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Cornell University Library 
 
 The hstorical present In early Latin 
 
 3 1924 021 623 628 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
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 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924021623628 
 
THE HISTORICAL PRESENT 
 
 IN 
 
 EARLY LATIN 
 
 A DISSERTATION 
 
 PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF BRYN MAWR COLLEGE 
 FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ANNIE CROSBY EMERY 
 
 ELLSWORTH, MAINE 
 
 HANCOCK COUNTY PUBLISHING COMPANY, PRINTERS 
 
 1897 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 CURRENT THEORIES OF THE HISTORICAL, PRESENT. 
 
 The opinions hitherto advanced in regard to the His- 
 torical Present may be resolved into two main theories : 
 one, that the Historical Present gives a lively representa- 
 tion of the past by bringing past events before the mind 
 as if they were taking place in the present; the other, 
 that it represents as continued or incomplete certain ac- 
 tions which are assigned by the context to a past sphere of 
 time. The power of the Historical Present to enliven the 
 narrative, which by the adherents of the first theory is re- 
 garded as its essential characteristic, is not denied by the 
 adherents of the second, but is conceived to follow as a 
 corollary from its function of portraying actions in the 
 process of development. 
 
 The former of these theories is that stated in most of 
 the grammai-s, and defended in one form or another by 
 the larger number of modern scholars. Thus, the His- 
 torical Present is defined by Kiihner ' as follows : " In der 
 Erzahlung vergangener Ereignisse wird das Prasens . . . 
 oft gebraucht .... indem in der Lebhaftigkeit der 
 Darstellung die Vergangenheit als Gegenwart angeschaut 
 wird." Similar definitions are given by Holtze,^ Reisig,3 
 Schneider, ♦ Draeger, s Schmalz, ^ and others. These 
 
 " Ausfuhrliche Grammatik der lateinischen Sprache, 1878, II, §31, 2. 
 
 ' Syntaxis priscorum scriptorum Latinorum usque ad Terentium, Leipsig, 
 1862, II, p. 61. 
 
 ' Vorlesilngen uber lateinUche Sprachwissenschaft, bearbeitet von ffagen, 
 Schmalz und Landgraf, Berlin, 1881-90, III, §288, I. 
 
 * De temporum apud priscos scriptores Latinos usu, Glatz, 1888, p. 7. 
 
 ^ Historische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache, ste Aujl,, Leipsig, 1878-81, 
 
 I, p. 230. 
 
 ' Lateinische Syntax, §22, in Iw. Mullet's Handbuch der klassischen Alter- 
 tumsmissenschaft, ste Aufi., 1890, II. 
 
definitions imply, and sometimes even state,' that 
 the Historical Present takes the place of the Aorist or 
 Historical Perfect in narration, and assume that it is used 
 to vividly represent the past because it denotes present 
 time, that is, time contemporaneous with the speaker, and 
 brings the events of the past into that present. 
 
 Brugmann,=' on the other hand, maintains that the func- 
 tion of the Historical Present to represent the past depends 
 upon the timeless character of the present tense, which en- 
 ables it to be used of events that are past and future from 
 the point of view of the speaker, as well as contemporane- 
 ous with him. Thus the speaker does not bring past events 
 into the time in which he is speaking, but rather transfers 
 himself back into the time in which the events took place. 
 " Das sogenannte praesens historicum beruht nicht darauf 
 dass der Sprechende bei besonders lebhafter Erzahlung 
 das vergangene Ereigniss in die Zeit in der er spricht 
 riickt, sondern eher umgekehrt ; er tritt aus den Rahmen 
 der Zeit ganz heraus, drangt iiber dem Interesse an dem 
 Ereignisse selbst die Vorstellung des zwischen dem Vor- 
 gang und der Erzahlung des Vorganges bestehenden 
 Zeitverhaltnisses zuriick, und versetzt sich in Gedanken in 
 die Zeit als das Ereigniss sich eben abspielte, sodass er 
 dasselbe wie in einem Drama oder wie auf einem Bilde 
 vor sich sieht. Das praesens historicum beruht also auf 
 dem zeitlich schrankenlosen Gebrauch dieses Tempus." 
 
 With this view Hultschs agrees, although he adds 
 that ultimately there is no great difference between it 
 
 'SoHoltze: "pro perfecto usurpatur." Reisig: "statt eines Aoristus 
 praeteriti kann ein Prasens ersetzt werden im erzahlenden Tone." 
 
 ^ Berichte der k. sachischen Geselhchaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipsig 
 pkil.-hist. a., XXXV (1883), p. 169. 
 
 3 Die erzahlenden Zeitformen bei Polybios, Abhandlungen der k. sachischen 
 Geselhchaft der Wissenschaften, phil. -hist. CI., XIV (1894), i, p. 43. The first 
 articles are found ibid., XIII (1893), p. i ff, p. 347 ff. 
 
and the view that by the Historical Present the speaker 
 brings the past into the present." 
 
 The theory that the Historical Present does not repre- 
 sent the past as present, but denotes the continued and in- 
 complete state of certain actions which are shown by the 
 context to belong to the past, depends, like that of Brug- 
 mann, upon the timeless character of the present tense. 
 This theory finds its strongest supporter in Hoffmann, 
 and is expressed as follows in his Zeitfolge nach dem 
 Praesens historicum im Lutein, Wien, 1884, p. 14: 
 
 "Wenn in den Grammatiken dem Praesens hist, 
 die Wirkung beigelegt wird, dass es eine vergangene 
 Handlung als gegenwartig darstelle, so kann ich dieser 
 durchaus irrigen Ansicht gegeniiber nur wiederholen was 
 ichbereits . . . betonthabe,^ dass die grammatischenZeit- 
 formen iiberhaupt nichts mit der natiirlichen Zeit zu thun 
 haben, dass sie nur Phasen der Handlung, des Seins be- 
 zeichnen, und dass daher auch das Praesens an sich durch- 
 aus nicht von der unmittelbaren Gegenwart des Sprechen- 
 den zu verstehen ist, sondern nur von der Gegenwart der 
 Handlung, d. h. von der Phase ihres Vollzuges, ihres 
 Eintretens und Stattfindens. In welcher natiirlichen oder 
 ausseren Zeit aber ein solches praesentisches, als eintretend 
 oder stattfindend besagtes Sein liege, ob es schlechthin 
 und fiir alle Zeit bestehe, ob strict nur zur Zeit des 
 Sprechenden, ob zur Zeit anderer bereits vergangener 
 Handlungen, dass lasst sich nicht aus dem Tempus selbst, 
 sondern nur aus dem Zusammenhange entnehmen. Das 
 Besondere in dem Gebrauche des historischen Praesens 
 
 ' See also Miller, The Imperfect and the AoHst in Greek, which is a discus- 
 sion oi Hultsch's work, ^z«^rjVa« yourtial of Philology, XMl (^i&g$), p. 183, 
 note. 
 
 " Hoffmann first advanced his theory in Die Construction der lateinischen 
 Zeitpartikeln, Wien, i860, zte Aufl.., 1873, p. 183. 
 
liegt nur darin, dass die betreffende Handlung nicht nach 
 Massgabe ihrer Lage zur Gegenwart des Sprechenden als 
 abgeschlossen ausgepragt, sondern als geschehend hinge- 
 stellt wird. Durch diese Darstellungsweise wird die 
 Monotonie der Factenaufzahlung unterbrochen ; die 
 Erzahlung gewinnt eine gewisse Anschaulichkeit, Unmit- 
 telbarkeit und Lebendigkeit, aber sie gestaltet sich bei 
 langerer Anfeinanderfolge solcher Praesentia unruhig und 
 hastig, eben weil die Ereignisse nur als eintretend genannt 
 werden, ohne dass durch das Tempus auch ihr Abschluss 
 angezeigt ware".' 
 
 Kohlmann^ also attributes this imperfect function to 
 the Historical Present, and says that there is the same 
 difference between the Historical Present and the Aorist 
 that there is between the Imperfect and the Aorist. 
 
 Lattmann,3 on the contrary, maintains that the Histor- 
 ical Present, while it is to be referred to the achronistic 
 
 ' Hoffmann's theory that the Historical Present is a purely preterite tense, 
 used to denote the continuance of an action in the past, is largely based upon a 
 study of the sequence of tenses after it. This leads him to make an unfortunate 
 distinction between the "Historical Present", which must take the sequence of a 
 past tense, except in such subordinate clauses as are so related to the rest of the 
 sentence that they naturally tend toward the present sequence, and what he calls 
 the "Real Present" (wirkliches Praesens), which, he says, admits of present se- 
 quence even when the subordinate clauses in their relation to the sentence natur- 
 ally tend toward the past sequence (see below, Chapter V.). This "Real 
 Present" he attributes to the poets — "Das ist ja gerade die Freiheit welche der 
 Dichter vor dem Historiker voraus hat, dass er sich in die Gegenwart der von ihm 
 erzahlten Begebenheiten versetzen und nicht bios diese in praesentischer Form 
 referieren, sondern nach Massgabe gleichsam seiner eigenen Anschauung und 
 ethischen Betheihgung an den Vorgangen potential-hypothetische Urtheile, 
 deliberativ-dubitative Fragen, seltener eine subjective Begrundung oder Ein- 
 schrankung, oder eine potentiale Bestimmung im Conjunctly des Praesens ein- 
 mischen darf, wo der Prosaiker seinen zeitlich verschiedenen Standtpunkt durch 
 Anwendung des Conjunctivus Imperfect! wahren muss", (pp. i6-l8.) 
 
 ' De verbi Graeci temporibus, Halle, 1873, pp. 6-7. 
 
 ' Selbstandiger und bezogener Gebra'uch der Tempera im Laieinischen, 
 Gottingen, 1890, pp. 16-17. 
 
present, yet contains no idea of continuance or incompletion 
 — "Denn damit dass ich eine Handlung als dauernd hinstelle, 
 bezeichne ich sie eben — falls nicht ein bestimmter Bestand- 
 theil der Verbalform auf aide andere Zeit hinweist — als 
 gegenwartig. Dauernd heisst in diesem Falle immer 
 'zur Zeit des Sprechenden dauernd '. Man erkennt das 
 schon daraus, dass, wenn eine dauernde Handlung der 
 Vergangenheit bezeichnet werden soil, durchaus eine aus- 
 driickliche Form der Vergangenheit ( Imperfectum ) 
 gebraucht werden muss, wahrend wenn es nicht darauf 
 ankommt die Handlung der Vergangenheit als dauernd zu 
 bezeichnen, viele Historiker das Prasens in solchem Um- 
 frange gebrauchen, dass das Perfectum historicum fast 
 iiberflassig erscheint".' 
 
 Although Lattmann thus opposes Hoffmann's view, 
 he does not agree with Brugmann that the Historical 
 Present, while it is timeless, yet serves to vividly represent 
 the past. This explanation is, Lattmann says, unsatis- 
 factory because of the very frequent use of the tense and 
 its largely arbitrary variation with the Historical Perfect 
 — " Dagegen ist seine Erklarung leicht, sobald man das 
 Prasens als achronistische Verbalform scharf sondert von 
 dem Prasens als Tempus der Gegenwart".^ 
 
 Still another theory, more remote than Lattmann's 
 from the two main theories of the Historical Present, has 
 been formulated by Rhodemeyer.3 He maintains that the 
 Historical Present narrates the bare fact of an action 
 which took place in a sphere of time determined as past 
 by the context. 
 
 The above theories represent with sufficient accuracy 
 the current views in regard to the Historical Present. 
 
 » op. cit., p. i6, 
 * Op. cit., p. 17. 
 3 Das Prasens Historicum bei Herodot und Thukydides, Basel, 1889. 
 
8 
 
 None of them has been based upon a complete study of 
 the tense in early Latin. This early Latin means chiefly 
 Plautus and Terence, and Varro (de re rustica), since 
 the remains of the other dramatists, of Ennius, Lucilius, 
 and the historians are too fragmentary to serve as a basis 
 for any very certain conclusions. Plautus and Terence, 
 especially, represent, so far as it can be represented by 
 literature, the common speech of the people, unaffected 
 by conscious attempts at artistic style. They reproduce 
 familiar conversations of every-day life. A study of the 
 Historical Present in these authors should, therefore, lead 
 to the discovery of its nature and use in the spoken lan- 
 guage. Its function in this spoken language was its 
 original function, and the foundation of any use that it 
 may have developed in literature. 
 
 To make the necessary study of the Historical Pres- 
 ent in early Latin is the purpose of this dissertation. 
 Any theory that may result in regard to the nature of the 
 tense will be set forth without direct comparison with the 
 theories hitherto advanced. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE HISTORICAL PRESENT IN EARLY LATIN. 
 
 In Plautus and Terence, and also in other ante-classi- 
 cal authors (Livius Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, Lucil- 
 ius, the fragmentary comic and tragic poets, the frag- 
 mentary historians, and Varro), the Historical Present is 
 used in the narration of past events, and varies in the same 
 narration with the Historical Perfect, the Imperfect, the 
 Pluperfect and the Historical Infinitive. The nature of its 
 function as distinguished from the functions of these other 
 tenses is the problem to be solved. The first step must be 
 an investigation of the kinds of verbs which are found in 
 the Historical Present. The following is a list of them, 
 compared with the verbs found in other tenses when these 
 tenses vary with the Historical Present in the same narra- 
 tion : ' 
 
 VERBS OF SAYING. 
 
 (Including verbs of calling, commanding, promising, threatening, denying, etc., 
 and their opposites.) 
 
 Historical 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Historical 
 
 Present. 
 
 Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 inquit 129 
 ( 79 in Varro,- 
 de r. r.) 
 
 aio IS 
 
 ecfatus I 
 
 aiebam 5 
 
 
 loquor I 
 colloqvior 1 
 
 elocutus I 
 
 
 
 colloqui I 
 
 " In the above list the appended numeral gives the number of occurrences. 
 The first person, as a rule, is cited, for the sake of convenience. 
 
 The citations from the early authors throughout this dissertation are made 
 from the following editions : 
 
 Plautus: Goetz and Schoell, 1893-1895 (compared with Leo, 1895-96). 
 
 Terence: Dziatzko, 1884. • 
 
 Livius Andronicus: Baehrens, Fragmenta Poetaruni Romanorum, 1886. 
 
 Ennius (and Naevius, Bellum Punicurn): L. Mueller, 1884. 
 
 Lucilius: Lachmann, 1876. 
 
 Tragic and comic poets: Ribbeck, Scenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, 
 2d ed., 1871-73. 
 
 Historians: Peter, Historicorum Fragmenta, editio minor, 1883. 
 
 Varro: Keil, 1884. 
 
10 
 
 VERBS OF SAYING. 
 (Including verbs of calling, commanding, promising, 
 [continued.] 
 
 etc.) 
 
 Historical 
 
 Historical 
 
 
 
 Historical 
 
 Present. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 dice 1 8 
 
 dixi II 
 
 dicebam 2 
 
 dixeram i 
 
 dicere i 
 
 edico 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 indico I 
 
 
 
 
 
 praedico i 
 
 
 
 
 praedicere i 
 
 fateor i 
 
 
 
 
 
 narro 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 percontor 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 interrogo 3 
 
 interrogavi i 
 
 
 
 
 rogo 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 rogito 2 
 
 
 rogitabam 2 
 
 
 
 respondeo 3 
 
 respondi 4 
 
 
 
 
 nomino 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 clamo I 
 
 
 
 
 
 conclamo 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 exclamo 7 
 
 exclamavi i 
 
 
 
 
 inclamo i 
 
 
 
 
 
 clamito 1 
 
 
 
 
 clamitare I 
 
 boo I 
 
 
 
 
 
 voco 4 
 
 vocavi 2 
 advocavi i 
 
 
 
 
 invoco 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 provoco I 
 
 
 
 
 
 revoco i 
 
 
 
 
 
 invito I 
 
 
 
 
 
 arcesso i 
 
 
 
 
 
 offirmo I 
 
 
 
 
 
 posco 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 postulo 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 oro 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 exoro 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 obsecro 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 precor i 
 
 
 
 
 
 impero i 
 
 
 
 
 
 iubeo 7 
 
 iussi 6 
 
 
 
 
 suadeo i 
 
 
 
 
 
 persuadeo 1 
 
 
 hortabar i 
 
 
 hortari i 
 
 adhortor i 
 
 
 
 
 
II 
 
 VERES OF SAVING. 
 (Including verbs of calling, commanding, promising, etc.) 
 
 [CONTINUED.] 
 
 istorical 
 
 Present. 
 
 Historical 
 Perfect. 
 
 dehortatus i 
 
 Imperfect. 
 monebam i 
 
 adiuro I 
 
 pollicitus I 
 
 adiurabam 1 
 
 increpo i 
 
 increpui i 
 
 
 nego 6 
 
 
 
 abnuo I 
 
 
 
 taceo "I 
 
 tacui I 
 reticui i 
 
 
 sileo I 
 
 obstipui I 
 obmutui I 
 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Historical 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 obiurigare I 
 
 negare 2 
 negitare i 
 abnuere i 
 
 VERBS OF PERCEPTION. 
 (Including verbs of hearing, seeing, knowing, etc., and their opposites.) 
 audivi 4 
 
 video 12 
 
 videor 2 
 viso I 
 
 aspicio 4 
 circumspicio i 
 conspicio 3 
 
 respicio i 
 
 conspicor 3 . 
 specto I 
 circumspecto i 
 
 respecto I 
 
 vidi 4 
 providi I 
 visus 7 
 
 aspexi 2 
 
 conspexi I 
 despexi I 
 
 suspexi I 
 conspicatus 2 
 
 inspectavi I 
 
 contemplatus I 
 observavi i 
 
 exaudiebam i 
 
 videbar 1 
 
 spectabam i 
 
 observabam I 
 
 videri i 
 
 circumvisere i 
 
12 
 
 VERBS OF PERCEPTION. 
 
 (Including verbs of hearing, seeing, etc.) 
 
 [continued.] 
 
 Historical 
 
 Historical 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 scivi I 
 adgnovi i 
 cognovi 3 
 ignovi I 
 sensi 5 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 intellexeram i 
 
 cogito I 
 
 
 cogitabam 1 
 putabam i 
 rebar i 
 
 oblitus fueram. 
 
 Historical 
 Infinitive. 
 
 putare I 
 
 amo r 
 veneror i 
 
 gaudeo i 
 
 conqueror I 
 rideo 2 
 fleo I 
 
 volo I 
 cupio 1 
 quaero 2 
 
 VERBS OF EMOTION AND WILL. 
 (Including verbs of inclination, effort, etc.) 
 
 amabam 3 
 dilexi I 
 
 veritus I 
 metui 2 
 extimui I 
 
 perdolui i 
 
 miseritus i 
 
 peracui i 
 volui 3 
 nolui 3 
 
 quaesivi i 
 
 metuebam 2 
 gaudebam 4 
 
 [bam I 
 conlacruma- 
 
 cupiebam i 
 quaerebam 2 
 
 lugere 2 
 mirarier 1 
 irasei i 
 
 nolle 1 
 
 invidere 2 
 quaerere i 
 
13 
 
 VERBS OF EMOTION AND WILL. 
 (Including verbs of inclination, effort, etc.) 
 
 [CONTINUED.] 
 
 Pluperfect, 
 
 Historical 
 
 Present. 
 
 Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 
 studui I 
 
 studebam i 
 
 vestigo I 
 
 
 audebam I 
 
 taboro I 
 
 passus I 
 
 
 pugno I 
 
 pagnavi I 
 
 certabam i 
 
 exspecto i 
 insto I 
 
 institi I 
 
 exspectabam I 
 praestolabar i 
 
 destino I 
 
 
 
 Historical 
 Infinitive, 
 
 pati I 
 
 instare 3 
 
 INTRANSITIVE VERBS OF MOTION. 
 
 eo 4 
 
 ivi I 
 
 ibam 3 
 
 
 
 abeo 8 
 
 abii 7 
 
 abibam I 
 
 abieram [ 
 
 
 adeo 2 
 
 adii 2 
 
 
 
 
 circumeo i 
 
 
 
 
 
 coeo I 
 
 
 
 
 
 exeo 4 
 
 obii 1 
 
 
 
 
 praetereo I 
 prodeo I 
 redeo 3 
 
 praeterii i 
 
 redii 1 
 transii 1 
 
 redibam i 
 
 
 
 venio 11 
 
 veni 6 
 
 
 
 
 advenio 4 
 
 adveni i 
 
 
 
 
 convenio 3 
 
 conveni I 
 
 convenibam 1 
 
 convenieram 
 
 t 
 
 devenio i 
 
 eveni i 
 
 
 
 
 intervenio 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 pervenio i 
 proficiscor 2 
 cedo I 
 
 perveni i 
 profectus I 
 
 
 
 
 
 abscessi i 
 
 
 abscesseram 
 
 t 
 
 accedo 2 
 
 accessi 8 
 concessi i 
 
 
 
 
 discedo I 
 
 
 
 
 
H 
 
 historical 
 
 Present. 
 
 incedo I 
 procedo 2 
 recedo I 
 
 adgredior I 
 egredior i 
 adcurro 5 
 concurro i 
 
 percurro I 
 pergo 4 
 commeo i 
 
 praevortor I 
 revortor 2 
 ingruo I 
 proruo I 
 penetro i 
 
 exilio I 
 subsilio I 
 
 aufugio I 
 
 decumbo 1 
 cado 3 
 accido 1 
 concido 2 
 decido i 
 incido i 
 
 congenuclo i 
 adsido 1 
 surgo I 
 
 INTRANSITIVE VERBS OF MOTION. 
 
 [CONTINUED.] 
 
 Historical 
 
 Perfect, 
 
 incessi 1 
 processi 2 
 recessi 3 
 success! I 
 
 occucurn i 
 praecucurri i 
 
 perrexi i 
 commigravi 2 
 
 insilui i 
 resilui i 
 
 aberravi i 
 evasi i 
 
 elapsus 1 
 declinavi 1 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 occurrebam i 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Historical 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 fugere I 
 
 adcumbere i 
 
IS 
 
 Historical 
 
 Present, 
 
 exsurgo i 
 conscendo 2 
 inscendo i 
 
 convolo I 
 devolo I" 
 involo I 
 
 INTRANSITIVE VERBS OF MOTION. 
 [continued.] 
 
 Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 volavi I 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Pluperfect, 
 
 Historical 
 Infinitive. 
 
 TRANSITIVE VERBS OF MOTION 
 which may denote either momentary or progressive actions.' 
 
 
 aamovi i 
 semovi i 
 
 
 
 
 
 ago 6 
 
 egi I 
 circumegi i 
 
 
 agebam 2 
 
 
 
 duco 4 
 
 coegi I 
 duxi 3 
 
 
 duxeram i 
 
 ducere i 
 
 
 abduco I 
 
 abduxi 1 
 
 abducebam i 
 
 
 
 
 conduco t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 deduco 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 educo I 
 
 eduxi r 
 
 
 
 
 
 produco 2 
 seduco 3 
 
 perduxi i 
 produxi I 
 
 
 
 perducere 
 
 I 
 
 subduco 2 
 
 subduxi I 
 
 
 
 
 
 aveho 3 
 
 avexi i 
 
 
 
 
 
 adveho 2 
 
 advexi 2 
 
 advexeram i 
 
 
 
 
 deveho 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mitto 3 
 
 misi I 
 admisi i 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' Here are included, in addition to the verbs that obviously belong to the 
 category, some verbs which in their derived meanings have lost the idea of motion 
 that they originally contained ; and other verbs which contain the idea of motion 
 only in so far as movement on the part of the subject is necessary to the perform- 
 ance of the action directed against the object. When this action may be 
 conceived of as primarily momentary and instantaneous, the verbs expressing it 
 may best be classified under a separate category. The two categories may, how- 
 ever, easily overlap. 
 
i6 
 
 TRANSITIVE VERBS OF MOTION 
 
 which may denote either momentary or progressive actions. 
 
 [continued.] 
 
 Historical 
 
 Present. 
 
 omitto I 
 
 fero I 
 aufero 2 
 
 differo I 
 ecfero z 
 
 refero I 
 
 tollo I 
 extollo I 
 porto I 
 comporto I 
 inferino i 
 
 addo I 
 edo I 
 indo I 
 abscondo 3 
 
 detraho 3 
 
 arripio 2 
 
 surripio i 
 surpuo I 
 
 extrude i 
 
 ecfodio I 
 
 segrego I 
 capio 5 
 suscipio I 
 
 prendo 5 
 
 Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 remisi I 
 (te)tuli 2 
 
 detuli 3 
 
 pertuli I 
 
 transtuli I 
 sustuli I 
 
 abdidi i 
 edidi i 
 
 abtraxi i 
 detraxi i 
 
 arripui I 
 corripui 2 
 
 diremi i 
 
 cepi I 
 suscepi I 
 
 prendi i 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 rapiebam i 
 
 captabam i 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Historical 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 ferre I 
 
 perferre i 
 
 trahere I 
 
 rapere I 
 
 expromere I 
 
 suscipere 
 
17 
 
 Historical 
 
 Present. 
 
 TRANSITIVE VERBS OF MOTION , 
 which may denote either momentary or progressive actions. 
 
 [CONTINUED.] 
 
 Historical Historical 
 
 Perfect. Imperfect. Pluperfect. 
 
 comprehendo i 
 
 lego I 
 
 pono 2 
 depono i 
 impono 2 
 oppono I 
 
 conloco 3 
 instruo I 
 
 statuo I 
 condo I 
 adligo I 
 adplico I 
 adnumero i 
 copulo I 
 resupino I 
 insinuo i 
 
 saepio I 
 
 consterno i 
 complector i 
 adorno I 
 
 solvo 2 
 
 reprehendi 2 
 conrasi i 
 
 delegi i 
 posivi 1 
 deposivi i 
 imposivi i 
 opposivi I 
 locavi I 
 
 instruxi i 
 institui I 
 
 attigi I 
 exsolvi I 
 
 Infinitive, 
 
 tendere i 
 tegere i 
 
i8 
 
 ;V • 
 
 TRANSITIVE VERBS OF MOTION 
 which denote primarily momentary actions. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Uistorical 
 
 Historical 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 caedo i 
 
 
 
 excido I 
 
 
 
 praecido I 
 
 compuli I 
 reppuli I 
 compressi 2 
 
 
 opprimo I 
 
 repress! i 
 
 
 compungo i 
 
 conturbavi i 
 
 
 convorto 1 
 
 
 
 pervorto i 
 
 
 cruciabam i 
 
 enico i 
 
 exanimavi i 
 
 
 ferio 2 
 
 
 
 foedo I 
 
 
 
 frango 3 
 
 
 
 iacio I 
 
 adieci 1 
 
 
 conicio 1 
 
 conieci 1 
 deieci i 
 eieci 2 
 proieci i 
 reicei i 
 iactavi i 
 
 inquinavi i 
 necavi i 
 
 immolabam i 
 
 obtrunco i 
 
 obtruncavi 1 
 
 
 oftendo 1 
 
 oneravi i 
 
 
 optundo I 
 
 
 
 percello i 
 
 
 
 percutio 2 
 
 percussi 2 
 
 
 protero i 
 
 
 
 pulto I 
 
 
 
 quatio 1 
 
 
 
 
 sacrificavi i 
 
 sacrificabam i 
 
 saucio I 
 
 
 sollicitabam i 
 
 sublino I 
 
 ■1> 
 
 torporavi i 
 
 
 Historical 
 
 Ittfmitive, 
 

 
 19 
 
 
 
 VERBS OF REST. 
 
