Cornell University Library LB 1567.12 Handbook for rural school trustees. 3 1924 013 403 906 Idaho Bulletin of Education Volume III JUNE, 1917 Number 3 Handbook for Rural School Trustees J. C. Werner Supervisor of Rural Training Schools Albion State Normal School Published Quarterly by the State Board of Education Boise, Idaho Entered as second class matter Februarys, 1915, at the Postoffice at Boise, Idaho, under act of August 24, 1905 lB\5G7 12. Handbook for Rural School Trustees J. C. Werner Supervisor of Rural Training School* Albion State Normal School i8W Published Quarterly BY THE State Board of Education Boise, Idaho Lb I 5GT STATE OF IDAHO STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION AND BOAED OF REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF IDAHO Evan Evans, President Grangeville Walter S. Bruce, Vice-President Boise Ramsey Walker, Secretary Wallace J. A. Keefer Shoshone J. A. Lippincott Idaho City Ethel E. Redfield, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boise, Ex-ofRcio. Edward 0. Sisson Commissioner of Education state educational institutions University of Idaho Melvin A. Brannon, President Moscow Lewiston State Normal School . . Oliver M. Elliott, Pres. Lewiston Albion State Normal School. . .Geo. A. Axline, President Albion Idaho Technical Institute Miles F. Reed, President Pocatello Industrial Training School J. Fred Williams, Supt. St. Anthony Deaf and Blind School W. E. Taylor, Superintendent Gooding CONTENTS PAGE The Annual Meeting 6 Blank forms for Annual Meeting Who can vote at Annual Meeting Order of business Hour of opening and closing polls The District Trustees 8 Meetings of Boards of Trustees Minutes of meetings Duties of Trustees Duties of Clerk of Board of Trustees School Expenditures 10 Suggestions for purchasing equipment Budget Bonding 11 Bond election Bonds to be offered to Land Board Bonds issued on amortization plan Levy for annual interest and installments School Buildings and Sites 11 Plans for buildings may be obtained of State Board Site for school house Building District Boundaries and Consolidation 13 Disadvantages of the small district unit Advantage of the larger unit The consolidated school not a ''city school" The Trustee and the Health of School Children 14 Ventilation Temperature Lighting Cleanliness Furniture Water for drinking and washing Toilets and privies The Ten Commandments as regards Health Requirements for Rural Schools Sanitary Conditions of School House 17 Floor Walls Lighting Window shades Blackboards Heating and ventilation Water supply Play and Play Grounds 25 The value of play The school play ground an educational factor Play ground apparatus and games Some truisms Standard Village and Rural Schools 29 The part of the trustees Rural School Laboratory and Library 29 Tools for manual training Cooking and sewing equipment Library Selection of Teachers 31 Necessary qualifications of the teacher: 1. Preparation and training for the work 2. Health and vigor 3. Character 4. A pleasing personality 5. Leadership 6. Understanding of rural life conditions 7. Appreciation of rural life possibilities 8. Idaho young people who are well trained have ad- vantage The Teacher's Cottage 35 Assures home for the teacher Attracts better teachers Increases efficiency of teacher Allows for wider use of the school plant Relation of Trustees to Teacher 37 Trustees furnish supplies for school Trustees sustain the authority of the teacher Trustees may dismiss the teacher Teacher to aid work of trustees Relation of Trustees to the County Superintendent 40 County Superintendent counsellor and adviser of trustees 1. Policies of trustees 2. Equipment 3. Teachers Class A, Independent Districts Annual Trustees' Meeting Legal relationship Miscellaneous 43 Arbor Day Institutes Legal holidays Contagious diseases Teacher paid when school closed on account of contagious disease Handbook for Rural School Trustees INTRODUCTION To the school trustees of the State is due a great debt of recognition and gratitude from the public. Without a penny of financial remuneration they give their time and thought to the problems of the schools. The American school trustee is the great official embodiment of that warm devotion to public education which distinguishes the United States above all other nations. We trust that this little book may in some measure simplify some of the trustees' problems, lighten their burdens, and contribute to the suc- cess of the schools under their charge, — thus increasing the only reward which they get, namely the satisfaction of seeing the cause of education prosper under their hands. The State Department of Education has designed and worked out this Handbook to be first-aid to the school trus- tee whenever questions and problems arise. In this respect the Handbook is initended to do for the trustee what the Handbook for Rural Teachers does for the teacher. We have avoided lengthy repetition of the school law because the trustee should have a copy of the school law for constant reference. However, the Handbook will help the trustee to find exactly what he wants in the school law and will also explain and clear up many points which other- wise might not be clear from the law itself. Each board of trustees should have several other publi- cations of the State Board of Education, particularly the Instructions concerning the Purchase of Supplies and Equip- ment, Circulars on Health Requirements, the Handbook for Rural Teachers above referred to, etc. These can be had free of charge from the County Superintendent. This Handbook has been in preparation for many months; indeed, it was first planned about the same time as the Handbook for Rural Teachers. In the case of the Handbook for Teachers, however, we obtained a large amount of material from other States which greatly helped in our task. We have found far less bearing on the problem of a handbook for trustees, but have had to work practically from the ground up. We have again to acknowledge gratefully the help of County Superintendents throughout the State, without which the Handbook would have lacked many of its best features. We earnestly request from superintendents and trustees, as well as others, advice and suggestions for the improvement of the Handbook when a second edition be- comes necessary. 6 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES Professor John C. Werner, Head of the Department of Rural Education at the Albion State Normal School, was chosen to take the principal responsibility for the Handbook because of his general familiarity with rural education in this and other States and of his experience as county su- perintendent of schools before coming to Idaho. The De- partment acknowledges with thanks the earnest and effec- tive work which he has done. THE ANNUAL MEETING In the common school district, everything starts from the Annual School Meeting. This meeting elects the trus- tees, fixes the amount of special tax levy, determines the length of the school term and may "transact any other business pertaining to schools and school interests." (See School Laws, Art. VI, Sec. 53-54.) The annual meeting is the one day in the year when the district household meets to cast up accoimts and plan for the coming year. It is the duty of each and every citizen in the district to be present and give his support and cooperation to the school board in its efforts to improve school conditions. The trustees should urge upon the pa- trons of the school the importance of their presence at the annual meeting — the most important meeting of the year. HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 7 Annual Meeting Third Monday in April The time for the annual meeting is the third Monday of April of each year. It is the duty of the clerk of the board of trustees to cause notices of the annual meeting to be posted in three public places in the district, one . of which shall be at the school house, if there be one, at least ten days previous to the time of such meeting. If the clerk fails to give such notice, then any two legal voters residing in the district may give such notice over their own names, and such annual meeting may be held after the third Monday in April. (Sec. 54-a.) Necessary Slanks for Annual Meeting The clerk should secure from the county superintendent the following blanks : , 1. Oath of Judge of Election 2. Oath of Clerk of Election 3. Return of Election to County Superintendent. 4. Oath of School Trustee 5. Certificates of Amount of Special Tax — 3 copies. Who Can Vote at Annual Meeting The law first makes the following general requirement : "At all elections under this Article, voters must have the same qualifications as prescribed for the general elections in this State." (Sec. 54-b.) A person to be a qualified elector at a school election must be : 1. A citizen of the United States; 2. A resident of the State for six months : 3. A resident of the county for 30 days next preced- ing the day of election ; 4. Over the age of 21 years. (Article VI, Constitution, Sec. 2.) For voting on the question of the special tax, the follow- ing additional requirement is made : ". . . and none but actual resident freeholders or heads of families of said district shall vote at the election to determine whether a special tax shall be raised, or on the amount of money to be raised thereby." (Sec. 54-c.) For the qualifications of voters in bond elections, see the subject of School District Bonds, p. 55. Order of Business for Annual Meeting 1. Meeting called to order by chairman of trustees, or any other trustee, or in the absence of trustees, by any voter. 8 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 2. Election of chairman and clerk, each of whom may be a trustee or any other voter. 