced in the mantlet to allow the piece to be aimed. 
 
 Mantlets of this size weigh about 400 pounds. 
 
 A small ring mantlet of rope {Fig. 3, Plate 68) placed upon 
 the chase of the gun is sometimes used. 
 
 When rope cannot be obtained, one of similar shape may be 
 made df wood. 
 
 Mantlets may be made of wood or of iron, or of wood and 
 iron combined. Those of the latter kind furnished for the siege 
 of Yorktown were made of two thicknesses of i-inch wroughc- 
 iron spiked to 3-inch oak plank. On the head was a 2-inch 
 square iron bar riveted to the edge of the iron plates, against 
 which the oak planks abutted. The ends of this bar projected 
 6 inch.-'S, and were rounded, serving as supports to rest upon 
 upright stakes or timbers standing against the interior slope of 
 the parapet. 
 
400 GUN-SHIELDS BLOCK-HOUSE. 
 
 Mantlets, when supplied at all, are supplied by the Engineer 
 Department. 
 
 64S. Gun-sMelds. When railroad iron can be obtained, 
 shields, with embrasures in them, can be made as represented in 
 Fig. 1, Plate 69. One thickness of iron is suflScient protection 
 against projectiles from field guns, two from siege guns, and 
 joiir from pieces of the 8-inch rifle class. 
 
 The same material may be used for constructing field case- 
 mates. 
 
 Block-house. {Fig. 2, Plate 69.) This is a species of small 
 redoubt, usually built of wood, and intended for an isolated 
 point which can be approached by stealth or stratagem, requir- 
 ing the garrison to be constantly on the alert, with their arms in 
 hand. It is at once a house and a fort. They are usually con- 
 structed for tlie defense of bridges against cavalry raids. They 
 are also used in the Indian country as a defense against savages, 
 in which case they are usually placed at opposite angles of a 
 stockade for flanking purposes. 
 
 They are made 10 feet high in the clear, and from 20 to 25 
 feet square. Logs 16 to 18 inches in diameter are used; these 
 are hewed on two sides and placed together, their hewed sides 
 in contact. Tliey may be built up in the manner of a log-house, 
 but it is preferable to set them up vertically. The roof is made 
 -of heavy logs extending over the walls about 18 inches on all 
 sides. On "these logs a covering of earth is placed 4 feet thick at 
 the crown and running down to a depth of 6 inches at the eaves. 
 This earth is thoroughly rammed, and in it are imbedded pur- 
 lins, upon whieli is constructed a roof of boards or shingles. 
 Loop-holes for musketry are cut through the walls, the splay 
 being on the inside, and the height above the floor 8 feet. A 
 banquette of plank 3.5 feet from the floor and 6.5 feet in width 
 is carried around the interior ; this serves also as a substitute for 
 bunks. 
 
 Machine guns are eminently adapted for block-houses ; next 
 to these are howitzers, or other pieces effective with canister. 
 Each house should be supplied with two or more such pieces, 
 embrasures for which are cut so as to sweep the main avenues 
 of approach. The throats of the embrasures are closed when 
 not in use by heavy timber doors, barred on the inside. The 
 embrasures are cut at a proper height from the floor for the car- 
 riage used, and the banquette made in movable sections behind 
 each embrasure. 
 
 Around the outside is dug a V-shaped ditch, the earth being 
 thrown up against the sides of the house, at an angle of 45 de- 
 grees, as high as the soles of the loop-holes. The cheeks of the 
 
BLOCK-HOUSE. 401 
 
 embrasures through this bank are of hewn timber, and a roof of 
 tlie same is laid across to sustain the slope just mentioned. A 
 small magazine is placed below the floor. A well-constructed 
 jibattis and wire entanglement should surrouad the work at a 
 -distance from it of about 100 yards. A block-house thus con- 
 structed is pretty secure against any artillery accompanying 
 cavalry raids. 
 
 The general idea of a block-house may be utilized in the con- 
 struction of bomb-proof covers or casemates for guns in field- 
 works. 
 
^m mm^' 
 
 ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF POSITIONS. 
 
 649. In the attack upon intrenched positions, the points 
 regarded as the most advantageous are those in which (he gen- 
 eral combination of the defensive line forms a salient with ref- 
 erence to adjacent parts. Such positions can receive but little 
 support from collateral portions, and can, to a greater or less 
 degree, be enveloped bj* a line of iutrenchments of much greater 
 extent than itself, aifording opportunities for establishing enfi- 
 lading and other batteries, the Are from which will be conver- 
 gent upon the point of attack. 
 
 Fig. 3, 1'late 69, illustrates some of the advantages to be gained 
 by the selection of a salient as the point of attack. The full line 
 represents the trace of a regular work following theoretically 
 the general contour of the salient to be attacked. An inspection 
 of the figure shows that A, upon the prolongation of the face 
 E F, will be the best possible position tor the attacking artillery ; 
 as from this position the projectiles, after grazing the parapet 
 at the point E, will rake the entire face E F. It is quite impos- 
 sible to protect such a line by traverses and at the same time 
 maintahi a stout defense against a front attack. 
 
 From the point B, within the prolongation of the face, the 
 latter is struck in reverse under so small an angle as to weaken 
 but slightly the advantage of enfilade. It becomes less efficient 
 as its distance from the prolongation of the face is increased. 
 The next most advantageous position is at C, on the other side 
 of the prolongation of the face, striking its exterior direct but 
 under a small angle, thus taking in flank the embrasures of the 
 face and more readily destroying them without being exposed 
 to direct Are from the face. 
 
 The locality sometimes renders it obligatory to make the artil- 
 lery attack a direct one, as at D. This is the least advantageous 
 of all. 
 
 The dotted line of the figure represents more nearly actual 
 lines of field-works. The principles, however, remain the same. 
 
 In determining positions for batteries, those nearest the enemy 
 
 are not necessarily the besl ; in fact, the greater tiio range the 
 
 more searching will be the fire. The projectiles will not have 
 
 the same power of penetration and destruction at long as at 
 
 (403) 
 
404 
 
 ATTACK AND DEFENSE OP POSITIONS. 
 
 short range ; nevertheless, for ordhiary warfare they possess suf- 
 ficient of these qualities to perform the work required of artillery 
 against field iutreiiohments. 
 
 650. The following tahle, showing the drop of projectiles at 
 various ranges, indicates the importance of this factor in actual 
 warfare. Fig.. 1, Plate 70, illustrates this grapliically, and, fur- 
 thermore, furnishes useful suggestions as to defilading worlfs by 
 means of traverses and epaulments. See also table and remarks 
 iapar. 619. 
 
 Drop of projedUes. 
 
 Baitge. 
 
 Etflb-Muskbt. 
 
 ITY. 
 
 8-lNCH 
 
 Rifle. 
 
 100-Pdb. Pabbott. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Drop. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Drop. 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 85 
 
 0.6 
 
 1120 
 
 ....» 
 
 ...... 
 
 I'il 
 
 400 
 
 SO 
 
 1. 
 
 915 
 
 *•>.•• 
 
 6T.3 
 
 600 
 
 30 
 
 1.75 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 fl"^ ^' 
 
 TOO 
 
 26 
 
 
 .... 
 
 6T.3 
 
 28.6 
 
 1'"^ 
 
 800. 
 
 20 
 
 2.5 
 
 TOO' 
 
 •■•r*. 
 
 ...a*. 
 
 1000 
 
 14 
 
 3.75, 
 
 625 
 
 •.^■.. 
 
 ...... 
 
 III 
 
 1100 
 
 »• 
 
 •■»■■ 
 
 ...H 
 
 
 
 19.0 
 
 IMO 
 
 ■ •> 
 
 ••..■• 
 
 6SS 
 
 28.6 
 
 ...... 
 
 1400 
 
 ... 
 
 ...... 
 
 
 ...... 
 
 14.3 
 
 5|5 
 
 1500 
 
 "•. 
 
 ■••..> 
 
 506 
 
 , 
 
 
 leoo 
 
 ... 
 
 •.■•»• 
 
 ...« 
 
 19.0 
 
 ...... 
 
 1700 
 
 ... 
 
 •.•■.. 
 
 H... 
 
 ■ »•>■ 
 
 11.4 
 
 BO B'S 
 
 1900 
 
 ... 
 
 ■•..>• 
 
 • "■ 
 
 •.»f». 
 
 sa 
 
 §ffl 
 
 2000 
 
 4 
 
 ■ •••j" 
 
 413 
 
 14.3 
 
 „„„ 
 
 2500 
 
 ... 
 
 
 .... 
 
 11.4 
 
 T.1 
 
 3000 
 
 ■•• 
 
 
 >.■•■ 
 
 SJ 
 
 B.8 
 
 S500 
 
 »■ 
 
 ..■■■■ 
 
 .... 
 
 6.3 
 
 ■•*■*» 
 
 illj 
 
 4000 
 
 ... 
 
 ...•• 
 
 ■.*• 
 
 6.1 
 
 
 4600 
 
 ... 
 
 ...«. 
 
 .... 
 
 4.1 
 
 
 ■sss 
 
 When the distance to the object can be determined and the 
 range is such as to require considerable elevation, it is by no 
 means necessary that the object should' be seen from the gun, 
 provided range-points can be accurately established, as in mortar 
 fljrliig. Tliis is illustrated by Fig. 2, Plate 70. In many cases 
 it will be a great advajntage to locate guns in this manner, for 
 the reason that the enemy will probably not be able to ascertain 
 tlieir position witli sufficient accuinaey to do them^ much damage. 
 
 Should the distance behind which cover can be obtained be 
 quite short, as represented, in Fig. 3, Plaie 70, the charges for 
 guns may be reduced so as to allow tJie necessary elevation to 
 be given to carry the pcojeetiles over the eover, and at the same 
 time drop them into the enemy's works. A few trial ^tots will 
 enable the artillerist to accomplish this with certainty. Siege 
 howitzers are used advantageously in this way. 
 
ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF POSITIONS. 405 
 
 651. lu nearly all cases the attack has the advantage over 
 the defense, in the amount of fire that can be brought to bear 
 upon any particular point. When a position can be completely 
 suiTOunded, as is frequently the case in sieges, there is no limit 
 to the amount of fire that may be brought to bear upon it, ex- 
 cept the limit of ability to obtain the requisite quantity of pieces 
 and ammunition. It is therefore possible to throw into tlie place 
 such a hail of projectiles as to make it Impossible for the defend- 
 ers to show any resistance. In most cases, however, the place 
 can be but partly surrounded ; nevertheless, the great range and 
 ability for concentration possessed by artillery enable it to ac- 
 complish like results. It is very certain that, under such cir- 
 cumstances, the endurance of a place is only a matter of time. 
 
 Tha. belief at present prevails, to a considerable extent, that It 
 is almost impossible to carry by assault intrenched positions, if 
 resolutely defended by troops armed with the breech -loading 
 musket. Such being the case, the only alternative for dislodg- 
 ing an enemy so situated, and who cannot be starved out, is by 
 the use of artillery, — a fact that calls for the more liberal use of 
 this arm and the most skillful handling of it. 
 
 652. With snflicient artillery an enemy can be driven, as 
 before stated, from any position he may occupy. But as there 
 is a practical limit to the amount that can be supplied — and this 
 may fall below what is necessary for actually dislodging him — 
 all that can be expected of it is, to so extinguish the fire of the 
 enemy as to enable the infantry to gain possession of the works, 
 as formerly, by assault. 
 
 In preparing to make such an attack, the fii'St thing to be done, 
 after determining the particular part of the work to be assaulted, 
 is to establish the batteries and ascertain by experimental firing 
 how to use them so as to make every shot tell. Every available 
 piece should be put in, and other parts of the line stripped tem- 
 porarily in order to make the assault certain of success. 
 
 653. The infantry, in the meanwhile, has intrenched itself 
 on a line as near as practicable to the enemy, and organizes into 
 three lines for the assault. The artillery opens and keeps up 
 an incessant fire. When it is seen that the enemy have been 
 driven to cover, the first line of infantiy advances as a thick line 
 of skirmishers composed of detachments, each detachment being 
 under control of its chief. If the enemy show themselves, this 
 line opens fire and assists the artillery in suppressing them. The 
 men of eacli detachment keep together, and the detachments, 
 taking advantage of every accident of ground for cover, rush 
 forward from point to point as opportunity offers. This line is 
 constantly fed and sti-engthenert from the next line in reai-, 
 each detachment sent forward gaining ground until the reveree 
 
406' ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF POSITIONS. 
 
 side of the enemy's work is gained ; seeing which, the second or 
 main line rushes forward, and the whole clamber over the works 
 and drive out or capture the enemy. 
 
 The second or main line is formed in company columns, and 
 follows the first, or line of skirmishers, at a distance of about 500 
 yards — less when possible. The third, or reserve, is about 300 
 yards in rear of the second, and is massed by battalions ready 
 to be moved where required. The lines of infantry are about 
 of equal strength ; i. e., each one-third of the assaulting force. 
 
 654. The artillery at first nses shell, but as the infantry ad- 
 vances, and it becomes necessary to Are over it, only solid pro- 
 jectiles will be used ; and fire with these must be discontinued 
 when, the infantry has approached so as to be in danger from it. 
 This is the most critical moment; but if positions for the bat- 
 teries have been selected witli sicil), those on the flanks will be 
 able to keep up a cross-fire until the final rush is made. The 
 artillery commander must liave this matter so in hand as to be 
 able to commence or stop the fire from any battery at any mo- 
 ment. To accomplish this each battery should be in telegraphic 
 coramnnication with him, and he must have a position where he 
 will have a clear view and knowledge of what is going on at the 
 point of assault. 
 
 As a general rule, it is well for the batteries, instead of sus- 
 pending their fire, to increase tlie elevation so as to throw their 
 projectiles beyond. This, besides checking and disorganizing 
 reinforcements coming up to the enemy from the rear, will have 
 a salutary moral effect upon him at the point of assault. 
 
 When, as is generally the case, the front of the work is pro- 
 tected by abattis or other obstructions, pioneers must accom- 
 pany the first line to clear ways for the company columns of 
 the second line to pass througii. 
 
 The artillery commander will select a proper number of de- 
 tachments, placed under suitable officers, to advance with the 
 second line for the purpose of turning upon the enemy sucll 
 pieces as may be captured witli the works. These detachments 
 will carry with them sponges, rammers, primers, and lanyards. 
 Ammunition will generally be found with the captured pieces. 
 
 The most precise instructions are usually given to division, 
 brigade, and battalion commanders as to what they are to do 
 after getting possession of the work; otherwise the troops take 
 no precautions against a counter-attack. As soon as practicable, 
 the artillery commander moves batteries forward to establish a 
 new line on the works just captured. It is his duty to take pos- 
 session of all captured artillery material. An accurate and com- 
 plete inventory must be made of it, together with an account of 
 the part it had in the defense of the place ; this, in order that 
 
SIEGES. 407 
 
 theve may be no uncertainty as to the honors due to various 
 parts of the capturing force. 
 
 Assaults should be made early in the day, so that the assault- 
 ing foi-ce will have time by daylight to push and make perma- 
 nent its success. If night intervenes, the assailed may take 
 advantage of it to reorganize a new line as strong as the first. 
 
 A dense fog is most favorable for an assault, as the assaulting 
 force is then able to see plainly that which is immediately 
 around it, without itself being seen by the assaQed. For the 
 same reason, if made at night, bright moonlight is favorable. 
 
 It may here be mentioned that artillery of batteries in posi- 
 tion possesses an advantage over all other arms, in being able 
 to be used as well by night as by day ; and this is one powerful 
 element in its favor when protracted operations are carried on 
 against an enemy established in works. 
 
 If the strength of the works is such that they cannot be car- 
 ried in the manner just described, then recourse must be had to 
 regular approaches and siege operations. 
 
 Sieges. 
 
 655. A place is said to be closely besieged when it Is so in- 
 vested as to prevent those within receiving succor from without. 
 When such an investment can be effected and maintained, time 
 alone will effect, by starvation, the work of reduction. When 
 the operations against the place are confined to a simple inter- 
 ruption of communications, it is termed a blockade. 
 
 In most cases, however, a place can be but partly invested. 
 The besieging operations then consist in regular approaches 
 against particular parts of line of the besieged, reducing them 
 in succession so as to force him to abandon the place which he 
 has attempted to defend. 
 
 No siege can be successfully prosecuted unless the resources 
 of the attacking army, especially in artillery, are superior to those 
 of the besieged. 
 
 6.56. When a siege is to be carried on by regular approaches, 
 the work so attacked should be enveloped as far as possible by a 
 line of batteries containing the heaviest pieces within the re- 
 sources of the besieging party. These batteries are connected 
 by a rifle trench for the accommodation of the infantry supports, 
 and to fonn a covered communication from one end of the line 
 to another. It also serves as & secure and convenient place for 
 the accumulation of material for the prosecution of further opera- 
 tions. The line thus formed is called the first parallel ; its dis- 
 tance from the besieged work depends. In a great measure, on the 
 character of the ground ; if this is undulating and broken, so as 
 
408 BIE6ES. 
 
 to form natural approaches to the batteries, the distance may bo 
 much less than when the country is level and open to the tire and 
 view of the bedeged. As a rule, it should be just without the 
 zone of very destructive fire from small-arms. This, with the 
 present rifle-musket, is about 1500 yards, a distance permitting 
 of the efliective use of the artillery mounted along the line. The 
 batteries containing guns, especially those of heavy calibre, 
 should be located on the flanks of the line, leaving the interme- 
 diate batteries for mortars ; this, for the reason that guns so sit- 
 uated will not be masked and have their flre checked by subse- 
 quent operations. Mortars can at all times maintain their flre 
 over the heads of troops occupying advanced positions. 
 
 If the enemy occupy intrenclied positions in front of the main 
 work to be attacked, flre must be concentrated flrst upon one 
 and then another of these positions until he is successively driven 
 from them into his main work. 
 
 Every piece of artillery capable of throwing a projectile into 
 the works should be brought into requisition, and a superiority 
 gained as soon as possible over the artillery of the besieged. 
 
 65 V. In the raeanwliile preparations have been made, by the 
 accumulation of material, for the establishment of a second par- 
 allel, several hundred yards in advance of the first. This should 
 be done under cover of night by a line of infantry throwing up 
 a rifle trench. This trench is enlarged until it forms, like the 
 flrst, a covered way secure from the view and flre of the be- 
 sieged. Communication with the first parallel is secured by 
 means of zigzag trenches, teclmically called boyatix. {Fig. 1, 
 Plate 71.) The branches of these boyaux are so laid out that 
 the enemy will not have an enfilading fire along them. Batteries 
 are constructed along the second parallel ; the boyaux are en- 
 larged to accommodate artillery carriages; the batteries are then 
 armed. Gun-shields, mantlets, and all similar devices mnst be 
 employed for the protection of the guns and cannoneers of these 
 batteries. The distance of this line will admit of the use of the 
 smaller class of mortars, and an abundance of them should be 
 put in it. As a rule, it is not advisable to place in this line 
 pieces of a heavier calibre than siege guns ; this, for the reason 
 that heavier calibres are more difficult to serve, and, besides, the 
 range from the first parallel is quite within tlie limits of eflPect- 
 ive flre from heavy calibres. 
 
 An unremitting fire is kept up upon the besieged place. Dur- 
 ing the day the guns will be directed so as to sweep along the 
 faces of the worlcs, disabling the. guns of the enemy and demol- 
 ishing his traverses, magazines, and bomb-proofs. During the 
 night an incessant shower of mortar shells must be kept falling, 
 to prevent repairs and to keep the garrison constantly harassed. 
 
SIEGES. 40^ 
 
 658. Usinjr the second parallel as a secondary base, the boy- 
 aux are pushed forward towards the salients of the work ; when 
 advanced to within about half the distance from the second par- 
 allel to the work, a third parallel is constructed by running 
 trenches to the right and left of the heads of the boyaux. The 
 third parallel is for the accommodation of strong guards of in- 
 fantry supporting the working parties, who, under this protec- 
 tion, contrive to push forward the boyaux. They also use their 
 Are to suppress musketry Are from the works and to prevent 
 the enemy from serving his guns. An abundance of small mor- 
 tars should be placed in the third parallel and vigorously served. 
 
 As the boyaux are continued, it may be found advisable to 
 establish a fourth parallel. 
 
 Tire from adjacent or collateral works must l)e attended to, so 
 as to prevent it from interfering with the progress of the ap- 
 proaches. 
 
 If the artillery of the besiegers is sufficiently numerous and 
 powerful, the foregoin|; arrangements will enable it, if vigor- 
 ously served, to drive to cover the garrison of the place, and to 
 so destroy the means of defense as to make further resistance 
 of little avail. The garrison will either capitulate or withdraw ; 
 or if they still hold out, an assault made by infantry from the 
 advanced parallels will have a fair' prospect of success. The 
 batteries having prepared the way for assault, render assistance 
 to it by the most spirited fire. This must, however, be directed 
 so as not to interfere with the assaulting iorce as it enters the 
 work. The practice which the batteries have had up to this time 
 will enable them to direct their fire with precision, and each one 
 must have pointed out to it the precise duty it has to perform. 
 
 Instead of an assault, sapping and mining may be resorted to, 
 and the work made untenable by these means. These operation* 
 are conducted by engineers, the functions of the artillery, mean- 
 while, being confined to wliat has heretofore been laid down. 
 
 659. Masonry revetments readily crumble under blows fi'om 
 heavy rifle projectiles. The precision with which the firing can 
 be done, and the drop of the projectile at long range, enable 
 the artillerist to reach scarp walls without, as in former times, 
 establishing batteries on the crest of the glacis. The dSbri» 
 from the scarp, whether the latter be of masonry or earth, and 
 that from the parapet resulting from constant hammering, will 
 generally make a ramp practicable for assaulting parties. 
 
 The particular work to be attacked by siege operations should 
 be selected with a view to the effect that its capture will have 
 on other parts of the line; in other words, that its capture, 
 when accomplished, will be productive of decisive results, sucli 
 as leading to the capture or abandonment of other works in the 
 
410 SIEGES. 
 
 line, the uncovering of communications important to tlie besieg- 
 etl, or securing lines of approach to the besiegers. 
 
 660. The defense of works attacked by regular approaches 
 calls for the most active and vigilant exertions on the part of the 
 besieged, especially so from the artillery. So soon as tlie opera- 
 tions of the besieger indicate what work of a line, or the par- 
 ticular part of a work, is his objective, every effort must be made 
 to restrict the extent of his lines of envelopment. To this end, 
 adjacent and collateral works must be armed with pieces of the 
 heaviest calibre, so situated as to take the lines of approaches as 
 much as possible in flank. These batteries will give special 
 attention to the long-range batteries of the besiegers. Every 
 available piece of artillery must be brought forward and placed 
 in battery so as to strike the besiegers at some point or other. 
 Unremitted flre must be maintained against the heads of the 
 approaches ; these, from their open character, are peculiarly vul- 
 nerable to mortar flre. As many mortars as possible should be 
 placed in batteries established for this special purpose. It is 
 not advisable to crowd artillery into the objective point of the 
 enemy, but rather to the right and left of it ; this secures a cross- 
 fire, and at the same time withdraws the pieces from the points 
 upon which the besieger concentrates his flre. 
 
 If an assault is to be apprehended, batteries, especially of 
 machine guns, should be established so as to sweep the ditch 
 and prevent the enemy from making a lodgment by digging 
 into the scarp and parapet. These batteries must be well secured 
 by means of bomb-proof covers and gun-sliields. Traverses 
 must be tlirown up to protect the guns, and bomb and splinter 
 proofs constructed to shelter the cannoneers. An interior line 
 of intrenchments should be constructed in rear of that part of 
 the main w^ork attacked. This should be well supplied with 
 liglit pieces of artillery, which may be kept under cover until 
 the proper moment and then run up to drive the enemy from 
 his lodgment on the main work. 
 
 The supply of ammunition mnst be closely attended to, and 
 under no circumstances, wliere it is possible to avoid it, should 
 it be allowed to fall below the probable needs. 
 
 All of the operations of the artillery in the defense, as well as 
 in the attack, should be directed by one head. 
 
 661. From the foregoing sketch it will be perceived that the 
 operations of a siege may be classed under two Iieads : those which 
 are necessary to prevent the besieged from obtaining succor, and 
 those whicli are required to gain possession of the works. 
 
 The line established by the besieging army to prevent succor 
 from without, is called the line of circumvallation ; that estab- 
 lished for carrying on the approaches against the work, is called 
 
SIEGES. 411 
 
 (he line of counteroallation. Between these two lines the besieg- 
 ing army is established. 
 
 As a rule, the engineers have charge of the planning and con- 
 struction of the parallels and boyaux ; the artillery, of locating, 
 constructing, arming, and serving the batteries. All of these 
 operations are minutely connected with each other, and pro- 
 ceed together. It is, therefore, the duty of ofiScers having thetn 
 in charge to act in accord in carrying them out. 
 
 663. Ko specific rules can be laid down regarding the amount 
 of artilleiy required lor siege operations. 
 
 The most remarkable sieges that have taken place since the 
 introduction of the present style of artillery and small-arms have 
 employed about 6500 fighting men per mile of investment, with 
 5 pieces per thousand men, or 33 per mUe. 
 
 The conditions of each particular case must govern as to the 
 kind and calibre of pieces and the number of each, together 
 with the quantity of ammunition necessary. As a general rule, 
 a large proportion of the pieces should be of heavy calibre. la 
 some cases the means of transportation will admit of none 
 heavier than can be carried on traveling carriages. When rail- 
 roads are available stUl heavier classes may be brought up, while 
 with water transportation there is no limit. 
 
 The object of the siege must likewise be considered. If it is 
 intended to simply cut the place off from supplies and reduce it 
 by starvation, an intrenched line of battle armed with ordinary 
 field artillery will be sufficient. If the place besieged is a town 
 or city to be reduced by bombardment, long range and heavy 
 calibres are most desirable; the same class would also be re- 
 quired for a work approachable only on one side, to be destroyed 
 by battering. When a worlc of this nature is to be reduced by 
 regular approaches, there vvUl be required, in addition to guns 
 and mortars of heavy calibres for long range, a large proportion 
 of regular siege artillery capable of being readily moved up as 
 the works of the besiegers approach the enemy. 
 
 The amount of ammunition required will depend upon the char- 
 acter of the work to be done and the duration of the siege. If the 
 source of supply is certain and regular, the quantity to commence 
 with may be small compared with what should be provided un- 
 der other conditions. Considering the source of supply reason- 
 ably certain, about 200 rounds per piece for sea^coast and lOOO 
 rounds per piece for other classes will be a fair allowance. 
 
 663. When a siege is determined upon, the chief engineer 
 and artillery officers must study every condition of the particu- 
 lar case and decide upon what seems to be the best for carrying 
 out the general plan. Nothing must he omitted to make the 
 preparation complete. 
 
412 SIEGES. 
 
 In commencing siege operations, tlie first thing necessary i& 
 to gain possession of a large area of ground as near as possible 
 to the place to be besieged, for the purpose of establishing- 
 depots, artilleiy parks, hospitals, and camps. This area must 
 be made entirely secure by intrenchraents, after the manner of 
 an intrenched camp. 
 
 Depots, parks, camps, &o., should be screened as much as 
 possible from the view of the enemy, and a thorough system of 
 roads and telegrapiiic communication established between them 
 and with the batteries on the line. When practicable a railroad 
 should be laid, forming a main artery from one end of the line 
 to the other. Wharves are constructed for the unloading of 
 vessels, and depots established convenient thereto. These will 
 consist of buildings for the accommodation of engineer and quar- 
 termaster's stores and subsistence supplies, together with work- 
 shops for repairs. 
 
 The water supply must be carefully looked after, not only as 
 to quantity, but as to purity. This is demanded upon sanitary 
 groimds. All springs, wells, and running brooks sliould be 
 guarded so that they may not be fouled by the watering of 
 animals or by bathing and washing of clothes. Reservoirs 
 should be constructed to prevent loss of water at night. 
 
 In localities where tlie supply is not convenient, water-carts 
 should be used for bringing it to where it is required for use. 
 This prevents straggling and idling. 
 
 The site for the artillery park and depot should be easily 
 accessible from all parts of the line. Magazines for powder and 
 fixed ammunition must be constructed in the safest places. Ar- 
 tillery carriages will be parked systematically in such manner as 
 to allow of any being withdrawn when required. The artillery 
 transportation trains, parked in the same manner, consist of a 
 number of wagons sufficient to carry supplies to the artillery depot 
 and to keep the batteries along the line supplied with ammunition. 
 
 Materials required in the construction of batteries, sucli as 
 gabions, fascines, mantlets, and sand-bags, together with those 
 for platforms and magazines, are usually supplied from the 
 engineer depot. 
 
 664. Tlie character of the artillery employed in a siege will 
 determine the nature of the machines, implements, and stores 
 required. Supposing that the lieavier as well as the lighter cali- 
 bres can be used, a fair allowance for eacli 100 pieces, largo and 
 small, would be as follows : Six traveling forges, with stores as 
 per par. 258 ; six hattery^waqons, with stores as per par. 2.58 y 
 five s&'«a-carte (large), ten sling-carts (hand), twenty hand-carts, 
 five truch-wagons (lieavy), ten mortar-wagons, one liundred hand- 
 harrows, two liundred paulins, ten garrison gins witli tackltt 
 
SIEGES. 413 
 
 complete, five siege gins with tackle complete, five 30-fore hy- 
 draulic-jacks^ five 15-fora hydraulic-jacks, two gun-lifts, five cra- 
 dles witti rollers, two liundred and fifty way-planks, and five sets 
 of blocks, skids, &c., as specified in par. 534. 
 
 Each piece of artillery is furnished with the implements and 
 equipments lieretofore specified in connection with its service 
 and mechanical mancEuvres. 
 
 Each service magazine will he supplied with a set of appro- 
 priate scales, measures, funnels, &c., and each battery with a 
 field-glass and set of signal flags. 
 
 One or more officers will be detailed to ascertain the distances 
 from the various batteries to the objects to be fired at, and will 
 be furnished with the necessary instruments for the purpose. 
 
 Each artillery oflBcer will provide himself with a pocket com- 
 pass, a pair of dividers, a protractor scale, and pencils ; also 
 paper for notes and field-sketching. The instruments are con- 
 veuiently carried in a shoulder-pouch, as represented in Fig. 2, 
 Plate 71. 
 Intrenching tools are furnished from the engineer depot. 
 
 665. The preparations for the siege having sufficiently pro- 
 gressed, and the engineers having laid out tlje lines of intrench- 
 ments, the artillery commander will select sites for the batteries, 
 determijae their armament, and designate the troops to con- 
 struct, arm. and serve them. 
 
 The teams of the light batteries are used for transporting 
 artillery from- the landing-place to the park, and thence to the 
 batteries on the line of investment. 
 
 Important works along the line are named,, open batteries are 
 numbered in regular orders and the whole line and system of 
 commumcatitms mapped, so that there may be no confusion in 
 distributing material and supplies. 
 
 666. Wlien the siege is fully opened, the question- of supply- 
 ing the batteries with ammunition is by no means a small one, 
 and requires thorough systematizing to prevent an undue accu- 
 mulation at some points and deficiency at others. 
 
 Tlie allowance of ammuuitioQ for the immediate use of each 
 piece varies to suit circumstances; those bfltteiies in most prom- 
 inent positions have the greatest supply, 100 rounds being.about 
 the maximum and 50 the minimum. Tlie number of rounds per 
 piece diminishes as the calibre increases. The supply is main- 
 tained by means of a train of wagons kept specially fbr the pur- 
 pose. 
 
 In order that the daily expenditure may be known at the 
 depot, the commauding officer of each battery on the line will 
 each morning make out and forward to the depot a report of 
 the loUowiiig form i 
 
414 
 
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416 
 
 EEPOKT OF FIEING, 
 
 The officer in charge of the ammunition at the depot loads his 
 "vvagons with the amount required, and gives to each teamster a 
 ticket stating the contents of his wagon and to which battery it 
 is to go. 
 
 The train, under competent wagon-masters, starts out before 
 night-fall and proceeds so as to reach the batteries after dark. 
 Guides from the several batteries meet the train at appointed 
 places and direct the particular wagons to the proper batteries/ 
 Upon the arrival of the wagons, an officer of the battery gives 
 nis personal supervision to the unloading, and signs the ticket 
 brought by each driver, noting any discrepancy. The ticket is 
 returned by the driver to the officer at the depot. 
 
 All articles that have become unserviceable or are useless in 
 ■the battery, together with all empty packing-boxes and baiTels, 
 are returned by the wagons to the depot, a list of them being 
 sent back with the teamster. 
 
 To simplify accountability, the officer at the depot will be 
 -responsible for all the artillery, ammunition, and material. 
 Battery commanders give him memorandum receipts, and are 
 Tield accountable for any loss. The ammunition fired is ex- 
 pended by the depot officer upon the reports made by the officers 
 ■commandiug the several batteries. 
 
 As a general rule, cartridges will be made up at the depot, and 
 sent to the batteries either in. budge-barrels or in chests of con- 
 venient size mad»for the purpose. 
 
 The latter pai't of the r-eport on the foregoing form is for the 
 information of the commandant of artillery, and for tlie purpose 
 of keeping a complete history of the artillery firing. From the 
 daily reports a monthly abstract is made tor each piece upon 
 the following form : 
 
 Monthly report of artillery firing, siege of....„,„^May 18... 
 
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DEFILES. 417 
 
 The commanci ol the entire artillery Is vested in an otfleer of 
 that arm of service, who, besides other necessary qaaliflcations, 
 should have rank commensurate with the importance of his 
 position. 
 
 The line of works is divided into sections, each of a size capa- 
 ble of close supervision by the ofiScer assigned to the command 
 of it. 
 
 Detilks. 
 
 667. A defile, in a military sense, is any narrow place the 
 passage of which can be made by troops only when undeployed. 
 
 Mountain passes, river crossings, narrow isthmuses, and roads 
 through close forests represent the usual forms of defiles. They 
 necessarily imply obstacles in the way to the free movement of 
 armies, and are therefore important features in a theatre of war, 
 and consequently points demanding special attention by way of 
 <]efensive arrangements. For these no precise rules can be laid 
 down ; nevertheless some general principles may be stated. 
 
 The chief advantage offered by a defile is, that with but com- 
 paratively sliglit intrenchments a small force is able to hold a 
 position against a much greater ; this, for the reason that, owing 
 to the essential nature of a defile, the attacking force must oper- 
 ate in a constrained position, not admitting of much develop- 
 ment of fire. The main object, therefore, is to secure such a 
 column of fire over the defile as to make it impossible for the 
 enemy to stem it ; this is best accomplished by selecting such 
 points as will give an enfilade fire. They should be selected 
 with a view to mutual support, and intrenched in such manner 
 as to be secure against capture by coup de main. The enemy 
 must be compelled to make liis attacks with divided forces and 
 inferior numbers. This is best accomplished by occupying sev- 
 •eral positions within flanking distance of each other. He will, 
 probably, not be able to attack all simultaneously, and it will be 
 a costly operation for him to attack them in detail. 
 
 The positions should be so chosen as to allow them to con- 
 centrate their artillery fire upon any point where it might be 
 advantageous for the enemy to establish batteries, and the artil- 
 lery of the defense should be of such power as to preclude all 
 possibility of his doing so. All hollow approaches, such as 
 would be formed by ravines in a mountain pass, must (be search- 
 ed by the fire of artillery. This, as a rule, wHl require -pieces -to 
 be placed in open batteries exterior to the inclosed works. Such 
 batteries must, be well supported by infantiy sheltered in rifle 
 trenches. The whole system should be so connected as to leave 
 27 
 
418 DEFILES. 
 
 no part isolated or without the support of other parts, and the 
 defense of each point must be stubborn ia the extreme to pre- 
 vent the enemy from gaining possession of advantageous posi- 
 tions. 
 
 All parts of the line or group of works must be in communi- 
 cation by telegraph, telephone, or signaling, or by all three. 
 This is a matter of the greatest moment in securing not only 
 the physical, but also the moral support of the parts. 
 
 In every case artillery should form a chief feature in the 
 means of defense ; the kind of pieces for the diflterent parts of 
 the system will depend upon the character of the ground and 
 of the nature of the attacks that may be expected. As a rule, 
 all approaches must be covered by lire; wherever horizontal 
 fire cannot be made to reach, mortars must be used. However 
 much the pieces may be scattered, they must be capable of con- 
 centrating their flre upon any position the enemy may assume. 
 
 As defensive works in defiles are required to be self-sustaining, 
 frequently for long periods, the supply of ammunition must be 
 ample for all probable wants. 
 
 If a defile is to be held for the purposes of an army either 
 advancing or retiring in front of an enemy, the head of it to- 
 wards the enemy must be secured by a line similar to a tSte-de- 
 poni; this, for the purpose, if advancing, of giving room for the 
 army to deploy after passing the defile, and to prevent the en- 
 emy from striking it while defenseless in column ; if retreating, 
 the same disposition is necessary to hold the pursuing army in 
 check while the troops are defiling to the rear. In both cases, 
 as the object is to keep the enemy from closing in for a pitched 
 battle, artillerj' must be freely used. 
 
 In the attack upon a defile. Intrenched, armed, and defended 
 as It should be, artillery will be the most important weapon ; 
 this, for tlie reason that, from the very nature of defiles, other 
 arms can act but feebly, while artillery possesses the power of 
 reaching its object beyond intermediate obstacles. As much 
 artillery should be brought to act as possible, and, although it 
 may be widely dispersed, its fire must be concentrated upon 
 some particular work in tlie system of defenses. The work must 
 be attacked with such vigor and persistency as to insure its 
 destruction and easy capture. Other works, successively, are 
 attacked in the same manner. 
 
 The operations upon both sides thus partake of the nature of 
 a siege, and are governed by the same principles. 
 
BIVERS. 419 
 
 RiVEES. 
 
 66S. Bivers traversing the theatre of war occupied by hostile 
 armies liave a marl^ed influence on the operations of eacli. 
 Wlienever they are to be crossed in the presence of an enemy, 
 either in advancing or retiring, the use of artillery and of fleld- 
 works becomes of great importance ; this, for the reason that the 
 operation of crossing necessarily consumes considerable time, 
 during which the army is divided — astraddle, as it were, the 
 stream — and requires the aid of that arm which, from a fixed 
 position, possesses the power of covering at long range the 
 movements of other troops. 
 
 The place of crossing, whether bridge, ferry, or ford, is sim- 
 ply a defile through which the army has to pass, and which must 
 be completely covered from the fire of the enemy, who must not 
 be permitted to establish batteries within range of the crossing. 
 This is best effected by covering every point accessible to him 
 with the fire of artillerj'. 
 
 A river in front of an army operating on the defensive, stands 
 to it, somewhat, as a wet ditcli does to a fortification, and should 
 be so guarded as to make the crossing of it a difficult,, if not a 
 hazardous, operation to an advancing enemy. Points at whicli 
 the communications of a country converge are those most ad- 
 vantageous for an enemy to select for crossing. These shoidd 
 be secured by strong inclosed works, armed witli artillery of 
 such power as to cause him to make a long detour and to adopt 
 a less advantageous point. 
 
 If the stream is navigable, such works form a place of refuge 
 for the craft that ply on it, and which, falling into the hands 
 of the enemy, would furnish him with means of crossing and 
 assist him in carrying on his operations. 
 
 The size of the worlc will, to a great degree, depend upon the 
 force that can be detached from the main body for garrisoning 
 it ; but, generally, a well-constructed work containing a thousand 
 men, adequately supplied with artillery, will prove a formidable 
 obstacle to the crossing army. Points thus established should 
 not be so numerous as to cripple the efficiency of tlie defending 
 army bi'^ dispersion. They should be rather in the nature of 
 bases for temporary points of observation along the river, secure 
 against capture by coup de main, and threatening to the flanks 
 and rear of the crossing army. 
 
 I'Ste-de-pont. A bridge is protected by a tUe-de-pont, the 
 nature and extent of which will depend upon the character of 
 the attacks to be expected. Against mere raiding parties, a 
 redan or lunette — ^as represented in Fig. 1, Plaie72 — is sufficient. 
 
420 RIVERS. 
 
 Two or three pieces of artillery may be put in it, but it is prefer- 
 able to locate batteries, as at B and C, on the opposite sirle of 
 the river, to flank the redan and cross their fire in front of it. 
 
 Against a large force well snpplied with artillery, a line of 
 works (a 6) must be thrown up and well armed with artillery, 
 for the purpose of keeping him beyond artillery range from the 
 bridge. Batteries of heavy pieces are placed, as at c d, to flauk 
 the line. 
 
 The operation of crossing a river by an army in presence of a 
 vigilant enemy, is one of great delicacy, as it necessarily con- 
 sumes considerable time, during which it is more or less.divided 
 and subject to every disadvantage. Judicious use of artillery 
 is of the first importance. The first thing to be done is to 
 gain a footing on the opposite side. This is usually accom- 
 plished by stratagem or by surprise. Before a large opposing 
 force can arrive, batteries must be established on the side from 
 which the crossing is made to cover with their fire a large area 
 of ground opposite. Every available piece must be put in, and 
 the enemy kept back until bridges can be laid and a strong 
 line of infantry passed over and intrenched. Siege guns, owing 
 to their great range and power, are the best adapted for this 
 service. The batteries sliould be extended up and down the 
 stream for three or more miles on each side of the crossing-place ; 
 this, for the purpose of enfilading the flanks of the enemy and 
 preventing him from bringing his artillery to bear upon the cross- 
 ing. The place for crossing should be selected, as far as practi- 
 cable, with a view to advantageous positions for batteries. The 
 convex side of a curve {Fig. 2, Plate 72) with hills dominating 
 the opposite side gives eveiy advantage. This secures a cross- 
 lire upon the opposite peninsula, under cover of which the in- 
 fantry line and light field batteries can be thrown forward to a 
 distance of two or three thousand yards and establislied in an 
 intrenched line as represented in the figure. 
 
 If the enemy lias gun-boats on the river, especially if they are 
 iron-clads, provision against them must be made by laying across 
 the channel lines of submarine mines, with heavy batteries es- 
 tablished for tlieir protection. These liatteries must be strongly 
 intrenclied. 
 
 The operation of crossing a river by an army pressed in rear 
 by another, is the reverse of that just described. 
 
 When practicable, the concave side of a bend is selected, across 
 which a line of temporary intrenchments is constructed ; bat- 
 teries are established on the opposite side, and the army with- 
 drawn under protection of their fire. The liatteries should cover 
 themselves with gun-pits, and give special attention to such 
 
DEMOLITION. 4:21 
 
 artillery as the enemy may bring forward for tlie purpose ot 
 reaching the place of crossing. 
 
 Demolition. 
 
 669. Buildings. In military operations it sometimes becomes 
 necessary to destroy buildings, bridges, &c. Wooden structures 
 are readily and effectually destroyed by burning. Ordinary 
 dwelling-houses of stone or bricls may be blown down l)y placing 
 against the walls charges of from 25 to 50 pounds of powder, each 
 contained in a bag, box, or any convenient vessel, and exploded 
 by means of an electric primer, a slow-burning time-fuse, or a 
 piece ot slow match. The effect of the explosion is to blow 
 away a portion of the foot of the wall, that above settling down 
 without, as a rule, toppling over. An inside angle or corner of 
 the building is the most advantageous place for the charge, for 
 the reason tliat, being confined on two sides, the explosive force 
 acts more powerfully than when against a plain surface, and 
 also because the angle or corner of the building, being a point of 
 greatest support, when blown away leaves the remaining parts 
 greatly weakened. 
 
 Against strong and massive walls, such as are generally found 
 in large public edifices, charges of powder, unless ver}' heavy, 
 have but little effect when simply exploded against the wall 
 without tamping. Inside angles should, if possible, be taken, or 
 when the building has buttresses, the angles formed by them are 
 advantageous for confining the explosive force and causing it to 
 take effect on the wall. The powder is placed in a box or keg 
 and covered with earth and stones. When placed five or six 
 feet above the foot of the wall the effect is greatly increased. 
 
 In all cases where demolition is to be produced, dynamite may 
 be used instead of gunpowder. Its destructive effect is about 
 thirty times that of powder, weight for weight. 
 
 Bridges. To destroy the arches of a masonry bridge, exca- 
 vate a hole down to the crown or haunch of the arch, place in it 
 a charge of one or two hundred pounds of powder, according to 
 the thickness of the arch, tamp it well with earth and stones, and 
 explode it. 
 
 The amount of powder is determined from the formula X=j 
 A* X B : in which X is the charge in pounds, A the line of least 
 resistance through the arch, and B the breadth of the bridge, 
 both in feet. 
 
 When the width of the arch is over 25 feet, two charges should 
 be placed, to prevent the chance of blowing a hole through tho 
 
422 DEMOLITION. 
 
 middle without bringing down the sides. These should be 
 exploded simnltaneously, if possible. 
 
 When the side walls are lightly built, it is better to pull enough 
 of the stone away to allow a tunnel being run on top of the 
 arch to the middle of the roadway. This does not interfere with 
 the use of the bridge during the operation, and if it is not de- 
 sired to destroy the bridge immediately, the charge may be kept 
 in its place ready for use at any moment. In this case the charge 
 should be in a tight box or barrel, well pitched to protect it 
 against moisture. 
 
 The charge may be exploded by means of an electric primer, 
 the ordinary fuse used in blasting, or with a powder hose. This 
 latter is made of canvas or any stuff that will hold flne-grained 
 powder, and is inclosed in a trough to protect it from the moist- 
 ure of the earth. 
 
 The ordinary blasting fuse is known in this country under 
 the name of the safety fuse and Toy's fuse; in England, as 
 Bickford's fuse. 
 
 It consists essentially of a column of fine-grained gunpowder 
 inclosed iu flax, hemp, or cotton, and made up with different 
 coverings, according to the use to which it is applied. When 
 intended for immediate use on light work in dry sand, it is 
 unprotected by additional coverings ; when intended for use in 
 wet ground or under water, it is covered with varnished tape or 
 gutta-percha. 
 