 Historical 
 
 Present. 
 
 Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 maneo 2 
 
 mansi I 
 requievi i 
 
 
 
 sto 1 
 
 astiti 2 
 
 
 
 
 restiti i 
 
 restabam I 
 
 
 sedeo I 
 
 
 
 
 iaceo i 
 
 
 
 
 Historical 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 VERBS OF CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 facio 21 
 
 feci 17 
 
 faciebam I 
 
 
 adficio 1 
 
 
 
 
 conficio I 
 
 effeci I 
 patefeci i 
 (fores) 
 praefeci i 
 
 
 
 facessco i 
 
 
 
 
 aedifico 1 
 
 
 
 
 creo I 
 
 
 
 
 fingo I 
 
 
 
 
 confingo I 
 
 
 
 
 configo 1 
 
 
 
 
 paro I 
 
 paravi i 
 
 
 
 facere I 
 
 VERBS OF GIVING, RECEIVING, YIELDING, HINDERING, etc. 
 
 do 14 
 
 dedi 10 
 
 reddo i 
 
 reddidi 2 
 
 dedo 2 
 
 
 
 donavi i 
 
 
 despondi 3 
 
 devoveo 1 
 
 
 commando I 
 
 
 
 tradidi i 
 
 accipio 2 
 
 accepi 2 
 
 recipio 2 
 
 
 ostendo 2 
 
 
 placeo 2 
 
 placui 2 
 
 lubet I 
 
 
 dabam 5 
 
 dare i 
 dedere 
 
20 
 
 VERBS OF GIVING, RECEIVING, YIELDING, HINDERING, ETC. 
 
 [CONTINUED.] 
 
 Historical 
 
 Present. 
 
 decet I 
 pareo I 
 
 sequor 2 
 consequor 3 
 
 adnuo i 
 obdo 3 
 
 Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 conlubitum i 
 
 parsi I 
 sivi I 
 
 impedivi i 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 serviebam i 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Historical 
 Infinitive. 
 
 sequi I 
 
 obsequi 1 
 persequi I 
 
 consono i 
 tinno I 
 cano I 
 
 contonat I 
 tumultuor i 
 perstrepo I 
 nterpello i 
 saluto 2 
 gratulor 2 
 plaudo I 
 
 desero i 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS VERBS.' 
 sonabam i 
 
 tonuit I 
 
 contempsi i 
 sprevi i 
 neglexi i 
 
 ' It would be possible to subdivide these miscellaneous verbs into a large 
 number of smaller classes, such as verbs of sound, of attainment, of buying and 
 selling, of power, of beginning, of existence, etc., etc. Little, however, 
 would be gained by such a division for the purposes of this dissertation. It 
 would also be possible to embrace in preceding classes some of the verbs that 
 are included here. 
 
It 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS VERBS. 
 
 [CONTINUED.] 
 
 VisloHeal 
 
 Historical 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Perfect. 
 perdidi i 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 relinquo 3 
 
 reliqui 2 
 desdti I 
 
 
 
 desino i 
 
 credidi 1 
 
 
 
 
 fefelli I 
 
 fallebar i 
 
 insaniebam i 
 
 
 demonstravi 1 
 
 
 
 pario 2 
 
 peperi 3 
 
 
 
 adopto 2 
 
 
 
 
 educo I 
 
 educavi I 
 
 
 
 
 
 cuarabam i 
 
 curaram I 
 
 commuto I 
 
 
 
 
 immuto i 
 
 
 
 
 celo I 
 
 
 
 
 simulo I 
 
 
 dissimulabam i 
 
 
 commoro i 
 
 
 
 
 supeio I 
 
 
 I'superabam I 
 
 
 vinco I 
 
 vici I 
 faausi I 
 
 nactus I 
 
 stabilibam r 
 comperiebam i 
 
 
 tepperio i 
 
 
 
 
 occupo 1 
 
 
 
 
 obtineo 1 
 
 
 
 
 habeo i 
 
 habui 2 
 
 habebam 1 
 tenebam i 
 
 
 participo i 
 
 
 
 
 vendo 3 
 
 vendidi 3 
 
 
 
 emo 2 
 
 emi 3 
 
 
 
 mercor I 
 
 mercatus I 
 
 
 
 oppleo I 
 
 inscripsi I 
 consignavi I 
 pactus I 
 
 cotnplebam i 
 
 
 mico I 
 
 
 
 
 I/istorieal 
 . Infinitivti 
 
 simulare I 
 
22 
 
 Historical 
 
 Present. 
 
 valeo I 
 potis sum I 
 
 ebibo J 
 
 sulto : 
 coTidormisco I 
 
 infit 5 
 incipio I 
 occipio I 
 
 morior 2 
 emorior i 
 
 consto I 
 
 sum I 
 adsum i 
 insum I 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS VERBS. 
 
 [CONTINUED.] 
 
 Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 potui 2 
 quivi I 
 
 bibi I 
 
 condormivi i 
 lavi I 
 
 coepi 22 
 
 occepi 14 
 natus 2 
 adolevi i 
 mortnus 2 
 eraortuus i 
 peril 3 
 constiti 4 
 contigi I 
 
 fui 23 
 adfui 1 
 
 Imperfect. 
 confulgebam z 
 
 poteram 2 
 quibam I 
 eminebam I 
 
 solebam i 
 
 nebam 1 
 texebam i 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 eram 20 
 aderam 2 
 inerat I 
 
 Historical 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 emorin I 
 
 pendere 1 
 
 An examination of the above list shows that it is 
 chiefly verbs of incomplete and continued action as op- 
 posed to verbs of completed and momentary action which 
 tend toward the Historical Present. These verbs of in- 
 complete and continued action are verbs that imply 
 vision on the part of the speaker. They indicate that he 
 is reviewing the events denoted by them and considering 
 
23 
 
 them in their process of completion instead of simply 
 recognizing the fact that they once took place and were 
 completed in the past. In other words, these verbs are 
 imperfect, not aoristic, in character. They are used, not 
 for the purpose of stating the occurrence of events, but for 
 the purpose of describing these events and portraying them 
 to the mind in their process of development. They are 
 employed in the description of scenes that the mind re- 
 views. 
 
 Now if it is chieflj- these verbs which tend toward the 
 Historical Present, then it would seem clear that the His- 
 torical Present is imperfect in character, and is used as a 
 tense of vision, to describe, not merely state, the events of 
 the past. This at once distinguishes it from the Historical 
 Perfect. But how is it distinguished from the Imperfect, 
 since it is not to be supposed that two different tenses have 
 the same function? The distinction between the Imper- 
 fect and the Historical Present may be briefly defined as 
 follows : by the Imperfect the speaker views the events as 
 past from the point of view of his own present, and 
 describes them as going on in the past ; by the Histor- 
 ical Present he views them as if they were going on before 
 his eves in the sphere of his own present, whether he does 
 this by bringing the events out of the past into his actual 
 present, or by putting himself back into their past. In 
 either case he makes the present of the events his present. 
 
 This, then, is the function of the Historical Present — 
 the representation of past events as if they were going on 
 in the present before the eyes of the spectator. Such a 
 function seems to spring from the timeless character of the 
 present tense. This tense in itself has not the limitations 
 of any particular sphere of time, but denotes actions in a 
 state of continuance, whether in the past, present or fu- 
 ture. If the speaker throws himself backward into the 
 
24 
 
 past (or draws the past into his present), and views actions 
 that in fact are past as going on before his eyes, he uses 
 the Historical Present to express them. In the same way- 
 it is possible to explain the use of the Present for the Fu- 
 ture ; that is, if the speaker projects himself forward into 
 the future and views events that in fact are yet to come as 
 going on before his eyes he may use the Present to ex- 
 press them. 
 
 If the essential characteristic of the Historical Present 
 is the representation of the past, so that scenes and events 
 are described as if they were taking place before the eyes 
 of the speaker, it follows that the use of the tense need not 
 be confined to verbs that express continued and incom- 
 plete activities, but may be extended to verbs of aoristic 
 conceptions. When the speaker reviews a scene he may 
 bring before his mind as still going on not only activities 
 that in themselves are incomplete and continued, such as 
 those denoted by many verbs of motion, by verbs of sound, 
 vision, emotion, construction, etc., but also activities that 
 in themselves are completed, such as those denoted by 
 verbs of attainment, verbs of momentary action (killing, 
 striking, etc.), etc. In almost all scenes that a speaker 
 may recall will be found intermingled these two kinds of 
 activities, the one of which would naturally be expressed 
 by the Imperfect, the other by the Aorist. When these 
 scenes are taken out of the limits of the past and presented 
 to the mind as if they were going on before the eyes of 
 the speaker, both kinds of activities are described by the 
 Historical Present as parts of a course of events that is in 
 progress in the sphere of time that the speaker is regard- 
 ing as present. Of the individual actions in this course of 
 events some may be of momentary, others of incomplete 
 character. All may be described by the Historical Pres- 
 ent as taking place before the eyes. Hence the decision 
 
25 
 
 in any particular case whether the Historical Present 
 represents an Imperfect or an Aorist in narration, is a 
 subordinate consideration. 
 
 After the function of the Historical Present as a 
 means of representing the past as present has been estab- 
 lished, another problem presents itself. Why in the same 
 narration, in the description of the same scene, which is 
 being portrayed as if it were taking place before the eyes 
 of the speaker, should the Historical Present be interrupt- 
 ed by past tenses, notably by the Historical Perfect and 
 Imperfect? It is commonly claimed that such variation, 
 especially that of the Historical Present with the Historical 
 Perfect, is arbitrary, and that the mind passes without any 
 especial reason from one tense to another, from the narra- 
 tive past to the more vivid present." In ante-classical Latin 
 it is doubtful whether this sweeping assertion holds good. 
 An investigation of the narrative passages seems to show 
 that in general some reason exists for the variation in nar- 
 ration of the Historical Present with other tenses. 
 
 The Historical Perfect, which is found in variation 
 with the Historical Present oftener than any other tense, 
 frequently has its ordinary character as a tense of simple 
 narration to give a mere statement of fact, as distinguished 
 from the more descriptive character of the Historical 
 Present. This use of the Perfect is found often in the 
 introduction or conclusion of dramatic scenes that are 
 described by the Historical Present. It is also found in 
 the narration of the scenes themselves to mark explan- 
 atory or parenthetical facts. Thus the tendency of 
 certain verbs toward the Perfect instead of the Historical 
 Present is explained. Sum, for example, and its com- 
 
 ' So Holtze, op. cit., p. 64: "non raro in eodem orationis tenore variant 
 inter se et permutantur perfectum et praesens historicum." Schneider, op. cit., 
 p. 7: "praesens, perfectum et infinitum etiam historicum promiscue se invicem 
 excipere." Lattmann, op. et loc. cit. (see Chapter I, p. 7), and others. 
 
26 
 
 pounds are found more often in the Perfect because they 
 are used chiefly of introductory or explanatory facts, 
 which are to be merely stated, not described. Such verbs, 
 also, as occifio, incifio, volo, etc., are found most fre- 
 quently in the Perfect because they are in themselves 
 merely introductory to their dependent infinitives upon 
 which the real emphasis falls. The verb and the infinitive 
 together form one expression almost equivalent to a finite 
 tense (Imperfect) of the verb to which the infinitive be- 
 longs. If, however, the act of beginning, wishing, etc., 
 is to be emphasized and brought into line with the other 
 acts making up the scene, then these verbs are thrown 
 into the Historical Present. 
 
 Often, on the other hand, the Perfect itself is a more 
 integral part of the scene. In these cases it is used chiefly 
 to emphasize the completion of an activity, or its instan- 
 taneous or momentary character, thus differing from the 
 Historical Present which of necessity represents activities 
 in their process of completion. Thus verbs that in 
 their nature denote an instantaneous action are more likely 
 to be found in the Perfect than in the Historical Present, 
 while, on the other hand, verbs that naturally express 
 continuance, such as verbs of vision and emotion, 
 although usually found in the Historical Present, may be 
 put into the Perfect when the suddenness of the activity is 
 to be emphasized. 
 
 Negative conceptions also tend toward the Perfect, 
 but, like other specifically aoristic conceptions, they may- 
 be expressed by the Historical Present when they are a 
 closely connected part of the scene. 
 
 Deserving of special mention in any discussion of the 
 variation of the Historical Present with the Historical Per- 
 fect is the large class of verbs of saying. These 
 verbs are found chiefly in the Historical Present, for they 
 
27- 
 
 are essentially verbs that would occur in the description 
 of scenes. A large number, in which the act of speaking, 
 answering, calling, shouting, praying, etc., is erii- 
 phasized and made an integral part of the scene, seem 
 to have the real force of the Historical Present. Such 
 verbs, however, as inquam, ato, and even the present forms 
 of dico, seem to be used phraseologically, to indicate, as 
 it were, the parts of the speakers in the dialogue, with 
 but little idea of any representation of the past. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that in general the variation of 
 the Historical Present with the Historical Perfect is far 
 from arbitrary. Yet cases will be found where no 
 especial reason can be assigned for the change of tenses. 
 In familiar conversation, particularly, a speaker may 
 easily pass from one to the other. 
 
 The variation of the Imperfect with the Historical 
 Present is much less frequent than that of the Perfect. 
 This follows from the close resemblance between the His- 
 torical Present and the Imperfect. An examination of the 
 passages in which the two tenses occur again emphasizes 
 the fact that the special function of the Historical Present 
 is to portray past events as if they were present, whether 
 these events be continuative or aoristic in character. As 
 soon as the continuance of the action is to be emphasized, 
 or the description of its details becomes especially impor- 
 tant, the Imperfect is used. Thus the Imperfect is found 
 most frequently of verbs that denote effort, where the slow 
 process of attainment is emphasized, and of verbs that 
 denote the state or condition of some subject. The Imper- 
 fect of sum and its compounds is almost as frequent as the 
 Perfect because it often describes a state or condition. 
 The rare Historical Present of these verbs puts the em- 
 phasis on the fact that the state or condition exists in the 
 sphere that the speaker is regarding as present. 
 
28 
 
 Furthermore, the Imperfect is used, as might be 
 supposed, when repeated or customary actions are to be 
 described. 
 
 The Pluperfect is occasionally found in the same 
 narration with the Historical Present, but is always accom- 
 panied by Historical Perfects and Impei^fects as well. It 
 is used to denote completion in the past from the point of 
 view of the actual time of the events.' 
 
 Finally is to be noticed the variation of the Historical 
 Present with the Historical Infinitive. This variation is 
 not infrequent although in every case the narration also 
 contains other tenses. 
 
 The nature of the Historical Infinitive, like that of the 
 Historical Present, is still a matter of dispute. One point, 
 however, is generally agreed upon, namely, that it is used 
 to give a rapid sequence of events ; and this seems to be 
 its function in ante-classical Latin. It thus resembles the 
 Imperfect in its descriptive character, while it differs from 
 it in portraying, not the slow process of development, but 
 the hurried and lively and sometimes confused succession 
 of details. Even where the Historical Infinitive resembles 
 the Imperfect in denoting repeated action it still retains its 
 character of rapid description. The Imperfect denotes 
 only the repetition. The Historical Infinitive includes the 
 idea of the rapid and lively succession of occurrences.^ 
 
 On the other hand, the Historical Infinitive is often 
 compared with the Historical Present. In ante-classical 
 
 ' There is one example of a Pluperfect used to denote an instantaneous action 
 ("Plusquamperfektum der Schnelligkeit"), Phormio 594. See Chapter III, A, 5. 
 
 " So Grysar, Ueber die Bedeutung mid den Gebrauck des historischen Infini- 
 iivs im Lateinischen, Zeitschrifl fiir die Ss/erreichischen Gymnasien, I'V(i853), P- 
 779: "Dann aber hat das Imperfectum nur den einfachen Begriff der Wider- 
 holung; die Merkmale des wechselnden, beweglichen, des raschen Aufeinander- 
 folgens, kurz diejenigen Momente, welche eben den character der Lebendigkeit 
 in die Schilderung bringen, hegen nicht im Imperfect, sondern nur in dem 
 Infinitive." 
 
29 
 
 Latin, at least, it seems to resemble the Historical Present 
 in that it represents the past as if it were present, and to 
 differ from it in that it is more essentially descriptive.' 
 The Historical Present maj' be used of aoristic as well as 
 of imperfect conceptions, and it has been indicated that 
 when continuance and description are to be emphasized it 
 is the Imperfect, not the Historical Present, which is used. 
 The Historical Infinitive, then, while it differs from the 
 Historical Present in its descriptive, and from the Imper- 
 fect in its hurried and lively character, may also be said 
 to combine parts of the natures of both tenses. For, as 
 has been pointed out, like the Historical Present it rep- 
 resents past events as if they were going on in the present, 
 and like the Imperfect it describes these events. 
 
 In the narrative passages in ante-classical Latin in 
 which the Historical Infinitive varies with the Historical 
 Present and other tenses its peculiar function seems, on the 
 whole, to be clearly maintained. 
 
 In concluding this general discussion of the variation 
 of the Historical Present with other tenses, the question of 
 metrical restrictions must be taken into consideration. In 
 
 'See Grysar, op.cit., p. 777: "Das praesens historicum und der historische 
 Infinitiv haben dies mit einander gemein, dass sie etwas vergangenes vergegen- 
 wartigen; aber durch janes wird immer eine einzelne Thatsache, ein Ereigniss 
 dargestellt, wahrend, wie bereits gesagt worden, durch den Infinitiv ein Zustand 
 geschildert wird." Contrast Mohr, De Infinitivo Historico, Halle, 1878, p. 8: 
 "hoc reiciendum est, quod dicunt, quae infinitivo historico narrentur 'quasi in 
 praesens legentium tempus proferri.' Cuius opinionis causa fuit haec, quod 
 falso hie infinitivus praesenti tempori tribuitur, cum certum tempus omnino non 
 significet. Ea enim re differt a praesente historico, quo res gestae eis, qui legunt, 
 alia ex alia ante oculos proponuntur, velut si eodem temporis momento ab ipsis 
 conspiciantur." And Hoffmann, Zeitfolge nach dem Praesens historicum, 
 pp. 14-15: "als praesentischer Infinitiv ist er schlechthin der Name der Hand- 
 lung in der Phase ihres Vollzuges: dass er eine Vergegenwartigung bewirke, 
 die betreffende der Vergangenheit angehorige Handlung oder Zustandlichkeit 
 in die Zeit des Erzahlenden riicke, wird man schwerlich behaupten 
 woUen." 
 
3° 
 
 any form of poetry the choice of words must be more or" 
 less determined by the exigencies of the metre, and it may 
 be claimed that often in Plautus and Terence no other 
 reason need be sought for the variation in tenses than the 
 necessity for the occurrence of long or short syllables in 
 certain parts of the verse. But the poets must be credited 
 with the ability to adapt their verses to normal linguistic 
 usages ; and a comparison of such forms as accedo, accessi; 
 duco, duxi; dico, dixi, etc., will indicate how free in reality 
 the choice of, at least. Historical Present or Historical Per- 
 fect was. In comparatively few cases in Plautus and 
 Terence is it difficult to explain the variation of the Histori- 
 cal Present with other tenses on more thorough-going 
 principles than the extei-nal necessities of metre. That in 
 these few cases metrical restrictions are a more satisfactory 
 explanation than the spontaneity of colloquial speech is 
 doubtful. The influence of metre is not by any means to 
 be wholly denied, but it seems hardly justifiable to assume 
 it as a ground for variation of tenses, parallel to more 
 fundamental principles of language. 
 
 A detailed investigation of the passages in which the 
 Historical Present varies with other tenses in the narration 
 of past events will follow in Chapter III. 
 
 The discussion of this chapter may conclude with a 
 brief reference to the use of the Historical Present in 
 literature as distinguished from its use in the spoken lan- 
 guage. A study of the Historical Present in ante-classical 
 Latin shows that, originating in the timeless use of the 
 present tense, it was used in the colloquial speech of the 
 people to bring past events before the mind as if they 
 were going on in the present. Such representation of the 
 past involves a certain liveliness in narration. But this 
 liveliness must not be unduly emphasized. In ordinary 
 conversation a speaker may relate past events as if they 
 
31 
 
 were present without wishing to convey an unusually 
 lively impression of these events to his hearers, and with- 
 out himself distinguishing them with especial vividness 
 from other events. Furthermore, it is not to be supposed 
 that in a colloquial narration a speaker is conscious of the 
 ■function of each tense that he uses, and that the reasons 
 for the variation of the Historical Present with the His- 
 torical Perfect, the Imperfect, etc., are present to his 
 own mind. 
 
 In literature, on the contrary, the Historical Present 
 became a conscious rhetorical device, a distinct organon of 
 style. It was in origin a colloquial and vulgar usage. In 
 the hands of stylists it became, through its power of rep- 
 resenting the past as present, a means for producing 
 artistic effects •' 
 
 Being a tense of narration, the Historical Present was 
 naturally used with especial frequency by the historians. 
 Even the fragments of the historians of the ante-classical 
 period indicate an extended employment of the tense, but 
 no certain conclusions as to the manner of its use can be 
 drawn.^ 
 
 The original colloquial character of the Historical 
 Present, rather than the fact, so often alleged, that it is 
 foreign to the nature of epic narration, probably explains 
 
 ' So Brugmann, 0/. «"/., p. 170: "Das praesens historicum beruht . . . 
 auf dem zeitlich schrankenlosen Gebrauch dieses Tempus, und es erklart sich 
 daraus die Thatsache, dass das praesens historicum in den meisten Sprachen auch 
 dann gebraucht wird wenn keine besondere Lebhaftigkeit des Ausdruckes an- 
 gestrebt wird. Erst kunstmassige Handhabung der Sprache bediente sich dieses 
 Praesens als eines vollkommenen rehetorischen Mittels zur Hervorhebung und zur 
 Belebung der Darstellung." 
 
 ' There seems to be reason to believe that in the later historians (notably 
 Livy and Tacitus), at least, the aoristic function of the Historical Present became 
 prominent and that its use was more similar to that of the Historical Perfect than 
 to that of the Imperfect. But a thorough investigation of the tense in the histo- 
 rians, and, indeed, in most Latin authors, is yet to be made. 
 
32 
 
 why it is not found in Homer." In the Latin epic the 
 Historical Present is widely used, which might seem to 
 be an indication of the artificial, or, at least, rhetorical 
 character of this kind of literature in Latin. ^ The frag- 
 ments of Naevius and Ennius show that the Historical 
 Present had become an organon of style even in the early 
 epic. And it is interesting to note that Livius Androni- 
 cus uses the tense in his translation of the Odyssey. 3 
 
 That the Historical Present was used, in early Latin, at 
 least, not only familiarly in conversation, and artistically 
 in literature, but also in public documents, is indicated by 
 its appearance in one of the inscriptions to the Scipios 
 (Corpus Inscrt-ptionum Latinarum, I, 29) : 
 
 " Tauresia Cisauna Samnio cepit 
 Subigit omne Loucanam opsidesque abdoucit." 
 
 Here no lively representation of the past can be assumed. 
 Neither is there anything in the nature of the verbs to lead 
 to the variation between the Historical Perfect and the 
 Historical Present. The inscription is of peculiar interest, 
 since it seems to show that the Historical Present, even in 
 language so nearly allied to the spoken language as that 
 of such documents, tended towards an aoristic function, 
 indistinguishable from that of the Historical Perfect. 
 
 ' Cf. Gildersleeve, Pindar, Introduction, p. 102: "Brugmann has . . . 
 vindicated the proethnic rights of the historical present on the just ground of the 
 timelessness oi the present. It is therefore not a little remarkable that Pindar 
 uses it as little as Homer uses it. To them the historical present must have been 
 either too vulgar or too hurried. ' ' Rhodemeyer, op. cit. , p. 70, explains the lack of 
 the Historical Present in Homer, according to his theory of the nature of the tense : 
 "weil es im Epos vi^eniger am Platze war eine Handlung nur in Betreff der Zeit 
 durch eine andere zu bestimmen, odergar eine notizenartige Angabe zu machen." 
 
 ^ In Vergil, according to Ley, Vergilianarum Quaestionum specimen prius, 
 de temporum usu, Saarbrucken, 1877, the Historical Present plays a somewhat 
 peculiar part, in that it denotes regularly a resulting action, of which the His- 
 torical Perfect denotes the ground. For indications of a similar use of the 
 Historical Present in the early epic, see Chapter III, B, 2, a. 
 
 ' Lines 28-30. See iiid. 
 
33 
 
 This tendency may be explained from the frequent col- 
 loquial usage of the Historical Present to represent aoristic 
 activities of the past.' 
 
 A few Historical Presents from early inscriptions are 
 also preserved in the grammarians. Caesius Bassus quotes 
 the following verse from the votive tablet of M'. Acilius 
 Glabrio : '-^ 
 
 " Fundi/, fugat, prosiemi/ mzxamas legiones." 
 
 And Gensorinus quotes a similar anonymous verse, prob- 
 ably from an inscription : 3 
 
 " Magnum numerum triumphat hostibus deuictis." 
 All of these Historical Presents are excellent illustrations 
 
 ' The only other Historical Present that can be cited from early Latin in- 
 scriptions occurs in the inscription on the restored Columna Kostrata (C /. Z., 
 I, 195), where one Historical Present varies arbitrarily with several Historical 
 Perfects : 
 
 "Secestanosque op- 
 
 sidioned exemet, lecionesque Cartaciniensis omnis 
 
 maximosque macistratos luci palam post dies 
 
 novem castreis ecfociont. Macelamque opidom vi 
 
 pucnandod cepet — " etc. 
 
 The form ecfociont, however, is in itself doubtful, in addition to the general 
 doubtfulness of the whole inscription. Mommsen and Ritschl hold that the 
 original column contained either no inscription at all or a very brief one, and that 
 the above inscription was composed for the restored column in archaistic style 
 during the early Empire, probably under Claudius (C. /. Z., I, p. 40; Ritschl's 
 Opuscula IV, p. 204). Wolfffin, on the other hand, maintains that the inscription 
 is genuinely old, and that the restoration of it in the time of Augustus concerned 
 only the forms of the letters ( Sitzungsberichte der k. bayerischen Akademie der 
 Wissenschafien zu Miinchen, phil.-hist. CI., Heft III [1890], p. 293). 
 
 A variation of Presents with Perfects occurs also in the epitaph of Claudia 
 ( C. I. L„ I, 1007) : 
 
 " Suom mareitum corde deilexii sovo. 
 
 Gnatos duos creavit : horunc alterum 
 
 In terra linquit, alium sub terra locat, 
 
 Domum servavit : lanam fecit. ' ' 
 These Presents, however, are not Historical. But see Ritschl's Opuscula, IV, 
 p. 223, foot-note, where the inscription is quoted in support of the Historical 
 Presents found in the above Scipio inscription. 
 *Keil, Grammatici Latini, VI, 265. 
 3 Ibid., bis- 
 
34 
 
 of the tense, but their isolation from other tenses makes 
 it impossible to decide how far, in the original context, 
 they may have vividly represented the past, or how 
 far, like those in the Scipio inscription to which they 
 seem closely parallel, they may have tended towards an 
 aoristic function. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE VARIATION OF THE HISTORICAL PRESENT WITH 
 OTHER TENSES. 
 