3. Fixing Length of school term. If district has not more than 75 children of school age, determine whether school term shall be seven months or more. (All districts with more than 75 children of school age must have not less than nine months term.) 4. The Budget for the ensuing year should be presented by the trustees and discussed. (The form for this budget is provided by the State Department and will be sent out by the county superintendent to the clerk some weeks in ad- vance of the meeting.) This budget shows the amount of special tax required for the ensuing year. 5. Balloting on election of trustee or trustees and on special tax. "A separate ballot-box shall be used for voting on any question of taxation or other business concerning schools and school interests from that used in voting for trustees." (Sec. 54-c.) Hour of Opening and Closing Polls ; Numbers Voting The polls shall open at the time specified in the notice of the annual meeting. If no time is specified in the notice, the polls shall be opened at one (1) o'clock P. M., and closed at five (5) o'clock P. M. of the same day. If notices of annual meeting have been posted according to the law and only two or three come, proceed witfi the business for it will hold. It is not necessary that any certain number be present; a majority of those availing themselves of the op- portunity for voting is all that is required. Be sure to have a copy of the school laws at this meeting. Counting the Ballot Count the ballots and keep all ballots, even those not properly made, so that in case of a tie vote, or any question of the correctness of the election returns, the ballots may be officially recounted. For further instructions concerning the election, see Sees. 54-b and 54-c of the School Law. THE DISTRICT TRUSTEES (See School Law, Article VI) Meetings of Boards of Trustees .,. ''The regular meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be held on the last Monday of March, J'une, September and December The Board may, however, hold other special or adjourned meetings, as they may from time to time determine. Any two of such trustees shall consti- tute a quorum for the transaction of business." (Sec 57 ) HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 9 The legal powers of trustees can be exercised only by action of the board as such; the individual member has no authority except as it may have been conferred upon him by the action of the board. A majority of the board have power to take any and all necessary actions, but only at regular or properly called meetings. Failure to give proper notice of a meeting to any member renders all actions taken at the meeting sub- ject to be declared illegal. Minutes of Meetings The county superintendent furnishes a Record Book in which to keep the minutes of the Board. All actions taken by the Board should be entered accurately, under the proper date. The record should show what members are present at each meeting. These minutes constitute the regular legal record of all acts of the Board, and are thus the evidence of the legality of all contracts, purchases, payments, and other transactions of the district. Duties of Trustees Every trustee should become familiar with Sections 58 to 62 of the School Law, setting forth the duties of school trustees. These sections cannot be abridged or condensed, and it would be wasteful to reprint them here. Duties of the Clerk of the Board of Trustees 1. It is the duty of the clerk of the board of trustees to keep accurate record of the transactions of the district, and the trustees must report to the county superintendent on the first day of July in a written report on blanks fur- nished for this purpose. (Sec. 58 j.) 2. The clerk shall take the school census between the first and Third Tuesdays of September. Only bona fide residents between the ages of six and twenty-one years shall be included. A true and certified copy of said census must be transmitted to the county superintendent. The clerk shall receive a compensation of five cents per child so enumerated. 3. The clerk should require of the teacher that the school register properly filled out shall be turned over to him before the last month's salary is paid. (Sec. 85.) 4. The clerk of the board of trustees shall cause no- tices of the annual school meeting to be posted in three public places in the district, one of which shall be the school 10 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES house, if there be one, at least ten days before the time of the meeting. (Sec. 54-a.) 5. The clerk of the board of school trustees of each district, on or before the third Monday in September shall furnish to the head teacher of the schools in the district a list of all children in the school district between the ages of eight and eighteen, taken from the census report of the current year. (Sec. 147.) SCHOOL EXPENDITURES To secure a wise economy in the administrative affairs of the school, two things are absolutely essential: first, a knowledge of the amount of money available for the pur- chase of supplies, and, second, an intelligent idea of the articles needed for the most effective conduct of the school. In deciding upon needed supplies and equipment for the school, a carefully worked out plan with a definite end in view and the constructive idea of gradually bettering the equipment should be followed. Every board of trustees should have a copy of the Bulletin on School Supplies and Equipment published by the State Board of Education. This pamphlet is the best guide in equipping a schoolhouse, and in purchasing and in- stalling blackboards, heating and ventilating equipment, globes, maps, bookcases, desks, etc., etc. Copies of this bulletin may be had free from the county superintendent or the State Board, of Education, Boise. A special bulletin, A List of Books for Rural and Ele- mentary Schools contains a list of books from which selec- tions for the school library should be made. (See Sec. 58-i.) Financial Estimates The trustees shall at their regular meeting on the last Monday of March prepare a budget of expenses for the ensuing year on blanks furnished by the county superin- tendent, and a copy of the budget should be sent immediate- ly to the county superintendent. Before the annual meeting the county superintendent will return the budget with esti- mated receipts. This will enable the trustees to determine what amount is to be raised by special tax. After the an- nual meeting the completed budget must be returned with other election returns to the county superintendent. The budget plan is the business way of meeting the financial problem. HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 11 BONDING For general information concerning school district bonds, see Idaho School Laws, Sees. 76 to 83; also Rules of the Board of Land Commissioners, which will be fur- nished upon application to the register of the Land Board, Boise. All proceedings connected with bond issues must be carried out exactly as the law provides, since the omission of a detail or a technical requirement of any sort may in- validate the bonds or at least hinder their sale. Consult the county superintendent on all points and fol- low instructions carefully. The county superintendent will furnish all necessary blanks and forms for the election as follows : Notice of election. Abstract of bond election pro- ceedings, and blank coupon bonds. The new 1917 law concerning common school district bonds contains the following important changes : 1. All bonds must first be offered to the State Board of Land Commissioners. In most cases this Board will purchase the bonds, and all trouble and expense of adver- tising will be avoided. 2. All bonds must be issued on the amortization plan, that is, the annual payment must cover the interest and gradually liquidate the principal so that at the end of the term the bonds are paid up and cancelled. Ten Mill Levy 3. In common school districts the ten mill levy applies only to the general fund. It does not include the Bond, Interest, and Sinking fund, the levy for which is made by the county commissioners. When the payment of interest and annual installments are due, the county treasurer shall make these payments out of the district's funds. (See Laws 1917, Ch. 58, Sec. 82.) SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND SITES The law concerning school sites and buildings is found chiefly in Section 58-g, which should be read with care and referred to for guidance in all transactions concerning sites. Trustees should have the regulation of the State Board of Education and State Board of Health covering school sites and buildings. The State Board of Education furnishes free of charge complete plans and specifications for five types of one-room schoolhouses ; similar plans and specifications for two-. 12 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES three- and four-room buildings are being prepared. The county superintendent will be able to give information con- cerning these plans. The Schoolhouse Site 1. Of course, the location should be central, that is, as convenient as possible to the school population of the district. 2. The site should be high enough to insure perfect drainage. This is indispensable to health, comfort, and cleanhness. The soil should be such as to provide for lawns, shrubbery and school gardens. 3. The modem rural school demands an area that will suffice for a well equipped playground and a school garden. The School Building Careful consideration should be given to the needs of the school and the community in planning for a school building. There should be a classroom of adequate size for the work of the school and to meet law requirements, a workroom for the industrial work and cloakrooms for both boys and girls. If the school is a community center, as it should be, this fact should also enter into considera- tion in planning the building. The basement frequently offers an economical way of providing for playroom, and kitchen for community gatherings, as well as for furnace space. Classroom A room 30 by 22 feet will accommodate 35 pupils with five rows of seats and seven seats in a row. A room 32 by 24 feet will accommodate 40 to 45 pupils, by placing five rows of desks and eight or nine desks in each row. In either of these rooms a 12 to 121/2-foot ceiling is re- quired. Workroom If a good sized workroom is provided, it will suffice for both the boys' and the girls' industrial work. If two rooms can be planned, a smaller size will do. The workroom, like the classroom, should be well lighted, heated and ventilated. Cloakrooms Separate well-lighted cloakrooms for boys and girls should be provided. On no account should wraps be hung in the classroom. HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 13 DISTRICT BOUNDARIES AND CONSOLIDATION The law relating to the organization of common and consolidated school districts and to the change of boundar- ies of existing districts is found in Article V, Sections 46 to 47-c. Disadvantages of the Small District Unit Idaho, like many of the states of the Union, has the school district as the unit for school organization and ad- ministration. This has been the main type of organization in the settlement