 These fuses are somewhat uncertain in their rate of burning, 
 but average about one j'ard in a minute. 
 
 The ordinary varieties must be kept in a cool, dry place, and 
 preserved from contact with oil. 
 
 Wooden bridges are easily burnt ; but if great secrecy is neces- 
 sary, a hole may be bored with an auger in a main-brace and a 
 charge of powder or dynamite exploded therein, blowing it to 
 pieces. Charges should be placed in several of the braces and 
 exploded as near simultaneously as possible. 
 . During the war of the rebellion a small torpedo was devised 
 for this purpose. It consisted of a tin cylinder 1.75 inch in di- 
 ameter and about 7 inches long. Both ends of the cylinder were 
 open, and through it passed a bolt of 0.75-inch iron, with a stout 
 head_ at one end and a nut at the other, each having a diameter 
 of 2 inches. A washer of the same size as the head was placed 
 under the nut ; through a hole in the washer passed a strand 
 of slow match to communicate Are to the powder with which 
 the cylinder was filled. A coat of varnish protected the powder 
 from moisture. To use it, a hole 2 inches in diameter was bored 
 
DEMOLITION. 423 
 
 In the timber; into this the torpedo was driven, head down- 
 wards, and the fuse ignited. 
 
 The most eflfectual way of destroying an iron bridge is to at- 
 taclt the abutments by mining down so as to get behind the 
 masoniy a large charge of pawder or dynamite, which being 
 exploded, destroys the supports of the superstructure. When 
 time and means permit, remove as many bolts as possible, so as 
 to weaken the parts, after which build a strong fire and heat the 
 main-braces to make the bridge sag and warp out of shape, or to 
 come down entirely. 
 
 Canals. These may be temporarily disabled by cutting em- 
 bankments. The most effectual way, however, is to blow up a 
 lock, which may be done by digging down behind a facing wall 
 and placing against it a charge of two or three hundred pounds 
 of powder or a few pounds of dynamite, tamping well and ex- 
 ploding it. A lock destroyed in this manner requires a long 
 time to repair. The arches of an aqueduct may be broken by 
 drilling holes and blasting. 
 
 An army depending upon a railroad for its supplies should be 
 provided with an organized construction corps, fully equipped 
 with every means for making speedy repairs. Damages done to 
 railroads are easUy repaired, in comparison with those done to 
 canals. 
 
inrt §im. 
 
 SUBMAEINE MINES. 
 
 670. The term torpedo, when used in a military sense, desig-^ 
 nates those contrivances for producing explosions calculated to- 
 act destructively against an enemy coming into their immediate 
 vicinity. 
 
 They are chiefly used for obstructing rivers and entrances to 
 liarbors, and are either stationary or capable of movement. 
 When stationary they are called submarine mines, leaving the 
 term torpedo for all oflfensive and movable combinations of thia 
 nature. The use and application of the latter fall more partic- 
 ularly to the province of the Navy, the former to the Army, and, 
 being employed as auxiliary to shore batteries, constitute a 
 branch of service naturally belonging to or intimately connected 
 with the artillery arm. 
 
 Submarine mines are applicable to almost any situation liable 
 to be attacked by ships, but in every instance they should be so 
 arranged as to be covered by the guns of forts or detached bat- 
 teries, so that, while acting as outworks of these latter, they will 
 be protected from destruction by boats from a hostile fleet. 
 
 The comparatively small cost of this species of defense allows 
 of its extensive use as an agent to deter an enemy from approach- 
 ing a fortified position, and to cause him to begin the tedious and: 
 dangerous operation of clearing the channel, or to land and at- 
 tempt to capture the place without the aid of his ships. This in 
 most cases would enable the defenders to holdout until the arri- 
 val of a relieving force. 
 
 The materials required for most submarine mines are articles^ 
 of commerce easily procurable, or capable of being kept on hand 
 without damage or loss, and a system of defense by such means 
 can be carried on by a comparatively small number of men. 
 
 6'Yl. Submarine mines maybe briefly described as charges 
 of gunpowder, or other explosive agents, inclosed in water-tight 
 cases of iron or other material, and placed under water at such 
 depths that, by their explosion, they may sink or seriously dam- 
 age a vessel passing in their vicinity. They are classed under 
 two heads, viz.: Mechanical, those which depend for the explo- 
 sion of the charge on mechanical means, such as the simple per-^ 
 (425) 
 
426 SUBMARINE MINES. 
 
 cnssiou of a vessel coming in contact with them ; and Electrical, 
 those which are fired by electrical agency, either by the vessel 
 closing the circuit, or at will from the shore. 
 
 The former class, or mechanical mines, are capable only of 
 very limited use. When once placed in a channel they make it 
 equally impassable to friend and foe. They are, therefore, only 
 applicable to certain cases ; as, for example, when it becomes 
 necessary to block np a channel completely, that is to say, to 
 render it altogether Impassable till the mines have been removed. 
 They might, however, be employed on a flat beach, dry at low 
 water, to cover the flanks of electrical mines defending the navi- 
 gable channel. In such case they could be planted or removed 
 at low water with comparative security. The number of elec- 
 trical cables, &c., required would be reduced by such an arrange- 
 ment. Mechanical mines are not applicable to harbors of refuge, 
 in which merchant ships might run to avoid an enemy. 
 
 It would, furthermore, be absolutely necessary to make some 
 arrangement by which they could be exploded at will, as the 
 most eflFectual way of getting rid of them when it became neces- 
 sary to clear the channel, as the process of removal in the ordi- 
 nary way, by boats, would be far too dangerous an operation to 
 undertake. On the order hand, submarine mines of this descrip- 
 tion possess the advantage of capability of being kept in store 
 and ready for use at short notice ; they require no knowledge of 
 electricity in their management, and they might be used with 
 advantage in certain cases where electrical submarine mines are 
 not obtainable. 
 
 The second class of submarine mines, those to be flred by elec- 
 trical agency, admit of a very much larger field for their employ- 
 ment. They may be fired either at will by an observer, who, 
 judging of the position of the vessel, closes the circuit, so that the 
 charge may be exploded at the right moment ; or the vessel her- 
 self may be made to complete the circuit, causing a current to 
 pass and fire the charge. 
 
 The disadvantages of electrical submarine mines, as compared 
 with those flred mechanically, are the multiplicity of wires re- 
 qiiired and the necessity of having a certain number of espe- 
 cially trained men. This number, however, is comparatively 
 small. 
 
 The advantages of electrical mines are, that they are always 
 absolutely under the control of the observer in charge of them. 
 By simply detaching the battery used in firing them they become 
 perfectly harmless, and friendly vessels may pass over them with 
 safety, which is not the case with those arranged for mechanical 
 ignition. Again, they can be rendered active at a moment's 
 
POSITION OF SUBMARINE MINES. 427 
 
 notice by reconiiectiiig the battery. By means of electrical con- 
 trivances, arrangements are so effected that vessels passing over 
 mines give notice of their presence without exploding the mine. 
 In this respect electrical submarine mines are a great safeguard 
 against attacl: by surprise, and against vessels passing at night, 
 or in a fog. Nor can they be tampered with by an enemy with- 
 out its being immediately Icnown, and exactly what mine. In 
 the electrical system, when a mine is exploded, or becomes inef- 
 fective from any cause, another can be laid down in its place, 
 without danger, by simply malting the neighboring mines in- 
 active for the time being. Another important advantage of 
 this system is the power of testing electrically, without going 
 near it, the condition of each separate charge at any time after 
 submersion, and of ascertaining, with almost absolute" certainty, 
 whether it can be flred or not. None of these advantages apper- 
 tain to mines of the mechanical system. 
 
 673. Position of submarine mines. The following general 
 rules govern in selecting sites for these mines : 
 
 1st. They may be used in combination with floating obstruc- 
 tions, as booms, or with grounded obstructions, as sunlceu ves- 
 sels, piles, &c., or without them. 
 
 2d. They should be placed in such positions tliat their explo- 
 sions will not injure any passive obstructions combined with 
 them, or destroy the electric cables of adjoining mines. 
 
 3d. At least two, and, where practicable, more, rows of mines 
 should be arranged across the channel to be defended. 
 
 In deep water, it is more necessary to employ several lines of 
 mines than in shallow, because in the latter case a vessel snnli 
 by a mine would herself ofler an impediment to others follow- 
 ing ; but in deep water the explosion of a mine leaves a gap, 
 through which there is a safe passage. 
 
 4tli. Submarine mines should be placed in the channels through 
 which large vessels only can pass ; the shallower places being, in 
 all cases where such a course is practicable, rendered impassable 
 by passive obstructions resting on the bottom. 
 
 5th. Submarine mines should be placed in the narrowest part 
 of a channel. The advantages of such a position are evident, as 
 a smaller number will answer the purpose. 
 
 6th. When the depth of the water and other circumstances 
 admit of it, a submarine mine should always rest on the bottom. 
 Under such circumstances, all complications originating in moor- 
 ing arrangements are avoided ; its position is more easily de- 
 fined, and it is not so easily displaced by accident, or discovered 
 and destroyed by an enemy. 
 
 7th. No indication of their position should be allowed to appear 
 
428 AKKAKGEMENT OF SYSTEM, 
 
 on the surface of the water. Under certam conditions it may be- 
 impvacticable to conceal them altogether; as, for example, whera 
 there is a large rise and fall of tide. Under such circumstances, 
 the smallest possible indication of their position must be allowed, 
 
 8th. Wheu, from the depth of the water, the charges cannot be 
 placed on the bottom, they should be so moored as to float fronr 
 15 to 40 feet below the surface. In places where there is a con- 
 siderable rise and fall of tide, special ari'angements would be 
 necessary for this. 
 
 9th. The place in which batteries and instruments connected 
 vvitli the ignition of electrical submarine mines are arranged, 
 should be in those portions of the defensive works which are 
 likely to be held longest, so that a command may be kept over 
 the mines -to tlie latest possible moment in the defense. 
 
 10th. Great care should be taken to lay the electric cables in 
 such positions as to render their discovery by an enemy as diffi- 
 cult as possible, and likewise to secure them against every acci- 
 dent. 
 
 11th. The position of the mines should be well covered by the 
 fire of tlie guns of the forts or sliore batteries of the place to bo- 
 dcfended, to prevent tlieir destruction by boats. 
 
 12th. Submarine mines should not be thrown away by firing 
 them at small boats, except under very exceptional circum- 
 stances, but should be reserved for larger vessels. 
 
 6^3. Arrangement of system. Tlie object to be obtained in 
 arranging any system of mines for the defense of a channel, is- 
 to place them in sucli a position that a vessel passing along that 
 channel must, at some one moment, whatever couree slie may 
 take, come witliin the radius of destructive effect of one of tlie 
 mines. This would be attained by placing the mines in a sin- 
 gle row across the cliannol, so tliat their circles of destructive 
 cfTect may at least touch each otlier. To this simple arrange- 
 ment there are, however, practical difficulties ; among wliicli is 
 the danger of entanglement between the mooring cables of adja-,^ 
 cent mines, or their electric cables, especially when there is an 
 ebb and flow of the tide. When mines are very close togetlicr, 
 it is impossible, with the most perfect mooring arrangements, to 
 prevent entanglements of this nature, particularly when laying 
 down the mines and arranging the gear in connection therewith. 
 
 The difficulty of grappling for and raising a mine for exami- 
 nation is greatly increased by this very close approximation. 
 Again, when mines are very close to each other the explosion of 
 one is very likely to injure its neiglibor; or, where an electrical 
 system is adopted, to disturb the particular mechanism of the- 
 system. It becomes necessary, therefore, to allow some lati- 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SYSTEM. 429 
 
 tude, in order to obviate these difficulties and at the same time 
 to preserve the theoretical precision and closeness of a sino;le line. 
 This is effected by placing the mines in two or more lines, at a. 
 ■distance from each other something greater than the radii of 
 ilestructive eifeot of the mines. Fig. 3, Plaie 72, explains this 
 method. 
 
 In this figure, a h represent the theoretical line required to 
 close the channel, and it is only necessary to move back every 
 second mine to the line c d, and every third mine to the line e f, 
 to secure the object required. A fourth line {g 7i), or even a 
 fifth (t k), may be added with advantage, taking care that these 
 last shall cover the inteiTals left between those in advance of 
 them in sucli a way that a vessel passing obliquely, through the 
 intervals of the first three lines may come in contact with a mine 
 in the fourth or fifth. This arrangement overcomes the great 
 ■objection that attaches to a single line, which, in case a breach 
 is once effected, affords a safe passage until repaired. It like- 
 wise makes it more difficult for an enemy to discover the limits 
 to the area of danger, and consequently weakens the efforts of 
 theenemy by the moral effect of uncertainty. 
 
 The arrangement in lines is the best, both for facility in lay- 
 ing the mines so as to space tlio area with certainty, and for 
 finding their positions when it becomes necessary to raise them 
 for examination. It also affords facility in determining what 
 particular mine it is necessary to explode to strilie a vessel 
 attempting the passage. 
 
 So much depends upon local circumstances — such as the nat- 
 ure of the channel or roadstead to be defended, the probable 
 means of attack at the disposal of an enemy, the draught of 
 water of tlie vessels of a hostile fleet, &c. — that a great deal 
 must be left to the officer commanding the defense. 
 
 The size, strength, and character of the vessels to be guarded 
 against will determine the power of the mines to be used, and 
 this, again, will decide the distance between the lines and the 
 intervals thereon of the mines. 
 
 6?^. Neither experiments nor observations in actual warfare 
 have yet determined, except approximately, the size of charges^ 
 necessary to perform the work required of mines under the vari- 
 ous circumstances that would arise in service. The stronger the 
 vessel the greater, manifestly, will be the charge required to 
 destroy it. As a general rule, the strength of vessels increases 
 with their size, as likewise does their draught ; therefore a mine 
 of sufficient power to destroy a large vessel will evidently de- 
 stroy a smaller one, and this notwithstanding the charge be 
 
430 EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 placed at a depth suitable for the larger vessel and of the con- 
 sequent intervening cushion of water. 
 
 The depth of water inia channel decides very closely the char- 
 acter of vessels that can pass; this, for war vessels, may be 
 placed at 15 feet for the minimum. Furthermore, it has been 
 decided that a charge of 2000 pounds of gunpowder, if properly 
 placed, is sufficient to destroy the largest vessel. This, there- 
 fore, is laid down as the maximum charge to be used in any one 
 mine. A rule for approximately determining the charge for 
 depths of water from 15 to 40 feet is, that the square of the 
 depth in feet gives the quantity in pounds of gunpowder re- 
 quired. Ginipowder being the most common and best known of 
 tlie explosives, is taken as the standard. So far as known, the 
 explosive effect of gun-cotton, when used for submarine mines, 
 is about four times, and that of dynamite about ten times that 
 of gunpowder, weight for weight. Tiie character of the bottom 
 on whicli submarine mines are planted lias considerable effect 
 on their destructive power, a yielding, muddy bottom being 
 much less favorable than a hard and resisting one. In the fore- 
 going rule, about ten per cent, should be added to the charges 
 when tlie bottom is soft, or when the mines do not rest on the 
 bottom. It is evident that the nearer tlie lines of mines are 
 to eacli other the less will be the chances of a vessel passing 
 through safely; they should, howevei-, be so far apart as to ena- 
 ble the electric cables connected with them to be laid in a safe 
 position when carrying them to the electrical-room from which 
 the system is to be worked. The distance likewise should be 
 sufficiently great to enable the observers, taking cross-bearings, 
 to determine with certainty when a vessel is over any particular 
 line. These conditions will, as a rule, give 100 yards as a mini- 
 mnra and 200 yards as a maximum. 
 
 The distance apart at which two mines on the same line may 
 be placed so that the explosion of one will not injure the other, 
 depends upon the size of the charges employed. For the maxi- 
 mum charge — 2000 pounds — this interval should not be less than 
 200 feet; for charges not exceeding 500 pounds the interval 
 may be reduced to 100 feet. This necessary interval between 
 the charges in a line is one reason which renders tlie employ- 
 ment of two or more lines of mines essential to a proper main- 
 tenance of the defense. It also sufficiently explains the object 
 to be attained in placing them in such a way that the charge in 
 the second line shall cover the intervals in the first, and those 
 in the third shall cover the intervals in the second, and so on. 
 
 G'75. Explosives. The explosives used lor submarine mines 
 
DYNAMITE — NITRO-GLYCBRINB. 431 
 
 are confined almost exclusively to gunpowder, dynamite, and 
 gun-cotton. 
 
 Guivpowder has already beeu discussed in Paet First, para. 
 180 et sen. 
 
 Dynamite. This explosive compound is merely a preparation 
 in which nitro-glycerine is itself presented for use, its explosive 
 properties being those of the nitro-glycerine contained in It, as 
 the absorbent is an inert body. Dynamite is formed of 75 parts 
 of nitro-glycerine absorbed by 25 parts of " kieselguUr," a porous 
 siliceous earth. 
 
 In appearance dynamite is a loose, soft, readily-moulded sub- 
 stance, of a buff color. It is prepared by simply .mixing, with a 
 wooden spatula, the nitro-glycerine with finely-powdered kiesel- 
 gnhr in a leaden vessel. It freezes at 39°— -40° F., and when 
 solidlj' frozen cannot be exploded ; but if in a pulverized state, 
 it can be exploded, though with diminished violence. It is eas- 
 ily thawed by placing the vessel containing it in hot water. 
 
 Friction or moderate percussion does not explode it. Its fir- 
 ing point is 356° F. If flame be applied to it, it burns with a 
 strong flame. It is fired by means of fulminate of mercury, and 
 its explosive force is about seven times that of gunpowder. 
 
 Tliis explosive compound is now most extenrfvely used for 
 general blasting purposes all over the world, especially for sub- 
 marine work, where, for removing rocks, it is exploded by sim- 
 ply placing it on the surface of the rock, the water forming the 
 tamping. 
 
 For ground and buoyant mines, where actual contact between 
 the hostile vessel and the torpedo will be rarely achieved, this 
 being, next to nitro-glycerine, the most violent of all known ex- 
 plosive agents, and being cheaply and readily procured, is the 
 very best explosive for such torpedoes. 
 
 Dualine. This is prepared by mixing nitro-glycerine with 
 sawdust and saltpetre. It possesses the principal qualities of 
 dynamite, though inferior to It. 
 
 lAthofraclure. This is prepared by mixing nitro-glycerine, 
 kieselguhr, charcoal, soda, saltpetre, and sulphur. It likewise 
 is inferior to dynamite. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine. This is an explosive compound formed by 
 ihe action of nitric acid upon glycerine at a low temperature. 
 At ordinary temperature it is an oily liquid, having a specific 
 gravity of 1.6. Freshly made, it is creamy white and opaque, 
 but clears and becomes colorless on standing for a certain time, 
 depending on the temperature. 
 
 It does not mix with, nor is it affected by, water. It has a 
 
432 GUN-COTTON. 
 
 sweet aromatic taste, anil produces violent headaclie when placed 
 on the tongue. 
 
 The opaque, freshly-made nitro-glycerine does not freeze un- 
 til the temperature is lowered to 3° — 5° below zero F., but when 
 cleared it freezes at 39°— 40° F. It freezes to a white crystalline 
 mass, and in this state it can be thawed by placing the vessel 
 containing it in water at a temperature not over 100° F. 
 
 If flame is applied to freely-exposed nitro-glycerine, it burns 
 slowly without explosion. When in a state of decomposition It 
 is very sensitive, exploding violently when struck, even when 
 unconfined. When pure it Is not sensitive to friction or mode- 
 rate percussion. If struck with a hammer, only the particles 
 receiving the blow explode, the remainder being scattered. 
 
 The firing point of nitro-glycerine is about 365° F., though 
 it begins to decompose at a lower temperature. The mode of 
 firing it usually employed is by means of a f ulminate-of-mercury 
 detonating fuse. In a frozen state it cannot be fired even by 
 large charges of fulminate. 
 
 it is kept in tight tin cans of 40 to 50 pounds each, and should 
 not be transported or handled except when in the frozen state. 
 
 It is the most violent of all known explosive agents, its force 
 being about ten times that of gunpowder. 
 
 Gun-cotton. This is formed by the action of concentrated 
 nitric acid and raw cotton. When thus acted on the cotton is 
 -little changed in appearance, though more brittle and slightly 
 harsher to the touch. 
 
 If a flame be applied to it in a loose, dry state, it flashes up 
 without explosion ; if compressed, it burns rapidly, but quietly. 
 Moist compressed gun-cotton under the same circumstances 
 burns slowly. 
 
 In the compressed state in which it comes from the hydraulic- 
 press it contains about 15 per cent, of water ; in this condition 
 it may be cut, sawed, bored, 6r perforated with a red-hot iron 
 with perfect safety. If placed on a fire, a feeble transparent 
 flame flickers over the surface from time to time as the exterior 
 becomes sufliciently dry to inflame ; in this way it burns away 
 vei-y gradually. 
 
 This comparative safety of wet gun-cotton, coupled with the 
 fact that its detonation in that state may be readily accomplished 
 through the agency of >a small quantity of dry gun-cotton termed 
 •a, primer, which, by means of a fulminating fuse or detonator, 
 is made to act as the initiative detonating agent, gives it impor- 
 tant advantages over other violent explosive agents, when used 
 'for purposes which involve the employment of a considerable 
 
FULMINATE OF MERCURY — CASE. 433 
 
 quantity of the material, on account of the safety attending its 
 storage and necessary manipulation. 
 
 Gun-cotton is not sensitive to friction or percussion. Its firing 
 point is about 360° F. It is insoluble in and unaifected by water. 
 When not in water it is liable to spontaneous decomposition, 
 wliich, under favorable conditions, may result in explosions. 
 
 Compressed gun-cotton is free from such danger, as it may be 
 kept and used saturated with water. It is stored in the wet state, 
 care being taken that it is not exposed to a temperature that will 
 freeze the water in the cakes, as this would disintegrate the cakes 
 by the expansion of the water in freezing. 
 
 Compared with dynamite, it is not so violent, and occupies 
 more space, weight for weight, and also requires a more compli- 
 cated means of detonating it. On the other hand, gun-cotton is 
 intinitely safer to store and manipulate, aud is not so subject to 
 detonation by concussion as dynamite. 
 
 The explosive effect of dynamite and gun-cotton is a rending 
 or a shattering one, while that of gunpowder is an uplifting or 
 heaving one, and always in the line of least resistance — differ- 
 ing in this respect from the first two substances, in which the 
 explosive effect is nearly equal in every direction. This prop- 
 erty of dynamite and gim-cotton makes them most suitable for 
 demolitions. (See Demolition, par. 669.) 
 
 Gun-cotton, while in tlie pulpy state, is pressed into cylinders 
 of about 3 inches in length by 2.5 inches in diameter. For trans- 
 portation these cylinders are placed in boxes, each containing 
 about three dozen ; the box is filled with water, which, after re- 
 maining a few minutes, is drained off and the box closed. 
 
 Fulminate of mercury. This is the composition used in the 
 detonating primers employed for the ignition of dynamite and 
 gun-cotton. It is the substance in percussion caps tiiat detonates 
 and produces fire when the cap is struck a sharp blow. 
 
 Dry fulminate of mercury explodes violently when heated to 
 367° F., by the electric spark, or when struck. When wet it is 
 jnexplosive, and therefore it is always kept wet, being dried in 
 small amounts when required for use. Great care is requisite 
 in handling it. 
 
 For the purpose of detonating nitro-glycerine or its prepara- 
 tions, 15 grains of the fulminate are suflScient, but to detonate 
 gun-cotton 25 grains are necessary. The fulminate in detonat- 
 ing fuses should be inclosed in a copper case or cap, and must 
 never be loose. The fulminate should be wet when charging 
 the detonators, and afterwards dried. 
 
 676. Case. Whatever may be the form and construction of 
 28 
 
434 CASE. 
 
 the case whieli contains the charge of a submarine mine, the 
 following conditions are essential : 
 
 1st. It must be water-tight, to prevent damage to the charge 
 by leakage. 
 
 2d. It must be sufficiently strong to bear handling without 
 danger of becoming lealfy by straining, and must be able to sus- 
 tain the external pressure due to the depth of water at which it 
 is to be placed. 
 
 3d. When gunpowder, or gun-cotton flred with an ordinary 
 fuse, is used, it must be sufficiently strong to hold the charge 
 togetiier, as it were, for an instant at the moment of ignition, so 
 that its full effect may be obtained by as thorough a combustion 
 as possible of the charge. 
 
 4th. In the case of a buoyant mine, it mnst be capable of being 
 arranged with a large excess of flotation, so that wlien moored it 
 may remain as stationary as possible at the required point. 
 
 5th. It should be of such form as to be capable of being han- 
 dled and moored conveniently. 
 
 6tli. It should be of such form as to secure the thorough igni- 
 tion of the charge with the smallest possible number of fuses. 
 
 7th. It should be easy of construction, and not too costly. 
 
 First, witli reference to the form of the case. This generally 
 is either conical, spherical, or cylindrical. The former is the 
 best for self-acting buoyant mines. The apex (o, Fig, 1, Plate 
 73) of the cone forms a convenient point to which the mooring 
 cable may be attached, while the base, terminating by a curved 
 portion (6), serves as an air-chamber, giving the necessary buoy- 
 ancy to keep the mooring cables taut and to hold the mine in a 
 comparatively stationary position in a current or tide-way. The 
 nipples (c c) containing the fulminating composition are placed 
 on the rim uniting the base with the conical surface. In this 
 position they are most likely to be struck by a passing vessel. 
 There should be four or more of these nipples, depending upon 
 the size of the case. 
 
 For all other cases, except the one just mentioned of a float- 
 ing mine, intended for small charges to be exploded by mechan- 
 ical means, the cylindrical form is best, and the one most fre- 
 quently adopted for both ground and buoyant mines containing 
 heavy charges. Fig. 2, Flate 73, represents the form so suc- 
 cessfully used by the Confederates, 1861-65 ; Fig. 3 represents 
 that of the Austrians ; Fig. 4 that of the English for small buoj'- 
 ant mines, in which J is a wooden jacket, giving buoyancy and 
 protection to the case ; C is the circuit-closer. 
 
 For large ground mines, the best form of case seems to be 
 that of the turtle mine, represented in Fig. 5. A heavy charge 
 
MOORING. 435 
 
 may be contained in it ; it forms its own anchor, and it would 
 witlistand an explosion of an adjacent mine without sustaining 
 any injury. This is the best form for resisting strong currents. 
 
 The difficulty and cost of making spherical cases have hereto- 
 fore debarred their adoption on a large scale, but recently Gen- 
 eral Abbott, U. S. Engineers, has simplified tlie process of man- 
 ufacture and made them practicable. This process consists ia 
 pressing circular disks of steel into hemisplierieal segments, 
 which are united by flanges, as represented in Fig. 6. 
 
 As regards the material of which the cases may be most advan- 
 tageously constructed, several substances have been tried and 
 used; such as wood, iron, and vulcanized India rubber. For 
 actual war service, regularly- constructed torpedoes or mines 
 would generally be turned over to the posts ready for use ; but 
 it might become necessary to improvise cases out of such mate- 
 rials as would be available. Tight barrels and hogsheads, when 
 properly strengthened, are a good substitute for even the most 
 improved form of case. The barrel or cask is simply an exter- 
 nal shield for the protection of the charge, which is contained 
 in a water-tight envelope, and may be an India-rubber bag or 
 a tin or zinc can. The strengthening of the cask is to guard 
 against collapsing when submerged in deep water. Under ordi- 
 nary circumstances the depth of the water will not be so great 
 as to require strengthening of good casks beyond stout hoops 
 of iron. As the charge must generally remain a considerable 
 time — perhaps many months — under water before explosion, it 
 is most essential to have the case, whatever it maybe, completely 
 water-tight ; and with this view the cask is coated, both inside 
 and outside, with a composition of pitch and tar. The envelope 
 containing the charge within the cask should be firmly fixed, so 
 that no independent motion may disturb the connections of the 
 electrical apparatus. 
 
 6'71'. Mooring. This is the most difficult operation connected 
 with submarine mines. It is a problem containing so many 
 conditions that it is impossible to give more than general sug- 
 gestions concerning its solution. 
 
 In order to possess a maximum of efficiency, no indication 
 of the position of a mine should appear on the surface of tlie 
 water, and yet tlie spot, to within a few feet of where it is 
 deposited, must be known to the defenders of the channel in 
 which it is used. In certain cases — as when there is consider- 
 able rise and fall of the tide — it is impossible to totally conceal 
 the position of a system of mines. When sncli is the case, the 
 very smallest indication possible should be allowed to appear on 
 the surface of the water. It has been found tliat the least cur- 
 
436 MOORING. 
 
 rent, or so much roughness as only a moderate breeze would 
 cause, renders the placing of even a single mine in a definite 
 position a matter of very considerable diflloulty. When a series 
 of mines are to be moored in proper relative position, this diffi- 
 culty is much increased, and it is, furthermore, augmented in 
 proportion to the depth of the water. 
 
 The objects to be obtained in mooring are as follows : 
 
 1st. That the charge should be kept as nearly as possible sta- 
 tionary at the point where it is required to act. This is partio- 
 <darly necessary where there is a tide which, flowing first in one 
 direction and then in another, tends to cause the' mine to shift 
 its position, and is indispensable in the case of mines intended 
 to be fired by judgment. 
 
 2d. The moorings should be so arranged that there shall be as 
 little twisting as possible, which might break or injure the insu- 
 lation of the electrical cables. 
 
 3d. The anchors or heavy weights used should be suited to 
 the nature of the holding ground or bottom. 
 
 4th. Mooring cables should be so arranged that they may not 
 be likely to become twisted together or entangled. 
 
 The best special mooring apparatus for general purposes is 
 the mushroom anchor. (Fig. 1, Plate 74.) It is decidedly so for 
 a soft, muddy bottom. On a hard, rocky bottom the dead-weight 
 of the mooring must be depended upon to keep a mine stationary, 
 and if a heavy mushroom anchor is used, its edges should be fur- 
 nished with toes or points to catch in the crevices of the rocks. 
 The weight of the anchor would depend on the buoyancy to be 
 overcome, and would usually be from 500 pounds upwards. 
 Ordinary mooring-chains and hemp cables may generally be 
 employed in connecting the charges or circuit-closers with the 
 anchors. Where tliere is any tendency to twist, a wire cable is 
 the best to counteract it. Any considerable amount of twisting 
 must be checked, as it is liable to entangle the moorings and to 
 rub and injure the electric cables. 
 
 Next to the mushroom sinker the ordinary anchor is the best. 
 For make-shifts, any heavy weights — as large stones, pigs of 
 metal, or bars of iron — may be used. These must necessarUy be 
 sufficiently heavy to hold a mine in position simply by their 
 deadrweight. The material just mentioned can be fastened to 
 frames of wood, and the whole sunk as one mass. 
 
 The weight necessary for a mooring, whether anchor, sinker, 
 or other apparatus, will depend upon the buoyant force of the 
 mine, the nature of the bottom, and the currents. 
 
 The buoyancy of a mine is its excess of flotation over its 
 weight. This would be measured by the number of pounds 
 
MOORING. 437 
 
 required to sink it, and no more. When wooden casks arc used 
 the buoj'anoy may be roughly taken as equal to the weight of 
 the charge of powder. With heavy metallic oases their weight 
 must, in cU. cases, be taken into consideration. 
 
 In water free from currents twice its buoyancy Is considered 
 necessary to keep the mine in a vertical position over the moor- 
 ing ; this, therefore, would be the weight required for the moor- 
 ing. Where there is a current, additional weight to keep it 
 from swinging ofT with it is required, and this increases with the 
 strength of the latter. When the mine is moored by a single 
 cable, a convenient rule, approximating closely to results from 
 experiments, is to allow one additional buoyancy for each mile 
 per hour of curient ; i. e., two buoyancies being allowed for still 
 ■ water, three would be allowed for a current of one mile ; four for 
 two miles; five for three miles, and so on. These represent tlje 
 weights for the mooring in each instance. In a tide-way where 
 there is a current of more than five miles an hour, two anchors 
 may be advantageously used, placed up and down stream at a 
 considerable distance apart, depending upon the force of the 
 current and the distance from the bottom at which the mine is 
 to float. It is extremely difficult to moor mines in proper lines 
 and depths by this means. 
 
 When the mine is small, say one containing a charge not 
 greater than 200 pounds, a single large barge may suffice for 
 placing it. The anchors can be let down at a suitable distance 
 apart from the extremities of two outriggers, one from each 
 end of the barge. The mine, attached to the middle of the cable 
 connecting the anchors, is weighted down by a heavy saddle, 
 which, after the anchors are down, is hoisted in and the mine 
 permitted to rise to the proper depth from the surface. 
 
 In order to place a large buoyant chai'ge of, say, 1000 pounds 
 and upwards, three of these large boats are required to cany it 
 and its anchors, one for each anchor or mooring sinker, and one 
 for the charge itself. Tiiey are connected by a rope, which, if 
 kept stretched, would insure tlie anchors being placed at the 
 proper distance apart. The sinkers and mine are carried out 
 and lowered from the davits at the s'^ern of each boat. Skillful 
 boatmen and sailors are required for all operations connected! 
 with the placing of mines, and a handy steam-tug is the most^ 
 convenient craft to use. 
 
 The floating mine is used where the depth of water is so groat, 
 that, if placed on the bottom, the mine would require for effl- 
 ciency an excessively large charge. In this case it is held to 
 the bottom by moorings in such position as not to rise to the 
 surface at low tide, nor at high tide be so deep as to be beyond 
 
438 LINES. 
 
 eflFective range of over-passing vess«fl8. To arrive at tliis ex- 
 act point, it is best to haul the mine down towards the sinker. 
 For this purpose there are various contrivances, some one of 
 which would be supplied with the rigging furnished with the 
 mine. 
 
 When the mines are to rest upon the bottom, they are lashed 
 to some heavy object sufficient to sink and hold them in posi- 
 tion, and then lowered to their places. 
 
 618. Lines. Submarine mines will generally, it not always, 
 be moored in straight lines. In practice, the greatest difficulty 
 is experienced in mooring any object in a particular spot, espe- 
 cially when two mooring-chains are required, as will sometimes 
 be the case, to prevent twisting. To overcome these difficulties 
 it is suggested that instead of anchors a heavy chain cable be 
 employed to moor the mines. 
 
 "A section of the channel to be defended having been made 
 from soundings, the line assumed by a chain could be laid down 
 to scale. The positions of the mines and their distances apart, 
 depth from the surface, &c., having been arrived at by calcula- 
 tion, could also be laid down on the section. The points where 
 the small mooring-chaius of each mine meet the large chain 
 would appear on tlie drawing, and the distance of each point 
 from either extremity having been measured off, the scale could 
 be marked on the chain. 
 
 "Before sinking the heavy chain the small mooring-chains 
 should be rove through the links at the places marked, and the 
 ends buoyed, sufficient length being allowed for the buoys to 
 reach the surface. 
 
 "The conducting wires could next be laid and the ends at- 
 tached to the same buoys which support the mooring-chains. In 
 this way everything could be prepared, the cables tested, &c., 
 before tlie mines were required at all; indeed, if the operation 
 of fixing the same were practiced beforehand, it could be left 
 out until there was considerable probability of the mines being 
 required for use. By keeping the mines ready loaded in suita- 
 ble magazines, and having the cables frequently tested, the 
 probability of injury would be greatly diminished. 
 
 "The great advantage of using a heavy chain would be the 
 absolute certainty of having all the mines in their proper places; 
 it would also simplify the moorings by doing away with a mul- 
 tiplicity of anchors and anchor buoys. 
 
 " A 2.5-inch chain cable weighs 400 pounds per fathom. The 
 mines would probably never be nearer than 70 or 80 feet apart, so 
 it is evident that the chain would be quite heavy enough to coun- 
 teract any flotation which would in practice be given to the mine. 
 
IGNITION OF CHARGE. 439 
 
 " In a current of any strength it would be necessary to nse 
 two parallel chains across the current to prevent the mines 
 swinging with the change of title, but the same advantages would 
 hold good." 
 
 Instead of a chain cable, a strong hempen cable may be stretched 
 across the channel. Previous to immersion, this cable is marked 
 at Intervals, at the points where it is subsequently intended to 
 lay down the mines. To place the moorings in position, the 
 cable is slacked up sufficient to allow of its being underrun. At 
 each point marked upon it to indicate the position of a mine, one 
 end of a branch hawser is bent onto it, and the other extremity 
 made fast to a mushroom anchor, the necessary amount of slack 
 being left to allow the anchor to be passed into its proper posi- 
 tion. A buoy is attached to the mooring cable fastened to the 
 anchor; the latter is then carried out to one side of the directing 
 cable and dropped into its place. Any further arrangement for 
 attaching the charge, the electrical cable, and circuit-closer may 
 be carried on without difficulty. 
 
 Fig. 2, Plate 74, represents this method of planting mines ; a, 
 6, c, d, &c., are the mooring-chains attached to the hawser HH. 
 
 This plan affords considerable facilities for the examination of 
 charges after they have been submerged, as it would be necessary 
 only to underrun the main hawser until the required branch 
 hawser is reached, and then by it raise the mooring anchor, and 
 with it the mine to be examined. In the event of the main haw- 
 ser being broken, it would not be a very difficult operation to 
 grapple it and bring it to the surface for repair. 
 
 6'V9. Ignition of charge. For mechanical mines various con- 
 trivances have been used. All those constructed on the princi- 
 ple of the, gun-lock have, however, been found to soon become 
 worthless from oxidation and incrustation of the more delicate 
 parts, A very simple form is the nipple, upon which is placed a 
 percussion cap, but this is apt to become damaged when im- 
 mersed. Another kind is "the well-known sulphuric-acid fuse, 
 formed on the principle of ignition by sulphuric acid dripped 
 upon a mixture of equal parts of chlorate of potash and loaf- 
 sugar. The sulphuric acid is placed in a small glass globe, which 
 is so arranged as to be broken by the blow given on touching the 
 side of a vessel, and the acid set free, falling on the mixture of 
 chlorate of potassa and loaf-sugar, produces the required igni- 
 tion." The ignition produced by this means is comparatively 
 slow; it has, however, been found that an addition of one-third 
 of ferro-cyanide of potassium to the mixture of equal parts of 
 chlorate of potash and loaf-sugar produces an ignition as rapid 
 as that of gunpowder. The glass globe is best inclosed in a lead 
 
440 ELECTRICAL FUSE. 
 
 tube, which, by bciiding or being crnslied by the blow, breaks 
 the glass. This is the fuse sometimes used for land torpedoes. 
 (Par. 646.) 
 
 To secure the fuse and charge from moisture, a composition 
 made of 1 part of tallow, 8 of pitch, and 1 of bees-wax will be 
 found good. To this may be added a little gutta-percha, which 
 will have a tendency to harden it. This composition, when soft- 
 ened by heat, is pressed around the fuse-plug. 
 
 The great superiority of electrical fuses over mechanical, causes 
 the latter to be employed only under exceptional circumstances. 
 The universal use of the electric telegraph makes it easy to ob- 
 tain all material and apparatus necessary for firing submarine 
 mines; even fuses are an aiticle of commerce, and there is no 
 difficulty, if required, in obtaining the services of electricians or 
 other operators capable of arranging and manipulating all parts 
 of it. 
 
 680. An electrical fuse consists essentially of a priming of or- 
 dinary sporting powdei', giui-cotton, or of a mixture of the two, 
 in contact with which is the conducting wire of a galvanic battery 
 ai'ranged at this point in such manner as to generate heat by the 
 passage of the electric current. The fuse is imbedded in the 
 charge of the mine, and the conducting wires passed out from it 
 through a water-tight plug or bung-stopper in the case, and are 
 connected with the electrical cable passing to the operating case- 
 mate of the fort. 
 
 The platinum fuse is formed of a very fine piece of platinum 
 wire T^ of an inch long, to the extremities of which are soldered 
 the two ends of the conducting wire; the priming is secured in 
 contact with the platinum, which latter is fused by the passage 
 of the electric current. 
 
 This fuse requires a battery producing a current of large guan- 
 tity. Grove's, Bunsen's, and Walker's are among those most 
 suitable for such fuses. 
 
 Platinum may be dispensed witli by bringing the ends of the 
 conducting wires so close together as barely to be apart, thus 
 forming a break or interval in the conductor. The ends of the 
 wire are held in exact position, usually by being passed through 
 a short plug of wood. Around this plug is wrapped paper, 
 which, projecting at the end where the conductor is broken, 
 forms an envelope for the priming. This wrapping or cap is 
 afterwards covered with a strong shellac varnish. 
 
 AVhen regularly-manufactured fuses cannot be obtained, it may 
 become necessai-y to improvise them. This may be done in sev- 
 eral ways, one of which is to take a small cylinder of hard wood 
 {Fig. 3, Plate 74) about an inch in diameter and half an inch 
 
POSITION OF FUSE. 441" 
 
 long; this is provided witli a groove around its circumference, in- 
 which is tied the paper envelope before mentioned. Two lioles 
 about a quarter of an inch apart and of suitable size to receive 
 two moderately-flne pieces of copper wire are made lengthwise 
 through the cylinder. One extremity of botli of these wires is 
 sharpened with a file, and about a quarter of an inch of the 
 •wire bent over at right angles, and slightly flattened with a. 
 hammer, the extreme point being bent over in the form of a 
 iiook. The straight ends of the wire are then passed through 
 the holes in the cylinder, and tlie flattened heads are fixed in the 
 wood by driving the pointed extremities into the latter. In this 
 way tlie broad, thin metal surfaces which form the poles of the 
 fuse are fixed in a parallel position on the surface of the wood,, 
 and should be as close together as possible without actually 
 touching. Before, howevei-, the wires are thus placed in posi- 
 tion, the surface of the cylinder, upon which the poles are to- 
 be fixed, is brushed over lightly with a solution of ordinary 
 photographic collodion. When the poles have been fixed into- 
 Ihft cylinder thus prepared, the small surface of wood which in- 
 tervenes between them is coated with graphite by drawing a 
 pointed black-lead pencil across it two or three times. A cap of 
 paper is then tied round the cylinder so as to inclose the poles of 
 the fuse; this cylinder is filled compactly with fine gunpowder,. 
 and the open end is then choked. 
 
 The protruding wires of the fuse, which serve to connect it 
 with the conducting wires, are coated to within a short distance 
 of Iheir extremities by moulding ordinary bees-wax around (hem 
 with the fingers, and then tightly wrapping the wax with thin 
 strips of tape or rag, which is secui-ed to the ends with thread. 
 The entire fuse, except the bare ends of the wires, is then coated 
 with shellac or lacquer. 
 
 This fuse may be fired by means of a constant battery of suf- 
 ficient power, or by a magnetic exploder, the former of whiclv 
 generates a continuous current, and the latter a rapid succession 
 of short currents. Currents of this character are required to- 
 produce the heating power over the plumbago bridge necessary 
 to ignite the priming. 
 
 681. Position of the fuse in a charge. " It has been already 
 stated that, in order to develop the full explosive efi'ect of even. 
 a small cliarge of powder when fli-ed under water, a very strongs 
 case is required; with very small charges this is quite practica- 
 ble, but for large chai'ges of 500 pounds and upwards it is quite 
 impo'isible to make cases proportionately strong, because fliey 
 would become enormously heavy. This difficulty, however, to- 
 a certain extent, may be overcome by igniting the charges, when 
 
442 POSITION OF FUSE. 
 
 o£ a large size, at several points, providing, in fact, centres of 
 ignition, and tlius buraing as much as possible of the charge 
 and converting it into gas before the envelope is broken and the 
 water admitted. 
 
 "The radius of ignition due to a single fuse, when flred under 
 the circumstances above described, is supposed to be about one 
 foot, and starting with this basis, the maximum charge to be 
 fired from a single centre of ignition is at oncu determined to be 
 about 250 pounds. Therefore a single centre of ignition may be 
 used for all charges of less than 2.50 pounds of powder, adding 
 a fresh fuse, suitably placed, for each additional 250 pounds or 
 fraction of 250 pounds in the cliarge to be fired. 
 
 " This has reference to gunpowder fired with an ordinary fuse. 
 When gun-cotton and a detonatuig fuse are used, a much greater 
 bulk may be exploded from a single centre of ignition. 
 
 "The distribution and holding in proper relative position of a 
 number of fuses in a large charge of powder is a matter of some 
 little nicety, and, in addition, there is the increased difficulty of 
 testing the fuses after being placed in the charge, and the in- 
 creased chance of failure and trouble in replacing a defective 
 fuse or adjusting any accidental derangement of the conducting 
 wires should a defect occur in the heart of the charge itself, 
 which would render the emptying out of the case necessary." 
 In order to obviate these defects, it is suggested to use a brass 
 tube and a single fuse primed with powder. 
 
 The brass tube should be sufficiently long to run the whole 
 length of the charge, and should have an internal diameter of 
 about 1 inch. Slits 0.5 inch wide and 1.5 inches long are cut 
 at central intervals of 3 inches, following a spiral line around 
 the tube. These slits should be covered with a brass-wire gauze, 
 of a mesh sufficiently small to exclude the powder of the charge. 
 One end of this tube is closed and the other arranged to receive 
 and hold the fuse. 
 
 A fuse primed with about one-fourth of an ounce of powder is 
 placed in the end of the tube and well secured. The tube is 
 then put in the central line of the charge and secured so that it 
 shall not vary its position. On igniting the fuse, jets of gas and 
 llame are driven from the openings in the tube and fire the pow- 
 der within reach. The result is the complete ignition of the out- 
 lying portions even before the gas evolved by the grains first 
 ignited has time to rupture the case and let in water. Two or 
 more fuses may be attached to the same tube, so that in the event 
 of one of them failing, ignition may be secured through another. 
 