 It will be well to examine first passages drawn from 
 the comic poets and from Varro, that is, from the litera- 
 ture that represents most nearly the speech of the people, 
 and to leave for later consideration passages drawn from 
 tragedy, from the epic and satire, and from history, that 
 is, from the remains of ante-classical Latin that represent 
 literary styles. 
 
 A. 
 I. The Historical Present varied -with the Historical 
 
 Perfect, 
 a. In some passages the description of a scene is 
 introduced by a Perfect ; given by Historical Presents ; 
 and concluded again by one or more Perfects. The con- 
 cluding Perfects may simply state the occurrence of some 
 event, or may denote some sudden, instantaneous action, 
 or some resulting action. 
 Truculentus 645-55 : 
 
 645 Ras mane dudum hinc ire me iussit pater, 
 
 Vt bubus glandem prandio depromerem. 
 
 Post illoc ueni quam aduenit si dais placet 
 
 Ad uillam argentum meo qui debebat patri, 
 
 Qui ouis Tarentinas erat mercatus de patie. 
 630 ^»<»fr«/patrem: </Jn» esse in urbe, »«/i?rr<g» 
 
 Quid eum uelit. • » » • » 
 
 Homo cruminam sibi de cello detrahit, 
 
 Minas uiginti mi dat, accipio labens, 
 
 Condo in cruminam: ille abiit^ ego pera minas 
 €55 Ouis in crumina hac in urbem detuli. 
 
 Here the concluding Perfects are of sudden actions. 
 * Leo leads obit, thus making this action a part of the scene itself. 
 
36 
 
 Cf. Capiui 478-89, where, after one scene has been con- 
 cluded by a Perfect of instantaneous action and a neg- 
 atived Perfect, activities implying a succession of 
 scenes are portrayed by Historical Presents, and the de- 
 scription is left suspended, with no concluding Perfect : 
 
 Nam ego ut dudum hinc abii, accessi ad adulescentes in foro : 
 
 'Salvete' inquam. 'quo imus' inquam 'ad prandium?' atque iUi tacent. 
 480 'Quisait: hoc? aut quis profitetur?' inquam: quasi muti «&k^, 
 
 Neque me Wi/i?»/. 'ubi cenamus una?' inquam: atque illi a^waowi^. 
 
 Dico unum ridiculum dictum de dictis melioribus, 
 
 Quibus solebam menstrualis epulas ante adipiscier : 
 
 Nemo ridet. sciui extemplo rem de compecto geri. 
 485 Ne canem quidem irritatum uoluit quisquam imitarier, 
 
 Saitem si non arriderent, denies ut restringerent. 
 
 Abeo ab illis, postquam uideo me sic ludificarier : 
 
 Pergo ad alios, uenio ad alios, deinde ad alios — una res. 
 
 Omnes de compecto rem agunt quasi in Velabro olearii. 
 
 Note the negatived Historical Presents in 481 and 484.* 
 
 In Phormio 859^881 one scene concludes with a series of 
 
 Perfects, denoting a series of single, instantaneous 
 
 actions. After an intervening dialogue another short 
 
 scene follows, depicted by Historical Presents, and 
 
 concluding with a Perfect of resulting action : 
 
 Vt modo argentum tibi dedimus apud forum, recta domum 
 860 Sumus profecti; interea mitlit erus me ad uxorem tuam. 
 
 Vbi in gynaeceum ire occipio, puer ad me adcurrit Mida, 
 Pone prendit pallio, resupinat: respicio, rogo 
 Quam ob rem retineat me: ait esse uetitum intro ad eram accedere. 
 865 'Sophrona modo fratrem hue' inquit 'senis introduxit Chremem'; 
 Eumque nunc esse intus cum illis. hoc ubi ego audiui, ad fores 
 Suspenso gradu placide ire perrexi, accessi, astiti, 
 Animam compressi, aurem admoui : 
 
 patruos interea inde hue egredilur foras : 
 Hand multo post cum patre idem recipit se intro denuo : 
 880 Aii uterque tibi potestatem eius adhibendae dari. 
 Denique ego sum missus. 
 
 ' Cf. Curculio, 352; Aulularia, 710; Amphitruo, 238 and 239; Heauton 
 Timorumenos, 140. See Chapter II, p. 26. 
 
, 37 
 
 Similar reasons may be assigned for the variation of 
 Historical Presents and Historical Perfects in Aulularia 
 467-71; Truculenius 397-409; Ca5««a 39-45 ; Curculio 
 596-97, where there is no introductory Perfect; Adelfhi 
 470-74, where the scene is confined to a single Historical 
 Present; cf. with this passage Adelfhi 542, where, how- 
 ever, there is no concluding Perfect; so also, Varro, de 
 re rustica I, 2, 1-2, where the scene is depicted by inquam, 
 inqtiit, inquit.^ 
 
 b. In other passages the description of the scene 
 itself contains Perfects, as well as being introduced and 
 concluded by Perfects. 
 
 In Aulularia 371-84 the scene, introduced by a Perfect, 
 is depicted by Historical Presents, varied with an 
 explanatory, almost parenthetical, fuerunt. It is con- 
 cluded by a Perfect which sums up preceding activities, 
 and is followed by Perfects of ordinary narration : 
 
 Volui animum tandem conBrmare hodie meum, 
 Vt bene haberem me filiae nuptiis. 
 
 Venio ad macellum, rogito pisces; itidicant 
 Caros: agninam caiam, caram bubulam, 
 375 Vitulinam, cetum, porcinam, cara omnia: 
 Atque eo fuerunt cariora, aes non erat." 
 Abeo iratus illinc, quoniam nil est qui emam. 
 Ita illis impuris omnibus adii manum. 
 Deinde egomet mecum cogitare inter uias 
 380 Occepi : f esto die si quid prodegeris, 
 Profesto egere liceat, nisi peperceris. 
 Postquam banc rationem uentri cordique edidi, 
 Accessit animus ad meam sententiam, 
 Quam minumo sumptu filiam ut nuptum darem. 
 
 Note that here abeo (377) is regarded as a part of the scene, 
 
 "^But see Chapter II, p. 27. 
 
 ^ The clause containing the only Imperfect resembles so closely a subordinate 
 causal clause that the passage may be better quoted here than under the variation 
 of the Historical Present, Historical Perfect and Imperfect. 
 
38 
 
 whereas it is often used in the Perfect of instantaneous 
 action to conclude a scene. Cf. also Ca-ptiui 487, quoted 
 above, p. 2i^. 
 
 In Moslellaria 1045-52 after the introductory Perfect, 
 the description of the scene is begun by Perfects of 
 ordinary narration, which are then followed, possibly 
 under the stress of increasing excitement, by Histor- 
 ical Presents : 
 
 1045 ^fiii ilia per angiportum ad hortum nostrum clanculum. 
 Ostium quod in angiportost horti, patefeci fores, 
 Eaque eduxi omnem legionem, et maris at feminas. 
 Postquam ex opsidione in tutum eduxi maniplaris meos, 
 Capio consilium, ut senatum congerronum conuocem. 
 
 1050 Quoniam conuocaui, atque illi me ex senatu segregant. 
 Vbi ego me uideo uenire in meo foro, quantum potest 
 Facio idem quod plurimi alii quibus res timida aut turbidast. 
 
 In Curculio 329-63 two scenes are bound together into 
 one narration by the Historical Present abeo, which 
 portrays the intervening activity. The first is intro- 
 duced by a Perfect and described by Historical 
 Presents, except for resfondit, for which, as distin- 
 guished from the Historical Presents, there seems to 
 be no especial reason, and the negative noluit. After 
 abeo follows the second scene, very vivaciously de- 
 scribed by Historical Presents, varying only with an 
 explanatory and almost parenthetical j^«//, with the 
 negative nolui, and with offosiuit, for which there 
 seems to be no especial reason. The scene ends with 
 a Perfect of instantaneous action : 
 
 Postquam tuo iussu profectus sum, perueni in Cariam: 
 330 Video tuom sodalem, argenti rogo uti facial copiam. 
 Scires uelle gratiam tuam: noluit frustrariar, 
 Vt decet uelle hominem amicum amico atque opitularier: 
 Respondit mihi paucis uerbis atque adeo fideliter, 
 Quod tibist item sibi esse, magnam argenti inopiam. 
 
39 
 
 Fostquam mihi responsumst, abeo ab illo maestus ad forum, 
 Med illo frustra aduenisse. forte aspicio militem : 
 A^redior hominem, saluto adueniens: ' salve ' inquit mihi, 
 Prendit dexteram, seducit, rogat quid ueniam Cariam : 
 
 340 Dico me illo aduenisse animi causa, ibi me interrogat, 
 Ecquem in Epidauro Lyconem tarpeidtam nouerim. 
 Z>»Vo me nouisse. 'Quid? lenonem Cappadocem?' Annuo 
 Visitasse. ' Sed quid eum uis? ' ' Quia de illo emi uirginem 
 Triginta minis, uestem, aurum: et pro his decem coaccedunt minae.' 
 
 345 ' Dedisti tu argentum? ' inquam. ' Immo apud trapezitam situmst 
 Ilium quem dixi Lyconem, atque ei mandaui, qui anulo 
 Meo tabellas obsignatas attulisset, ut daret 
 Operam, ut mulierem a lenone cum auro et ueste abduceret.' 
 Fostquam hoc mihi narrauit, adeo ab illo. reuocai me ilico, 
 
 350 Vocat me ad cenam : religio fuit, denegare nolui. 
 
 ' Quid si abeamus, decumbamus? ' inquit. consilium placet; 
 Neque diem decet me morari neque nocti nocerier. 
 Omnis res paratast ' et nos quibus paratnmst assumus. 
 Fostquam cenati atque appotij talos poscit sibi in manum, 
 
 355 Prouocat me in aleam, ut ego ludam. pono pallium : 
 lUe suom anulum opposiuit, inuocat Planesium. 
 
 iacit uolturios quattuor. 
 Talos arripio, inuoco almam meam nutricem Herculem, 
 lacto \iss&caxa, propino magnum poclum: ille eUlnt, 
 
 360 Caput deponit, condormiscit, ego ei subduco anulum, 
 Deduce pedes de lecto clam, ne miles sentiat. 
 Rogant me serui quo eam : dico me ire quo saturi solent. 
 Ostium ubi conspexi, exinde me ilico protinam dedi. 
 
 In Adelphi 617-24 the scene, introduced by a Perfect, is 
 described by Historical Presents and concluded by 
 two Perfects of momentary action : 
 
 id anus mi indicium fecit. 
 Kam ut bine forte ad obstetricem erat missa, ubi eam uidi, ilico 
 Accede, rogito, Famphila quid agat, iam partus adsiet, 
 620 Eon obstetricem accersat. ilia exclamat ' abi, abi : iam, Aeschine, 
 Satis din dedisti uerba: sat adhuc tua nos frustratast fides.' 
 'Hem, quid istuc obsecro ' inquam 'est?' 'ualeas, habeas illam 
 
 quae placet.' 
 Sensi ilico id illas suspicari: sed reprehendi me tamen, 
 Ne quid de fratre gamilae illi dicerem ac fieret palam. 
 
 ' Historical Present (est parata), rather than Perfect. 
 
40 
 
 Other passages in which the description of a scene 
 that is introduced, or concluded, or both, by Perfects con- 
 tains also Perfects in itself are: Miles Glortosus 174-79; 
 Adelfhi 405-7 ; Eunuchus 130-43 ; Andria 855-8. 
 
 In some passages a scene is described by Historical 
 Presents and Perfects, without introductory or concluding 
 Perfects. 
 Poenulus 650-66, where the Historical Presents vary with 
 
 one Perfect of instantaneous action : 
 
 650 Nisi dudum mane ut ad portum processimus, 
 Atque istum e naui exeuntem oneraria 
 Videmus. adiit ad nos extempio exiens : 
 Salutat, respondemus. .... 
 
 655 . . . Sermonem ibi nobiscum copulat. 
 Ait se peregrinum esse. .... 
 
 In Casina 321-23 the description of the scene, begun in 
 
 Historical Presents, is interrupted by a question, and then 
 
 taken up again by a Perfect of simple narration : 
 
 Ol. oral, obsecrat, 
 
 Ne Casinam uxorem ducat. Ly. Quid tu postea? 
 Ol. Negaui. 
 In Asinaria 343-56 the variation is chiefly in the tenses of 
 verbs of saying, and seems to have no especial 
 reason : 
 
 Verum in tonstrina ut sedebam, me infit percontarier, 
 
 Ecquem filium Stratonis nouerim Demaenetum. 
 345 Dico me nouisse extempio et me eius servum praedico 
 
 Esse et aedis demonstraui nostras. 
 
 Ait se ob asinos ferre argentum atriensi Saureae, 
 
 350 Quoniam ille elocutus haec sic ... . 
 Extempio facio facetum me atque magnificum uirum, 
 Dico med esse atriensem. sic hoc respondit mihi : 
 
 Ego me dixi erum adducturum. 
 
 Note in 345 and 351 the Historical Presents modified 
 
41 
 
 by extemplo, an adverb that more naturally accompanies 
 a Perfect of instantaneous or sudden action, as, for exam- 
 ple, in Poenulus 652, quoted above, p. 40.' 
 In Andria 353-65 a vivid narration contains descriptions of 
 two scenes, which, together with the intervening and 
 the following activities of the narrator, are portrayed 
 by Historical Presents, except for two Perfects at the 
 end, of instantaneous and momentary actions : 
 
 Tuos pater modo me prehendit: ait tibi uxorem dare 
 Hodie, item alia multa, quae nunc non est narrandi locus. 
 355 Continuo ad te properans /sr^arra ad forum, ut dicam haec tibi. 
 Vbi te non inuenio, ibi ascendo in quendam excelsum locum. 
 Circumspicio: nusquam. forte ibi huius ajVifo By rriam; 
 Rogo: negat uidisse. mihi molestum; quid agam cogito. 
 Redeunti interea ex ipsa re mi incidit suspicio 
 
 Ego me continuo ad Chremem. 
 Quom illo aduenio, solitudo ante ostium : iam id gaudeo. 
 Maneo. interea intro ire neminem 
 Video, exire neminem; matronam nuUamin aedibus, 
 365 "Nil ornati, nil tumulti : accessi; intro aspexi. 
 
 Note accessi here over against accedo in Adelphi 619, 
 
 quoted above, p. 39. 
 
 In Hecyra 38-42 the scene of the second failure of the 
 play is vividly portrayed by Historical Presents, end- 
 ing with the negatived potui: 
 
 refero denuo. 
 Primo actu placeo. quom interea rumor uenit 
 40 Datum iri gladiatores, populus conuolat, 
 Tumultuantur clamant ptignant de loco: 
 Ego interea meum non potui tutari locum. 
 
 The description of this scene is preceded (33-36) by a 
 
 quieter narration in Perfects of the first failure. 
 
 In Andria 253-57 the only Historical Present is inquit. 
 
 'Cf. for the Historical Present with extemplo, Captivi 513; Casina 41; 
 Cistellaria 182-83 and 572. Cf. also the Historical Present with derepente, Mts- 
 tellaria 488; and with ilico, Aulularia 709; Pseudolus 1281; Rudens (i2-(>y, 
 Amphiiruo 2i6-lJ and 243; Curculio ^4^; Adelphi 618-19; Eunuchtts, 576. 
 
42 
 
 This is followed by an explanatory uisust dicere, and by 
 
 obstifui and ohmutui ai momentary actions. 
 In Phormio 910-11 the variation is between dehortatus est 
 
 and inquit. 
 In Heauton Timorumenos 768 and 772, between dixit and 
 
 dicit.^ 
 In Varro, de re rustica, I, 2, 24-5, between susci-pit, 
 
 inquit and coepit. 
 In L. Pomponius 170-2 Perfects of single, momentary 
 
 actions vary with an Historical Present of continued 
 
 action : 
 
 . simul intro ueni, accessi ad patrem, prendi manum : 
 In terrain, ut cubabat, nudam ad eum ut conquexi, interim 
 Mulieres conspiciunt. 
 
 Contrast with interim conspiciunt in the above pas- 
 sage, interea aspexit in Sextus Turpilius 72-4: 
 
 Ducit me secum : postquam ad aedes uenimus, 
 Veneratur deos, interea aspexit uirginem 
 Ibi stantem, ...... 
 
 where the Perfect denotes an instantaneous action (caught 
 sight of) . 
 
 c. In some prologue and similar passages in Plautus, 
 composed not so much of descriptions of dramatic scenes 
 as of long narrations of events, a Perfect form of sum 
 introduces the characters, or sets the time of the narrative, 
 which is then given in Historical Presents, varying with 
 other tenses. 
 Poenulus Sp-gOj^" where characters are introduced hy fuere, 
 
 ' Contrast passages which, in the variation of Perfect and Present of verbs of 
 saying, are at first sight similar to those quoted above, but in which the Present 
 instead of being Historical, denotes, rather, an action that is conceived of as 
 continuing into the present time. So Andria 687-8 : 
 
 Orare iussit .... ut ad sese uenias: 
 Videre ait te cupere. 
 Cf. Phormio 798-99. 
 
 ''On the Plautine authorship of this prologue see Leo, Plautinische 
 Forschungen, p. 191. 
 
*43 
 
 Cnrthaginienses fratres patrueles duo 
 60 Fuere summo genere et summis ditiis, 
 
 and a narrative concerning them follows in Historical 
 
 Presents, concluding with a Perfect. Another set of 
 
 characters is then introduced by another fuere, 
 
 83 Sed illi patruo huius qui uiuit senex 
 Carthaginiensi duae fuere filiae, 
 
 and a narrative concerning them follows in Historical 
 
 Presents and one Perfect (feriere). 
 In Cistellaria 156-96 ' the time is set by 
 fuere Sicyoni iam diu Dionysia, 
 
 and the narrative follows in Historical Presents and 
 
 Perfects, which vary for no especial reason. 
 Cf. Capttui 7-34,* quoted below, p. 44.3 
 
 d. In some narrative passages the Historical Pres- 
 ents seem to express the main and important facts, while 
 the subordinate or the connected facts are expressed by 
 Perfects. 
 Curculio 682-85 : 
 
 Velut decern minas dum soluit, omnis mensas transiit : 
 Postquam nil fit, clamore hominem posco : ille in ius me uocat. 
 Pessime meiui, ne mihi hodie apud praetorem solueret : 
 685 Verum amici compulerunt: reddit argentum domo. 
 
 Menaeckmi 449-50 : 
 
 Vbi ego dum hieto, Menaechmus se subterduxit mihi 
 Atque abit^ ad amicam, credo, neque me uoluit ducere. 
 
 Andria 284-98 : 
 
 iam ferme moriens me uocat: 
 285 Accessi ; nos semoiae ; nos soli; incipit 
 
 • See Leo, op. cit., pp. 192-3. ' See ibid., pp. 184-6. » In Miles 
 Gloriosus 99-133 (see p. 46) the Imperfect «-a/ introduces a character. 
 
 * Leo, abiit after F Z ; abit rests upon better authority, A B D. 
 
44 
 
 Hanc mi in manum dat; mors continue ipsam occupat. 
 Accept. 
 
 In Caftiui 7-34, in the description of the fate of the two 
 brothers, the most important fact in regard to each 
 one is expressed by an Historical Present (note that 
 the characters of the narration are introduced by 
 fuerunt) : 
 
 7 Seni huic fuerunt filii nati duo : 
 
 Alterum quadrimum puerum seruos surpuit 
 Eumque hinc profugiens uendidit in Alide — etc. ; 
 
 and then : 
 
 Postquam belligerant Aetoli cum Aleis, 
 25 Vt fit in bello, capitur alter filius. 
 
 Medicus Menarchus emit ibidem in Alide — etc. 
 
 In Miles Gloriosus 287-89 the variation is especially inter- 
 esting because the verbs are similar : 
 
 Forte fortuna per impluuium hue despexi in proxumum; 
 Atque ego illi aspicio osculantem Philocomasium cum altero 
 Nescioque adulescente. 
 
 It can scarcely be maintained that the difference 
 between the Perfect and the Historical Present in this 
 passage lies only in the character of the action denoted by 
 each.' 
 
 Cf . L. Pomponius 69 : 
 
 Incepi contui: conspicio coleatam cuspidem. 
 
 In Sextus Turpilius 75-6 an explanatory Perfect follows 
 an Historical Present of the main event : 
 
 Erus stupidus adstat : ita [enim] eius aspectus repens 
 Cor torporauit homini amore. 
 
 In two Plautine passages the Historical Presents mark 
 crises, as it were, in the midst of events narrated by the 
 Perfects. 
 
 •Contrast SHchus 367 and 371 (see p. 50), where the variation of a Perfect 
 and an Historical Present of the same verb is due to the character of the actions 
 denoted by each: conspicatus sum interim (in the meantime I caught sight of) 
 and interibi conspicio (meanwhile I see). 
 
45 
 
 3f creator 192-203 : 
 
 Armamentis complicandis, componendis studuimus. 
 Dum haec aguntur, lembo aduehitur- tuos pater pauxillulo, 
 Neque quisquam hominem conspicatust, donee in naui super.' 
 
 Postquam aspexit mulierejn, 
 200 Rogitare occepit, quoia esset. . . Ilico 
 
 Occucurri ' atque interpello : matri te ancillam tuae 
 Emisse illam. . . . . . _ 
 
 Sed scelestus subigitare occepit, 
 
 where the sudden appearance of the father to the 
 consternation of the slave, and the interruption of the 
 father by the slave at the moment when the secret is 
 about to be discovered are marked by Historical 
 Presents. 
 So in Rudens 366-71 the only Historical Present marks a 
 crisis led up to by one series of Perfects, and fol- 
 lowed by another series : 
 
 De naui timidae ambae in scapham insiluimus, quia uidemus 
 Ad saxa nauem ferrier : properans exsolui restim, 
 Dum illi timent. nos cum scapha tempestas dextrouorsum 
 Differt ab illis. itaque nos uentisque fluctibusque 
 370 7arf«/ai» exemplis plurimis miserae perpetuam noctem: 
 Vix hodie ad litus pertulit nos uentus exanimatas. 
 
 2. The Historieal Present varied with the Im-perfect. 
 This variation is of very rare occurrence. No exam- 
 ples are found in Plautus and Terence, and only one in 
 the comic fragments. 
 L. Afranius 140: 
 
 Proficiscor : res tempus locus, simul otium hortabaiur, 
 
 where the Imperfect denotes the persisting cause. 
 
 ' Leo, donee in navem subit. 
 
 'The MSS vary between occucurri and occurri ; Keil and Miiller emend 
 occurro. 
 
46 
 
 3. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 Perfect and the Imperfect, 
 a. In some passages the Imperfect describes the 
 
 state or condition of its subject. 
 
 Miles Gloriosus 99-133, where a descriptive Imperfect 
 (erat) introduces a character, and is followed by 
 another Imperfect describing his condition. A simple 
 statement of fact follows in the Perfect. Then comes 
 a narrative which portrays by Historical Presents a 
 succession of scenes. The Historical Presents vary 
 with occefit, ^erii, and with dedit, which may, per- 
 haps, denote an instantaneous action. The narrative 
 closes with a series of Perfects of single, momen- 
 tary actions, and a negatived Perfect of ordinary 
 narration : 
 
 Erat erus Athenis mihi adulescens optumus. 
 100 Is amabat meretricem matre Athenis Atticis 
 
 Et ilia ilium contra: quist amor cultu optumus. 
 
 Is publice legatus Naupactum fuit 
 
 Magnai rei publicai gratia. 
 
 Interibi hie miles forte Athenas aduenit'. 
 105 Insinuat sese ad illam amicam eri 
 
 Occepit eius matri subpalparier 
 
 Vino, ornamentis opiparisque obsoniis : 
 
 Itaque intumum ibi se miles apud lenam facit. 
 
 Vbi primum euenit militi huic occasio, 
 no Sublinit os illi lenae, matri mulieris 
 
 Quam erus meus amabat. nam is illius filiam 
 
 Conicit in nauem miles clam matrem suam 
 
 Eamque hue inuitam mulierem in Ephesum aduehit. 
 
 Vbi amicam erilem Athenis auectam scio, 
 lis Ego quantum uiuos possum mihi nauem /aro.- 
 
 Inscendo, ut eam rem Naupactum ad erum nuntiem. 
 
 Vbi sumus prouecti in altum, Jit quod di uolunt : 
 
 Capiunt praedones nauem illam ubi uectus fui. 
 
 Prius perii quam ad erum ueni quo ire occeperam. 
 120 lUe qui me cepit, dat me huic dono militi. 
 
 Hie postquam in aedis me ad se deduxit domum, 
 
 Video illam amicam erilem Athenis quae fuit. 
 
 Vbi contra aspexit me, oculis mihi signum dedit. 
 
47 
 
 Ne se appellarem. deinde, postquam occasiost, 
 
 125 Conqueritur mecum mulier fortunas suas. 
 
 Ait sese Athenas fugere cupere ex hac domu: 
 Sese ilium amaie meum erum Athenis qui fuit, 
 Neque peius quemquam odisse quam istum mililem. 
 Ego quoniam inspexi mulieris sententiam, 
 
 130 Cepi tabellas, consignaui clanculum, 
 
 Dedi mercatori quoidam qui ad ilium deferat 
 Meum erum qui Athenis fuerat, qui banc amauerat, 
 Vt is hue ueniret. is non spreuit nuntium. 
 
 In Casina 881-932 (a very corrupt passage) the three Im- 
 perfects are all forms of sum. The description of a 
 scene is introduced by a Perfect and given by His- 
 torical Presents, varying with the Imperfects, with 
 Perfects of momentary action (one is also negatived), 
 and with fuit, occepi and coefi. The description 
 ends with exeo, in the Historical Present instead of 
 in the more usual concluding Perfect of instantaneous 
 action. 
 
 In Amphitruo 1061-71 the description of a scene is intro- 
 duced by a Perfect and given by Historical Presents, 
 one Perfect of instantaneous action, and one of 
 ordinary narration. This narrative Perfect is ex- 
 plained by an Imperfect, which, by describing the 
 condition of its subject, gives the persisting cause. 
 The description is concluded by negatived Perfects, 
 which are outside of the direct line of the narration, 
 and denote antecedent actions : 
 
 Ita erae meae hodie contigit: nam ubi parturit, deos sibi inuocat, 
 Strepitus, crepitus, sonitus tonitrus: ut subito, ut propere, ut ualide 
 
 tonuit, 
 Vbi quisque institerat, concidit crepitu : ibi nescioquis maxuma 
 Voce exclan^at: ' Alcumena, adest auxilium, ne time: 
 1065 Et tibi et tuis propitius coeli cultor aduenit. 
 
 Exsurgite ' inguit ' qui terrore meo occidistis prae metu.' 
 Vt iacui, exurgo : ardere censui aedis : ita turn confulgebant. 
 Ibi me exdamat Alcumena : iam ea res me horrore adficit. 
 
48 
 
 Erilis praeuortit metus : accurro ut sciscam quid uelit : 
 1070 Atque illam geminos filios pueros peperisse conspicor : 
 
 Neque nostrum quisquam sensimus, quoin peperit, neque prouidimus. 
 