of new states as it has offered each small community a chance to maintain its school. There has been a tendency in states increasing in population to multiply the number of school districts. Cubberley in his "Rural Life and Education" gives the following as the present result of this tendency: "This process has gone on for so long that every county which has been settled any length of time . . . has today from five to seven times as many schools, and elects to office from five to seven times as many school officials as there is any need for; pays for from one- fourth to one-third more teachers than there is any necessity of em- ploying; and maintains a general level of rural education far below what could be maintained, for the same money, if the schools of the county were reorganized on a rational business and educational basis. The result generally is a collection of small schools, a horde of school officials, short terms, cheap teachers, poor buildings, poor teaching equipment, schools behind the time and a general lack of interest on the part of the people in the schools maintained." Advantage of the Larger Unit Thru consolidation, rural children can have the advan- tage of an ideal education which can be secured in no other way. Idaho is fortunate in having some of the best exam- ples of the modern consolidated school that are to be found anywhere in the United States. Consolidation serves the educational and social needs of children and patrons better than the small district can do, since the most successful school, church or social activities are to be found where the area of their support is large enough to take in a considerable number of people. The central school, is constructed for community as well as for school purposes, offers opportunity for the right sort of recreation and entertainment. Why should not each community provide itself with a wholesome recreation cen- ter where the young people would be brought together in social groups under the control of social conventions, which means protection and the development of high ideals. 14 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES The Consolidated School Not a "City School" The consolidated school must not be in a city or even a village. It must be a real country school, and its course of study should be based upon country life conditions, should deal with country life problems and should appeal to the life, interests and experiences of country children. THE TEUSTEE AND THE HEALTH OF SCHOOL CHILDREN Be sure to have and read the health bulletins of the State Boards of Health and Education; these can be had free from the county superintendent. It will pay the trustees also to buy for the school library a few good books on school health work, particularly Hoag and Terman's "Health Work in the Schools," published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Chicago, price $1.45. Intellectual progress is directly affected by sanitary con- ditions and the physical well-being of the child. The mind of a child develops best in a vigorous growing body. The board of trustees, which is charged with the respon- sibility of educating the children in its district, has to con- sider the following important items in connection with the performance of its duties: (Some of these are more fully discussed in another chapter.) 1. Ventilation of schoolroom. 2. Temperature of schoolroom. 3. Lighting of schoolroom. 4. Cleanliness. 5. Furniture. 6. Water for drinking and washing. 7. Toilets and privies. Ventilation It is necessary for us to fill the lungs with air about fifteen times each minute, the air which goes into the lungs pure and life-giving comes out laden with certain poisonous gases, particularly one known as carbon dioxide, and with invisible floating particles of organic matter. The latter are the cause of the foul smell in a badly ventilated room with many people in it. Hence the schoolroom should al- ways receive fresh air coming directly from out of doors. It is very likely that such diseases as lagrippe, pneumonia, diptheria and tuberculosis are spread in ill-ventilated rooms ; at any rate the power of resistance of pupils is so greatly lowered in such rooms that when they come in contact with disease anywhere they are not able to resist it. Bad air is one of the chief sources of headache, drowsiness, HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 15 nervousness, restlessness and disorder among pupils. In- deed, it is certain that bad air and other unsanitary con- ditions are at least partly responsible for much of the "naughtiness" of small children and the "badness" of the older pupils. The best authorities agree that a considerable proportion of delinquency and backwardness among school children is due to physical defects and bad sanitary con- ditions. Ventilation may be secured in the following ways : (a) Thru wide open windows in mild weather; (b) Thru window board ventilators; (c) Thru inlets and exits for air provided in connec- tion with jacketed stoves or furnaces; this is the only really effective ivay to heat and ventilate schoolrooms in all weather. Temperature The ideal temperature of the schoolroom is 68°. There should be a thermometer in every school room which should be moved to different parts of the room in order to detect the variations of temperature. No schoolroom, can be properly heated and ventilated in cold weather with the old-fashioned, unjacketed stove. A ventilating heater will save fuel, heat the room uniformly and keep the air pure. Lighting In new buildings, of course, the rules and regulations of the State Health Board in regard to lighting must be observed. In old buildings proper lighting must be secured by making repairs or by the use of window shades or shutters. The glass area in the windows should be one- sixth of the total floor area. Lighting is much affected by the color of the room. The best colors for proper lighting are : Ceiling — white or light cream ; Walls — light gray or light green ; Blackboards — ^black, but not glossy. Cleanliness Provision should be made by the trustees for cleanliness in and about the schoolhouse. No litter of any sort should be allowed near the schoolhouse. "Raising the dust" should be avoided by using damp sweepers and oily cloths. The very best fumigation is by air and sunshine, and the use of soap and water. 16 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES Furniture The furniture should fit the pupils. Trustees should know that statistics show that ill-fitting desks and seats actually interfere with the normal growth of school chil- dren. The adjustable desk is recommended as being most practical for the needs of growing children. Whether or not the adjustable desk is used, care should be taken that the proper desks for the school's needs are the ones m use. Water for Drinking and Washing The school should inculcate in young children the habits of cleanliness for the sake of the immediate health and welfare of the child. Water, wash basins and towels should be provided. Toilets and Privies If there is a sewerage system, the entrances to the toilets for boys and girls must be distinctly separate. If privies are used, the rules of the State Health Board must be observed as to their location and construction and the entrances must be well screened with a board fence or shrubbery. Utmost care should be taken to prevent un- sanitary conditions and to prevent any obscene marking on walls. The Ten Commandments as Regards Health Requirements for Rural Schools The Joint Committee on health problems in education of the National Council of the National Educational Asso- ciation and the Council on Health and Public Instruction of the American Medical Association suggests the following : 1. Heating by at least a properly jacketed stove. (No unjacketed stove should be allowed.) Avoid overheating. Temperature should never go above 68° Fahr. There should be a thermometer in every schoolroom. Ventilation by open windows when weather permits and by opening of windows at frequent intervals even in winter. 2. Lighting from left side of room (or irom left and rear) thru window space at least one-fifth of floor space in area. 3. Cleanliness of school as good as in the home of a careful housekeeper. 4. Furniture sanitary in kind, and easily and fre- quently cleaned. Seats and desks adjustable and hygienic in type. .5. Drinking water from a pure source provided by a sanitary drinking fountain. HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 17 6. Facilities for washing hands, and individual towels. 7. Toilets and privies sanitary in type and in care (with no cess pools unless water tight) and no neglected privy boxes or vaults. 8. Flies and mosquitoes excluded thru screening of schoolhouse and toilets. 9. Obscene and defacing marks absolutely absent from schoolhouse and privies. 10. Playground of adequate size for every rural school. Don't allow any of the following or other reasons to prevent the carrying out of these ten health commandments in your school. 1. Low sanitary standards not uncommon in rural life. 2. Ignorance of the effects physically, intellectually, socially, and morally of a bad school environment. 