 Instead of using a tube, a pound or two of gun-cotton may be 
 placed in actual contact with the fuse ; and this substance being 
 
ELECTRIC CABLES. 443 
 
 much quicker of ignition than gunpowder, the gas and flame 
 produced are sufficient to permeate the interstices between the 
 grains of the latter and thus secure a thorough combustion of 
 the charge. 
 
 6S3. Electric cables. The qualifications required for these 
 are as follows : 
 
 "1st. Capacity to bear a certain amount of strain without 
 breaking. 
 
 "2d. Grood insulation, composed of sucli a substance that it 
 may be readily stored and kept for a considerable time without 
 being injured. This is essential, as the lines will only be sub- 
 merged while actually in use in time of war, for which purpose 
 they must consequently be kept in store, and always ready in 
 sufficient quantities. 
 
 " 3d. For situations where there is a roclsy or shingly bottom, 
 they must be provided with an external covering capable of 
 protecting the insulation from destruction. Special precautions 
 must, of course, be taken to secure the cables at points where 
 they may be necessarily exposed to a considerable wash of the 
 sea, such as the places where they may be led into a fort, &c.; 
 but as there are others where no such special precautions can 
 be applied, an external protecting covering over the insulation 
 must be provided. 
 
 " 4th. Pliability, so that it may be wound or payed out from a 
 moderately-sized drum without injury. The conducting wire is 
 either soft iron oi- copper. The best substance for covering it to 
 effect insulation, is vulcanized India rubber ; this is capable of 
 standing any degree of heat likely to occur to a cable, and docs 
 not harden and crack as does gutta-percha. The conductor 
 should, however, be galvanized and covered with a thin coating 
 of raw India rubber, to protect it from the action of the sulphur 
 of the vulcanized rubber. 
 
 "India-rubber insulation possesses one defect as compared 
 with gutta-perclia, viz., that it does not adhere to the metallic 
 conductor; and that, consequently, if the India rubber is once 
 cut through, any strain on the cable has a tendency to pull the 
 conductor away and increase the fault. This does not occur 
 with gutta-percha, which seems to cling to it and prevent such a 
 result. Guttar-percha cracks and perishes unless considerable 
 care is exercised in preserving it, which is best done by keeping 
 it under water. India rubber possesses liigher dialectric proper- 
 ties than gutta-percha." 
 
 Ordinary gutta-percha and India-rubber insulated wire is an 
 article of commerce, and is the kind that in most cases would 
 be used for submarine mines ; but, as before stated, where there 
 
444 BUNG-STOPPERS — JOINTS. 
 
 IS any strain, or any chance for abrasion against rocks or grav- 
 elly bottom, an exterior covering is necessary for protection.^ 
 The ordinary American form of" submarine cable is the most 
 suitable. The smallest size, such as is used for crossing rivers- 
 and harbors, is quite sufScient, except, perhaps, in some cases. 
 
 A multiple cable may in many cases be found convenient 
 where it is required to carry a large number of wires in a com- 
 pact form into a fort. 
 
 It is composed of seven distinct cores, each of which consists 
 of a strand of copper or iron wire insulated with rubber or gntta- 
 percha. For a rocky bottom, or situation where the cable is lia- 
 ble to injury, a f urtlier external covering of iron wires and tarred 
 hemp, laid on as usual for the protection of submarine cables, 
 becomes necessary. 
 
 Frictional electricity must not be used with such cables, as it 
 would be nearly certain that every mine attached to the cable 
 would explode by induction. 
 
 653. Bung-stoppers are the contrivance for closing the hole 
 in the case thiough vifhich the charge is inserted, and through- 
 which the Insulated wires pass from the fuse to the cable leading 
 to the fort. The essential condition to be fulfilled Is to have it 
 water-tight and keep the arrangement in proper condition for 
 ignition at any moment required; it should likewise be capable- 
 of being unscrewed, so that the fuse may be taken out for exam- 
 ination and replacement if defective. 
 
 Various forms of stoppers have been devised, the principal feat- 
 ure of each being a stuffing-box, in which gutta-percha packing 
 is used. When regularly-constructed mines are supplied for serv- 
 ice, stoppers will accompany them. For extemporized mines, 
 any device which will hold the insulated wires and at the same 
 time keep the water from the charge will answer. A composi- 
 tion composed of 1 part of tallow, 8 of pitch, and 1 of bees-wax 
 will be found good for tightening the joints. It becomes plastic 
 at about 150° F. The addition of a little gutta-percha hardens 
 the composition, and renders it less liable to be affected by at- 
 mospheric heat. 
 
 654. Joints. This is a very important point in connection 
 with a system of mines. In many instances it will be found 
 necessary to join either two lengths of cable, or an insulated 
 wire and a cable, together, in both of which cases great care 
 must be used in making the joints, so that the insulation and 
 the continuity of the circuit may be perfect. 
 
 In making a joint, the great object is to totally exclude the 
 ingress of water, or even moisture, which would at onCe afford 
 a path for the current and cause a loss or a leak in the cable. 
 
LAYING SUBMARINE MINES. 445 
 
 Various methods of forming joints are in use and prove effective. 
 These are explained in works on submarine telegraphy, and are 
 well Icnown to those engaged in that business. 
 
 6S5. Buoys, Tliese are used for temporarily marking the 
 positions of mines, circuit-closers, &c. Small nut-buoys of iron 
 are the best, but when these are not to be had, empty casks, such 
 as beei'-kegs, well lashed with rope, are convenient to handle, 
 and answer every purpose. In all cases they must be sufficiently 
 large, or have enough of flotation to secure the mooring cable or 
 other object which they are intended to liold. 
 
 686. Laying submarine mines. " Tlie position of the mines 
 having been first determined, should be marljed off by means of 
 buoye arranged to correspond with the mines to be subsequently- 
 placed in position, and points on shore are marlved to guide the 
 vessels employed in laying them. A complete chart of the whole 
 is made to guide in subsequent operations. The moorings may 
 either be first placed in position, and the mines and circuit-closers 
 hauled down to them, or tiie whole (moorings, mines, and circuit- 
 closers) may be launched overboard, attached together in proi)er 
 relative positions, at the same time. In deep water it would prob- 
 ably be found preferable to adopt a system of liauling down to 
 moorings previously placed, while in shallow water it would, un- 
 der certain circumstances, be found quiclrer and more convenient 
 to adopt the latter mode of proceeding. The cases ready cliarged 
 and with the electrical caliles, &c., attached, having been low- 
 ered into position at such intervals as may be required, according 
 to the size of the charges to be used, and each carefully marked 
 with a numbered buoy, the paying out of the electrical cables 
 may be proceeded with. The cable attached to each having been 
 previously arranged on a drum, is placed on board a launch, 
 which proceeds to pay it ont in a line as nearly as possible per- 
 pendicular to the line of the mines. (Fig. 4, Plate 74.) Each 
 boat should be provided with a small testing battery and astatic 
 galvanometer, by which the insulation and electrical resistance 
 of the system is tested at intervals from the moment of submerg- 
 ing the mine till the other extremity of tlie cable is safely lodged 
 in the testing-room. Any defect likely to cause a failure in firing 
 at the proper moment would in this way be immediately discov- 
 ered during the operation of submergence. As the boat, in pay- 
 ing out the cable, passes the position marked out for the second 
 or covering line of mines, care sliould be taken to have it as near- 
 ly as possible midway between two adjacent mines in this line. 
 In passing this line the position of tlie electric cables should be 
 marked off by buoys as a guide to those laying down the second 
 line of mines, which, as soon as the work of the first has pro- 
 
446 LAYING SUBMARINE MINES. 
 
 ceeded thus far, may at once be commenced. In order to distin> 
 guisli between the buoys marking the positions of the mines from 
 those indicating the direction of the cables, different colors are 
 used. As the tliird line of mines would be placed to cover the 
 intervals of the second, it would be necessary, after proceeding 
 in a direct line for about 100 yards in rear of the second line of 
 mines, to change the direction in which the cable is to be laid by 
 canying it perpendicularly to the direction hitherto followed till 
 a point directly in rear of some one of the mines of the second 
 line is reached, when it is again turned inward to a position to 
 pass safely through the centre of an interval between two mines 
 of tlie third line, as it had previously passed through those of the 
 ■second. In passing this third line of mines it should agam be 
 buoyed for guidance in laying the mines belonging thereto, and 
 so on till the extremity of the cable is connected to its corre- 
 sponding wire in the multiple cable, or if talsen in singly, till 
 safely landed in the fort in which the operating-room is placed, 
 when it is attached to its proper binding-screw, and its insulation 
 and resistance carefully tested and registered. 
 
 "The same process is gone through with every charge, the ut- 
 most care being taken to so lay the cables that they shall be as 
 far as possible away from the mines in the vicinity of which they 
 may be required to pass. By the arrangement just described 
 they are also in a favorable position for underrunning and pick- 
 ing up, shouid such an operation become necessary. A certain 
 amount of slack, depending on the depth of water, should be 
 allowed in las'ing the cables to facilitate this operation. 
 
 " The position of each mine should be identified by means of 
 bearings taken by two theodolites, from points well situated for 
 the purpose, and marked in position on the plan, with the num- 
 ber of each mine, as a guide to facilitate its discovery at any fu- 
 ture time. This done, and the whole system having been proved 
 to be electrically correct, all the surface buoys should be removed, 
 to prevent any indication of their position being given to an en- 
 emy. Dummies to deceive an enemy may be judiciously arranged 
 in a manner not too ostentatious, but they should never be placed 
 in such a position as might, in ever so remote a manner, lead to 
 the discovery of a real mine. The cables should be laid as far as 
 possible parallel, and never be allowed to cross directly over each 
 other; otherwise the operation of underrunning will be much 
 complicated. 
 
 "The arrangement of cables just described is that in which 
 the shortest possible length would be consumed. In certain 
 cases, however, it might be desirable to. carry them by a detour 
 to the fort, as, for example, around the flank of tlie second and 
 
PLANTING THE MINES. 447 
 
 third lines of mines, and there is no difflcnlty in this, always 
 bearing in mind that they should, lu the first instance, be carried 
 directly baclt for about 100 yards, so as to be safe from injury 
 due to the explosion of their own line of mines, and that their 
 subsequent course should be so arranged as to keep them safe 
 from damage from the explosion of any other mine in the sys- 
 tem. 
 
 "In selecting any line to be taken, places where the cables , 
 would be subjected to a wash of the sea should be, as much as 
 possible, avoided ; and when it becomes necessary to place them 
 in positions where they are necessarily subjected to the friction 
 and rubbing consequent upon the motion of the water, special 
 precautions must be employed for their protection. A good 
 method of doing this is to lash the cable securely to a chain 
 heavy enough to keep it in position on the bottom. A wire-cov- 
 ered cable of ordinary size will have weight of itself suflScieut to 
 hold it steady on the bottom." 
 
 In all cases the cables should be laid where they will be sub- 
 jected to the greatest amount of supervision, and wliere they 
 can be most easily defended from injury by an enemy. 
 
 Lines of mines should, when practicable, be dii'ected on a 
 point where an observer can, in security, observe the crossing of 
 the lines by a vessel of the enemy. This point should be in elec- 
 trical communication with the fort containing the operating- 
 room ; if not by electrical communication, then by signaling. 
 The bearing of each mine is taken from the operating-room as 
 it is put down. By means of observation from these two points 
 it is determined when the vessel is over any particular mine, 
 and tlien the charge is exploded. 
 
 Tlie direction of a line of mines may be determined by two 
 poles previously erected on the shore. These serve as ranges. 
 The InteiTal between the mines on the line are best cjctermined 
 with a cord measured and marked to the exact length. In many 
 positions it may be practicable to erect range-poles, the lines of 
 which, intersecting the line of the mines, will establish the 
 points for tlie respective mines. It is impossible to lay down 
 rules for each case which may arise in service ; the ingenuity 
 of those in charge must be relied upon to solve the particular 
 problem. 
 
 687. Planting the mines. The following will indicate, gen- 
 erally, the manner of planting the mines. The positions having 
 been determined as just explained, soundings arc taken at each 
 one, and the length of the mooring-line for each charge deter- 
 mined accordingly. The anchor is suspended from the davits 
 of the working-boat, and everything made ready to let it go with 
 
448 PLANTING THE MINES. 
 
 a run. The electi-ic cable is stoppered to the mooring-line be- 
 tween the charge and the anchor, and a strong mooring-chahi 
 or wire rope is provided to connect the charge to the circuit- 
 closer, so that, by this chain, both the cliarge and anchor may 
 be raised if required. The electric cable between the circuit- 
 closer and charge should be stoppered from the chain to the wire 
 rope in the same manner as from the charge to the anchor. The 
 -length of the electric cables, from the anchors of the different 
 charges to the point where they are united to go into the fort, 
 are determined, and each one coiled on a small portable drum, 
 so that it may be easily moved in and out of the boat. 
 
 "To place the first charge, the boat (with the anchor con- 
 nected to the charge and circuit-closer by moorings of proper 
 length, as above described, and suspended from the davits at the 
 stern) is turned out into the exact alignment of the poles mark- 
 ing the line of mines, proceeding only fast enough to obtain 
 steerage-way ; as soon as the stern of the boat arrives at the point 
 marked out for the mine, 'let go' is given, and immediately an- 
 chor, charge, and circuit-closer are dropped into position. The 
 electric cable is then payed out, at first directly away from the 
 charge, and finally taken to the fort. The next charge, with all 
 its attachments complete, having been arranged as before, the 
 i)oat Is again moved slowly across the channel along the align- 
 ment till her stern arrives at the point for the next mine, the 
 anclior is let go, and the cable disposed of as before. Thus all 
 -the charges of a line are deposited." 
 
 It Is advantageous to have, during the operation, a boat an- 
 ~chored at some central point about 100 yards in rear of the rear 
 line of mines. To this boat all the electric cables of each line of 
 mines are brought. This dispenses with the use of long cables, 
 and consequently unwieldy drums. Furthermore, from this 
 point to the fort a multiple cable may be used, or if single, they 
 may be tied together with spun-yarn and laid out as one. When 
 everything is completed the boat is removed. Its position having 
 been previously determined by bearings, to facilitate any future 
 searcli for the cables at that point. All range-poles are removed, 
 their positions having been carefully marked, but without leaving 
 -any indications to guide the enemy in ascertaining the locality of 
 the mines. 
 
 The first line of mines having been completed, the next is laid 
 in the same manner, and so likewise the third. 
 
 In working from a chain or hawser on which the distances 
 have been marked, as heretofore described, ranges are used in 
 the same manner, to guard against any error caused by the sag- 
 ging of the chain or cable. 
 
THE TESTING-ROOM. 449 
 
 Junctioii-boxes. When it is necessary to employ a multiple 
 cable, a jiuiction-box is used to facilitate the connection of lUc 
 several separate wh'es diverging from the extremities of siicli a 
 cable. In one angle of such a box the multiple cable is intro- 
 duced, while the separate cables make their exit on the opposite 
 sides and pass to different mines. 
 
 The ends of the cables are secured from pulling out by liooUed 
 nippers. Each multiple cable is composed of seven cores, and 
 tach of these is connected by means of joints with the mine 
 cal)les within the junction-box. The boxes are usually made of 
 cast metal, and must, as an essential condition, be perfectly 
 \vater-ti<i;ht. They are of various forms, depending upon tlie 
 object for which each is to be used. They would be supplied 
 with the other apparatus for laying mines. 
 
 A junction-box sliould be placed in such a position as to be 
 easily attained, even in the presence of an enemy, and its buoy 
 should, if possible, not be seen. It is also very essential that it 
 should be in a safe and guarded position, for any injury to tlie 
 junction-box or multiple cable would be fatal to the group of 
 mines in coiniection. 
 
 6SS. "The next point to be considered is the best mode of 
 introducing tlie cables into a fort. In doing so tliey should be 
 protected to tlie iitmost, not only from injury by an enemy, but 
 from the friction and rubbing necessarily caused by tlie wasli of 
 the sea. Bearing these objects in view, advantage must be taken 
 of local circumstances, whicli, presenting an endless variety of 
 conditions, must be met by expedients suited to the nature of 
 each particular case. As already stated, they should be carried 
 into such forts and positions as "are likely to hold out longest in 
 any system of defense, and not, as a matter of course, into those 
 nearest to them. They must be covered to the utmost from an 
 enemy's fire, and, as far as possible, be protected from his inter- 
 ference in any way, as his great olijecc would be to break and 
 destroy the electrical current." 
 
 6S9. The testing-room is In the most secure part of the work. 
 It should bo about IG feet square, with a suitable store-room 
 attached. From the testing-room a gallery, about 4 feet wide 
 by 5 high, passes out througli or under live fort. In this gallery 
 are placed frames for supporting the cables, so arranged that 
 there will be no confusion as to the identity of the cables. The 
 frames should be of bronze ; iron Is apt to oxidize, and wood is 
 liable to decay and render constant repairs necessary. The 
 frames occupy half tlje breadth of tlie gallery, leaving the other 
 lialf for access and examination of the cables. Each cable is 
 29 
 
450 FIRING. 
 
 attached to a binding screw of the testing-table, tlie binding 
 screws being numbered to correspond with the mines. 
 
 In tlie testingrrooin is the apparatus for producing tlic agent 
 by wliicli the mines are to be exploded. This may be fi'ictional 
 electricity, a magnet current generated by a dynamo-electrical 
 machine, but usually it is a galvanic current similar to tbat for 
 electric telegraph purposes. The main conditions for such a 
 battery are, that it should remain constant — that is, that it should 
 be capable of being allowed to remain mounted and ready for 
 use for say a month — and that it shall generate a sufficient quan- 
 tity of electricity to allow of a certain amount of leak or fault in 
 a cable and yet flre a fuse beyond the leak. 
 
 The LeclancJU battery is the one best adapted and most gener- 
 ally used. The advantages possessed by it are, the absence of 
 chemical action when the battery circuit Is not complete, and 
 consequently there is no waste of material. It requires but 
 little looking after. It may be kept ready for action in store 
 without in any way deteriorating, and, finally, it is corapai-a- 
 tively inexpensive. 
 
 690. Firing. The efficiency of a mine or system of mines 
 depends upon tlie accuracy and certainty with which they may 
 be discharged at the right moment, this moment being when the 
 hostile vessel is directly over any particular mine of the group. 
 This may be done at will, the position of the ship having been 
 determined by intersection, or the vessel herself may be made 
 to complete the circuit by striking a circuit-closer. 
 
 When the mines are placed in position, accurate bearings of 
 each one are taken from two secure points of observation. These 
 stations should be within the defensive works, and selected so 
 that the lines passing from them over each mine shall intersect 
 in such a manner as to give as nearly as possible a right angle, 
 or at least an angle not too acute. The mines have each a num- 
 ber, and the intersecting lines are correspondingly numbered; 
 it is therefore obvious that when a ship is observed from both 
 stations to be upon a lino having the same number, she will be 
 at the intersection of the two lines, or over the mine having a 
 like number. 
 
 The simplest form is where one of the stations is on the pro- 
 longation of the line of mines, as at A, [Fig. 1, Plate 75,) and 
 the other directly in rear of the mines, as at B. C represents 
 the galvanic battery, from which runs a conducting wire through 
 the station A to station B, and connects at the latter point with 
 a series of keys, through which the current can be closed to each 
 of the mines 1, 2, 3, Ac. Till the key at A is pressed down, no 
 currciu can pass from the battery C past the station A; but di- 
 
FIKINO. 451 
 
 reotly it is pressed down, the circuit is so far completed and the 
 line is cliarged up to tliu statiou B. From the station B is a 
 series of electric cables (B 1, B 2, B 3, &o.) attaclied to a series of 
 contact points, pi'rfectly distinct and carefully insulated from 
 eacli other; these cables pass to tlie mines (1, 2, 3, &o.) througli 
 the fuses in connection with them and to earth. At the second 
 station B we have, therefore, a second break in tlie electrical 
 current, and it is easily seen that in order to pass the current 
 thi'ough and flre any particular fuse, both these breaks must be 
 bridged over, under whicli circumstances the current of the bat- 
 tery will be completed and the mine fired. 
 
 Let it now be supposed tliat a vessel is approaching this line 
 of mines. As lief bow passes across the prolongation of the line 
 B7 the observer at B puts down key No. 7 in connection with 
 mine 7 ; but as the ship lias not come onto the line from A pass- 
 ing through tlie line of mines, the observer at A does not put 
 down his key, a break still exists in the circuit, and_ no current 
 can pass to tire tlie mine 7. When the vessel passes tlie line 
 B7 tlie observer at B allows the key to spiing up and break the 
 connection. As the vessel passes the line B6 the observer at 
 B presses down key No. 6, but as she'is still not on the interseo- 
 tion of tile lines B 6 and A 6, the same result as before is ob- 
 tained, and the mine 6 will not be fired. Let it now be sup- 
 posed that she passes on in her course till she arrives over tlie 
 mine 3; in this position she is on tlie intersection of the two 
 visual lines A 3 and B 3 ; the observers at A and B in this case 
 both put down their respective keys simultaneously, the current 
 of the battery is completed through the mine 3, and that mine 
 will be flred^ 
 
 As before mentioned, it is advantageous to liave the lines of 
 mines all directed on one point (A). The mines of the second 
 and third lines are conaected to the station B precisely as are 
 those of the first line. In the case of a vessel passing through 
 an interval of any two mines of tlie first line, at such a distance 
 as to bo out of tlie radius of destructive efiect of either of them, 
 as, for instance, at the point Y, between 3 and 4, it is easily seen 
 that at the moment of passing the first line of mines, when the 
 observer at A would have his key down, she would not be on 
 the prolongation of any of tlie visual lines from the station B to 
 any of the first line of mines, and as the observer at B would 
 not under such circumstances press down any key, she would 
 pass on to the second line and run upon the mine at H, which 
 would be' exploded as just explained. Instead of having the 
 wire and key at A, as above explained, an ordinary signal flag 
 may be used for transmitting preconcerted signals. This, liow- 
 
452 FIRING. 
 
 ever, would require the obsei-ver at B to have an assistant to 
 look out for the flag, and is altogetlier inferior to tlie former 
 method. It likewise has tlie disadvantage of informing the 
 enemy of tho position of the lines of mines. 
 
 As in many cases it would not be practicable to liave a station 
 on such a position as A, so far advanced towards the point of 
 attack, with the corresponding danger of being cut off by an 
 enemy, anotlier combination becomes necessary ; this is shown 
 in Fig. 2, Plate 75. 
 
 Two stations, A and B, well witliin the defensive works, are 
 selected in such a position that the lines passing from them over 
 the mines sliall intersect in such a manner as to give a large 
 angle. When the mines were placed iu position, accnrate bear- 
 ings were talcen to each from botli of these stations. The gal- 
 vanic battery is placed at A, one pole being connected to earth, 
 while tlie other is connected witli a centre from which radiate 
 a series of contact keys. From tlie contact points of these 
 keys a series of cables, corresponding in number to the numbers 
 of the mines, pass to the similar contact points of a like set 
 of keys at station B, and fi-om the pivots of the keys at B 
 an electrical cable passes to each charge. In this case, there- 
 fore, eacli mine has a separate key at station A as well as at 
 station B, each perfectly distinct from any other and well in- 
 sulated tlierefrom, but the whole culminating at A in the single 
 battery C. In each circuit, corresponding to any particular 
 mine, there are, therefore, two brealis, one at its particular con- 
 tact key at station A, and the other at its corresponding key at 
 station B, and till these breaks are bridged over, by pressing 
 down tlie contact keys simultaneously, the circuit of'the battery 
 will not be closed and the mine will not be fired. In this way 
 it is easily seen tliat if key No. 1, for example, is put down at 
 station A, and key No. 2 at station B, there still remains a brealt 
 in each of these eircuits; in circuit No.l at B and in circuit No. 
 9. at A, and neither of these mines will be flred. The object of 
 tiiis arrangement is seen by tracing tlie course of the vessel (X) 
 approaching tiie line of mines. She first arrives on the line of 
 5 from station A and simultaneously on that of 1 from station B; 
 the observer at A puts down key No. 5 and the observer at B 
 key No. 1, without, of course, firing any mine. Again, as she 
 reaches the position Y, the observer at A puts down key No. 4 
 and the observer at B key No. 2, witliout any circuit being closed. 
 When she arrives at 8 both observers put down keys No. 3 simul- 
 taneously, and the mine is fired and the vessel struck. 
 
 "In carrying out the system above described, it has been 
 found that with a series of very small wooden pickets, placed in 
 
FIRING. 453^ 
 
 a radiating form from a central point, of observation, at a dis- 
 tance o£ about 20 feet, and with pieces of twine jiiissing from 
 the centi-e over the pickets in the direction of the muies to 
 Indicate the bearings more accnratelj', very good practice has 
 been obtauied. The observer, witli Iiis C3'e at the central picket 
 and his hand on the contact keys, pnts the corresponding one 
 down as the object passes the bearings of each. A man soon 
 learns by practice the distance he may allow on one side or 
 other of tlie bearing line, and with ordinary care and nerve is 
 soon able to make contact at the riglit moment. 
 
 "In using the kej's, it is necessary to press tliera fti-mly down 
 and hold them firmly, in order to insure good contact at the 
 proper moment. 
 
 "To work efflciently, it does not seem desirable that more 
 than six keys should be intrusted to the management of anyone 
 man. 
 
 "The system of pickets above described for giving the bear- 
 ings might probably be nsed effeotually up to half a mile, but at 
 greater distances a more accurate means of obtaining the intei^ 
 sections becomes necessary; the pickets liave, moreover, the 
 disadvantage of being easily disturbed and diffleult to replace 
 in an accurate position if once moved. In order to obviate as 
 far as possible tliese defects, an instrument has been devised 
 liavinga telescope, with cross-wires, mounted in connection witli 
 a series of contact points and a movable key, as shown In Fig. 3, 
 Plate 7-0. It consists of a heavy cast-iron stand (a), on which is 
 placed an iron upright (6) arranged to carry tlie telescope (c), 
 allowing it a horizontal motion around the upright; it lias also 
 a vertical motion. Concentric with the upriglit is a circular arc 
 (rf), described with a radius of about 18 inches. On tliis aic are 
 an-anged the contact points for the cables running to tlie mines 
 or to tlie other station. Attached to the upright, below the tel- 
 escope, is a horizontal arm (e), which moves around with the 
 telescope. To this arm is attached a contact key (_/"), adjusted 
 to touch the contact points on the arc. The arc is graduated 
 into divisions, by means of whicli tlie position of the contact 
 points may be registered, so that in the event of their being 
 accidentally displaced they may again bo fixed in true i-elative 
 position with facility." 
 
 To place the instrument in position, a point from which the 
 lines of mines are clearly distinguisliable should be chosen. This 
 point should be as far as possible from heavy guns and have a 
 solid foundation. The iron stand of the instrument having been 
 leveled by means of leveling screws, the tcilescope is directed on 
 some iixed and well-defined object, and the number of the 
 
454 MECHANICAL CIRCUIT-CLOSERS. 
 
 <livisioii under the spring of the lever registered. The telescope 
 is thou directed on each hiioy marking the mines of each line, 
 in succession, and one of the contact arrangements brought 
 into proper position for each and keyed firmly up, and the num- 
 ber of the mine and the number of the division on the gradua- 
 tion are registered. This having been done at both stations, the 
 buoys marking the positions of the mines are removed. The 
 points where the leveling screws of the iron stand rest should 
 be carefully marked, so that the whole may be placed in the 
 same position if accidentally disturbed. 
 
 The observations are made through the telescopes, and when a 
 vessel comes in range with any mine, as indicated by the regis- 
 tered degree, the corresponding key is put down, the operation 
 being in every other respect as before described. 
 
 691. Mechanical circuit- closers. These are arrangements 
 by which submarine mines are fired electrically by the vessel 
 herself closing the circuit. 
 
 They are of two classes, one being that in which the charge 
 and the circuit-closer are in the same case, and the other is 
 where the circuit-closer is in a separate case, but connected with 
 the charge of the mine by an electrical cable. In both ways, 
 the conducting cable is electrically charged from the battery on 
 shore up to the circuit-closer ; when this latter is closed by con- 
 tact with a hostile vessel, the current passes through the fuse in 
 the chai'ge and the mine is exploded. A great number of differ- 
 ent forms of both classes have been invented, all of which are 
 more or less complicated and require special description and 
 study to understand. 
 
 To render mines thus provided with circuit-closers harmless to 
 friendly vessels passing, it would be necessary only to detach the 
 firing battery — an operation usually performed by the operator 
 simply removing a small plug. In this case the circuit-closer, if 
 strongly made, may be struck time and again without injury. 
 This power to resist heavy blows is essential to the efficiency of any 
 form of circuit-closer, as, when in position in a channel through 
 whicli there is much traflSo, they are always liable to be struck 
 with considerable force by blades of screws, floats of paddles, 
 and other hard and sharp bodies. Another especial considera- 
 tion is, that the appai-atus for closing the circuit sliall not be set 
 in action by agitation of the water, but only by impact with a 
 floating body. The circuit-closer must furthermore have suffi- 
 oiont size to give the required amount of inertia. When the 
 circuit-closer and charge are combined in the same case, this is 
 assured ; but when they are separate, it is effected by inclosing 
 the mechanism in buoys made of wood or metal. The greater 
 
MECHANICAL CIRCUIT-CLOSERS. 455 
 
 the size and weight of the cireuit-closer, the greater will be the 
 chances of the effective worlting of tl>e apparatus. 
 
 The destructive power of a mine decreases rapidly as the dis- 
 tance from it increases. The circuit-closer should not, there- 
 fore, be beyond the effective range of the mine. Forty to fifty 
 feet should be the maximum distance for the heaviest charges. 
 
 692. The arrangement of a system of submarine mines in 
 lines possesses the disadvantage that if the enemy has once as- 
 certained the position of one mine of a line, wliether by explo- 
 sion or by any accidental circnmstance, he wonld know within 
 what limits tlie others were to be looked for. In order to obvi- 
 ate this disadvantage, it would always be necessary to scatter a 
 few mines in irregular intervals in front of the advanced line — 
 to set them as skirmishers, retaining the line foiraation tor the 
 main defense. These advanced mines might either be simply 
 electro-self-acting, or arranged for ignition on tlie same piMnciple 
 as those of the main system, as circumstances required. As it is 
 not advisable to expend heavy charges against small boats, these 
 advanced mines should be comparatively smjill, so as to be used 
 against the boats of an enemy seeking for the mines and cii'cuit- 
 closers. 
 
 "The first object of an enemy would be to clear a passage of 
 sufficient width through the system to enable him to pass fi-eely 
 in ; and for tliis purpose he would probably employ drifters, 
 with or witliout dragging grapnels, for the purpose of either 
 firing some of the charges by striking the circuit-closers, or grap- 
 pling and destroying tlie electrical cables and other gear. These 
 drifters may be boats allowed to float in with the tide or wind. 
 In order to stop such a system of attaclc, a light boom or strong 
 fishing-nets would be useful, and should be employed whenever 
 circumstances pei-mit. To stop drifters with dragging grapnels, 
 it is a good plan to lay three or four heavy chain cables at inter- 
 vals across the channel, in advance of the system of mines. The 
 grapnels wonld catch in these, and the weight of the chains 
 would be sufficient to bring up . the drifters before arriving at 
 the mines. 
 
 "The niglit would unqijestionably be the safest time for the 
 enemy to carry on operations of tins niitnre, and it would be 
 necessary to employ IJoats to row guard in order to watch his 
 proceedings. The mode of communication with these boats is 
 a matter of considerable importance, and some means of rapidly 
 transmitting intelligence is absolutely necessary. This can. of 
 course, be done by the system of flashing signals, but the lights 
 in such case would be a disadvantage, as they wonld indicate to 
 the enemy the position of the guard-boat. In oider to obviate 
 
456 TESTING. 
 
 this, a system has been devised by wliich a boat, rowing guard 
 «an be put in electrical telegraphic commiiuication with a fort or 
 guard-ship, by simply paying out an insulated wire attached to 
 a telegraph instrument in the fort or ship, and carrying a second 
 instrument on board the boat. Should the guard-boat be pursued, 
 it would only be necessary to detach the electric cable from the 
 instrument and throw it overboard, with a buoy and line at- 
 tached to it, and pull away. 
 
 "Several systems have been, devised for illuminating chan- 
 nels at night by means of the electric light, the Drummond 
 light, magnesium light, &c., and there is no doubt that, when 
 practicable, such devices should always be used." 
 
 693. Testing. In the electrioal-roora of the fort are kept 
 the histruments for testing the electrical /iables of the mines, for 
 the purpose of seeing that they are in condition to perform their 
 work efficiently. The most essential instruments are the test- 
 table and galvanometers. With these the cables are, from time to 
 time, examined to ascertain if their insulation is effective, and 
 if they have a sufficient amount of electricity ; if the firing bat- 
 tery is in a condition to insure certain ignition; if the electrical 
 connections of the circuit-closers are correct; if the electrical 
 resistance of the fuse is such as to indicate certainty of ignition, 
 and other similar information. 
 
 A separate galvanometer should be used for each mine, and 
 a special battery, distinct from the firing battery, employed in 
 connection with the testing circuits ; thns obviating the necessity 
 of detaching the firing battery while testing, — an important mat- 
 ter likely to occur at the critical period when vessels are attempt- 
 ing to break through the lines. 
 
 Should a leak be discovered in a cable, the extent of it is shown 
 by the galvanometer ; and if considerable, the defective cable is 
 detached from the battery and the fault repaired. When a mine 
 is fired, it is important tliat its cable shonkl be disconnected at 
 •once from the firing battery, to prevent Joss of power through 
 the broken end of the conductor. 
 
 When a separate galvanometer Is supplied for each cable of a 
 system of a mines, it furnishes a constant indicator to point out 
 the fact of a circuit-closer being struck by a ship, and in many 
 cases it may be convenient, or even necessary, to perform tlie 
 operation of throwing in the firing battery without the aid of a 
 per-sonal operator. A self-acting apparatus has been devised 
 for doing it. • By making the appai-atus purely self-acting, all 
 chances of error consequent upon the inattention or want of dex- 
 terity of the man in charge is, of course, eliminated. No mine 
 ■or circuit-closer can be tampered with by an enemy without the 
 
TESTING. 457 
 
 fact being instantly knpwn in the testing-room, and precisely 
 \vliat mine. 
 
 As it is of importance to be assured of the condition of the 
 charge in the mine, whether dry or wet, an apparatus for this 
 purpose has been devised, and it Is of easy application. The use 
 of it obviates tlio necessity of the great labor, time, and trouble 
 that would be required to raise each mine and, by opening it, 
 ascertain in that way the condition of the charge. 
 
 " The firingbattery should be suited to the nature of the fuses 
 employed, and should possess considerable excess of power In 
 order to overcome accidental defects ; such as increased resist- 
 ance in tlie communications, or defective insulation in the elec- 
 tric cable in connection with the mine. A battery just suflB- 
 oiently powerful to fire a fuse on shore, with the electric cable, 
 Ac, in circuit, but not submerged, would not be unlikely to fail 
 after the cable has been submerged in sea-water. In such a case 
 it is recommended that the battery power determined by such 
 an experiment on shore be doubled for actual Work. For all 
 practical purposes this test can be made by firing a fuse of known 
 quality through a resistance equivalent to tliat of the cable. 
 Double the number of cells necessary to efifect this would be re- 
 quired for the submerged cables, &c. 
 
 " When a system of mines is to be laid, each component part 
 should be tested before being placed in position and, afterwards, 
 as the parts are successively combined in the form in which they 
 are to be used before submersion, and the wliole should again 
 be tested immediately after submersion. 
 
 "Asa preliminaiy to all electrical testing, it is necessary to 
 ascertain if the instruments, batteries, &o., used in making the 
 tests are themselves in good working order; otherwise defects 
 which exist in tlie testing instruments may produce results which 
 might be mistaken for defects in the apparatus under trial." 
 
 The cases are tested at the time of manufacture to ascertain 
 if they are thoroughly water-tight and capable of bearing the ex- 
 ternal pressure to the extent required, according to the depth to 
 wliich the3' are to be submerged. A very practical test for tliis 
 is to close the case with its proper mouth-piece as for service, 
 and then submerge it to a depth somewhat exceeding that at 
 which it is eventually to be used. After remaining thus sub- 
 merged for about forty-eight hours, it is lifted, opened,.and care- 
 fully examined to see that it has remained perfectly diy inside. 
 
 A careful record should be kept of the results of all electrical 
 tests applied, as by preserving tlie electrical history of any com- 
 bination a defect in its electrical condition may be readily dis- 
 covered, and the nature, position, and extent of such defect 
 29 a 
 
458 
 
 SURFACE CURKENT OF HARBORS. 
 
 indicated with a considerable degree of accuracy, without the 
 necessity of raising the mine out of water, or in any way dis- 
 turbing the arrangements employed. 
 
 The foregoing will suggest to officers charged with harbor 
 defenses the capabilities of submarine mines as an auxiliary to 
 land defenses. It also furnishes an idea of the kind and quan- 
 tity of material required for establishing a system of mines, and 
 Indicates tlie method of applying and using it. 
 
 Dexterity in the use of testing instruments — in fact, all the 
 electrical manipulations connected with submarine mines — ^is to 
 be acquired only by practice, with the aid of treatises on such 
 subjects. Experience has proved that, with persons of good 
 intelligence, the necessary qualifications may be acquired in a 
 period of six months. 
 
 694. The following table gives the maximum surface current 
 for some of the principal harbors upon the Atlantic sea-board. It 
 will be useful in determining the kind of moorings.necessary for 
 securing submarine mines in these channels : 
 
 IiOCAUTT. 
 
 Portsmontb, N. H., in the channel off Fort Oonstitntion. 
 Boston Harbor, Mass. : 
 
 1. Boston Light-house bearing W., distant 34 mile ; 
 depth of water 33 feet ~ «........—...,„ 
 
 2. Broad Sound Channel, Long Island Light- 
 house bearing S. by W., distant H mile ; depth 
 of water S8 feet - 
 
 Entrance to Narragansett Bay, main channel „.....„, 
 
 New York Harbor, Narrows ; Fort Lafayette bearing 
 N. E., distant !i mile ; depth of water 90 feet 
 
 Delaware Bay, in the channel abreast of Brandywine 
 Shoal. (No observations were made near Fort 
 Delaware) 
 
 Hampton Roads, Va., Old Point Comfort Light-house 
 bearing N. 34 E., distant H mile; depth of water 78 
 feet 
 
 Beaufort, N. C, Fort Macon wharf bearing S., distant 
 a mile; depth of water 26 feet » „ , 
 
 Cape Fear River, west entrance. Fort Caswell bearing 
 N. W., distant X mile ; depth of water 30 feet......... 
 
 Winyah Bay, S. C, Georgetown Liglit-honse bearing 
 S. E., distant 2 miles; depth of water 24 feet , 
 
 Charleston Harbor, Fort Sumpter bearing W., distant 
 H mile : depth of water 29 feet....._. _ , 
 
 Savannah River, Ga., Tybee EnoU Light-vessel bear- 
 ing west, distant li mile ; depth of water 18 feet 
 
 St. Mary's River, Fla., Fort Clinch wharf bearing S., 
 distant H mle; depth of water 26 feet 
 
 Maximum Te- 
 locity of sur- 
 face current 
 in miles per 
 hour. 
 
 Ebb. 
 1.00 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.1 
 O.B 
 
 1.2 
 
 l.« 
 
 Flow. 
 1.5 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.1 
 0.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.6 
 
 '2.6 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.1 
 
prt ^tni\i. 
 
 OUTLINES OF THE QENERAL PROPERTIES OF 
 PERMANENT WORKS. 
 
 Plate 77. 
 
 The term permanent fortification belongs to that branch of the 
 art offortificaiion whL're means of a durable character are used 
 to strengthen a position. Permanent differs from temporary 
 fortification, not only in the character of tiie means nsed, but 
 also in offering a more formidable obstacle to the enemy from 
 the greater strength of its profile. 
 
 Permanent worlcs may be divided into two general classes, 
 fortresses and forts. The term fortress is applied to fortified 
 towns alone, and the term fort to a work containing only a gar- 
 rison. 
 
 The character of the fortification is the same in both classes, 
 consisting hi its most simple form of an elevated and wide mound 
 of earth, termed the rampart, which incloses the space fortified; 
 of an ordinary parapet surmounting the rampart, and of a wide 
 and deep ditch which surrounds the whole. 
 
 These parts of tlie profile serve the same purposes as the cor- 
 responding parts in the profile of a field-work; tlie most striking 
 ditterence between the two consists in the rampart, whicli, from 
 its Iieight, gives a very commanding position to the parapet, and 
 greatly increases the obstacle presented to the enemy. 
 
 To give botli strength and durability, the scarp and counter- 
 scarp are reveted with walls of masonry which sustain the press- 
 ure of the earth, protect it from the effects of the weather, and 
 by their height and steepness present an Insurmountable obstacle 
 to an assault by storm. 
 
 A fortification thus constituted would be sufficient for the pro- 
 tection of troops within it, but would not admit of exterior oper- 
 ations, because it affords no shelter beyond the ditch. There- 
 fore, to procure tlie facility jof manoeuvering on the exterior, a low 
 work, in the form of a glacis, is thrown up a few yards in front 
 of the ditch, and completely enveloping it. The space between 
 {458a) 
 
458b main work. 
 
 this work and the ditch is termed the coveredrway, because it is 
 covered from the enemy's view. 
 
 The simplest form, then, of an effective profile for permanent 
 fortittcation, consists of a covered-way ; a vvide and deep ditch, 
 with a scarp and counterscarp of masonry ; and a rampart, which, 
 from its height and width, will give a commanding position to 
 the parapet, and sufficient room behind the parapet for the nec- 
 I'ssary manoeuvres of the troops whilst in action. 
 
 The problem presented for the solution of the engineer con- 
 sists in making such a disposition of his works that no point 
 within the range of their cannon shall afford a shelter to the en- 
 emy; that they shall inclose the greatest space with the smallest 
 perimeter, without sacrificing the reciprocal protection of the 
 parts, afforded by a flanking arrangement within the medium 
 i-ange of arms ; that no defensive dispositions which can be de- 
 stroyed by the enemy's distant batteries, shall be exposed to 
 their Are ; and finally, that the works shall be secure from an 
 attack by storm. 
 
 To satisfy these conditions, the space to be occupied must nec- 
 essarily be inclosed by a series of bastions connected by curtains ; 
 that the line of fortification must be continuous, and consist of 
 a wide and deep ditch, and a high and steep scarp of masonry, 
 to be perfectly secure from an escalade ; and that the masonry 
 of the scarp, which is the only part that can be destroyed by a 
 distant fire, must be covered from this fire by the glacis of the 
 work which foi-ms the covered-way. 
 
 From the range of the flre-arras that are used in the defense, 
 the distance between the salients of the bastions should not 
 exceed six hundred yards, and that for a reciprocal flanking 
 arrangement, the length of the curtains should not be less than 
 twelve times th^ absolute relief. (See par. 611.) 
 
 To secure the work from escalade, experience has fully proved 
 that the scarp wall should not be less than thirty feet high, and 
 that tiie top of it should not be above the crest of the glacis. 
 
 The width of the terre-plein, or that part of the top of the 
 rampart behind the parapet, is, for the accommodation of mod- 
 ern artillery, about thirty-flve feet, and its height should give 
 the parapet a command of at least twenty feet over the exterior 
 ground. 
 
 The dimensions of the parapet are the same as those for the 
 profile of field-works of the strongest class. (See par. 596.) 
 
 The fortification by which the space fortified is immediately 
 enveloped, is termed the body of the place, or the enceinte. It is 
 seldom that a permanent work consists simply of an enceinte, 
 with its ditch and covered-way, particularly if some of its points 
 
OUTWOKKS. 458c 
 
 are, from their locality, weaker than the rest. Other works are 
 usually added to strengthen these weak points ; they are termed 
 outworks when they are enveloped by the covered -way, and 
 detached or advanced works when placed beyond it. 
 
 The object of these works is to lengthen the defense by forcing 
 the enemy to gain possession of them before he is able to make 
 a breach in the enceinte. 
 
 The principal outwork is one in the form of a redan, termed 
 the demi-lune, which is placed in front of the curtain. This 
 work adds to the main defense by a cross-fire on the bastion sa- 
 lients, which are the weak points of the enceinte, and when there 
 are domi-lunes on adjacent curtains, the bastions between them 
 are placed in strong reenterings, thereby forcing the enemy to 
 gain possession of the demi-lunes before he can penetrate, witlv- 
 out great labor and loss of life, into these reenterings. The main 
 entrances to the work are usually through the curtains, whicli, 
 being the most retired parts, are also the most secure ; the demi- 
 lunes also serve to cover these entrances, and to guard them from 
 a surprise. 
 
 .The ditch of the demi-lune is sometimes on the same level with 
 the main ditch; sometimes it is higher, but in, all cases the com- 
 munications between the two, and also with the demi-lune itself, 
 are arranged so as to be easy and secure. 
 
 Situated between the two flanks of the bastions, and directly 
 in front of the curtain, a small low work, termed the tenaille, 
 serves to mask the scarp-wall of tlie curtain and flanks from the 
 enemy's batteries. This mask is of very great importance, since, 
 by preventing the enemy from making a breach in cither the 
 flanks or curtain, it will force him to make it in the face of the 
 bastion ; the flanks will thus be preserved for the defense of the 
 breach, and the enemy will not be able to turn the temporary 
 or permanent works, which may be constructed within the bas- 
 tion to prevent liim from gaining possession of the main work, 
 by an assault of the breach, which he would be able to do could 
 ho effect a breach at tlie same time in the curtain or flanks. 
 
 The covered-ways of the bastion and demi-lune form a strong 
 reentering at their point of junction, of which advantage is taken 
 to arrange a small redan whose faces flank tlie glacis of the two 
 covered-ways. The space inclosed by this work, whioli is a part 
 of the covered-way itself, is termed the reentering place of arms. 
 