 \n Pkormio 61^-"] ^the: only Imperfect (msanibat, 642) de- 
 scribes the condition of one of the characters. The 
 scene is portrayed by Historical Presents, varying 
 with explanatory Perfects. 
 
 In Eunuchus 575-603 a Perfect introduces the description 
 of a long scene which is portrayed by Historical 
 Presents, varying with a descriptive Imperfect 
 (merat), the Perfect coept, another Imperfect 
 descriptive of a condition (gaudebat), a narrative 
 Perfect, a series of Perfects of single, instantaneous 
 actions, hurried over, as it were, in order to get to 
 the main point again, and a negatived Perfect, denot- 
 ing an action antecedent to the action denoted by 
 the following Historical Presents : 
 
 575 traditus sum mulieri. 
 
 Ilia ilico ubi me accepit, laeta uero ad se abducit domum; 
 Commendat uirginem. .... 
 
 Edicit ne uir quisquam ad earn adeat, et mihi ne abscedam inperat; 
 In interiore parte ut maneam solus cum sola, adnuo 
 
 580 Terram intuens modeste. . . ' Ego ' inquit ' ad cenam 
 hinc eo ' : 
 Abducit secum ancillas; paucae, quae circum illam essent, manent 
 Nouiciae puellae. continuo haec adamant ut lauet. 
 Adhortor properent. dum adparatur, uirgo in conclaui sedet 
 Suspectans tabulam quandam pictam; ibi inerat pictura haec, louem 
 
 585 Quo pacto Danaae misisse aiunt quondam in gremium imbrem aureum. 
 Egomet quoque id spectare coepi : et quia consimilem luserat 
 lam olim ille ludum, inpendio magis animus gaudebat mihi, 
 Deum sese in hominera conuortisse atque in alienas tegulas 
 Venisse clanculum per pluuiura fucum factum mulieri. 
 
 590 At quem deum ! qui templa coeli summa sonitu concutit. 
 
 Ego hoc homuncio non facerem ? Ego illud uero ita feci ac lubens. 
 
 Dum haec mecum reputo, accersitur lauatum interea uirgo : 
 
 litf lauit, rediit; deinde earn in lecto illae conlocarunt} 
 
 Sto expectans, siquid mi imperent. uenit una ' heus tu ' inquit ' Dore, 
 
 " So A D G; conlocant B C E F P. 
 
49 
 
 595 Cape hoc flabellum, uentulum huic sic facito, dum lauamus; 
 Vbi nos lauerimus, si uoles, lauato.' accipio tristis. 
 
 Vix elocutast hoc, foias simul omnes proruont se, 
 600 Abeunt lauatum, persirepunt, ita ut fit, domini ubi absunt. 
 Interea somnus uirginem opprimit. ego limis specto 
 Sic per flabellum clanculum; simul alia dmimspecto, 
 Satin exploiata sint. ttideo esse, pessulum ostio obdo. 
 
 Note that the narrative, instead of being brought to 
 a close, as is often the case, by a Perfect, is left suspend- 
 ed by an Historical Present. That it is unfinished is 
 shown by the following question asked by the other mem- 
 ber in the dialogue, "quid turn?" and the narrator's 
 reply, " quid ' quid turn ' f atue ? " 
 
 b. In some passages it is the activity rather than the 
 condition of a subject which is described by the Imperfect. 
 The idea of continuance is always more or less prominent, 
 as it is in any descriptive use of the Imperfect. 
 Ca^tiui 500-12 : 
 
 500 Quid est suauius quam bene rem gerere bono publico, sicut ego feet 
 heri, 
 
 Quom emi hosce homines ? ubi quisque uident, eutit obuiam 
 
 Gratulanturc^Me earn rem. ita me miserum restitando 
 
 Ketinendoque lassum reddiderunt : 
 
 Vix ex gratulando miser ikm eminebam. 
 505 Tandem abii ad praetorem. ibi uix requieui, 
 
 Kogo syngraphum: datur mihi ilico: dedi Tyndaro: ille abiit Aoxaam. 
 
 Inde ilico reuortor ' domum, postquam id actumst. 
 
 Eg protinus ad fratrem inde, mei ubi sunt alii captiui : 
 
 Jiogv Philocratem ex Alide ecquis omnium 
 510 Nouerit. tandem hie exclamat eum sibi esse sodalem. 
 
 Dico eum esse apud me : hie extemplo oral oisecratque, 
 
 Eum sibi ut liceat uidere. iussi ilico hunc exsolui. 
 
 Here a Perfect introduces the description of a scene. Two 
 Historical Presents follow, bringing the scene vividly 
 before the mind. These are followed by an explanator}^ 
 
 ' Leo, praeuerier. 
 
so 
 
 Perfect of resulting action. Then comes an Imperfect, 
 describing the slow process of extrication from the 
 crowd (note also the negative), then an instantaneous 
 Perfect of the final wrench. A negatived Perfect fol- 
 lows, before another scene is vividly brought before 
 the mind by two Historical Presents, and its descrip- 
 tion closed by Perfects of instantaneous action. The 
 description of another scene follows in Historical Pres- 
 ents and closes with a Perfect of instantaneous action. 
 
 In Stichus 364-71 the descriptive Imperfect (sol suferabat 
 365) marks the time of the scene, which is por- 
 trayed by Historical Presents, varying with one 
 Perfect of momentary action.' 
 
 In Epidicus 209-21, 236-54 Imperfects play an impor- 
 tant part. A festival scene is portrayed. The 
 description opens vdth lively Historical Presents. 
 Then follow more distinctly descriptive Imperfects, 
 interrupted only by the Historical Present utdeo. 
 After an interval the narrative is taken up again by 
 Perfects of ordinary narration (including occefere, 
 and abscessi which may, perhaps, express instan- 
 taneous action), and by descriptive Imperfects, 
 followed by a Perfect of ordinary narration and two 
 lively Historical Presents (all verbs of saying). The 
 narrative closes with Perfects of ordinary narration 
 (including coepi) and an Imperfect i^aiebaf) : 
 
 Arma referunt et iumenta ducunt. .... 
 210 Turn captiuorum quid ducunt secum: pueros, uirgines, 
 
 Binos ternos alius quisque. fit concursus per uias: 
 
 Filios suos quisque uisunt. ..... 
 
 Turn meretricum numerus tantus quantum in urbe omni fuit 
 
 Obuiam ornatae occurrebant suis quaeque amatoribus : 
 215 'Eos captabajit. id adeo qui maxume animum aduorterim : 
 
 Pleraeque eae sub uestimentis secum habcbant retia. 
 
 Quom ad portam uenio, atque ego illam illi uideo praestolarier 
 
 ' See above, p. 44, foot-note. 
 
51 
 
 St cum ea tibicinae iliant quattuor. 
 Ea praestolabaHir ilium apud portam. 
 
 Occepere aliae mulieres 
 Duae sic post me fabulari inter sese : ego abscessi sciens 
 Paulum ab illis: dissimulabam earum operam sermoni dare^ 
 Nee satis exaudibatn nee sermonis fallebar tamen, 
 
 240 Quae loquerentur. . . Ibi illarum altera 
 
 Dixit illi quicum ipsa ibat — 
 
 Postquam illam sunt conspicatae, quam tuos gnatus deperit : 
 ' Quam facile et quam fortunate euenit illi, obsecro, 
 Mulieri quam liberare uolt amator.' ' Quisnam is est ? ' 
 
 245 Inquit altera illi : ibi ilia nominal Stratippoclem, 
 
 Coepi rursum uorsum ad illas pausillatim accedere, 
 250 Ibi ilia interrogauit illam; ' Qui scis? quis id dixit tibi? ' 
 
 Haec sic aiebat. 
 
 In Heauton Timorumenos 275-307 a scene is portrayed by 
 Historical Presents, varying with one Perfect of 
 instantaneous action, two almost parenthetical Per- 
 fects, and three Imperfects, two of which are descrip- 
 tive of activities, one of a state : 
 
 Sv. 275 Vbi uentum ad aedis est, Dromo pultat fores; 
 
 Anus quaedam prodit; haec ubi aperit ostium, 
 
 Continuo hie se coniecit intro, ego consequor ; 
 
 Anus foribus ebdit pessulum, ad lanam redit. 
 
 Hie sciri potuit aut nusquam alibi, Clinia, 
 280 Quo studio uitam suam te absente exegerit, 
 
 Vbi de improuisost interuentura mulieri. 
 
 Nam ea res dedit turn existumandi copiam 
 
 Cottidianae uitae eonsuetudinem, 
 
 Quae quoiusque ingenium ut sit declarat maxume. 
 285 Texentem telam studiose ipsam offendimus, 
 
 292 
 
 Anus 
 Subtemen nebat. praeterea una ancillula 
 
52 
 
 Erat; ea texebat una, pannis obsita, 
 
 Clin. ....... 
 
 quid ait, ubi me nominas? 
 Sy. Vbi dicimus redisse te et rogare uti 
 305 Veniret ad te, mulier telam dcsinit 
 
 Continue et lacrumis applet os totum sibi. 
 
 In Hcauton Timorumenos 121-^6 an Imperfect sums up, 
 as it were, and marks the continuance of the activities 
 of a scene which is portrayed by Historical Presents. 
 The narrative begins again with the Perfect coe-pi, 
 and is given in Historical Presents, and a series of Per- 
 fects denoting a rapid succession of single actions : 
 
 Vbi comperi ex eis, qui fuere ei conscii, 
 
 Domum reuortor maestus atque animo fere 
 
 Perturbato atque incerto prae aegritudine. 
 
 Adsido: adcurrunt serui, soccos detrahunt; 
 125 Video alios festinare lectos sternere, 
 
 Cenam adparare : pro se quisque sedulo 
 
 Faciebant, quo illam mihi lenirent miseriam. 
 
 Vbi uideo, haec coepi cogitare 'hem, tot mea 
 
 Solius solliciti sint causa, ut me unum expleant? 
 130 Ancillae tot me uestiant? sumptus domi 
 
 Tantos ego solus faciam ? sed gnatum unicum, 
 
 Quem pariter uti his decuit aut etiam amplius, 
 
 Quod ilia aetas magis ad haec utenda idoneast, 
 
 Eum ego hinc eieci miserum iniustitia mea ! 
 13s Malo quidem me quouis dignum deputem. 
 
 Si id faciam. nam usque dum ille uitam illam colet 
 
 Inopem, carens patria ob meas iniurias, 
 
 Interea usque illi de me supplicium dabo 
 
 Laborans, parcens, quaerens, illi seruiens.' 
 140 Ita yferio prorsus : nil ?-«/j«^ao in aedibus, 
 
 Nee uas nee uestimentum : conrasi omnia. 
 
 Ancillas, seruos, nisi eos qui opere rustico 
 
 Faciundo facile sumptum exercirent suom, 
 
 Omnis produxi ae uendidi. inscripsi ilico 
 145 Aedis mercede. quasi talenta ad quindeeim 
 
 Coegi : agrum hunc mercatus sum. 
 
 The above passage is preceded (96-117) by an introduc- 
 tory narrative in Perfects and Imperfects, 
 
S3 
 
 In Mites Gloriosus 60-66 the Historical Presents are forms 
 of inquam ; the Imperfects are also from verbs of 
 saying ; and so also is one of the two Perfects : 
 
 reprehenderunt, dixerunt, rtigitabant, inquit, inquam, inquit, aiebant. 
 
 c. In other passages it is the idea of continuance in 
 
 the Imperfect which is most prominent. 
 
 >-4?</M/«r«"a 705-11, where Perfects introduce the description 
 
 of a scene, an Imperfect of continued action follows, 
 
 and the description is given by Historical Presents, 
 
 and concluded by an explanatory Perfect : 
 
 70s Nam ut dudum hinc abii multo illo adueni prior 
 Multoque prius me conlocaui in arborem : 
 Indeque exspectabam ' aurum ubi abstrudebat senex. 
 Vbi ille abiit, ego me deorsum duco de arbore : 
 Exfodio aulam auri plenam : inde exeo ilico." 
 710 Fi'a<?o recipere se senem : ille me non «»flfe/. 
 Nam ego declinaui paululum me extra uiam. 
 
 Cf. Cistellaria 556-85, where the Historical Presents are 
 chiefly forms of inquam. 
 
 Cf. also Pseudolus 1270-82, where the only Imperfect is 
 of continued action, and explanatory of a Perfect. 
 The description of a scene is introduced by a Perfect, 
 given bj' Historical Presents and Perfects (explana- 
 tory, negatived, momentary, etc.), and concluded by 
 Perfects of momentary action : 
 
 1270 lUos accubantis potantis amantis 
 
 Cum scortis reliqui et meum scortum ibidem 
 Cordi atque animo suo opsequentis. sed postquam exurrexi 
 Orant med ut saltem ! ad hunc modum intuli illi satis facete ; 
 Nime ' ex disciplina : quippe ego qui probe lonicam perdidici. 
 
 1275 Sed palliolatim amictus sic incessi ludibundus. 
 Plaudunt parum clamitant me ut reuortar. 
 
 ' Leo, spectabam, 
 
 ' Leo, inde ex eo loco 
 
 Fidco recipere se senem. 
 ' Goetz and Schoell mark as corrupt; Leo, nimis. 
 
54 
 
 Occepi denuo hoc modo : (noltti 
 
 Idem, amicae dabatn me meae, 
 
 Vt me amaret) . Vbi circmnuortor, cado : 
 
 Id fuit naenia ludo. 
 Itaque dum enitor, prox, iam paene inquinaui pallium. 
 Nimiae turn voluptati edepol fui. 
 1 280 Ob casum datur cantharus : bibi. 
 
 Commute ilico pallium, illud posiui : 
 Inde hue exit, crapulam dum amouerem. 
 
 d. In two passages the Imperfect denotes repeated 
 action. 
 Menaechmi 480-84 : 
 
 Ait banc dedisse me tibi atque earn meae 
 Vxori surrupuisse, quoniam sentio 
 Errare, extemplo, quasi res cum ea esset mihi, 
 Coepi adsentari : mulier quicquid dixerat, 
 Idem ego dicebam. 
 
 Cf. Andria 923-35, where, however, the Imperfects of 
 repetition (aiebat) are out of the direct line of the 
 narration. 
 
 In Hecyra 367-402 a scene is portrayed by Historical 
 Presents, varying with Perfects of momentary action 
 and of ordinary narration, and with three Imperfects 
 of continued action, two of which are explanatory. 
 The description of the scene is concluded by a Per- 
 fect of ordinary narration : ■ 
 
 Postquam me aspexere ancillae aduenisse, omnes ilico 
 Laetae exclamant ' uenit ', id quod me repente aspexerant. 
 Sed continuo uoltum earum sensi inmutari omnium, 
 370 Quia tam incommode illis fors obtulerat aduentum meum. 
 Vna illarum interea propere praecucurrit nuntians 
 Me uenisse : ego eius uidendi cupidus recta cox&equor . 
 Postquam intro adueni, extemplo eius morbum cognoui miser; 
 
 ' In 365 Wagner follows Poliziano's citation of the Bembinus in reading, 
 
 Nam modo intro me corripui timidus — 
 
 The other editors insert ut before me, thus making corripui a subordinate verb. 
 
 According to Wagner's reading, the description of the scene portrayed in the 
 
 passage quoted above is introduced in this line by a Perfect of momentary action. 
 
55 
 
 Nam neque ut celari posset tempus spatium ullum dalat, 
 375 Neque uoce alia ac res monebat ipsa poterat conqueri. 
 
 Postquam aspexi, ' o facimis indignum ' inquam et corripui ilico 
 Me inde lacrumans, incredibili re atque atroci percitus. 
 Mater consequitur : iam ut limen exieram ad genua accidit 
 Lacrumans misera: miserUumst. profecto hoc sic est, ut puto : 
 380 Omnibus nobis ut res dant sese, ita magni atque humiles sumus. 
 Hanc habere orationem mecum principio institit : 
 ' O mi Pamphile, abs te quam ob rem haec abierit causam uides; 
 Nam uitiumst oblatum uirgini olim ab nescio quo inprobo. 
 Nunc hue confugit, te atque alios partum ut celaret suom.' 
 385 Sed quom orata huius reminiscor, nequeo quin lacrumem miser. 
 ' Quaeque fors fortunast ' inquit ' nobis quae te hodie obtulit, 
 Per earn te obsecramus ambae, si ius, si fas est, uti 
 Aduorsa eius per te tecta tacitaque apud omnis sient. 
 
 Pollicitus sum. 
 
 4. The Historical Present varied with the Pluperfect. 
 There is only one example of this variation. 
 
 Curculio 644-49 ■ 
 
 Ea me spectatum tulernt per Dionysia 
 
 64s • • * * * * * ' 
 
 Postquam illo uentumst, iam ut me collocauerat, 
 
 . Exoritur uentus turbo : spectacla ibi ruont : 
 
 Ego pertimesco : ibi me nescioquis arripit 
 
 Timidam atque pauidam, nee uiuam nee mortuam, 
 
 where the Pluperfect denotes an action antecedent to the 
 actions described by the following Historical Presents. 
 
 5. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 
 Perfect and the Pluperfect. 
 This variation is of rare occurrence. 
 Mostellaria 486-92, where a scene is described by His- 
 torical Presents, varying with a Perfect of instanta- 
 
 ' This lacuna is not indicated in the MSS, but Goetz and Schoell, and Leo 
 follow Fleckeisen in assuming it. It is possible that the passage originally con- 
 tained other tenses in addition to the above Pluperfect and Historical Presents. 
 
56 
 
 neous action ( condormiuimus — we fell asleep), and 
 with a Pluperfect of an action antecedent to that of 
 this Perfect : 
 
 Abimus omnes cubitum, condormiuimus. 
 Lucernam forte oblitus fueram extinguere : 
 Atque ille exclamat derepente maxumum. 
 
 Ait uenisse ilium in somnis ad se mortuum. 
 
 In £unuchus 629-41 the only Pluperfect is of antecedent 
 action. The Historical Presents emphasize the main 
 events : 
 
 Dum rus eo, coepi egomet mecum inter uias, 
 
 630 Ita ut fit, ubi quid in animost molestiae, 
 Aliam rem ex alia cogitare et ea omnia 
 Peiorem in partem, quid opust uerbis ? dum haec puto, 
 Praeterii imprudens uillam. longe iam ahieram, 
 Quom sensi: redeo lursum, male uero me habens. 
 
 635 Vbi ad ipsum ueni deuorticulum, consiiti: 
 Occepi mecum cogitare ' hem biduom hie 
 Manendumst soli sine ilia ? quid tum postea ? 
 Nil est. quid ? nil ? si non tangendi copiast, 
 Eho, ne uidendi quidem erit ? si illud non licet, 
 
 640 Saltem hoc licebit. certe extrema linea 
 
 Amare haud nil est.' uillam praetereo sciens. 
 
 In Rudens 956-59 the only Pluperfect (noram) is equiva- 
 lent to a descriptive Imperfect. 
 
 6. The Historical Present varied with the Historical ^ 
 Perfect, the Imperfect and the Pluperfect. 
 This variation is of rare occurrence. It will be un- 
 necessary to quote the passages in full, since they furnish 
 only fui'ther illustrations of principles of variation that 
 have already been emphasized. 
 
 So in Rudens 37-69 ■ the narrative begins with Perfects. 
 The main point is brought out by an Historical Pres- 
 ent. Perfects of ordinary narration follow, leading 
 up to the description of a scene, which is given by 
 
 ' Leo, op. cit., pp. 191-92. 
 
57 
 
 Historical Presents, and concluded by a negatived 
 Perfect of narration. A descriptive Imperfect 
 follows, introducing a character (eraty Then fol- 
 low the descriptions of a series of scenes, given by 
 Historical Presents, which vary with one Perfect and a 
 Pluperfect of antecedent action. The narrative ends 
 with Perfects. 
 
 Cf. Meiiaechmi 17-67." 
 
 Stichus 539-66, where, with the exception of one 
 dicit, the only Historical Presents are forms of 
 inquam; and all the Imperfects are forms of sttm. 
 
 Phormio 592-99, where the second of the two Pluperfects 
 is of instantaneous action ("Plusquamperfektum der 
 Schnelligkeit ") : 
 
 uenio ad hominem, ut dicerem 
 Argentiim opus esse et id quo pacto fieret. 
 Vix dum dimidium dixeram, intellexerat : 
 595 Gaudebat, me laudabat, quaerebat seneni. 
 Dis gratias agebat, tempus sibi dari, 
 
 hominem ad forum 
 Iiissi opperiri. 
 
 ' The Imperfect of the copula is interpreted throughout this dissertation as 
 descriptive of the state or condition of its subject. It must be remarked, how- 
 ever, that when the verb denotes primarily existence, that is, is not accompanied 
 by a predicate adjective (as it is in Casina 907 and 914), the idea of continuance 
 is as prominent as that of description. In such passages as the above (49 Ei 
 erat hospes par sui, Siculus senex) this is especially true. Cf. Miles Glorioms 
 99, quoted above, p. 46. 
 
 'Leo, op, cil., pp. 186-7. 
 
S8 
 
 7. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 Perfect, the Imperfect, and the Historical Infinitive.^ 
 
 In Amfhitruo 1091-1124 a vivid description of the 
 birth-scene of Hercules opens with two Historical 
 Presents. Imperfects of continued action and of de- 
 scription follow. Then come Perfects of ordinary 
 narration, interrupted by an exclamatory Historical 
 Present with which the narrator dwells fondly 
 for a moment on the fact of the infant Hercules' 
 strength, before recollecting herself and proceeding 
 with the narrative. Then begins an especially vivid 
 description of a particular part of the scene in Histor- 
 ical Presents, varying with rapid Historical Infinitives. 
 The narrative closes with Perfects of ordinary narra- 
 tion : 
 
 Postquam parturire hodie uxor occepit tna, 
 Vbi utero exorti dolofes, ut solent pnerperae, 
 Inuocat deos immortalis, nt sibi auxilium ferant, 
 Manibus puris, capite operto, ibi continuo contonat ^ 
 1095 Sonitu maximo. aedes prima ruere rebamur tuas : 
 Aedis totae confulgebant tuae, quasi essent aureae. 
 
 Dum haec aguntur, interea uxorem tuam 
 Neque gemetltem neque plorantem nostrum qnisquam audiuimus : 
 1 100 Ita profecto sine dolore peperit 
 
 ' In a tragic fragment there is an example of the Historical Present varied 
 with the Historical Perfect and the Historical Infinitive. See below, B, I, r. A 
 variation between the Historical Present and the Historical Infinitive was brought 
 alMut by Ritschl in Trinummtts 835-37 W reading, 
 
 Ita iam quasi canes haud secus cifcumstant nauem turbine uenti: 
 Imbres fluctusque atque procellae infensae fremere frangere malum, 
 Kuere antemnas, scindere uela, 
 
 where the Infinitives well express haste. But the MSS read circumstabant, and 
 are followed by the editors, including Goetz and Schoell in their latest text. In 
 Iheir former edition they read the Present with Ritschl. 
 
 '^ Cf . with this Historical Present contonat, which denotes the continued 
 noise of the thunder, the Perfect tonuil, in 1062 of the same play, used of a 
 sudden crash of thunder. See above, p. 47. 
 
IDS 
 
 59 
 
 Postquam peperit, pueros lauere ^^tssit nos. occepimus. 
 Sed puer Ule quem ego laui, ut magtiust et multum ualet, 
 Neque eum quisquam coUigare quiuit incunabulis. 
 
 postquam in cunas conditust, 
 Deuolant angues iubati deorsum inpluuium duo 
 Maxumi : continue extoUunt ambo capita 
 
 1 1 lo . . . sed angues oculis omnis circumuisere. 
 Postquam pueros conspicati, pergunt ad cunas citi: 
 Ego cunas recessim rursum uorsum trahere et ducere-, 
 Metuens pueris, mihi formidans, tantoque angues acrius 
 Perseqiti. postquam conspexit angues ille alter puer, 
 
 1 1 1 5 Citus e cunis txilit, facit recta in anguis inpetum : 
 Alterum altera prehendii eos manu perniciter. 
 
 puer arabo anguis tnicat, 
 H20 Dum haec aguntur, uoce clara exclamat uxorem tuam 
 
 Suramus imperator diuom atque hominum luppiler : 
 Is se dixit cum Alcumena clam consuetum cubitibus, 
 Eumque filium suom esse, qui illos angues uicerit : 
 Alterum tuom esse dixit puerum. 
 
 In Amfhitruo 203-60 a vivid description of a battle in 
 mock epic style is given almost entirely bj' Historical 
 Presents. The few Perfects express simple facts, or 
 denote momentary actions. The only Imperfect is 
 of continued action and descriptive, and the two His- 
 torical Infinitives, while closely resembling the 
 Historical Presents, serve also to indicate the intensity 
 of the actions that they describe : 
 
 Principio ut illo aduenimus, ubi primum terram tetigimus, 
 Continuo Amphitruo delegit uiros primorum principes. 
 
 205 Eos legat: Telebois iubet sententiam ut dicant suam: 
 Si sine ui et sine bello uelint rapta et raptores tradere. 
 Si quae asportassent redderent, se exercitum extemplo domum 
 Reducturum, abituros agro Argiuos, pacem atque otium 
 Dare illis: sin aliter sient animati neque dent quae petat, 
 
 210 Sese igitur summa ui uirisque eorum oppidum oppugnassere. 
 Haec ubi Telebois ordine iterarunt quos praefecerat 
 Amphitruo, magnanimi uiri freti uirtute et uiribus 
 Superbi nimis ferociter legates nostros increpant. 
 
(5o 
 
 Respondent bello se et suos tutari posse, proinde uti 
 215 Properiter ' de suis finibus exercitus dedncerent. 
 
 Haec ubi legati pertulere, Amphitruo castris ilico 
 
 Prodacit omnem fxercitum : contra Teleboae ex oppido 
 
 Legiones educunt suas nimis pulcris armis praeditas. 
 
 Postquam utrimque exitumst raaxuma copia, 
 220 Dispertiti uiri, dispertiti ordines: 
 
 Nos nostras more nostro et modo insiruxitnus 
 
 Legiones : item hostes contra legiones suas instruont. 
 
 Deinde utrique imperatores in medium exeunt. 
 
 Extra turbam ordinum coUocuntur simul. 
 225 Conuenit, uicti utri sint eo proelio, 
 
 Vrbem, agrum, aras, focos seque uti dederent. 
 
 Postquam id actumst, tubae utrimque canunt contra: 
 
 Consonat terra : clamorem utrimque efferunt. 
 
 Imperator utrimque hinc et illinc lovi 
 230 Vota suscipere, hortari exercitum. 
 
 Pro se quisque id quod quisque et potest et valet 
 
 Rdit, ferro ferit: tela frangunt: boat 
 
 Caelum fremit'u uirum : ex spiritu atque anhelitu 
 
 Nebula constat: cadtmt uolneris ui et uirum. 
 235 Denique ut uoluimus, nostra superat manus : 
 
 Hostes crebri cadunt: nostri contra ingruont. 
 Vicimus ' ui feroces. 
 
 Sed tugam in se tamen nemo conuortitur 
 
 Nee recedit loco quin statim rem gerat : 
 240 Animam omitttmt prius quam loco demigrent : 
 
 Quisque ut steterat, iacet optinetqae ordinem. 
 