3. False economy. Sanitation and cleanliness are econ- omical in a basic way. If children are worth educating, it is the most false economy to endanger their physical, intellectual or moral life. SANITARY CONDITIONS OF SCHOOL HOUSES Contributed by Professor C. E. Bocock of the Albion State Normal In the performance of his duties, the school trustee con- stantly has the idea of economy in mind. The patrons of the district in passing judgment on the work of the trustee are also prone to criticise in terms of economy. I believe both trustee and patron are right. Distinction tho, must be made right here as to the various ways in which we interpret the meaning of the word "economy." To many, "to economize" means to spend the least time, money, and effort posible to bring about "results." To others, "to economize" means to spend the least time, money and energy to bring about the "best possible results for immediate and continued use." Let us hope that at least the majority of our school trustees' and school patrons have the second stated interpretation in mind when questions concerning the district school are being settled. It is the most promi- nent idea we will have in mind during the time we are discussing what follows in this chapter. The school our grandparents attended had one purpose, — mental development. The care and development of the physical side were not to any degree mentioned. But such a state of affairs could not last. Abundance of conclusive evidence brought the people to realize that a healthy and vigorous mind must be housed in a healthy and vigorous body. 18 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES Every child has two rights. He has a right to he ivell- ho7'n, i.e., he must be given at the beginning the best physi- cal being possessing an innate inheritance of the best in- stincts and characteristics of the race. This is a family duty. The second right of the child is that he he propei-hj cared for until he can properly care for himself. The writer believes that in the fulfillment of this right the community through the school has a duty almost equal to that of the family. And the ability of the school to fulfill its obligation to the child is dependent to a great extent upon the work of the school trustee. With this thought in mind, I believe it is not at all difficult to see that the school trustee's in- fluence and control over the mental and physical condition of the community is far more important that we usually think it. The office of school trustee is passed aro\md to various members of the community and, once elected, trustees face questions, many of which they would like to have answered by those having made a careful study of the conditions dealing with the questions in mind. It is, therefore the purpose of this article to deal with some of the most im- portant school problems of sanitation and hygiene with the hope that what is said may be of some use to trustees and school patrons. HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 19 The School Building It would be impossible here to take up for discussion all the things to be considered from the hygienic and sani- tary point of view in the erecting of a new school building. Attention will be focused on the few things which the writer considers the most vital in conserving and promoting the health of school children. Floor The floor of every school building should be double for two very important reasons: first, to exclude the ground air from the room, and second, to prevent the floor from being cold. Many an epidemic of colds, followed in many children by an attack of pneumonia or similar diseases, can be attributed to the fact that the schoolroom floor was cold. A cold schoolhouse floor lessens the physical vitality and, consequently, the mental capability of every future citizen who has to sit in the schoolroom and be subject to its ef- fects. Besides this fault, a cold floor interferes very much with the proper heating and ventilation of a room. If a floor is not practically air-tight it is impossible to equalize the heat in the room, and, in order to get the air sufficiently warm near the floor, the air at the breathing line will be several degrees above the proper temperature. It is plainly seen, then, that a cold floor also means an extra expendi- ture for fuel, so in every way it can be considered it is a dangerous and expensive thing. The under floor of a schoolroom should be made of any good, well-seasoned rough lumber laid diagonally across the floor joists. The boards should be closely joined. When completed this floor should be covered with a good grade of heavy building paper, if nothing better can be afforded. Over this, at right angles to the joists, should be laid the upper floor. A good grade of either maple or hard pine flooring makes as good a floor as one could desire and, while somewhat expensive at first, trustees will find such a floor is the cheapest in the long run. The boards should not be over three inches. wide, and should be tongued and grooved. They should be closely laid and blind nailed. Care should be taken that the blind nailing be done in such a way that the surface of the finished floor may not show any marring effects of the hammer. The surface should be made smooth and treated with a coat of hot linseed oil. If more oil is applied than is absorbed, it should be removed with old cloths. When thoroly dry, the oiled floor should be waxed or varnished. Such a floor is the best for all school pur- poses. It is not a harbor for dust and can be easily kept 20 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES clean. If such a floor cannot be afforded, get the best ma- terial that can be afforded and have it properly laid. After placing a proper floor within a schoolroom, the trustee should demand proper care of it. The janitor should be furnished with sawdust or sweeping compound and a fiber brush broom. The teacher should be held responsible for the proper care of the floor. Barring lighting and heat- ing and ventilation there is no hygienic and sanitary factor in schoolhouse construction more important than a well- laid and well-cared-for floor. Walls of Room Nowadays most school buildings have plastered walls and ceiling. Care should be taken on the part of the trus- tees to see that such plastering is well done, and that when completed the surface is smooth, hard, and firm. If, for good reasons, the walls and ceiling cannot be plastered, then well-seasoned plain boards, three or four inches in width should be used. These boards, carefully tongued- and grooved, should be evenly and closely joined so as to present a surface as smooth as it is possible to get. The colors of the walls and the ceiling of a schoolroom have more to do with a child's health and temperament than we ordinarily surmise. Careful thought and exhaus- tive study have been made of schoolroom topics. About the best material to be applied to the walls and ceiling is the flat tone paint now on the market. In favor of its use are the facts that it gives no bothersome reflection, that it can be cleaned so readily with a damp cloth, and that it is so easily procured in the proper tints. The walls of the schoolroom should be painted either a light grayish buff, a very light gray, or a light grayish green. In" all cases the ceiling should have a very light tone of either gray or cream. If the walls are painted light buff, that portion of such wall coming within the four-foot line from the floor should be painted a neutral light brown. With light gray walls, the four-foot area should have a dark gray neutral tint; with light grayish green walls, the four-foot area should be of a dark neutral green. The idea in selecting colors for schoolroom walls and ceiling is to select colors which absorb very little light and still do not tire the eyes of the pupils by their reflection. The colors named above are the best for the combined purpose. Lighting Since the eye undoubtedly is the most used special sense organ m the schoolroom, the windows in the school building HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 21 should be placed where they will serve the purpose of the eye demand. For reading and study purposes the best light comes from the left side and a little to the rear. Shadows on the pupils' work should be avoided. Therefore, to insure the best lighting, the windows in the schoolroom should be massed on one side of the room and placed toward the rear wall. If possible, have the windows on the east side of the room as this light is the best for a number of reasons. If it is impossible to get the east light, the west light is next best. With the east light and seats facing the south, the children receive the light at the proper angle. The rows of seats should always be placed the long way of the schoolroom. To insure the proper amount of light entering the room, the glass area of the windows should equal at least one-sixth of the floor space. To further in- sure a proper amount of light, the windows should extend from 31/2 to 4 feet above the floor to the ceiling, or at least within 12 inches of the ceiling. One-third of the light scat- tered throughout the schoolroom enters the upper one-fourth of the window. No window is possible should have more than two panes. Small windows placed above blackboards in the rear wall of the room are permissible, but should be used for ventilation only and should at all times be kept curtained. Window Shades Windows should be properly fitted with shades in order that the entering light can be completely controlled. Opaque shades adjustable up and down will fill this demand. ■ The material of the shade should be such that it will not crack easily and permit streaks of light to enter. If it is impos- sible to get shades adjustable in both directions, get shades which fasten on the lower sill of the window and are ad- justable upwards. Let it be remembered that the last light to be shut out of a window is the upper light. Since most window ventilation should be from the top, shades adjust- able from the bottom, or adjustable both up and down in- terfere very little with such ventilation. Blackboards The kind and placing of blackboards have so much to do with the hygiene of the eye. All things considered, slate blackboards are best; but trustees buying such boards should see that the material selected be of a uniform smoothness and of a uniform color which should be as near black as possible. All slate of decided gray tones should be avoided, as crayon marks on such will not stand out sufficiently to be seen clearly from all parts of the room. A second rule 22 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES for trustees to observe when the boards are placed in posi- tion is that no blackboards should be placed on the window side of the room. If work is placed on a board next to a window, undue eye-strain is caused when such work is read. In placing the blackboards on the walls, trustees should also take into consideration the grade or grades that are to use such boards and have them placed accordingly. If for the primary grades the boards are placed 26 inches from the floor, for the intermediate grades, 30 inches, and for the grammar grades, 36 inches, the pupils in the various grades can without stretching or stooping, properly use the boards. If, for good reasons, slate blackboards are out of the question, there are on the market several kinds of black- boards made from various materials which give very good satisfaction for a number of years. Liquid slating applied directly to plastered walls should be the last resort for blackboards. They will in a short time discolor, chip, and fail to take the crayon well. Chalk dust is very irritating to the lining of the throat and nose passages and the scattering