 The parts of tlie covered-ways in front of the salients of the 
 bastion and demi-lune, are termed the salient places of arms. 
 
 The places of arms are so called because tliey serve for the 
 assemblage of bodies of troops who are to act on the exterior. 
 
 Small permanent worljs, termed redoubts, are placed within 
 
458d communications. 
 
 the demi-liine, and the reentering place of arms, for the purpose 
 of strengtheninp; those works. 
 
 It is a received military principle, that the garrison of a work 
 is no longer in safety, when it can be carried by stomi, unless 
 they are provided with a secure point of retreat. It is to effect 
 this purpose that redoubts are constructed. The one in the re- 
 entering place of arms secures the covered-ways from an attack 
 by storm ; and that in the demi-lune forces the enemy to advance 
 gradually, and with the greatest precaution, to gain possession 
 of the breach in the demi-lune ; and being provided with flanks, 
 which, from their position, have a reverse Are on the breach in 
 the bastion face, the enemy is forced to make himself master of 
 it before he can venture to assault the breach in the bastion. 
 
 Works, termed interior retrenchments, which have the same 
 properties as a redoubt, are constructed within the bastion. 
 When the interior retrenchment is sufficiently elevated to com- 
 mand the exterior ground, it is termed a cavalier. 
 
 The protection afforded by a I'cdoubt to another work, is not 
 by offering a place of safety into which the garrison of the work 
 can retire when driven out of it, but in covering the retreat of 
 the garrison by a warm fire, which will check the advance of the 
 enemy, and enable it to retire behind the redoubt, and there re- 
 form to resist further advance of the enemy into the works. 
 
 The crest of the glacis is broken into an indented line for the 
 purpose of obtaining a flank and cross flre on the ground in front 
 of the places of arms. 
 
 Traverses are placed at intervals along the covered-ways ; they 
 serve to intercept the projectiles which enfilade the covered-ways, 
 and also to defend them foot by foot, enabling the troops to re- 
 treat from one part of the covered-way behind the traverse under 
 the protection of its flre. 
 
 The principal communications consist of ramps, stairs, pos- 
 terns, gateways, bridges, and, for wet ditches, sometimes dikes. 
 
 Ramps for the use of artillery, or other vehicles, have a width 
 on top of 10 to 15 feet, and an inclination from \ to ■^. 
 
 Stairs, except for temporary purposes, are constructed of stone, 
 and are usually placed along the counterscarp and gorge walls 
 of the outworks, forming a communication for Infantry only, 
 between the ditch and the terre-plein of the work to which they 
 lead. They are also used within the enceinte in positions where 
 there is not sufficient room for ramps. 
 
 Posterns are arched bomb-proof passage-ways, constructed un- 
 der the ramparts, forming communications between the parade 
 and the main ditch, or between the ditches and the interior of 
 (he outworlcs. 
 
BRIDGES. 458b 
 
 For artillery, the wirlth is usually 10 feet and the height 8 feet. 
 For Infantry, these dimensions may be much less. A strong 
 wooden door is placed at each end of the postern. These doors 
 should be loop-holed for musketry. 
 
 Gateways. In works with large garrisons, where the means 
 of frequent communications with the exterior are required, pos- 
 terns are constructed of sufficient width to admit of at least a 
 single carriage-road with a narrow foot-path ou each side. 
 
 An arched chamber is generally placed on one side of the pos- 
 tern, and the wall between is loop-holed, so as to secure a mus- 
 ketry fire on the doorway of the postern. The arched chamber 
 sei-ves as a guard-room. As a further precaution against sur- 
 prise, a machicoulis defense is sometimes arranged at the top 
 of the scarp-wall just above the doorway of the postern. 
 
 Bridges. The communication across the main ditch leading 
 from the gateway to the country is usually an ordinary wooden 
 bridge. The bay of this bridge at the gate is spanned by a draw- 
 bridge of timber, which, when drawn up, closes and secures the 
 gateway. A barrier, termed a portcullis, which can be lowered 
 or raised vertically by machinery. Is sometimes added to secure 
 the passage-way from surprise. 
 
 • In recent works, the portcullis, and even the doore preceding 
 them, have been constructed of a strong lattice-work of wrought- 
 iron bars. This is a great improvement, both as to durability 
 and defense. All passage-ways should be placed in the most 
 secure part of the works, and under such flanking arrangements 
 as to cover them with close musketry Are, or with that from 
 machine guns. 
 
 With regard to the relief of the outworks, as a general princi- 
 ple those most advanced should be commanded by those most 
 retired. This principle is applied in all the works, except the 
 tenaille and the redoubt of the reentering place of arms. The 
 former must not mask the fire of the bastion flanlcs along the 
 main ditch, and the latter must not mask the fire of the bastion 
 faces upon the glacis of the demi-lune covered-way. To satisfy 
 these conditions, the two works must be commanded by the demi- 
 lune, which is more advanced than either of them ; but, by the 
 process of defilement, they are both so arranged that the eiiemy 
 will not have a plunging fire into them from the demi-lune. 
 
 All the fortification comprehended between the capitals of two 
 adjacent bastions and the glacis, is termed a front of fortifica- 
 tion, or simply a front. It is taken as the unit in permanent 
 fortification. 
 
 The usual method of effectually protecting any point, is b}' a 
 flank fire ; but, owing to the locality, or to some other cause, it 
 
458l' CASEMATES. 
 
 may not be pi-acticable to make a flanking ai-rangeincnt. To 
 supply its place, dispositions, termed counterscarp galleries, are 
 made boliind the connferscarp, with loop-liole defenses for a 
 reverse Are. This arrangement approximates the nearest to the 
 military solution of the problem to see without being seen, since, 
 from the position of tliese galleries, tlie enemy will not be able 
 to bring his batteries to bear on them, whilst they will present 
 a formidable impediment to all of his operalions in the ditches. 
 
 For soa-coast defenses, embrasures are made through the scarp- 
 wall, and the artillery is protected from shells by an arched 
 bomb-proof covering overhead. This arrangement is termed a 
 defensive casemate. This method of defense is only efBcacious 
 against a sea attack; for on the land side, where the enemy can 
 approach regularly, casemates would be rapidly destroyed by his 
 batteries, and the loss of life would be far greater in them than 
 in an open defense, ovping to the fragments of stone which each 
 shot striking an embrasure would cause. 
 
 The arch of the casemate is supported by piers extending back 
 from the scarp-wall. Tliese piei-s are usually about six and a 
 half feet thick, and, a few feet back from the scarp-wall, are 
 pierced by arched passage-ways, which, besides securing free 
 communication from one casemate to another, gives the gun- 
 carriage a wider traverse by allovring the rear end to run under 
 this opening. 
 
 The arches of the casemates are of brick, and have a thickness 
 of three feet exclusive of the roof-shaped capping, which is gen- 
 erally of rubble and bfton, and covered on top by the earth of 
 the rampart and parapet. At least six feet of earth is necessaiy 
 to give full security against shells. 
 
 Arched recesses are made in the scarp-wall at the embrasure 
 to permit the gun being well run out to prevent the smoke from 
 entering the casemate. 
 
 The embrasure is in the centre of the recess, the sole being at 
 the proper height for the easy service of the piece. 
 
 In some casemates, flues for ventilation and carrying off' rapidly 
 the smoke of discharge run from the top of the carriage recess 
 through the masonry of the scarp-wall, and have their outlet in 
 the top of the wall outside. In others, the flues run from the 
 casemate arch to the top oE the scarp-wall. 
 
 Beneath the embrasure, a recess, termed the tongue-hole, is 
 made to i-eceive the tongue of the chassis. The tongue is con- 
 lined in its place, and the chassis traversed around a pintle, 
 which is received into t\\ii pintle-hole made at the centre point of 
 the throat of the embrasure, and extending into the masonry 
 below the tongue-hole. When the casemate serves also as quar- 
 
MAGAZINES. 458a 
 
 ters for the garrison, the rear, towards tho parade, is closed by a 
 masonry wall, which forms the front of the quarters. A brick 
 partition wall separates the quarters from the gun-room. 
 
 Built up with this wall are fire-places, with flues extending to- 
 the parapet above. 
 
 The front or parade end of the quarters is suitably finished, 
 with doors and windows. 
 
 In contracted situations, where it is desirable to secure greater 
 fire in a fixed direction than can be had from a single tier of 
 casemates, one or more tiers are added, the pampet being re- 
 tained as before. The arches of the top tier are alone bomb- 
 proof; those of the lower tiers being of sufficient strength to re- 
 ceive the armament and admit of the service of the guns with 
 safety. 
 
 Mortars being placed behi nd the ramparts or traverses to secure 
 them against horizontal flre, are protected from vertical fire by 
 arches covered with earth, as in the preceding case. The arch 
 rises towards the front to give room for the sliell in its flight. 
 The front end of the casemate is walled up to a height of about 
 six feet. This permits the mortar to be fired over the wall, and 
 the interior of the casemate is protected to a great degree from 
 falling shells and splinters. 
 
 Casemates are also used simply as bomb-proof slielters for the 
 troops and material. These may be constructed ia the rampart& 
 of land fronts, where guns are used only in barbette. 
 
 Upon land fronts, where it is important to have the masonry 
 covered by earth from the fire of stationary batteries, embrasures 
 are made in the parapet after the manner prescribed in par. 634. 
 The arch of the casemate is united to the interior slope-wall, as, 
 in the preceding case, it was to the scarp-wall. Its covering of 
 earth extends down in front, forming the merlons of the parapet, 
 thus covering all the masonry except that of the embrasure. 
 The front portion of the arch of the casemate is conoidal, and 
 descends down to the top of the embi-asure. 
 
 Magazines (see pars. 669, 637) for permanent works are con- 
 structed usually in connection with the enceinte, being placed in 
 the most secure part of tlie woi'k. They are built witli strong, 
 full centre bomb-proof briek arches, supported on heavy masonry 
 piers, which form the outward walls. The arches are covered 
 with not less than eight feet of earth. 
 
 The interior of the magazine, the floors, and the doors and 
 windows are built with a view to security from flre, and to pre- 
 serve the powder from dampness by a good system of drainage 
 around the foundations,, and of ventilation by means of aiir-holes 
 
458n DETACHED WORKS. 
 
 made through the piers and panels of copper pierced with small 
 holes placed in the dooi-s. 
 
 No iron or steel is allowed in any part of the structure, bronze 
 being used where it is necessary to employ metal. 
 
 The exterior openings for air-holes are covered with copper 
 mesh-work to prevent combustible material or rats or mice pene- 
 trating to the interior of the magazine. 
 
 Heavy guns are usually placed in pairs, with a traverse be- 
 tween each set of pairs. In this traverse is built the service 
 magazine for the adjacent pieces. 
 
 Advanced works are those placed beyond the outworks, and 
 are so under the Are of either the main work or the outworks as 
 to have the ground in advance of them swept by this Are ; their 
 ditches flanked by it, and their interior so exposed to it, that if 
 the work were seized by the enemy he could be driven from it 
 by this fire. 
 
 Detached works are those which, although havingan important 
 bearing on the defense of the main work, are so far from it as to 
 have to depend solely on their own strength in case of assault. 
 
 Explanations op Plate 77. 
 Plan of a regularly fortified front : 
 
 a A . . A is the enceinte, or body of the place. 
 
 BB, the bastions. 
 
 CO . . o, the main ditch, or ditch of the enceinte. 
 
 DD . . D, the bastion and demi-lune covered-ways. 
 
 EE, the reentering places of arms. 
 
 FFF, the salient places of arms. 
 
 Q, the demi-lune. 
 
 H, the demi-lune ditch. 
 
 J, the demi-lune redoubt. 
 
 LL, the ditch of tlie demi-lune redoubt. 
 
 MM, the redoubts of the reentering places of arms. 
 
 aa . . a, traverses of the covered-way. 
 
 o, tlie tenaille. 
 
 Fig. A shows a section of the enceinte, main ditch, and cov- 
 ered-way. 
 
 A is the rampart; of which ab is the slope, and be the 
 
 terre-plein. 
 B is the parapet ; of which cdeghis the outline. 
 O is the main ditch. 
 
 D, the scarp wall. 
 
 E, the counterscarp wall. 
 
 P, the embankment of the covered-way; of which mn is 
 the terre-plein, n op the outline of the banquette, 
 interior slope, and glacis. 
 
iart (BUvmili. 
 
 SALUTES AND CEREMONIES. 
 
 This subject is introduced under the following authority : 
 
 Navy Department, Washinoton, Nov. 20, 1879. 
 Sib ! Beferring to yonr letter of the SOtli nltimo, transmitting the mann- 
 Ecript of a " Ompter on Artillery Salutes m Oeneral," by HajoT Tidball, 
 of the United States Army, I have the honor to inform you that the officers 
 of the Navy to whom it was submitted report that it conforms to naval 
 tisage and the conventions with foreign powers with respect to the etiquette 
 of visits and salutes. 
 The manuscript is herewith returned. 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 (Signed) K. "W. THOMPSON, 
 
 Secretary of the Navy. 
 Hon. Geobgb W. McCbabt, Secretary of War. 
 
 Approved: 
 
 By order of the Secretary of War. 
 
 (Signed) JOHN TWEEDALE, 
 
 Acting Chief Olerk. 
 War Dbpaetment, Hbv. 26, 1879. 
 
 695. A salnte with cannon is a certain number of guns fired 
 in succession with blank cartridges, in honor of a person, to 
 celebrate an event, or to show respect to the flag of a country. 
 
 The i-apidity with which the pieces are discharged depends 
 upon their calibre. Field guns should have intei-vals of five 
 seconds between discharges; siege guns, eight; and guns of 
 heavier calibre, ten. 
 
 The minimum number of pieces with which salutes can be 
 fired is two for field, four for siege, and six for sea-coast guns. 
 
 Mortars, as a rule, are not used for saluting purposes. 
 
 696. Personages entitled to salutes, if passing a military 
 post, as also foreign ships-of-war, are saluted with guns of heavy 
 calibre, the most suitable being the 10-inch smooth-bore. 
 
 When troops are drawn up for the reception of a dignitary, 
 and it is practicable to have a battery of field guns on the 
 ground, a salute from it should form part of the ceremony; 
 otherwise guns in position are used. 
 
 The national salute, and minute-guns upon funeral occasions, 
 are, when practicable, fired from heavy pieces. 
 ( 459 ) 
 
460 SALUTES AND CEREMONIES. 
 
 69T. The pieces used for a salute should, if possible, be of 
 the same or equivalent calibre; and when the number on the 
 front of a work admits of it, the entire number required, and 
 two or three over, sliould be loaded and made ready previous to- 
 commencing the salute; the detacliments are then dispensed 
 with, and a single cannoneer at each piece discharges it at the 
 proper time. When the number of pieces is insuflScient for the 
 entire salute, as many as possible should be used, so as to avoid 
 frequent reloadings. 
 
 698. The pieces are numbered from right to left, — one, two, 
 three, and so on, — and each detachment or the cannoneer, as 
 the case may be, is made to clearly understand the number of 
 the piece. To insure regularity of intervals, the officer in charge 
 of the firing should habituate liimself to uniformity in giving tlie 
 commands to Are. 
 
 At the proper moment the officer in charge commands : Num- 
 ber one, FiBEV and observing the proper interval, Number two,. 
 FmB, and so on to the left piece, when he returns to the first 
 and repeats the same commands until the entire number re- 
 quired for the salute is discharged. In order to preserve regu- 
 larity in the fires, he will not concern himself with the running 
 number, but will have a capable person to keep the count and 
 notify him wlien the required number of discharges are made. 
 In giving the command Jire, he looks towards the piece to be 
 fired, and gives it in such a pronounced manner, accompanied 
 by a signal with his sword, as to be unmistakable; the can- 
 noneer discharging a piece, when its number is called casts his- 
 eyes to the officer, and, observing the signal as well as the com- 
 mand, pulls the lanyard with promptness and decision. The 
 officer will be careful to avoid excitement in himself or to cause 
 it in the men firing the pieces. Should a piece miss fire, he 
 immediately commands the next to fire, and allows the piece 
 that has missed to remain undischarged until its proper turn 
 again comes. Immediately after eacli piece is discharged it is 
 reloaded and made ready. The cartridges are withdrawn from 
 the pieces tiiat remain loaded at the conclusion of the salute. 
 
 699. Salvos are simultaneous discharges from several can- 
 non. They correspond to volleys of musketry, and are fired, 
 by way of salute, only over the graves of officers at the time of 
 burial. 
 
 The order designating a funeral escort prescribes whether 
 the fire shall be three Tolleys of musketry or three salvos of 
 artillery. 
 
 The following are prescribed salutes : 
 
national and personal salutes. 461 
 
 National Salutes.* 
 
 900. The national salute is one gun for each State in the 
 Union. 
 
 The international salute, or the salute to a national flag, is 
 21 guns. 
 
 Peesonal Salutes.* 
 vol. To civil and diplomatic authorities. 
 
 The President of the United States receives a salute, 
 to be given both on his arrival at and final departure 
 from a military post or station provided with artil- 
 lery, of 21 guns. 
 
 The Vice-President of the United States 19 guns. 
 
 Members of the Cabinet, the Chief Justice, the Speaker 
 of the House of Representatives, the Governors with- 
 in their respective States or Territories 17 guns. 
 
 A committee of Congress oflScially visiting a military 
 post or station 17 guns. 
 
 The Sovereign or Chief Magistrate of a foreign State, to 
 be given both on arrival at and final departure from 
 a military post or station provided with artillery 21 guns. 
 
 Members of the Royal Family, i. e., the Heir-apparent 
 and Consort of tbe reigning sovereign of a foreign 
 State 21 guns. 
 
 The Viceroy, Governor-General, or Governors of prov- 
 inces belonging to foreign States 17 guns. 
 
 Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plonipotentiaiy 17 guns. 
 
 Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary.. 15 guns. 
 
 Ministers Resident accredited to the United States 13 guns. 
 
 Charges d' Affaires, or suboi-dinate diplomatic agents 
 left in charge of missions in the United States 11 guns. 
 
 Consuls-General accredited to the United States 9 gnns. 
 
 702. To military and naval officers. 
 
 The General-in-Chief, Field Marshal, or Admiral 17 guns. 
 
 Lieutenant-General or Vice-Admiral... 15 guns. 
 
 Major-Gteneral or Rear-Admiral 13 gnns. 
 
 Brigadier-General or Commodore 11 guns. 
 
 Officers of volunteers and militia, only when in the service of 
 tbe United States, the salute specified for their rank. 
 
 Officers of foreign services visiting any military post or station 
 provided with artillery, are saluted In accordance with their 
 rank. 
 
 (* See oaee d66c et seQ.) 
 
462 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL SALUTES. 
 
 In adrlitioii to the foregoing, occasions of a public nature 
 frequently arise when salutes are both desirable and proper. 
 Orders will govern in such cases. Personal salutes are, however, 
 strictly confined to the foregoing, and are fired but once, unless 
 otherwise specified herein. 
 
 703. Salutes are fired only between sunrise and sunset, and, 
 as a rule, never on Sunday. 
 
 The national color must always be displayed at the time of 
 firing salutes. 
 
 The national salute is fired at noon on the anniversary of the 
 Independence of the United Slates at each military post or camp 
 provided with artillery. 
 
 704. The international salute is the only salute which is re- 
 turned, and this is invariably done as soon as possible. The 
 time intervening must never exceed'twenty-four hours. The 
 failure to return such salute is regarded as a discourtesy or lack 
 of friendship justifyiug the other party in asking explanation. 
 
 In the presence of the President of the United States, however, 
 no salute, other than the national salute, and that specified for 
 him, is to be fired. 
 
 705. It is the custom for saluting vessels-of-war upon anchor- 
 ing in presence of a fort, to hoist at the fore the flag of the coun- 
 try in whose waters they are, and to fli'e the first salute. A 
 failure to do so is a proper subject for explanation. 
 
 Notice of an intention to salute the flag is usually given by 
 the vessel direct to the fort ; but as giving notice involves delay, 
 vessels frequently salute without It. Vessels mounting less than 
 ten guns do not Are salutes requiring the guns to be reloaded. 
 Surveying vessels, store-ships, or transports do not salute. 
 
 If there be several forts or batteries in sight, or within six 
 miles of eacli other, one of them is designated in orders to return 
 international salutes. Either of the ottiers receiving notice from 
 a saluting vessel of intention to salute the flag, immediately no- 
 tifies the one designated as the saluting fort, and informs the 
 vessel of the fact. If a vessel salutes without giving notice, the 
 fort designated as the saluting fort returns it. 
 
 United States vessels return salutes to the flag in United States 
 waters, only where there is no fort or battery to do so. 
 
 United States vessels do not salute United States forts or posts. 
 
 Salutes to the flag aire in no sense to be considered as personal. 
 
 706. The President of the United States, the Sovereign or 
 Chief Magistrate of a foreign country traveling in a public ca- 
 pacity, is saluted when ^assira^r in the vicinity of a military post. 
 
 A vessel-of-war on which the President of the United States is 
 traveling displays the national ensign at tlie main. In the case 
 
OFFICIAL COURTESIES. 463 
 
 of foreign sovereigns, vessels display the royal standard of the 
 sovereign in like manner. 
 
 TOT. Personal salutes, in compliment to foreign diplomatic 
 authorities, are to be fired only for those whose nations pay the 
 same compliments to United States diplomatic ministers in their 
 territories. 
 
 Personal salutes at the same place and in compliment to the 
 same person, whether civil, diplomatic, military, or naval, are 
 never to be fired oftener than once in twelve months, unless such 
 pei'son shall have been, in the meantime, advanced in rani;. 
 
 Officers on the retired list, whether military or naval, are not 
 to be saluted. This, however, does not apply to funeral cere- 
 monies. 
 
 An officer, whether civil, military, or naval, holding two or 
 more positions, either of which entities him to a salute, receives 
 only the salute due to the highest grade. In no event is the 
 same person to be saluted in more than one capacity. 
 
 When several persons, each of whom is entitled to a salute, ar- 
 rive together at a post, the one highest in rank or position is alone 
 saluted. If they arrive successively, each is saluted in turn. 
 
 An officer assigned to duty according to brevet rank receives 
 the salute due to the full rank of the grade to which he has been 
 assigned. 
 
 As a rule, a personal salute is to be fired when the personage 
 entitled to it enters the post. 
 
 When the troops at a railitaiypost are to be reviewed by a per- 
 sonage entitled to a salute, it is most appropriate to fire the salute 
 from field guns at the place of review, and at the time, just pre- 
 vious to the review, when the personage arrives on the ground. 
 
 Official Couetesies.* 
 
 VOS. The interchange of official compliments and visits be- 
 tween foreign military or naval officers, and the authorities of a 
 military post, are international in character. 
 
 In all eases it Is the duty of the commandant of a military post, 
 without regard to his rank, to send a suitable officer to ofier civ- 
 ilities and assistance to a vessel-of-war (foreign or otherwise) 
 recently arrived. 
 
 After sucli offer it is the duty of the commanding officer of the 
 vessel to send a suitable officer to acknowledge such civilities, 
 and request that a time be specified for his reception by the 
 commanding officer of the post. 
 
 The commanding officer of a military post, after the usual 
 oflfer of civilities, is always to receive the first visit without re- 
 gard to rank. The return visit by the commanding officer of 
 
 (* See oaee 466c et se<7.) 
 
464 OFFICIAL COURTESIES. 
 
 the military post is made the following day, or as soon thereafter 
 as practicable. 
 
 '709. When a military commander oflScially visits a vessel-of- 
 war he gives notice of his visit to the vessel previously thereto, or 
 ^ends a suitable oflScer (or an orderl}') to the gangway to an- 
 nounce his presence, if such notice has not been given. He is 
 then received at the gangway by the commander of the vessel, 
 and is accompanied there on leaving by the same officer. The 
 officer who is sent with the customary offer of civilities is met 
 -at the gangway of a vessel-of-war by the offlcer-of-the-deck; 
 through the latter he is presented to the commander of the ves- 
 sel, with wliora it is his duty to communicate. 
 
 A vessel-of-war is approached and boarded by commissioned 
 officers, by the starboard side and gangway, when there are gang- 
 ways on each side. 
 
 In entering a boat, the junior goes first and other officers 
 aocordhig to rank; in leaving a boat, the senior goes first. The 
 latter is to acknowledge the salutes which are given at the gang- 
 way of naval vessels. 
 
 Naval vessels fire personal salutes to officers entitled to them 
 when the boat containing the officer to be saluted has cleared 
 the ship. It is an acknowledgment for his boat to " lie on her 
 oars" from the first until the last gun of the salute, and for the 
 officer saluted to uncover, then at the conclusion to "give way." 
 
 The exchange of official visits between the commanding officers 
 of a post and vessel, opens the door to both official and social 
 courtesies among the other officers. 
 
 VIO. To a boat with the flag of an admiral, vice-admir<al, or 
 rear-admiral, or the broad pennant of a commodore, boats with 
 narrow pennants "lie on their oars" or "let fly their sheets," 
 and boats without pennants "toss their oars." In both cases 
 officers in them salute. 
 
 In the case of two boats meeting or passing each other, each 
 with the same insignia of a commanding olHcer, the junior is the 
 first to salute. 
 
 Officers of inferior grade to a commanding officer passing him 
 in a boat, "lie on their oars" or "let fly their sheets," and 
 salute. All other officers passing each other in boats are to ex- 
 change salutes, the junior saluting first. 
 
 Cockswains steering boats are, whenever commissioned officers 
 are saluted, to stand up and raise their caps, and whenever 
 warrant officers are saluted they raise their caps only. 
 
 The officer or cockswain of a loaded boat, or of boats engaged 
 in towing, salute a boat with the flag of an admiral, vice-admiral, 
 or rear-admiral, or the broad pennant of a commodore, by 
 standing and raising their caps. 
 
OFFICIAL COURTESIES. 465 
 
 When boats are rowing in the same direction, an inferior is 
 <iot to pass a superior in grade unless he is on urgent duty, or 
 anthorized by the superior. 
 
 When boats are pursuing opposite directions, the rule of the 
 road to prevent fouling is, that both shall "put their helms to 
 port " — i. e., to pass to the right, circumstances permitting. 
 
 When boats are approaching the same landing or vessel, an 
 inferior is always to give way to a superior in rank. 
 
 Boats about leaving a ship's side or landing are to give way in 
 ■ample time to others approaching. 
 
 It is not proper to land over another boat without permission, 
 and only wlien it cannot be avoided is permission to be aslted. 
 
 Boats display their ensigns when they shove oif, and keep 
 tiiera flying until their return. 
 
 TH. To distinguish officers in boats, commanding officers of 
 fleets, squadrons, or divisions carry the distinguishing marks of 
 their rank on tlie bow of their barges. Flags and pennants dis- 
 tinguishing ranlc are also worn at the bows of boats. 
 
 An admiral's flag is a blue flag bearing four white stars ; that 
 of a vice-admiral bears three stars; a rear-admiral, two stars; a 
 commodore's pennant, one star, and is a swallow-tailed flag. 
 
 The narrow pennant is worn by commanding officers of lesser 
 rank. In addition, captains in tlie Navy wear a gilt ball on the 
 end of their boat staffs, and commanders a gilt star. 
 
 To the ships, boats, and officers of the United States Xavy, as 
 ■well as foreign ofiioers, the foregoing is due ; and courtesy be- 
 tween the land and naval services is indispensable to good order 
 and discipline, as well as necessary to the national dignity and 
 honor. Military officers of assimilative rank are entitled to and 
 should carry the above boat insignia. 
 
 Navy regulations require officers and men never to omit, on 
 any occasion, to extend tlie same compliments to officers of the 
 Army as are paid by them to officers of the Navy. 
 
 'S'lS. When a civil functionary entitled to a salute arrives at 
 a military post, the commanding officer meets or calls upon him 
 as soon as practicable. The commanding officer will tender him 
 a review, provided the garrison of the place is not less than four 
 batteries of artillery, or their equivalent of other troops. 
 
 When an officer entitled to a salute visits a post within his 
 own command, the troops are paraded and he receives the honor 
 of a review, unless he directs otherwise'. 
 
 When a salute is to be given an officer junior to another pres- 
 ent at a post, the senior will be notified to that effect by tlie com- 
 manding officer. 
 
 Military or naval officers, of whatever rank, arriving at a mll- 
 30 
 
466 FUNERALS. 
 
 itaiy post or station, are expected to call upon the commanding 
 oflScer. . J. J 
 
 Under no circumstances is tlie flag of a military post dipped 
 by way of salute or cotnpliment. 
 
 "FXTSEBLALS. 
 
 VIS. When the funeral of an officer entitled, when living, 
 to a, salnte, takes place at or near a military post, minute-guns 
 are flred while the remains are being borne to the place of inter- 
 ment ; but tlie number of such guns is not to exceed that which 
 the officer was entitled to as a salute when living. After the 
 remains are deposited in the grave, a salnte corresponding to 
 the rank of the deceased officer will be flred — three salvos of 
 artillery, or three volleys of musketry. 
 
 In the event of a flag-officer of the Kavy, whether of tlie 
 United States or of a foreign country, dying afloat, and the re- 
 mains are brought ashore, minute-guns are fired from the ship 
 while the bodj' is being conveyed to the shore. If it be in the 
 vicinity of a military post, the flag of the latter is displayed at 
 half-staff, and minute-guns are fired from the post while the pro- 
 cession is moving from the landing-place. These minute-guns 
 are not to exceed in number that which the officer was entitled 
 to, as a salute, when living. 
 
 During tlie funeral of a civil functionary entitled, when living, 
 to a salnte, the flag is displayed at half-staff, and minute-guns 
 fired as before ; but neither salute nor salvos are fired after the 
 remains are deposited in the grave. 
 
 On the death of an officer at a militaiy post, the flag is dis- 
 played at half-staff, and kapt so, between the hours of reveille 
 and retreat, until the last salvo or volley is flred over the gi'ave, 
 or, if the remains are not interred at the post, until they are 
 removed therefrom. 
 
 During the fimeral of an enlisted man, the flag is displayed 
 at half-staff, and is hoisted t<y the top after the final volley or 
 gun is fired. 
 
 All military posts in sight, or within six miles of each other, 
 display their flags at halt-staff upon the occasion of either one 
 doing so. The same rule is observed toward a vessel-of-war. 
 
 On all occasions where the flag is displayed at half-staff, it is 
 lowered to that position from tlie top of the staff. It is after- 
 wards hoisted to the top before being finally lowered. 
 
 714. Should it occur that salutes which are due to any for- 
 eign official or dignitaiy have not been provided for in the fore- 
 going paragraphs, he may receive the salutes and honors which 
 are awarded him in liis own country. If time permits, however, 
 special instructions from the War Department should be sought. 
 
lElodi{lation!fi in lao^t imtVU. 
 
 {Conforming mth Recent Ordets, etc. , front theWarDepartmeitt.. 
 
 To MO0NT AND Dismount a SiEGE-GtrN with Gin. 
 
 The following modification of paragraph 490, page 245, has 
 been authorized by Circular No. 11, Headquarters of the Army, 
 August 20y 1890. 
 
 The gin used is that indicated in paragraph 487 et seq. 
 
 The trace-rope should be thirty-nine feet in length. 
 
 To Dismount a Siege- Gun. 
 
 The gin is placed over the piece limbered up, so that the hook 
 of the lower block of the fall isjust in rear of the trunnions and 
 pointing toward the muzzle. The instructor commands : 
 
 I. SwNG THE Piece. 
 
 At this command Nos. 3 and 4 remove the cap-squares, the 
 gunner takes a trace-rope, making with it three loose turns around 
 the chase of the piece, near the muzzle, so that the running ends 
 ■will be of equal length ; next, slip this coil back as far as the 
 rimbases. Tliere should be a play of about nine inches between 
 the chase and the coil at this point. Next, place the coil over 
 the hook of .the lower block, bring the two running ends of the 
 trace-rope around the back of the hook, then crossing each other 
 over it down through the coiled loop toward the breech to Nos. 
 5 and 6. The gunner now steps to the breech, receives these 
 ends from Nos. 5 and 6, and makes with them an overhand knot 
 just over the vent, passes them to the rear, parallel to one another, 
 crosses them under and around the neck of the cascabel, carries 
 them forward, under and through the loop formed by the over- 
 hand knot before mentioned to the rear again, and returns them 
 to Nos. 5 and 6. The fall is now eased away by Nos. i and 2 
 until the hook just touches the body of the piece ; Nos. 5 and 6, 
 at the same time, hauling taut on the running ends of the trace- 
 rope, and secure them to the neck of the cascabel by means of a 
 square knot hauled taut. All being in readiness, the instructor 
 commands : 
 
 (466a) 
 
466b to mount and dismount a siege-gun. 
 
 I. Hoist Away. 
 
 The windlass is worked by.Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 until the piece 
 is fiee from the trunnion beds. The instructor now commands : 
 
 I. Hai,t, 2. Run out the Carsiagb. 
 
 All the men, except Nos. i and 2, who remain at the windlass, 
 run out the carriage, as explained in paragraph 435, Tidball's 
 Manual. The instructor then commands : 
 
 1. StACK Off. 
 
 Nos. I and 2 slack off the fall slowly, and the piece is lowered 
 to its position on the ground or skidded. 
 
 To Mount a Siege-Gun. 
 
 The gin is placed over the piece in a corresponding position to 
 what it was when used in dismounting it. 
 
 The trace-rope is arranged by the gunner, assisted bjr Nos. 5 
 and 6, in the same manner as prescribed for dismounting the 
 piece. 
 
 The commands Ha'ist Away, Halt, Run up the Carriage, and 
 Slack Off, are then given and executed in me manner already 
 explained. 
 
|p0diaati«nj3 in iavt (&\mntU. 
 
 ^Conforming with recent orders, etc. ,from the War Department^ 
 
 NATIONAI, Sai,XJTES. 
 
 VOO. The national salute is twenty-oae guns. It is also the 
 salute to the President, and likewise the salute to a national flag, or 
 "international salute." (See par. 701, 704.) 
 
 The salute to the Union is one gun for each State. It is com- 
 memorative of the Declaration of Independence and is fired at 
 noon on the 4lii day of July at every post provided with artillery. 
 (See par. 703.) 
 
 Personai, Salutes. 
 
 fOl. The Assistant Secretary of War receives a salute of fif- 
 teen guns. (G. O. no, H. Q. A., 1890.) 
 
 713. The orders announcing the death of a general officer, 
 or other person entitled to a salute of cannon, will specify the 
 number of guns to be fired at half-hour intervals, commencingat 
 8 o'clock A. M., on the day of the receipt of the order. The num- 
 ber of guns fired will be that to which the deceased was entitled, 
 and the posts at which they should be fired will be designated in 
 the order. (G. O. no, H. Q. A., 1890.) 
 
 Officiai, Courtesies. 
 
 {J'ar. 70S', p. 463, et seg.") 
 
 The interchange of official compliments and visits between 
 foreign military and naval officers and the authorities of a mili- 
 tary post is international in character, and opens the door to both 
 official and social courtesies among the officers. In cases of ves- 
 sels of war, foreign or otherwise, recently arrived, it is the duty 
 of the post commander to send a suitable officer to offer civili- 
 ties andr assistance. It is expected that this civility will be re- 
 turned, and that within twenty-four hours thereafter, weather 
 permitting, the officer in chief command of the ship or ships will 
 visit the officer in command of the post or station, should the lat- 
 ter be his equal or superior in grade. This visit will be returned 
 ( 4660 ) 
 
466d official courtesies. 
 
 •within twenty-four hours. Should the arriving commanding offi- 
 cer be superior in grade to the officer commanding the post or 
 station, the first visit will be paid by the latter officer as file in- 
 ferior in grade. 
 
 Naval vessels fire personal salutes to officers entitled to them 
 when the boat containing the officer to be saluted has cleared the 
 ship. It is an acknowledgment of the salute for his boat to " lie 
 on Tier oars " firom the first until the last gun, and for the officers 
 saluted to uncover; then, at the conclusion, to "give way." 
 Personal salutes are not returned b^ military posts. 
 
 In case of vessels of war of foreign powers at peace with the 
 United States, lying in our ports or harbors and celebrating their 
 national festivals, the commander of each fort, battery, or mili- 
 tary post may participate in the celebration by firing salnte& 
 parading commands, etc. In such cases tiie flag of the Unitea 
 States will be hoisted and lowered simultaneou^y with that of 
 the ship on boaid of which the celebration occurs. (G. O. SP, H. 
 Q. A., 1890.) 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 AU weights land dimensions in the loregoing pages are given 
 In English denominations. 
 
 The only legalized unit of weight or measure in the United 
 States is a troy pound, brought from England, hy Captain Kater, 
 in 1827. This pound is a standard at 30 inches of the barometer 
 and 62° of the Fahrenheit thermometer. 
 
 The standard avoirdupois ponnd is the weight of 27.7015 cubic 
 inches of distilled water at 30 inches of the barometer and 62° F- 
 The following table shows the relation between the troy pound 
 and the avoirdupois pound : 
 
 7000 grains troy s=3 1 pound avoirdupois. 
 57G0 grains troy t= 1 pound troy. 
 175 pounds troy ;= 144 pounds avoirdupois, 
 175 ounces troy = 192 ounces avoirdupois. 
 437.5 grains troy = 1 ounce avoirdupois. 
 In the United States artillery, the troy grain (7000 to the 
 pound) is taken as the standard. 
 2240 pounds avoirdupois make a ton (long). 
 2000 pounds avoirdupois make a ton (short). 
 The former is used by the English for all purposes. 
 Both of those tons are in common use in the United States. 
 Where precision is required, as in making contracts, &o., it is 
 customary to state, in pounds, which ton is meant. 
 
 A box 16 X 16.8 X 8 inches, contains 1 bushel. 
 12 X 11.2 X 8 incites, contains \ bushel. 
 8 X 8.4 X 8 inches, contains 1 peck. 
 6 X 6 X 6<4 inches, contains 1 gallon, \ liquid meas> 
 4 X 4 X 3.6 inches, contains 1 quart, j ure. 
 
 Metric System. 
 
 By an act of Congress approved July 28, 1866, the metric 
 system of weights and measures is made optional in the United 
 States, and the act provides that the tables in a schedule an- 
 nexed shall be recognized "as establishing, in terms of the 
 weights and measures now in use iu the United States, the 
 equivalents of the weights and measures expressed tlierein in 
 terms of the metric system ; and said tables may be lawfully 
 used for computing, determining, and expressing, in customary 
 weights and measures, the weights and measures of. the metric 
 system." 
 
 (467) 
 
468 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Schedule annexed to act of July 28, 1866. 
 
 MEASURES OP LENGTH. 
 
 metric denom« 
 Inations. 
 
 Values In metres. 
 
 Equivalents in denominations In 
 
 use. 
 
 Myriametre. .. 
 
 Hectometre 
 
 Decametre 
 
 10000. 
 1000. 
 100. 
 10. 
 1. 
 0.1 
 0.01 
 0.001 
 
 6.2137 mUes. 
 
 0.6213T mUe, or 3280 ieet and 10 In. 
 
 328 feet and 1 Inch. 
 
 393.7 inches. 
 
 39.37 inches. 
 
 3.937 inches. 
 
 0.3937 inch. 
 
 0.0394 inch. 
 
 
 Decimetre..- 
 
 Centimetre 
 
 millimetre 
 
 25.39954113 millimetres = 1 Inch. 
 
 0.30479449356 metres.- = 1 foot. 
 
 0.91438348 metres = lyard. 
 
 1.6093149 kilometres - = 1 mile. 
 
 MEASUEES OP StJEPAOE. 
 
 Metric denominations. 
 
 Values in 
 sq. metres. 
 
 Equivalents in denominations In nsa. 
 
 Hectare -.. 
 
 Are............................ 
 
 10000 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 2.471 acres. 
 
 119.6 square yards. 
 
 1560 square inches. 
 
 
 
 1 square centimetre.. 
 1 square decimetre... 
 
 1 square metre 
 
 1 square metre 
 
 1 square metre 
 
 1 square inch 
 
 1 square foot 
 
 1 square yard 
 
 1 square mile 
 
 0.15500591 square Inches. 
 ■■ 0.107642993 square feet. 
 ■■ 10.7642993 square feet. 
 
 1.19604326 square yards. 
 
 0.0002471 acre. 
 : 645.13669 square millimetres. 
 
 0.092899683 square metre. 
 
 0.83609715 square metre. 
 
 2.58989447 square kilometres. 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 Metric denominations and values. 
 
 Equivalents in denominations 
 In use. 
 
 Names. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Utres. 
 
 Onbic measure. 
 
 Dry measure. 
 
 Liqtiid or wine 
 measure. 
 
 Kilolitre or 
 
 Hectolitre ... 
 DecaUtre .... 
 
 Litre 
 
 DeciUtre...... 
 
 Centmtre.... 
 
 Millilitre.... 
 
 1000. 
 100. 
 10. 
 1. 
 0.1 
 0.01 
 0.001 
 
 1 cubic metre.... 
 
 0.1 c. metre 
 
 10 c. decimetres. 
 1 c. decimetre.... 
 0.1 0. decimetre. 
 10 c. centimetres 
 lo. centimetre.. 
 
 1.303 c. yds 
 
 2 bus. 3.35 pks. 
 
 9.08 quarts 
 
 0.908 quart 
 
 6.1022 0. inch.. 
 0.6102 c. inch.. 
 0.061 c. inch.... 
 
 264.17 gallons. 
 26.417 gallons. 
 2.6417 gaUons. 
 1.0567 quarts. 
 0.845 gill. 
 0.338 fluid oz. 
 0.27 fluid dr'm. 
 
METRICAL BaUIVALBNTS. 
 
 469 
 
 1 cnbic centimetre (o. c) ...... = 0.0610270515194 cibie inches, 
 
 1 cnbic decimetre = 61.0270515194 cnblc inches. 
 
 1 cubic metre =: 61027.0515194 cubic inches. 
 
 1 cubic metre „— = S5.31658074 cubic feet. 
 
 1 cnbic metre « = 1.3080215 cubic yards. 
 
 1 cubic inch _ = 16.3861769 cnbic centimetres (e. 0.) 
 
 1 cnblc foot ._...-.«. = 0.0283153119 cnblc metre. 
 
 1 cnblc yard,._..„.»,.._....... = 0.7645135 cubic metre, 
 
 ■WEIGHTS. 
 
 Metric denominations and values. 
 
 Equivalents in 
 
 denominations 
 
 In use. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Number of 
 grammes. 
 
 Weight of what quan- 
 tity of water at max- 
 imum density. 
 
 Avoirdupois 
 weight. 
 
 MUUer, or tonnean. 
 Quintal 
 
 1000000. 
 100000. 
 10000. 
 1000. 
 100. 
 10. 
 1. 
 0.1 
 0.01 
 0.001 
 
 
 2204.6 pounds. 
 230.46 pounds. 
 22.046 ponnds. 
 2.2046 pounds. 
 3.5274 ounces. 
 0.3527 ounce. 
 15.432 grains. 
 1.5432 grains. 
 0.1543 grain. 
 0.0154 grain. 
 
 1 hectolitre ~, 
 
 10 litres 
 
 Myriagramme 
 
 Kilogramme, or kilo 
 
 Hectogramme 
 
 Decagramme. _,. 
 
 G-ramme 
 
 1 litre 
 
 1 decilitre 
 
 10 cubic centimetres 
 
 1 cubic centimetre 
 
 0.1 cubic centimetre 
 
 10 cubic millimetres 
 
 1 cubic milllmetre.,...«.. 
 
 
 Centigramme —. 
 
 Milligramme. ■•■■•„„ 
 
 
 Additional Metrical Equivalents. 
 
 1 surveyor's chain in metres = 20.11662 ... log.= 1.3035550 
 
 1 metre in surveyor's chain = 0.04971*... log.= 8.6964450 
 
 1 square foot in square metres.. = 0.09290*... log.= 8.9680221 
 
 1 acre in hectares = 0.40467*... log.= 9.6071100 
 
 1 square mile in hectares = 258.994 ... log.= 2.4132900 
 
 1 square metre in square feet... = 10.76410 ... log.= 1.0319779 
 
 1 hectare in acres = 2.47109 ... log.= 0.392890O 
 
 1 hectare in square miles = 0.00386*... Iog.= 7.5867100 
 
 1 cubic foot in steres = 0.02831*... log.= 8.4520332 
 
 1 cord in steres = 3.62445 ... log.= 0.5592432 
 
 1 stere in cubic feet = 35.31561 ....log.= 1.54790G8 
 
 1 stere in cords = 0.27.590*.... log.= 9.4407568 
 
 1 grain in grammes = 0.064798*.. log.= 8.8115680 
 
 To avoid negative characteristics, 10. has been added to the 
 logarithms of the numbers marked * in the above table. 
 
470 APPENDIX. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Length.— GaM»T^» chain = 66 feet = 4 poles = 100 links of 
 
 7.92 inches. 
 1 fathom =s 6 feet ; 1 cable-length = 130 fathoms. 
 1 hand c= 4 inehes; 1 palm = 3 inches; 1 span =9 
 
 Inches. 
 Solid. — 1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches. 
 
 1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet = 46656 cubic inches. 
 1 reduced foot (board-measure) = 1 square foot X 1 
 
 inch thick = 144 cubic inches, 
 1 perch of masonry = 1 perch (16J feet) long X 1 foot 
 
 high X IJ foot thick = 24.75 cubic feet; 25 cubic 
 
 feet has generally been adopted for convenience. 
 1 cord fire-wood = 8 feet long X 4 feet high X 4 feet 
 
 deep ^ 128 cubic feet. 
 1 chaldron coal ^ 36 bushels = 57.25 cubic feet. 
 Paper. — ^24 sheets = 1 quire. 
 
 20 quires = 1 ream = 480 sheets. 
 