 Hoc ubi Amphitruo erus conspicatus est, 
 
 Ilico equites iubei dextera inducere. 
 
 Equites parent citi, ab dextera maxumo 
 
 245 Cum clamore inuolant, impetu ala,cri : 
 
 Foedant et protcrunf hostium copias 
 
 lure inustas. 
 
 250 Perduelles penetrant se in fugam : ibi nostris animus additust. 
 Vortentibus Telebois telis eomplebantur corpora, 
 Ipsusque Amphitruo regem Pterelam sua obtruncauit manu. 
 Haec illic est pugnata pugna usque a mani ad uesperum : 
 Hoc adeo hoc conimemini magis, quia illo die impransus fui. 
 
 255 Sedproelium id tandem diremit nox interuentu suo. 
 
 ' Leo, propere irent. 
 
 " Leo would omit uicimus, after Spengel. 
 
6i 
 
 Postridie in castra ex urbe ad nos uenimil flentes principes, 
 Velatis manibus orani, ignoscamus peccatum suom : 
 Deduntq\K se, diuina humanaque omnia, urbem et liberos 
 In dicionem atque in arbitratum cuncti Thebano poplo. 
 260 Post ob uirtutem ero Amphitruoni patera lionata axixeast. 
 
 Note especially lines 221-22, where the Historical 
 Present gives a picture of the drawing up of the enemy's 
 forces, over against the simple statement of fact in regard 
 to the speaker's own forces, conveyed by the Perfect. It 
 is possible that the picture presents itself from the point 
 of view of the Perfect itself, t. e., "we drew up ojjr forces 
 and watched the enemy draw up theirs." However, in a 
 passage of this kind due allowance must be made for pos- 
 sible metrical considerations. 
 
 In Bacchides 259-306 the one Historical Infinitive seems 
 to denote haste : 
 
 Vbi portu eximus, homines remigio scqui, 
 290 Neque aues neque uenti citius. 
 
 In Mercator 42-106 after an introductory Perfect and 
 Imperfects of repetition, a series of Historical Infini- 
 tives gives a hurried and vehement description of a 
 • father's anger toward his son. iV^ter an interval a 
 reconciliation scene between father and son is por- 
 trayed by Historical Presents. A negatived Perfect 
 of narration follows, introducing the description 
 in Historical Presents of the lading of a vessel, 
 the departure of the son, his arrival at his des- 
 tination and the success of his enterprise. Then 
 follows, after an introductory Perfect of instan- 
 taneous action, the description in Historical Presents, 
 varying with an explanatory Perfect, of his inter- 
 view' with a friend, and his visit at the friend's 
 house. A sut)sequent interview is also portrayed 
 by Historical Presents, and the narrative then 
 closes with two Perfects of ordinary narration : 
 
62 
 
 Amare ualide coepi hie meretricem. ilico 
 Res exulatum ad illam clam abibat patris : 
 Leno inportunus, dominus eius mulieris, 
 
 45 Vi summa quicque ut poterat rapiebat domum. 
 OUurigare pater haec noctes et dies : 
 Perfidiam, iniustitiam lenonum expromere : 
 Lacerari ualide suam rem, illius augerier. 
 Summo haec clamore : interdum mussans conloqui, 
 
 50 Abnuere, negitare adeo me natum suom. 
 Conclamitare tota urbe et praedicere. 
 
 80 Ego me ubi inuisum meo patri esse intellego 
 Atque odio me esse quoi placere aequom fuit, 
 Amens amansque ut animum offirmo meum : 
 Dico esse iturum me mercatum, si uelit, 
 Amorem missum facere me, dum illi obsequar. 
 85 Agit gratias mihi atque ingenium adlaudat meum, 
 Et mea promissa non neglexit persequi. 
 Aedificat nauem cercyrum et mercis emit: 
 Parata naui imponit: praeterea mihi 
 Talentum argenti ipse sua adnumerat manu : 
 90 Seruum una mitiit, qui olim puero paruolo 
 Mihi paedagogus fuerat, quasi ut mihi foret 
 Custos. his sic confectis nauem soluimus. 
 Rhodum uenimus ubi quas merces uexeram 
 Omnis ut uolui uendidi ex sententia : 
 95 Lucrum ingens facio praeterquam mihi meus pater 
 Dedit aestimatas merces. ita peculium 
 Conficio grande. sed dum in portu illi ambulo, 
 Hospes me quidam adgnouit, ad cenam uocat. 
 Venio, decumbo, acceptus hilare atque ampliter. 
 100 Discubitum noctu ut imus, ecce ad me aduenit 
 Mulier, qua mulier alia nullast pulcrior : 
 Ea nocte mecum ilia hospitis iussu fuit. 
 Vosmet uidete, quam mihi ualde placuerit : 
 Postridie hospitem adeo, oro ut uendat mihi : 
 105 Dico eius pro meritus gratum me et munem fore. 
 Quid uerbis opus est ? emi atque aduexi heri. 
 
 Cf. Mercator 228-63. 
 
 Cf. also Eunuchus 617-27, where the number 0% 
 Historical Infinitives is unusually large. 
 
63 
 
 In Eunuchus 397-433 the Historical Infinitives are of re- 
 peated actions. The only Historical Presents are 
 forms of inquam, and occur in the description of 
 typical scenes that are portrayed in order to illus- 
 trate the general narrative : 
 
 Th. Vel rex semper maxumas 
 
 Mihi agebat quidquid feceram : aliis non item. 
 
 Gn. Lahore alieno magno partam gloriam 
 400 Verbis saepe in se transmouet, qui habet salem; 
 
 Quod in te est. Th. Habes. Gn. Rex te ergo in oculis Th. Scilicet. 
 
 Gn. Gestare. Th. Vero: credere tyaxTierca exercitum, 
 
 Consilia. Gn. Mirum. Th. Turn sicubi eum satietas 
 
 Hominum aut negoti siquando odium ceperat, 
 405 Requiescere ubi uolebat, quasi . . nostin ? Gn. Scio : 
 
 Quasi ubi illam exspueret miseriam ex animo, Th. Tenes. 
 
 Tum me conuiuam solum abducebat sibi. Gn. Hui, 
 
 Regem elegantem narras. Th. Immo sic homost : 
 
 Perpaucorum hominum. Gn. Immo nuUorum, arbitror, 
 410 Si tecum uiuit. Th. Inuidere omnes mihi, 
 
 Mordere clanculum : ego non flocci pendere : 
 
 Illi inuidere misere; uerum unus tamen 
 
 Inpense, elephantis quern Indicis praefecerat. 
 
 Is ubi molestus magis est, ' quaeso ' inquam ' Strato, 
 415 Eon es ferox, quia habes imperium in beluas ? ' 
 
 Gn. Pulchre mehercle dictum et sapienter. papae, 
 
 lugularas hominem. quid ille ? Th. Mutus ilico. 
 
 Gn. Quid ni esset ? Pa. Di uostram fidem, hominem perditum 
 
 Miserumque et ilium sacrilegum ! Th. Quid illud, Gnatho, 
 420 Quo pacto Rhodium tetigerim in conuiuio, 
 
 Numquam tibi dixi ? Gn. Nnmquam; sed narra obsecro. 
 
 Plus miliens audiui. Th. Vna in conuiuio 
 
 Erat hie, quem dice, Rhodius adulescentulus. 
 
 Forte habui scortum : coepH ad id adludere 
 425 Et me inridere. ' quid ais ' inquam homini ' inpudens ? 
 
 Lepus tute es, pulpamentum quaeris ? ' Gn. hahahahae. 
 
 Th. Quid est ? Gn. Facete, lepide, laute, nil supra. 
 
 Tuomne, obsecro te, hoc dictum erat ? uetus credidi. 
 
 Th. Audieras ? Gn. Saepe, et fertur in primis. Th. Meumst. 
 430 Gn. Dolet dictum inprudenti adulescenti et libero. 
 
 Pa. At te di perdant 1 Gn. Quid ille quaeso ? Th. Perditus: 
 
 Risu omnes qui aderant emoriri. denique 
 
 Metuebant omnes iam me. 
 
64 
 
 Andria 51-148 is an excellent passage in which to study 
 the variation of tenses. It contains 20 Historical 
 Presents, 13 Historical Perfects, 18 Imperfects and 7 
 Historical Infinitives. After a subordinate clause, 
 which sets the time, the nai-rative begins with a 
 description in Imperfects and Historical Infinitives of 
 the hero's manner of life. Another speaker throws 
 in a comment with a Perfect of ordinary narration. 
 Then a new character is introduced into the narrative 
 by a Perfect, and her habits are described by an Im- 
 perfect. A Perfect of momentary action follows, and 
 then an Historical Present, to mark an important fact. 
 The hero's introduction to the new character is told 
 by a Perfect. A succession of repeated actions is 
 expressed by Imperfects (in their midst occurs also 
 an explanatory descriptive Imperfect, e^-at) and also 
 b}^ Historical Infinitives. A quick succession of 
 explanatory Perfects follows. Then a new and~ 
 important event is marked \>y an Historical Present. 
 This is followed by Imperfects of continued action, a 
 Perfect of momentary action, and, again, Imperfects 
 of continued action. A funeral scene is then depicted 
 by Historical Presents, varying with Perfects of 
 momentary action. Another scene is then' described 
 by Historical Presents, varying with a vehement His- 
 torical Infinitive. Note that the description concludes 
 with an Historical Present, instead of the more 
 common Perfect : 
 
 Si. Nam is postquam excessit ex ephebis [Sosia, et 
 Liberius uiuendi fuit potestas' ], (nam antea 
 Qui scire posses aut ingenium noscere, 
 
 ' Wagner reads as follows : 
 
 Nam is postquam excessit ex ephebis, Sosia, 
 
 Librius uiuendi fuit postestas — nam antea, 
 
 thus bringing about an introduction of the following narrative by the Perfect. 
 
6s 
 
 Dum aetas metus magister prohibebatit ? So. Itast.) 
 55 Si. Quod plerique omnes faciunt adulescentuli, 
 
 \t animum ad aliquod studium adiungant, aut equos 
 
 Alere aut canes ad uenandum, aut ad philosophos, 
 
 Horum ille nil egregie praeter cetera 
 
 Studebat, et tamen omnia haec mediocriter. 
 60 Gaudcbam. So. Non iniuria; nam id arbitror 
 
 Adprime in uita esse utile, ut ne quid nimis. 
 
 Si. Sic vita erat; facile omnes perftrre ac petti; 
 
 Cum quibus erat quomque una, eis sese dedere; 
 
 Eorum studiis obsequi [aduersus nemini, 
 65 Numquam praeponens se illis] : ita ut facillume 
 
 Sine inuidia laudem inuenias et amicos pares. 
 
 So. Sapienter uitam instituit; namque hoc teinpore 
 
 Obsequium amicos, ueritas odium parit. 
 
 Si. Interea mulier quaedam abhinc triennium 
 70 Ex Andro commigrcuit hue uiciniam, 
 
 Inopia et cognatorum necligentia 
 
 Coacta, egregia forma atque aetate Integra. 
 
 So. Ei, uereor nequid Andria adportet mah ! 
 
 Si. Primo haec pudice uitam, parce ac duriter 
 75 yfgsbai, lana ac tela uictum qilaeritans; 
 
 Sed postquam amans accessit pretium pollicens 
 
 Vnus et item alter, ita ut ingeniumst omnium 
 
 Hominum ab labore procliue ad lubidinem, 
 
 Accepit condicionem, dein quaestum occipit. 
 80 Qui turn illam amabant, forte, ita ut fit, filium 
 
 Pei-Juxere illuc, secum ut una esset, meum. 
 
 Egomet continuo mecum ' certe captus est : 
 
 Habet.' obseruabam mane illorum seruolos 
 
 Venientis aut abeuntis : rogitabam ' heus puer, 
 85 Die sodes, quis heri Chrysidem habuil ? ' nam Andriae 
 
 Illi id erai nomen. So. Teneo. Si. Phaedrum aut Cliniam 
 
 Dicebant aut Nicaretum; nam hi tres turn simul 
 
 Amabant. • eho, quid Pamphilus ? ' ' quid ? symbolam 
 
 Dedit, cenauit.' gaudebam. item alio die 
 ■ 90 Quaerebatn : comperiebam nil ad Pamphilum 
 
 Quicquam attinere. enim uero spectatum satis 
 
 Putabam et magnum exemplum continentiae; 
 
 Nam qui cum ingeniis confiictatur eius modi 
 
 Neque commouetur animus in ea re tameh, 
 95 Scias posse habere iam ipsum suae uitae modum. 
 
 Quom id mihi placebat, tum uno ore omnes omnia 
 
 Bona diceri et laudare fortunas meas, 
 
 Qui gnatum haberetn tali ingenio praeditum. 
 
66 
 
 Quid uerbis opus est ? hac tarns, inpulsus Chiemes 
 loo Vitro ad me uenii, unicam gnatam suam 
 
 Cum dote summa filio uxorem ut daret. 
 
 Placuit: despondi. hie nuptiis dictust dies. 
 
 So. Quid igitur obstat, quor non fiant ? Si. Audies, 
 
 Fere in diebus paucis, quibus haec acta sunt, 
 105 Chrysis uicina haec moriiur. So. O factum bene ! 
 
 Beasti: [ei] metui a Chryside. Si. Ibi turn filius 
 
 Cum illis, qui amarant Chrysidem, una aderat frequens;. 
 
 Curabat una funus; tristis interim, 
 
 Non numquam conlacrumabat. placuit turn id mihi. 
 1 10 Sic cogitabam ' hie paruae consuetudinis 
 
 Causa huius mortem tam fert familiariter : 
 
 Quid si ipse amasset ? quid hie mihi faciet patri ? ' 
 
 Haec ego puiabam esse omnia humani ingeni 
 
 Mansuetique animi officia. quid multis moror ? 
 1 1 5 Egomet quoque eius causa in funus prodeo. 
 
 Nil etiam suspicans mali. So. Hem, quid id est ? Si. Scies. 
 
 Ecferiur ; imus. interea inter mulieres, 
 
 Quae ibi aderant, forte unam aspicio adulescentulam. 
 
 Forma So. Bona fortasse. Si. Et uoltu, Sosia, 
 120 Adeo modesto, adeo uenusto, ut nil supra. 
 
 Quia turn mihi lamentari praeter ceteras 
 
 Visast, et quia erat forma praeter ceteras 
 
 Honesta ac liberali, accede ad pedisequas, 
 
 Quae sit rogo : sororem esse aiunt Chrysidis. 
 125 Percussit ilico animum. attat hoc illud est, 
 
 Hinc illae lacrumae, haec illast misericordia. 
 
 So. Quam timeo, quorsum euadas ! Si. Funus interim 
 
 Procedit; sequhnur ; ad sepulcrum uenimus; 
 
 In igneni inpositast; fletur, interea haec soror, 
 130 Quam dixi, ad fJammam arcwijV inprudentius. 
 
 Satis cum periclo. ibi tum exanimatus Pamphilus 
 
 Bene dissimulatum amorem et eelatum indicat : 
 
 Adcurrit; mediam mulierem compUctitur : 
 
 ' Mea Glycerium,' inquit 'quid agis ? quor te is perditum ? ' 
 135 Turn ilia, ut consuetum facile amorem eerneres, 
 
 Reiecit se in eum flens quam familiariter ! ' 
 
 ' The variation of Historical Presents and Perfects in 1 28- 1 36 of the funeral 
 scene well illustrates principles of variation that have been emphasized. The 
 picture of the funeral procession is brought before the eyes by Historical Presents. 
 The arrival and the placing of the body on the pyre are narrated by Perfects, as 
 necessary but unimportant details, hurried over, as it were, in order to get to the 
 main point. The mourning that meantime is going on is depicted by an Historical 
 
67 
 
 So. Quid .lis ? Si. Redeo inde iratus atque aegre ferens; 
 Nee satis ad obiurgandum causae. 
 
 Venit Chremes postridie ad me clamitans : 
 145 Indignum f acinus; comperisse, Pamphilum 
 
 Pro uxore habere banc peregrinam. ego illud sedulo 
 Negare factum, ille instat factum, denique 
 Ita turn discedo ab illo, ut qui se filiam 
 Neget daturum. 
 
 Cf. also Eunuchus 512-29.' 
 
 8. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 Perfect, the Imperfect, the Pluperfect, and the 
 Historical Infinitive. 
 
 Phormio 71-135 is a very good narrative passage. 
 The narrative begins with an Historical Present of an 
 impoi-tant fact, and continues in Perfects of ordinary 
 narration, Imperfects of description and of continued 
 action, and a Pluperfect of antecedent action. In 91- 
 103 a scene is described by Historical Presents and 
 one Historical Infinitive. In 103-110 the description 
 of another scene is introduced by a Perfect, marking 
 an event closely connected with the concluding event 
 of the previous scene, and given by Historical Presents, 
 varying with a descriptive Imperfect. A remark is 
 
 Present. The approach of the girl too near the flames is narrated by a Perfect, 
 as an instantaneous action, or, perhaps, an action suddenly observed by the spec- 
 tator. Her rescue by the hero is vividly described by Historical Presents, and 
 then the impulsiveness with which she throws herself into his arms is well indicated 
 by a Perfect of instantaneous action. 
 
 ' Grysar, op. cii. , quotes the Historical Infinitives in this passage as denoting 
 repeated action, but they are, rather, descriptive of particular events enacted at a 
 particular time : ' 
 
 Vbi ueni, causam, ut ibi manerem, repperit: 
 Ait rem diuinam fecisse et rem seriam 
 Velle agere mecum. iam tum erat suspicio 
 515 Dolo malo haec fieri omnia, ipsa adcumbere 
 Mecum, mihi sese dare, sermonem quaerere. 
 
thrown in by another speaker with the Perfect cocfit. 
 Then in 112-116 still another scene is described by 
 Historical Presents, and an Historical Infinitive and 
 descriptive Imperfects follow. Another speaker asks 
 a question in an Historical Present and follows it with 
 a similar question in a Perfect. The answer is given 
 by a Perfect of ordinary narration. The narrative 
 concludes with a series of Perfects, denoting a rapid 
 succession of single events, and with an Historical 
 Present of a more continued state : 
 
 Ge. Abeuntes ambo hinc turn senes me filiis 
 
 Relinquont quasi magistrum. Da. O Geta, prouinciam 
 
 Cepisti duram. Gb. Mi usus uenit, hpc scio : 
 
 Memini relinqui me deo iralo meo. 
 75 Coepi aduorsari primo : quid uerbis opust ? 
 
 Seni fidelis dum sum, scapulas perdidi, 
 
 Venere in mentem mi istaec : namque inscitiast, 
 
 Aduorsum stimulum calces. Coepi eis omnia 
 
 Facere, obsequi quae uellent. Da. Scisti uti foro. 
 80 Ge. Noster mali nil quicquam primo; hie Phaedria 
 
 Continuo quandam nactus est puellulam 
 
 Citharistriam, banc amare coepit perdite. 
 
 Ea seridebat lenoni inpurissumo, 
 
 Neque quod daretur quicquam; id curarant patres. 
 85 Restabat aliud nil nisi oculos pascere, 
 
 Sectari, in ludum ducere et redducere. 
 
 Nos otiosi operam dabamus Phaedriae. 
 
 In quo haec discebat ^udo, exaduorsum ilico 
 
 Tonstrina erat quaedam : hie solebamus fere 
 90 Plerumque eam opperiri, dum inde iret domum. 
 
 Interea dum sedemus illi, interuenit 
 
 Adulescens quidam lacrumans. nos niirarier; 
 
 Rogamus quid sit. ' numquam aeque ' inquit ' ac modo 
 
 Paupertas mihi onus uisumst et miserum et graue. 
 95 Modo quandam uidi uirginem hie uiciniae 
 
 Miseram suam matrem lamentari mortuam. 
 
 Ea sita erat exaduorsum, neque illi beniuolus 
 
 Neque notus neque cognatus extra unam aniculam 
 
 Quisquam aderat, qui adiutaret funus: miseritumst. 
 100 Virgo ipsa facie egregia.' quid uerbis opust ? 
 
 Commorat omnis nos. ibi continuo Antipho 
 
 ' Voltisne eamus uisere ? ' alius ' censeo : 
 
69 
 
 Eamus: due nos sodes.' imus, tteninius, 
 
 Videmiis. uirgo pulchra, et quo magis diceres, 
 105 NUaderai adiumenti ad pulchritudinem : 
 
 Capillus passus, nudus pes, ipsa horrida, 
 
 Laci'umae, uestitus turpis : ut, iji uis boni 
 
 In ipsa inesset forma, haec tormam extinguerent. 
 
 lUe qui illam amabat fidicinam, tantum modo 
 110 'Satis' inquii 'scitast'; noster uero... Da. lamscio: 
 
 Amare coepit. Ge. Scin quam ? quo euadaf uide. 
 
 Postridie ad anum recta pergit: obsecrat, 
 
 Vt sibi eius faciot copiam. ilia enim se negat 
 
 Neque eum aequom ait facere : illam ciuem esse Atticam, 
 1 1 S Bonam bonis prognatam ; si uxorem uelit, 
 
 Lege id licere facere ; sin aliter, negat, 
 
 Noster quid ageret nescire : et illam ducere 
 
 Cupiebat et metucbat absentem patrem. 
 
 Da. Non, si redisset, ei pater ueniam daret ? 
 120 Ge. Ille indotatam uirginem atque ignobilem 
 
 Daret illi ? numquam faceret. Da. Quid fit denique ? 
 
 Ge. Quid fiat ? est parasitus quidam Phormio, 
 
 Homo confidens : qui ilium di omnes perduint. 
 
 Da. C)\aA'\% fecit ? Gb. Hoc consilium quod dicani dedit : 
 125 ' Lex est ut orbae, qui sunt genere proxumi, 
 
 Eis nubant, et illos ducere eadem haec lex iubet. 
 
 Ego te cognatum dicam et tibi scribam dicam; 
 
 Paternum amicum me adsimulabo uirginis : 
 
 Ad iudices ueniemus : qui fuerit pater, 
 1 30 Quae mater, qui cognata tibi sit, omnia haec 
 
 Confingam : quod erit mihi bonum atque commodutp, 
 
 Quom tu horum nil refelles, uincam scilicet. 
 
 Pater aderit : mihi paratae lites : quid mea ? 
 
 Ilia quidem nostra erit.' Da. locularem audaciam. ''' 
 
 135 Ge. Persuasumsi homini: factumst; uentumst; uincimtir. 
 
 In Hecyra 114-191 the variation of tenses follows 
 similar principles. The nai'rative contains Historical 
 Presents of vivid portrayal and of important facts ; Per- 
 fects of ordinary narration ; Imperfects of continued and 
 of repeated action ; ' a Pluperfect of antecedent action ; 
 and Historical Infinitives of repeated and of intense 
 action. 
 
 'In 172 from the redibat and rediebat (read by Dziatzko) of the MSS 
 Fleckeisen conjectures redierat. He is followed by Wagner. 
 
70 
 
 In concluding the examination of the Historical 
 Present in colloquial literature its use in Varro deserves 
 attention. His de re rustica is cast in the form of dia- 
 logues. The activities of the speakers in these dialogues 
 are described throughout by Historical Presents, with 
 only occasional Historical Perfects. Thus, forms of 
 inquam occur ^9 times, and other verbs, such as aio, 
 suscifio, subicio, adicio, asficto, redeo, surgo, etc., not 
 infrequently. The general effect is to represent the 
 scenes of the conversations vividly, as if they were going 
 on before the eyes, but the use of inquam is chiefly 
 phraseological. 
 
 B. 
 
 I . The remains of early tragic poetry show the following 
 variations : 
 
 a. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Attius 636-39, where the Historical Present seems to begin 
 
 the description of some scene, while the immediate 
 
 relation between it and the Perfect is that of effect 
 
 and cause respectively. Note also the momentary 
 
 character of the Perfect : 
 
 Tereus indomito more atque animo barbaro 
 Conspexit eara: hinc amore uecors flammeo, 
 Depositus facinus pessimum ex dementia 
 Confingit. 
 
 h. The Historical Present varied with the Plistorical 
 
 Perfect and the Imj^erfect. 
 Incert. (Ennius?), Incert. 5-14:' 
 
 . mater grauida parere se ardentem facem 
 Visa est in somnis Hecuba: quo fato pater 
 
 ' Ribbeck suggests that the above fragment probably belongs to the prologue 
 of the tragedy Alexander, by Ennius. He is followed by Vahlen and by L. 
 Mueller. 
 
71 
 
 Rex ipse Priamus somnio, mentis metu 
 Perculsus, curis sumptus suspirantibus, 
 5 Ecsacrificabat hostiis balantibus. 
 
 Turn coniecturam postulat pacem petens, 
 Vt se edoceret obsecrans Apollinem, 
 Quo sese uertant tantae sortes somnium. 
 Ibi ex oraclo uoce diuina edidit 
 10 Apollo. 
 
 Here the first Perfect gives the cause for the consul- 
 tation of the oracle, the scene of which event is 
 portrayed by the following Imperfect, denoting the 
 continued process of the preliminary act of sacrifice ; 
 Historical Present, giving the main fact of the con- 
 sultation ; and Perfect, stating in simple narration the 
 fact that the oracle answered. 
 
 c. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 Perfect and the Historical Infinitive. 
 
 Attius 437-8, where a series of Perfects denotes a rapid 
 succession of single actions ; an Historical Present 
 brings vividly before the eyes a resulting action ; 
 and an Historical Infinitive well expresses haste : 
 
 Constitit cognouit sensit, conlocat sese in locum 
 
 Celsum: hinc manibus rapere raudus saxeum grande et graue. 
 
 2. The remains of early epic poetry show the following 
 variations : 
 
 a. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Livius Andronicus, Odysseia 28-30, where the Perfect 
 introduces the description of a scene which is por- 
 trayed by Historical Presents : 
 
 Topper citi ad auris uenimus Circae; 
 Simul aduenit, seruae portant ad nauis 
 Edulia alma, uina isdem inferinunlur . 
 
72 
 
 Ennius, Annales 52, where the Historical Present ex- 
 presses the effect of the cause denoted by the narra- 
 tive Perfect and seems to begin or to form a part of 
 the description of some scene : 
 
 Haec ecfatus; ibique latrones dicta facesstint. 
 
 In Annales 348-51 the Perfect follows and is explan- 
 atory. 
 
 In Annales 464 the Historical Present again forms a part 
 of the desci'iption of some scene, but the following 
 Perfect expresses the resulting action and its instan- 
 taneous character : 
 
 Conciiiit; et sonitum simul insuper arma dedere. 
 
 b. The Historical Present varied with the Imferfect. 
 
 Naevius, Bellum Punicum 4-5, where the Historical 
 Present describes a scene, and the Imperfect the con- 
 tinued process of an act of sacrifice : 
 
 Sacra in mensa Penatium ordine ponuntur. 
 Turn victimam immolabat auream pulchram. 
 
 Ennius, Annales 188-92, where the Imperfect denotes the 
 continuance of one activity which accompanies the 
 progress of the other activities that make up the scene 
 and are described by Histoi-ical Presents : 
 
 Incedunt arbusta per alta, securibu' caedunt, 
 Percellunt magnas quercus, exciditur ilex, 
 190 Fraxinu ' frangitur atque abies consternitur alia, 
 Pinus proceras pervortwit. omne sonabat 
 Arbustum fremitu silvai frondosai. 
 