of such dust should be minimized as much as possible. This can be done by hav- ing small mesh wire covering fitting over the chalktrays. If this cover is hinged to the inner edge of the blackboard tray it can be easily lifted and laid back while the trays are being cleaned. Heating and Ventilation A problem constantly before the teacher of a school, without a central heating plant, is the question of proper heating and ventilation of the classroom. Without proper assistance from the trustees it is practically impossible for the teacher to accomplish anything like satisfactory results. Improperly heated and ventilated schoolrooms work havoc with the health of school children. Work in such rooms is always below normal, and supervision becomes a problem. Trustees should by all means see that the school buildin"' has the best heating and ventilation system that the district can afford. It means better health, better work, and better habits on the part of the children. It also means a smaller fuel bill for the district to pay. We must remember that children grow rapidly both physically and mentally and thus demand the best air we can afford. And "best" air means air with an abundant supply of oxygen, a proper tempera- ture, and the proper moisture content. Trustees should see to It also that the number of children in any schoolroom be limited to such a number that each child has an allotment oi at least 225 cubic feet of air space. HANEBOOE FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 23 Water Supply The last thing the writer wishes to call to the attention of school trustees is the water supply for the school. Chil- dren drink a lot of water as the rapid tissue change going on within their bodies demands it. There is no need of speaking in reference to the danger of impure drinking water. Very few communities can be found that have not had their share of sickness due to the use of contaminated water. Special care, therefore, ought to be taken to give the district school the best drinking water supply obtain- able. From the sanitary point of view a deep driven well is usually by far the safest source of water supply. Financial- ly it is also the cheapest method of obtaining good water. The water from a dug well can be made safe only by the exclusion from it of all surface water and this is both diffi- cult and expensive. Such a well to be safe must be lined down far enough to prevent surface water from entering the water. Care should be taken to see that such lining does really not allow water to pass through it. The top of any school well should have a concrete platform made in such a way that all water falling in it will drain away from the well. Insuring a good drinking water supply to the school does not determine that the children are going to receive the water in that condition. Enough has been said concerning the dangers of the common drinking cup for me to be under- stood. From the common drinking cup we passed to the in- dividual drinking cup which has not proved to be the success we expected. The bubbling fountain has been the solution of the problem. There is a very satisfactory fountain which consists of a covered supply tank having a "bubbler" in- serted on the side near the bottom. In such a tank when release is made the water bubbles up by force of gravity. The question of keeping the water cool, of keeping a good supply in the tank, of keeping the dust out, of getting rid of waste water, all arise when such a tank is used. The teacher must solve these questions. The most satisfactory means that the writer knows of insuring children good drinking water comes from the use of a system as shown in the accompanying cut. In using this system with a driven well an excavation can be easily made at the top of the well large enough to contain the tank, etc. An ideal arrangement with such a system would be to have the "bubbler" located in the school- room with the supply pipe leading underground to the tank in the well. With a larger supply tank the water could be used for other purposes than drinking. The description of the working of the system shown in the cut is as follows : 24 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES By operating the pump handle the water is forced in at the bottom of the presure tank, thus compressing the air at the top of the tank. With each stroke of the pump handle the tank receives more water, and the air at the top is more compressed. A check valve placed between the pump and the tank relieves the pump from all back pressure. A self- closing valve is placed between the pressure tank and the supply pipe leading to the bubbling cup. To get a drink of water the child turns the little handwheel at the side of the bowl, which opens the valve below. The air pressure in the tank forces the water to bubble up through the bubbling cup. In the course of the process the wastewater escapes through the outer pipe at R and out through the pipe T. It will be necessary to make these waste pipes water-tight, so that none of the waste water would fall back into the well. The waste pipe shown at T should be carried to a safe distance from the well, so as to prevent any possible infiltration. HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 25 PLAY AND PLAY GROUNDS Contributed by Professor Frank E. Howard, Albion State Normal During the past quarter of a century, public opinion has undergone a marked change toward education. One of the fundamental dogmas has been that the body is of relatively small value, and that man's spiritual nature is all that is worthy of special care and culture. This notion is rapidly passing away, and there are but few people now who fail to recognize that attention to the body is as urgent as atten- tion to the mind. Because of this general trend toward recognizing the value of play in education, greatly increased attention has been given to making school grounds and recreation centers attractive to school children. School officials and educators are coming to recognize the fuller significance of the fact that "Self -activity is a law of childhood." They are plan- ning means and devices that shall direct this activity into such channels as shall contribute toward a better mental and physical development of the child. A fundamental knowledge of reading, writing and arith- metic has brought the general public into touch with society and made it acquainted with the speed and method of con- ducting the world's business. But however adept we may become in the arts of industry and in governmental ad- ministration, it is safe to assert that the true method of establishing a well-governed life will never be as thoroughly learned from books, or by precepts, as it will be by methods that Nature has provided for us through play. The Value of Play Since man's success in life is ascertained by the proper relationships which he establishes with his fellows, noth- ing is so vital to our civilization as strong adherence to these right relationships. While failure has been the lot of many men, it can invariably be traced to their not follow- ing out one or more of the great principles of human re- lations. These relations are the rules of the game, and are taught with great certainty during the play of child- hood and of the adolescent period. A careful observer of our rising generation will readily recognize that we are threatened with a playless and a Godless generation com- ing to maturity without having thoroughly learned all the lessons of manly courage and justice and the extreme value of fighting hard and square in the "game of life." Play is a valuable preparation for life and social adjustment, the sand-pile, and the mud-pie, the game of chase-and-hide are the best practice in the making of things, and in getting 26 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES acquainted with the ways of competition. The formation of a "side" or team is the first and most vital recognition of co-operation and partnership. The differentiation of what is fair from what is unfair is the first spontaneous recognition of law and order. The School Play Ground an Educational Factor The school play ground as an educational factor has received very little attention by educators in the past, and yet the play ground is a potential factor of the greatest importance. The school is still quite largely a place for sitting still in a seat eight or nine months of the year and for silently cramming book abstractions under the dictator- ship of the teacher. The most important instructive ten- dencies of the child's life are lost sight of. Adult standards and adult needs are set up and thrust upon him. His natural growth and development are supposed to cluster around books. Under our present system, he is not given an opportunity to exercise those powers that Nature has given him in a natural way. The play ground, which from the child's standpoint is the greatest laboratory for experimental citizenship we possess, is neglected by most teachers, and often is not large enough as an actual space for play, to merit considera- tion. It is too true that not more than one-half of our public schools have but a fringe of land about the school building for the children to play on, and it is the rare school that has a gymnasium or play space in the school house. In a new state like Idaho, while land is still consider- ed abundant, it would seem advisable to recommend to all school boards that they purchase or acquire as far as pos- sible a tract of land large enough to accommodate a num- ber of plays and games that can be participated in by the children. Modern education would say that land thus em- ployed for the development and making of prosperous citi- zens through the activity of play will surpass in value what might be raised from it in crops. Virtues that are instilled into the mmds of children who play under proper direction are of far greater value than the productions of the soil. In this discussion of play and play grounds, we may ask what are some of the results of our neglect of plav grounds as an educational factor? In the first place, the health and normal physical development of the child suffer Our schools are great breeding places for weak lungs, flabby pipe-stem arms and legs, weakened eyes, and stooped shoul- ders Our contention IS that if play were properly super- vised and provided for, these and many other distorted conditions of body might be eliminated uisxortea HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 