 The units of eapaciby measure are the gaUon for liquid and 
 the biishel for dry measure. The gallon is a vessel containing 
 58372.2 grains (8.3389 pounds avoirdupois) of the standard 
 pound of distilled water, at the temperature of maximum den- 
 sity, (390.83 Fahrenheit,) the vessel being weighed in air at 
 G2° F., the bsLvometer standing at 30 inches. 
 
 The bushel is a measure containing 543391.89 standard grains 
 (77.6274 pounds avoirdupois) of distilled water, weighed as above. 
 
 The gallon is the wine-gallon, of 231 eublc inches, nearly ; and 
 the bushel, the Winchester bushel, nearly. 
 
WEIGHTS AND VOLUMES OF SUBSTANCES. 
 
 471 
 
 Weights and Volumes of various Substances. 
 
 METAI^. 
 
 scBSTAircxa. 
 
 ODBIO 
 
 roai. 
 
 CUBIC 
 
 nrcB. 
 
 Biaes, gnn-metal 
 
 Copper, cast....._...... 
 
 plates».i»...'> 
 Iron, cast...-.pM*...MH«. 
 
 gon-metal 
 
 ^TTonght bars... 
 Ijea4, cast ............ 
 
 rolled 
 
 Mercury, C0<>.__. 
 
 Steel, plates , 
 
 soft..... 
 
 Tin _ , 
 
 Zinc, cast ..,......._. 
 
 TOlled...i._...~. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 488.76 
 
 FoondB. 
 
 643.75 
 
 .3147 
 
 547.25 
 
 ,.3179 
 
 643.625 
 
 .3146 
 
 450.437 
 
 .2607 
 
 406.6 
 
 .27 
 
 486.76 
 
 .2816 
 
 709.6 
 
 .4106 
 
 711.76 
 
 .4119 
 
 848.7487 
 
 .491174 
 
 487.75 
 
 .2823 
 
 489.562 
 
 .2833 
 
 465.687 
 
 .2637 
 
 428.812 
 
 .2482 
 
 449.437 
 
 .2601 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 BCBSTAirCES. 
 
 CDBIO 
 FOOT. 
 
 CDBIO 
 
 FEXT tM A 
 
 TON. 
 
 Ash... 
 
 Oedar. 
 Ohestnnt.. 
 
 Hickory, plg-nnt 
 
 Bhell-bark.. 
 Lignum - ritse........— . 
 
 Mahogany, Hondnras.. 
 
 Oak, Canadian < 
 
 Englisli 
 
 live, seasoned.... 
 
 'vrhite, dry 
 
 upland 
 
 Fine, yellow 
 
 Spmce ..,..«. » 
 
 Walnut, black, dry 
 
 Willow, dry............. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 35.062 
 
 38.125 
 
 49.6 
 
 43.125 
 
 83.312 
 
 35. 
 
 66.437 
 
 64.5 
 
 68.25 
 
 66.75 
 
 63.75 
 
 42.937 
 
 33.812 
 
 31.25 
 
 81.25 
 
 30.375 
 
 42.414 
 
 63.886 
 
 68.754 
 
 45.252 
 
 61.942 
 
 26.886 
 
 64. 
 
 33.714 
 
 41.101 
 
 38.466 
 
 33.558 
 
 41.674 
 
 62.169 
 
 66.248 
 
 71.68 
 
 71.68 
 
 73.744 
 
472 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS, 
 
 SUBSTANCBS. 
 
 Air „_.. 
 
 Brick, fire » 
 
 mean.... 
 
 Goal, antbradte 
 
 bittuninous, mean.. 
 
 cannel 
 
 Oumberland 
 
 Coke 
 
 Cotton, bale, mean 
 
 Earth, clay 
 
 common soil 
 
 gravel.. 
 
 dry sand 
 
 loose 
 
 G-ranite, Qnincy 
 
 Susquebanna,. 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Marble, mean 
 
 Mortar, dry, mean 
 
 Water, fresh. 
 
 salt 
 
 Steam 
 
 CUBIC 
 FOOT. 
 
 Pbiihde. 
 
 .078291 
 
 137.662 
 
 102. 
 
 i 89.75 
 
 1 102.5 
 
 80. 
 
 94.875 
 84.687 
 62.6 
 14.5 
 
 25, 
 120, 
 137. 
 109. 
 120. 
 
 93. 
 165. 
 169 
 179. 
 167. 
 
 97. 
 
 61.125 
 
 625 
 125 
 312 
 
 ^75 
 .75 
 
 876 
 98 
 6 - 
 125 
 03S747 
 
 CDBIO 
 
 FEET IN A 
 
 TOlf. 
 
 16.284 
 
 21.961 
 
 24.958 
 
 21.854 
 
 28. 
 
 23.609 
 
 26.451 
 
 85.84 
 
 164.48 
 
 114. 
 89.6 
 18.669 
 16.335 
 20.49 
 18.667 
 23.893 
 13.614 
 13.264 
 12.462 
 13.343 
 22.862 
 35.84 
 34.931 
 
 Alloys. — " 
 
 Bronze Gun-metal. — 90 copper and 10 tin. 
 
 Bell-metal. — 78 copper and 22 tin. 
 
 Fine brass. — 2 copper and 1 zinc. 
 
 Brass for parts of gun-carriages,— SO copper, 17 zinc, and * 
 tin. 
 
 Sheet brass. — 3 copper and 1 zinc. 
 
 Silver solder. — 4 silver and 1 copper; or 2 silver and 1 bras* 
 wire. 
 
 Hard solder. — 1 zinc and 2 brass. 
 
 Plumber''s solder. — ^1 tin and 1 lead. 
 
 Tinner's solder. — 1 tin and 2 lead. 
 
 Pewterer's solder. — 2 tin and 1 lead. 
 
 Fusible alloy.— 2 tin, 3 lead, 5 bismuth ; melts at IQT". 
 
 Type-metal. — 11 lead, 2 antimony, and J tin, 
 
 German silver. — lOJ copper, 31J nickel, 25J zinc, 2J iron. 
 
WEIGHT SUSTAINED BY SHEAR SPAR. 473 
 
 German silver for casting.^QO copper, 20 zinc, 20 nickel, 3 
 ieacl. 
 
 Pewter. — 4 tin and 1 lead. 
 
 An alloy that expands in cooling. — 9 lead, 2 antimony, and 3 
 tismuth ; useful for filling small cavities in cast-iron. 
 
 Babbit's metal, for journal-boxes. — 9 tin and 1 copper. 
 
 To ascertain the Weight that a Shear Spar will Sustain With- 
 out Breaking. 
 The case is that of a cylindrical beam inclined upward and 
 supported at each end, tiie weight applied at a distance m from 
 •one end. 
 
 For a square beam in this position the for- 
 mula will be : 
 
 Sid' I' 
 
 "W= X -; in wliioh 
 
 m (I — m) c' 
 W^ the weight 
 
 S= the value of the f Oak S=50 
 timber for general use, or i Y.pine S^50 
 
 |.W.pineS=45 
 1= the length between supports ia 
 feet. (AB.) 
 
 d = the diameter or side of the beam 
 in inches. (A E.) 
 
 m = the distance in feet from either 
 point of support to the point where the weight 
 is suspended. 
 
 c = the inclination of the shears or 
 the horizontal distance between the heel and 
 upper point of support in feet. (BC.) 
 
 For a cylindrical beam the result must be 
 multiplied by .78124. 
 
 B C 
 
 .BxanipJe.— Having S = 60, Z = 27', d = 10", m = 2',e =10, 
 Sl'd' 
 
 then W = X .78124 = 
 
 m (l—m) c' 
 
 50 X 196S3 X 1000 X .78124 
 
 2 X 25 X 100 
 
 19683 X 7.8124 = 154771. lbs. 
 This is only calculated for a steady strain ; the result should 
 
474 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 be diminished at least one-lialf to allow for the surge of the fall 
 around the capstan, both when hoisting and lowering. 
 
 To ascertain the Strain on the Ghiys and Span, 
 From actual measurement of the ground, &o., construct a dia- 
 gram as follows : 
 
 AB. The shears at their ultimate inclination. 
 
 AC. The guys. 
 
 AD. A vertical line representing the wei^t aat^enaed. 
 
 A 
 
 With any scale of equal parts lay oflf on the line AD the 
 distance equal to the number of units of weight ; say, represent 
 25 tons by 25 inches; through the point E thus found draw EF 
 parallel to A C. Then, tlie distance E F measured by the same 
 scale will represent the strain on the guys, and A F the thrust 
 on the spars. 
 
 Precaution. 
 
 In selecting spars for shears, it must be borne in mind that the 
 strain on the shears is equal to the weight lifted plus the force re- 
 quired at the end of the faU to suspend the weight. 
 
 Mensukatioit. 
 
 Area of a triangle = base X } altitude. 
 
 Area of a parallelogram = base X altitude. 
 
MENStTEATION. 475 
 
 Area of a trapezoid «{ '''"S ^ * *'"' """ "' ^"''""'^ 
 
 A,oo ^t „ ).-„^»„;„„. /divide into two triangles, and 
 
 Area of a trapezium = -j. g„^ ^^^ „, t(,g triangles. 
 
 Circumference of a circle... =^ diameter X 3.1416^ 
 
 Diameter of a circle......... = circumference X .3183. 
 
 Area of circle .....= (diameter) ' X .7854. 
 
 Area of sector of circle •= length of arc X i the radius. 
 
 .,„„ „, „ ^ . „. „,„ (area of sector of equal radius, 
 
 Area of segment of circle.. = | j^^^ ^^^^ ^^ triaagle. 
 
 f diameter of the two circles x 
 
 Area of circular ring ^4 ditference of diameter, and 
 
 (. that product by .7854. 
 Side of square that shall f diameter X .8862, or circumfer- 
 
 equal area of circle =1. ence X -282. 
 
 Diameter of circle that f 
 shall contain area of a -j side of square X 1.1284. 
 given square = (. 
 
 Area of an ellipse = { P'"?78^4. °^ '^' '"'° •'''""''^" ^ 
 
 Area of parabola = base x f altitude. 
 
 ("sum of its sides X perpendicular 
 Area of regular polygon ... =■< from its centre to one of its 
 
 {. sides, -i- 2. 
 
 Surface Of cylinder -{^'^^rX'en^'' "^ '^"^'' ^ 
 
 Contents of cylinder ^ area of ends X length. 
 
 Surface of sphere ^ diameter X circumference. 
 
 Contents of sphere ^ (diameter) ' x .5236. 
 
 Surfaceofpyramidorcone.={<=™/-«^^^^^^ 
 
 ^°con".!!...?.*...r.!.™..!! =1''^^^ °* "^^^ X 4 ^i''"'*^- 
 
 £3 * - „**_.,„4. *„„„„ fsum of circumference at both 
 
 Surface of fn strum of cone I ^^^ig ^ j gi^nt height + area 
 ovvyri^^^d =1 of both ends. ^ 
 
 (multiply areas of two ends to- 
 gether and extract square root. 
 Add to this root the two areas 
 and X } altitude. 
 
476 APPENDIX. 
 
 Oontents of a wedge = area of base X J altitude. 
 
 „ ^ . . . /thickness + inner diameter X 
 
 C!ontents of a rmg = ^ g^yg^^g ^j thickness X 2.4674. 
 
 To ascertain the distance to an inaccessible object ; as, for in- 
 stance, the breadth of a river : {Fig. 4, Plate 75.) 
 
 1st. The line A B (the distance to be determined ) is extended 
 Hipoii the bank to D, from which point, after having marked it, 
 lay off eqnal distances, CD and O dj produce B G tob, making 
 Cb = C B; then extend the line do until it intersects the pro- 
 longation of the line CAaXa. The distance o6 is equal to 
 A B, or the width of the river. 
 
 2d. Lay off any convenient distance, B C, pei-pendicular to 
 AB ; erect a perpendicular, DC, to AC ; note the point D 
 where it intersects A B produced ; measure B D ; then— 
 
 BC^ 
 ^^ = 'BD' 
 
 Capabilities or the House. 
 
 The average weight of a horse is about 1000 pounds; for artil- 
 lery purposes he should average 1100 pounds. In ranks he occu- 
 pies a front of 40 inches, a depth of 10 feet ; in a stall, from 3.5 
 to 4.5 feet front. 
 
 The load for a light-artillery horse is 700 pounds, including 
 carriage ; for heavy field artillery, 1000 pounds, including car- 
 riage. This is less than that allowed for the ordinary horse in 
 civil service, in consequence of bad roads, scant forage, and 
 frequently forced marches. 
 
 Including the weight of carriage, four horses can draw, on 
 roads such as are considered in America good, 3000 pounds; siz 
 liorses, 4000 pounds; eight horses, 5000 poun(^; and ten horses, 
 6000 pounds. This allowance diminishes rapidly as the roads 
 become bad. 
 
 A horse will pack from 250 to 300 pounds, 20 miles per day- 
 eight hours. The mule is superior to the horse as a pack ani- 
 mal. An ordinary march is about 15 miles per day of eight 
 hours, depending upon the state of the roads, condition of the 
 liorses, and various other circumstances. The rate of march, 
 with horses starting fresh and resting for a few minutes each 
 half-hour, would be 2.5 miles for the first hour, 4 miles for the 
 next two hours, and 8.5 miles for the remaining five hours. 
 
 A horse carrying a rider marches, at a walk, at the rate of 
 ^.75 miles per hour; at a trot, at the rate of 7.50 miles per hour; 
 at a gallop (slow), at the rate of 11 miles per hour. 
 
CAST-IRON BALLS. 
 
 477 
 
 A horse requires, per day, 4 gallons of water and 12 pounds 
 ■of short and 14 pounds of long forage. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Strength. The mean strength of American wrought-iron is 
 55,900 pounds to the square inch; of English, 53,900 pounds. 
 The working strain is from one-sixth to one-fourth the mean 
 strength. 
 
 The ultimate extension of wrought-iron is j^th part of its 
 length. 
 
 Test quality. It the fracture gives long, silky fibres of leaden- 
 gray hue, fibres cohering and twisting together before breaking, 
 the iron may be considered tough and soft. A medium even 
 grain, mixed with fibres. Is a good sign. A sliort, blackish fibre 
 indicates badly-refined iron. A very fine grain denotes a hard, 
 steely iron, apt to be cold-short, hard to work with the file. 
 
 Coarse grain, with brilliant crystalline fracture, yellow or 
 brown spots, denotes a hritlle iron, cold-short, working easily 
 when heated and easily welded. 
 
 Cracks on the side of a bar denote hot-short iron. 
 
 Good iron is readily heated, soft under the hammer, and throws 
 out but few sparks. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 The tensile strength of good steel is 120,000 pounds per square 
 inch. The properties are : After tempering, not easily broken ; 
 welds readily ; does not crack or split ; bears a very high heat ; 
 •can be hardened after repeated workings; is magnetic, and, as 
 distinguished from iron, when once magnetized does not lose its 
 polarity at ordinary temperatures. 
 
 CAST-IBON BAMS. 
 
 DlAMHTSB. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 DlAMETEB. 
 
 WEionT. 
 
 DUMETER. 
 
 ■Weight. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Lbfl. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 libs. 
 
 2 
 
 1.09 
 
 5 
 
 17.04 
 
 8 
 
 60.81 
 
 2H 
 
 2.13 
 
 6K 
 
 22.68 
 
 iH 
 
 83.73 
 
 3 
 
 3.63 
 
 S 
 
 29.45 
 
 9 
 
 99.40 
 
 3» 
 
 5.84 
 
 W 
 
 37.44 
 
 10 
 
 136.35 
 
 4 
 
 8.73 
 
 7 
 
 46.76 
 
 11 
 
 181.48 
 
 iH 
 
 12.42 
 
 7X 
 
 57.62 
 
 12 
 
 235.65 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 450.28 
 
478 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 BOUND CAST-IRON. 
 Weight of a lineal foot 
 
 SuaCETEB. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Dumbtbb. 
 
 Weioht. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Lhs. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2 
 
 9.82 
 
 5 
 
 61.36 
 
 8 
 
 157.03 
 
 2J^ 
 
 15.34 
 
 5« 
 
 74.25 
 
 m 
 
 17T.33 
 
 3 
 
 22.09 
 
 6 
 
 88.36 
 
 9 
 
 198.80 
 
 3M 
 
 30.07 
 
 6» 
 
 103.70 
 
 10 
 
 245.44 
 
 4 
 
 39.27 
 
 7 
 
 120.26 
 
 11 
 
 296.98 
 
 m 
 
 49.70 
 
 7X 
 
 138.06 
 
 12 
 15 
 
 353.43 
 652.23 
 
 The foregoing tables furnish means of determining approxi- 
 mately the weight of elongated projectiles, thus : Ascertain from 
 the second table the weight of the cylindrical portion of the pro- 
 jectile, and add to it half the weight of a solid shot of corre- 
 sponding calibre taken from the first table. 
 
(6978. A. G. O., 1891.) 
 
 War Department, 
 Adjutant Generai,'s Opeice, 
 
 Washington, May 13, 1891. 
 James J. Chapman, 
 
 p/5 Pennsylvania avenue, City : 
 Sir : I have the honor to inform you that, upon recommenda- 
 tion of the Major-General Commanding the Army, the proofs of 
 the alterations and addenda that are proposed for the fourth edi- 
 tion of Tidball's Manual of Heavy Artillery Service since 1882',. 
 submitted in your letter of the 4th instant, being Modifica- 
 tions in Part Fourth, to mount and dismount a siege gun with 
 gin, and Modifications in Part Eleventh, National and Personal 
 Salutes, and Official Courtesies ; and Appendix No. 3, Supple- 
 mentary for Seacoast Guns, prepared by Captain S. M. Mills, 
 5th Artillery, Instructor at the TJ. S. Artillery School, have been 
 approved by the Acting Secretary of War. 
 Very respectfiilly, 
 
 J. C. KEI/TON, 
 
 Adjutant-General. 
 
APPENDIX 2. 
 
 {3397 A. G. 0., 1884.] Hsadqtiaktees op the Akmt, 
 
 Adjdtant-Gbneral's Offiob, 
 Washington, July Si.Bt, 1884. 
 Lieutenant-Colonel John C. Tidball, 3d Artillery, 
 
 Commanding U, S. Artillery School, Fort Monroe, Va. 
 Sib : Beferringto your letter of the 2Tth instant, I hare the honor to inform 
 you that the Lieutenant-Gcneral Commanding the Army authorizes the inser- 
 tion of the enclosed paragraph, from "a" to " F," inclusive, in the new edition 
 of the " Manaal of Heavy Artillery Service," about to be issued by the pub- 
 lisher of that work. 
 
 Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
 
 C. MoKEEVEE, 
 [1 endo.] Acting Adtivtant- General. 
 
 (A.) For single-rank formations, full detachments will, as a 
 rule, consist of six cannoneers. A detachment falling short of 
 this number will be formed as prescribed in par. 13, and will be 
 the left detachment of the battery. 
 
 (b.) In battalion formation, when ranks are opened, the post 
 of a captain is four yards in front of the centre of his battery, 
 and the line of subalterns is three yards in front of the front 
 rank. 
 
 (c.) "When circumstances shall have caused officers to take 
 post in the line of file-closers when the ranks are closed, {see par. 
 34,) they will, at the command " Rear open order," place them- 
 selves on the right and left of the front rank of their battery, 
 and at the command '■'■March," take post in the line of subal- 
 terns, opposite their original places in Ihie. 
 
 (d.) At dress-parade, subalterns, at the command " Parade is 
 dis'missed," will, after returning swords, step into the line of 
 captains and then face to the leffr or right, as their position may 
 be, for closing on the centre. 
 
 (E.) Chiefs-of-detachment, guides, and flle-closers will always 
 execute order arms,Jix and unfix bayonets, and carry arms. la 
 rendering honors they execute the present, reverse, and rest on 
 arms. On drill they execute the support and rigM shoulder 
 arms, except the guide of each subdivision in column when 
 marching in common or quick time, and the guides who mark 
 the line of battle during its formation. They execute the other 
 movements of the manual only when specially directed. 
 
 (f.) Color-bearers will execute order arms SMdiparade rest withi 
 the colors. 
 
 ( 478a ) 
 
APPENDIX NO. 3. 
 SUPPLEMENTARY FOR SEA COAST GUNS.' 
 
 PRRPARED BY 
 
 CAPTAIN S. M. MILLS, 5TH ARTILLERY, 
 Instructor at the U. S. ArliUery School. 
 
 Service of the 8-inch M. L. R., Mounted on the 
 New Carriage, 1888. 
 
 Note. — ^When in use the cylinder should have in it not less 
 than 13 gallons neutral oil. 
 
 I. Eight men are necessary ; one chief of detachment, one 
 gunner, and six cannoneers. 
 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 Two iron handspikes One on each side of chassis on hooks. 
 
 '^° ^""spikS"^ '^^'"^■{One on each side of chassis on hooks- 
 
 IOne yard behind the cannoneers of the 
 right-; supported upon a prop ; heads 
 turned from the parapet and inclined 
 slighfiy from the piece. 
 
 Pass box (zinc) One yard in rear of No. 4. 
 
 f Containing friction primers and lanyard; 
 
 Primer-pouch -j suspended from handles of elevating 
 
 I. wheel. 
 
 [■Containing breech-sight and priming 
 
 Gunner's Pouch ■< wire : suspended from handle of ele- 
 
 (. vating wheel. 
 
 Vent cover Covering the vent. 
 
 Muzzle cover On the muzzle. 
 
 Budse barrel / Containing cartridges ; at a safe and con- 
 
 ° \ venieut place in rear of the piece. 
 
 Chocks riron) . / *^°^ °^ ^3.<Ay side, on platform near trav- 
 ^ ' ••••• ■^ ersewheels. 
 
 (4T8B1) 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY FOR SEA COAST GUNS. 478b 2 
 
 Windlass rope Upon or near the -windlass. 
 
 Sponge-bucket Near sponge. 
 
 Shot-barrow Near and in rear of No. 6. 
 
 When several pieces are served together, there will be one 
 quadrant, one worm, one ladle, one hammer-wrench, two vent- 
 punches, one gunnet^s-pinchers, two lanyards (extra) and two 
 vent-gimlets to each battery of not exceeding six pieces. These 
 are kept in the filling-room of the service magazine. 
 
 The projectiles are brought up to the piece, prepared for 
 firing, as they are required. The powder is kept m the service 
 magazine. 
 
 To distribute the equipments. 
 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 I. Take Esuipments. 
 
 The gunner goes to the hand-wheel, and gives to No. 3 the 
 primer-poucli, equips himself with his own pouch ; mounts upon 
 the chassis, takes off the vent cover, hands it to No. 2 to place 
 against the parapet in rear of his post ; clears the vent ; durects 
 No. 4, assisted by No. 2 if necessary, to adjust the piece conven- 
 iently for loading,- by means of the hand-wheel. 
 
 The service of the piece is executed by the following commands : 
 
 I. From Battery. 
 
 The gnnner commands : in gear. Nos. 3 and 4 insert the 
 small handspikes in the eccentric sockets of the rear wheels of 
 top carriage, taking out the pins. Nos. 5 and 6 facing to the 
 front seize the crank handles -with both bands, the hand the 
 farthest firom the chassis at the end of the handle, the other 
 about five inches from it. Nos. i and 2 take the rope and ad- 
 just -it about the drum of the windlass with two or ttiree turns 
 (the standing part leading from the larger end of the -windlass) 
 hold on to the fall and take up the slack. The gunner attaches 
 the hook of the rope to the ring of top carriage, and places him- 
 self three yards in rear of the chassis. After Nos. 3 and 4 have 
 removed the pins the gunner commands : heave. Nos. 3 and 4 
 bear dpwn on their handspikes until the eccentrics are in gear ; 
 put in the pins, replace the handspikes on the hooks, and facing 
 to the rear, grasp the crank handles with both hands, the hand 
 farthest from the chassis between the hands of Nos. 5 and 6.. 
 The gunner commands : heave. Nos. 3, 4, 5 and 6 turning the 
 crank, run the piece from battery — ^muzzle about one yard from 
 the parapet — when the gunner commands : halt, 2, ouT op 
 GEAR, 3, heave. At the second command Nos. 3 and 4 stand- 
 ing on the steps of the chassis insert the small handspikes in the 
 
478b 3 SERVICE OF THE 8-INCH M. L. R., ETC. 
 
 eccentric sockets of the rear wheels of the top carriage, taking 
 out the pins. At the third command, they raise the handspikes 
 until the eccentrics are out of gear, put in the pins, leaving the 
 handspikes in the sockets ; the gunner detaches the hook of the 
 rope from the top carriage and lays it on the windlass ; all re- 
 sume their posts. 
 
 I. By the numbers, 2. Load. 
 
 The gunner mounts upon the chassis and closes the vent. 
 
 No. 2 takes oflf the muzzle-cover and places it by the parapet 
 near his post. 
 
 No. I turns to his left, steps over the sponge and rammer, faces 
 the piece, takes the sponge staff in both hands, the backs down, 
 the right hand three feet from the sponge head, the left eighteen 
 inches from it ; returns to the piece, raising the staff over the crest 
 of the parapet ; places the left foot on the rail of the chassis, the 
 other in the most convenient position on the parapet, or on a 
 step placed against it for the purpose, and inserts the sponge 
 head into the muzzle, the staff in prolongation of the bore, sup- 
 ported by the right hand, the right arm extended, the left hand 
 hanging naturally by the side. 
 
 No. 2 takes a position on the left of the piece corresponding 
 to that of No. I on the right, and seizes the staff with the left 
 hand, back down, near to and outside of the hand of No. i. 
 
 No. 3 faces to the rear, steps over the rammer, and, facing 
 about, seizes the staff with both hands, as prescribed for No. i 
 with the sponge, and stands ready to exchange staves with No. i. 
 
 No. 4 takes the pass box to the rear for a cartridge, and, re- 
 turning, stations himself to the right and rear of No. 2, putting 
 down the pass box. 
 
 Nos. 5 and 6 — No. 6 taking the shot barrow — go for the pro- 
 jectile ; the projectile is placed on the barrow so that the point 
 will be to the left as they approach the gun ; they then carry the 
 projectile, one handle of the barrow in each hand, No. S in front 
 No 6 in rear, coming upon the left of the piece place themselves 
 parallel to the parapet ; No. S behind and near No. 2. 
 
 In the meantime Nos. i and 2 insert the sponge in the bore by 
 the following motions, at the commands two-three-four-fivesix; 
 
 Two. Insert the sponge as far as the hand of No. i, bodies 
 erect, shoulders square. 
 
 Three. Slide the hands along the staff and seize it at arm's 
 length. 
 
 Pour. Force down the sponge as prescribed for two. 
 
 Five. Repeat what was prescribed for three. 
 
 Six. Push the sponge to the bottom of the bore. No. i re- 
 places the left hand on the staff, back up, six inches nearer the 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY FOR SEA COAST GUNS. 478b4 
 
 muzzle than the right ; No. 2 places the right hand, back up, 
 between the han^ of No. i ; both then change the other hand 
 so as to seize the staff, back up. 
 
 I. Sponge. 
 
 Nos. I and 2, pressing the sponge firmly against the bottom of 
 the bore, turn it three times from right to left and three times 
 from left to right, replace the hands by the side, and withdraw 
 the sponge by similar commands, but by motions contrary to 
 those for inserting it. 
 
 No. 2 quits the staff and turning to No. 4 receives from him 
 the cartridge and introduces it into the bore ; he then grasps the 
 rammer in the manner prescribed for the sponge. 
 
 In the meanwhile No. i, turning to his left, passes the sponge 
 above the rammer to No. 3, and, receiving the rammer from No. 
 3, presents it as prescribed for the sponge, except that, retaining 
 hold with his left hand, he rests the rammer head against the right 
 side of the face of the piece. No. 3, as soon as the sponge is with- 
 drawn, passes the rammer in front of No. i, onto the parapet, 
 receives the sponge from No. i, replaces it uppu the prop, and 
 resumes his post. 
 
 No. 4 takes out the cartridge and hands it to No. 2, choke to the 
 front ; replaces the pass box and resumes his post. Nos. i and 2 
 force the cartridge home by the same commands and motions as 
 for the sponge. 
 
 I. Ram. 
 
 Nos. I and 2 slide their hands along the staff to the full extent 
 of their arms and press the cartridge firmly home ; No. 2 quits 
 the staff ; No. i throws out the rammer and lays it on the para- 
 pet. In the meantime Nos. 5 and 6, carrying the projectile as 
 before prescribed, step between the parapet and the face of the 
 piece ; No. 5 turning around so as to face the piece, changing the 
 grasp of hands, gives his end of the barrow to No. i, and No. 6 
 gives his end to No. 2 ; Nos. i and 2 raise the projectile until it 
 IS opposite the muzzle and insert it in the bore, base foremost, 
 assisted by Nos. 5 and 6 applying their hands under it ; No. 2 
 passes the shot barrow to No. 6, who replaces it ; Nos. 5 and 6- 
 resume their posts. Nos. i and 2 taking up the rammer apply 
 its head and force the projectile home by commands and motions 
 similar to those prescribed for the cartridge, pressing it firmly 
 home at the command Ram. No. 2 quits the staff and resumes 
 his post. No. I throws out the rammer and replaces it on the 
 prop and resumes his post. The gunner pricks the cartridge, 
 leaving the priming wire in the vent, and directs No. 4 to give 
 the piece an elevation of about five degrees. 
 
478b 5 SERVICE OF THE 8-INCH M. L. K., ETC, 
 
 In Battery. 
 
 No- 2 raises the lever whicli disengages the pawl and permits 
 the top carriage to run into battery. If the carriage does not 
 move, Nos. 3 and 4 mount upon the step of the chassis, at the 
 command in gear of the gunner, take out the pins, and at 
 command HEAVE, work the rear eccentrics until the carriage 
 moves. The gun is in battery when the front buffer-plate is m 
 contact with the front buffers. The gunner commands : haw. 
 Nos. 3 and 4 put in the pins, take out the handspikes and place 
 them on the hooks. 
 
 I. Aim. 
 
 The gunner withdraws the priming-wire, adjusts the breech- 
 sight (or places the trunnion sight in its seat), and gives the 
 direction. Nos. 5 and 6 embar with the large handspikes in the 
 mortises of the traverse-wheels, facing to the front : traverse to 
 the right or left at the command right or i,EFT of the gunner, 
 Nos. I and 2 following up the movement with the iron chocks, 
 and at the signal from tiie gunner Nos. 5 and 6 unbar and re- 
 place their handspikes on the hooks ; Nos. i, 2, and 6 resume 
 their posts. 
 
 No. 3 passes the hook of the lanyard through the eye of a 
 primer, holds the handle of the lanyard with the right hand, the 
 hook between the thumb and forefinger, and stands ready to 
 hand it to the gunner ; No. 4 seizes the handle of the elevating 
 wheel, which he unclamps, and, with the assistance of No. 2 if 
 necessary, by direction of the gunner, elevates or depresses the 
 piece, turning the wheel to the rear to elevate, and to the front 
 to depress. When the piece is correctly aimed, the gjunner com- 
 mands : READY. No. 4 clamps the elevating wheel and resumes 
 his post : the gunner makes a signal with both hands, removes 
 the sight, and, receiving the primer from No. 3 with his right 
 hand, inserts it into the vent, dismounts from the chassis, and 
 goes where he can best observe the effect of the shot. Nos. i 
 and 2 break off sideways with the foot farthest from the parapet; 
 No. 3 steps back obliquely three yards to the rear, and breaks 
 off to his left and rear with the left foot, the left hand hanging 
 naturally by the side, the lanyard stretched. 
 
 I. J\rum6er one (or the like), 2. Fire. 
 
 No. 3, turning his face from the piece, pulls the lanyard 
 quickly, but steadily, and fires. Immediately after the dis- 
 charge, Nos. I, 2, and 3 resume the erect position ; No. 3 rewinds 
 the lanyard and replaces it in the pouch. The gunner, having 
 observed the effect of the shot, returns to his post. 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY FOR SEA COAST GUNS. 478b 6 
 
 To load zbitkout the numbers, and to fire ; to load and fire con- 
 tinuously, and to cease firing; to secure the piece. 
 
 As explained 'va.pafs. 245, 246, 247, and 249. 
 
 To replace equipments. 
 
 As explained in par. 250, except that the gunner replaces the 
 pouches on the handle of the elevating wheel, instead of on the 
 knob of the cascable. 
 
 Service of the 15-iNCH Gun, Mounted on the 
 New Carriage, 1888. 
 
 Note. — The Artillery School is in possession of two patterns of 
 ■new 15-inch gun carriages. The drill is similar for both, but 
 necessary changes for the latter model are prescribed as for "the 
 more recent carriage." 
 
 When not in use the carriages should always be in battery. 
 
 When used, the cylinders should have in them not less than 
 25 gallons of neutral oil. 
 
 To serve the piece. 
 
 Twelve men are required : one chief-of-detachment, one gun- 
 ner, and ten cannoneers. 
 
 The implements and equipments are arranged as follows : 
 Two iron handspikes... } O- - -f/i^^ »/ ^he gu^^on hooks 
 
 Elevating bar i:^ou)...Y\^^'^l-^^^^_^^^' ^"^--"-^-^^ 
 
 One yard behind the cannoneers of the 
 right : the sponge and rammer-heads 
 turned from the parapet, iuclined 
 slightly from the piece, and sup- 
 J ported on a prop. 
 Tass-box Two yards in rear of No. 4. 
 
 } Containing friction-primers and" lan- 
 yard; hung on the step of the ratchet- 
 post. 
 
 ^ „,,„ _„„„i, I Containing breech sight and priming- 
 
 Ounner s-pouch j- ^j^^. hung on the stlp of ratchet-post. 
 
 Windlass-rope Upon or near the windlass. 
 
 Sponge.. 
 Rammer 
 
478b 7 SERVICE OF THE 15-INCH GUN, ETC. 
 
 _, , ,. > 1 One on each side on platform, near 
 
 Chocks (iron) j- traverse wheels. 
 
 Vent-cover Covering vent. 
 
 Tompioa In muzzle. 
 
 Carrying-bar (wood) Two yards in rear of No. lo. 
 
 Shell-hooks ..Two yards in rear of No. 7. 
 
 Sponge-bucket .Near sponge. 
 
 Differential P-iUey,- 1 Attached to the crane. 
 
 or blocks and tackle.. J 
 
 There not being sufiEicient space for them when the carriage 
 runs from battery, neither handspikes, elevating-bar, nor any 
 equipments will be placed on the floor-boards of the chassis. 
 
 When several pieces are served together, there will be one 
 quadrant, one worm, one ladle, one hammer-wrench, two vent- 
 punches, o'!^^ gunner" s pincers, two lanyards {&iXra) and two vent- 
 gimlets to each battery of not exceeding six pieces. These will 
 be kept in the filling-room of the service magazine. 
 
 The cartridges are in the service magazine, and are brought \s> 
 the piece as wanted. The shells are in the. filling-room of the 
 service magazine, and are likewise brought up when required. 
 The shells are strapped to sabots. The fuse plugs are of metal, 
 and at the time of inserting the shell into the piece the pa^er cap^ 
 should be pulled from the top of the fuse primer. The solid shot 
 are kept conveniently to the piece. The projectiles should be 
 carefully freed from dirt, lumps of rust, or any other protuber- 
 ances that might prevent their easy insertion into the bore of the- 
 piece. 
 
 To distribute the equipments. 
 The instructor commands : 
 
 I. Take Equipments. 
 
 The gunner mounts upon the chassis, takes off the vent cover, 
 hands it to No. 2 who places it against the parapet near his post ; 
 gives the primer pouch to No. 3, equips himself with his own 
 pouch, and clears the vent ; No. 4 unlocks the pawl, if locked, 
 by taking out the pin ; Nos. 3 and 4 with the iron pins, unscrew 
 the central bearing-supports of chassis, so as to leave a slight 
 play of about )^ of an inch ; take out the pins and place them on 
 the platform. Nos. 5 and 6 mount upon the chassis, and, under 
 the direction of the gunner, No. 6 takes the elevating-bar, embars- 
 with it through the ratchet-post, and, assisted by No. 5, gives the 
 piece an elevation of about one d3gree ; replaces the elevating 
 bar, and, together with No. 5 and the gunner, resumes his post 
 
 The servics of the pieca is executed as follows. The instructor 
 commands : 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY FOR SEA COAST GUNS. 478b 8 
 
 I. From Battery. 
 
 The gunner commands: in gear, and with Nos. s and 6, 
 mounts upon the chassis ; Nos. 7 and 8 take the handspikes from 
 the hooks and pass them to Nos. 5 and 6, -who insert the same in 
 the sockets of the rear eccentrics. Nos. 7 and 8, following Nos. 
 5 and 6 upon the chassis, take out the pins in the rear axle : Nos. 
 9 and 10, mounting upon the wire platform in rear of carriage, 
 face to the front, seize the crank-handles with both hands : Nos. 
 3 and 4, assisted by Nos. i and 2 from the rear platform, take the 
 rope and adjust it about the drum of the windlass with two or 
 three turns, the standing part leading from the larger end of 
 windlass ; hold on to the fall and take up the slack. (With the 
 more recent carriage the duties prescribed for Nos. i, 2, 3 and 4 
 above, will be performed by Nos. 9 and 10, who, before seizing the 
 crank handles adjust the wire extension rope about the drum 
 with one turn, secure the end bypassing it through the notch in 
 the drum and bend it back ; move the clutch laterally by means 
 of a lever and engage the tenon on the axle) : after the pins have 
 been removed the gunner commands heave. Nos. 5 and 6 at 
 the ends, assisted by Nos. 7 and 8, bear down on the handspikes 
 until the rear eccentrics are in gear, Nos. 7 and 8 putting in the 
 pins : Nos. 7 and 8 resume their posts : Nos. 5 and 5 take out the 
 handspikes and pass them to Nos. 7 and 8, who put them on the 
 hooks : Nos. 5 and 5 resume their posts. 
 
 The gunner attaches the hook of the rope to the ring on the 
 top carriage (or with the more recent carriage, the hook of the 
 pulley to the ring of the top carriage, aud the ring at the end of the 
 wire extension-rope to the hook on the plate across the chassis). 
 Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 now join Nos. 9 and id on the wire platform at 
 the crank-handles ; the gunner commands, heave, and remains 
 on the chassis. The numbers at the crank-handles turn the crank 
 until the gun is in position from battery, when the gunner com- 
 mands, I, HAi,T, ouT-OP-GEAli : Nos. 5 and 6 mount upon the 
 chassis from the wire platform, (in the absence of a second set 
 of steps to the carriage); Nos. 7 and 8 take the handspikes from 
 the hooks, pass *hem to Nos. 5 and 6, who insert them in the 
 sockets as before, Nos. 7 and 8, following Nos. 5 and 6 upon the 
 chassis from the wire platform take out the pins. At the com- 
 mand heave, Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 raise the handspikes until the 
 eccentrics are out of gear, leaving the handspikes in the sockets ; 
 Nos. 7 and 8 put in the pins ; the gunner detaches the hook from 
 the top carriage and lays it on the windlass ; all resume their 
 posts, the men on the chassis passing down by the wire plat- 
 form. With the more recent carriage, all resume their posts, 
 except the gunner and Nos. 9 and 10 ; Nos. 9 and 10 reverse the 
 windlass a few turns, until they can disengage the clutch by a 
 
478b 9 SERVICE OP THE 15-INCH GUN, ETC. 
 
 lateral movement with the lever; the wire rope is then slackened, 
 the gunner detaches the hook of the pulley from ring of the top 
 carriage and removes it from the chassis ; all resume their posts. 
 Note. — On account of tiie difiSculty of getting the gun from 
 battery with the present size, etc., of windlass on the older pat- 
 tern carriages, the exercise need not be repeated often. The 
 gun can be loaded without running it from battery or using the 
 crane, with the re-entering form of parapet-wall and steps found 
 at Fort Monroe. The gun is sufl5ciently from battery for 
 loading with the crane, when the first or second ratchet catches 
 in the pawl. 
 
 I. By the numbers, 2. Load. 
 
 Nos. I and 2 mount upon the front of the chassis and upon the 
 steps of the parapet-wall ; No. 2 removes the tompion and hands 
 it to No. 4, who places it against the parapet in rear of the post 
 of No. 2. No. 3 brings up the sponge, passes it to No. 1, and 
 assists Nos. I and 2 in sponging and ramming. The sponge- 
 head is inserted in the muzzle. No. 5, bringing up the rammer 
 behind No. i, stands ready to hand it to No. 3 and take the 
 sponge from No. 3 after the sponging is completed. 
 
 Nos. 4 and 6, taking the pass-box, go for the cartridge ; Nos. 7, 
 8, 9, and 10 go for the projectile. No. 7 carrying the shell hooks 
 and No. 10 the carrying-bar. In returning, the projectile is 
 brought up on the right of the piece. No. 7 in advance and the 
 other numbers in their order in rear. The cartridge, in the pass 
 box, is brought up on the left of the piece. 
 
 The projectile is placed under the crane ; the carrying-bar re- 
 turned to its place by No. 10 who then resumes his post ; the 
 pulley is attached to the shell hooks by No- 7 ; Nos. 8 and 9 run 
 up the projectile, No. 7 steadying it. In the meanwhile the 
 
 fanner, standing on the left cheek of the carriage, stops the vent, 
 he sponging is executed by Nos. i and 2, assisted by No. 3, at 
 commands from the instn'ctor of two — three— Jour, etc. 
 
 Two. Insert the sponge as far as the hand of No. I, bodies 
 erect, shoulders square. 
 
 Three. Slide the hand along the staff and seize it at arm's 
 length. 
 
 Four. Force the sponge down as prescribed for two. 
 
 Five. Repeat what was done at three. 
 
 Six. Push the sponge to the bottom of the bore. No. I . 
 seizes the staff with the left hand, back up, six inches nearer the 
 muzzle than the right ; No. 2 places the right hand, back up, 
 between the hands of No. i ; both then change their other 
 hands so as to grasp the staff with the back of hands up. 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY FOK SEA COAST GUNS. 478b 10 
 
 I. Sponge. 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, and 3, pressing the sponge firmly against the bottom 
 of the bore, turn it three times from right to left, and three times 
 from left to right. The sponge is withdrawn at the commands 
 two — three— four— five, etc., by motions contrary to those pre- 
 scribed for inserting it As soon as the sponge is withdrawn. 
 No. 3, turning toward the left, passes the sponge with both 
 hands, behind No. i to No. 5, and receives from him the rammer ; 
 Nos. I and 2 take the cartridge from Nos. 4 and 6 and insert it 
 in the bore ; Nos. 4 and 6 replace the pass-box and resume their 
 posts ; No. 5 replaces the sponge on the prop and resumes his 
 post ; as soon as the cartridge is inserted, No. 3 places the ram- 
 mer-head against it in the bore. The cartridge is forced down 
 by Nos. I, 2, and 3, at the commands and by the motions pre- 
 scribed for the sponge. 
 
 I. Ram. 
 
 The cartridge is sent home by strong pressure — not by a blow; 
 Nos. 2 and 3 throw out the rammer ; No. i, quitting the staff, 
 assists No. 7 in swinging the crane round to bring the projectile 
 in front of the muzzle ; the rammer-head is placed against the 
 projectile, which is pushed into the bore by Nos. i, 2, 3, and 7 ; 
 No. 7 withdraws the shell-hooks, and resumes his post; Nos. I, 
 2, and 3 force the projectile home by motions and commands as 
 explained for the cartridge ; Nos. 8 and 9 swing the crane back ; 
 secure it and the pulley against the cheek ; resume their posts. 
 The rammer is thrown out and passed by No. 3 to No. 5, who 
 places it on the props ; Nos. i, 3, and 5 then resume their posts. 
 The gunner, assisted by Nos. 5 and 6, who mount upon the 
 chassis from the wire platform, gives the piece an elevation of 
 about five degrees ; pricks the cartridge, leaving the priming- 
 wire in the vent ; Nos. 5 and 6 resume their posts. 
 
 I. In Battery. 
 
 No. 4, assisted by No. 8, if necessary, holds back the pawl, 
 which permits the top carriage to run into battery. The gun is 
 in battery when the front buffer-plate is in contact with the front 
 buffers ; Nos. 5 and 6 take out the handspikes and pass them to 
 Nos. 7 and 8, who place them on the hooks. If the top carriage 
 does not run down to the firing position, Nos. 5 and 6 mount 
 upon the chassis, followed by Nos. 7 and 8, at the command 
 IN-GEAR of gunner; Nos. 7 and 8 take out the pins, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 
 and 8 work the rear eccentrics till it does, remaining on the 
 chassis when in battery. The gunner commands, halt. Nos. 
 7 and 8 put in the pins, Nos. 5 and 6 take out the handspikes 
 
478b 11 SERVICE OF THE 15-INCH GUN, ETC. 
 
 and hand them to Nos. 7 and 8, who, resuming their posts, place 
 them on the hooks. Nos. 5 and 6 resume their posts. 
 
 I. Aim. 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4 see that the supports of the chassis do not touch 
 the traverse-circle or pintle block, but are in position prescribed 
 under "Take Equipments." Nos. 5 and 6 mount upon the 
 chassis (if not already there) to assist the gunner in giving the 
 elevation. Nos. 7 and 8 take the handspikes, and, assisted by 
 Nos. 9 and 10, embar in mortises of the traverse-wheels. No. 3 
 passes the hook of the lanyard through the eye of a primer and 
 stands ready to hand it to the gunner. 
 
 The gunner places the breech-sight in the socket (or the trunn- 
 ion sight in its seat) sighting through it, gives the direction, 
 commanding : right or left, for Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 to traverse 
 the chassis to the right or left ; Nos. 9 and 10 chock the wheels 
 with the iron chocks, Nos. 7 and 8 replacing handspikes ; Nos. 
 7, 8, 9, and 10 resume their posts. Tlie direction being given, 
 the gunner causes No. 6, assisted by No. 5, to gjve the required 
 elevation to the piece and commands. Ready. Nos. 5 and 6 
 resume their posts. No. 6 replacing the elevating-bar on the 
 hooks. The gunner withdraws the priming-wire, receives the 
 primer from No. 3, inserts it in the vent, takes the breech or 
 trunnion sight with him, and goes where he can best observe 
 the effect of the shot. 
 