 Cf. Annales 450-57, a passage which is very similar to the 
 preceding passage, but in which the Imperfect denotes, 
 rather, the continuance of effort : 
 
 450 Undique conveniunt velut imber tela tribune, 
 
 Configuni parmam, tinnit hastilibus umbo, 
 
 Aerato sonitu galeae, sed nee pote quisquam 
 
 Undique nitendo corpus discerpere ferro. 
 
 Semper adundantes hastas Jrangitofle j/uatiiqae. 
 455 Totum sudor Aabe^ corpus multumque laborat. 
 
73 
 
 Nee respirandi yJ/ copia: praepete ferro 
 Histri tela manu iacienles soUicitabant. 
 
 c. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 Perfect, and the Imferfect. 
 
 Ennius, Annales 32-44, where a Perfect introduces the 
 description of a scene ; Imperfects of description and 
 of continued action follow ; an Historical Present 
 gives the main event of the scene ; and Perfects of 
 instantaneous action conclude the description : 
 
 Nam me visus homo pulcher per amoena salicta 
 
 Et ripas raptare locosque novos. Ita sola 
 
 Fostilla, germana soror, errare videbar 
 35 Tardaque vestigare et quaerere te neque posse 
 
 Corde capessere : semita nulla pedem stabilibat. 
 
 Exim compellare pater me voce videlur 
 
 His verbis: " o gnata, tibi sunt ante ferendae 
 
 Aerumnae, post ex fluvio fortuna resistet." 
 40 Haec ecfatu' pater, germana, repente recessit 
 
 Nee sese dedit in conspectum corde cupitus, 
 
 Quamquam multa manus ad caeli caerula templa 
 
 Tendebam lacrumans et blanda voce vocabam. 
 
 Vix aegro cum corde meo me soranu' reliquit. 
 
 Note especially (32, 34, 37) the variation in the 
 
 tenses of the same verb. 
 
 Annales 73-93, where, in the description of a scene, the 
 Imperfects denote the continuance of effort, and there 
 seems to be no especial reason for the variation of 
 the Historical Presents and the Perfects : 
 
 Curantes magna cum cura turn cupientes 
 
 Regni dant operam simul auspicio augulioque. 
 75 Interea sol albu' recessit in infera noctis. 
 
 Hinc in nionte Remus « » • » 
 
 • * auspicio se devovet atque secundam 
 
 Solus avem servat. at Romulu' pulcher in alto 
 
 Quaeril Aventino laevum genus altivolantum. 
 80 CerU^ant, urbem Romam Remoramne vocarent. 
 
 Omnibu' cura viris, uter esset induperator. 
 
 Exspectant veluti, consul cum mittere signum 
 
 Volt, omnes avidi spectant ad carceris oras, 
 
74 
 
 Quam mox emiltat pictis e faucibu' currus: 
 85 Sic exspectabat populus atque ora tenebat 
 
 Rebus, utri magni victoria sit data regni. 
 
 Exin Candida se radiis dedit acta foras lux; 
 
 Et simul ex alto longe pulcherruma praepes 
 
 Laeva volavit avis, simul aureus exoritur sol. 
 90 Cedunt de caelo ter quattor corpora sancta 
 
 Avium, praepetibus sese pulcrisque locis dant. 
 
 Conspicit inde sibi data Romulus esse propritim 
 
 Auspicio regni stabilita scamna solumque. 
 
 Note especially (82 and 85) the variation between the 
 Historical Present and the Imperfect of the same verb. 
 The Historical Present brings before the eyes a picture of 
 the waiting people, the vividness of which is still further 
 enhanced by the following simile. The Imperfect takes 
 up the same act of waiting, and describes its continued 
 character. 
 
 3. The remains of early satire show the following varia- 
 tions : 
 
 a. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Ennius, Saturae 9-12, where, in an almost epic descrip- 
 tion, a series of Perfects of momentary actions 
 closes with a vivid Historical Present of a continued » 
 state : 
 
 * mundus caeli vastus constitit silentio, 
 10 Et Neptunus saevus undis asperis pausam dedit, 
 Sol equis iter repressit ungulis volantibus, 
 Constitere omnes perennes, arbores vento vacant, 
 
 b. The Historical Present varied -with the Imperfect. 
 
 Lucilius, Saturae 1017, where an Imperfect of continued 
 action and description is followed by an Historical 
 Present which brings a scene vividly before the eyes : 
 
 Ibat forte domum. sequimur multi atque frequentes. 
 
75 
 
 4. The remains of early historical literature show the 
 following variations : 
 
 a. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 
 Perfect, 
 
 L. Cassius Hemina ii, where the narration by a Perfect 
 
 of an ordinary historical event is followed by the 
 
 description in Historical Presents of an extraordinary 
 
 event : 
 
 Pastorum uulgus sine contentione consentiendo praefecerunt aequaliter im- 
 perio Remum et Romulum, ita ut de regno pararent inter se. monstrum fit: sus 
 parit porcos triginta. 
 
 L. Coelius Antipater 44, where there seems to be no 
 
 especial reason for the variation : 
 
 Ipse regis eminus equo ferit pectus aduorsum, congenuclat percussus, 
 deiecit dominum. 
 
 Cf . Qi. Claudius Quadrigarius 76 : 
 
 Contione dimissa Metellus in Capitolinu uenit cum mortalibus multis. inde 
 domum proficiscitur, tota ciuitas eum reduxit. 
 
 In ibid. 56 the Perfect expresses the result of the Historical 
 Present which denotes the main event : 
 Artorius Taureae dextrum umerum sauciat atque ita resiluit. 
 
 b. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 
 Perfect and the Imperfect. 
 
 Q^ Claudius Quadrigarius 10, where the only Imperfect is 
 negatived and descriptive of a continued state, and a 
 large number of Perfects of instantaneous action and 
 of ordinary narration vary, apparently for no especial 
 reason, with a few Historical Presents : 
 
 Cum interim Gallus quidam nudus praeter scutum et gladios duo torque 
 atque armillis decoratus processit, qui et uiribus et magnitudine et adulescentia 
 simulque uirtute ceteris antistabat. is maxime proelio commoto atque utrisque 
 summo studio pugnantibus manibus significare coepit utrisque, quiescerent. pug- 
 nae facta pausa est. extempio silentio facto cum uoce maxima conclamat, si quis 
 secum depugnare uellet, uti prodiret. nemo audebat propter magnitudinem atque 
 
76 
 
 inmanitatem f^cies. deinde Gallus inrideie cocpit atque linguam exertare. Id 
 subito perdolitum est cuidam Tito Manlio, summo genere gnato, tantum flagitium 
 ciuitati adcidere, e tanto exercitu neminem prodire. is, ut dico, processit neque 
 passus est uirtutem Romanam ab Gallo turpiter spoliari. scuto pedestri et gladio 
 Hispanico cinctus contra Galium constitit. Metu magno ea congressio in ipso 
 ponti utroque exercitu inspectante facta est. ita, ut ante dixi, constiterunt : Gal- 
 lus sua disciplina scuto proiecto cunctabundus, Manlius, animo magis quam arte 
 confisus, scuto scutum percussit atque statum Galli coiiturbauit. dum se Gallus 
 iterum eodem pacto constituere studet, Manlius iterum scuto scutum percutit 
 atque de loco hominem iterum deiecit; eo pacto ei sub Gallicum gladium successit, 
 ne Gallus impetum in ictu haberet, atque Hispanico pectus hausit, deinde con- 
 tinuo humerum dextrum eodem congressu incidit neque recessit usquam, donee 
 subuertit. Vbi eum euertit, caput praecidit, torquem detraxit eamque sanguinu- 
 lentam sibi in collum imponit. 
 
 The fragments cited above are too few and too slight 
 to serve as a basis for any very certain conclusions. From 
 the investigation of them, however, it may be justifiable 
 to infer that the use of the Historical Present in ante- 
 classical literature was a natural development of its use, 
 so far as it has been possible to trace this use, in the 
 spoken language. In tragic and in epic poetry, especially, 
 much the same principles seem to govern the- variation of 
 tenses as in the comic poets. In the historians it m.ay be 
 possible to find the aoristic use of the Historical Present 
 as nearly equivalent to the Historical Perfect more clearly 
 developed, although even the few existing fragments con- 
 tain examples of the distinctly vivid use of the tense. 
 
 It should further be noted that from the fragments of 
 tragic and of epic poetry, of the satire and of history, and 
 also from the fragments of comic poetry may be gathered 
 a large number of Historical Presents, varying with no 
 other tenses.' In the original contexts, however, such 
 variation doubtless occurred. 
 
 ' From the comic fragments, ig; from the tragic, 28; from the epic, 85; 
 from the satiric, 13; from the historical, 25. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Historical Present in Subordinate Clauses. 
 
 The preceding chapters in treating of the Historical 
 Present in principal clauses have treated of its most 
 important use. But the study of the tense will not be 
 complete unless the Historical Present in subordinate 
 clauses be examined, and also the sequence of tenses 
 after the Historical Present. Subjunctive subordinate 
 clauses, which depend directly upon their principal clauses, 
 follow the principles of the "sequence of tenses", and 
 must be distinguished from indicative subordinate (or 
 coordinate) clauses, such as indicative relative, causal, 
 and temporal clauses," the tenses of which are indepen- 
 dent of the tenses of the principal verbs. The present 
 chapter will treat of the Historical Present in these 
 indicative suboi"dinate clauses, while the following chapter 
 will deal with the sequence of subjunctive tenses after the 
 Historical Present. 
 
 The various explanations that have been advanced of 
 the function of the Historical Pi-esent in subordinate 
 clauses accord with the various theories of its function in 
 principal clauses. Holtze and Kiihner include in their 
 general definition of the tense its use in both kinds of 
 clauses, and thus imply that in subordinate as well as in 
 principal clauses it is aoristic in character and may vary 
 
 •Cf. Hoffmann, Zeitfolge nach dem Praesens historicum, p. 19. He, how- 
 ever, dasses indicative relative clauses under those subordinate clauses that follow 
 the principles of the sequence of tenses, distinguishing them, together with 
 others, as "Nebensatze, die durch ihre Zeitlage bestimmend sind fiir die Aussage 
 des Hauptsatzes", from subjunctive subordinate clauses, which he calls "Neben- 
 satze, deren Zeitlage bedingt ist durch die Aussage des Hauptsatzes". (pp. 25, 
 32-42). 
 
^8 
 
 arbitrarily with the Historical Perfect.' The explanation 
 of the use of the Historical Present in subordinate clauses 
 that results from Hoffmann's theory of the nature of the 
 tense in principal clauses is illustrated by Lange, wh6 
 maintains^ that, owing to the imperfect character of the 
 Historical Present, its use in subordinate clauses distinctly 
 differs from that of the Historical Perfect : " Omnis 
 nimirum actio triplici modo ex altera apta esse potest : ut 
 aut ante alteram ipsa iam plane absoluta sit (nackdemj, 
 aut eodem, quo altera, tempore conficiatur ab eodemque 
 principio profecta communem quoque rei exitum ostendat 
 (^^ugleich ah), aut confecta demum altera absolvatur 
 ( waehrend ). Atque proximum quidem genus totum 
 praesenti historico obtigit, cetera perfecto iusta ratione 
 concessa sunt. Praesens enim id tantum declarat actionem 
 aliquam durai-e nequedum perfectam esse, ipsius vero 
 temporis, quo quid conficiatur, notionem non accuratius 
 circumscribit."3 And again, " Particula (^mot iuncta cum 
 praes. hist, eiusmodi proprie indicat actionem, quae ante- 
 quam altera confici sit incepta, iam dudum in conspectu 
 versetur; itaque saepe ad tales refertur voces, quales 
 interea, interim, etc. Cum' vero exprimendum est rem 
 aliquam paullo post alteram evenisse, ad particulas fost- 
 quam, quoniam, quom, ubi, ut recurritur, quibus simili 
 ratione respondent vocabula suhito, eloco, extem-plo, etc. 
 Singularis tamen praesentis historic] vis et natura nunquam 
 oblitteratur, immo Integra semper permanet; neque enim 
 
 ' Kiihner specifies no kinds of subordinate clauses, but says that the Histor- 
 ical Present is used "besonders in Hauptsatzen, aher auch nicht selten in 
 Nebensatzen". Op. et loc. cit. See Chapter I, p. i. Holtze restricts it 
 especially to temporal clauses : "Praesens historicum aut per se ponitur aut 
 pendens a variis particulis, imprimis temporis." Op, cit., p. 64. 
 
 ^ De sententiarum temporalium apud priacos scriptores Latinos syntaxi, 
 Vratislaviae, 1878. 
 
 ^ p. 4. 
 
19 
 
 iisdem, quibus altera actio, cancellis sese continet, sed 
 ultra pertinens etiam longius extenditur."' 
 
 Schneider alone seems to deny the existence of the 
 Historical Present in subordinate clauses. Upon the 
 erroneous distinction between so-called " absolute " and 
 " relative " time he bases a theory that the present tense in 
 these clauses that is used of past events is not the 
 Historical Present, but onljr a relative present.* 
 
 An examination of the Historical Present in subordi- 
 nate clauses in early Latin seems to point conclusively to a 
 function and an usage similar to the function and the usage 
 in principal clauses that have been indicated in the fore- 
 going chapters. In subordinate as in principal clauses the 
 tense serves to vividly represent the past, is used of both 
 aoristic and imperfect conceptions, and varies with the 
 Historical Perfect, the Imperfect and the Pluperfect, for the 
 most part according to certain principles, which find their 
 explanation in the relation of these subordinate clauses to 
 their principal clauses and to the context in general, rather 
 than in their relation to each other. 
 
 The chief interest centres about the Historical Present 
 in temporal clauses. Relative clauses are much less 
 
 ' pp. 7-8. 
 
 ^ op. cit., p. 12: "ut recte Langius disseruit, praesens cum particulis dum, 
 postquam, quoniam, quom, ubi, ut coniunctum semper actionem praeteritam 
 significat, quae eodem tempore durat nequedum absoluta est, quo altera aut plane 
 aut ex parte conficitur. Minime vero hoc cum absolute praesentis historici genere 
 confundendum esse video. Nam etsi illae particulae imprimis in narrationis 
 tenore, in quo praes. hist, etiam in sententiis primariis locum habet, cum praesenti 
 constructae inveniuntur, tamen hanc structuram certo consilio adhibitam esse 
 apparet ad indicandum temporum relationem. Ut enim supra vidimus, praesentis 
 historici quod pfoprie dicitur in comicorum sermone minime proprie est vis actionis 
 continuae, sed saepe etiam de rebus brevissimo temporis momento peractis neque 
 uUo perfecti discrimine usurpatur. Quodsi tantummodo in sententiis temporali- 
 bus, ubicumque praesens legitur, certam illam et constantem regulam, ut enuntiati 
 primarii actio alterius tempore contineatur, videmus esse observatam, in iis prae- 
 sens relativa quadam vi positum esse elucet." 
 
go 
 
 closely connected with their principal clauses and with the 
 context. Often they are used to express only explan- 
 atory or parenthetical facts, which have no real 
 interconnection with the events that the speaker is review- 
 ing, or to denote facts that, while they are a necessary 
 part of the scene, yet serve rather as a background for the 
 main activities, which are described by Historical Presents 
 in the principal clauses. Therefore, as should be expected, 
 the Historical Present occurs but rarely in relative clauses, 
 while the Historical Perfect and other past tenses, 
 depending upon an Historical Present in the principal 
 clause, are far more common. Over against ten exam- 
 ples of the Historical Present stand forty examples of 
 past tenses. Much the same is true of causal clauses. 
 Of the small number of such clauses three show an His- 
 torical Present after a' past tense in the principal clause, 
 while five show a past tense after an Historical Present 
 in the principal clause. The facts expressed by these 
 past tenses are explanatorj^ of the main facts. In the 
 case of the Historical Presents emphasis is laid upon the 
 cause itself. 
 
 In temporal clauses, on the other hand, the Historical 
 Present plaj's an important part, since the activities denoted 
 by the verbs in these clauses are integral parts of th& 
 scene that the speaker is describing. In relation to the 
 principal verb the subordinate Historical Present may be 
 used of either antecedent or contemporary time, according 
 to its introductory particle. And as in principal clauses 
 so in these subordinate clauses the Historical Present often 
 varies with other tenses. There are eighty-five examples of 
 the Historical Present, over against forty-four examples of 
 the Historical Perfect, two of the Imperfect, and four of 
 the Pluperfect. Here are considered temporal clauses 
 introduced by fostquam^ quoniatn, quom, ubi, ut, prius- 
 
8i 
 
 quant, and donee. The Present with dum in such 
 clauses, although usually explained as the Historical Pres- 
 ent, seems rather to go back directly to the original 
 Present.' In view, however, of the doubt in regard to 
 their nature, the dum clauses will be included in the fol- 
 lowing citations. 
 
 In support of the claim made above, that the use of 
 the Historical Present in subordinate clauses is dependent 
 only upon the nature of the tense itself, it will be well to 
 point out the inadequacy of two other explanations which 
 might suggest themselves. 
 
 Even in such sentences as those now under considera- 
 tion, it is sometimes claimed that the tense in the 
 subordinate clause depends upon the position of this clause 
 in relation to its principal clause in such a way that when 
 the subordinate clause follows an Historical Present in the 
 principal clause, its verb naturally tends towards the 
 Historical Present, while, on the contrary, when it pre- 
 cedes its verb, it naturally tends towards the past tenses, 
 the idea of the representation of the past not yet having 
 been introduced. How entirely this principle fails to 
 explain the use of the Historical Present in subordinate 
 clauses in early Latin will appear from the following 
 tabular statements, in which are included subordinate 
 Historical Presents combined with principal Historical 
 Presents and with past tenses ; and subordinate past tenses 
 combined with principal Historical Presents : 
 
 " Schmalz, Reisig's Vorlesungen, III, p. 341, and Lateinische Syntax, p. 
 509, follows Hoffmann (Die Construction der lateinischen Zeitpariikdn) 
 in explaining the Present with dum as an Historical Present. Kiihner, op. Hi., II, 
 p. 910, Draeger, op. cit., II, p. 604, Roby, Latin Grammar, II, g 145S, and 
 others give the same explanation. Riemann, on the contrary, Syntaxe Latins, p. 
 372, justly maintains that the use of postquam, uM and ut with the Historical 
 Present for the sake of enlivening a narrative must not be confounded with the use 
 of dum (meaning, not "during the entire time that", but " at the same time 
 that") with the Present, which is the only regular construction of this particle. 
 
82 
 
 postquam 
 
 Historical Present . . 
 Historical Perfect . • 
 Pluperfect 
 
 TEMPORAL SENTENCES, 
 
 subordinate clattse pre- 
 cedes principal 
 
 12 
 
 26 
 
 43 
 
 c[uomam 
 Historical Present .... 14 
 Historical Perfect .... 2 
 
 16 
 
 ^tiom 
 
 Historical Present 2 
 
 (3 principal clauses 
 are wanting.) 
 
 ubi 
 
 Historical Present .... 30 
 
 (one principal clause 
 
 is wanting.) 
 
 Historical Perfect. . . . 17 
 
 47 
 
 Hi 
 Historical Present . . 
 Historical Perfect . . 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Pluperfect 
 
 priusquam 
 Historical Present 2 
 
 donee 
 Historical Present i 
 
 dum 
 Historical Present . . 
 
 •52 
 
 39' 
 
 29 
 
 ■ 17 
 
 .46 
 
 ■38 
 
 subordinate clause fol- 
 lows principal 
 3 ( I principal clause 
 I contains a past 
 tense.) 
 
 J (3 principal clauses 
 
 I contain a past 
 
 . — tense.) 
 6 
 
 (all principal clauses 
 contain a past 
 tense.) 
 
 I (principal clause con- 
 tains a past tense.) 
 
 14 (13 principal clauses 
 contain a past 
 tense.) 
 
 Exclusive of the dum sentences this table shows 143 temporal sentences, in 
 118 of which the subordinate precedes the principal clause; in 21 of which the 
 subordinate follows the principal clause; in four of which the principal clause is 
 wanting. It also shows that in 14 of the 19 cases in which the subordinate His- 
 torical Present follows the principal clause this clause contains a past tense. 
 
83 
 
 RELATIVE SENTENCES. 
 
 pronoun 
 
 Historical Present. 
 Historical Perfect. 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Pluperfect 
 
 adverb 
 Historical Present. 
 Historical Perfect. 
 Imperfect ........ 
 
 Pluperfect 
 
 . 6 
 •13 
 
 • 9 
 
 • 7 
 
 35 
 
 • 4 
 
 • 7 
 
 • 4 
 . I 
 
 16 
 
 subordinate clause pre- 
 cedes principal 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 13 
 
 subordinate clause fol- 
 lows principal 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 This table shows 51 relative sentences, in 23 of which the subordinate pre- 
 cedes the principal clause; in 28 of which the subordinate follows the principal 
 clause. 
 
 quta 
 
 Historical Present . - • ■ 2 
 
 Historical Perfect i 
 
 Imperfect i 
 
 4 
 quod 
 
 Imperfect i 
 
 Pluperfect i 
 
 2 
 
 propterea quod 
 Imperfect i 
 
 CAUSAL SENTENCES. 
 
 subordinate clause pre- 
 cedes principal 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 subordinate clause follows 
 
 principal 
 I (principal clause con- 
 tains a past tense.) 
 
 This table shows 7 causal sentences, in 3 of which the subordinate precedes 
 the principal clause; in 4 of which the subordinate follows the principal clause. 
 
 The above tables show: (i) that by far the larger 
 number of subordinate clauses precede their principal 
 
84 
 
 clauses; (2) that in these preceding subordinate clauses 
 the Historical Present and Historical Perfect and other 
 past tenses occur indiscriminately; and (3) that in the 
 majority of cases in which the subordinate Historical 
 Present follows, the principal clause contains a past tense, 
 not an Historical Present. 
 
 In temporal sentences the subordinate Historical 
 Present will be seen to predominate, in spite of the fact 
 that most of the subordinate clauses precede their princi- 
 pal clauses. In relative sentences it is noticeable that 
 more than half of the few Historical Presents precede 
 their principal clause, while in the relative clauses that 
 follow a principal Historical Present the past tenses are 
 predominant. In causal sentences one of the two sub- 
 ordinate Historical Presents precedes a past tense in the 
 principal clause, while of the five subordinate past tenses 
 three follow an Historical Present in the principal clause. 
 
 A more detailed examination of the relation of 
 subordinate and principal clauses makes plain another 
 important fact, namely, that the Historical Present in the 
 subordinate clauses cannot be explained by attraction. 
 Out of eighty-one examples of the subordinate Historical 
 Present in temporal sentences thirty-seven show a past 
 tense in the principal clause ; while there are fifty-eight 
 examples of a past tense in the subordinate clause with 
 an Historical Present in the principal. In relative sen- 
 tences there are thirty and in causal sentences five 
 examples of a subordinate past tense with a principal 
 Historical Present. The following tables will make this 
 clear : 
 
85 
 
 2 H S u ■§ 
 Sh H H C 
 
 ■f^ 
 
 .8 
 
 tn 
 W 
 U 
 
 H 
 
 w 
 p 
 
 ^ 
 
 SI 
 
 c =.205 
 
 £2 o 
 
 Pi H <! 
 
 o 
 
 PL, H O 
 
 ^ 
 s 
 
 S" a 
 
 !d O 
 
 f, Ph 
 
 Pi H t/2 1-1 
 
 
 ■«^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 ™ ,5 
 
 =3 U 
 PL, H 
 
 5 00 
 
 i^ S 
 
 
 13 
 o 
 H 
 
 'S 
 
 c 
 ■c 
 
 .1) 
 
 ^1 
 
 (i* H 
 
86 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 <ii 
 
 O) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •1 
 
 
 a> 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 ►J 
 
 .8 
 
 •^, 
 
 ig 
 
 ^ 'x "> 8 
 
 
 «.g 
 
 B 
 B 
 
 •■Sh 
 
 
 ■^■ 
 
 ■s 
 
 8 
 
 P^ H 
 
 <3 
 ■■Sh 
 
 ■a. 
 
 S 
 
 ■■Sh 
 
 ■<^ 
 
 S B 
 
 !^ :s 
 
 •c 
 
 at 
 
 S 
 
 S B rt u ■ 
 K H iJ C 
 
 ^ 
 
 8 
 
 g Si 
 
 ►H I t^ "^ 
 
 5 c 
 
 fi, H ui ^ W 
 
87 
 
 7. Imperfect in the subordinate; Historical Present in the principal clause. 
 
 ut 
 
 Plautus 
 Terence 
 
 8. Pluperfect in the subordinate; Historical Present in the principal clause, 
 postquatn «; 
 
 Plautus I Plautus i 
 
 Terence 2 
 
 Total: 4. 
 
 RELATIVE SENTENCES. 
 
 I. Historical Present in the subordinate ; Historical Present in the principal 
 
 clause. 
 
 adverb 
 
 pronoun 
 Plautus 
 Ennlus 
 Coel. Antipater 
 
 Total: lo. 
 
 Plautus 
 
 2 
 
 Terence 
 
 I 
 
 Cato 
 
 I 
 
 2. Historical Perfect in the subordinate; Historical Present in the principal 
 
 clause. 
 
 pronoun 
 Plautus 
 Terence 
 S. Turpilius 
 Ennius 
 L. Cassius Hemina 
 
 Total: 20. 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 
 13 
 
 adverb 
 Plautus 
 L. Pomponius 
 
 Ennius 
 
 3. Imperfect in the subordinate ; Historical Present in the principal clause. 
 
 pronoun 
 Plautus 
 Terence 
 Lucilius 
 Sisenna 
 
 adverb 
 
 Plautus I 
 
 Attius I 
 
 Sisenna 2 
 
 Total: 13. 
 
88 
 
 4. Pluperfect in the subordinate; Historical Present in the principal clause. 
 
 pronoun 
 Plautus _ 6 
 
 Terence I 
 
 Total: 8. 
 
 adverb 
 Plautus I 
 
 CAUSAL SENTENCES. 
 
 Historical Present in the subordinate ; Historical Perfect in the principal 
 
 clause. 
 
 quia 
 Plautus Z 
 
 2. Historical Perfect in the subordinate; Historical Present in the principal 
 
 clause. 
 
 quia 
 Terence I 
 
 3. Imperfect in the subordinate ; Historical Present in the principal clause. 
 
 quia I quod \ propterea quod 
 
 Terence I | Varro i | Sisenna I 
 
 Total: 3. 
 
 4. Pluperfect in the subordinate ; Historical Present in the principal clause. 
 
 quod 
 Terence i 
 
 It seems clear from a study of all the above tables 
 that the use of the Historical Present in subordinate clauses 
 is to be explained neither by the relative position of these 
 clauses to their principal clauses, nor by the attraction 
 of the subordinate to the principal verb, but is, rather, 
 independent, and, as has already been emphasized, par- 
 allel to the use of the tense in principal clauses. 
 