27 If one will take the trouble to examine the reports of inspected, medically supervised children of our schools, a glance will show that many of them have ailments that under proper guidance and direction and the assistance of Nature might be greatly benefited or possibly even cured. We may again assert that one of the chief duties of modern education is to so direct and administer it that it shall be conducive to the health of the children of the public schools. The play ground, properly provided for, furnishes many if not all of these means. Here is an opportunity for vigorous, spontaneous activity, free from restriction and worry. Under such conditions, both body and mind are recuperated and invigorated in a way that is not equalled by any medical attendance. Our public school system in a way defeats its own pur- pose by turning out in too many instances "book-full" pupils rather than those who are prepared to meet the demands of our present civilization because of some distorted bodily ailment. In this discussion it is recognized that book learn- ing is all-important, but unless it is balanced by a good strong physique to make it effective, it would seem to be of no avail. Present day leaders in education are conscious of this situation, and as Horace Greeley says, "To be con- scious of a need or of a deficiency is to be far on the way whereby we shall at last overcome it." There is plenty of evidence that we are soon to overcome our deficiencies and have a truly balanced educational sys- tem. In many schools of our country, school boards have provided adequately for play grounds and playground ap- paratus. They have awakened to the idea that the work of the school needs to be supplemented and encouraged by the activities of the play ground, and we are hopeful that in many, if not all, of the schools of the rural communities of Idaho, boards of directors will deem it time and money well spent to provide, if not amply, at least some means whereby the child may have an opportunity to play while at school. Wherever play has been introduced as one of the factors of the school, it has been found that interest in the school has been very greatly increased, and all are aware of the fact that interest is the vital factor in anv school system. Our contention is that all patrons and of- ficers of the rural school districts of Idaho desire that the child shall attain the highest degree of efficiency possible, and to do this they must necessarily provide some means to satisfy and gratify this great instinct of play. Play is so fundamental in keeping the child's attention and effort to the task of mental accomplishment that it can no longer safely be neglected. 28 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES Play is an excellent social training in leadership, co- operation, courage, the making of friends, self-denial and acting from social motives and real interest. It transforms the gang into the group. Play is a social economy. It decreases juvenile crime. At Hull House, Jane Addams made a juvenile crime map of a section of Chicago. A map of the residences and num- ber of cases in the Juvenile Court before the play grounds and parks were put in was compared with one showing the same after the play grounds had been in use for three years. It showed a remarkable thinning out of juvenile crime — thirty per cent within one-half mile of the play grounds. Since we spend three dollars in this country for taMng care of our criminals to every dollar spent on charity, education and religion combined, we see what a saving play grounds will bring to society. Playground Apparatus and Games It is not the intention of this discussion to impose upon the taxpayers of the rural districts any greater additional expense to that which is already incurred for the carrying on of their schools. There is always to be found in nearly every rural community some person who is sufficiently skill- ful with tools to make a limited amount of playground ap- paratus. It would seem, too, that there ought to be suf- ficient land for the game of baseball, croquet, quoits, volley ball, basket ball, and possibly football. It is sincerely be- lieved that if school officers and patrons will cheerfully co- operate with the State Board of Education of Idaho in preparmg some or all of the suggested means of play, our schools will be very greatly increased in efficiency, interest and the development of a stronger, more honest type of citizenship. Some Truisms "The child without a play ground is father to the man without a job. ''Playing the child grows character, therefore there is SonaT" '"^ ""^""^^ "^ schooling that is as educa- , /'^ w ^^^^ ^?^ ^H?" pounds is a plea for justice to the boy. We are literally crowding him off the earth. We have no right to deny him his heritage, but that is just ^^Allv ^^t^oj"^ in many cases, and he is hitting back, and hitting hard. He does not mean to, while we vaguely understand and stupidly punish him for crime. Why should than he7s " ^™^''"^ ^^^^ '^ *^^* ^^ ^^ "«t ^«^^^ HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 29 "The play ground proves to be an economy to the coun- try in that it lessens crime among children." "If we attempt to solve the problem of poverty, we must provide industrial schools and public play grounds." "Amusement is stronger than vice, and it alone can stifle the lust for vice." "The universal impulse to play is a divinely ordered thing. If God gives the instinct, man ought to provide the play ground." STANDARD VILLAGE AND RURAL SCHOOLS The State Department of Education has established a uniform plan for standardizing the village and rural schools of the State. The plan requires the cooperation of the county superintendent of schools, the school trustees and the teacher of the district together with the State Depart- ment of Education. The Part of the Trustees is — 1. To visit the school as soon as possible. 2. To make a test score and compare it with the one made by the teacher. Note the requirements in which the school is most lacking and set to work to make up the de- ficiencies. Some you can remedy yourself, especially under the headings, "Building," "Equipment" and "Grounds." 3. To confer with the teacher on all points, and give her your hearty cooperation. 4. To help the teacher in holding a community meet- ing for the purpose of explaining to all the people in the district the plan of "Standardization." Use your influence in promoting a general interest in elevating school stand- ards, and in securing cooperative action before the annual visit of the county superintendent. Make your school a "standard school." There are used in carrying out the plan the following blanks : 1. "Standard School Requirements Card." 2. County Superintendent's School Inspection Reports. 3. "Standard School Certificate." RURAL SCHOOL LIBRARY AND LABORATORY Laboratory The laboratory of the rural school within the school house itself must of necessity be very simple. The teacher should always keep in mind, however, that the larger and more valuable laboratory for the rural school lies in the 30 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES environment of the school. If Mr. A of the neighborhood has some valuable thoroughbred dairy cows, or dratt horses or hogs, they are the teacher's best materials for laboratory study in these lines of agriculture. In the same way, the homes furnish the laboratory for the work m home econom- ics. All of the nature study specimens and geographical types used should be found in the neighborhood. The work in manual training should be carried on in even the one-room school. No great amount of expense is necessary in instituting this work. Following is a set of tools for one individual suggested by Prof. Geo. E. Bray of Kansas State Agricultural College: Cross-cut saw $1.25 Rip saw 1.25 Back saw 90 Jack plane 1-80 Marking gauge 25 Try-square 25 Screw driver 25 Hammer 80 Nail set 10 Brace 1.00 A work bench is necessary but the boys can construct this for themselves. There are many useful things the children can make in the way of fixtures about the school building and playground apparatus. This work will also carry over into the home where articles of use can be constructed. Bits, one each, %,-in., %-in., %-in., %-in $1.20 Gimlet bits, six assorted.. .60 Chisels, one each, Vi-in., i/a-in 60 Spokeshave 15 Ruler 10 Oil can 10 Oil stove "75 Preparing Soup for the School Lunch. District No. 85, Latah County HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 31 Domestic Science Equipment Cooking and sewing may be taught to advantage in the one-room school if the teacher is qualified for this work. The following equipment is recommended as sufficient for the instruction of two pupils working at a time: Blue flame oil stove, two burner. Portable oven, one burner. Portable oven, two burner. Two dishpans, tin. One small saucepan, pint size, with lids, granite preferred. One small frying or omelet pan. Two wooden mixing spoons. Two paring knives. One large Dover egg-beater. One granite measuring cup. One glass measuring cup. One steel spatula, 9-in. blade. Two small pudding moulds, cus- tard cup size. Two mixing bowls or crocks of %-gal. size, with covers. One pint, or quart, glass Mason jar, with top. (Cost will range Two bread pans, 9x4x3% in. One rolling pin. One biscuit cutter, or substitute. Two piepans, %-size. Two plates. Two cups and saucers. Four tablespoons. Two china bowls, pint size. Pour knives and forks. Six dish towels, flour sacks or 6 yds. crash, at 10c. Six hand towels, 6 yds. crash at 10c. One water bucket, galvanized. One garbage can with lid. One scrubbing brush. One butcher knife. One vegetable grater. One muffin pan. from $10 to $12) Where it is desired to serve a hot lunch a few larger utensils should be added, as follows: An open kettle with lid, two gallon, granite. One skillet, cast iron. One large Ijaking pan, or several small ones, sheet iron or tin. Each pupil should have individual set, including knife and fork, spoon, cup, saucer and plate. Each pupil can furnish his own outfit at small cost. Library The State Department publishes a list of books for rural and elementary schools from which selections for the school library are to be made. The teacher will be best able to judge as to the kind of books that are needed, and she should prepare the list of books to be purchased and submit it to the Board and to the county superintendent for approval. SELECTION OF TEACHERS The law of the State makes it the duty of the school trustees to employ teachers for their schools (see Sec. 58-a). The problem of selecting the teacher is the most important problem that the board of school trustees has to meet. It has been said, "As is the teacher, so is the school." It is certainly true that the teacher is the most important factor in the school. 