 The chief-of-detachment, or, in his absence, the gunner, then 
 commands : i. detachment rear, 2. march. At the first 
 command the cannoneers, except No. 3, face from the epaul- 
 ment, and, at the command march, they march to the rear as 
 explained in par. 113 ; No. 3 drops the handle, allowing the lan- 
 yard to pass through his fingers, and steps back three' yards 
 obliquely fi-om the piece, breaks off with his left foot to his left 
 and rear, the left hand by the side. 
 
 I. Number one (or the like), 2. Fire. 
 
 No. 3, turning his face from the piece, pulls the lanyard 
 quickly, but steadily, and fires ; immediately after the discharge 
 fie resumes the erect position, rewinding his lanyard, returns it 
 to his pouch and joins his detachment. The gunner, having 
 observed the effect of the shot, returns to his post. 
 
 As soon as the piece is discharged, unless otherwise directed, 
 the cannoneers resume their posts by command of the chief-of- 
 detachment, or, in his absence, the gunner, i. Right, 2. FACE, 
 3. TO YOUR POSTS, 4. march. Executed as explained in par. 
 108. 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY FOR SEA COAST GUNS. 478b 12 
 
 To load without the numbers, and to fire, and to load and fire 
 continuously, and to cease firing. 
 
 Executed as explained in pars. 245, 246, and 247. 
 When the piece is loaded and it is not desired to fire it, the 
 charge is withdrawn as explained in par. 289. 
 
 To secure the piece. 
 
 Executed as explained in par. 286. 
 
 The gunner hangs the pouches on the ratchet-post. Nos. 3 
 and 4, with the iron pins, screw down the central bearing-sup- 
 ports of the chassis until they touch the traverse-circle or pintle- 
 Hock. 
 
 To Rig the Shears, when a Gin cannot be Used, 
 FOR Raising Weights less than Twenty Tons. 
 
 { The material, stores, etc., necessary to equip a pair of shears are 
 given in paragraph S4S-) 
 
 Lay the heads of the spars on a trestle about three feet high, 
 the right leg (as you face the cross with your back to the heels 
 of the shears) below the left, so that they cross at about twice 
 their thickness from the ends, with the heels in their proper 
 position. 
 
 If a light weight is to be raised, the head-lashing can be made 
 as follows : 
 
 One end of the lashing is made fast to the lower spar, above 
 the cross, with a timber hitch ; as many turns are taken round 
 both spars toward the heels as may be necessary to cover the 
 ■cross ; the end is then led between the spars and around this 
 lashing, where they cross, with four or five frapping turns, and 
 the end made fast round the upper spar, above the cross, with 
 two clove hitches. 
 
 If a heavy weight is to be raised, the lashing may be made as 
 follows : 
 
 Take a good piece— 8 to 10 fathoms — of z% or 4 inch manilla 
 rope, well stretched, middle it and make fast the bight of one 
 portion to the right shear-leg below the cross ; with the other 
 ■end pass the requisite number of figure-of-eight or racking turns 
 around both spars, heaving each turn well taut, and hitch the 
 •end temporarily to the upper part of the shear-leg; with the 
 ■other end pass riding turns over or between the first turns, 
 atound both legs (not figure-of-eight ttims), filling up the inter- 
 
478b 13 TO KIG THE SHEARS, ETC. 
 
 vals or spaces between the first turns, on the outside or where 
 these riding turns come in contact with the first turns ; come up 
 with the hitch of the first end, cross the two ends in the crotch, 
 and pass several frapping turns around all parts of the lashing 
 between the shears to keep the turns together ; finish with a 
 square knot, and stop the ends back with a good spun-yam stop. 
 If necessary, tighten up the turns with wedges. 
 
 If straps for the back and fore guy are not used, the back guy 
 is arranged as follows : The back guy, a good manilla rope of 3 
 to 6 in(ies, depending upon the weight to be raised, and of con- 
 venient length to 50 fathoms, is middled, and the middle placed 
 above the cross, the left-hand end leading downward ; bring the 
 left-hand end up around the end of the right leg, then between 
 the legs and around the head of the left leg, and carry it over to 
 the left side of both legs ; carry the right-hand end around the 
 left leg, under the right leg, up the left side of both legs and 
 cross the left-hand end ; seize the crossing with spun-yarn, the 
 ends of the guys leading to the blocks opposite the sides of the 
 cross fi-om which they come. 
 
 If guy straps are used, they can be put on doubled as follows : 
 
 Middle the strap, which should be about the same size as that 
 mentioned above and about 15 inches long when doubled, for 
 the back guys, having the splice at the side, so that it cannot 
 enter into either bight; lay the middle between the spars 
 above the cross. Each end is then led around, in opposite direc- 
 tions, the spar farthest away from the guy for which it is in- 
 tended, and the ends brought back around both spars crossed 
 ready for the guy blocks to be hooked into and moused. 
 
 The strap for the fore guy is put on, doubled in the same man- 
 ner around the end of the other spar, and thus the strain of either 
 and all guys tends to bind the spars together. 
 
 If the straps are used singly, they can readily be put on by 
 raising the heels or butts and slipping them up the spars, each 
 strap on that spar farthest away from the guy for which it is in- 
 tended, the straps crossing in the crotch and led to the blocks. 
 
 Make a bowline knot in the end of the fore guy and slip it 
 over the head of both legs, when no tackle is used for this guy. 
 
 The main-tackle strap or sling, when these back and fore guy 
 straps are used, is put on over the cross, passing over the whole 
 ot the straps, except the bights of the back and fore guy straps. 
 Plate 51, Fig. i, shows the rigging complete, main-tackle strap 
 used double, but weight not excessive. 
 
 The main-tackle strap, if the weight is heavy or lashing not 
 very secure, is put on as follows : place the middle of the strap 
 doubled, which for heavier purposes is a 6-inch manilla rope of 
 sufficient length, under the cross above the fore guy ; bring 
 the ends up over the cross above the fore guy, then down under- 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY FOE SEA COAST GUNS. 478b 14 
 
 ueath ; liook the upper block to them under the cross below the 
 fore guy and mouse the hook, taking care that the splice or knot 
 does not come in the middle of the strap and that the falls lead 
 to the rear. Or the main-tackle strap, if used single, can be put 
 on by raising the heel or butt and slipping it up one of the spars, 
 and putting it in the cross over the head .lashings and other 
 straps : its bight, which should be fitted with a thimble, should 
 hang low enough to enable the upper block of the main tackle 
 to swing clear between the spars when raised. Should it be re- 
 quired to shorten it, one or more turns are taken with the strap 
 round the head of the spars. 
 
 If a single back-guy is used, which would ordinarily be the 
 case whenever straps are used, the two ends of the strap, when 
 used double, or the two straps when used single, would be 
 brought together and the upper block of the back guy hooked 
 into them and moused. 
 
 In this case of the single back-guy, particular care must be 
 taken to bring the axis of the shears in the vertical plane con- 
 taining the holdfast and the center of gravity of the weight to 
 be lifted. 
 
 Two cleats are spiked to the heels, 6 inches from the ends. 
 Lay the shoes under the heels. The shoes should be on the same 
 level, and, in bad ground, prevented from sinking or slipping by 
 placing planks, brushwood, or other material underneath, secur- 
 ing them by pickets. Drive the heel posts or stakes, two for 
 the lighter weights, one ou each side of each leg, about a foot 
 toward the head, and one foot outside ; make a timber hitch 
 around the inner posts with the heel lashings ; pass three turns 
 round the leg below the cleats, and hitch the lashings to the 
 outer posts. For the heavier weights four pickets should be 
 driven for each heel, one at each angle and outside of the shoes ; 
 a clove hitch is made with the center of the ropes round each 
 foot below the cleats, and the ends led to opposite holdfasts. As 
 many turns are taken round the holdfasts as may be necessary, 
 the running ends being brought off below to prevent their jam- 
 ming as the shears rise. 
 
 Drive four holdfasts for each back guy as follows; two on 
 each side, three feet apart in a line of the legs prolonged, at a 
 distance from the heels twice the length of the spars from the 
 heels to the crutch, and two more stakes six feet in rear of 
 these. 
 
 Lay the bight of a strap for holdfasts over the front stake ; con- 
 nect each pair of front and rear stakes with a strap twisted up 
 taut to insure the strain being distributed over all the stakes ; 
 drive two stakes for holdfasts for the fore guy, one in rear of the 
 ■ other, in the prolongation of the axis of the shears at a distance 
 from the heels twice the length of the spars from the heels to 
 
478b 15 TO KIG THE SHEARS, ETC. 
 
 the crutch. The length of the guys should be about four times 
 this distance. 
 
 Hook the upper blocks or block— a luff-tackle purchase— (see 
 Par. 483, ) to a bowline in the end of each guy, or to the bi^ht of 
 the strap, and the single block to the holdfast strap, which is 
 overthe frontstakeS. Mouse all hooks. If stakes are not driven 
 for holdfasts, any convenient hold can be taken around a tree, 
 gun, or pintle. 
 
 Ordinarily the fore guy can be worked without a tackle (if the 
 shears are raised by the back guy), bela3ring it over the holdfasts, 
 first taking a round turn over the one next the shears. 
 
 If not too heavy, the shears may be raised by lifting the head 
 and hauling on the guy tackles, slacking the heel lashings as 
 required, and tending the fore guy carefully to prevent the 
 shears falling over toward the rear. 
 
 When raised, hook the snatch block to a strap placed below 
 the cleat on the leg on that side from which the fall leads, plac- 
 ing the block as low as possible, so that the fall will lead horizon- 
 tally to the drum of the capstan. 
 
 When the shears are too heavy to raise in this way, they can 
 be raised by lever or by derrick. — Par. 546, ei seq. 
 
 The shears are lowered by slacking the guys and heel ropes, 
 or by small shears or lever. 
 
 When no capstan is available a windlass may be improvised 
 as follows: 
 
 Nail a strong cleat on the upper side of each leg and about 
 two feet from Sie heel when shoes are used, the butt, or square 
 end of the cleat down, lay a round spar a little more than one 
 third the length of the shears across the legs, one foot above the 
 butt of the cleats ; pass loosely two strong lashings (3 inch rope) 
 around this spar near the ends or near where it rests on the 
 legs ; frap the lashings near the spars, and tie the ends. The 
 lashing should be loose enough after frapping to leave loops to 
 pass over aud under the butts of the cleats, taking care to have 
 them of equal length. Grease the spar and legs where they are 
 in contact, and the spar under the lashing. Pass two or more 
 straps of i^ and 2 inch rope doubled around the end aud middle 
 of spar, put one end through the bight of the other and take a 
 turn round the spar. Put a handspike through the free bight to 
 be used as a lever to turn the spar or windlass. 
 
 These straps should be nailed to the spar to prevent slipping. 
 
 The windlass is chocked by allowing two or more han^pikes 
 to touch the ground on the opposite side of the windlass. 
 
 Light guns may be passed over ditches or from dififerent places 
 practically at the same level, but too far apart for one pair' of 
 shears to be used, by means of two pair of shears as follows : 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY FOR SEA COAST GUNS. 478b 16 
 
 Rig two shears as described above, one on either side of the 
 ditch, except that only one guy is necessary for each, viz. , the back 
 guy. [Plate 78, Fig. i. j 
 
 The shears, when raised, should be nearly vertical, only inclined 
 slightly toward each other, for the strain is sometimes excessive 
 on the guys. 
 
 Before raising the shears, connect the heads by a gun-tackle 
 purchase, the fall leading to either side desired, and which is 
 slacked off as the shears rise. 
 
 The back guys, and the two main tackles for the gun or weights 
 mentioned, should be luff-tackle purchases. 
 
 Straps of suitable sized ropes should be used and adjusted over 
 the heads of the shears, as described before for the back guys and 
 for the gun-tackle purchase for connecting the shear heads. After 
 the shears are raised and guys well secured both main tackles 
 are hooked into straps, passed around the gun and trunnions, and 
 the hooks moused. 
 
 The gun is passed across by hauling on one tackle and at the 
 same time slacking off the otier. 
 
 Both falls can be led to the same side of the ditch, if desired, 
 but to different capstans. 
 
 Additional Manceuver (Application of Cordage, 
 ETC.), Showing the Method of Raising a 
 Spar, Flag-staff, etc., lying on 
 THE Ground, to a Verti- 
 cal Position. 
 
 Near the heel of thespar diga hole or otherwise provide means 
 for holding the spar in position. [Plate 78, Fig. 2.] Hook one 
 block of a double purchase if the spar is heavy, otherwise a sin- 
 gle block will answer, to a holdfast [Plate 78, Fig. 3] placed in 
 the prolongation of the line of the spar and at a distance from 
 the heel about equal to the spar's length, hooking the other block 
 to a strap, clove hitched around the spar near the head. [Plate 
 78, Pig. 4.] Nail a cleat below this strap to keep it from slip- 
 ping. Middle a small line and clove-hitch it around the spar 
 above the strap, to give two guys for steadying as the spar goes 
 up. Raise the head, tend the guys, man the fall, which leads 
 through a snatch block at the holdfast [Fig. 3], thence to cap- 
 stan, and sway away. 
 
 If the spar is very heavy, it will be necessary to use a small der- 
 rick or shears to raise the head high enough for the main pur- 
 chase to act, and in this case the main-purchase second block 
 referred to above should be three fold, and the guys well manned,, 
 or eased around holdfasts. 
 
478b 17 ADDITIONAL MANCEUVEE, ETC. 
 
 The small shears may be rigged as described in previous ma- 
 noeuvers, with single back-guys attached to a holdfast and the 
 side guys, manned, to steady the shears. 
 
 Additional Manceuver with Casemate Gin, as 
 
 Shears. To Raise a Gun Sunk in the 
 
 Ditch of Main Work, or in the 
 
 Water near Shore. 
 
 Strength of detachment same as for ordinary manoeuvers. 
 
 The following materials and stores will be required in addition 
 to those used in the above exercises, viz. : 
 
 A temporary raft constructed sufficiently large to support the 
 weight of the gun, with an opening in the center through which 
 the gun can pass ; 2 long skids, 2 short skids, tarred rope for lash- 
 ing, and sling, capstan, 2 pinchbars, and 4 handspikes. 
 
 The raft, with anchors at both ends, is moored at the place 
 where the gun is sunk, the opening in the raft being directly 
 over the gun. The gin is raised over the gun, the legs on one 
 side and pry-pole on the other, of the opening, the feet of the 
 gin resting on thick pieces of plank secured and lashed. 
 
 The position of the gun and how it should be slung must be 
 ascertamed by diving if it can not be seen — slinging the gun be- 
 ing the most difficult part of the operation. 
 
 If the trunnions are in such position that a rope can be passed 
 under them, or a bail used, or the bottom soft enough to admit of 
 its being cleared away underneath for the purpose, or if the 
 muzzle and breach can be got at for a sling, putting a roller in 
 the muzzle, not much difficulty will be experienced. Otherwise 
 the circumstances must determine the best method. 
 
 When the gun is slung, work the windlass, raise the gun suffi- 
 ciently high to lower it on skids placed across the opening in 
 the raft. Raise the anchors, float or tow the raft to any desured 
 place, and anchor there. Lower the gin and place it on the 
 wall above the gun aud in front of the casemate. [Plate 78, 
 
 Pig- 5-] 
 
 Use the gm as shears, with the windlass, and with a block 
 between the legs at the head of the shears to take the place of 
 the end of the pry pole. 
 
 Secure the back guy by means of a good 5-inch strap passed 
 around a piece of timber placed outside and across the embrasure. 
 • The back guy (a "luff tackle ") is attached to this strap by the 
 hook of a single block. 
 
 A "bowline" is made in the end of the fore guy and placed 
 over the head of shears just under the pin which connects the 
 two legs ; the strap for the back guy is placed over the head of 
 
TO MOUNT AND DISMOUNT A 15-INCH GUN. 478b 18 
 
 the shears to the front above the pin and bo-wline. [Plate 7S, 
 Fig. '6.] The bight with the thimble, if provided with one, which 
 is now in rear is put through the clevis to the front, up through 
 the bowline over the head of shears and to the rear for the hook 
 of the double block [Fig. 7]; the fall of this luff tackle is car- 
 ried through a snatch block secured to holdfasts in the embra- 
 sure or to the pintle and leads to a capstan or windlass conven- 
 iently placed. [Fig. 5.] 
 
 The heels of the shears are placed as near the edge of wall as 
 practicable and leave room for resting the gun on blocks. The 
 shoes must be securely braced with blocks or skids butting 
 against the wall of parapet. The fore guy leads to a casemate on 
 the opposite side of the ditch, or to the parapet, or to an anchor, 
 where a secure hold is made capable of easing off as the shears 
 are brought to nearly a vertical position. 
 
 The shears being ready, the ordinary tackle is rove for raising 
 the gun, which is again slung in- any convenient way, with trun- 
 nion links, bail or sling. The gun must be placed quite close to 
 the wall, shoring up under the raft, so that too much inclination 
 will not have to be given the shears. Hoist gun with the wind- 
 lass until above the wall. [Fig. 5-] Haul in on back guy, easing 
 off on the fore guy until the gun can rest on the blocks placed 
 to receive it on the edge of the wall. Chock well, lower and 
 remove;shears. Parbuckle the gun to proper position for mount- 
 ing. 
 
 If the gun in the water should be near enough to the wall or 
 shore, it might be possible to get hold of it and put it in position 
 without the intervention of the raft, with the shears on uie wall 
 or shore, only giving them considerably more inclination. Then 
 haul the gun to the position for a vertical lift with the windlass, 
 resting it there and adjusting the shears to the proper inclina- 
 tion for raising the piece to the top of the wall. 
 
 To Mount and Dismount a 15-iNCH Gun with a 
 Laidley Gun-Lift. 
 
 For description, and other information concerning, and how 
 to assemble and raise the gun-lift, see paragraphs 539 and 54P. 
 
 On account of the particular form of some of the emplace- 
 ments occupied by these guns at Fort Monroe, it is not practi- 
 cable to use the extra set of caps and bolsters referred to in 
 paragraph 539 with front-pintle carriages. 
 
 The detachment consists of 12 men ; 2 non-commissioned 
 
478b 19 TO MOUNT AND DISMOUNT A 15-INCH GUN. 
 
 officers and lo men. The sergeant and 5 men work with the 
 rear trestle, the corporal and 5 men with the front trestle. • 
 
 The gun is prepared for dismountiiig as prescribed in paragraph 
 535, except that the following sections under that paragraph 
 need not be executed, viz. : sections 2, 3, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, and 15. 
 
 The gun should be run from battery until the carriage touches 
 the counter hurters,then traversed to one side as far as the position 
 to be occupied by the trestles wUl permit, to make room for the 
 gun to be rolled off the chassis, which is necessary on account of 
 the shape of the emplacement. The centre-pintle carriage can be 
 traversed until the gun is nearly parallel to the interior crest, 
 which then gives all the space necessary to roll the gun off the 
 chassis. Remove the rear transom of tlie chassis and the truck 
 wheels of the top carriage. 
 
 The lift, when in proper position, is such that the centre of the 
 mortise of the rear trestle or hoisting bar is over the centre of the 
 neck of the cascable, and the centre of the mortise of the front 
 trestle or hoisting bar is directly over the chase and about two 
 feet from the muzzle or face of the piece, or even nearer the 
 muzzle if the position of the gun makes it necessary. 
 
 The cascable and chase chains are now put around the gun, 
 the former around the neck of the cascable and the latter around 
 the chase, and the last links in the ends of these chains put over 
 the hooks of the hoisting bars. 
 
 The gun is raised out of the trunnion beds as prescribed in 
 paragraph 540, "To raise the weight," and is allowed to rest 
 upon the pins immediately above the bolsters. 
 
 The top carriage is run back upon' a crib of blocks built in rear 
 and in prolongation of the chassis as prescribed in sections 14 
 and 16, paragraph 635. 
 
 The gun is now lowered directly by the lift, taking the weight 
 off the pins, removing the lower pins and inserting them in con- 
 venient upper holes, tripping the jacks until the weight rests 
 upon the lower pins, running up the jacks taking the weight off 
 lower pins, etc. Continue this operation until the gun rests upon 
 two large 16-foot skids ( i5"x 18"^, one end of each of which rests 
 upon the chassis rails and the other ends upon cribs built upon 
 the side of the chassis to which the gun is to be rolled. 
 
 These skids are placed between the trestles. 
 
 The skids must be horizontal, and to effect this, one end of the 
 front skid rests across and upon two six-foot skids, one end of 
 each of which rests upon a quarter block (2"x S^'x 20") placed 
 crosswise on each rail, 18" from the hurters ; the other ends of 
 these six-foot skids rest upon the chassis rails. 
 
 This gives a level surface for the skid to rest upon. 
 
 The gun rests upon these skids, a bar of railroad. iron being 
 placed on the front skid under the chase. 
 
PLAfcING A 15-INCH GUN ON A CKADLE. 478b 20 
 
 The lift is now taken down and removed. 
 
 The gun is parbuckled over on to the cribs, and is raised by 
 means of hydraulic jacks as described in the next exercise, just 
 enough to remove the skids. The gun is lowered on to blocks 
 or on to the ground. 
 
 To mount the gun with the lift is the reverse of what has been, 
 described in dismounting. The gun is raised, skids put under, 
 rolled to its position on the chassis, lift put up, etc. When re- 
 stored to its final position the exercise is completed. 
 
 If it were required, in addition to dismounting the'gun, to re- 
 move the chassis, the following could be pursued : 
 
 Raise the gun, remove the top carriage by means of the truck 
 wagon. Then, while the gun is suspended, and without lowering 
 it upon the skids, raise the chassis by means of levers until it is 
 free from the pintle and high enough to place under it the cradle 
 resting upon rollers and raised way-planks, lower the chassis upon 
 the cradle, then with a "luff tackle" remove the chassis from 
 under the gun, lower the gun upon blocks placed on the plat- 
 form. If it were desired, to dismount and remove gun, top car- 
 riage, aud chassis, the following is suggested : 
 
 Dismount gun, and roll it on the railway truck or, ^cradle, 
 using skids as described above. Remove the top carriage froirr 
 in rear of the gun and lower it on to blocks. Put up one tres- 
 tle of gun-lift over the centre of gravity of the chassis, secure 
 a hold under the chassis, raise chassis with the trestle, and lower 
 it upon the truck wagon as prescribed in par. 536, the wagon be- 
 ing run under the chassis between the legs of the trestle from 
 the rear. 
 
 Placing a i 5-inch Gun on a Cradle, Transport- 
 ing IT, AND Turning or Passing around 
 Corners of the Terre-Plein of the 
 Main Work. 
 
 The detachment consists of 12 men ; 2 non-commissioned 
 ofi&cers and 10 men- The sergeant and 5 men perform the work 
 at the breech, and the corporal and 5 men attend to that at the. 
 muzzle. 
 
 The gun is lying on blocks, which are resting on the platform 
 or ground. 
 
 To place the gun on the cradle : The cradle, resting on way 
 planks aud six rollers, chocked front and rear, is placed along- 
 side the gun, with the proper bolsters of the cradle opposite the 
 the breech and chase, respectively. 
 
478b 21 PLACING A 15-INCH GUN ON A CRADLE. 
 
 Build four cribs to proper height, two ou the outside of cradle 
 opposite the chase and breech, and two outside the gun in cor. 
 responding position, or under the gun, upon which to rest the 
 ends of two i6-foot skids 15" by 18". 
 
 Raise the breech and muzzle of the gun alternately, by means 
 of a 30-ton jack, sufficiently high to admit placing the skids 
 under the breech and chase. Follow close up with blocks as 
 the gun is raised. 
 
 Place the skids in position when the gun is at the proper height, 
 shoring up under them at proper intervals when necessary. 
 
 Place iron rail on the skid under the chase, so that the muzzle 
 can be slued. 
 Lower the gun on the skids. 
 
 Parbuckle or roll the gun towards the cradle, assisting with 
 pinch bar used under breech; slue the muzzle when necessary to 
 keep the gun straight, until it is directly over the cradle. 
 
 Raise the gun as before, remove the skids, lower the gun on 
 blocks which rest on the cradle ; continue to lower the gun until 
 it rests in the bolsters on the cradle. 
 
 To transport the gun: The tackle will be the same, whether 
 the cradle is to move straight ahead or to turn or to pass around 
 corners, but the application will be a little diflferent. The descrip- 
 tion of the manner of turning will answer for all other cases. 
 
 To turn around or to pass comers : Place as holdfasts (if 
 others are not found) and for directing the lead of the rope, fom: 
 or five posts six feet long and about one foot in diameter, in the 
 ground, projecting above the surface two feet, and at suitable 
 places and convenient angles of the turn. [Plate 79, PigS: 
 I and 2.] 
 
 Place short way-planks around the turn and in direction for 
 cradle. Upon these place the rollers properly canted and chocked 
 to pass the corner. 
 
 The Spanish-Burtons, the simplest and best tackles to use 
 whenever practicable, consist, for a single Spanish-Burton, of 
 two single blocks, the standing part of the rope spliced into or 
 made fast to the strap or ring of the fly block after being rove 
 through the block attached to cradle. Then, any convenient 
 bight — separating the blocks sufficiently — of tie rope is made 
 fast to the eye of a hook by passing it through the eye and over 
 the back of the hook and the hook is secured to a holdfast by a 
 strap. The other end of the rope is passed through the other 
 single block (fly block) for a fall. A single Spanish-Burton 
 increases the power three times. 
 
 A double Spanish-Burton consists of one double and two single 
 blocks and increases the power five times. 
 
 Reeve a single Spanish-Burton and attach one of the single 
 blocks to the ring of the cradle. 
 
PLACING A 15-INCH GUN ON A CRADLE. 478b 22 
 
 The double block is attached to the cradle, the standing part, 
 as before, made fast to the strap or ring of one of the single 
 blocks (fly block) after passing through one sheave of the 
 double block ; then, any convenient bight of the rope — separating 
 the blocks sufficiently — is made fast to the strap or ring of the 
 other single block, and the hook of the single block is attached 
 to the holdfast by means of a strap. 
 
 The end of the rope, coming from the bight attached to block 
 at holdfast, is now rove through the remaining sheave of the 
 double block, then through the single block at holdfast, thence 
 through fly block, thence to capstan. 
 
 After reeving the single Burton as described, attach a'^uff'- 
 upon-luflF tackle," or simply a "luflf," to fall of Burton and carry 
 the fall of this last tackle to the windlass. Fleet-tackle as required. 
 
 The ropes of the Burton leading to and coming from the hold- 
 fast are placed over the posts as described below to properly 
 direct the lead and are removed, as the cradle approaches these 
 posts, in the following manner, the idea being not only to make 
 the turn round the comer, but to move the cradle in a direction 
 outside of and on the flank of the direct line of traction without 
 changing position of the holdfasts : 
 
 The posts are numbered from No. i, near the cradle, to 4 or 5, 
 which are holdfasts. [Figs- i and 2.] 
 
 When the cradle is near No. i, cast off rope from No. 2 that 
 leads to fly block. [Bigs, i and 2.] When at No. i, cast off 
 rope at that post. When approaching No. 2, cast off remaining 
 rope from that post. 
 
 Attach small luff-tackle with a snatch block to post No. 2 
 [Fig: 3], and pass through the snatch block the rope that leads 
 to standing block; 
 
 When the cradle gets nearer No. 2 pass the rope that leads to 
 fly block around post No. 3, by a round turn. Remove small luff- 
 tackle from post No. 2 and attach to post No. 3. Pass standing 
 part of rope that leads to a fly block through snatch block, and, 
 as the cradle approaches No. 3, remove this rope from snatch 
 block and place in its stead the part that leads from standing 
 block to fly block. 
 
 When the cradle is nearpost No. 3, remove luff-tackle and cast 
 off rope No. 3, leaving the cradle near this post and near the top 
 of the ramp, down which the cradle could be lowered by chang- 
 ing the tackle to the other end of cradle. 
 
 For ordinary exercises on level ground, a " luff-tackle " at- 
 tached to fall or single Burton will be sufficient. To take the 
 gun up the ramp a " luff-upon-luff " or double Burton combina- 
 tion should be used. 
 
 These tackles can be modified to suit the power required and 
 will be found sufficient for all practical purposes with this and 
 other similar manoeuvres. 
 
478b 23 TO RIG, RAISE AND LOWER HEAVY SHEARS. 
 
 To Rig, Raise and Lower Heavy Shears, and 
 
 TO Raise a 15-iNCH Gun to Ramparts and 
 
 Lower the Same. 
 
 Material and stores required, with number and size of articles 
 not mentioned in this text are given in tables under paragraph 
 548. 
 
 There are required for the execution of these exercises, unless 
 executed separately, 3 non-commissioned officers and 50 privates. 
 
 The shears used are those referred to in last section of para- 
 graph 547. 
 
 The legs of the shears, sill, etc., are taken to the ramparts- 
 by sling cart and team. 
 
 Holdfasts. 
 
 The ends of two large 16-foot skids are run through any two- 
 adjacent and convenient embrasures, to project three or four 
 feet beyond the outer wall. These skids are shored up and 
 securely wedged in the embrasure, the top of the skid against 
 the upper side. 
 
 Drive a stake in the superior slope of the parapet midway 
 between these two embrasures, and in a plane that will contain 
 the head of the shears, the center of gravity of the gun and the 
 fore guy. 
 
 Take a 5-inch rope of sufficient length, and, after taking two 
 turns about the stake with the rope's end, pass the bight down 
 round the end of one of the skid holdfasts, then biick round the 
 stake and down round the end of the other skid holdfiist, then back 
 round the stake, and repeat this operation four or five times, 
 which, with the size rope suggested, will make it sufficiently 
 strong. Tauten each of the parts as they pass around the stake 
 and skids, so that equal strains will be exerted on each part. The 
 ends of the rope are "bent" together by a "double sheet bend," 
 and at a distance from the stake so as not to interfere with the 
 hook of the block that will subsequently hook there. Pass a 
 piece of marlin round the parts at the stake to mark the e:xact 
 position the hook of the block is to occupy when the stake is 
 removed. Place chafing gear (canvas, etc.) over the angles of 
 the skids and masonry, and hang the two block-fender.'5 over the 
 beam to protect the rope. 
 
 To assemble the shears. 
 
 The sill is placed in its proper position, its centre opposite the 
 stake on the parapet, and at such distance from the wall of the 
 
TO RIG, RAISE AND LOWER HEAVY SHEARS. 478b 24 
 
 terre-plein that a 44-iiicli block can be placed endwise between 
 it, opposite each end, and the wall. 
 
 The sill should be secured by stakes driven alongside and 
 iDraced with skids batting against the masonry of the gun plat- 
 forms. 
 
 Two strong straps at this time should be placed under the sill 
 in proper position for two snatch blocks, through which the 
 iauling part of the main tackle will lead. Pieces of canvas 
 ■should be laid under the straps to prevent them from being 
 •chafed by gravel. The bottom of the sill is rounded, which pre- 
 -vents chafing between the straps and the sill, and permits the 
 sill to turn while the shears are being raised and lowered. 
 
 The shears are placed in position, the heels near the mortises 
 in the sill, and the legs resting on the interior crest. The heads of 
 •the shears are brought together over the stake driven in the 
 .superior slope. The iron pendant is placed between the heads, 
 .and the cross-bolt driven through and keyed. 
 
 The upper set of 4-fold blocks are now bolted to the iron pen- 
 ■dant, the lower set of 4-fold blocks are secured to the gun at the 
 proper time by a long 4 or 4^ inch rope lashing passed equally 
 in front and in rear of the trunnions and through the blocks. 
 
 The rear or after guy. 
 
 ist. Make a "strap" by coiling on the ground a 5-inch rope' 
 say iive times, the size of the coil being, sufficient to pass over 
 the head of the shears and leave in the bight sufficient slack for 
 the hook of a 4-fold block. Parts taut alike and ends secured 
 together. This strap is adjusted over the head of the shears 
 above the cross-bolt, before the shears are raised. 
 
 2d. Rig a purchase composed of one 4 and one 3-sheave block, 
 iusing a 5 or 5 >^ inch rope. 
 
 To rig the purchase : Make the end of the fall fast to the ring 
 ■(becket) of the 3-fold block, then the 3-fold block will be first 
 filled and the hauling part will lead down from the 4-fold block, 
 which is hooked to the strap of the rear guy at head of shears. 
 "This hauling part leads down and back to a snatch block at- 
 tached to the strap that passes around the ends of the skids, the 
 "block guyed in this position by a rope running to a holdfast — a 
 mounted gun or pintle — thence carry the hauling part to a cap- 
 stan conveniently placed on the superior slope, or where good 
 holdfasts can be found. 
 
 To reeve this fall the blocks are placed on the ground with 
 their beckets looking towards each other and the fall is served 
 while in this position, the end of the rope being secured to becket 
 ■of 3-fold block. After serving the fall raise the 4-fold block and 
 place the hook in the bight of the rear guy strap, the opening 
 
478b 25 TO RIG, KAISE AND LO"WER HEAVY SHEARS. 
 
 or point of the hook pointing downwards. This hook should 
 be moused at once. 
 
 The main purchase. 
 
 This purchase consists oi four 4-fold blocks, two above at the 
 shears head and two below at the guui If a handy man who 
 can work aloft is available the main fall can be reeved after the 
 shears are raised, if not it had better be done before. There are 
 eight parts to each purchase, and, the two purchases being ad- 
 jacent, great care should be taken not to make a mistake in 
 reeving the fall. 
 
 It is better, unless it is well understood, to reeve first with a 
 small-sized rope that can be easily handled, and if it should be 
 found to be properly served, then hitch the larger rope to it, and 
 by simply overhauling the smaller rope the larger one will be 
 successfully reeved. 
 
 The standing part of the fall is attached to the becket of the 
 upper blocks by a "bowline," and care must be taken to make 
 this as snug as possible to avoid " two blocks " when the gun is 
 in mid air. 
 
 The hauling parts of the main purchase are led down after the 
 shears are raised, from the upper blocks through the two snatch 
 blocks heretofore mentioned, which are secured to the straps 
 on the sill as soon as the shears are raised,and then lead to the cap- 
 stans conveniently placed on either side of the legs at 15 or 20 
 yards distance — so placed that the rope leads horizontally to the 
 barrels of the capstans to avoid possible surging that may be 
 caused by the rope shifting on the barrel. 
 
 The capstans must be well secmred by stakes and attached to 
 gun-pintles or other secure holdfasts. 
 
 Fore guy. 
 
 This guy is for the purpose of raising and lowering the shears. 
 
 First, make a "strap," consisting of two parts of a 5-inch rope, 
 the strap about 30 feet long. This strap goes over the head of 
 the shears under the strap of the after or rear guy. 
 
 A "luflf tackle" is hooked into the bight of this fore-guy strap 
 and the tackle rigged so as to make the double block movable. 
 The single block of this tackle is attached to a strap secured to 
 a holdfast, which holdfast is placed in a plane containing the 
 head of the shears, centre of gravity of the gun, etc. 
 
 The hauling part of this luflF tackle is led to a snatch block 
 secured to the holdfast, which makes it work parallel to the other 
 parts of the purchase. From the snatch block it is led to a cap- 
 stan conveniently placed. 
 
TO RIG, RAISE AND LOWER HEAVY SHEARS. 478b 26 
 
 To raise the shears. 
 
 Have everything ready: the straps over the head of the 
 shears, all hooks moused to prevent spreading and the hooks 
 from dropping out of the bights, and parcelling placed on all 
 hooks or rings where they migfit cut the rope. 
 
 The fore guy can not be hauled on direct in raising the 
 shears on account of the angle which it makes with the latter, 
 and it becomes necessary to introduce a prop, which is a spar 
 about 25 feet long with two cleats nailed on the sides near the 
 smaller end and projecting six or eight inches above the end. 
 Between these cleats the strap of the fore guy runs when the 
 shears are being raised and lowered. [See Plate 79, Fig. 4.] 
 
 The other end of this spar is placed in the centre of a short 
 sill three feet long, to give it a good footing. 
 
 The prop is placed in position between the sill and breast- 
 height wall, and between the legs of the shears. It is inclined 
 slightly towards the head of the shears, the strap, as before men- 
 tioned passing between the cleats on the end of the prop, but 
 not made fast to it. After the prop passes to a vertical position, 
 the strain upon it is gradually relaxed and when the fore guy is 
 straightened the prop is freed and falls to the ground; or, what is 
 better, it should be guyed by small ropes held by two men and 
 when released can be lowered gently to the ground. 
 
 All being ready — haul away on the fore guy — ease off on the 
 after guy, a few men raising the head of the shears to give it a 
 start. Observe that the tenons on the legs of the shears properly 
 enter the mortises in the sill. As the head of the shears ap- 
 proaches the vertical the rear guy must be closely attended so 
 that the shears do not faW to the front. 
 
 Droop the shears when raised only enough to allow the gun to 
 clear the wall as it is being raised. 
 
 The lower set of 4-fold blocks are now hauled down to the gun 
 and securely lashed, as before described, the centre of the blocks 
 being directly over the trunnions. A long guy is attached to the 
 muzzle, which one man holds to keep the gun straight. 
 
 To raise the gun. 
 
 The capstans of the main purchase and after guy are manned 
 by all the men, 16 to 20 to each of the main capstans and a less 
 number to the other. 
 
 Haul away on the main capstans, and as soon as the strain is 
 felt on the main purclaase the rear guy is hauled upon and care- 
 fully watched to keep the head of the shears in the proper posi- 
 tion to permit the gun to swing just clear of the wall. 
 
 Now work the main capstan vigorously and uniformly, hoist- 
 
478b 27 TO PLACE A HEAVY GUN ON TRUCK. 
 
 ing the gun and keeping it horizontal. When the gun is suffi- 
 ciently high above the coping to clear it, haul upon the rear 
 ^y — ease off the fore guy until the shears are brought to nearly 
 a vertical position, or until the gun can be lowered on blocks 
 placed on the terreplein. 
 
 The main falls are slacked off, the gun lowered on the blocks 
 placed between the sill and wall. 
 
 To place the gun on the cradle the shears must be moved 
 away. 
 
 To lower the gun to the parade is the reverse of the metl^od 
 just described. Raise the gun above the wall, hold on to main 
 purchase, ease off rear guy until the gun will just pass the 
 wall, ease away on main tackle until the gun is landed in its 
 bed on the cradle or blocks from whence taken. 
 
 The shears are lowered and dismantled in the reverse order in 
 which they are raised and assembled. 
 
 It must be observed with great care before the maneuver is 
 commenced that no defective rope or other article is used any- 
 where in the combination, for fear of serious accident. 
 
 If the particular kind of shears referred to in the above exer- 
 cises and mentioned in paragraph 547, is not on hand, then 
 recourse must be had to two spars rigged as described on p. 478B 1 2. 
 
 To Place a Heavy Gun on the Railway Truck 
 AND Transport it. 
 
 The detachment consists of 12 men ; 2 non-commissioned 
 officers and 10 men. 
 
 The railway truck and tramway are shown in Plate 35. 
 
 This means of transportation can be made available for trans- 
 porting 15" guns and other heavy weights in and about perma- 
 nent works. 
 
 Two sections of the track are absolutely necessary, three sec- 
 lions would be more convenient, and, for turning short curves, a 
 section of track with curved rails is required. [See Plate 79, 
 
 ^ig- 5-] 
 
 There are two iron cross-ties with each section of track, the 
 ends bent at right angles for about ^", which fit in holes bored 
 in the sides of the tramway to keep the two rails at the proper 
 distance apart. The truck not being as wide as the chassis, it is 
 necessary for the bolster to project over the wheels to form a bed 
 on which to lay the chassis when it is carried. 
 
 There is an iron pin passing through the perch near the front 
 axle and a semi-circular plate underneath it, which is removed 
 
TO PLACE A HEAVY GUN ON TRUCK. 478b 28 
 
 ■when the truck is to be turned on a sharp turn, to permit the 
 front wheels to take the curve. 
 
 A small ."luff tackle" can be attached to rings on the washers 
 of the wheels in making sharp turns, and on that side towards 
 which the turn is to be made, to force the front wheels on to the 
 curve. The fall of this tackle, after passing around a pin on the 
 perch, and between two movable pivots over the wheels, leads to 
 a small windlass in rear of the rear bolster, which is turned by a 
 crank. 
 
 A large permanent clevis is fixed at each end of the truck to 
 attach a rope by which the truck is drawn. 
 
 A tongue is provided to guide the truck, when it is drawn on 
 the ground, and to guide the wheels in turning. 
 
 It can be unhooked and removed when not required. 
 
 To place the gun on the truck. 
 
 The gun is supposed to be lying on blocks on its platform. 
 
 Raise the gun with hydraulic jacks as described, pp. 478B20, 
 21, until the gun is 18" above the platform. 
 
 Place a section of the tramway on the ground near the trav- 
 erse circle and conveniently to receive the gun. Raise the truck 
 and place it on this section and chock the wheels. 
 
 Build two cribs outside the truck opposite the breech and 
 muzzle respectively. Rest the ends of two long skids (is" x \V) 
 on the platform and on the cribs. Place " chase collar," if there 
 be one, over the muzzle, and secure it in position by wooden 
 wedges or by trace rope through rings on the collar and around 
 the trunnion ; if there be no collar then place an iron rail on 
 the skid under the chase. Lower gun with the jacks on the 
 skids and chock. 
 
 Place supports under the skids at proper intervals. 
 
 Parbuckle the gun by means of the "fall" until, if "chase 
 collar" is not used, the muzzle requires slueing. 
 
 Insert a roller in the muzzle and slue the chase by means of 
 the fall ; continue to roll the gun up the skids until it is over its 
 position on the truck. Build cribs for jacks underneath breech 
 and muzzle, raise the gun, remove the skids, lower the gun on 
 to blocks resting on the truck and finally on to the bolsters. 
 
 If the weight be lighter than the 15" gun, say \q/' S. B., the 
 gun can be loaded without the use of jacks, as follows : 
 
 Sink the ends of skids — the skids can be smaller than those 
 used for the is" gun — in the ground near and under the breech 
 and chase of the gun, the other ends of the skids resting on 
 blocks or cribs built close to and as high as the top of the bol- 
 ster. The ends of the skids should be flush or nearly so with 
 the bolster or top of crib work. 
 
478b 29 TO PLACE A HEAVY GUN ON TRUCK. 
 
 Parbuckle the gun by means of the "fall" up this incline, 
 carefully following up with chocks until the gun is on the cribs. 
 Place small pieces of wood under the ends of the bolsters, and 
 short skids connecting cribs with perch, or resting on blocks 
 between the rails, to receive weight of gun before it strikes the 
 bolsters. 
 
 If the position of the gun is such, or the ground unfavorable, 
 or for want of space, the skids can not be used as described in 
 the above cases, and yet the gun is on good and fairly level 
 ground, raise the gun directly by hydrauhc jacks as described 
 before, placing skids with the ends resting on cribs under the 
 breech and muzzle, until the gun is high enough to get the track 
 and truck under it. 
 
 Lay the track between the cribs, place the truck on the track 
 under the gnn, lower the gun on the truck. 
 
 To transport the gun. 
 
 If it is a straight course and a light weight it can be moved 
 by hand, or any of the simple tackle heretofore described will 
 answer the purpose, the sections of the straight track being 
 taken up and laid as the truck advances. 
 
 If the truck is on the terreplein, and it is necessary to pass an 
 angle of the work, a " runner tackle" will be suitable, arranged 
 as shown in Plate 79, Fig. 5, one end of the runner attached to 
 any convenient pintle or holdfast, then passed through a single 
 block at the truck, then through a snatch block at a second pm- 
 tle as shown, thence as shown. The fall of this "luff" leads 
 directly to a windlass or to another "luff," as shown in figure, 
 and thence to a windlass. 
 
 Haul away. When the truck reaches the curved portion of 
 the track, remove snatch block from second pintle and attach 
 the end of the runner to this pintle. Remove the pin in the perch. 
 Tighten up the fall on the tiuck wheels, to pass the curve. 
 
 When the car reaches the straight portion of the track again 
 replace the pin in the perch, ease off the fall on the truck wheels 
 and secure the end of the runner to the stake or holdfast. 
 
 Haul away, shift the blocks as the car approaches the hold- 
 fast and at the proper time secure a new holdfast. 
 
 Horse power should be employed when practicable. A single 
 horse, with a " luff tackle" on the level, will move a 15" gun as 
 fast as the track can be laid and the tackle shifted. This is more 
 rapid than the gun can be transported by cradle. 
 
TO SLING A HEAVY GUN FOR TRANSPORT. 478b 30 
 
 To Sling a Heavy Gun for Transport on the 
 Laidley Sling-Cart. 
 
 The detachment may consist of 2 non-commissioned oflScers 
 and lo men, or i non-commissioned officer and 4 or s men can 
 execute the manceuver. 
 
 The cannoneers are posted at the cart attached to a limber 
 and move it forward and backward by the same commands, the 
 men applying themselves, as far as tiie construction of the cart 
 permits, as prescribed for a siege carriage limbered without its 
 piece. 
 
 An end view of the cart with gun sling is shown in Plate 34, 
 and is described in the last section of paragraph 502. 
 
 The cart will transport a weight of from 15,000 to 20,000 
 pounds. 
 
 A strong iron bolster, through which the hoisting bars pass, is 
 movable, so that if the weight to be transported is very great the 
 bolsters can be moyed forward, which will throw more weight 
 upon the wheels of the limber which are capable of sustaining 
 a portion of the weight to be borne. 
 
 The gun is resting either on the ground, platform, or upon 
 low blocks. The cart is backed over the gun, the breech in the 
 direction in which the pole points, until the hoisting bars are 
 directly over the centre of the trunnions. 
 