 It will not be necessary to do more than briefly 
 classify and cite the passages. They may be divided into 
 single, sentences composed of one or more subordinate 
 clauses and one principal clause, in which no variation 
 
89 
 
 of the Historical Present with other tenses occurs in the 
 subordinate clauses; and longer passages composed of 
 two 01- more subordinate and principal clauses, in which 
 such variation does occur. 
 
 A.' 
 
 TEMPORAL SENTENCES, 
 
 I. Historical Present in the subordinate; Historical 
 
 Present in the priticipal clause. 
 
 a. postqtiam.* 
 
 Cnrculio 683 : 
 
 Poslquam nil fit, clamore faominem posco. 
 
 L. Afranius 207-9 • 
 
 postquam se uidet 
 Inibi esse, gnatam paruulam sororibiis 
 Commettddt. 
 
 Cf. Caecilius Statius 4. 
 
 b. quoniam.i 
 
 Truculenttis 401-3 : 
 
 Maler ancillas iubet,, 
 Qaoniam iam deciimus mensis aduentat prope, 
 ' Aliam aliorsum ire. 
 
 ■ The single sentences cited above often occur in longer passages in which 
 the independent verbs show a variation of the Historical Present with other 
 tenses. Sentences in which two subordinate clauses depend upon one principal 
 verb are cited under the heading of each clause. 
 
 ' In order that all the examples of each kind of temporal sentence may be 
 grouped together, references are given to the occurrences of sentences like the 
 above in passages in which there is a variation of tenses in the subordinate 
 clauses: Co/A'«i 487; Miies G/oriosm 124- i; Hecyra 187-8; Phormio i)'^i'T,T,. 
 
 ^ Autularia y]"]; Bacchides 2<)0-^i, 299-300; Cistellaria 164-65; Poenutm 
 68-9. 
 
 * BaccAides 304-5; Epidiciis 217. 
 
go 
 
 c. quomfi 
 
 Heauton Timorumenos 650-51 '• 
 
 quom exponend'am' do rlli, de digito anulimr 
 Detraho, 
 
 Cf . Andria 362 ; Hecyra 39-40 ; Attius 436. 
 In Ennius, Comoediae 386 the principal clause is wanting ; 
 Cum desubito me oral mulier lacrimansque ad genua accidit. 
 
 Cf. Annates 411-12 and 496. 
 
 d. ubi." 
 
 Captiui 501 : 
 
 «& quisqne uident, etcnt otiuiam. 
 
 Cf. Miles Gloriosus 178; Adelfhi 471-72; Sextus Tur- 
 
 pilius 194-95- 
 In Pacuvius 69 the principal clause is wanting : 
 
 Vbi ego me grauidam sentio adgrauescere'. 
 Ennius, Annales 65 : 
 
 Occiduntur uU, fotiiur rattt' Romnlu' praedam, 
 
 Qj. Claudius Quadrigarius 10, line 26 : 
 
 ubi eum euertit, caput praecidit. 
 
 e. dum? 
 
 Bacchides 950-5153 Miles Gloriosus 308; Trinummus 
 166-68; Eunuchus ^^2% \ 'Ennius, Annales 2^6; Q. Claud- 
 ius Quadrigarius 13. 
 
 ' Amp/iitruo 1061, where the principal verb is not expressed; Casina 915, 
 92z; Mercaior SO'2; Miles Gloriosus 114-15; Mostellaria 1051-52; Pseudolus 
 1278; Eunuchus 132-34, 255-56, 4I4; Hecyra 183-84, 185; Heauton Timoru- 
 menos 276-77 (so Dziatzko, after Bentley^, 304-5; Phormio 862; Ennius, 
 Tragoediae 180, where the principal verb is wanting. 
 
 In passages like the above occurring where there is a variation of subordinate 
 tenses there is one example of ut, Mercator 100; and one of priusquam, Poenu- 
 lus 66-7. 
 
 ' Amphiiruo 1120; Bacchides 279; Casina 909; Mercator 193; Stichus 
 366-67; Eunuchus 255, 583, 843-44; Q. Claudius Quadrigarius 10, lines 20-1. 
 
 ' According to Ritschl and others; MSS have Perfect in the subordinate 
 clause. 
 
91 
 
 2. Historical Present in the subordinate; Historical 
 
 Perfect in the frincifal clause. 
 
 a. ^postqtmm,^ 
 
 Persa S22, where the principal tense is a pure rather than 
 historical Perfect : 
 
 lam diu facHtmsi, postqnam hibhnus. 
 
 Cf, Andria 513-14: 
 
 nunc, postquam uidet 
 Nuptias domi adpatari, missast ancilla ilico. 
 
 b. quoniam? 
 Poenulus 665 : 
 
 Inde hue aufiigil, qutniam capiiur oppidum^ 
 Cf. Casina 583. 
 
 c. quom. 
 Amfhitruo 668 : 
 
 Grauidam ego ilknc hk yeliqui, quom abt(K 
 Eimuchus 792-93 : 
 
 tfiwm tibi do istam uirginem, 
 Di-xtin hos dies mihi soli dare te f 
 
 Cf. Caj)tiui 282. 
 
 d. ■priusquam.'^ 
 Curculio 637 : 
 
 priusqunnl nmritur mihi dediL 
 
 ^ Menaechmi l^-t^; Trinummus 108-113; Hecyra 120-21, 126-28, 158-5$. 
 
 ' Aulularia ^-, Bacchides 292; Casina 885-86; Menatchmi 481-83; Ru- 
 dcns (i'j-%; Trinummus 112-1'^. 
 
 ' In passages like the above occurring where there is a variation of subordi- 
 nate tenses there are the following examples of ubi : Cistellaria 160-61; Stichus 
 558, where the principal clause is itself subordinate to another verb; Eunuchus 
 260-61, 517; HeatUon Timvrumenos 276-77. And the following examples of 
 donee: Cistellaria 581-83; Mercator 194 (so Leo; see Chapter III, p. 45, 
 note). 
 
92 
 
 e. dum.^ 
 Casina 241, 976; Cistellaria 90-1 ; CurcuUo 682; 
 Menaechmi 449 ; Mercator 924 ; Miles Gloriosus 504-5 ; ^ 
 Mostellaria 1017-18; P£>^«m/«5 803-04 ; a Eudens 2fi^-6^ ; 
 Trinummus82<) ; yl<^ei^^«S4i-42, 691 , 868-69 ; -t Eunuchus 
 341,949-50; Hecyra 829; Heauton Timorumenos 257- 
 58, 272, 491-2, 983 ; Phormio 1007 ; Sextus Turpilius 
 149 ; L. Pomponius 190. 
 
 3. Historical Present in the subordinate ; Imferfect in 
 the frincifal clause. 
 
 a. -postquam, 
 
 Phormio 569-72 is sometimes quoted as an illustration, 
 
 and hence is included here. But the principal verb 
 
 upon which the subordinate verb really depends is a 
 
 Perfect Infinitive depending upon the Imperfect 
 
 Indicative ; 5 
 
 Postquam uidet me eius milter esse hie diutius, 
 Simul autem non manebat aetas uirginis 
 Meam neclegentiam : ipsam cum omni familia 
 Ad me profectam esse aibant. 
 
 b. quom.^ 
 Menaechmi 1136 : 
 
 Hunt censebat te esse, credo, quom uocat te ad prandjum. 
 
 ' Amphitruo 1098-99 ; Mercator 97-8 ; Pseudolus 1279 ; Rudeni 37 ; 
 Eunuchus dix), iiyi-Tjy, Phormio. "jd', Heauton Timerumenos ■^g'j, 6^^; Hecyra 
 8qq-i, 
 
 ^ Accprdiflg to Leo's reading the subordinate tense is a Perfect. 
 
 ' According to Leo's punctuation this sentence belongs under i, e, 
 
 ^ The principal tense is a pure rather than historical Perfect. 
 
 ' Lange, <5». ftV., p. 10, foot-note 18, explains the Imperfect as follows; 
 " imperfectum aibant in cotidiano sermonis usu idem fere valet quod dixerunt et 
 h. 1. sine dubio propter praecedens imperfectum manebat admissum est." 
 
 ''Menaechmi 29, 1053-54; Hecyra 115-16. 
 
93 
 
 Eunuchus 345 : 
 
 hue quern adttenio, nulla erat. 
 Cf. Capttui 8%*] ; Menaechmi 111^. 
 
 c. dutn.^ 
 Lucilius 1014-17. 
 
 4. Historical Present in the subordinate ; Pluperfect in 
 
 the principal clause-* 
 
 a. quom.^ 
 Mercator 617 : 
 
 lam addicta atque abducta erat, quom ad portum uenio. 
 
 Eunuchus 342-3 : 
 
 quoni hue respicio ad uirginem, 
 Ilia sese interea commodum hue aduorUrat. 
 
 b. dum. 
 Ennius, Annales 391. 
 
 5 . Historical Perfect in the subordinate ; Historical 
 
 Present in the principal clause, 
 a, postquamA 
 Mercator 256-7 : 
 
 Postquam id quod uolui transegi, jbi ego conspicor 
 Nauem, 
 
 ' Hecyra 802-3. 
 
 ° There is an example of the Historical Present in the subordinate, and the 
 Historical Infinitive in the principal clause in a passage in which a variation of 
 subordinate tenses occurs : Bacchides 289, where the subordinate clause is intro- 
 duced by ubi. 
 
 ' £unuchus 522, where the principal tense is itself subordinate to another 
 verb. 
 
 * Ampfiitruo 22^, 1091-93, 1107-8, liil, 1114-15; Bacchides 2*11; Captiui 
 S07; Curcu/io 3^6, 3/ig, 354; £pidicus 242-45 i Menaeckmi ^•j-4o; Miles Glo- 
 rigsus 121-22; Mpstellaria 1048-49; Fseudolus I2J2'J2; Andria 4^1; Eunuchus 
 137-38. 
 
94 
 
 Hecyra 367-68 : 
 
 Postquam me aspexere ancillae aduenisse omnes ilico 
 Laetae exdamant. 
 
 Sextus Turpilius 72-3 : 
 
 postquam ad aedem uenimus, 
 Veneratur deos. 
 
 Cf . Curculio 646 ; Mercator 262-63 ; Mostellaria 485-86 ; 
 Truculentus 647 ; Hecyra 267-68, 376. 
 Naevius, Bellum Punicum 3-4: 
 
 Postquamde aves aspexit in templo Anchisa, 
 Sacra in mensa Penatium ordine ponuntur, 
 
 Ennius, Annales 162-63 : 
 
 Postquam defessi sunt stare et spargere sese 
 Hastis ansatis, concurrunt undique telis. 
 
 b. quoniavi.^ 
 Asinaria 350-51 : 
 
 Qnoniam ille elocutust haec sic . . . 
 Extemplo facio facetum me. 
 
 c. ubi.^ 
 Aulularia 708 : 
 
 VH ille abiit, ego me deorsum duco de arbore. 
 
 Adelj)hi 618-19 : 
 
 ubi eam uidi, ilico 
 Accedo. 
 
 Cf. Cistellarta ^']^ x^ Curculio ^g^-g6. 
 Lucilius 16 : 
 
 Haec ubi dicta dedii, pausam facit ore loquendi. 
 
 ' Mostellaria lojo. 
 
 ^ Amphitruo 211-13, 216-17, 242-43, 1092-93; y^/to Cloriosus 109-10; 
 Eunuchus tj'jd, 844, where the principal verb is not expressed; Heauton Timoru- 
 menos 1.21-22, 275; Hecyra 189-90. 
 
 ^ According to the reading of Goetz and Schoell, which, however, they mark 
 as corrupt, the principal verb is interrogo. Other readings substitute the part- 
 iciple obsecrans for this verb, and make inquam in 578 the principal verb. 
 
95 
 
 Q. Claudius Quadrigarius 73 
 
 Vl)i decreuerunt, commemorant Graccho, foedus prior Pompeianum non esse 
 seruatum. 
 
 d. ut.^ 
 Poenulus 650-52 : 
 
 ut ad portum processimus, 
 Atque istum e naui ibi exeuntem oneraria 
 Videmus. 
 
 Andria 590 : 
 
 ut hinc te intro ire iussi, opportune hie fit mi obuiam. 
 Cf. Hecyra 365-68. 
 
 6. Imperfect in the subordinate ; Historical Present in 
 
 the principal clause. 
 
 tit. 
 
 Asinaria 343 : 
 
 Verum in tonstrina ut sedebam, me infit percontarier. 
 Adelphi 406 : 
 
 Nam ut numerabatur forte argentum, interuenit. 
 
 7. Pluperfect in the subordinate ; Historical Present in 
 
 the principal clause., 
 
 a. postquam. 
 
 Captiui 24-5 : 
 
 Postquam belligerant Aetoli illi cum Aleis, 
 capitur alter filius. 
 
 b. ut. 
 Curculio 6^6-^'j : 
 
 iam ut me conlocauerat, 
 Exoritur uentus turbo. 
 
 ^ Bacchides 2^%-^g•, Phormio iil"] . 
 
96 
 Hecyra 378 : 
 
 iam ut limen exieram,'- ad genua accidit. 
 
 Cf . Adelfhi 618-19. 
 
 RELATIVE SENTENCES.' 
 
 I . Historical Present in the subordinate ; Historical 
 Present in the -princijbal clause. 
 
 a. pronoun, 3 
 Ennius, Annales 294-6 : 
 
 Haece locutu' vocat, quoi. turn bene saepe libenter 
 Mensam sermonesque suos rerumque suaf um 
 Inpartit cumulum. 
 
 Cf. 304-5 and 309 of the same passage. 
 Coelius Antipater 8 : 
 
 Qui intellegunt quae fiant, dissentiuntur . 
 
 b. adverb. + 
 Cato 139 : 
 
 Qua molissimum est, adoriantur. 
 
 ' So Dziatzko for the exirem of the MSS. 
 
 ' In the citation of relative sentences it will not be necessary to classify them 
 according to the more or less intimate connection between their subordinate and 
 principal clauses. The reasons for the occurrence of the Historical Present and 
 of other tenses in the subordinate clauses have been indicated above, pp. 79-80. 
 Hoffmaiin, in classing these clauses with subjunctive subordinate clauses (see 
 above, p. 77, note), explains their tenses in accordance with his principle of the 
 sequence of tenses after the Historical Present, which will be commented upon 
 in Chapter V. See pp. 32-34 of his treatise. 
 
 ^ References will be given to relative sentences like the above in passages in 
 which there is a variation of the Plistorical Present with other tenses in the sub- 
 ordinate clauses : Amphitruo 231-32; Curculio 353 (see Chapter III, p. 39, 
 note); Miles Gloriosus 117; Andria 491. 
 
 * Miles Gloriosus 115; Mostellaria 1051-52; Eunuchus 844. 
 
97 
 
 3- Historical Perfect in the subordinate; Historical 
 Present in the -principal clause. 
 
 a. -pronoun.^ 
 Mcrcator 260-61 : 
 
 Atque ibi ego aspicio forma eximia mulierem, 
 Filius qtmm aduexit, 
 
 Andria 104-5 : 
 
 Fere in diebus paucis, quibus haec acta sunt, 
 Chrysis . . moritur. 
 
 Sextus Turpilius 203 : 
 
 Dat ultro ac muneratur quod ab illo abstulit. 
 
 Cf . Mercator 256-57 : Andria 591 ; Ennius, Annates 
 401-2. 
 
 JLi. Cassius Hemina 11 : 
 
 Sus parit parcos triginta, cuius rei fanum fecerunt laribus Grnndilibus. 
 
 b. adverb.^ 
 L. Pomponius 40: 
 
 Et ubi insilui in coleatum eculeum, ibi tolutim tortor. 
 
 Ennius, Annales 501 : 
 
 Qua murum fieri voluit, urguentur in unum. 
 
 4. Imperfect in the subordinate ; Historical Present in 
 the principal clause. 
 
 a. pronoun.'^ 
 Truculentus 647-48 : 
 
 aduenit si deis placet 
 Ad uillam argentum meo qui debebat patri, 
 Qui ouis Taretinas erat mercatus* de patre. 
 
 » Amphitruo 1103; Miles Gloriosus 120, I2Z, 127; Poenulus 72, 87. 
 ^ Jmphitruollt,, 1067; jWwvator 80-1, 95-6; Miles Gloriosus 118. 
 ^ Capiiui ^S2-8y, Casina 41-2; Miles Gloriosus lio-ll; /!udens ^S. 
 ♦ See below, 5. 
 
98 
 Andria ii8 : 
 
 inter mulieres, 
 Quae ibi aderant, forte unam aspicio adulescentulam. 
 
 Lucilius 453 : 
 
 . ■ . inquit qui cepe serebat, 
 
 Cf. ibid. 217-18; L. Cornelius Sisenna 9. 
 
 b. adverb. ' 
 Attius 629-30 : 
 
 nauem in fugam 
 Transiiunt' subter saxa ad laeuam, qua mons moUibat mare. 
 
 L. Cornelius Sisenna 126: 
 
 Quam maxime celatim poterat, in insidiis suos 
 disponit, 
 
 Cf. ibid. 87. 
 
 5. Pluf erf ect in the subordinate ; Historical Present in 
 the -principal clause, 
 ■pronoun. 3 
 Truculentus 547-49. See above, 4, a. 
 
 CAUSAL SENTENCES. 
 
 I . Historical Present in the subordinate ; Historical 
 
 Perfect in the principal clause. 
 
 quia. 4 
 Rudens 1,66-6*] : 
 
 De naui timidae ambae in scapham insiluimus, quia uidemus 
 Ad saxa nauem (errier. 
 
 ' Cistellaria 161-62. 
 
 ' The readings vary, but are all Historical Presents. 
 
 ^ Bacchides 263-64; Cistellaria 179, 185-87; Mercator 90-1; Poenulus 
 65-6; Rudens ^<)-(>o; £umu/ius 2^6; and adverb, Amp/iilruo 241. 
 * Siichus 564. 
 
99 
 
 2 . Historical Perfect in the subordinate ; Historical 
 
 Present in the frincipal clause, 
 quia. 
 Andria 121-23 '• 
 
 Quia ' turn niihi lamentari praeter ceteras 
 Visast, et quia erat ' forma praeter ceteras 
 Honesta ac liberal! , accedo. 
 
 3. Imfcrfect in the subordinate ; Historical Present in 
 
 the princi;pal clause. 
 
 a. quia. 
 
 Andria 122-23. See the preceding passage. 
 
 b. quod. 
 
 Varro, de re rustica III, 5, 18 : 
 
 Pavo surgit, quod . . custos dicebalur deprensus. 
 
 L. Cornelius Sisenna 23 : 
 
 Manualis lapides disperiit, propterea quod is ager omnis eius modi telis 
 indigebat. 
 
 4. Pluperfect in the subordinate ; Historical Present in 
 
 the -principal clause. 
 
 quod. 
 Hecyra 368 : 
 
 Laeta exdainant 'uenit', id quod me repente nspexerant. 
 
 ' So Dziatzko after Spengel; Umpfenbach, qime. 
 ' See below, 3, a. 
 
lOO 
 
 B.> 
 
 I. The Historical Present varied with the Historical 
 
 Perfect. 
 I. Temporal clauses, 
 a. Clauses introduced by the same temporal particle. 
 Heauton Timorumenos 275-306 : ^ 
 
 275 Vdi uenium ad aedis est, Dromo pultat fores; 
 Anus quaedam prodit; haec ubi aperit ostium, 
 Continue hie se eoniecitvcAio, ego consequor ; 
 
 Vbi dicimus redisse te et rogare uti 
 305 Veniret ad te, mulier telam desinit 
 
 Continuo et lacrumis oppltt ds totum sibi. 
 
 Cf. ibid.., 121-28 ;3 Eunuchus 512-22.+ 
 In Ennius, Tragoediae 180-81 the principal clause is 
 wanting and one particle introduces two tenses : 
 
 Nam ubi introductast puerumque ut laverent locant 
 In clipeo. 
 
 b. Clauses introduced by different temporal particles. 
 
 In some passages no variation occurs in the tenses of 
 the principal clauses. 
 
 Eunuchus 132-38 : s 
 
 Is ubi esse banc forma uidet honosta uirginem 
 Et fidibus scire, pretium sperans ilico 
 Producit, uendit, .... 
 
 postquam sensit me tecum quoque 
 Rem habere, fingit causas ne det sedulo. 
 
 ' In the passages cited to illustrate the variation of the Historical Present 
 with other tenses in subordinate clauses there is also a similar variation in the 
 tenses of the principal clauses, except when the contrary is expressly noted; but 
 the special forms of variation found in the two kinds of clauses do not always 
 coincide. 
 
 ^ See Chapter III, pp. 51-2. ^ p. S^. ■* p. 67. ' p. 40. 
 
lOI 
 
 Cf. Aitlularm 9-17 ; ■ Cafliui 501-7 ; ^ Phormio 617-33 ' 
 In Heauton Timorumenos 655-57 and Eunuclms 843-45 
 one of the two temporal clauses is introduced by dum. 
 In other passages variation occurs also in the tensers 
 of the principal clauses. 
 Bacchldes 277-305 : * 
 
 Postquam aurum abslulimus^ m nauem conscendimus, 
 
 Domi cupientes. forte ui adscdi in stega, 
 
 Dum circumspecto me, atque ego lembum coaspicor 
 
 Vbi portu eximus, homines remigio setjui, 
 290 Neque aues neque uenti citius. quoniam sentio 
 Quae res gereretur, nauem extemplo statuimus. 
 Quoniam uident nos stare, occeperunt ratem 
 Tardare in portu. 
 
 Quoniam uidemus auro insidias fieri, 
 300 Capimus consilium contmuo. 
 
 Tristes ilico, 
 Quoni extemplo a portu ire nos cum auro ttideni, 
 305 Suiducunt lembum capitibus cassantibus. 
 
 Phormio 859-67 : 5 
 
 Vt modo argentum tibi dedinius apud forum, recta domum 
 860 Suvius profecti; ..... 
 
 Vbi in gynaeceum ire occipio, puer ad me adcurrit Mida 
 
 ait esse uetitura intro ad eram accedere. 
 hoc ubi audiui, ad fores 
 Suspenso gradu placide ire perrexi, accessi, astiti. 
 
 Cf. Aulularia 377-83;* Casina 881-922;? CisieUaria 
 567-83;^ Pseudolus 1272-78; 9 Stichus 'i,6if-6T,^° Am- 
 phitruo 1091-1120," where the only subordinate Presents 
 
 ' The principal clauses contain no Historical Present. 
 
 = See Chapter III, p. 49. ^ p. 48. -p. 61. ' P- 36- ° P- 37- 
 
 ' p. 47- ' ?• S3- ' PP- 53-4- '° P- 50- " PP- S8-9- 
 
I02 
 
 are introduced by dum ; cf. Eunuchus 629 - 35. ' 
 
 In Trinmnnius 108-13 two subordinate clauses, one of 
 which contains two different tenses, have the same 
 principal clause : 
 
 Nam postquam hie eius rem confregit filius 
 Videta^e^ ipse ad pauperiem prostratum esse se 
 no Suamqae filiam esse adultam uirginem, 
 
 Simiil eins matrem, suampte uxorem, mortuam : 
 Quojiiam hinc iturust ipsus in Sileuciam, 
 Mihi comviendauit uirginem. 
 
 2. Temporal and relative clauses. 
 Mostellaria 1044-52 : =" 
 
 Nam erus me postquam rus misit filium ut suom arcesserem, 
 1045 Abii iliac per angiportum ad hortum nostrum clanculum. 
 
 Postquam ex opsidione in tutum eduxi maniplaris meos, 
 Capio consilium, ut senatum conguerronum conuocem. 
 1050 Quoniam conuocaui, alque illi me ex senatu segregant. 
 Vbi ego me uideo uenire in meo foro, quantum potest 
 Facio idem quod plurimi alii quibus res timida aut turbidast. 
 
 In Heauton Timorumenos 399 the temporal clause is in- 
 troduced by diim and the one principal verb is an 
 Historical Perfect. 
 
 2. The Historical Present varied with the Imj^e^'fect. 
 Temporal and relative clauses. 
 
 \\\ Phormio 76-1103 the temporal clauses, which contain 
 the Presents, are introduced by dum. 
 
 In Q^ Claudius Quadrigarius 10 * the temporal clauses, 
 which contain the Presents, are introduced by differ- 
 ent particles, one of which is dum. 
 
 ' See Chapter III, p. 56. ' p. 38. ^ pp. 67-9. ■• pp. 75-6. 
 
103 
 
 3- The Hislorical Present varied zvith the Plnferfeet, 
 
 Temporal and relative clauses. 
 Menaechmi 480-84 ; ■ Etmtichus 234-61. 
 
 4. The Historical Present varied zfith the Historical 
 Perfect and the Imperfect. 
 
 1 . Temporal and relative clauses. 
 Captiui 478-87 : ^ 
 
 Nam ego ut dudum hinc a&ii, acccssi ad adulescenles in foro : 
 
 4S2 Dico unum ridicuhim dictum de dictis melioribus, 
 Quibus sohbam menstrualis epulas ante adipiscier : 
 
 Aheo ab illis, postquam uideo me sic ludificarier. 
 
 2. Temporal and causal clauses. 
 
 Mercator 191-200, ^ where the onl\- subofdinale Present is 
 introduced by diim. 
 
 J. Temporal, relative and causal clauses. 
 
 Menaechmi 10^2-^'j, where the principal clauses contain 
 no Historical Presents : 
 
 Eripui, homines quoin fereliant te sublimen quattuor, 
 
 Apud hasce aedis. tu clamnbas deum fidem atque homiiium omnium ; 
 
 Quom ego accurro teque eripio ui pugnando ingratiis. 
 
 Ob eam rem, quia te seruaui me amisisti libeium. 
 
 Quom argentum <Hxi me petere et uasa, tu qnantuiii potest 
 
 Praccucurrisii obuiam. 
 
 ' See Chapter III, p. 54- "" P- S^' ' P- 45- 
 
I04 
 
 5- TJie Historical Present varied ivith the Historical 
 Perfect and the Pluperfects 
 I. Temporal and relative clauses. 
 Poenulus 64-87 : ■ 
 
 Sed illi seni, qui mortuosi, ei filius 
 65 Vincus qui fuerat, abditiuos a patre, 
 Puer septuennis surripitur Carthagine, 
 Sexennio prius quidem quam moritur pater, 
 Quoniam periisse sibi uidet gnatum nnicum, 
 Conicitur ipse in morbum ex aegritudine 
 
 Ille qui surripuit puerum, Calydonem auehit: 
 Vendit eum domino. ... 
 
 75 Emit . . . senex 
 
 Puerum ilium eumque adoptat sibi pro filio 
 Eumque heredem fecit, quom ipse obiit diem. 
 
 Carthaginiensi duae fuere filae : 
 85 Altera quinquennis, altera quadrimula. 
 Cum nutrice una periere eae Megaribus. 
 Eas qui surripuit, in Anactorium deuehit: 
 
 Cf. Ampkitruo 203-60.^ 
 
 2. Temporal and causal clauses. 
 
 Etmuchus 575-92, 3 where the only subordinate Presents, 
 are introduced by dum. 
 