32 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES Necessary Qualifications of the Teacher 1. Preparation and training for the work. 2. Health and vigor. 3. Character. 4. A pleasing personality. 5. Leadership. 6. Understanding of rural life conditions. 7. Appreciation of rural life possibilities. 8. Idaho young people who are well trained have ad- vantage. 1. Preparation The teacher of today must be prepared for the work. The laws of the State recognize this important fact and have been gradually raising the requirements for certifica- tion by increasing the amount of high school training and requiring in addition some normal school training (see Sec. 100, 101-a). Colgrove, in his book on "The Teacher and The School" says, "Imparting knowledge is not the only, nor even the chief function of the school, for there is no other time and no other place in our social economy in which the child can acquire discipline and form the habits of in- dustry, honesty, and self-control so essential to success in life. The modern school has become a very complex affair, and the work of the teacher is correspondingly more dif- ficult, for he must now train the body for strength and health, the hands to do, the mind to think, and the heart to respond to high motives." Here again the complex social condition which now con- fronts us must be taken into consideration. It is no longer true that a person trained in our schools is able to teach in any and every grade. We more and more need people trained for special phases of our school work and nowhere more than in the one-roomed rural school do we need the specially trained teacher. The many-sidedness of the prob- lem of teaching the mixed group of country children, makes it imperative that we have specially trained teachers for this work. And in the near future trustees of these schools will be requiring of the teachers' training school such teachers. Lack of adequate supervision of rural schools makes the need for strong and well-trained teachers more imperative in rural districts than in city districts. 2. Health and Vigor Good health is of the most importance. The teacher must be well so that it will be possible for her to bring HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 33 to the schoolroom the large amount of joy and optimism which is so much needed. 3. Character The question of the teacher's character is a fundamental consideration. All through the history of education, edu- cators have agreed that the supreme aim of the school is to establish morality or character. As far back as we can go in the study of education we are impressed with the fact that the learning process is to a great extent the pro- cess of imitation. Therefore, we may expect that our chil- dren will imitate in a large measure the life and character of the teacher. One's character is the sum total of what he is, and this sum total of the person who is hired to teach a school will impress itself upon the children. When we really think of the seriousness of the problem of selecting a teacher, most of us will shrink from the duty and we should certainly seek all of the aid possible. 4. Personality The question of the personality of the teacher has in recent years been given much attention. There is no ques- tion but that teachers who are neat and who are attractive in personality are the type of teachers who are wanted in our schools. 5. Leadership Another of the distinct needs of almost every rural community is the right sort of educational and social leader- ship. It is reasonable to expect the teacher to assist to a very great extent in this particular. There is much latent talent for educational and social leadership in almost every community and this can only be developed by its own awak- ening and its own activity. The school in its organization should take this into account, and should offer to the com- munity the opportunity for these activities. This may mean the establishment of literary societies, parent-teacher asso- ciations, boys' and girls' club work or other forms of rural community center work. The school should tend to bring life into the community, and as we are social beings and grow by social contact it should assist in bringing the people together. 6. Know Rural Conditions Too often in the selection of teachers for the rural schools persons are employed who are entirely unfamiliar with rural life and rural life conditions and are therefore ignorant of the real environment from which the children 34 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES come. Often they have had no experience either as pupil or teacher in the rural school, and are not in a position to understand how to handle the situation as it should be handled. "If the blind lead the blind both will fall into the ditch together." If the teacher is to give life to her pupils she must first possess that life herself. 7. Must Appreciate Rural Possibilities It should not be inferred from the preceding paragraph that persons who were not born and raised in the country are unfit for this reason to teach in the country. To in- terpret it in this way would be the greatest of errors. Many city and town bom and educated people are rural minded and soon develop the highest types of appreciation for rural possibilities, and with this appreciation become the very best rural teachers. The teacher who is to do her best work- in the country is one who believes in the country, whether raised in city or country. Many young people who were raised in the country are entirely without appreciation of its possibilities, and are unconsciously influencing the boys and girls with all of their force of character away from the country. They are failing to use the real basis upon which the child would make the most rapid progress, namely, his home environ- ment, and all of the ideals set up in the school are foreign to the child's life and thus lead him away. They fail to see that there is as much honor and dignity in raising a $5,000 clover seed crop as there is in winning a $5,000 fee in a law suit, with the odds, in economic welfare, in favor of the former. While it is generally conceded that it is the duty of the school to assist in selecting a vocation for its pupils, there can be no question whatever but that the rural school should discover to the largest degree rural life possi- bilities. From 90 to 95 per cent of the pupils are to find their life's occupation in their home communities or in similar ones, and their schooling should set up high ideals and hopes for the life which is before them. 8. Idaho Young People It would be an error of the worst sort to limit the selec- tion of teachers to Idaho young people for Idaho schools, and yet if Idaho young people, who are trained in our high schools and higher institutions have fully developed the right understanding of the wonderful possibilities of the State's resources, and being a part of the State's population understand the life of the people, they are in an advan- tageous position to become our very best teachers It is desirable for the growth and development of the State to HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 35 have well-trained and earnest young people from other States come in and become teachers and a part of the com- munity where they teach, but it is exceedingly unfortunate to give our schools year after year to different people who use them as a means of traveling about over the country and have no vital concern about the community where they teach. THE TEACHERS' COTTAGE Teachers who have leadership, initiative, high ideals, are well educated and who have the right appreciation of the country are needed for the rural schools. In order to secure this kind of teacher in the rural district, there must be the opportunity for comfortable living during the school year. The successful rural teacher must be an active, posi- tive force in the upbuilding of the rural life of the com- munity, hence it is exceedingly desirable that she reside in the community where she teaches. There was a time when it was customary for the teacher to board around with the pupils. Afterwards, one of the best homes of the district was open to her, but the change continued and at the present time it is often almost im- possible for the teacher to secure a good rooming and board- ing place. 36 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES The State of Washington has taken the lead m the building of teachers' cottages as a part of her school equip- ment, and in this way is meeting the need for providmg teachers with a comfortable place. In 1915 there were 108 of these cottages or teacherages in the State of Washington. Idaho has also taken up the solution of this question in the same way and in several counties one or more cottages have been built. The following advantages of the teacher's cottage are suggested by the State Superintendent of Washington in the bulletin on that subject : 1. Assures a living place for the teacher. 2. Attracts better teachers. 3. Increases efficiency of teachers. 4. Allows for the wider use of the school plant. 1. Assures Place to live The teacher is not a visitor in the district, but comes there to do her full day's work every day. The nature of her work makes it imperative that she have a room to her- self, comfortably heated. This cannot always be obtained in a private home. Sometimes the existence of factions in a district makes it very difficult for a teacher to find a board- ing place where she will not be placed with people of one side or the other. Sometimes the house is so small that necessarily the teacher has to spend her evening time with the family, and so is deprived of the opportunity to organize and prepare her work for the next day. The teachers' cottage offers a plan for overcoming these difficulties. 