 The trunnion rings are placed over the trunnions, or the sling 
 under the weight to be carried, and the hoisting bars run down 
 until the hooks at their ends will engage with the links of trun- 
 nion rings or slings. 
 
 The hydraulic jack is placed on the middle of thejDolster, with 
 the cross-head resting on the head of the jack. 
 
 Insert the pins in the lowest holes of the hoisting bars, above 
 the cross-bar, and upon intimation commence pumping. When 
 the weight is raised sufficiently high, insert two other pins in the 
 lowest holes of the hoisting bars above the bolster. Trip the jack 
 (the jack used with this cart is tripped with the lever handle by 
 reversing the handle and putting it in the socket with the stop 
 up) until the weight rests upon the pins above the bolster. The 
 jack may be removed, or carried where it rests, the head of the 
 jack being caught under the cross-bar. 
 
 Pass the cascable chain around the neck of the cascable and 
 secure the ends by a toggle. 
 
 The gun, when properly slung, is level, and well up under the 
 cart, entering into the underneath surfaces cut away for the 
 purpose. 
 
 The gun, after being secured, is ready for transport by teams of 
 from four to six horses. 
 
478b 31 MANUAL FOR " ZALINSKI TRUNNION-SIGHT." 
 
 To lower the gun is the reverse of the former operation. 
 Insert the pins in convenient holes above the cross-bar; the 
 jack, with the cross-bar resting upon the head, is run up to these 
 pins. 
 
 Take the weight of the gun off the lower pins vrith the jack. 
 Remove the lower pins and insert them in convenient holes 
 above the bolster, not too high, to catch the jack when the gun 
 is lowered. 
 
 Trip the jack until the weight rests upon the lower pins, or 
 until the gun rests upon the blocks placed for the purpose. 
 
 Manual for the Use of the " Zalinski 
 Trunnion-Sight. ' ' 
 
 ist. Unclamp the index of the elevation arc. Set the sight to 
 the general elevation corresponding to the range ; clamp, and 
 adjust the finer readings by the tangent screw. 
 
 2d. Set the sight for the proper allowances for wind, drift, and 
 probable motion of the target — ^remembering that the deflection 
 arc reads to hundredths of range, subdivided into and reading 
 to thousandths by verniers. 
 
 3d. Place the sight upon its seat on the trunnions and bring 
 it in a vertical plane by means of the thumb-screw of an arm 
 which projects below the sight, one end of which is against the 
 face of the trunnion. This will be indicated by' the bubble of 
 the cross-level, perpendicular to the axis of the telescope. 
 
 4th. Focus the eye-piece of the telescope to the cross-lines (the 
 movable cross-lines are only used with the range-finder attach- 
 ment), and direct the gun — elevate, depress, or traverse — until 
 the cross-lines of the telescope are on the target. 
 
 Whilst traversing, occasionally observe the bubble of the cross- 
 level, and if not in the median position [middle of the tube], 
 bring it so by the slow-motion screw. 
 
 Sufficient accuracy is obtained in giving the elevation as de- 
 scribed without using the level attached to the telescope, unless 
 the target should be obscured by smoke, haze, or darkness. 
 
MANUAL FOR " ZALINSKI TRUNNION-SIGHT." 478b 32 
 
 Manual for the Use of the " Zalinski Trunnion- 
 Sight" IN Range Finding a.nd in Aiming 
 AT Moving Targets. 
 
 I. Range finder. 
 
 The following table, prepared by Captain J. M. Ingalls, ist 
 Artillery, gives ranges correspondiug to different angles of de- 
 pression, as shown by the micrometer, corrected for refraction, 
 but not for variation of tides or sphericity of the earth. 
 
 The height of the gun upon which this table is based is 36 feet 
 main work above mean low water. 
 
 Each complete turn of the micrometer screw attached to the 
 under surface of the telescope is closely equivalent to 5 minutes, 
 and is indicated by the depressions or serrations seen in the right 
 of the field of view of the telescope. 
 
 Each serration corresponds to S minutes of depression. 
 
 Minutes and seconds are obtained on the micrometer screw- 
 head. 
 
 The sight is placed in its seat and carefully leveled, the hori- 
 zontal hairs coinciding. When the gun is properly traversed, the 
 target will be in the field of view for all ranges for which the 
 sight is adapted as a range finder; and the sight is not to be 
 further disturbed except to keep it level in the different trav- 
 ersed positions of the gun. 
 
 The micrometer screw is turned until the movable horizorital 
 hair is at the intersection of the target with the water line, the 
 vertical hair being also at this intersection. The reading is five 
 times the number of complete serrations passed over by the hori- 
 zontal line plus the" reading of the micrometer screw-head. Care 
 should be taken not to make the reading of the full turns too 
 great by one. It is only the full or complete turns that are taken 
 by the serrations, to which is added the minutes and seconds 
 found on the micrometer head. 
 
 2. Sight allowance for moving target. 
 
 Place the sight in its seat on the gun, or on a suitable stand,, 
 the sight being set at zero on the deflection scale. Direct the 
 telescope on the target. 
 
 The range and probable time of flight of projectile are known. 
 
 The observer by means of the tangent screw keeps the vertical 
 hair upon the target, and notifies an assistant, who keeps the 
 time, of the commencement of the movement ; the latter indi- 
 cates to the observer when the probable time of flight termi- 
 nates ; the observer thereupon ceases following the target with 
 
478b 33 MANUAL FOR "ZALINSKI TRUNNION-SIGHT." 
 
 the vertical hair, reads the deflection scale, using it in the oppo- 
 site direction, or side, as given on the scale, adds or substracts 
 this reading from the allowance to be made for wind and drift; 
 the result will be the allowance to make for movement of target 
 
 If the gun is ready for firing, it is probable that the vessel will 
 not materially change its rate of angular displacement within 
 the next few seconds. 
 
 An error in the assumed time of flight of one second will not 
 introduce a very great error in the probable angular displace- 
 ment of the target. 
 
MANUAL FOB " ZALINSKI TRUNNION-SIGHT." 478B 34 
 
 3. Table. 
 
 A— 36 feet. 
 
 Range. 
 
 Angle of 
 Depression. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d, 
 
 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 / 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 41 
 
 28 
 
 224 
 
 38 
 
 9 
 
 1 100 
 
 37 
 
 44 
 
 186 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 
 1200 
 
 34 
 
 38 
 
 157 
 
 • 22 
 
 4 
 
 1300 
 
 32 
 
 OI 
 
 135 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 1400 
 
 29 
 
 46 
 
 117 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 1500 
 
 27 
 
 49 
 
 102 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 1600 
 
 26 
 
 07 
 
 89 
 
 9 
 
 
 1700 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 80 
 
 9 
 
 
 1800 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 71 
 
 7 
 
 
 1900 
 
 22 
 
 07 
 
 64 
 
 6 
 
 
 20CX) 
 
 21 
 
 03 
 
 58 
 
 6 
 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 05 
 
 52 
 
 4 
 
 
 2200 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 48 
 
 5 
 
 
 2300 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 
 2400 
 
 17 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 3 
 
 
 2500 
 
 17 
 
 02 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 
 2600 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 
 2700 
 
 IS 
 
 51 
 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 
 2800 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 
 2900 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 3000 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 The above are computed by the formula — 
 
 D=6-M3r^:£^+o.'/oi26d 
 d ^ 
 
 D=Angle of depression. 
 
 d=Distance in yards. 
 
 h^Height above sea level in feet. 
 
 The second term of this formula is correction for refraction. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this volume. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Abattis, 397, 644; 398, 645. 
 
 to clear away, 406, 654. 
 
 Aiming, (see Ranges ; Sights; Traversing,) 59, 209; 80, 230, 
 
 XII; 81, 330, XXIV; 81, 230, XXU; 90, 243; 
 
 145, 340. 
 
 at moving vessels, 350, 588; 355, 592. 
 
 at night, 356, 592. 
 
 at unseen objects, 404, 650. 
 
 eflfect ol mirage, 58, 206. 
 
 of mortars, 63, 212; 63, 213; 64, 213; 148, 342, 
 
 343; 149, 343; 163, 365; 167, 3t2; 170, 3TS; 
 
 356, 593. 
 Air-cylinders, 68, 218. 
 Ammunition, 41, 180. 
 
 for defense of defiles, 418, 667. 
 
 for field service, 93, 255 ; 101, 258. 
 
 for field-worlra and sieges, 316, 568; 390, 63?; 410,. 
 
 660; 411, 662; 413, 666; 416, 666; 418, 667. 
 
 for permanent works, 316, 568. 
 
 preparation of, 81, 330, XV, XX, XXT, XXVII; 90,. 
 
 244; 108, 2T5; 110, 277; 121, 294. 
 
 reports of, 413, 666; 414, 666; 415, 666. 
 
 Ancliors as holdfasts, 264, 521. 
 
 for targets, 190, 409. 
 
 mushroom, 436, 677. 
 
 Angle of fall, 39, 161 ; 377, 619. 
 
 Angle of Are, (see Siglits; Bange-tables,) 40, 173. 
 
 Annual supplies of armaments, 315, 507. 
 
 Armament of works, 316, .'»6S; 343, 581. 
 
 Armor, artillery against, 347, 586; 353, 590; 354, 591, 
 
 Armored vessels, (see Iron-clads,) 348, 587; 351, 589. 
 
 vital points, 351, 589. 
 
 Artillery against armdr, 347, 586. 
 (470) 
 
480 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain flgnres refer to the pages of this volume. The full- 
 faced flgares refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Artillery command in defenses, 346, 5S3 ; 410, 660 ; 411, 661 ; 
 
 411, 663; 417,666. 
 garrison, sea-coast, and siege distinguislied, 1, 4; 1, 5 ; 
 
 1,6; 2, 8. 
 
 in connection witii torpedo service, 425, 670. 
 
 in constructing lines, 373, 613; 410, 660; 411 661. 
 
 in attacking intrenched positions, 403, 649 ; 404. 650 : 
 
 405, 651-653. 
 in defense of besieged places, 410, 660. 
 
 in defense of defiles, 417, 667; 418, 667. 
 
 in defense of river-crossings, 419, 668 ; 420, 668. 
 
 in harbor defenses, 343, 581 ; 345, 582. 
 
 proportion of, in sieges, 411, 663. 
 
 to accompany assaulting parties, 406, 654. 
 
 material, annual supply to preserve, 315, 567. 
 
 care and preservation of, 293, 551; 294, 555; 312, 
 
 566. 
 
 projectiles, 310, 565. 
 
 required for sieges, 412, 664 ; 413, 664. 
 
 storage of gunpowder, 316, 569. 
 
 store-houses, 312, 566. 
 
 transportation, 321, 571 ; 325, 573. 
 
 disembarkation, 335, 578. 
 
 railroad, 322, 572. 
 
 weight of field battery, 330, 574. 
 
 Assault. (See Attack.) 
 
 defense against, 410, 660. 
 
 Atmosphere, pressure upon projectiles, 57, 206 ; 68, 306. 
 Attack and defense of positions, 403, 649 ; 405, 652. 
 
 advantages of attack, 405, 651. 
 
 of defiles, 417, 667; 418, 667. 
 
 of river-crossings, 419, 668; 420, 668. 
 
 of submarine mines, 455, 692. 
 
 selection of point of attack, 409, 659. 
 
 Axis, 35, 134. 
 
 Backwabd, defined, 201, 419. 
 Balls, iron, weight of, 477, Appendix. 
 Barbette batteries, field, 384, 633. 
 
 guns, handled with gins. 250, 497. 
 
 Ban-els, gunpowder, to sample, 40, 182. 
 
 Bairow, hand, 260, 512. 
 
 Base-line, permanent, for target practice, 189, 409. 
 
INDEX. 481 
 
 [ITOTB.— Tbe plain flares refer to the pages of this Tolame. The tuiX- 
 faced figures reler to paragraphs.] 
 
 Base of breech, 35, 138. 
 
 Battaliou, artillery, formation, 28, 116; 29. 117-133; 30, 
 124, 125; 31, 126, 126; 32, 126. 
 
 to form, 32, 137; 33, 127-130. 
 
 Batteries. (See Field Intrenehments.) 
 
 barbette, 384, 633. 
 
 olassiflecl, 396, 642. 
 
 commanding defiles, 417, 667; 418, 667. 
 
 commanding rivers, 419, 66S ; 420, 668. 
 
 designation in sieges, 413, 665. 
 
 dispersion, 344, 581. 
 
 distances from, in defense of towns, 376, 617. 
 
 elevation of, 347, .585. 
 
 embrasure, 385, C>34; 396, 641. 
 
 — — intrenched positions, 403, 649. 
 
 location of, 364. 600; 366, 603, 604; 373, 613; 
 
 388. 635 ; 408, 656. 
 
 materials for, 357, 594; 412, 664; 413, 664. 
 
 mortar, 397, 643. 
 
 pan-coup€e, 384, 633. 
 
 penetration of, 357, 595; 358, 595; 359, 595; 360,. 
 
 595; 362, 596; 363, 596, 597; 364, 598. 
 
 positions of, in attack of intrenched places, 403, 649. 
 
 selection of, 371, 612. 
 
 strength and composition, 355, 592 ; 411, 662. 
 
 to construct, 395, 641. 
 
 traverses for, 376, 618; 388, 635. 
 
 —— troops, number for, 345, 585. 
 
 Battery, commands in, 8, 31 ; 8, 35 ; 10, 43. 
 
 field, weight of, 330, 574. 
 
 — — posts of officers, non-commissioned officers, &o., 7, 24- 
 30; 24, 103. 
 
 siege-gun, composition of, 92, 255. 
 
 ammunition for, 316, 568. 
 
 — ^— siege mortar, Coehorn, 159, 359. 
 
 subdivisions of, 6, 19-23; 8, 32-34; 10, 48. 
 
 substituted for "company" in foot^drill commands, 34,, 
 
 130. 
 
 to change posts, 27, 112. 
 
 to foi-m at the pieces, 26, 107, 108. 
 
 to form the, 8, 37. 
 
 to leave the pieces, 27, 113; 28. 114, 115. 
 
 to load a, on cars, 324, 572. 
 
482 INDEX. 
 
 [Note. — ^The plain figures refer to tlie pages of this rolmne. The JEolK 
 faced flgnres refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Battery to march to the pieces, 25, I06. 
 
 to rest, 27, llO. 
 
 to resume the exercise, 27, HI. 
 
 wagons for the siege, 100, 39 S, 
 
 what, 6, 19. 
 
 Ueds for piling projectiles, 311, 365. 
 Bickford's fuse, 422, 669. 
 Bight, 232, 477. 
 Blockades, 407, 655. 
 Block-house, 400, 64S. 
 Blocks, 270, 528 ; 238, 483. 
 
 storage of, 318, 566. 
 
 Blowing-charges, 188, 404. 
 
 Boats, compliments, 4G4, 709, '?10; 465, 711. 
 
 Bodr of piece, 85, 140. 
 
 Bomb-proofs, 394, 639. 
 
 Books. (See Eecords.) 
 
 Bore, 35, 133; 36, 144; 38, 153. 
 
 inspection of, 800, 561. 
 
 record of defects of, 307, 563. 
 
 Bottom of bore, 36, 143. 
 
 Bonlengd telemeter, 192, 409-411. 
 
 Boyaux, 408, 65'Y; 409, 658. 
 
 Brass implements, preservation of, 313, 566. 
 
 Breaching earth-works, 30], JS95. 
 
 walls, 409, 659. 
 
 Breech, 34, 137. 
 
 Breech sight, 59, 207; 60, 308, 209. 
 Bridges, covered by tfetes-de-pont, 419, 668. 
 
 demolition of, 421, 669; 422, 669; 423, 669» 
 
 for disembarkations, 335, 578; 341, 579, 
 
 weight of troops on, 341, 579. 
 
 Browning of guns, 296, 557. 
 Budge-barrels, 64, 305. 
 Bufters. (See Kecoil Checks.) 
 
 hydraulic, 68, 318; 294, 555. 
 
 pneumatic, 69, 319; 135, 320; 294, 555. 
 
 Buildings, demolition of, 421, 669. 
 
 Bung-stoppers for submarine mines, 444, 683. 
 
 Buoys, 445, 685. 
 
 Bursting of shells in bore, 298, 558. 
 
 Bushing of vent, 86, 142. 
 
 Butler projectile, 49, 190. 
 
INDEX. 483 
 
 [NOTB. — ^The plain figures refer to the pages of this volume. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 •Cables, electiic, 443, 682; 445, 686; 446, 686; 447, 686. 
 
 to lead into forts, 449, 688, 689. 
 
 for bridges, 341, 579. 
 
 -Caissons, for siege-gun batteiies, 93, 255. 
 
 for siege mortars, 158, 359. 
 
 Caked gnnpowder, to test, 47, 183. 
 
 Calibre, 38, 153. 
 
 ■Calipers, 300, 560. 
 
 Camps, intrenched, 364, 601 ; 375, 614, 616; 412, 663. 
 
 Canal-boats as lighters, 336, 578. 
 
 Canals, demolition of, 423, 669. 
 
 Canister, 49, 192. 
 
 double charges, 131, 318. 
 
 ■Cannon, con-struction of, 34, 131; 36, 144; 37, 146-150; 
 38. 154. 
 
 marks on, 293, 553. 
 
 powder, 42, 180; 43, 180. 
 
 to disable, 309, 564. 
 
 Cannoneers, in lines of works, 375, 616. 
 
 posts of, 81, 230, XXII, XXIII, XXV, XXVI. 
 
 reliefs, in service, 82, 230, XXXI. 
 
 Canvas muzzle-hoods, 295. 555. 
 
 Capstan, 262, 517; 275, 535; 276, 535; 290, 549. 
 
 storage of, 313, 566. 
 
 to use a gin as, 262, 518. 
 
 Carcass, 40, 194. 
 
 Carriages, artillery, in general, 65, 215, 216; 66, 216; 67, 
 217; 68, 217, 218; 69, 219-231; 70, 221- 
 223 * 71 223 
 
 barbette,' described^ 1, 7 ; 2,8n.; 07,217; 109,276; 
 
 113, 286, 288; 119,293; 126, 306; 127, 308. 
 
 care of, 295, 555, 557. 
 
 casemate, described. 1, 7; 67, 217; 117, 290. 
 
 platforms, 71, 224. 
 
 centre-pintle, 67, 217; 120, 293. 
 
 depressing, 69, 221. 
 
 8-inch new rifled gun, 135, 320; 136,320; 137,320. 
 
 field-gun, platforms for, 74, 226. 
 
 flank-casemate, 70, 223 ; 128, 309. 
 
 front-pintle, 67, 317; 126, 306. 
 
 Gatling gun, 0.45-inch, 181, 398. 
 
 Ilotchliiss gun, 183, 400. 
 
 mortar, 1, 7; 2, 8n.; 70,222; 157,357; 158,359. 
 
484 INDEX. 
 
 [NoTB.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this -volume. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Carriages, mortar platforms, 71, 234; 75, Sat; 76, aaS; 77, 
 
 a29 ; 78, aao. 
 
 recoil checks, 41, 1'79; 117, aOO. 
 
 siege-gun, 1, ? ; 2, 8 n. ; 84, aSl. 
 
 platforms, 71, 334; 72, 335; 73, 336; 84, 
 
 331. 
 
 Cars, to load witti horses, 322, 573. 
 
 siege-guns, guns, or wagons, 324, 573. 
 
 Cartridge-bags, 47, 1S5; 154, 354; 298, 55S. 
 
 preservation in store, 312, 566. 
 
 Cartridge-pouch, 55, 305 ; 79, 330, IV. 
 Cartridges, dummy, 83, 230, XXXVH; 104, 363. 
 
 to be filled at depots, 416, 666. 
 
 to fill and prepare, 154, 354; 319, 5TO. 
 
 to insert, 80, 330, IX; 88, 340; 151, 346. 
 
 to \vithdraw, 81, 330, XVI; 91, 34'^; 117, 389; 
 
 129, 304 ; 153, 350. 
 Cascable, 35, 139. 
 Casemate guns, handled with casemate truclcs, 257, 506. 
 
 gins, 249, 496. 
 
 Casemates, iron, field, 400, 648 ; 401, 648. 
 Casemate truck, 257, 506. 
 
 to use, 257, 506 ; 258, 506. 
 
 Case-shot, 48, 189, 190; 49, 190, 191. 
 
 Cease firing, 81, 330, XVI; 90, 344; 91, 347; 117, 389; 
 
 125, 304. 
 Cliains, iron, weight and strength, 241, 484. 
 Chamber, 30, 144. 
 Charge, 36, 144; 131, 318. 
 Charging shells, 108, 3T5 ; 165, 368 ; 29S, 558. 
 
 blowing charges, 188, 404. 
 
 Chase, 35, 141. 
 
 Chassis, 67, 317. 
 
 Cheeks of carriages, 66, 216. 
 
 Chocks, 200, 416; 210, 444; 270, 533. 
 
 storage of, 313, 566. 
 
 Circuit-closers for mines, 452, 691. 
 Circumvallation, line of, 410, 661. 
 Coehorn mortar battery, 159, 359, 
 Collar, for chase, 270, 531. 
 Combination fuse. 51, 199. 
 
 Command of artillery in defenses, 346, 583; 410, 660; 411, 
 661; 411,663. 
 
INDEX. 485 
 
 [NoTB.— The plain flgnres refer to the pages of this TOlnme. The foil- 
 faced flgnres refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Commaiid of artillei-y in sieges, 346, 5S3 ; 410, 660 ; 411, 661 ; 
 
 411,663; 417, 666. 
 Commands, 8, 31; 10, 43, 43; SI, 230, XXV; 82, 330, 
 
 XXVIII. 
 
 "battery" for "company," 34, 130. 
 
 "detachments" to replace "fonrs," 34, 130. 
 
 Compressor-bars, 135, 330. 
 
 Concussion-fuse, 51, 199. 
 
 Conversion of cannon, 34, 131; 35, 132; 132, 319. 
 
 Cordage, 231, 476. 
 
 preservation of, 238, 481. 
 
 strength of, 237, 481 ; 238, 481. 
 
 Counter-hurters, 68, 31'y. 
 
 Countervallation, line of, 410, 661. 
 
 Coupling for top-carriage and chassis, 135, 330. 
 
 Courtesies, official, 463,. 708. 
 
 Cradle, 261,' 516 ; 275, 535. 
 
 storage of, 313, 566. 
 
 Cross-lifting, 203, 427. 
 
 Cubical (pellet) powder, 42, 180; 46, 181. 
 
 Cutting guns, (mechanical manoeuvres,) 204, 430. 
 
 Cylinder-gauge, 300, 560. 
 
 Cylinder-staff, 299, 560. 
 
 Dampness of powder. (See Gunpowder tests.) 
 Defense of besieged positions, 410, 660, 661. 
 
 of defiles, 417, 66 f; 418, eGV. 
 
 of river-crossings, 388, 636 ; 419, 668 ; 420, 668 ; 
 
 425, 6VO. 
 Defenses of harbors, 343, 581 ; 3SS, 636. 
 
 distances from towns, (see Submarine Mines,) 376, 6 IT. 
 
 number of troops required, 345, 583. 
 
 position of batteries, 343, 581. 
 
 strength of batteries, 355, 592; 356, 593. 
 
 submarine, 346, 584. 
 
 Defensive intrenohments. (See Field Intrenohments.) 
 
 distances from towns, 376, 611'. 
 
 Defilading fleld-works, 377, 619; 378, 619. 
 Defiles, 417, 667; 418, 667. 
 
 rivers considered as, 419, 668. 
 
 Demolition of bridges, 421, 669 ; 422, 669 ; 423, 669. 
 
 buildings, 421, 669. 
 
 canals, 423, 669. 
 
486 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this volume. The full- 
 faced flgnres refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Demolition, explosives for, 430, CVS. 
 Depots, siege, 413, 666 ; 416, 666. 
 Depression, 39, 163. 
 Derricks, described, 288, 548 ; 289, 548. 
 garrison, gin, 252, 501. 
 
 in landing heavy guns, 839, 5'!'8. 
 
 to lower iS-incli gun, 291, 550. 
 
 to raise 15-inch gun, 290, 649. 
 
 Detachments replace "fours" in commands, 34, 130. 
 
 to change posts, 27, 113. 
 
 to form at the pieces, 26, ICV ; 26, 108. 
 
 for artillery service, 5, 14-1 '7; 6, 31 ; 6, 33 ; 
 
 8, 37; 9, 38-41. 
 
 for fatigue, 9, 40. 
 
 for leaving the pieces, 26, lOt; 26, 108. 
 
 for marching drill, 9, 41. 
 
 to march to the pieces, 26, 107, l"OS. 
 
 to prepare for mechanical manoeavres, 201, 
 
 419, 430. 
 
 what, 5, 13 ; 5, 13. 
 
 Deviation, 41, ITt; 56, 306; 57, 306; 58, 306; 59, 306; 
 
 186, 403; 192, 409. 
 Directi-ix, 41, 179. 
 Disabling cannon, 309, 564. 
 Dispart, 37, 145. 
 Distances, for Coehorn mortar target, 188, 406. 
 
 for sea-coast gun targets, 180, 409. 
 
 for sea-coast mortar targets, 180, 407; 189, 408. 
 
 for siege-gun targets, 184, 403. 
 
 for siege-howitzer targets, 187, 403. 
 
 for siege-mortar targets, 187, 404 ; 188, 404. 
 
 of defensive works from towns, 376, 617. 
 
 to ascertain, 184, 403 ; 191, 409. 
 
 by telemeter, 192, 411 ; 193, 411, 413. 
 
 Ditches, 378, 630; 400, 648. 
 
 Drift, 41, 178. 
 
 Drill. (See Manoeuvres, Mechanical ; Manoeuvres, Tactical.) 
 
 Drop of projectile, table, 404, 650. 
 
 Dualine, 431, 675. 
 
 Dyer's pointing apparatus, 63, 313 ; 04, 313 ; 168, 373; 170, 
 
 378 
 Dynamite, 431, 675. 
 in demolitions, 421, 669; 431, 675. 
 
INDEX. 487 
 
 DS^OTB.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this volume. The f ull- 
 f.-iced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Earth-WOKKS, (see Field Tntrenohments,) 357, 594, 595. 
 
 penetration of, 358, 595; 359, 595: 360, 595; 362, 
 
 596; 363, 596, 59T. 
 
 revetments, 362, 596; 363, 596; 377, 618; 379, 
 
 632,623; 380,634; 381,635,626; 382,627, 
 628; 383. 629. 
 
 thiclsness, 362, 596. 
 
 ■ to breach, 360, 595; 361, 595. 
 
 Eceentrie i-ollers, 136, S20. 
 
 Effect of projectiles, strilnng, 352, 590; 353, 590. 
 
 how to be observed, 185, 402. 
 
 Electrical submarine mines, 425, 671 ; 426, 6f 1. 
 
 testing-rooms, 449, 689 ; 456, 693. 
 
 Electric batteries, 450, 689. 
 
 cables, 443, 682; 445, 686; 446, 686; 447, 686. 
 
 to lead into forts, 449, 688, 689. 
 
 fuses, 440, 680. 
 primers, 51, 201. 
 
 in demolitions, 421, 669. 
 
 Elevating-arc, 60, 308 ; 60, 309 ; 138, 330. 
 Elevating-bar, 56, 305; 66, 216. 
 Elevating-screw, 67, 216; 294, 555. 
 Elevation, 39, 162; 82, 230, XXXUI, XXXTV. 
 
 of batteries, 377, 585. 
 
 Embarkation of artillery, 321, Si'Vl. 
 
 horses, 328, 573; 329, 574; 333, 576. 
 
 of unsuccessful expeditions, 340, 579. 
 
 Embrasure batteries, 385, 634. 
 Energy of projectiles, 39, 167. 
 Engineers, functions in besieging positions, 411, 661; 411, 
 
 663. 
 Entanglements, 397, 644. 
 
 to clear away, 406, 654. 
 
 Epaulments, 376, 618. 
 
 Equipments, 53, 203. 
 
 ' for officers, 413, 664. 
 
 ^-^— preservation of, 313, 566. 
 Explosion, 41, ISO. 
 
 Explosives, (see Dualine ; Dynamite ; Gun-cotton ; Gunpovrder; 
 Lithofracteur ; Nitro-glycerine,)41, 180; 430,675. 
 
 Fascines for revetments, 380, 624. 
 Feeding horses at sea, 328, 573. 
 
488 INDEX 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this TOlnme. The full' 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Field-glass for each siege gun, 95, 25'?'. 
 Field-gun platforms, 74, 226. 
 Field intrenchments, 357, S94. 
 attack and defense, 403, 649. 
 
 bastioned works. 309, 611 ; 370, 611 ; 371, 611. 
 
 batteries, barbette, 384, 632. 
 
 embrasure, 385, 634; 396, 641. 
 
 pan-<!onp6e, 384, 633. 
 
 besieging, 407, 656. 
 
 block-houses, 400, 648. 
 
 bomb-proofs, 394, 639. 
 
 camps, to lay out, 364, 601 ; 375, 616. 
 
 clas.sified, 396, 642. 
 
 defiles, 417, 66 1"; 418, 66 T. 
 
 detached works, to lay out, 36G, 603, 605 ; 367, 606- 
 
 60S; 368, 61 0. 
 
 ditches, 378, 620. 
 
 entanglements, 397, 644. 
 
 fascine i-evetments, 380, 624. 
 
 garrisons for, 367, 609; 368, 609; 370, 611; 374, 
 
 614. 
 
 gun batteries, location of, 364, 600 ; 388, 635. 
 
 ■ guns and mortars for, 371, 612. 
 
 interior arrangement, 384, 630. 
 
 lines of battle, to lay out, 364, 602 ; 872, 613. 
 
 lines of works to lay out, 372, 613; 373, 613; 374, 
 
 613, 614; 37.5, 614, 615. 
 
 raagazines, service, 392, 637'. 
 
 storage, 390, 63'*. 
 
 mortars in, 397, 643. 
 
 . parapets, ditches of, 378, 620. 
 
 form of, 376, 618 ; 377, 618, 619 ; 378, 619. 
 
 penetration of, 358, 595 ; 359, 595 ; 360, 595 ; 
 
 362, 596; 363, 596, 59'?. 
 
 slopes of, (tables,) 377, 619 ; 378, 619 ; 379, 
 
 621. 
 
 thickness of, 362, 596; 378, 619. 
 
 platforms for batteries, 387, 635 ; 388, 636 ; 397, 
 
 643. 
 profiling, 379, 621. 
 
 revetments, 362, 596; 363, 596; 377, 618; 379, 
 
 622, 623 ; 380, 624 ; 381, 625 ; 381, 626 ; 382, 
 62'r, 628; 38.3, 629. 
 
INDEX. 489 
 
 [Note.— The plain fignres refer to the pages of this Toltime. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Field intrenohments, river-crossings, attacking, 420, 66S. 
 defending, 419, 668. 
 
 sea-coast, 388, 636. 
 
 splinter-proofs, 393, 63'S'. 
 
 to breach, 361, 595 ; 379, 621. 
 
 tracing, 379, 621. 
 
 traverees, 376, 618 ; 388, 635 ; 393, 638 ; 394, 638. 
 
 Fire, armor against, 347, 586. 
 
 curved or vertical, 38, 156; 356, 593. 
 
 direct or horizontal, 38, 155; 347, 585. 
 
 earth-works, to bi'each, 361, 595. 
 
 kinds, during attack, 406, 654. 
 
 magazines, to destro.y, 360, 595. 
 
 night repairs, to prevent, 361, 595. 
 
 plunging, 39, 159. 
 
 rapidity of, 127, SOS. 
 
 ricochet, 38, 15T; 347, 585; 350, 58'y. 
 
 rolling, 38, 158. 
 
 to, 80, 230, XrU; 90, 243, 244; 91, 24T; 115, 
 
 286 ; 125, 301 ; 153, 348. 
 
 vessels, moving, 350, 588 ; 355, 592. 
 
 Fire-ball, 50, 195. 
 
 Fire-works, storage of, 317, 569; 318, 569. 
 
 Firing at night, 356, 592. 
 
 mines, 450, 690 ; 451, 690 ; 452, 690 ; 453, 690. 
 
 reports of, during sieges, 416, 666. 
 
 rules for target, 183, 401. 
 
 salutes, 460, 698. 
 
 Flag at half-staff, 466, T13. 
 
 never dipped at posts, 466, 'i'12. 
 
 Forces acting on projectile, 57, 206. 
 
 Formula, cordage, to find strength of, 238, 481. 
 
 guys, to find strain, 474, App. 
 
 lighters, to find capacity, 341, 579. 
 
 parapet, to find number of men for, 345, 582; 367, 
 
 609; 368, 609; 370, 611. 
 
 powder, to find charge for bridge demolitions, 421, 669. 
 
 projectile, to compute energy, '39, 16T. 
 
 to compute number in piles, 312, 565. 
 
 to find weight of, 478, App. 
 
 ranges, to find elevation, 61, 210. 
 
 to find for mortars, 154, 354. 
 
 shears, to find strength of, 473, App. 
 
490 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this Tolume. The full- 
 faced flgnres refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Forts, bastioned, 369, 6H; 370, 611 ; 371, 611. 
 
 command of artillery in, 346, 5S3. 
 
 complements of men for, 345, 582 ; 367, 60T ; 368, 
 
 eOl; 370,611; 374,614. 
 
 —^ distances from towns, 376, 617. 
 
 submarine defenses, 346, 5S4. 
 
 Forward, defined, 201, 4,19. 
 
 Fi-ietion against bore, influencing projectile, 58, 206. 
 
 Friction-bars, 69, 320. 
 
 Friction-primers, 51, 200. 
 
 preservation of, 313, 566. 
 
 Front sight, 59, 20T ; 60, 208 ; 60, 209. 
 
 Fulminate of mercury, 433, 6'J'5. 
 
 Funeral honors, 466, TIS. 
 
 Fuse-block, 55, 305. 
 
 Fuse-gauge, 55, 205. 
 
 Fuse-liole in elongated shells, 49, 190. 
 
 in spherical shells, 48, 188. 
 
 Fuse-knife, 55, 205. 
 Fuse-plug extractor, 55, 205. 
 Fuse-plugs, 110, 21"y. 
 Fuse-reamers, 55, 205. 
 Fuses, 50, 196. 
 
 blasting, 422, 669. 
 
 combination, 51, 199. 
 
 concussion, 51, 199. 
 
 • electric, 440, 6SO. 
 
 ignition, to secure in mortar, 165, 368. 
 
 mortar fuse-plugs, 51, 19T; 165, 368. 
 
 paper time, 51, 19'7. 
 
 percussion, 51, 198. 
 
 position in mine charges, 441, 681. 
 
 preservation of, 313, 566. 
 
 sulphuric acid, 439, 6T9. 
 
 time, 50, 19'V. , 
 
 water-cap fuse-plug, 50, 197. 
 
 Fuse-setter, 54, -205. 
 Fuse-wrench, 55, 205. 
 
 Gabion revetments, 381, 626 ; 386, 634 ; 393, 63S. 
 
 Gabions, 382, 626. 
 
 Garrison gin-derrick, (narrow,) 252, 501. 
 
 Garrison trucks, painting and storage, 314, 566. 
 
INDEX. 491 
 
 [NOTS. — ^Tbe plain flgnres refer to the pages of tUs TOlnme. The fnll- 
 faced flgnres refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Gatling guns. (See Guns, Gatling.) 
 
 against assaults, 410. 660. 
 
 for block-houses, 400, 648. 
 
 not substitutes for artillery, 371, 613. 
 
 Gauging bores, 297, 558. 
 
 (Jeneral rules for service of piece, 79, 230 ; 86, 234-236 ; 
 87, 238, 239. 
 
 for target practice, 183, 401. 
 
 for traversing in aiming, 81, 230, XXIV; 145, 340. 
 
 Gins as capstans, 262, 518. 
 
 as shears, 252, 500. 
 
 described, 243. 485. 
 
 dimensions, weights, &c., 253, 499. 
 
 garrison and casemate, 248, 495 ; 249, 495. 
 
 painting and storage, 313, 566 ; 314, 566. 
 
 Piper's, 247, 494. 
 
 ropes for, 244, 489. 
 
 to lower, 244, 48S. 
 
 to move, 244, 488. 
 
 to put together, 243, 488. 
 
 to raise; 243, 488. 
 
 to siiift the fall, 247, 493. 
 
 with barbette guns, 250, 491'. 
 
 with casemate guns, 249, 496. 
 
 with siege guns, 245, 490. 
 
 with siege mortare, 246, 492. 
 
 Grape-shot, 49, 193. 
 Grommet, 234, 479. 
 Gun-cotton, 432, 6'75. 
 Gun-lift, described, 279, 539. 
 
 storage, 314, 566. 
 
 to assemble and i-aise, 281, 540. 
 
 to mount 15-inch gun, 282, 541. 
 
 to raise a weight, 281, 540. 
 
 Gunner's level, 53, 205; 105, 263: 129, 310; 160, 344: 
 
 161, 362. 
 Gunner's pouch, 55, 205 ; 78, 230, IV. 
 Gunner's quadrant, 53, 204. 
 Gunpowder, barrels, marks, 44, 180. 
 
 sampling, 46, 182. 
 
 to open, 319, 570. 
 
 caked, to break, 319, 5 TO. 
 
 cartridges, b.igs, 47, 185. 
 
492 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this Tolame. The foil- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Gunpowder, cartrido^es, to weigh or measure charges, 188, 404. 
 
 charges to destroy vessels, 430, 674:. 
 
 demolition by, 421, 669. 
 
 grain, size of, 42, ISO; 43, ISO. 
 
 granulation Irregular, (cannon, mammoth, musket,) 42, 
 
 180; 46, 181. 
 
 regular, (cubical and molded,) hexagonal, 42, 
 
 ISO; 45, ISl. 
 
 pellet, 42, ISO; 40, 181. 
 
 prismatic, 42, ISO; 46, 181. 
 
 hardness, 43, ISO. 
 
 incorporation, 44, ISO. 
 
 —^ initial velocity, 43, ISO. 
 
 • inspection, 44, ISO. 
 
 materials, 42, ISO. 
 
 moisture tests, 43, ISO. 
 
 naval classification, 46, 181. 
 
 ■— presei-vation, 316, 569. 
 
 pressure, 47, 184; 147, 341. 
 
 pressure-plug, 197, 413. 
 
 qualities, 42, ISO. 
 
 special, 44, 181; 45, 181. 
 
 specific gravity, 43. 1 SO. 
 
 storage, 317, 569; 318, 569; 390, 63t. 
 
 strain on guns, 43, ISO. 
 
 tests, flashing, 47, 183. 
 
 of moisture, 43, ISO. 
 
 sampling, 46, 182. 
 
 transportation, 318, 569. 
 
 Guns, ammunition for, 316, 568; 390, 63?; 410, 660: 411, 
 662; 413, 666; 416, 666. 
 
 designation of, in batteries, 82, 230, XXVIII. 
 
 for field-works, 371, 612. 
 
 location of, 388, 635. 
 
 space lor, 368, 609. 
 
 Gatling, 0.45-inch, description, 170, S'V9; 177, 390. 
 
 ^ carriage, 181, 398. 
 
 nomenclature, 180, 398. 
 
 — ■ precautions, 179, 397. 
 
 service, 177, 391. 
 
 to assemble, 181, 400. 
 
 to take apart, 181, 399. 
 
 1-inch, description, 170, 379; 171, 379. 
 
INDEX. 493 
 
 [NoTB.— The plain fl;n>^es refer to the pages of this voliune. The full- 
 faced flgures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Guns, Gatling, 1-inch, nomenclature, 175, 386. 
 
 service, 171, 380. 
 
 storage, 314, 566. 
 
 to assemble, 176, 389. 
 
 to take apart, 176. 388. 
 
 Hotchkiss, revolving, description, 182, 400. 
 
 suitable for block-houses, 400, 468. 
 
 in attack of positions, 403, 649 ; 4U4, 650. 
 
 injuries of, 132, 319; 297, 558. 
 
 inspection of, 299, 559. 
 
 location in field-works, 388, 635. 
 
 marks on, 293, 553. 
 
 on skids, 293, 555. 
 
 Parrott. (See below.) 
 
 quantity in sieges, 411, 662. 
 
 rifles best against armor, 334, 5SO. 
 
 selection of, for besieging batteries, 408, 657. 
 
 siege, care of, 295, 55T. 
 
 space for, in field-works, 388, 635. 
 
 to brown, 296, 557. 
 
 to disable, 309, 564. 
 
 to load on cars, 324, 572. 
 
 •what, 36, 144; 37, 146; 38, 154. 
 
 Guns of U. S. system, 4.o-inch rifle, described, 2, 8; 83, 231. 
 
 carriages, 83, 231 ; 84, 231. 
 
 dismount carriage and limber, 222, 459. 
 
 from mortar-wagon, 214, 450. 
 
 the gun, 212, 448. 
 
 with tlie gin, 246, 491. 
 
 witli sling-cait, 254, 503. 
 
 firing to traveling bed, 208, 441. 
 
 forward or backward, 206, 435. 
 
 mechanical manoeuvres, 204, 431. 
 
 mount on mortar-wagon, 214, 450. 
 
 the gun, 210, 447. 
 
 with the gin, 245, 490. 
 
 prepare for action, 210, 446. 
 
 for traveling, 210, 445. 
 
 ranges, 84, 231. 
 
 remove short roller from under the body, 208, 
 
 439. 
 the chase, 207, 437. 
 
 service of, 83, 231. 
 
494 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to tlie pages of this Tolnme. The full- 
 faced flgoreB refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Guns of U. S. system, 4.5-inch rifle, shifb carriages, 213, 449. 
 
 — — from carriage to mortar-wagon, 216, 
 
 453. 
 
 from mortar-wagon to carriage, 217, 
 
 453. 
 
 short roller nnder body, 207, 438. 
 
 under cliase, 207, 436. 
 
 side-lift carriages, 209, 443. 
 
 to limber, 204, 433. 
 
 to unlimber, 205, 434. 
 
 traveling to firing bed, 208, 440. 
 
 10-inch rifled, 2, 8. 
 
 12-inch rifled, 2, 8. 
 
 13-inch smooth-bore, 2, 8 ; 2, 8 n. 
 
 15-incIi smooth-bore, 2, 8; 2, 8n.; 119, 293; 126, 
 
 306. 
 
 carriages, 119, 393 ; 126, 306 ; 127, 308. 
 
 dismount by blocks, 273, 534. 
 
 the gun. 274, 535 ; 27.5, 535 ; 276, 
 
 535. 
 —^ lower with derriclv, 291, 550. 
 
 mount with gun-lift, 282, 541. 
 
 other methods mounting and dismounting, 278, 
 
 53t; 282,541. 
 
 ranges, 119, 293 ; 126, 306. 
 
 raise with derrick, 290, 549. 
 
 remove chassis, 277, 536. 
 
 replace chassis, 277, 536. 
 
 service of, 120, 294 ; 12G, 307. 
 
 20-lnch smooth-bore, 2, 8 ; 2, 8 n. 
 
 Ouns not of U. S. system, but in service, 4.2-inch (30 pdr.) P«r- 
 
 rott, 2, 8. 
 6.4riQch aOO pdr. ) Parrott, 2, 8 ; 115, 288. 
 
 ranges, 116, 288. 
 
 service of, 115, 288. 
 
 8-inch (200 pdr.) Parrott, 2, 8 ; 115, 288. 
 
 service of, 115, 288. 
 
 8-inch rifled, 2, 8; 132, 319. 
 
 carriages, 134, 319 ; 135 n. ; 135, 320; 137, 
 
 320. 
 
 indications of in3Hr3', 132, 319. 
 
 ranges, 133, 319; 134, 319. 
 
 service of, carriage 1, 137, 321. 
 
I\DEX. 49& 
 
 [NOTB.— The plain flgnres refer to the pages of this yolume. The full- 
 faced flgores refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Quns not of U. S. system, but in service, 8-inoh rifled, service of,, 
 carriage 2, 141, 331. 
 
 carriage 3, 142, 332. 
 
 carriage 4, 144, 338. 
 
 8-incli smooth-bore, 2, S. 
 
 10-incli smooth-bore, 2, 8 ; 108, 276. 
 
 barbette carriage, 109, 2'76. 
 
 ranges, 109, 276. 
 
 service of, 109, 277. 
 
 to dismount, 282, 542 ; 283, 543 ; 284, 544. 
 
 (300 pdr.) Parrott, 2, 8 ; 115, 288. 
 
 service of, 115. 288. 
 
 Gun-shields, 400, 648; 408, 657. 
 
 Guys, formula to compute strains on, 474, App. 
 
 Hammee-WEENCH, 200. 416; 210, 444. 
 Hammocks, horse, 332, 576; 334, 577. 
 Hand-barrows, 260, 512. 
 Hand-carts, 259, 507. 
 
 painting and storage, 314, 566. 
 
 Handspikes, 56, 205; 86, 235, 236; 93, 256; 200, 417^ 
 
 201, 41 7. 
 Harbors, defenses of, (see Submarine Mines,) 343, 580; 388, 
 636 ; 389, 636. 
 
 arrangement of mines, 428, 673. 
 
 lighting, 456, 692. 
 
 position of mines, 427, 672. 
 
 strength of batteries, 355, 592 ; 356, 593. 
 
 submarine mines, 346, 584; 425, 671 ; 426, 671 
 
 table of surface currents, 458, 694. 
 
 Harness, care of, 101, 258. 
 
 for siege-gun batteries, 93, 255 ; 101, 258. 
 
 Hitches, 234, 480 ; 235, 480. 
 Holdfasts, 263, 519; 263, 521; 204, 521. 
 Horse batteries, 101, 259. 
 Horses, capabilities of, 476, App. 
 
 care of, at sea, 101, 258. 
 
 disembarkations, 338, 578. 
 
 embarkations, 328, 573; 329, 574; 333, 676. 
 
 feeding, at sea, 328, 573. 
 
 for batteries in lines of works, 375, 616. 
 
 for siege-gun batteries, 94, 256 ; 413, 665. 
 
 hammocks for, at sea, 332, 576 ; 334, 577. 
 