 6. The Historical Present varied -with the Historical 
 Perfect, the Imperfect and the Pluperfect. 
 Temporal and relative clauses. 
 Cistellaria 160-96 : ■♦ 
 
 160 Is uhi malam rem scit se meruisse, ilico 
 
 Pedibus perfugium peperit, in Lemnum aufugit, 
 Vbi habitabat. tum ilia, quam compresserat, 
 
 ' See Chapter III, pp. 42-3. " pp. 59'6o. ^ pp. 48-9. * p. 43. 
 
105 
 
 Decumo post mense exacto hie peferit filiatn. 
 Quoninm reum eius facti nescit qui siet, 
 1 65 Paternum seruom sui participait consili: 
 
 Postquam ille uxori iusta fecit, ilico 
 Hue commigrauit. duxit uxorem hie sibi 
 Eandem, quam olim uirginem hie compresserat. 
 Vt earn cognoscit esse, quam compresserat, 
 
 180 Ilia i'Ui dicit eius se ex iniuria 
 
 Peperisse gnatam clam atque earn se seruo ilico 
 Dedisse exponendam. ille extemplo seruolum 
 lubet ilium eundem persequi, si qua queat 
 Reperire quae sustulerit. ei rei nunc suam 
 
 185 Operam usque assiduo seruos dat, si possiet 
 Meretricem illam inuenire, quam olim toUere, 
 Quom ipse exponebat, ex insidiis uiderat. 
 
 195 . . . . . hoc ubi 
 
 Mater resciuit, ittssit accersi eam domum. 
 
 Cf. Menaechmi 24-66;' Miles Gloriosus 109-33;^ He- 
 
 cyra 1 15-191.^ 
 
 ' See Chapter III, p. 57. ^ pp. 46-7- ' P- 69- 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES AFTER THE HISTORICAL 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 It has been commonly said of the Historical Present 
 that in its influence on dependent verbs it is regarded as 
 either a primary or a secondary tense, according as its 
 form or its logical meaning predominates. This view 
 was first opposed by Hug,' who maintained that the pres- 
 ent sequence after the Historical Present was due to the 
 meaning as well as to the form of the tense : " Denn 
 wenn eine vergangene Haupthandlung so lebhaft vor die 
 Seele tritt dass sie als gegenwartig angeschaut wird — und 
 das ist doch der Sinn des Praesens hist. — so sollten offen- 
 bar auch die damit gleichzeitigen Nebenhandlungen in 
 die Gegenwart treten, also Imperfect zum Prasens Werden, 
 oder wenn sie vorgegangen sind, in die Zeit riicken die 
 ein Vorhergegangensein in Beziehung auf die Gegenwart 
 ausdriickt, also vom Plusquamperfect ins Perfect." But 
 this sequence, logical as it would be, is not always ob- 
 served, and often the past sequence is employed in its 
 stead. Such variation, however, according to Hug, does 
 not depend upon the arbitrary choice of the writer. On 
 the contrary, it is governed by some principle, none the 
 less fundamental because the writer follows it by instinct 
 rather than by conscious effort. This " Grundprincip " 
 Hug tried to establish as follows : " Die Construction des 
 Prasens hist, als Prasens ist am meisten bei den Neben- 
 satzen durchgedrungen, die dem Hauptsatze, der das 
 
 ' Die Consecutio temporum des Praesens historicum. zunachst bei Caesar, 
 Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie, i860, pp. 877 ff. See Hoffmann, Zeitfolge 
 nach dem Praesens historicum, pp. i ff. Hug included in his treatment such 
 subordinate clauses as have been discussed in Chapter IV. 
 
I07 
 
 Prasens hist, hat, am nachsten stehen, mit ihm am innig- 
 sten zusammenhangen." Furthermore, in the case of 
 subjunctive subordinate clauses he maintained that the 
 position of the subordinate clause in relation to the prin- 
 cipal influences the sequence of tenses according to the 
 following rules : 
 
 "a. Wenn der Nebensatz dem Praes. hist, des 
 Hauptsatzes nachfolgt, so konnen beide Constructionen 
 ■promiscue angewendet werden. 
 
 "3. Wenn der Nebensatz dem Praesens hist, des 
 Hauptsatzes vorangeht, so wird er in der Regel in's Im- 
 perfect gesetzt, einige wenige Falle ausgenommen in 
 welchen schon vorher Hauptsatze in's Praes. hist, gesetzt 
 sind, oder bei kurzen indirecten Fragesatzen, deren 
 Verbum ganz in der Nahe des Verbum finitum steht." 
 
 The reason given by Hug for the latter rule was that 
 the writer "sich gewissermassen scheute, die Nebenhand- 
 lung hineinzuziehen, bevor er die Haupthandlung 
 hineingezogen hatte, oder : er scheute sich die Folgerung 
 zu Ziehen, bevor die Ursache gesetzt war". 
 
 The same results that Hug reached through a study 
 of the subject in Caesar were reached about the same time 
 by Reusch through a study of the subject in Cicero,' and 
 the theory that the sequence of tenses after the Historical 
 Present is conditioned by the position of the subordinate 
 clause has been accepted by many grammarians. 
 
 Hoffmann, in his treatise already referred to, made 
 a vigorous attack upon this theory. With justice he 
 exposed its inconsistencies, and then proceeded in an 
 exhaustive treatment of the subject, based upon a study 
 of all the ante-classical authors, of Cicero, Caesar, 
 Nepos, Sallust, Vergil, Livy, Ovid, Velleius, Curtius, 
 
 » Zur Lehre von der Tempusfolge, Elbing 1861. See Hoffmann, op. cit., 
 p. 4. Reusch also included indicative subordinate clauses. 
 
io8 
 
 Tacitus, the younger Pliny, Florus and Eutropus, to 
 establish a theory to the effect that the Historical Present 
 is a purely preterite tense, and can be followed by only the 
 past sequence, except in the case of a certain class of 
 subordinate clauses which naturally, from their relation to 
 the rest of the sentence, tend toward the present sequence : ' 
 "Diirfen wir das Resultat unserer Untersuchung dahin 
 zusammenfassen, dass das Praesens hist, dem Lateiner 
 nur als Praeteritum gegolten hat, und dass somit alle 
 um ein Prasens hist, sich gruppierenden Nebensatze in 
 den der Lage zu einem Praeteritum entsprechenden rela- 
 tiven Zeiten gegeben werden miissen, — dass jedoch von 
 dieser temporalen Unterordnung solche indicativische oder 
 conjunctivische Nebensatze ausgenommen sind, die ent- 
 weder nur einen begrifflichen Bestandtheil des Hauptsatzes 
 bilden, oder die Aussage desselben, sei es als Object, sei 
 es als Epexegese, vervollstandigen, und weiter solche 
 conjunctivische Relativ-, Final-, und Fragesatze, die, 
 als im Sinne des Subjects gehalten, durch die praesentische 
 Zeitform von den in die Erzahlung gehorigen, vom Stand- 
 punkte des Berichterstatters aus formulierten geschieden 
 werden soUen."* Any other cases of present sequence he 
 does away with by maintaining that the principal verb 
 upon which the subordinate clauses depend is no longer 
 an Historical Present but has been made by them into a 
 "real^Present". 3 
 
 That Hoffmann's distinction between the "Historical 
 Present" and the "real Present" is valueless, has been 
 shown in Chapter II. With this distinction removed his 
 results in regard to subjunctive subordinate clauses may 
 
 ' See Chapter IV, p. 77, note, for Hoffmann's division of subordinate clauses. 
 
 " pp. 97-8. 
 
 ^p. 25: " das Praesens des Hauptsatzes .... wird auf dem Boden 
 der praesentischen Nebensatze zum wirklichen Praesens." See Chapter I, p. 6, 
 note. 
 
be accepted, and stated as follows : the Historical Pres- 
 ent may be followed by either the present or the past 
 sequence; but, as should be expected, the present pre- 
 dominates in those subordinate clauses that are most 
 intimately connected with their principal clauses in that 
 they expand the activity of the principal verb, or express 
 ideas existing in the mind of the subject of this verb, rather 
 than in the mind of the narrator.' 
 
 That such a principle adequately accounts for the 
 sequence of tenses after the Historical Present in early 
 Latin, will be seen from a study of the passages. By far 
 the greater number of the subjunctive subordinate clauses 
 dependent upon an Historical Present are final or con- 
 secutive or of indirect question ; that is, they express 
 ideas present in the mind of the subject of the principal 
 verb, or contain the necessary expansion of his activity. 
 Of these sixty-five show the present sequence, twenty the 
 past sequence. The same principle explains the present 
 sequence in the one example of a subjunctive temporal 
 clause introduced by -priusquam, which is in reality a final 
 clause. But subjunctive temporal clauses introduced by 
 cum, which have reference to the point of view of the nar- 
 rator and express his knowledge of the temporal relation 
 between past events, contain only the past sequence.* 
 
 The following tabular statements will give the sta- 
 tistics of the sequence of tenses in different kinds of 
 subjunctive subordinate clauses dependent upon an Histor- 
 ical Present, together with the relative position of these 
 clauses and their principal clauses : 
 
 • It will be noticed that the above principle closely resembles Hug's " Grund- 
 princip". 
 
 » It must be noted that all but one of the examples of past sequence in cum 
 clauses are found in Varro, where in most cases the principal Historical Present 
 is a form of inquam. 
 
no 
 
 TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 
 
 primquam 
 Present sequence i 
 
 subordinate clause pre- 
 cedes principal 
 
 subordinate clause follows 
 principal 
 
 
 
 
 cum 
 Past sequence 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 FINAL SENTENCES. 
 
 ut 
 
 Present sequence 26 
 
 Past sequence 12 
 
 38 
 without ut 
 Present sequence 2 
 
 ne 
 
 Present sequence 6 
 
 Past sequence - I 
 
 7 
 
 relative 
 
 Present sequence 3 
 
 Past sequence 4 
 
 7 
 
 subordinate clause pre- 
 cedes principal 
 
 subordinate clause follows 
 principal 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 
 
 ut 
 Past sequence. 
 
 ut qui 
 Present sequence i 
 
 qum 
 Present sequence . 
 
 relative 
 Present sequence 2 
 
 subordinate clause pre- 
 cedes principal 
 
 subordinate clause follows 
 
 principal 
 I 
 
Ill 
 
 SENTENCES of INDIRECT QUESTION. 
 
 relative 
 
 Present sequence 19 
 
 Past sequence 2 
 
 Present sequence . 
 
 Present sequence i 
 
 subordinate clause pre- 
 cedes principal 
 2 
 
 subordinate clause follows 
 
 principal 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 These tables show : 14 temporal sentences, of which i has the present, 13 
 have the past sequence; 54 final sentences, of which 37 have the present, 17 the 
 past sequence; 7 consecutive sentences, of which 6 have the present, i has the 
 past sequence; and 24 sentences of indirect question, of which 22 have the 
 present, 2 the past sequence. 
 
 In addition to the subordinate clauses included in the 
 above tables may be noted clauses of indirect discourse 
 (temporal, final, conditional) following a verb of saying 
 in the Historical Present. Of these clauses some show 
 the present and others the past sequence, while all follow 
 their principal clauses. In a few cases, even after the same 
 verb the clauses vary between the present and the past 
 sequence. 
 
 The cause for the variation of present and past se- 
 quence, which occurs even in the clauses that are most 
 intimately connected with their principal clauses, is prob- 
 ably, despite of Hoffmann, to be sought in the dual nature 
 of the Historical Present. This tense, since it .has the 
 force of a present tense, representing the past as present, 
 is naturally followed by a present sequence of tenses; 
 while, since it has also the force of a past tense, narrating 
 past events, it may also be followed by a past sequence 
 
 of tenses. 
 
 That in those subordinate clauses that are most 
 closely connected with their principal clauses the present 
 
112 
 
 sequence predominates is another proof that the Historical 
 Present serves to represent the past as present, and has 
 not, as Hoffmann claims that it has, the force of a purely 
 preterite tense. By denying this fact Hoffmann is forced 
 to regard the most natural present sequence after the 
 Historical Present as an exception to the rule of past 
 sequence, and to make a baseless distinction between two 
 phases of one tense. 
 
 It seems doubtful whether the choice of present or 
 past sequence depends consciously upon the degree of 
 vividness in the representation of the past. In a care- 
 fully cultivated style, what Hale ' says of the part played 
 by subordinate clauses after an Historical Present may, 
 possibly, be true : " It is not history that is given us [by 
 the use of the Historical Present in principal clauses] , it 
 is the mimic stage. Now, these stage-presents are fol- 
 lowed in a dependent clause (say a final clause) now by 
 a primary tense, now by a secondary. What is it that 
 tells us, as we read, whether we are to keep up the fiction 
 of the theatre, and wait to see the act of the final clause, 
 say the intended blow of a murderer, actually performed 
 upon the stage, or are to drop the illusion, and return to 
 the sober narrative, namely, that this was once upon a 
 time a purpose ? It is nothing but the verb of the final 
 clause itself. In that verb, and in no other, lie or do not 
 lie the directions. The choice of the subordinate verb is 
 itself just as perfect and complete a method of communi- 
 cation between writer and reader as is the choice, for the 
 main verb, between the sober aorist and the stagy present." 
 But in colloquial speech, at least, it is more probable that 
 the variation was an unconscious result of the two elements 
 in the Historical Present. 
 
 ' Sequence of Tenses in Latiny American Journal of Philology, VIII, 
 (1887) p. 63. 
 
113 
 
 The passages illustrating the sequence of tenses after 
 the Historical Present may be briefly classified and cited. 
 It will not be necessary to subdivide the different kinds of 
 subordinate clauses according to the special relation that 
 they bear to their principal clauses.' 
 
 TEMPORAL SENTENCES, 
 
 I. Present Sequence, 
 ^riusquam. 
 
 Amfhitruo 240 : 
 
 Animam omittunt prius quam loco demigrent, 
 
 2. Past Sequence, 
 cutn. 
 Varro, de re rustica I, 69, 2 : 
 
 Cum haec dicer et, venit libertus aeditumi ad nos flens et rogat. 
 Cf. ibid. I, 49, I ; H, i, 3 ; III, S, 18. 
 Ibid. I, 3 : 
 
 Stolo cum aspexisset Scrofam, . inquit. 
 
 Cf. ibid. I, 49, I ; II, I, I ; I, 3 ; I, II ; S, I ; III, 2, 
 2 ; 2, 10. 
 
 Ennius, Annates 295-97 : 
 
 rerumque suarum 
 Inpartit cumulum, magnam cum lassu' diet 
 Partem fuisset. 
 
 FINAL SENTENCES. 
 I. Present Sequence, 
 a. ut. 
 Miles Gloriosus 116: 
 
 Inscendo, ut earn rem Naupactum ad erum nuntiem. 
 
 Mercator 104: 
 
 Postridie hospitem adeo, oro ut uendat mihi. 
 • For Hoffmann's elaborate subdivisions see op. cit., pp. 44-97' 
 
114 
 
 Andria 355 : 
 
 Continuo ad te properans percurro ad forum, ut dicam haec tibi. 
 
 Phormio 11 2-1 3 : 
 
 obsecrat, 
 Vt sibi eius faciat copiam. 
 
 C. Am-phitruo 205, 1069, 1093; Ca^ptiui ^iz-12 ; Casina 
 
 42, 44, 922;' CurcuUo 330, 355; Mostellaria 1049; 
 
 Pseudolus 1273, 1276; Rudens 53-4; Andria 592; Eit- 
 
 nuchus 578-79^ 582, 618, 627 ; Hecyra 116; Varro, de re 
 
 rustica I, 69, 2. 
 
 Naevius, Bellum Punicum 56-8 : 
 
 Id quoque paciscunt, moenia ut sint quae concifieirt 
 Lutatium. captives plurimos idem, 
 Sicilienses paciscit obsides ut reddant, 
 
 Coelius Antipater 30 : 
 
 Imperatoi conclamat de medio, ut uelites in sinistro cornu remoueantur, 
 Gallis non dubitatim inmittantur, 
 
 h. without ut. 
 Am^hitruo 257 : 
 
 Velatis manibus orant, ignoscamus peccatnm suora. 
 
 Eunuchus 583 : 
 
 Adhortor properent, 
 
 c. ne. 
 Curculio 361 : 
 
 Deduce pedes de lecto clam, ne miles sentiat. 
 
 Casina 321-22 : 
 
 oral obsecrat, 
 Ne Casinam uxorem ducam. 
 
 Eunuchus 138 : 
 
 . fingit causas ne det sedulo. 
 
 Ibid. 578 : 
 
 Edicit ne uir quisquam ad earn adeai, et mihi ne abscedam imperal. 
 
 ' According to Leo. 
 
^15 
 
 Cf . Rudens 605 ; Casina 909, where the verb upon which 
 the subjunctive depends is introduced by dum, 
 
 d. relative. 
 Truculentus 401-4 : 
 
 inbet 
 
 praemandare et quaerere 
 Puerum ant puellam qui supponatur mihi. 
 
 Varro, de re rustica II, 8, i : 
 
 Venit a Menate libertus, qui dicat liba absoluta esse, 
 
 Coelius Antipater 12:*, 
 
 Sempronius Lilybaeo celocem in Africam mittit, uisere locum, ubi exercitum 
 •exponat, 
 
 2. Past Sequence, 
 a. ut. 
 Bacchides 301-2 : 
 
 Auferimtes aurum omne illim illis ptaesentibus 
 Palam atque aperte, ut iUi id factum sciscerent^ 
 
 Rudens 601-2 : 
 
 Videtur ^ ad me simia adgredirier, 
 Rogare scalas ut darem utendas sibi. 
 
 Phormio 592-93 : 
 
 uenio ad hominem, ut dicerem 
 Aigentum opus esse. 
 
 Heauton Timorumenos 651 : 
 
 dico ut una cum puella exponej et, 
 
 Cf . Mercator 90-1 ; Heauton Timorumenos 304-5 ; Sex- 
 tus Turpilius 81. 
 Pacuvius 331-32 : 
 
 mihi classem imperat 
 Thessalum nostramque in altum ut propftriter deducerem. 
 
 » Hoffmann, op. cit., p. 94. classes this passage under those in which an 
 indirect question stands in final relation to the principal clause. 
 * MSS give uidebatur. 
 
ii6 
 
 Cf. Ennras, Tragoediae i8o; Incert. (Ennius ?), Incert. 
 
 6-7. ■ 
 
 Ennius, Annales 304-5 : 
 
 Ingenium, cui nulla malum sententia suadet 
 Vt facer et facinus levis aut malu'. 
 
 Cf. ibid. 19-20. 
 
 b. ne. 
 
 Casina 893 : 
 
 Forem obdo, ne senex me opprimeret. 
 
 c. relative. 
 
 Eunuchus 581 r 
 
 paucae, guae circum illam essent, manent. 
 
 Cf. Caecilius Statius 275, where the verb upon which the 
 subjunctive depends is introduced by dum; Ennius, Tra- 
 goediae 326. 
 Ennius, Annales 294-300 : 
 
 Haece locutu' vocat . , 
 
 Cui res audacter magnas parvasque iocumque 
 Eloqueretur . 
 
 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 
 1. Present Sequence. 
 , a. ut qui. 
 Andria 148-9 : 
 
 Ita turn discedo ab illo, ut qui se filiam 
 Neget daturum. 
 
 b. quin. 
 Amphitruo 238-39 : 
 
 Sed fugam in se tamen nemo conuortitur 
 Nee recedit loco quin statim Kmgerat.'' 
 
 ■ See Chapter III, p. 70, note. 
 
 ' Hoffmann, op. cit., p. 48, claims to improve the logic of this passage by 
 reatJing, Nee recedit loco, quin statim rem gerit. 
 
117 
 Hecyra 126-28 : 
 
 postquam uidet 
 Paratas nee moram uUam quin ducat dari, 
 Ibi . aegre tulit. 
 
 Qj, Claudius Quadrigarius 70 : 
 
 Romam uenit, uix superat, quin triumphus decernatur. 
 
 c. relative. 
 Poenulus 1284-85 : 
 
 Vbi nee leno neque illae redeunt, nee quod edim quicquam datur : 
 Pro maiori parte prandi pignus cepi, abii foras. 
 
 Cf. Aulularia 377. 
 
 2. Past Sequence, 
 ut. 
 Heauton Timorumenos 306-7 : 
 
 Continuo et lacrumis applet os totum sibi, 
 Vt facile scires desiderio id fieri. 
 
 SENTENCES of INDIRECT QUESTION. 
 I . Present Sequence. 
 a . relative. 
 Truculentus 650-51 : 
 
 Quaerit patrem : dico esse in urbe, interrogo 
 Quid eum uelit. 
 
 Curculio 362 : 
 
 Eogant me serui quo earn. 
 
 Rudens 64 : 
 
 Adulescentuli alii narrant ut res gesta sit. 
 
 Andria 124 : 
 
 Quae sit rogo 
 
 Hecyra 831 : 
 
 Rogat unde sit 
 
 Cf Amfhitruo To6^\ Asinaria 3^3-H' Capiui S^o-ii; 
 Cistellariai6.^; Curculio 339' 3^°-^^ ' 59^ ' StzcMs 366, 
 where the verb upon which the subjunctive depends is 
 
ii8 
 
 introduced by dum; Adelfhi 619; Andria 358; Eunu- 
 ckus 341 ; Phormio 93, 863-64; Coelius Antlpater 8. 
 
 b. si. 
 Cistellaria 183-86 : 
 
 lubet ilium eundem persequi, si qua queat 
 Reperire quae sustulerit. ei rei nunc suam 
 Operam usque assiduo seruos dat, si fossiet 
 Meretricem illam inuenire. 
 
 Eunuchus 594 : 
 
 Sto expectans, si quid mi imperent. 
 
 c. ne. 
 
 Ibid. 602-3 : 
 
 simul alia circumspecto. 
 Satin explorata sint, 
 
 Cf . Adel^hi 619-20. 
 
 2. Past Sequence, 
 relative. 
 Bacchides 290-91 : 
 
 quoniam sentio 
 Quae res gereretur,^ nauem extemplo siatuimus. 
 
 Naevius, Bellum Punicum 21-2: 
 
 blande at docte percontat, 
 Aenea qiio pacta Troiam urbem liquisset,^ 
 
 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 
 I. Present Sequence. 
 
 Mercator 83-4 : 
 
 Dico esse iturum me mercatum, si uelit, 
 Amorera missum facere me, dum illi obsequar. 
 
 ' Hoffmann, op. Hi., p. 87, note 74, explains the Imperfect in this passage 
 as due to the implied potential idea: "potentialem ea res gereretur, sc. ut 
 aurum nobis abslraheretur." 
 
 ' Vahlen reads liquerit after some of the MSS. Hoffmann quotes Vahlen. 
 
"9 
 Eunuchus 139-42 : 
 
 Ait, si fidem habeat se iri praepositum tibi 
 Apud me, ac non id meiuai, ne, ubi acceperim, 
 Sese relinquam, uelle se illam mihi dare. 
 
 Cf . Asinaria 347-48 ; Casina 53-4, 56-7 ; Mercator 243- 
 44; /'(9eMM/M5 656-58 ; Phormio 114-16. 
 
 2. Past Sequence. 
 Amfhitruo 214-15 : 
 
 Respondent bello se et suos tutari posse, proinde uti 
 Properiter de suis finibus exercitus deducerent. 
 
 Varro, de re rustica II, 8, i : 
 
 Venit a Menate libertus qui dicat liba absoluta esse et rem divinam paratam; 
 si vellent, venirent illuc et ipsi pro se sacrificarentur. 
 
 Cf. ibid. I, 69, 2-3. 
 
 3. Present and Past Sequence. 
 Amfhitruo 205-10: 
 
 Telebois iubet sententiam ut dicant suam : 
 Si sine ui et sine bello uelint rapta et raptores tradere, 
 Si quae asportassent redderent, se exercitum extemplo domum 
 Reducturum, abituros agro Argiuos, pacem atque otium 
 Dare illis : sin aliter sient animati neque dent quae petat, 
 Sese igitur summa ui uirisque eorum oppidum oppugnassere. 
 
 Hecyra 145-47 : 
 
 JVarratque, ut uirgo ab se Integra etiam turn siet, 
 Seque ante quam earn uxorem duxisset domum, 
 Sperasse eas tolerare posse nuptias. 
 
 Cf. Amfhitruo 225-26. 
 
 Any analysis of syntactical usages is subject to error, 
 and opinions may easily differ in regard to the interpreta- 
 tion of individual passages ; but it is hoped that this 
 study of the Historical Present in early Latin has made 
 
I20 
 
 clear certain general facts which may be summed up as 
 follows : 
 
 The Historical Present is characteristic of the collo- 
 quial language, and is used to represent past events as if 
 they were present. It is imperfect in nature and describes 
 rather than narrates these events, as is seen from the fact 
 that it belongs chiefly to verbs of descriptive as opposed 
 to verbs of narrative character. Its use may be extended 
 to verbs of aoristic conceptions when the activities denoted 
 by them form parts of a course of events which is de- 
 scribed as in progress in the sphere of time that the 
 speaker is regarding as present. Its representation of the 
 past involves a certain liveliness of narration, but it has 
 not yet become the rhetorical device and means for pro- 
 ducing stylistic effects that it became in literature. In 
 historical literature, at least, it also seems to have de- 
 veloped an aoristic function hardly distinguishable from 
 that of the Historical Perfect. Indications of this function, 
 which probably sprang from the frequent colloquial use 
 of the tense to describe aoristic activities of the past, are 
 found in early inscriptions. 
 
 The variation of the Historical Present with other 
 tenses in the colloquial language is governed by certain 
 principles, which are based upon the kinds of activity de-» 
 noted by the verbs, and the functions of the different 
 tenses. In a few cases no especial reason can be assigned 
 for its variation with the Historical Perfect, which may 
 indicate the beginning of the aoristic function that it 
 developed later. But in the majority of cases this varia- 
 tion as well as that with the other past tenses is far from 
 being arbitrary. 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 P. 28, note I, for "A, $" read "A, 6". 
 P. 80, line 15, for "three" read "two". 
 
LIFE. 
 
 I was born in Ellsworth, Maine, January i, 1871, 
 and received my early education in the public schools of 
 that city and a private school in Dresden. In June, 1888, 
 I was graduated from the Ellsworth High School. In 
 September of the same year I entered Bryn Mawr Col- 
 lege, where I specialized in Latin and Greek. I received 
 the degree of A. B. in June, 1892, and was awarded the 
 Bryn Mawr European Fellowship. During the year 
 1892-93 I studied as a graduate student at Bryn Mawr 
 College in the departments of Latin and Greek. During 
 the year 1893-94 I attended the University of Leipsic, 
 and heard lectures on Latin, Greek and Sanscrit by Pro- 
 fessors Brugmann, Ribbeck, Gardthausen, Arndt, Lipsius 
 and Windisch, to all of whom, and especially to Profes- 
 sors Brugmann and Windisch, I wish to express my 
 thanks. During the second semester of the year 1894-95 
 and during the year 1895-96 I continued my graduate 
 work in Latin and Greek at Bryn Mawr College. In 
 May, 1896, I passed my examinations for the degree of 
 Ph. D., in Latin as my principal, and in Greek as my 
 subordinate subject. 
 
 My graduate work has been pursued under the direc- 
 tion of Professors Gonzalez Lodge and Herbert Weir 
 Smyth, to whom my especial thanks are due for their 
 continued kindness and assistance. 
 
mm 
 
 m^