2. Attracts Better Teachers Wherever the teachers' cottages have been in use in Washington, Idaho, and other States, reports indicate that these schools may have their choice of teachers whom they can retain for a longer period of time. For the benefit of the schools it is very desirable to retain the teacher for a much longer period of time than is now the case in most rural districts. The teacher who comes to know the com- munity life and to understand the traits and characteristics of the mdividual pupils will be a better teacher for the longer period of service. The teacher who resides in the community becomes a part of it and is more interested in all community activities. The teacher who has the inde- pendence of a separate home and is relieved from any obli- gation to any faction is in a position to render a more equitable service to every girl and boy in the school. HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 37 3. Increases Efficiency Privacy and regularity are essential in conserving the teacher's strength. "It is a well-established fact that no teacher can give efficient service in the schoolroom if she is uncomfortable in her boarding accommodations. If the en- ergy of the teacher is spent on irritating annoyances or inconveniences the district does not make it possible for its boys and girls to receive the best that the teacher is capable of giving, and we are seeking to give our boys and girls in both city and country the best that the State can afford." 4. Wider Use of the School Plant One of the greatest rural needs is leadership, and rural people are in great need of more social activities and social contact. The school is the most common and most univer- sal of our institutions, and the teacher's cottage very na- turally may become in a large way the center of many of the district social activities ; the parent-teacher association. Grange, literary societies, women's clubs, university ex- tension courses, etc. But there is another important phase that pertains to the work of the school itself, and that is the matter of in- dustrial work now demanded and so very badly needed. In the industrial work required, three main lines of work will meet in a very adequate way the industrial needs of almost every rural community. They are : agriculture, in its vari- ous phases, home economics, and manual training. In all of these particulars the teacher's cottage becomes a valuable adjunct. Here the girls may be given in a most practical way applied lessons in sanitation, in tasteful home arrange- ment and decoration, in the wholesome, hygienic prepara- tion of foods and many other demonstration lessons so necessary for girls, whom we at last have discovered are our housekeepers and should be trained in the science and arts of this most important of occupations or professions, whichever it may be, housekeeping and homemaking. A modest little cottage in a country district may easily in the hands of a skillful, well-equipped teacher, be made a type that will have the most beneficial influence on both the boys and girls who come within its influence. In agri- culture and wood work the school garden and the tool shop will be under constant care and supervision. RELATION OF TRUSTEES TO TEACHER From the very nature of the situation a close relation must exist between the trustees and the teacher. This re- lationship and the authority vested in the trustees by virtue 38 HANDBOOK FOE RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES of their office makes it necessary that the teacher be ac- corded the hel?^ and cooperation of the tru^ees m every Ster of school concern. A good school demands this oc- Sration It is not expected of course that trustees must ^Knt to iustifv errors of the teacher, but when questions frS^tle teacher'^is certainly entitled to the confidence and support of the trustf^es until it is proven beyond doubt that the teacher is in the wrong. Furnish Supplies After the teacher has been hired according to law on the written contract (Sees. 58 and 57), it becomes the duty of the trustees to furnish the school supplies promptly to the teacher so the work of the school may not be hindered. The teacher needs this equipment at the beginning ot the term. Every school should have a good beginning and be kept good. Expelling Pupils Suspended by the Teacher In the discipline of the school the teacher needs the whole hearted support of the trustees. It is always to be hoped that pupils need not be expelled. When this happens the State's aim for the school has been defeated, the child passes out from the influence of the school and the help it is intended to give him. Teachers must use judgment in this matter and trustees must sustain the teacher's author- ity but always if possible keep the child in school. Statistics show that our great and expensive criminal class is made up largely from those who do not advance very far in their school work. Dismissing the Teacher Trustees have power to dismiss a teacher upon certain causes and under certain conditions. (Sec. 58-e.) Trustees should keep in mind, however, that teachers are hired to teach the term of school and not be used for community excitement occasioned by the dismissal of a teacher. When- ever a teacher needs to be dismissed during the school term it shows that an error was made and that the trustees made that error. Nothing can iniure the real school spirit of the children so much as the driving out of teachers, and the community that practices it is sure to retrograde in its schools. Teacher to Aid Work of Trustees The teacher must be alive to the great needs of the school and assist the trustees in every way to make the school meet these needs. Some specific examples follow : HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES 39 1. The teacher should always be prompt in her attend- ance at school. She should be at the school house by 8 :30 a. m. or earlier and should avoid missing school days as much as possible. Irregularity will greatly interfere with school work. 2. When supplies are needed, the teacher should be free to make her requests to the board and the trustees should welcome such request, — in fact, this is the most legitimate source of information on these matters for the board of trustees. 3. The teacher shall confer with the trustees in select- ing books for the library, the selection to be made from a list compiled or approved by the State Board of Education. Such books must be approved by the County Superintendent before the books are ordered. The teacher must be respon- sible for the library books while school is in session. 4. The teacher must give most careful attention to the care and preservation of all school furniture and equipment and to the economical use of school supplies. 5. At the close of the term the teacher must leave a record for each pupil and return same to the clerk of the school board with the keys and teacher's register. 6. A trustee cannot vote for any relative of himself or immediate family for teacher in his district. (Sec. 58-1.) 7. The trustees, when they deem it necessary for the best interests of the district, may hire attorneys. (Sec. 58-m.) 8. It is the duty of each member of the board to attend all board meetings. (Sec. 58-n.) 9. It is the duty of the board to employ teachers on written contracts and only legally certificated persons can be so employed. (Sec. 58-a.) This should he done at a meeting of the hoard and the consent of the trustees should not be given one at a time, conditional upon the other trus- tees. Where conditions are favorable it is better not to change teachers too often. The old teacher should be re- tained if good work is being done and should be hired early in the year. If a new teacher is needed this should also be taken up as early as possible with the County Superin- tendent, and the best fitted person secured. The keeping of contracts is an important matter, the trustees being under legal obligations to make good their agreement and the teacher being most certainly under moral obligation not to violate his part of the agreement. The board of trustees should always be willing to allow teachers to avail themselves of opportunities for advancement and 40 HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES promotion, provided there is sufficient time for them to secure another teacher when the resignation is offered. On the other hand, teachers should consider themselves bound when hired in good faith, unless there is reasonable time and the consent of the board is secured. KELATION OF TRUSTEE TO THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT County Superintendent Counsellor and Adviser of Trustees By virtue of the office the county superintendent is the main counsellor and adviser of the school trustee on matters pertaining to school work. For this reason it is desirable that a most cordial and friendly relation should exist. It is the duty of the trustees for the good of their district as well as for their own infoimation to form a close acquaint- ance with the county superintendent and to seek the advice of the superintendent in all school matters. The county superintendent stands in the same relation to the county schools that the city superintendent does to the city schools. The supervision of the rural schools is difficult because of the long distances between schools. It is a physical im- possibility for the county superintendent to visit the vari- ous districts very often during the school year and therefore the closest cooperation between trustees and county super- intendent is desirable, and it is unquestionably the duty of the trustees to take it upon themselves to come to the su- perintendent, whose office should be a sort of meeting place and clearing house for the problems of the rural districts. One of the great needs for more effective supervision of these widely scattered schools is the development of plans whereby supervision may be exercised from the office of the superintendent. If the trustees will serve as a medium, a large amount of this may be accomplished through them. I do not know of any source by which more can be accom- plished than m this way. If all of the trustees in a county were familiar with the educational ideals and plans of the superintendent, and were in active cooperation ivith her a very great deal of progress would certainly mark such united effort. Many difficulties under a system of small district schools present themselves School boards change frequently and the tenure of the county superintendent is sometimes for only If Z ^T^ ''''^f "!''■ P^^^^"* P^^" of selection. With all pfvwfn fL^T *™!t^^^ "?^^^y meeting the superintendent early m their term, there is great danger of a lack of under- Ts Sf dutv S^r'f '^"^^?^"^^ '^ the superintendent. tLesand i^/kp