496 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to tlie pages of this voiame. The full 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs] 
 
 Horses, medicines for, siege-gun batteries, 101, 359. 
 
 transportation of, by rail, 322, 572. 
 
 by sea, 327, 5T3 ; 830, 575. 
 
 Hotclikiss. (See Guns, Hotchkiss.) 
 noNvitzcri5, 5.8-incli, 2, 8 ; 128, S09. 
 
 carriage, 128, 309. 
 
 — — tlismouut carriage, 271, 533. 
 
 howitzer, 271, 533. 
 
 mount carriage, 273, 533. 
 
 —. howitzer, 272, 533. 
 
 ranges, 128, 309; 131, 318. 
 
 8-inch, (siege,) 2, 8; 102, 261. 
 at sliort ranges, 404, 650. 
 
 defined, 36, 144; 37, 14'^. 
 
 doubly cliarged to repel assaults, 131, 318. 
 
 mechanical manoeuvres, 208, 439. 
 
 ranges, 103,. 261 ; 222, 458. 
 
 service of, 102, 261. 
 
 shells, to charge, 108, 2'J'5. 
 
 target practice, 187, 403. 
 
 to dismount, 218, 455. 
 
 as a mortar, 221, 458. 
 
 carriage and limber, 222, 459. 
 
 to mount, 219, 456. 
 
 as a mortar, 220, 457. 
 
 to stand on its muzzle, 218, 454. 
 uses in ricochet firing, 65, 214. 
 
 Hurters, 68, 217. 
 Hydraulic buffers, 69, 219; 135, 320. 
 jacks. (See Jacks.) 
 
 Ice as bridges, 342, 579. 
 
 Impact, effect of obliquity, 348, 586. 
 
 phenomena, 352, 590. 
 
 to record centre of, 185, 402 ; 186, 402. 
 
 Implements, 53, 203 ; 199, 416 ; 200, 416, 417; 201, 41T- 
 419. 
 
 care of, 295, 555 ; 312, 566. 
 
 to replace, 92, 250; 81, 230, XXII. 
 
 to take to and from the battery, 79, 230, I; 81, 330, 
 
 XXH; 201,419. 
 Impressions of the bore, 303, 562. 
 Infantry, cooperation in attack of positions, 405, 653. 
 
INDEX. 497 
 
 [Note. — ^The plain figures refer to the pages of this voliime. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Infantry, cooperation in tlefending defiles, 418, 667. 
 
 in constructing lines of works, 373, 613. 
 
 in harbor defenses, 345, 5S2. 
 
 Injuries of guns, 297, 558. 
 
 of vents, 307, 563. 
 
 Inspections, by impressions of bores, 303, 562. 
 
 instruments for, 299, 559. 
 
 of guns, 299, 559. 
 
 of injuries, 297, 558. 
 
 of projectiles, 311, 565 ; 312, 565. 
 
 of vents, 307, 563. 
 
 to be made after target firing, 185, 403. 
 
 to record defects, 307, 563. 
 
 Instruments for Inspections, 299, 559. 
 Interpolator, Paddoclc's, 149, 343. 
 Intx-enched camps, 364, 601. 
 
 lines of battle, 365, 603. 
 
 Intrenching tools, 413, 664. 
 
 Intrenchments, (see Field Inti-encliments,) 403, 649. 
 
 Iron balls, weights, 477, App. 
 
 Iron-clads, chai-ges to destroy, by mines, 430, 674. 
 
 extreme ranges of, 376, 617. 
 
 in defense of river passages, 420, 668. 
 
 mortar fire against, 356, 593. 
 
 rate of movement, 355, 592. 
 
 submarine mines against, 425, 670; 426, 671; 427, 
 
 672; 428, 673; 429, 674. 
 
 vital points, 351, 589. 
 
 Iron implen^ents, preservation of, 313, 566. 
 Iron, round, cast, weights of, 478, App. 
 Iron, strength of, 477, App. 
 
 Jacks, hydraulic, 264, 522; 265, 522; 267, 523; 269. 527. 
 
 lever, 260, 511. 
 
 lifting, 259, 510. 
 
 to lift, 268, 525. 
 
 to lower, 268, 526. 
 
 pulling, 207, 522. 
 
 to fill, 267. 524. 
 
 to use, 269, 527. 
 
 storage of, 314, 566. 
 valves, 266, 522; 267, 522. 
 weiglits .and dimensions of, 209, 527. 
 
498 INDEX. 
 
 [NOTB.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this volmne. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Kino gun-carriage, 70, 321. 
 Knots and splices, 231, 476. 
 
 Lacqueb for guns, 296, 55T. 
 
 for projectiles, 311, 565; 312, 565. 
 
 annually required, 315, 567. 
 
 Ladle, 54, 305 ; 115, 386. 
 
 Landing sea expeditions, 339, 5 TO. 
 
 Lanyard, 55, 305; 90, 343, 344. 
 
 Launching guns, 203, 430. 
 
 Leather equipments, preservation of, 313, 566. 
 
 Le Clanchfi electric battery, 450; 6S9. 
 
 Level, gunner's, '53, 305 ; 105, 363; 129, 310; 150, 344;. 
 
 161, 363. 
 Leverage of limbers, 202, 435. 
 Life of a piece, 38, 1 54. 
 Lifting, (mechanical maucBuvres,) 202, 424. 
 
 — projectiles, 115, 386; 115, 287; 145, 340; 165^ 
 
 368. 
 Lighters in disembarkations, 336, 578. 
 
 to find capacity, 341, 579. 
 
 Line of Are, 40, 172. 
 
 Line of metal, 40, 168; 59, 207; 60, 309; 154, 354. 
 
 Line of sight, artificial, 40, 170. 
 
 natural, 40, 169. 
 
 Lines of works, 372, 613 ; 373, 613 ; 374, 613. 
 
 to man, 374, 614; 375, 614. 
 
 Lithofracteur, 4^31, 675. 
 
 Load, to withdraw. (See Unload.) 
 
 Loading guns, &o., 81, 330, XVI-XXI; 80, 230, VI-X; 82^ 
 
 330, XXXIV; 88, 340; 91, 348; 92, 353- 
 
 354; 94,256. 
 Loading-bar, Piper's, 165, 368. 
 Loading cars, with guns, 324, 573. 
 with horses, 322, 573. 
 
 with siege guns, 324, 573. 
 
 with wagons, 324, 573. 
 
 Loading for drill, 83, 230, XXXVII; 117, 289 ; 154, 354; 
 
 164, 367. 
 Location of batteries, 364, 600. 
 Log revetmeni's, 380, 633. 
 Lorain's trunnion sights, 62, 311 ; 168, 373. 
 
INDEX. 499 
 
 [NOTB.— The plain flgnres refer to the pages d this TOlnme. The f nU- 
 faced flgnres refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Magazines, care of, 317, 569 ; 318, 569. 
 classified, 316, 569; 389, 63 1. 
 
 marked, 317, 569. 
 
 of earth-works, to destroy, 360, 595. 
 
 records, 317, 569. 
 
 service, 392, 63'^. 
 
 storage, 390, 637. 
 
 Mammoth powder, 42, ISO; 43, ISO; 46, 181. 
 Manoeuvres, mechanical, garrison and casemate gins, 248, 495 ; 
 249, 495. 
 
 with barbette guns, 250, 49 V. 
 
 with casemate guns, 249, 496. 
 
 garrison gin-derrioks, 252, 501. 
 
 gins, 242, 485. 
 
 with siege guns, 245, 490. 
 
 ^dth siege mortars, 246, 492. 
 
 barbette guns, 15-inch, to dismount by blocks, 
 
 273, 534. 
 
 to dismount by other methods, 
 
 278, 537. 
 to dismount the gun, 274, 
 
 535; 275, 535; 276, 
 
 535. 
 to lower with derrick, 291, 
 
 550. 
 to mount by other methods, 
 
 278,537; 282, 541. 
 to mount with gun-lift, 282, 
 
 541. 
 to raise with derrick, 290, 
 
 549. 
 to remove chassis, 277, 536. 
 
 to replace chassis, 277, 536. 
 
 casemate guns, 10-inch, to dismount with blocks, 
 
 282, 543 ; 283, 543. 
 
 precautions, 284, 544. 
 
 siege guns, 204, 431. 
 
 ■ forward and backward, 206, 435. 
 
 ' to dismount carriage, 222, 459. 
 
 . —— from mortar-wagon, 210,451. 
 
 . the gun, 212, 448. 
 
 , with the gin, 245, 
 
 490. 
 
500 INDEX. 
 
 [Note. — The plain flgnres refer to the pages of this volume. The fall 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Manoeuvres, mechanical, siege gnus, to dismount tiie gun witli 
 
 tlie sling -cart, 254, 503. 
 to limber, 204, 431. 
 
 to mount on mortar-wagon, 214, 450. 
 
 the gun, 210, 44'?. 
 
 with the gin, 245, 
 
 490. 
 '■ — — : to prepare for action, 210, 446. 
 
 for traveling, 210, 445. 
 
 to put short roller under body, 207. 
 
 438. 
 
 under chase, 207, 436. 
 
 to remove short roller from under body, 
 
 208, 439. 
 
 from under chase, 207, 4ST 
 
 to sliift ciirriages, 213, 449. 
 
 from carriage to mortar-wag- 
 on, 216, 452. 
 
 from firing to traveling bed, 
 
 208, 441 
 from mortar-wagon to carri- 
 
 age, 217, 453. 
 from traveling to firing bed, 
 
 208, 440. 
 
 to side-lift the carriage, 209, 443. 
 
 to unlimbei-, 205, 434. 
 
 flank-casemate howitzers, to dismount carriage, 
 271, 533. 
 the howitzer, 271, 533. 
 
 to mount the carriage, 273, 533. 
 the howitzer, 272, 533. 
 
 siege howitzer, to dismount, 221, 45-8. 
 
 —• carrlageand limber, 222, 459. 
 
 the howitzer, 218, 455. 
 
 to mount as mortar, 220, 45 '7. 
 
 the howitzer, 219, 456. 
 
 to stand on muzzle, 218, 454. 
 with sling-cart, 254, 503. 
 
 8-inch siege mortar, 228, 4^8. 
 
 10-inch siege mortar, to dismount, 224, 464. 
 
 from wagon, 227, 468. 
 
 to mount, 225, 465. 
 
 on mortar-wagon, 225, 466. 
 
INDEX. 501 
 
 [Note. — The plain figures refer to the pages of this volume. The full- 
 (aced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Manoeuvres, mechanical, 10-inch siege mortar, to sling and hoist 
 with the gin, 246, 492. 
 
 to slue, 224, 463. 
 
 to stand on muzzle, 223, 463. 
 
 to stand on one trunnion, 223, 460. 
 
 with sling-cart, 254, 503. 
 
 13-inoh mortar, to dismount, 228, 469 ; 229, 
 
 470. 
 to place, with carriage on rollers, 229, 
 471. 
 
 to raise and place on blocks, 229, 472. 
 
 to shift from carriage to truck-wagon, 
 
 279, 538. 
 
 to transport on sling-cart, 280, 473. 
 
 sling-cart, with siege gun, howitzer, or mortar, 
 
 254, 503. 
 
 ■ definition, 199, 414. 
 detachments for, 199, 415. 
 duties of chief-of-detachment, 202, 422. 
 
 — of detachment, 202, 423. 
 
 of gunner, 202, 423. 
 
 . of instructor, 201, 421 ; 231, 475. 
 
 ■ handspikes, and their uses, 200, 417; 201, 
 417. 
 
 implements, machines, &c., 199, 416 ; 200, 
 416; 230, 474; 241, 484. 
 leverage by limbers, 202, 425. 
 
 to cross-lift, 203, 427. 
 
 to cut a piece, 204, 430. 
 
 to launch a piece, 208, 430. 
 
 ■ to lift, 202, 424. 
 
 to parbuckle, 202, 426. 
 
 topinch, 203, 429. 
 
 to prepare for, 201, 419; 201, 420; 231, 
 
 475. 
 
 tactical, alignments, 11, 53. 
 
 by battalion, 28, 116. 
 
 to change posts, 27, 1 12. 
 
 to double rank, 25, 104, 105. 
 
 to single rank, 24, lOl, 103. 
 
 to close ranks, 11, 52. 
 
 to dismiss, 12, 55. 
 
 -■ — to halt the line, 12, 57. 
 
502 INDEX. 
 
 [NOTB.— The plain flgnres refer to the pages of this volume. The full- 
 faced flgnres refer to paragraplis.] 
 
 Manoeuvres, tactical, to leave the pieces, 27, 113; 28, 114, 
 115. 
 
 to march by detachments, 18, 80 ; 19, 8 1-S6 ; 
 
 20, St, 88; 22, 93-96; 23, 97. 
 , by platoons, 14, 66, 67; 15, 68, 69, 
 
 16, 73; 17, 75-79. 
 
 by the flank, 14, 64, 65. 
 
 detachments into line, 20, 89; 21, 
 
 90-92. 
 
 ill columns of flies, 14, 64; 16, 73; 
 
 17, 74; 23, 99; 24, lOO. 
 
 inline, 12, 56; 23, 98. 
 
 ill route step, 23, lOO. 
 
 obliquely, 12, 58 ; 14, 65 ; 22, 96. 
 
 platoons into line, 15, 70 ; 16, 71, 78. 
 
 to the pieces. 25, 106; 26, 107. 
 
 to the rear, 23, 98. 
 
 to open ranks, 10, 49. 
 
 to rest, 12, 54; 27, llO. . 
 
 to resume the exercise, 27, 111. 
 
 to take posts at pieces, 26, 108. 
 
 to wheel, 13, 69-63. 
 
 Material, artillery, annual supply to preserve, 315, 567. 
 
 care and preservation of, 293, 551 ; 294, 555 ; 
 
 312, 566. 
 
 of projectiles, 310, 565. 
 
 required during sieges, 412, 664 ; 413, 664. 
 
 store-houses for, 312, 566. 
 
 Mechanical submarine mines, 425, 671 ; 426, 671. 
 
 Mensuration, 474, 475, App. 
 
 Metrical equivalents, 469, App. 
 
 Metric tables, 467, 468, 469, App. 
 
 Mines, (see Submarine Mines,) 425, 671 ; 426, 671. 
 
 Mortar fuse-plug, 51, 197. 
 
 Mortar platforms, 71, 224 ; 75, 227 ; 76, 228 : 77, 229 ; 78, 
 
 229; 155, 355; 158, 357; 159, 360; 188, 404. 
 Mortar powder, 42, ISO; 43, 180; 154, 354. 
 Mortars, 36, 144 ; 37, 148. 
 
 against iron-clads, 356, 593. 
 
 batteries of, 397, 643 ; 408, 656. 
 
 on skids, 295, 555. 
 
 penetration of shells, 363, 597. 
 
 positions in fleld-vvorks, 371, 612 ; 388, 635. 
 
INDEX. 503 
 
 [NoTii.— The plain flgnres refer to the pages of this Toltime, The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Mortars, target practice, 188, 406 ; 189, 40*5'. 
 
 to aim, 63, 313, 313; 64, 313; 148, 343, 343; 
 
 149, 343 ; 163, 365 ; 167, 3'?'3 ; 170, 3t8. 
 
 to prevent night repairs, 361, 595. 
 
 to select sliells for, 188, 404. 
 
 uses in ricooliet firing, 65, 314. 
 
 weighing powder cliarges, 154, 354; 188, 404. 
 
 5.8-inoh Coehorn, 2, S ; 157, 35 T. 
 
 carriage, 157. 357'; 158, 359. 
 
 ranges, 157, 357. 
 
 8-lnch siege, 2, 8 ; 155, 355. 
 
 ; — ranges, 155, 355. 
 
 ^—— '— target practice, 188, 405. 
 
 to manoeuvre, 228, 46S. 
 
 to sling and hoist, with gin, 246, 493. 
 
 with Bling-cart, 254, 503. 
 
 10-inoh sea-coast, 2, 8 ; 165, 369. 
 
 carriage, 165, 369. 
 
 ranges, 166, 369. 
 
 service, 166, 369. 
 
 target practice, 187, 404. 
 
 10-inch siege, 2, 8 ; 145, 341 ; 146, 341. 
 
 bed or wagon, 146, 341. 
 
 ranges, 146, 341 ;'154, 354. 
 
 service, 147, 343. 
 
 to dismount, 224, 464. 
 
 from wagon, 227, 468. 
 
 to mount, 225, 465. 
 
 on mortar-wagon, 225, 466. 
 
 to sling and hoist, with gin, 246, 493. 
 
 • to slue, 224, 463. 
 
 ' to stand on muzzle, 223, 463. 
 
 i — on one trunnion, 223, 460. 
 
 ' with sling-cart, 254, 503. 
 
 13-inch, 2, 8; 159, 360; 167, 3TO. 
 
 carriage, 159, 36© ; 167, 3tO. 
 
 ranges, 159, 360. 
 
 service, 160, 361 ; 167, 3tl. 
 
 to dismount, 228, 469 ; 229, 4tO. 
 
 to mount, 228, 469 ; 229, 4'yO. 
 
 to place on rollers, 229, 4'3'1. 
 
 — ' to raise and place on blocks, 229, 473. 
 
 — ' to shif tlrom carriage to truck-wagon, 279, 538. 
 
504 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain flgnres refer to the pages ol this rolnme. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Mortars, 13-inch, to transport, on sling-cart, 230, ATS. 
 Mortar-wagons, 261, 515. 
 
 Motion of projectiles, 56, 206 ; 57, 206 ; 68, 206 ; 59, 206. 
 Mounting siege-gun batteries, 101, 258. 
 Musliet ball, penetration of, 363, 59S. 
 Musket powder. 42, ISO. 
 Muzzle, 35, 133. 
 canvas hoods, 295, 555. 
 
 Naval classification of gunpowders, 46, 181. 
 Night firing, 356, 592 ; 407, 654. 
 Nitroglycerine, 431, 675. 
 
 ObstbttCTIONS to channels, 343, 581. 
 
 Official courtesies, 463, 708. 
 
 Oils, painting, required annually, 315, 567. 
 
 . storage, 314, 566. 
 
 volatile, storage of, 314, 566. 
 
 Ordnance sergeants, 294, 554; 317, 569. 
 Organization of siege-gun batteries, 92, 255. 
 
 Paddock's interpolator, 149, 343. 
 Paint, annual supply, 315, 567. 
 
 brushes, storage, 3f4, 566. 
 
 for siege guns, 101, 258; 295, 557. 
 
 storage, 314, 566. 
 
 Pan-coup€e, 384, 633. 
 Paper time-fuse, 51, 197. 
 
 Parallels, siege, 408, 656; 411, 661 ; 411, 663. 
 Parapets, forms, 376, 618; 377, 619; 378, 619. 
 
 penetration of, 358, 595; 359, 595; 360, 595; 362, 
 
 596; 363, 596-598. 
 
 revetments, 362, 596 ; 379, 622, 623. 
 
 slopes, 377, 619 ; 378, 619. 
 
 thickness, 362, 596; 378, 619. 
 
 Parbuckling, 202, 426. 
 
 Parcelling, 232, 478. 
 
 Parks, loootion, 375, 614-616; 412, 663. 
 
 Parrottguns, 115, 287; 115, 288; 116, 288. 
 
 Pass-box, 54, 205. 
 
 Pellet gunpowder, 42, 180; 46, 181. 
 
 Penetration, action of projectiles, 360, 595; 361, 595. 
 
 efluct of revetments on, 362, 596 ; 363, 596. 
 
INDEX. 505 
 
 [Note The plain figures refer to the pages ot this Tolnme, The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Penetration of arnjor, 347, 586. 
 
 ot batteries, 357, 595. 
 
 of mortar sliells, 363, 59 T. 
 
 of rifle-musket balls, 363, 598. 
 
 tables of. 358, 595; 359, 595; 360, 595. 
 
 Percussion-fuse, 51, 198. 
 Pickets for holdfasts, 263, 519. 
 
 to draw, 263, 520. 
 
 Piece, defined, 5, lO; 34, 131. 
 Pile-driver, 263, 530. 
 
 Piles of projectiles, to compute number of balls, 312, 565. 
 
 Piling projectiles, 311, 565; 312, 565. 
 
 Pinch-bar, 270, 530. 
 
 Pinching guns, 203, 439. 
 
 Pintle, 67, 311. 
 
 Pintle-key, 67, 3 It. 
 
 Pintle-plate, 67, 311. 
 
 Piper's gin, 247, 494. 
 
 Piper's loading-bar, 165, 368. 
 
 Plane of sight, 40, l'V4; 148, 343. 
 
 tables, 187, 409. 
 
 Plank revetments, 382, 63t. 
 
 Platforms, 41, l'y9; 71, 334; 72, 325; 73, 335; 74, 326; 
 
 75, 327 ; 76. 238 ; 78, 339 ; 84, 331 ; 184, 402 ; 
 
 188, 404 ; 387, 635 ; 388, 636 ; 397, 643. 
 
 barbette, 10-inch gun, 109, 3T6. 
 
 centre-pintle, 15-inch gun, 120, 393. 
 
 front-pin tie,' 15-inch gun, 126, 306. 
 
 Coehorn raortar, 158, 35 'Vi 
 
 howitzer, 103, 261. 
 
 mortar, 13-inoh, 165, 369. 
 
 suitable for field-works, 387, 635 ; 388, 636 ; 397, 
 
 643. 
 Platoons, 6, 18-22; 10,42. 
 Plotting, results of target practice, 191, 409. 
 Pnenmatic buffers, 68, 218. 
 Pointing. (See Aiming.) 
 Point of fall, 39, 160. 
 Pontoons, dimensions^ 337, STS; 341, 5T9. 
 
 in disembarkations, 336, 578 ; 338, 5'5'8. 
 
 weight of troops on, 341, 579. 
 
 Port-flro composition, in shells, as carcasses, 50, 194. 
 Post revetment, 381, 635. 
 
506 INDEX. 
 
 [Note. — The plain flgnres refer to the pages of this yolume. The ful? 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Posts of cannoneers, 81, 230, XXII, XXVI. 
 
 Powder. (See Gunpowder.) 
 
 Powder-measure, 55, 20& ; 154, 354. 
 
 Preponderance, 38, 154. 
 
 Pressure of gunpowder, 47, 184; 147, 341; 197, 413. 
 
 Primers, electric, 52, SOI. 
 
 friction, 51, 20O; 433, 6t5. 
 
 Primer-pouch, 55, 205; 79, 230, IV; 86, 234. 
 
 Priming, general rules, 80, 230, XI; 82, 230, XXXV; 89, 
 
 243 * 92 252 
 Priming^wire, 54,' 205; 79, 230, IV; 59, 206; 81, 230, 
 
 XVI. 
 Prismatic gunpowder, 46, 181. 
 Profiling, 879, 621. 
 Projectiles, action of, against earth-works, 360, 595 ; 361, 595 ; 
 
 362, 596. 
 amount and proportions required, 3l6, 568; 390,63'?; 
 
 410, 660 ; 411, 662 ; 413, 666. 
 armor penetration, 347, 586. 
 
 punching, 354, 591. 
 
 Butler, 49, 190. 
 
 canister, 49, 192. 
 
 carcass, 49, 194. 
 
 case-shot, 48, 189. 
 
 classified, 37, 150; 47, 186. 
 
 cored-shot, 49, 191. 
 
 drop of, tables, 404, 650. 
 
 effect of, racking or pumping, 353, 590. 
 
 elongated, 48, 190. 
 
 energy of, 39, 16'?. 
 
 flre-ball, 50, 195 ; 154, 854. 
 
 forces of gravitation, 57, 206. 
 
 forces acting on, 56, 206. 
 
 for drill, 83, 230, XXVII; 90, 244; 117, 289. 
 
 friction, effect on, 58, 206. 
 
 grape-shot, 49, 193. 
 
 hollow, 48, 188; 49, 191. 
 
 inspection of, 311, 565. 
 
 lacquer for, 311, 565 ; 312, 565. 
 
 mortar, penetration of, 363, 59'Y. 
 
 packing, 311, 565. 
 
 penetration of, in armor, 347, 586. 
 
 in earth, 358, 595 ; 359, 595 ; 360, 595. 
 
INDEX. 507 
 
 [NOTS.— Tlie plain figures refer to the pages of this TOlnme. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Projectiles, penetration of mortar sliells, 363, 5911. \ 
 
 preparation of, 81, 330, XVII, XXI, XXVP; 110, 
 
 aVV; 165, 368; 188, 404. 
 
 preservation of, 310, 565.* 
 
 resistance of tlie air, 57, 206 ; 58, 206. 
 
 rifle, 49, 191. 
 
 ring for, 52, 202. 
 
 to be lubricated, 81, 230, XX ; 92, 254. 
 
 rifling, resistance of, 58, 206. 
 
 sabot for, 62, 202 ; 154, 354. 
 
 solid, 47, IST; 188, 404. 
 
 spherical, best for ricochet, 65, 214. 
 
 to ascertain time of flight, 184, 402. \ 
 
 to charge hollow, 108, 2'V5; 121,294; 165,368; 188, 
 
 404. 
 
 to compute number in piles, 312, 565. 
 
 to determine weight, 478, App. 
 
 to lift in loading, 115, 286; 115,38?; 145,340; 165, 
 
 368. 
 
 to select, 188, 404. 
 
 to withdraw, 91, 347; 117, 289 ; 125, 304. 
 
 Prop, sponge and rammer, 82, 230, XXIII. 
 Pulley-blocks, storage, 313, 566. 
 Punching, 353, 590, 591. 
 
 Qtjadbant, gunner's, 53, 204. 
 
 Quartermaster's stores for siege-gun batteries, 102, 260. 
 
 Backinq, 353, 590, 591. 
 
 Bailroad construction corps, 423, 669. 
 
 in sieges, 412, 663. 
 
 rolling-stock required, 325, 572. 
 
 speed, 325, 572. 
 
 transportation of artillery, 322, 572. 
 
 of guns, 324, 572. 
 
 of horses, 322, 572. 
 
 of men, 325, 572. 
 
 Bammer, 54, 205 ; 82, 230, XXXIII ; 312, 566. 
 Bange, 89, 174. 
 extreme, 39, 165; 376, G17. 
 
 greatest, 39, 165; 376, 617. 
 
 of canister, 49, 192. 
 
 point-blank, 41, 176. 
 
508 INDEX. 
 
 [NOTB.— The plain figures refer to tUe pages of tills Tolame. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Range tables, formula to find elevations, 60, 210; 61, aiO. 
 
 of guns, 4.5-inoh siege, 84, 231. 
 
 8-incli rifled, 133, 319; 134, 319. 
 
 10-inch smooth-bore, 109, 376; 117, 
 
 290. 
 
 15-lnch smooth-bore, 119, 293. 
 
 100-pdr. Parrott, 116, 388. 
 
 of howitzers, 5.8-incli flank casemate, 1 28, 309 ; 
 
 131 318 
 8-inch 'siege, 'l03, 361; 222, 458. 
 
 of mortars, 5.8-inch Coeiiorn, 157, 357. 
 
 r- 8-incIi siege, 155, 355. 
 
 10-inch siege, 146, 341 ; 154, 354. 
 
 13-inch sea-coast, 159, 360. 
 
 Bear sights, 69, SO? ; 60, 208, 209. 
 
 Recoil, 41, 1T9; 117, 290; 135, 320. 
 
 checks, 68, Sir 218; 72,335; 74,336; 117,390; 
 
 135, 330; 136, 320. 
 Record of ammunition, in sieges, 413, 666 ; 414, 666 ; 415, 
 666. 
 
 of artillery, 293, 552. 
 
 of defects of bore and vent, 307, 563. 
 
 of electric-cable tests, 457, 693. 
 
 of firing during sieges, 416, 666. 
 
 — — — of gunpowder storage, 317, 569. 
 Reembarkations, 340, 5?9. 
 Reliefs, of cannoneers, 82, 230, XXXI. 
 Reports of ammunition, in sieges, 413, 666; 414, 666; 415, 
 666. 
 
 of firing during sieges, 416, 666. 
 
 of target firing, 185, 403. 
 
 Reserves for lines of works, 375, 614-616 ; 412, 663. 
 Retreating after repulse, 365, 602. 
 Revetments for embrasures, 3S6, 634. 
 
 for parapets, 362, 596; 37G, 618; 377, 618. 
 
 of fascines, 380, 624. 
 
 of gabions, 381, 626. 
 
 of logs, 380, 623. 
 
 of planks, 382, 631'. 
 
 of posts, 381, 635. 
 
 of sand-bags, 382, 628. 
 
 of sods, 379. 622, 623. 
 
 for scarps, 383, 629. 
 
INDEX. 509 
 
 [NoTX. — The plain flgnres refer to the pages of this volume. The fall* 
 laced flgnres refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Eicochet firing, 64, 314; 65, 314; 347, 5S5; 350, 587. 
 
 Eifle projectiles. (See Projectiles.) 
 
 Eimbases, 34, 136. 
 
 Biver defenses, 388, 636; 419, 66S; 420, 668-670. 
 
 Elvers, influence on operations, 419, 66S. 
 
 to attack crossings, 420, 66S. 
 
 to defend crossings. 419, 66S ; 425, 6'yO. 
 
 Eodman's pressure-plug, 197, 413. 
 EoUers, 93, 356; 200, 416. 
 
 storage, 313, 566. 
 
 Eolling-stocI{ for railroad transportation, 325, 573. 
 Eopes for gins, (see Cordage,) 244, 4S9. 
 
 strength of, 237, 481 ; 238, 431. 
 
 to man, 201, 41 T. 
 
 Sabots, 52, 303; 154, 354. 
 
 Salutes and ceremonies, 450, 695 ; 463, lOT. 
 
 at funerals, 466, 713. 
 
 for boats, 464, 709. 
 
 for war vessels, 462, 705. 
 
 international, 462, 704. 
 
 national, 459, 696; 461, 700; 462, 703. 
 
 -^— personal, civil or diplomatic, 461, 701 ; 462, 705, 
 706; 463, 707; 464, 709; 465, 713. 
 
 military or naval, 461, 703. 
 
 to fire, 460, 698. 
 
 Salvos, 460, 699. 
 Sand-bag revetments, 383, 638. 
 Sand-bags, 382, 638. 
 Saps. (See Boyaux.) 
 Scarp revetments, 383, 639. 
 Sea^oast mortars. (See Mortars.) 
 Searcher, 300, 560. 
 
 Service of the piece, general rules, 79, 330; 80,330; 81,330; 
 86, 334-336 ; 87, 338, 339. 
 
 guns, 4.5-inch siege, 84, 333 ; 94, 356. 
 
 8-inch rifled, carriage 1, 137, 331. 
 
 carriage 2, 141, 331. 
 
 carriage 3, 142, 333. 
 
 carriage 4, 144, 338. 
 
 10-inch smooth-bore, barbette, 108, 376. 
 
 casemate, 117, 390. 
 
 15-inch smooth-bore, centre-pintle, 120, 394. 
 
510 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this volume. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Service of guns, 15-inch smooUi-bore, front-pintle, 126, 306. 
 Gatliug, 0.45-inch, 177, 391. 
 
 1-inch, 171, 380. 
 
 Parrott, lOO-pdr., 115, 387; 115, 388; 116, 
 388. 
 
 howitzer, 5.8-ineh flanlc casemate, 129, 309. 
 
 8-iuch siege, 102, 361. 
 
 mortars, 5.8-inch Coehorn, 168, 358. 
 
 8-inoh siege, 155, 356. 
 
 10-inch sea^ioast, 165, 369. 
 
 10-inch siege, 147, 343. 
 
 13-inch seaMioast, 160, 361. 
 
 Serving, 232, 478. 
 
 Shears, described, 284, 545; 285, 545. 
 — — formula to compute strength, 473, App. 
 in landing heavy guns, 339, 578. 
 
 to rig, 285, 546; 286, 546; 287, 546. 
 
 to use as a gin, 287, 547 ; 288, 547 ; 252, 500. 
 
 Sh'ell-hooks, (see Loading-bar,) 55, 305. 
 
 expedients for, 115, 386, 387; 145, 340. 
 
 Shells, (see Projectiles,) against earth-virorks, 358, 595; 359, 
 595 ; 360, 595 ; 361. 595. 
 
 —— cartridge-bags for, 298, 558. 
 
 — — ^ coating for interior surface, 298, 558. 
 
 ignition, 48, 188, 190; 49, 190, 191 ; 355, 591. 
 
 — — penetration of mortar, 363, 597. 
 
 to charge, 108, 375; 110,377; 121,394; 188,404; 
 
 318, 569. 
 
 -^— to select and weigh, 188, 404. 
 Shifting-planks, 200, 416; 210, 444. 
 
 storage, 313, 566. 
 
 Ships, armored, (see Iron-clads,) 348, 587; 351, 589. 
 
 vital points, 351, 589. 
 
 extreme ranges, 376, 617. 
 
 Shot, (see Projectiles,) 37, 150; 47, 186, 187; 65, 314. 
 Siege guns, (see Battery and Manoeuvres, Mechanical,) amma- 
 nition, 316, 568. 
 
 batteries, 92, 355. 
 
 care of, 295, 557. 
 
 carriages, 1, 7; 2, 8n.; 02, 355. 
 
 description, 83, 331. 
 
 platforms, 71, 337; 7.^ 227; 76, 238; 146, 341: 
 
 155, 355; 387, 6D& ; 3ad, 636; 397, 643. 
 
INDEX. 511 
 
 [Note.— -The plain figures refer to the pages of this volume. The full- 
 faced figures reier to paragraphs.] 
 
 Siege guns, projectiles, packing of, 311, 565. 
 
 ranges, 84, 331. 
 
 service of, 83, 231. 
 
 target practice, 184, 402 ; 185, 403 ; 186, 403. 
 
 transportation by rail, 324, 573. 
 
 Siege howitzers. (See Howitzers.) 
 Siege-mortar field batteries, 159, 359. 
 
 Siege mortars, carriages, 1, 7; 2, 8n.; 70, 333; 146, 341; 
 158, 359. 
 
 described, 155, 355. 
 
 platforms, 71, 334; 75, 337; 76, 338 ; 146, 341 ; 
 
 155, 355 ; 387, 635 ; 388, 636 ; 897, 643. 
 
 ranges, 146, 341 ; 154, 354; 155, 355; 157, 357. 
 
 Sieges, 407, 655. 
 
 ammunition reports, 413, 666 ; 414, 666 ; 415, 666. 
 
 — artillery and engineers, 410, 660, 661 ; 411, 661, 
 
 663. 
 
 defensively, 410, 660. 
 
 investing works, 407, 656; 408, 656, 657. 
 
 proportion of artillery, 411, 663. 
 
 transporting ammunition, 413, 666. 
 
 guns, 413, 665. 
 
 Sighting of howitzers, 107, 369. 
 
 of mortars, 63, 313, 313 ; 64,313 ; 148, 343, 343 ; 
 
 149, 343; 167, 373; 170, 378. 
 Sights, 59, 307; 60, 308, 309; 62, 311. 
 
 to verify, 60, 308; 62, 311. 
 
 Sight-pouch, 56, 305. 
 Signalling. (See Telegraph.) 
 
 Signals for target practice, 184, 403 ; 187, 404. 
 Skids, 200, 416; 270, 538; 273, 534; 295, 555. 
 Sling for disembarking horses, 338, 578. 
 
 — ^^ — for embarking horses, 329, 574. 
 
 for horses at sea, 332, 576 ; 334, 577. 
 
 Sling-carts, 230, 473 ; 253, 503 ; 256, 505. 
 
 painting and storage, 314, 566. 
 
 to use, 254, 503. 
 
 Sling-chain, 200, 416 ; 210, 444. 
 Slopes for parapets, 377, 619. 
 
 tables of, 378, 619. 
 
 Sluing, 203, 438; 204, 430; 270, 533. 
 Smooth-bores in ricochet firing, 65, 314. 
 Sod revetments, 379, 633. 
 
512 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain flgares refer to the pages of this Tolnme. The fnJl- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Spars, to compute strains, 474, App. 
 Spiking guns, 310, 565. 
 Splicing, 233, 419. 
 
 Splinter-proofs, 393, 63 T ; 394, 63S-640. 
 Sponge, 53, 205; 81, 330, XIX; 82, 330, XXSOII; 92, 
 353; 209,444. 
 
 bucket. 94, 356. 
 
 cover, 54, 305. 
 
 preservation, 312, 566. 
 
 Sponging, 80, 330, V, VH, Vin; 81, 330, XVI, XXI; 82, 
 
 330, XXXYI; 88, 346; 94, 356; 294, 555. 
 Spun-yarn, 232, 4T6. 
 
 Stalls for transports, 330, 5T5 ; 333, 576, 5T7. 
 Standard rule, 300, 560, 
 Star gauge, 299, 560; 300, 561. 
 Steel implements, preservation of, 313, 566. 
 
 qualities, 477, App. 
 
 Store-houses for artillery material, 312, 566. 
 
 Store-truck, 259, 509. 
 
 Strength of cordage, 237, 4S1 ; 238, 481. 
 
 of gins, 252, 499. 
 
 of horses, 476, App. 
 
 of iron, 477, App. 
 
 of spars, 473, App. 
 
 Striking point of shots, to find, 185, 403 ; 186, 403 ; 187, 
 
 404; 189,407-409. 
 Submarine defenses, 346, 5§4; 425, 670. 
 
 arrangement of, 428, 6T3 ; 430, 6T4. 
 
 attack and defense, 455, 693. 
 
 bung-stoppers, 444, 6S3. 
 
 buoys, 445, 685. 
 
 charges of mines, 429, 61'4; 430, 674. 
 
 circuit-closers, 454, 691. 
 
 electric batteries for, 450, 689. 
 
 cables, 443, 683; 449, 688, 689. 
 
 fuses, 440, 680. 
 
 ignition of charge, 439, 679; 440, 679. 
 joints, 444, 684. 
 junction-boxes, 449, 688. 
 lines, 438, 678 ; 451, 690. 
 of rivers, 420, 668; 425, 670. 
 positions, 427, 673; 430, 674. 
 of fuse in charge, 441, 681. 
 
INDEX. 513 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this Tolnme. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Submarine surface currents, 458, 694. 
 
 teeting-rooms, 449, 6S9. 
 
 tests of cables, 456, 693; 457, 693. 
 
 to fire, 450, 690 ; 451, 690 ; 452, 690; 453, 690. 
 
 to lay cables, 44S, 6S6. 
 
 to plant the mines, 447, 68?; 448, 687. 
 
 Supplies for preserving artillery material, 315, 567. 
 
 for siege-gun batteries, 96, 258. 
 
 of ammunition for field-works, 316, 568; 390, 63T; 
 
 410, 660 ; 411, 663 ; 413, 666 ; 416, 666 ; 418, 
 667. 
 
 of material, 315, 56'S'. 
 
 Swimming horses, 338, 5'9'8. 
 Sword manual, 10, 46-48 ; 12, 59. 
 
 Tables, metric, 467, App. 
 
 miscellaneous, 470, App. 
 
 of aUoys, 472, App. 
 
 of annual armament supplies, 315, 567. 
 
 of armor penetration, 347, 586- 
 
 of atmospheric pressure, 57, 206. 
 
 of drop of projectiles, 404, 650. 
 
 of harbor surface ctorents, 458, 694. 
 
 of metrical equivalents, 469, App. 
 
 of penetrations of parapets, 358, 595 ; 359, 595 ; 360, 
 
 595. 
 
 of ranges. (See Ranges.) 
 
 of slopes for parapets, 377, 619 ; 378, 619. 
 
 of strength of cordage, 237, 481. 
 
 of thickness of parapets, 362, 596. 
 
 of strength and weight of iron chains, 241, 484. 
 
 of strength of cordage, 237, 481. 
 
 of U. S. artillery, 2, 8. 
 
 of weights and measures, 467, App. 
 
 of weights and volumes of metals, 471 App. 
 
 miscellaneous, 471, App. 
 
 woods, 471, App. 
 
 to obtain centre of impact, 186, 403. 
 
 Tackles, 239, 483 ; 240, 484. 
 
 power gained by, 241, 484. 
 
 Tactics, (see Manoeuvres, Mechanical, and Manoeuvres, Tactical,) 
 
 in battalion formation and skirmishing, 34, 130. 
 Target practice and targets, 183, 401 ; 191, 409. 
 
514 INDEX. 
 
 [NoTB.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this rolnme. The full- 
 faced fig ares refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Target, floating, 190, 409. 
 guns, Gatling, 192, 4IO. 
 
 sea-coast, 189, 409. 
 
 siege, 184, 403 ; 185, 402 ; 186, 402. 
 
 horizontal, 185, 402. 
 
 liowitzers, siege, 187, 403, 404 ; 188, 405. 
 
 mortars, Coehorn, 188, 406. 
 
 searcoast, 189, 40'» ; 189, 408. 
 
 siege, 187, 404 ; 188, 405. 
 
 ' plotting results, 191, 409. 
 
 presented by ships, 349, 587; 350, 588; 351, 589. 
 
 record of, 185, 402 ; 191, 409 ; 299, 559. 
 
 Teams in sieges, (see Horses,) 413, 665. 
 Telegraphic communication, importance during attacks, 406, 
 654. 
 
 in defending defiles, 418, 667. 
 
 with guard-boats in defending submarine mines, 456, 
 
 692. 
 Telemeters, Boulongg's, 192, 411; 193, 411. 
 
 Gautier's, 193, 412. 
 
 one for each siege gun, 95, 257 ; 192, 409. 
 
 Telephone. (See Telegraph.) 
 Tests, flashing, of powder, 47, 183. 
 
 of defective guns, 307, 563. 
 
 of gunpowder, to sample, 46, 182. 
 
 of submarine mines and cables, 449, 689 ; 456, 693 ; 
 
 457, 693. 
 T6te-de-pont, 416, 667 ; 418, 668. 
 Time-fuses 50 197. 
 
 Time of flight,' to ascertain, 184, 403 ; 192, 409. 
 Tompions, 294, 555. 
 Tools, intrenching, 413, 664. 
 Torpedoes, (see Submarine Mines,) 398, 646. 
 
 deflned, 425, 670. 
 
 —^ for bridge demolitions, 422, 669. 
 
 fuses, 439, 679; 440, 679. 
 
 Towns, distance of defenses, 376, 617. 
 
 Toy's fuse, 422, 669. 
 
 Trace-rope, 93, 256; 200, 416; 210, 444. 
 
 Tracing field-works, 379, 631. 
 
 Trains, hauling ammunition in sieges, 413, 666 ; 416, 666. 
 
 parking, 412, 663. 
 
 Transportation by rail, 322, 572. 
 
INDEX. 515 
 
 [NOTB— The plain flgnres teter to the pages of this volume. The full- 
 faced figures refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 •Transportation by sea, 321, 5T1 ; 325, 573. 
 
 disembai-king, 385. 5'VS. 
 
 horses, by sea, 327, 5f3. 
 
 ammunition In sieges, 413, 666 ; 414, 666. 
 
 stalls, sea transports, 380, 5t5 ; 838, 576 ; 333, 577. 
 
 weight of field battery, 330, 574. 
 
 Transports, marks, 341, 576. 
 
 Traverses, 376, 618 ; 388, 635 ; 393, 63S ; 394, 638. 
 Troops, number for harbor batteries, 245, 588 ; 368, 607 ; 
 
 370, 611; 374, 614. 
 Trucks, casemate, 257, 506. 
 
 garrison, 314, 566. 
 
 store, 259, 509. 
 
 wagon, 260, 514; 277, 536; 279, 538. 
 
 Trunnion beds, 66, 316 ; 294, 555. 
 
 chains, 259, 508. 
 
 gauge, 300, 560. 
 
 rings, 814, 566. 
 
 rule, 300, 560. 
 
 sights, 62, 311 ; 168, 373. 
 
 squares, 300, 560. 
 
 Trunnions, 84, 135 ; 294, 555. 
 
 Unload, to, 81, 330, XVI; 91, 347; 117, 289; 125, 304; 
 153,350; 164, 366. 
 
 Velocity, 39, 166. 
 Vent, 35, 143; 294, 555. 
 
 to inspect, 297, 558 ; 307, 563. 
 
 Vent-cover, 79, 330, IV. 
 
 gauge, 300, 560. 
 
 gimlet, 54, 205. 
 
 piece, 36, 143. 
 
 punch, 54, 305. 
 
 searcher, 300, 560. 
 
 stopped, 79, 330, V; 87, 338. 
 
 Verification of sights, 60, 308 ; 62, 311. 
 Vessels, armored. ( See Iron-clads.) 
 Vital points of iron-clads, 351, 589. 
 
 Wagon, mortar, 261, 515. 
 Water-cap fuse-plug, 50, 197. 
 Water caps, preservation of, 313, 566, 
 
516 INDEX. 
 
 [Note.— The plain figures refer to the pages of this yoloine. The fall. 
 faced fignres refer to paragraphs.] 
 
 Water supply during sieges, 412, 663. 
 Way-planlis, 270, &39. 
 Weights and measures, 467, App. 
 and volumes, miscellaneous, 472, App, 
 
 of alloys, 472, App. 
 
 o£ elongated projectiles, 478, App. 
 
 of iron balls, 477, App. 
 
 of metals, 471, App. 
 
 of round cast-iron, 478, App. 
 
 of woods, 471, App. 
 
 of field artillery, 330, 6'y4, 
 
 of troops on bridges, 341, 5'V9. 
 
 Wharves, temporary, 335, S'VS; 341, 579, 
 
 Windage, 38, 153, 
 
 Wind pressure, 67, 306; 58, 306; 192; 409. 
 
 Wire entanglements, 397, 644, 
 
 Worm, 54, 305 ; 312, 566, 
 
 Worming, 232, 4T8. 
 
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